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who has the most goals in the premier league this year | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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first member of lok sabha from himachal pradesh | List of Rajya Sabha members from Himachal Pradesh - Wikipedia
The list of current and past Rajya Sabha members from the Himachal Pradesh State. State elect 3 member for the term of 6 years and indirectly elected by the state legislators, since year 1956.
Alphabetical list by last name
The list is incomplete.
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how much does the mayor of newark nj make | List of mayors of Newark, New Jersey - wikipedia
The Mayor of the City of Newark is the head of the executive branch of government of Newark, New Jersey, United States. The mayor has the duty to enforce the municipal charter and ordinances; prepare the annual budget; appoint deputy mayors, department heads, and aides; and approve or veto ordinances passed by the City Council.
Newark, New Jersey, was founded in 1666 and became a township on October 31, 1693, and granted a Royal charter on April 27, 1713. It was incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on February 21, 1798, and reincorporated as city in 1836.
The Mayor of Newark is elected for a four - year term. Municipal elections in city are nonpartisan and are held on the 2nd Tuesday in May. The current mayor Ras Baraka was elected in the Newark mayoral election on May 13, 2014.
The 2018 Newark mayoral election took place on May 8, 2018.
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the three- fifths clause in the u.s. constitution | Three - fifths compromise - wikipedia
The Three - Fifths Compromise was a compromise reached among state delegates during the 1787 United States Constitutional Convention. Whether, and if so, how, slaves would be counted when determining a state 's total population for legislative representation and taxing purposes was important, as this population number would then be used to determine the number of seats that the state would have in the United States House of Representatives for the next ten years. The compromise solution was to count three out of every five slaves as a person for this purpose. Its effect was to give the southern states a third more seats in Congress and a third more electoral votes than if slaves had been ignored, but fewer than if slaves and free people had been counted equally, thus allowing the slaveholder interests to largely dominate the government of the United States until 1861. The compromise was proposed by delegates James Wilson and Roger Sherman.
The three - fifths ratio originated with a 1783 amendment proposed to the Articles of Confederation. The amendment was to have changed the basis for determining the wealth of each state, and hence its tax obligations, from real estate to population, as a measure of ability to produce wealth. The proposal by a committee of the Congress had suggested that taxes "shall be supplied by the several colonies in proportion to the number of inhabitants of every age, sex, and quality, except Indians not paying taxes ''. The South immediately objected to this formula since it would include slaves, who were viewed primarily as property, in calculating the amount of taxes to be paid. As Thomas Jefferson wrote in his notes on the debates, the southern states would be taxed "according to their numbers and their wealth conjunctly, while the northern would be taxed on numbers only ''.
After proposed compromises of one - half by Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and three - fourths by several New Englanders failed to gain sufficient support, Congress finally settled on the three - fifths ratio proposed by James Madison. But this amendment ultimately failed, falling two states short of the unanimous approval required for amending the Articles of Confederation (only New Hampshire and New York were opposed).
The Convention had unanimously accepted the principle that representation in the House of Representatives would be in proportion to the relative state populations. However, since slaves could not vote, leaders in slave states would thus have the benefit of increased representation in the House and the Electoral College. Delegates opposed to slavery proposed that only free inhabitants of each state be counted for apportionment purposes, while delegates supportive of slavery, on the other hand, opposed the proposal, wanting slaves to count in their actual numbers.
The proposal was debated on July 11th and initially, the concept of counting by a three - fifths ratio was voted down by the members present at the Convention. A few southern delegates, seeing an opportunity, then proposed full representation for their slave population. Seeing that the states could not remain united without some sort of compromise measure, the ratio of three fifths was brought back to the table and agreed to.
After a contentious debate, the compromise that was finally agreed upon -- of counting "all other persons '' as only three - fifths of their actual numbers -- reduced the representation of the slave states relative to the original proposals, but improved it over the Northern position. An inducement for slave states to accept the Compromise was its tie to taxation in the same ratio, so that the burden of taxation on the slave states was also reduced.
The Three - Fifths Compromise is found in Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 of the United States Constitution, which reads:
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.
A contentious issue at the 1787 Constitutional Convention was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress or would instead be considered property and, as such, not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.
The proposed ratio was, however, a ready solution to the impasse that arose during the Constitutional Convention. In that situation, the alignment of the contending forces was the reverse of what had been obtained under the Articles of Confederation in 1783. In amending the Articles, the North wanted slaves to count for more than the South did because the objective was to determine taxes paid by the states to the federal government. In the Constitutional Convention, the more important issue was representation in Congress, so the South wanted slaves to count for more than the North did.
Much has been said of the impropriety of representing men who have no will of their own... They are men, though degraded to the condition of slavery. They are persons known to the municipal laws of the states which they inhabit, as well as to the laws of nature. But representation and taxation go together... Would it be just to impose a singular burden, without conferring some adequate advantage?
The Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states until the American Civil War. In 1793, for example, Southern slave states had 47 of the 105 members but would have had 33, had seats been assigned based on free populations. In 1812, slave states had 76 out of 143 instead of the 59 they would have had; in 1833, 98 out of 240 instead of 73. As a result, Southern states had disproportionate influence on the presidency, the speakership of the House, and the Supreme Court in the period prior to the Civil War. Along with this must be considered the number of slave and free states, which remained mostly equal until 1850, safeguarding the Southern bloc in the Senate as well as Electoral College votes.
Historian Garry Wills has postulated that without the additional slave state votes, Jefferson would have lost the presidential election of 1800. Also, "slavery would have been excluded from Missouri... Jackson 's Indian removal policy would have failed... the Wilmot Proviso would have banned slavery in territories won from Mexico... the Kansas - Nebraska bill would have failed. '' While the Three - Fifths Compromise could be seen to favor Southern states because of their large slave populations, for example, the Connecticut Compromise tended to favor the Northern states (which were generally smaller). Support for the new Constitution rested on the balance of these sectional interests.
Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868) later superseded Article 1, Section 2, Clause 3 and explicitly repealed the compromise. It provides that "representatives shall be apportioned... counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. '' A later provision of the same clause reduced the Congressional representation of states who denied the right to vote to adult male citizens, but this provision was never effectively enforced. (The Thirteenth Amendment, passed in 1865, had already eliminated almost all persons from the original clause 's jurisdiction by banning slavery; the only remaining persons subject to it were those sentenced for a crime to penal servitude, which the amendment excluded from the ban.)
After the Reconstruction Era came to an end in 1877, however, the former slave states subverted the objective of these changes by using various strategies to disenfranchise their black citizens, while obtaining the benefit of apportionment of representatives on the basis of the total populations. These measures effectively gave white Southerners even greater voting power than they had in the antebellum era, inflating the number of Southern Democrats in the House of Representatives as well as the number of votes they could exercise in the Electoral College in the election of the president.
The disenfranchisement of black citizens eventually attracted the attention of Congress, and in 1900 some members proposed stripping the South of seats, related to the number of people who were barred from voting. In the end, Congress did not act to change apportionment, largely because of the power of the Southern bloc. The Southern bloc comprised Southern Democrats voted into office by white voters and constituted a powerful voting bloc in Congress until the 1960s. Their representatives, re-elected repeatedly by one - party states, controlled numerous chairmanships of important committees in both houses on the basis of seniority, giving them control over rules, budgets and important patronage projects, among other issues. Their power allowed them to defeat federal legislation against racial violence and abuses in the South.
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what are the two major classifications of matter | Matter - wikipedia
In the classical physics observed in everyday life, matter is any substance that has mass and takes up space by having volume. All everyday objects that we can touch are ultimately composed of atoms, which are made up of interacting subatomic particles, and in everyday as well as scientific usage, "matter '' generally includes atoms and anything made up of these, and any particles (or combination of particles) that act as if they have both rest mass and volume. However it does not include massless particles such as photons, or other energy phenomena or waves such as light or sound. Matter exists in various states (also known as phases). These include classical everyday phases such as solid, liquid, and gas - for example water exists as ice, liquid water, and gaseous steam - but other states are possible, including plasma, Bose -- Einstein condensates, fermionic condensates, and quark -- gluon plasma.
Usually atoms can be imagined as a nucleus of protons and neutrons, and a surrounding "cloud '' of orbiting electrons which "take up space ''. However this is only somewhat correct, because subatomic particles and their properties are governed by their quantum nature, which means they do not act as everyday objects appear to act - they can act like waves as well as particles and they do not have well - defined sizes or positions. In the Standard Model of particle physics, matter is not a fundamental concept because the elementary constituents of atoms are quantum entities which do not have an inherent "size '' or "volume '' in any everyday sense of the word. Due to the exclusion principle and other fundamental interactions, some "point particles '' known as fermions (quarks, leptons), and many composites and atoms, are effectively forced to keep a distance from other particles under everyday conditions; this creates the property of matter which appears to us as matter taking up space.
For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so - called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~ 490 BC) and Democritus (~ 470 -- 380 BC).
Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not the same in modern physics. Matter is a general term describing any physical substance. By contrast, mass is not a substance but rather a quantitative property of matter and other substances or systems; various types of mass are defined within physics - including but not limited to rest mass, inertial mass, relativistic mass, mass - energy.
While there are different views on what should be considered matter, the mass of a substance has exact scientific definitions. Another difference is that matter has an "opposite '' called antimatter, but mass has no opposite -- there is no such thing as "anti-mass '' or negative mass, so far as is known, although scientists do discuss the concept. Antimatter has the same (i.e. positive) mass property as its normal matter counterpart.
Different fields of science use the term matter in different, and sometimes incompatible, ways. Some of these ways are based on loose historical meanings, from a time when there was no reason to distinguish mass from simply a quantity of matter. As such, there is no single universally agreed scientific meaning of the word "matter ''. Scientifically, the term "mass '' is well - defined, but "matter '' can be defined in several ways. Sometimes in the field of physics "matter '' is simply equated with particles that exhibit rest mass (i.e., that can not travel at the speed of light), such as quarks and leptons. However, in both physics and chemistry, matter exhibits both wave - like and particle - like properties, the so - called wave -- particle duality.
A definition of "matter '' based on its physical and chemical structure is: matter is made up of atoms. Such atomic matter is also sometimes termed ordinary matter. As an example, deoxyribonucleic acid molecules (DNA) are matter under this definition because they are made of atoms. This definition can be extended to include charged atoms and molecules, so as to include plasmas (gases of ions) and electrolytes (ionic solutions), which are not obviously included in the atoms definition. Alternatively, one can adopt the protons, neutrons, and electrons definition.
A definition of "matter '' more fine - scale than the atoms and molecules definition is: matter is made up of what atoms and molecules are made of, meaning anything made of positively charged protons, neutral neutrons, and negatively charged electrons. This definition goes beyond atoms and molecules, however, to include substances made from these building blocks that are not simply atoms or molecules, for example electron beams in an old cathode ray tube television, or white dwarf matter -- typically, carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. At a microscopic level, the constituent "particles '' of matter such as protons, neutrons, and electrons obey the laws of quantum mechanics and exhibit wave -- particle duality. At an even deeper level, protons and neutrons are made up of quarks and the force fields (gluons) that bind them together, leading to the next definition.
As seen in the above discussion, many early definitions of what can be called "ordinary matter '' were based upon its structure or "building blocks ''. On the scale of elementary particles, a definition that follows this tradition can be stated as: "ordinary matter is everything that is composed of quarks and leptons '', or "ordinary matter is everything that is composed of any elementary fermions except antiquarks and antileptons ''. The connection between these formulations follows.
Leptons (the most famous being the electron), and quarks (of which baryons, such as protons and neutrons, are made) combine to form atoms, which in turn form molecules. Because atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to phrase the definition as: "ordinary matter is anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of ''. (However, notice that one also can make from these building blocks matter that is not atoms or molecules.) Then, because electrons are leptons, and protons, and neutrons are made of quarks, this definition in turn leads to the definition of matter as being "quarks and leptons '', which are two of the four types of elementary fermions (the other two being antiquarks and antileptons, which can be considered antimatter as described later). Carithers and Grannis state: "Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first - generation particles, namely the (up) and (down) quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino. '' (Higher generations particles quickly decay into first - generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.)
This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the force carriers are elementary bosons. The W and Z bosons that mediate the weak force are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have mass. In other words, mass is not something that is exclusive to ordinary matter.
The quark -- lepton definition of ordinary matter, however, identifies not only the elementary building blocks of matter, but also includes composites made from the constituents (atoms and molecules, for example). Such composites contain an interaction energy that holds the constituents together, and may constitute the bulk of the mass of the composite. As an example, to a great extent, the mass of an atom is simply the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. However, digging deeper, the protons and neutrons are made up of quarks bound together by gluon fields (see dynamics of quantum chromodynamics) and these gluons fields contribute significantly to the mass of hadrons. In other words, most of what composes the "mass '' of ordinary matter is due to the binding energy of quarks within protons and neutrons. For example, the sum of the mass of the three quarks in a nucleon is approximately 7001125000000000000 ♠ 12.5 MeV / c, which is low compared to the mass of a nucleon (approximately 7002938000000000000 ♠ 938 MeV / c). The bottom line is that most of the mass of everyday objects comes from the interaction energy of its elementary components.
The Standard Model groups matter particles into three generations, where each generation consists of two quarks and two leptons. The first generation is the up and down quarks, the electron and the electron neutrino; the second includes the charm and strange quarks, the muon and the muon neutrino; the third generation consists of the top and bottom quarks and the tau and tau neutrino. The most natural explanation for this would be that quarks and leptons of higher generations are excited states of the first generations. If this turns out to be the case, it would imply that quarks and leptons are composite particles, rather than elementary particles.
This quark - lepton definition of matter also leads to what can be described as "conservation of (net) matter '' laws -- discussed later below. Alternatively, one could return to the mass - volume - space concept of matter, leading to the next definition, in which antimatter becomes included as a subclass of matter.
A common or traditional definition of matter is "anything that has mass and volume (occupies space) ''. For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it has mass and volume (occupies space).
The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the phenomenon described in the Pauli exclusion principle, which applies to fermions. Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below.
Thus, matter can be defined as everything composed of elementary fermions. Although we do n't encounter them in everyday life, antiquarks (such as the antiproton) and antileptons (such as the positron) are the antiparticles of the quark and the lepton, are elementary fermions as well, and have essentially the same properties as quarks and leptons, including the applicability of the Pauli exclusion principle which can be said to prevent two particles from being in the same place at the same time (in the same state), i.e. makes each particle "take up space ''. This particular definition leads to matter being defined to include anything made of these antimatter particles as well as the ordinary quark and lepton, and thus also anything made of mesons, which are unstable particles made up of a quark and an antiquark.
In the context of relativity, mass is not an additive quantity, in the sense that one can add the rest masses of particles in a system to get the total rest mass of the system. Thus, in relativity usually a more general view is that it is not the sum of rest masses, but the energy -- momentum tensor that quantifies the amount of matter. This tensor gives the rest mass for the entire system. "Matter '' therefore is sometimes considered as anything that contributes to the energy -- momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity. This view is commonly held in fields that deal with general relativity such as cosmology. In this view, light and other massless particles and fields are all part of "matter ''.
In particle physics, fermions are particles that obey Fermi -- Dirac statistics. Fermions can be elementary, like the electron -- or composite, like the proton and neutron. In the Standard Model, there are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are discussed next.
Quarks are particles of spin - ⁄, implying that they are fermions. They carry an electric charge of − ⁄ e (down - type quarks) or + ⁄ e (up - type quarks). For comparison, an electron has a charge of − 1 e. They also carry colour charge, which is the equivalent of the electric charge for the strong interaction. Quarks also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the weak interaction. Quarks are massive particles, and therefore are also subject to gravity.
Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi -- Dirac statistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term baryon usually refers to triquarks -- particles made of three quarks. Also, "exotic '' baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark are known as pentaquarks, but their existence is not generally accepted.
Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include dark energy, dark matter, black holes or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose white dwarf stars and neutron stars. Microwave light seen by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), suggests that only about 4.6 % of that part of the universe within range of the best telescopes (that is, matter that may be visible because light could reach us from it), is made of baryonic matter. About 26.8 % is dark matter, and about 68.3 % is dark energy.
As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass - energy density of the universe.
Hadronic matter can refer to ' ordinary ' baryonic matter, made from hadrons (Baryons and mesons), or quark matter (a generalisation of atomic nuclei), ie. the ' low ' temperature QCD matter. It includes degenerate matter and the result of high energy heavy nuclei collisions. Distinct from dark matter.
In physics, degenerate matter refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at a temperature near absolute zero. The Pauli exclusion principle requires that only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin - up and the other spin - down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to accommodate all the available fermions -- and in the case of many fermions, the maximum kinetic energy (called the Fermi energy) and the pressure of the gas becomes very large, and depends on the number of fermions rather than the temperature, unlike normal states of matter.
Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars. The demonstration by Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar that white dwarf stars have a maximum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the theory of star evolution.
Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron stars and white dwarfs.
Strange matter is a particular form of quark matter, usually thought of as a liquid of up, down, and strange quarks. It is contrasted with nuclear matter, which is a liquid of neutrons and protons (which themselves are built out of up and down quarks), and with non-strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid that contains only up and down quarks. At high enough density, strange matter is expected to be color superconducting. Strange matter is hypothesized to occur in the core of neutron stars, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from femtometers (strangelets) to kilometers (quark stars).
In particle physics and astrophysics, the term is used in two ways, one broader and the other more specific.
Leptons are particles of spin - ⁄, meaning that they are fermions. They carry an electric charge of − 1 e (charged leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry colour charge, meaning that they do not experience the strong interaction. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the weak interaction. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity.
In bulk, matter can exist in several different forms, or states of aggregation, known as phases, depending on ambient pressure, temperature and volume. A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as density, specific heat, refractive index, and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones (solids, liquids, and gases), as well as more exotic states of matter (such as plasmas, superfluids, supersolids, Bose -- Einstein condensates,...). A fluid may be a liquid, gas or plasma. There are also paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called phase transitions, and are studied in the field of thermodynamics. In nanomaterials, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume results in matter that can exhibit properties entirely different from those of bulk material, and not well described by any bulk phase (see nanomaterials for more details).
Phases are sometimes called states of matter, but this term can lead to confusion with thermodynamic states. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different thermodynamic states (different pressures), but in the same phase (both are gases).
In particle physics and quantum chemistry, antimatter is matter that is composed of the antiparticles of those that constitute ordinary matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two annihilate; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal energy in accordance with Einstein 's equation E = mc. These new particles may be high - energy photons (gamma rays) or other particle -- antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the rest mass of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle -- antiparticle pair, which is often quite large. Depending on which definition of "matter '' is adopted, antimatter can be said to be a particular subclass of matter, or the opposite of matter.
Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of radioactive decay, lightning or cosmic rays). This is because antimatter that came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as antihydrogen) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties.
There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter (in the sense of quarks and leptons but not antiquarks or antileptons), and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter (antiquarks and antileptons) instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called CP (charge - parity) symmetry violation, which can be obtained from the Standard Model, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under baryogenesis.
Formally, antimatter particles can be defined by their negative baryon number or lepton number, while "normal '' (non-antimatter) matter particles have positive baryon or lepton number. These two classes of particles are the antiparticle partners of one another.
In October 2017, scientists reported further evidence that matter and antimatter, equally produced at the Big Bang, are identical, should completely annihilate each other and, as a result, the universe should not exist. This implies that there must be something, as yet unknown to scientists, that either stopped the complete mutual destruction of matter and antimatter in the early forming universe, or that gave rise to an imbalance between the two forms.
Two quantities that can define an amount of matter in the quark - lepton sense (and antimatter in an antiquark - antilepton sense), baryon number and lepton number, are conserved in the Standard Model. A baryon such as the proton or neutron has a baryon number of one, and a quark, because there are three in a baryon, is given a baryon number of 1 / 3. So the net amount of matter, as measured by the number of quarks (minus the number of antiquarks, which each have a baryon number of - 1 / 3), which is proportional to baryon number, and number of leptons (minus antileptons), which is called the lepton number, is practically impossible to change in any process. Even in a nuclear bomb, none of the baryons (protons and neutrons of which the atomic nuclei are composed) are destroyed -- there are as many baryons after as before the reaction, so none of these matter particles are actually destroyed and none are even converted to non-matter particles (like photons of light or radiation). Instead, nuclear (and perhaps chromodynamic) binding energy is released, as these baryons become bound into mid-size nuclei having less energy (and, equivalently, less mass) per nucleon compared to the original small (hydrogen) and large (plutonium etc.) nuclei. Even in electron -- positron annihilation, there is no net matter being destroyed, because there was zero net matter (zero total lepton number and baryon number) to begin with before the annihilation -- one lepton minus one antilepton equals zero net lepton number -- and this net amount matter does not change as it simply remains zero after the annihilation. So the only way to really "destroy '' or "convert '' ordinary matter is to pair it with the same amount of antimatter so that their "matterness '' cancels out -- but in practice there is almost no antimatter generally available in the universe (see baryon asymmetry and leptogenesis) with which to do so.
Ordinary matter, in the quarks and leptons definition, constitutes about 4 % of the energy of the observable universe. The remaining energy is theorized to be due to exotic forms, of which 23 % is dark matter and 73 % is dark energy.
In astrophysics and cosmology, dark matter is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Observational evidence of the early universe and the big bang theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed ordinary baryons (protons and neutrons). The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is non-baryonic in nature. As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are supersymmetric particles, which are not Standard Model particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.
In cosmology, dark energy is the name given to source of the repelling influence that is accelerating the rate of expansion of the universe. Its precise nature is currently a mystery, although its effects can reasonably be modeled by assigning matter - like properties such as energy density and pressure to the vacuum itself.
Fully 70 % of the matter density in the universe appears to be in the form of dark energy. Twenty - six percent is dark matter. Only 4 % is ordinary matter. So less than 1 part in 20 is made out of matter we have observed experimentally or described in the standard model of particle physics. Of the other 96 %, apart from the properties just mentioned, we know absolutely nothing.
Exotic matter is a concept of particle physics, which may include dark matter and dark energy but goes further to include any hypothetical material that violates one or more of the properties of known forms of matter. Some such materials might possess hypothetical properties like negative mass.
The pre-Socratics were among the first recorded speculators about the underlying nature of the visible world. Thales (c. 624 BC -- c. 546 BC) regarded water as the fundamental material of the world. Anaximander (c. 610 BC -- c. 546 BC) posited that the basic material was wholly characterless or limitless: the Infinite (apeiron). Anaximenes (flourished 585 BC, d. 528 BC) posited that the basic stuff was pneuma or air. Heraclitus (c. 535 -- c. 475 BC) seems to say the basic element is fire, though perhaps he means that all is change. Empedocles (c. 490 -- 430 BC) spoke of four elements of which everything was made: earth, water, air, and fire. Meanwhile, Parmenides argued that change does not exist, and Democritus argued that everything is composed of minuscule, inert bodies of all shapes called atoms, a philosophy called atomism. All of these notions had deep philosophical problems.
Aristotle (384 BC -- 322 BC) was the first to put the conception on a sound philosophical basis, which he did in his natural philosophy, especially in Physics book I. He adopted as reasonable suppositions the four Empedoclean elements, but added a fifth, aether. Nevertheless, these elements are not basic in Aristotle 's mind. Rather they, like everything else in the visible world, are composed of the basic principles matter and form.
For my definition of matter is just this -- the primary substratum of each thing, from which it comes to be without qualification, and which persists in the result.
The word Aristotle uses for matter, ὕλη (hyle or hule), can be literally translated as wood or timber, that is, "raw material '' for building. Indeed, Aristotle 's conception of matter is intrinsically linked to something being made or composed. In other words, in contrast to the early modern conception of matter as simply occupying space, matter for Aristotle is definitionally linked to process or change: matter is what underlies a change of substance. For example, a horse eats grass: the horse changes the grass into itself; the grass as such does not persist in the horse, but some aspect of it -- its matter -- does. The matter is not specifically described (e.g., as atoms), but consists of whatever persists in the change of substance from grass to horse. Matter in this understanding does not exist independently (i.e., as a substance), but exists interdependently (i.e., as a "principle '') with form and only insofar as it underlies change. It can be helpful to conceive of the relationship of matter and form as very similar to that between parts and whole. For Aristotle, matter as such can only receive actuality from form; it has no activity or actuality in itself, similar to the way that parts as such only have their existence in a whole (otherwise they would be independent wholes).
René Descartes (1596 -- 1650) originated the modern conception of matter. He was primarily a geometer. Instead of, like Aristotle, deducing the existence of matter from the physical reality of change, Descartes arbitrarily postulated matter to be an abstract, mathematical substance that occupies space:
So, extension in length, breadth, and depth, constitutes the nature of bodily substance; and thought constitutes the nature of thinking substance. And everything else attributable to body presupposes extension, and is only a mode of extended
For Descartes, matter has only the property of extension, so its only activity aside from locomotion is to exclude other bodies: this is the mechanical philosophy. Descartes makes an absolute distinction between mind, which he defines as unextended, thinking substance, and matter, which he defines as unthinking, extended substance. They are independent things. In contrast, Aristotle defines matter and the formal / forming principle as complementary principles that together compose one independent thing (substance). In short, Aristotle defines matter (roughly speaking) as what things are actually made of (with a potential independent existence), but Descartes elevates matter to an actual independent thing in itself.
The continuity and difference between Descartes ' and Aristotle 's conceptions is noteworthy. In both conceptions, matter is passive or inert. In the respective conceptions matter has different relationships to intelligence. For Aristotle, matter and intelligence (form) exist together in an interdependent relationship, whereas for Descartes, matter and intelligence (mind) are definitionally opposed, independent substances.
Descartes ' justification for restricting the inherent qualities of matter to extension is its permanence, but his real criterion is not permanence (which equally applied to color and resistance), but his desire to use geometry to explain all material properties. Like Descartes, Hobbes, Boyle, and Locke argued that the inherent properties of bodies were limited to extension, and that so - called secondary qualities, like color, were only products of human perception.
Isaac Newton (1643 -- 1727) inherited Descartes ' mechanical conception of matter. In the third of his "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy '', Newton lists the universal qualities of matter as "extension, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, and inertia ''. Similarly in Optics he conjectures that God created matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles '', which were "... even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces ''. The "primary '' properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description, unlike "secondary '' qualities such as color or taste. Like Descartes, Newton rejected the essential nature of secondary qualities.
Newton developed Descartes ' notion of matter by restoring to matter intrinsic properties in addition to extension (at least on a limited basis), such as mass. Newton 's use of gravitational force, which worked "at a distance '', effectively repudiated Descartes ' mechanics, in which interactions happened exclusively by contact.
Though Newton 's gravity would seem to be a power of bodies, Newton himself did not admit it to be an essential property of matter. Carrying the logic forward more consistently, Joseph Priestley (1733 - 1804) argued that corporeal properties transcend contact mechanics: chemical properties require the capacity for attraction. He argued matter has other inherent powers besides the so - called primary qualities of Descartes, et al.
Since Priestley 's time, there has been a massive expansion in knowledge of the constituents of the material world (viz., molecules, atoms, subatomic particles), but there has been no further development in the definition of matter. Rather the question has been set aside. Noam Chomsky (born 1928) summarizes the situation that has prevailed since that time:
What is the concept of body that finally emerged? (...) The answer is that there is no clear and definite conception of body. (...) Rather, the material world is whatever we discover it to be, with whatever properties it must be assumed to have for the purposes of explanatory theory. Any intelligible theory that offers genuine explanations and that can be assimilated to the core notions of physics becomes part of the theory of the material world, part of our account of body. If we have such a theory in some domain, we seek to assimilate it to the core notions of physics, perhaps modifying these notions as we carry out this enterprise.
So matter is whatever physics studies and the object of study of physics is matter: there is no independent general definition of matter, apart from its fitting into the methodology of measurement and controlled experimentation. In sum, the boundaries between what constitutes matter and everything else remains as vague as the demarcation problem of delimiting science from everything else.
In the 19th century, following the development of the periodic table, and of atomic theory, atoms were seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter; atoms formed molecules and compounds.
The common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter, which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass. At the turn of the nineteenth century, the knowledge of matter began a rapid evolution.
Aspects of the Newtonian view still held sway. James Clerk Maxwell discussed matter in his work Matter and Motion. He carefully separates "matter '' from space and time, and defines it in terms of the object referred to in Newton 's first law of motion.
However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term "matter '' was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere. A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:
Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses. A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity. An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule.
Rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties. In 1909 the famous physicist J.J. Thomson (1856 - 1940) wrote about the "constitution of matter '' and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge.
There is an entire literature concerning the "structure of matter '', ranging from the "electrical structure '' in the early 20th century, to the more recent "quark structure of matter '', introduced today with the remark: Understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics. In this connection, physicists speak of matter fields, and speak of particles as "quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field ''. And here is a quote from de Sabbata and Gasperini: "With the word "matter '' we denote, in this context, the sources of the interactions, that is spinor fields (like quarks and leptons), which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter, or scalar fields, like the Higgs particles, which are used to introduced mass in a gauge theory (and that, however, could be composed of more fundamental fermion fields). ''
In the late 19th century with the discovery of the electron, and in the early 20th century, with the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and the birth of particle physics, matter was seen as made up of electrons, protons and neutrons interacting to form atoms. Today, we know that even protons and neutrons are not indivisible, they can be divided into quarks, while electrons are part of a particle family called leptons. Both quarks and leptons are elementary particles, and are currently seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter.
These quarks and leptons interact through four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The Standard Model of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity can not yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by classical physics (see quantum gravity and graviton). Interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of force - carrying particles (such as photons) between quarks and leptons. The force - carrying particles are not themselves building blocks. As one consequence, mass and energy (which can not be created or destroyed) can not always be related to matter (which can be created out of non-matter particles such as photons, or even out of pure energy, such as kinetic energy). Force carriers are usually not considered matter: the carriers of the electric force (photons) possess energy (see Planck relation) and the carriers of the weak force (W and Z bosons) are massive, but neither are considered matter either. However, while these particles are not considered matter, they do contribute to the total mass of atoms, subatomic particles, and all systems that contain them.
The modern conception of matter has been refined many times in history, in light of the improvement in knowledge of just what the basic building blocks are, and in how they interact. The term "matter '' is used throughout physics in a bewildering variety of contexts: for example, one refers to "condensed matter physics '', "elementary matter '', "partonic '' matter, "dark '' matter, "anti '' - matter, "strange '' matter, and "nuclear '' matter. In discussions of matter and antimatter, normal matter has been referred to by Alfvén as koinomatter (Gk. common matter). It is fair to say that in physics, there is no broad consensus as to a general definition of matter, and the term "matter '' usually is used in conjunction with a specifying modifier.
The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental length scales used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is hadrons, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter.
These quarks and leptons interact through four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The Standard Model of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity can not yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by classical physics (see quantum gravity and graviton).
Antimatter
Cosmology
Dark matter
Philosophy
Other
My Pals Are Here! Science P3&4 Cycless - Chapter 3 (Matter)
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where does the last name fournier come from | Fournier - wikipedia
Fournier is a French surname. It is a former designation of baker. Prior to the 1900s it was the designation of a fire tender. The fire tender became by default the baker as he was normally in charge of the communal ovens. As fewer people kneaded their own bread, he commenced this task, became more skilled and thus became the baker. Notable people with the surname include:
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where does eleven come from in stranger things | Eleven (Stranger Things) - wikipedia
Jane Hopper, also known as Eleven, El or Jane Ives, is a fictional character from the Netflix series Stranger Things. Portrayed by Millie Bobby Brown, she is a girl with psychokinetic and telepathic abilities, and a limited vocabulary.
Eleven is the daughter of Teresa "Terry '' Ives, a participant in the Project MKUltra experiments conducted by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. Eleven was taken from her mother at birth by Dr. Martin Brenner and was raised in the Hawkins National Laboratory in Hawkins, Indiana as a test subject to develop her psychokinetic skills. When placed in a sensory deprivation tank she can engage in astral projection and access other dimensions, primarily for the purposes of international espionage. Eleven encounters a creature living in the Upside Down dimension, and on the evening of November 6, 1983, she finally makes contact with it. In efforts to make contact, Eleven opens a gate between the Hawkins Laboratory and the Upside Down dimension and the creature gains the ability to travel between the human world and the Upside Down.
She then escapes from Hawkins Laboratory and attempts to steal food from a local restaurant but the owner calls social services. The responding social worker was actually a Hawkins Laboratory CIA agent who kills the owner, causing Eleven to flee. She is then found by Mike Wheeler, Lucas Sinclair and Dustin Henderson, who are looking for their Eleven soon died since she has used to much power. Eleven helps to locate Will using her supernatural abilities, and determines that he is trapped in the Upside Down. However, the use of her abilities temporarily weakens her and gives her nosebleeds. The group sets out to find Will using their compasses, but Eleven interferes with their search when she realizes that they are being led towards the laboratory. Lucas, noticing her deception, becomes angry at her (having mistrusted her from the beginning), and she uses her abilities to violently throw him. She flees, steals boxes of frozen waffles from a store shattering the door on her way out, and consumes them in a forest. When Mike and Dustin are threatened by bullies, Eleven returns and saves them.
Mike, Dustin, and Eleven reunite with Lucas and make amends, and they travel to their middle school with Dr. Brenner and his associates in close pursuit. During a chase, Eleven uses her powers to cause a laboratory van to flip through the air. The group, aided by Joyce Byers, Chief Jim Hopper, Nancy Wheeler, and Jonathan Byers, produce a makeshift isolation tank with a pool and bags of salt. Eleven accesses the Upside Down and confirms that Will is alive. As laboratory personnel close in on the school, Mike tells Eleven that she can be a part of his family and asks her to the school dance. He then kisses her after struggling to explain his feelings towards her. Eleven helps the group escape by using her powers to kill most of the agents, although doing so leaves her drained. The monster from the Upside Down makes its way into their dimension, and Eleven seemingly sacrifices herself to destroy the creature and save her friends.
One month later, after a Christmas party, Hopper leaves the police station and drives to the woods. There, he leaves waffles in a concealed box. The whereabouts or condition of Eleven are left ambiguous.
It is revealed that Eleven woke up in the Upside Down shortly after her destruction of the creature, and returned to the human world; however, with the government forces still searching for her she was forced to flee into the forest, where she struggled to survive. She found the eggos Hopper left for her, and followed them to him. After this, the two move into a cabin in the woods where he forbids her to leave, fearing for her safety. Hopper hides Eleven for almost a year, telling no one of her whereabouts. During this time, Eleven has managed to gain better control over her powers; she is less weakened by the use of her telekinesis, and she is now able to project her mind into other dimensions without the use of a sensory deprivation tank. She uses the latter ability to listen to Mike 's attempts to contact her, though she is increasingly frustrated at her inability to reply. Eleven also significantly expands her vocabulary during this time, learning from Hopper and television.
Eleven becomes restless and longs to reunite with Mike, and this causes tension between her and Hopper. She runs away from home one day and travels to Hawkins Middle School. When she finds Mike, he is with Max, a new student. Eleven mistakenly thinks that Max is Mike 's new girlfriend and, out of spite, uses her powers to knock her off of her skateboard before leaving. Upon returning to the cabin, she gets into a heated argument with Hopper over her leaving the cabin, ending with her using her powers to damage the cabin 's furniture and windows out of anger. The next day, cleaning the mess she made of the cabin, she discovers by looking through records in the cabin 's basement that her birth mother is alive, a contradiction to what Hopper had told her. She then goes to meet her birth mother, Terry, and her aunt, Becky, and discovers what happened to Terry at Hawkins Laboratory. While there, she realizes Terry is trying to talk with her, but due to her catatonic state, is unable to. Eleven, using her powers, views a flashback from her mother. Terry, after her daughter was taken from her, attempted to force her way into Hawkins Lab to save her. As a response, Brenner and his assistants captured her and subjected her to electroshock therapy, resulting in her current condition. Eleven then uses her abilities to find out she has a "sister '' -- another gifted girl taken by Dr. Brenner for experimentations -- and sets out to find her.
Using her abilities once again, Eleven locates her sister and discovers that she is an older girl named Kali ("Eight ''), with the ability to cause people to have visual hallucinations. Eleven stays with Kali and her friends -- runaways who are determined to take revenge on people who have hurt them. Kali tells Eleven that while using her powers, she needs to think about what makes her most angry. When they go to get revenge on Brenner 's assistant who helped hurt Eleven 's mother, Eleven begins to choke him to death but stops upon realizing that he has two daughters. She then stops Kali from shooting him. While they are about to flee, Eleven realizes she needs to go back to her friends because they need her help.
Eleven goes back to Hawkins and is reunited with Mike and her friends after saving them from a Demodog. The group realizes that she needs to close the gate to the Upside Down, and she and Hopper head to Hawkins Laboratory. There, Eleven uses Kali 's advice and focuses her anger into her powers, closing the gate and draining her powers. Afterward, it is discovered that Dr. Owens has forged a birth certificate allowing for Hopper to become her legal adoptive father as a way to help keep Eleven in hiding. Eleven 's new legal name is Jane Hopper. Though she is still not allowed out for her safety, Hopper lets her attend the Snow Ball at Hawkins Middle School. She meets up with Mike, dances with him, and they share a second kiss.
The character and Brown 's performance has received highly positive reviews. Alice Vincent of The Telegraph wrote that "Millie Bobby Brown continues to be the star of the show: she has inspired fan art and tattoos, a worldwide acknowlegment of Eggos, the waffles her character devours and given a whole new life to the phrase ' mouth breather ' ''. Ashley Hoffman of TIME magazine recommended Eleven as a mascot for National Waffle Day. However, Lenika Cruz of The Atlantic stated that "despite a rich backstory, Eleven is the show 's most thinly sketched protagonist ''.
In 2017, Brown was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series and Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Drama Series, and won the MTV Movie & TV Award for Best Actor in a Show and Saturn Award for Best Performance by a Younger Actor in a Television Series for her performance.
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who sang i wanna make you sweat | Sweat (A La La La La Long) - wikipedia
"Sweat (A La La La La Long) '' is a song by the Jamaican reggae fusion group Inner Circle. It was released in August 1993 as the lead single from their album, Bad to the Bone.
The song achieved a great success particularly in Europe, where it was a top ten hit in many countries, including Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden. It topped the charts in Switzerland and Germany for six and twelve weeks, respectively. It was also a hit in Australia, reaching number 2, and New Zealand where it reached number 1. It reached number 3 in the United Kingdom and number 16 in the United States. The song was also ranked number 94 on the Triple J Hottest 100, 1993.
The popularity of the song has resulted in many covers and even parodies. The song in Malaysia spawned a parody song by Poe called "Alalalala Tuk (Jangan Saman) '' (Please Officer, Do n't Fine Me).
The winner of season 7 of the German music competition Deutschland sucht den Superstar in 2010 Mehrzad Marashi had it as his debut release after his win. The release also featured Mark Medlock winner in the same show in season four in 2007.
In 2010, Mehrzad Marashi and Mark Medlock (both winner of Deutschland sucht den Superstar) released a joint cover version.
The song was a big success in Europe topping at number two in Germany, number seven in Austria and number 16 in Switzerland.
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when did the last volcano erupt in lanzarote | Lanzarote - wikipedia
Lanzarote (/ ˌlænzəˈrɒti /; Spanish pronunciation: (lanθaˈɾote, lansaˈɾote)) is a Spanish island, the easternmost of the autonomous Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is located approximately 125 kilometres (78 miles) off the coast of Africa and 1,000 kilometres (621 miles) from the Iberian Peninsula. Covering 845.94 square kilometres (326.62 square miles), Lanzarote is the fourth - largest of the islands in the archipelago. With 141,938 inhabitants, it is the third-most populous Canary Island, after Tenerife and Gran Canaria. In the centre - west of the island is Timanfaya National Park, one of its main attractions. The capital is Arrecife.
The first recorded name for the island, given by Italian - Majorcan cartographer Angelino Dulcert, was Insula de Lanzarotus Marocelus, after the Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello, from which the modern name is derived. The island 's name in the native language was Tyterogaka or Tytheroygaka, which may mean "one that is all ochre '' (referring to the island 's predominant colour).
Lanzarote is located 11 kilometres (7 miles) north - east of Fuerteventura and just over 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) from Graciosa. The dimensions of the island are 60 kilometres (37 miles) from north to south and 25 kilometres (16 miles) from west to east. Lanzarote has 213 kilometres (132 miles) of coastline, of which 10 kilometres (6 miles) are sand, 16.5 kilometres (10 miles) are beach, and the remainder is rocky. Its landscape includes the mountain ranges of Famara (671 metres or 2,201 feet) in the north and Ajaches (608 metres or 1,995 feet) to the south. South of the Famara massif is the El Jable desert, which separates Famara and Montañas del Fuego. The highest peak is Peñas del Chache, rising to 670 metres (2,200 feet) above sea level. The "Tunnel of Atlantis '', the largest underwater volcanic tunnel in the world, is part of the Cueva de los Verdes lava tube.
Often called the "Island of Eternal Spring '', Lanzarote has a subtropical - desert climate according to the Köppen climatic classification. The small amount of precipitation is mainly concentrated in the winter. Rainfall during summer is a rare phenomenon and several summers are completely dry without any precipitation. On average the island receives approximately 16 days of precipitation between December and February. Sometimes, the hot sirroco wind prevails, causing dry and dusty conditions across the island. Average precipitation in June and August is less than 0.5 millimetres (0.020 inches). It closely borders on a tropical climate, with winter means of 18 ° C (64 ° F) and summer means of 25 ° C (77 ° F).
Lanzarote is the easternmost island of the Canary Islands and has a volcanic origin. It was born through fiery eruptions and has solidified lava streams as well as extravagant rock formations. The island emerged about 15 million years ago as product of the Canary hotspot. The island, along with others, emerged after the breakup of the African and the American continental plates. The greatest recorded eruptions occurred between 1730 and 1736 in the area now designated Timanfaya National Park.
As of 2010, 139,000 people live on Lanzarote, an increase of 9.4 % from 2006 (127,000). The seat of the island government (Cabildo Insular) is in the capital, Arrecife, which has a population of 59,000. The majority of the inhabitants (73.9 %) are Spanish with a sizeable number of residents from other European nations, mainly Britons (4.0 %), Germans (2.6 %), and Irish people (2.5 %). Other populous groups include Chinese people, Colombians, Ecuadorians, Indians, and Moroccans, which constitute a large proportion of the remaining 15.6 % of the population.
The island has an international airport, Arrecife Airport, through which 5,438,178 passengers travelled in 2008. Tourism has been the mainstay of the island 's economy for over 40 years, the only other industry being agriculture.
Lanzarote is part of the province of Las Palmas, and is divided into seven municipalities:
There are five hundred different kinds of plants on the island, of which 17 species are endemic. These plants have adapted to the relative scarcity of water in the same way as succulents. They include the Canary Island date palm (Phoenix canariensis), which is found in damper areas of the north, the Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis), ferns, and wild olive trees (Olea europaea). Laurisilva trees, which once covered the highest parts of Risco de Famara, are rarely found today. After winter rainfall, the vegetation comes to a colourful bloom between February and March.
The vineyards of La Gería, Lanzarote DO wine region, are a protected area. Single vines are planted in pits 4 -- 5 metres (13 -- 16 feet) wide and 2 -- 3 metres (6 feet 7 inches -- 9 feet 10 inches) deep, with small stone walls around each pit. This agricultural technique is designed to harvest rainfall and overnight dew and to protect the plants from the winds.
There are 180 different species of lichen - forming fungi. These survive in the suitable areas like rock surfaces, and promote weathering.
Apart from bats and other mammals which accompanied humans to the island (including the dromedary, which was used for agriculture and is now a tourist attraction), there are few vertebrate species on Lanzarote. These include birds (such as falcons) and reptiles. Some interesting endemic animals are the Gallotia lizards and the blind Munidopsis polymorpha crabs found in the Jameos del Agua lagoon, which was formed by a volcanic eruption. The island is also home to one of two surviving populations of the threatened Canarian Egyptian vulture.
The official symbols from nature associated with Lanzarote are Munidopsis polymorpha (Blind crab) and Euphorbia balsamifera (Tabaiba dulce).
Munidopsis polymorpha
Euphorbia balsamifera
Lanzarote is believed to have been the first Canary Island to be settled. The Phoenicians may have settled there around 1100 BC, though no material evidence survives. Around 1000 BC, it was settled by the Majos, who remained there until their extinction by Spanish colonialism and the slave trade in the 14th century. The Greek writers and philosophers Herodotus, Plato, and Plutarch described the garden of the Hesperides, a mythic orchard which some like to identify with the Canaries. The first known record came from Roman author Pliny the Elder in the encyclopaedia Naturalis Historia on an expedition to the Canary Islands. The names of the islands (then called Insulae Fortunatae or the "Fortunate Isles '') were recorded as Junonia (Fuerteventura), Canaria (Gran Canaria), Ninguaria (Tenerife), Junonia Major (La Palma), Pluvialia (El Hierro), and Capraria (La Gomera). Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, the two easternmost Canary Islands, were only mentioned as the archipelago of the "purple islands ''. The Roman poet Lucan and the Greek astronomer and geographer Ptolemy gave their precise locations. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Canary Islands were ignored until 999, when the Arabs arrived at the island which they dubbed al - Djezir al - Khalida (among other names).
In 1336, a ship arrived from Lisbon under the guidance of Genoese navigator Lancelotto Malocello, who used the alias "Lanzarote da Framqua ''. A fort was later built in the area of Montaña de Guanapay near today 's Teguise. Castilian slaving expeditions in 1385 and 1393 seized hundreds of Guanches and sold them in Spain, initiating the slave trade in the islands. French explorer Jean de Béthencourt arrived in 1402, heading a private expedition under Castilian auspices. Bethencourt first visited the south of Lanzarote at Playas de Papagayo, and the French overran the island within a matter of months. The island lacked mountains and gorges to serve as hideouts for the remaining Guanche population, and so many Guanches were taken away as slaves that only 300 Guanche men were said to have remained.
At the southern end of the Yaiza municipality, the first European settlement in the Canary Islands appeared in 1402 in the area known as El Rubicón, where the conquest of the Archipelago began. In this place, the Cathedral of Saint Martial of Limoges was built. The cathedral was destroyed by English pirates in the 16th century. A diocese was moved in 1483 to Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (Roman Catholic Diocese of Canarias). In 1404, the Castilians (with the support of the King of Castile) came and fought the local Guanches, who were further decimated. The islands of Fuerteventura and El Hierro were later similarly conquered. In 1477, a decision by the royal council of Castile confirmed a grant of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura, with the smaller islands of Ferro and Gomera to the Castilian nobles Herrera, who held their fief until the end of the 18th century. In 1585, the Ottoman admiral Murat Reis temporarily seized Lanzarote. In the 17th century, pirates raided the island and took 1,000 inhabitants into slavery in Cueva de los Verdes.
From 1730 to 1736, the island was hit by a series of volcanic eruptions, producing 32 new volcanoes in a stretch of 18 kilometres (11 miles). The priest of Yaiza, Don Andrés Lorenzo Curbelo, documented the eruption in detail until 1731. Lava covered a quarter of the island 's surface, including the most fertile soil and 11 villages. 100 smaller volcanoes were located in the area called Montañas del Fuego, the "Mountains of Fire ''. In 1768, drought affected the deforested island, and winter rains did not fall. Much of the population was forced to emigrate to Cuba and the Americas, including a group which formed a significant addition to the Spanish settlers in Texas at San Antonio de Bexar in 1731. Another volcanic eruption occurred within the range of Tiagua in 1824, which was less violent than the major eruption between 1730 and 1736.
In 1927, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura became part of the province of Las Palmas. Several archaeological expeditions have uncovered the prehistoric settlement at the archaeologic site of El Bebedero in the village of Teguise. In one of those expeditions, by a team from the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and a team from the University of Zaragoza, yielded about 100 Roman potsherds, nine pieces of metal, and one piece of glass. The artefacts were found in strata dated between the 1st and 4th centuries. They show that Romans did trade with the Canarians, though there is no evidence of settlements.
The island has a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve protected site status. According to a report in the Financial Times, this status was endangered by a local corruption scandal. Since May 2009, police have arrested the former president of Lanzarote, the former mayor of Arrecife and more than 20 politicians and businessmen in connection with illegal building permits along Lanzarote 's coastline. UNESCO has threatened to revoke Lanzarote 's Biosphere Reserve status, "if the developments are not respecting local needs and are impacting on the environment ''. The President of the Cabildo of Lanzarote denied "any threat to Lanzarote 's UNESCO status ''.
The most established festival on the island is held each year on 15 September in the village of Mancha Blanca, in honour of Our Lady of Sorrows (Virgen de los Dolores), also called the "Virgin of the Volcanoes '' (the Patron Saint of Lanzarote). People from all over the island participate in this pilgrimage, mostly dressed in traditional costumes.
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is the governor of illinois a democrat or a republican | Bruce Rauner - wikipedia
Bruce Vincent Rauner (/ ˈraʊnər /; born February 18, 1957) is an American businessman, philanthropist, and politician serving as the 42nd and current Governor of Illinois since 2015. Prior to his election, he was the Chairman of R8 Capital Partners and Chairman of the private equity firm GTCR, based in Chicago. He was the Republican nominee in the 2014 Illinois gubernatorial election and defeated Democratic incumbent Pat Quinn by 50.3 % to 46.4 %.
Bruce Rauner was born in Chicago and grew up in Deerfield, Illinois, a suburb 25 miles north of Chicago. His mother, Ann (née Erickson) Rauner (1931 -- 2011), was a nurse, and his father, Vincent Rauner (1927 -- 1997), was a lawyer and senior vice president for Motorola. He has three siblings, Christopher, Mark, and Paula, and is of half Swedish and half German descent. His parents eventually divorced, and his father remarried to the former Carol Kopay in 1981. Through his father 's second marriage, he has a stepsister, Larisa Olson. His first job was as a paperboy. His former coworkers referred to him as "Smiley '', based upon the grin he would flash at potential customers.
Rauner graduated summa cum laude with a degree in economics from Dartmouth College. He later received an MBA from Harvard University.
Rauner was the Chairman of private equity firm GTCR, where he had worked for more than 30 years, starting in 1981 after his graduation from Harvard through his retirement in October 2012. A number of state pension funds, including those of Illinois, have invested in GTCR.
After leaving GTCR, Rauner opened an office for a self - financed venture firm, R8 Capital Partners. The firm will invest up to $15 million in smaller Illinois companies.
Rauner served as Chairman of Choose Chicago, the not - for - profit that serves as the city 's convention and tourism bureau, resigning in May 2013, and as Chairman of the Chicago Public Education Fund. Rauner has also served as the Chairman of the Education Committee of the Civic Committee of The Commercial Club of Chicago.
In 2015, Rauner reported earnings over $180 million, an average of more than $3,000,000 per week.
Prior to his 2014 run for Illinois governor, Rauner served as an advisor to Chicago Mayor Rahm Emanuel.
In March 2013, Rauner formed an exploratory committee to look at a run for Governor of Illinois as a Republican. Rauner said that his top priorities included streamlining government, improving education, and improving the state 's business climate. He supports term limits and said he would serve no more than eight years (two terms) as governor. On June 5, 2013, Rauner officially announced his candidacy for governor, telling Chicago magazine 's Carol Felsenthal his platform would include overhauling tax policy and freezing property taxes.
In October 2013, Rauner announced that his running mate would be Wheaton City Councilwoman Evelyn Sanguinetti.
Rauner won the March 18 Republican primary with 328,934 votes (40.13 %), defeating State Senator Kirk Dillard 's 305,120 (37.22 %), State Senator Bill Brady 's 123,708 (15.09 %) and Illinois Treasurer Dan Rutherford 's 61,848 (7.55 %).
For the general election, Rauner was endorsed by the majority of Illinois newspapers, including the Chicago Tribune, the Daily Herald, and the Chicago Sun - Times.
During the general election, television ads aired regarding Rauner 's role in a chain of long - term care homes owned by his companies that faced lawsuits stemming from the death and alleged mistreatment of residents. Among the problems outlined in court cases, state records, and media reports are the deaths of developmentally disabled residents in bathtubs, "deplorable '' living conditions, sexual assaults, and a failure by employees to stop residents from harming themselves.
Also during the election, the media reported on a controversy regarding Rauner 's daughter being admitted to Walter Payton Prep school in Chicago in 2008 through the "principal picks '' process. The family maintains several residences, including one in downtown Chicago that enabled her to apply to the Chicago - based school. Although she had top grades, she had missed several days of school and therefore did not qualify through the regular admissions process. It was later revealed that Rauner had sought information on this process from his personal friend Arne Duncan, then CEO of Chicago Public Schools. Rauner has said he had no recollection of speaking with Duncan directly. According to another source, she was not a "principal pick '', but was let in following the phone call between Bruce Rauner and Arne Duncan. The Rauners donated $250,000 to the school during the subsequent school year. Rauner has a long history of contributing to Chicago Public Schools.
On October 22, 2014, Dave McKinney, a Chicago Sun - Times political reporter and bureau chief, resigned from the paper, citing pressure brought to bear on him by Sun - Times management with regard to his coverage of Rauner. McKinney had completed an investigative news story about a lawsuit filed by Christine Kirk, the CEO of LeapSource, a firm at which Rauner served as director. The piece, written by three reporters and approved by the newspaper 's editors, described Rauner using "hardball tactics '' to threaten Kirk and her family. According to McKinney 's attorney, the Rauner campaign requested the story include that McKinney had a conflict of interest due to his marriage to Ann Liston, a Democratic media consultant; the campaign eventually published details about the Liston 's LLC sharing office space with a legally separate, long - term Democratic strategist firm, of which Liston was part - owner. The LLC was employed by a pro-Quinn PAC. McKinney says any notion of conflict of interest was untrue, a position backed up publicly by Sun - Times management. Rauner is a former investor of the Sun - Times and received the newspaper 's backing, marking the first time the media organization endorsed any candidate after imposing a moratorium on political endorsements three years earlier.
On November 4, 2014, Rauner was elected Governor of Illinois, though initially without Gov. Quinn 's concession. Pat Quinn conceded defeat the next day. Rauner received 50.27 % of the vote, while Quinn won 46.35 %. He carried every Illinois county except Cook County.
Rauner spent a record $26 million of his own money on his election.
On June 20, 2016, Rauner confirmed that he will run for a second term as Illinois governor in 2018. He formally announced his re-election campaign on October 23, 2017. Rauner faced State Representative Jeanne Ives, who ran against him from the political right, in the Republican primary. Rauner was endorsed by the Chicago Tribune, The Daily Herald, and the Chicago Sun - Times. Rauner was also endorsed by 37 elected officials from DuPage County. On March 20, 2018, Rauner won the Republican Primary, with 51.4 % of the vote, over Ives, who received 48.6 % of the vote. Rauner will face Democratic nominee J.B. Pritzker in the November election, as well as several independent and third - party candidates.
Rauner was sworn in as Governor of Illinois on January 12, 2015. In his first executive order, he halted state hiring as well as discretionary spending and called for state agencies to sell surplus property.
On February 9, 2015, Rauner signed an executive order blocking so called "fair share '' union fees from state employee paychecks. The same day, Rauner hired a legal team headed by former U.S. Attorney Dan Webb and his law firm Winston & Strawn to file a declaratory judgment action in Federal Court to affirm his action. In February 2015, Rauner proposed $4.1 billion in budget cuts affecting higher education, Medicaid, state employee pensions, public transit, and local government support. In April, Rauner also suspended funding for programs addressing domestic violence, homeless youth, autism, and immigrant integration. Critics called these moves "morally reprehensible '' and harmful to the state economy.
In May 2015, Governor Rauner announced the shelving of the Illiana Tollway project, a controversial proposed tollway between I - 55 in Illinois and I - 65 in Indiana, citing the "lack of sufficient capital resources '' and the budget impasse, but did not completely remove it from the state 's list of proposed infrastructure projects.
Rauner vetoed the Illinois state budget on June 25, 2015, which would have created a deficit of nearly $4 billion, but covered what Illinois Democratic lawmakers called "vital services ''. He stated that he would not sign a budget until the Democratic state legislature passed his "Turnaround Agenda '' to reduce trade union power and freeze property taxes. With no state budget, social service agencies have cut back on services, state universities have laid off staff, public transit service has ceased in Monroe and Randolph Counties, and Child Care Assistance eligibility has been cut by 90 %. Illinois 's unpaid bill backlog could reach as high as $25 billion by FY19 if things continue as they have been. On June 30, 2016, just before the beginning of the next fiscal year, Rauner signed a temporary bipartisan stopgap budget that would allow public schools to continue operating for an additional year and for necessary state services to continue for 6 months. However, the stopgap budget covers only 65 % of social services agencies ' normally allocated funds and provides $900,000 less for colleges and universities than FY15, while attempting to cover eighteen months ' worth of expenses, all while continuing the uncertainty that Illinois nonprofits faced during FY16.
In July 2017, Rauner vetoed a budget that increased the state income tax from 3.75 % to 4.95 % and the corporate tax from 5.25 % to 7 %, an increase of $5 billion in additional tax revenue. However, the Illinois legislature, with the help of several Republicans, overrode his veto. Following this action, considered a political defeat for Rauner, he made major changes to his staff, with his chief of staff, deputy chief of staff, and his spokesperson included among the officials fired, and replaced them with high - ranking officials from the Illinois Policy Institute along with a former spokesperson for Wisconsin governor Scott Walker. These moves were seen by the media as a shift to the right. However, Rauner fired several of those new officials after issuing a controversial statement related to race.
Rauner has made a priority to fully funded education for the first time in years, increasing K - 12 education funding by nearly $1 billion, and increasing early childhood education funding to historical levels. In 2017, Rauner signed Senate Bill 1947, which moved Illinois to an "evidence - based model '' of education funding, taking into account each district 's individual needs, as well as its local revenue sources, when appropriating state aid -- prioritizing districts that are furthest from being fully funded. The new law creates a scholarship plan that will earmark up to $75 million for scholarship tax credits. Lawmakers said those credits will go to low - and middle - income parents, impacting roughly 6,000 private school students whose families make less than $73,000 per year. The new law creates the first revision in two decades of the way general state - aid dollars to schools are distributed, establishing a multifaceted procedure for determining need and setting a goal for "adequacy '' of funding in each of the state 's 852 school districts. The bill received praise from the Chicago Tribune, Daily Herald, and Chicago Sun - Times, along with numerous civic organizations.
Rauner 's stance on labor unions has received considerable attention and controversy. Rauner believes that local governments should be allowed to pass right to work laws. Additionally, Rauner believes that the state should ban some political contributions by public unions, saying: "government unions should not be allowed to influence the public officials they are lobbying, and sitting across the bargaining table from, through campaign donations and expenditures ''.
In 2014, Rauner 's election campaign was helped financially by Kenneth C. Griffin, CEO of Citadel, a successful global investment firm, who made a rare and impassioned plea to the sold - out audience at the Economic Club of Chicago (ECC) in May 2013 to replace the Democrats at all levels of governance. He supported Rauner 's campaign promises to "cut spending and overhaul the state 's pension system, impose term limits, and weaken public employee unions ''. Griffin called for a show of financial support to Rauner that met with an increase in campaign donations representing tens of millions of dollars, or half the $65 million spent on Rauner 's 2014 election campaign. Of this half, such money originated from Rauner himself along with "nine other individuals, families, or companies they control ''.
Rauner has received media attention for his political stance on the minimum wage. Rauner currently favors either raising the national minimum wage so Illinois employers are on the same level as those in neighboring states, or unilaterally raising Illinois ' minimum wage, but pairing the change with pro-business reforms to the state 's tax code, workers compensation reform, and tort reform.
Rauner 's position on the minimum wage evolved significantly during his campaign. At a candidate forum on December 11, 2013, Rauner stated that he would favor reducing Illinois 's minimum wage from $8.25 to the federal minimum wage of $7.25. The Chicago Sun - Times also uncovered video of Rauner at a campaign event in September 2013, where he said that he was "adamantly, adamantly against raising the minimum wage '' and audio of an interview with Rauner from January 10, 2014, when he said: "I have said, on a number of occasions, that we could have a lower minimum wage or no minimum wage as part of increasing Illinois ' competitiveness. ''
Rauner strongly opposed Governor Pat Quinn 's proposal to make the 2011 temporary income tax increase permanent, instead calling for the Illinois ' income tax rate to gradually be rolled back to 3 percent. On January 1, 2015, the income tax increase automatically partially sunset, with the personal income tax rate falling from 5 % to 3.75 % and the corporate tax rate from 7 % to 5.25 %.
In July 2014, Rauner called for expanding Illinois ' sales tax to dozens of services, such as legal services, accounting services, and computer programming, which currently are not taxed in Illinois. Rauner estimated the expanded sales tax would bring in an additional $600 million a year. Rauner 's services tax proposal was harshly criticized by Pat Quinn, who said it would fall hardest on low income people.
Rauner also supported caps on local property tax rates, citing the high rates already present, and supported measures that would allow the caps to be raised only by referendum.
Rauner has come out against a graduated income tax.
Rauner received a 92 % approval from Taxpayers United for America, the first time a sitting Illinois governor received a score of more than 70 percent.
Rauner strongly favors term limits, and has pledged to limit himself to no more than eight years as governor. Rauner organized and funded a push to put a constitutional amendment imposing term limits on Illinois legislators on the November 2014 ballot, gathering 591,092 signatures. However, the term limits amendment was struck down in court as unconstitutional.
During his 2014 campaign, Rauner called for "billions '' of dollars per year in public spending on infrastructure, but declined to detail how he would pay for the spending.
During his gubernatorial campaign, Rauner declined to take a position on the controversial Illiana Expressway and Peotone Airport projects advanced by Pat Quinn. After taking office in 2015, he suspended the Illiana project pending a cost - benefit review.
In February 2015, Rauner proposed raising highway funding and slashing transit funding which was seen as inefficient spending.
Rauner stated that while he wants laws and policies to keep guns out of the hands of criminals and the mentally ill, he wo n't go beyond that due to constitutional concerns.
The Rauner family have donated "thousands of dollars '' to Planned Parenthood, and prior to his 2014 campaign, the Rauner Family Foundation donated $510,000 to the American Civil Liberties Union 's Roger Baldwin Foundation.
On July 29, 2016, Rauner signed SB 1564 into law, which requires doctors and pregnancy centers that refuse to perform abortions for religious or moral reasons to refer patients to places where they can have an abortion instead. The bill was passed on partisan lines, without a single Republican legislator voting for the bill, and Rauner 's decision to sign the bill into law angered conservative groups. The same day, Rauner also signed a bill that "extends insurance coverage for nearly all contraceptives ''. On August 5, Rauner was sued by an anti-abortion "crisis pregnancy center '', a Rockford, Illinois - based medical center, and a Downers Grove physician, claiming that SB 1564 is unconstitutional. On December 20, 2016, a Winnebago County Circuit Judge issued a preliminary injunction, which temporarily prohibits the State of Illinois from enforcing the law after it going into effect on January 1, 2017.
Despite pledging in April 2017 to veto a pro-abortion rights bill, which would have removed a clause that would make abortions illegal if Roe v. Wade were overturned and would remove restrictions on and expand taxpayer - funded abortions for those covered by Medicaid and state employee insurance, Rauner reversed his pledge and signed the bill into law on September 28, 2017, something which earned him harsh criticism from conservative Republicans.
On August 12, 2016, Rauner vetoed a bill that would have automatically registered anyone in Illinois who sought a new or updated drivers license as well as other services to vote, unless they chose to opt out. Rauner stated that he supports automatic voter registration, but that he vetoed the bill because he was worried that "the bill would inadvertently open the door to voter fraud and run afoul of federal election law ''. On August 28, 2017, Rauner signed a revised version of the automatic voter registration bill.
On August 28, 2017, Rauner signed a bill into law that prohibited state and local police from arresting anyone solely due to their immigration status or due to federal detainers. Some fellow Republicans criticized Rauner for his action, claiming the bill made Illinois a sanctuary state. On November 15, 2017, the United States Department of Justice announced that a preliminary conclusion had been reached that Illinois was now a sanctuary jurisdiction in violation of 8 U.S.C. 1373 and issued a warning to state authorities on the issue; subsequently, as of June 10, 2018, there is still no evidence that Illinois responded stating that it was in compliance with the law. The deadline to do so was December 8, 2017.
Rauner supports same - sex marriage. In 2014, then gubernatorial candidate Rauner said that he had no comment on same - sex marriage but would not change the law legalizing gay marriages. In 2015, Rauner signed legislation banning the use of conversion therapy on minors. He also signed a bill making it easier for transgender people to change their birth certificates. He has also marched in Aurora and Chicago LGBT Pride parades. Rauner officiated at the 2018 wedding of a same - sex couple.
Rauner was nominated for the 2008 Philanthropist of the Year by the Chicago Association of Fundraising Professionals. In 2003, Rauner received the Daley Medal from the Illinois Venture Capital Association for extraordinary support to the Illinois economy and was given the Association for Corporate Growth 's Lifetime Achievement Award. Rauner and his wife were nominated for the Golden Apple Foundation 's 2011 Community Service Award.
Rauner has been a financial supporter of projects including Chicago 's Red Cross regional headquarters, the YMCA in the Little Village neighborhood, six new charter high schools, an AUSL turnaround campus, scholarship programs for disadvantaged Illinois public school students, and achievement - based compensation systems for teachers and principals in Chicago Public Schools. He provided major funding for the construction of the Rauner Special Collections Library at Dartmouth College, endowed full professor chairs at Dartmouth College, Morehouse College, University of Chicago, and Harvard Business School, and was the lead donor for the Stanley C. Golder Center for Private Equity and Entrepreneurial Finance at the University of Illinois.
Rauner serves on the board of the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.
Rauner lives in Winnetka, Illinois with his wife, Diana Mendley Rauner, and family. He has three children with Diana Mendley. He also has three children from his first marriage, to Elizabeth Konker Wessel, whom he married in 1980, separated from in 1990 and their divorce being finalized in 1993. He is 6'4 ".
The Rauners reside in the Illinois Executive Mansion in Springfield. They also own ranches in Montana and Wyoming. Rauner is an Episcopalian.
Rauner 's exact net worth is unclear, but has been estimated at, minimally, several hundred million dollars.
During his campaign for governor he promised that he would accept only $1 in salary and no benefits from his office, including forgoing a pension and reimbursement for travel expenses.
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when did the nature boy ric flair die | Ric Flair - wikipedia
Richard Morgan Fliehr (possibly born Fred Phillips; February 25, 1949), better known as Ric Flair, is an American professional wrestling manager and retired professional wrestler signed to WWE under its Legends program.
Widely regarded as the greatest professional wrestler of all time and the best American performer of the 1980s, Flair had a career that spanned 40 years. He is noted for his tenures with the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA), World Championship Wrestling (WCW), the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later WWE) and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). Since the mid-1970s, he has used the moniker "The Nature Boy ''.
A major pay - per - view attraction throughout his career, Flair headlined at the premier annual NWA / WCW event, Starrcade, on ten occasions, while also co-headlining its WWF counterpart, WrestleMania, in 1992, after winning that year 's Royal Rumble. PWI awarded him their Wrestler of the Year award a record six times, while Wrestling Observer Newsletter named him the Wrestler of the Year (an award named after him and Lou Thesz) a record eight times. The only two - time WWE Hall of Fame inductee, first inducted in 2008 for his individual career and again in 2012 as a member of The Four Horsemen, he is also a member of the NWA Hall of Fame, Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame, and Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame.
Flair is officially recognized by WWE and Pro Wrestling Illustrated (PWI) as a 16 - time world champion (eight - time NWA World Heavyweight Champion, six - time WCW World Heavyweight Champion, and two - time WWF Champion), although the number of his world championship reigns varies by source, ranging from 16 to 25. He considers himself a 21 - time champion. He was the first holder of the WCW World Heavyweight Championship and the WCW International World Heavyweight Championship (which he also held last). As the inaugural WCW World Heavyweight Champion, he became the first person to complete WCW 's Triple Crown, having already held the United States Heavyweight and World Tag Team Championships. He then completed WWE 's version of the Triple Crown when he won the Intercontinental Championship, after already holding the WWF Championship and the World Tag Team Championship.
Fliehr was born on February 25, 1949 in Memphis, Tennessee. His birth name is widely perceived to be Fred Phillips, although on different documents, he is also credited as Fred Demaree or Stewart, while his biological parents were Luther and Olive Phillips (the latter of which was also credited under the Demaree and Stewart surnames). He was adopted, and at the time of his adoption (arranged by the Tennessee Children 's Home Society), his father, a physician, was completing a residency in Detroit. Shortly afterward, the family settled in Edina, Minnesota, where the young Fliehr lived throughout his childhood and after ninth grade he attended Wayland Academy, a coeducational boarding school in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin, for four years (five years total in high school), during which time he participated in interscholastic wrestling, football and track.
Flair trained as a professional wrestler with Verne Gagne. He attended Gagne 's first wrestling camp with Greg Gagne, Jim Brunzell, The Iron Sheik and Ken Patera at Gagne 's barn outside Minneapolis in the winter of 1971. On December 10, 1972, he made his debut in Rice Lake, Wisconsin, battling George "Scrap Iron '' Gadaski to a 10 - minute draw while adopting the ring name Ric Flair. During his time in the American Wrestling Association (AWA), Flair had matches with Dusty Rhodes, Chris Taylor, André the Giant, Larry Hennig and Wahoo McDaniel.
Flair first competed in Japan in 1973 for International Wrestling Enterprise (IWE), due to a working agreement between AWA promoter Verne Gagne and the IWE. After Flair left the AWA for Jim Crockett Jr. 's Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling (MACW) in 1974, he began working tours for All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW). On April 27, 1978, Flair challenged for the NWA United National Championship in a losing effort. Throughout the 1980s, Flair defended the NWA World Heavyweight Championship in All Japan against the likes of Genichiro Tenryu, Riki Choshu, Jumbo Tsuruta, Harley Race, and Kerry Von Erich. On October 21, 1985, Flair wrestled Rick Martel in a double title match where he defended the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and challenged for the AWA World Heavyweight Championship, but the match ended in a double countout. As All Japan withdrew from the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) in the late 1980s, World Championship Wrestling (WCW) began a working agreement with New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW). In 1989, the working agreement led to a feud between Flair and Keiji Mutoh, who was wrestling under The Great Muta gimmick, in the United States for WCW. On March 21, 1991, Flair defended the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and challenged Tatsumi Fujinami for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in a double title match on the WCW / New Japan Supershow at the Tokyo Dome. Fujinami beat Flair for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, but later lost the title at WCW 's SuperBrawl I on May 19, 1991 in the United States.
When Flair left WCW for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1991, he continued to tour Japan in the Super World of Sports (SWS) promotion, due to an agreement between WWF and SWS. He defended and retained the WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Genichiro Tenryu on September 15, 1992 in a match that resulted in a draw. In August 1995, under a WCW contract, Flair participated in the G1 Climax tournament in New Japan, where he beat Shiro Koshinaka, drew Masahiro Chono, and lost to Keiji Mutoh. On July 17, 1996, Flair challenged Shinya Hashimoto for the IWGP Heavyweight Championship in a losing effort in NJPW.
Once again under the WWE banner, Flair continued to tour Japan periodically between 2002 and 2008. He successfully defended the World Tag Team Championship with Batista against The Dudley Boyz twice in February 2004. On the February 7, 2005 episode of Raw, broadcast from the Saitama Super Arena in Japan, Flair lost to Shawn Michaels in a singles match. In February 2008, Flair wrestled Mr. Kennedy in the Ariake Coliseum and William Regal in the Budokan Hall, both under the stipulation that he would retire if he lost.
On January 2, 2013, All Japan announced that Flair would make his return to AJPW for the first time in five years on January 26, 2013, teaming with Keiji Mutoh to take on Tatsumi Fujinami and Seiya Sanada. This would have been his first professional wrestling match since his September 2011 loss to Sting on Impact Wrestling and his first for All Japan since March 1987. However, on January 26, just moments before the start of the All Japan event, the promotion announced that Flair was forced to pull out of his match because of a "sudden illness '', later reported as a badly swollen left leg. Flair was replaced in the match by his son Reid, but also ended up getting involved in the match himself, delivering chops to Seiya Sanada.
In 1974, Flair left the AWA for Jim Crockett 's Mid-Atlantic region in the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) and he soon captured his first singles title, when on February 9, 1975 he beat Paul Jones for the Mid-Atlantic TV Championship. On October 4, 1975, however, Flair 's career nearly ended when he was in a serious plane crash in Wilmington, North Carolina that took the life of the pilot and paralyzed Johnny Valentine (also on board were Mr. Wrestling, Bob Bruggers, and promoter David Crockett). Flair broke his back in three places and, at age 26, was told by doctors that he would never wrestle again. Flair conducted a rigorous physical therapy schedule, however, and he returned to the ring just eight months later, where he resumed his feud with Wahoo McDaniel in February 1976. The crash did force Flair to change his wrestling technique away from the power brawling style he had used early on, which led him to adopt the "Nature Boy '' style he would use throughout his career. Flair won the NWA United States Heavyweight Championship when he defeated Bobo Brazil on July 29, 1977. During the next three years, he held five reigns as NWA United States Heavyweight Champion while feuding with Ricky Steamboat, Roddy Piper, Mr. Wrestling, Jimmy Snuka and Greg Valentine (with whom he also formed a championship tag team). However, Flair reached elite status when he began referring to himself as "The Nature Boy '' in order to incite a 1978 feud with the original "Nature Boy '' Buddy Rogers, who put Flair over in one encounter.
On September 17, 1981, Flair beat Dusty Rhodes for his first NWA World Heavyweight Championship. In the following years, Flair established himself as the promotion 's main franchise in the midst of emerging competition from Vince McMahon 's World Wrestling Federation (WWF). An unsanctioned title loss took place on January 6, 1983 to Carlos Colón Sr. in Puerto Rico. Flair recovered the championship belt in a phantom change seventeen days later not officially recognized by the NWA. Harley Race won the NWA World Heavyweight Championship from Flair in 1983, but Flair regained the title at Starrcade in a steel cage match. Officially, Flair won the NWA World Heavyweight Championship eight more times. Flair lost the title to Race and won it back in the span of three days in New Zealand and Singapore in March 1984. At the first David Von Erich Memorial Parade of Champions at Texas Stadium, Flair was pinned by Kerry Von Erich, but he regained the title eighteen days later in Japan and reigned for two years, two months and two days, losing the title to Dusty Rhodes on July 26, 1986 at The Great American Bash. However, Flair regained the title two weeks later.
In late 1985, the tag team of Arn Anderson and Ole Anderson began aiding Flair (whom they claimed as a "cousin '') in attacks against Dusty Rhodes, Magnum T.A. and Sam Houston. A few weeks later, the Andersons interrupted Houston 's match against Tully Blanchard and the three villains combined to rough up the youngster. Shortly thereafter, Flair, Blanchard and the Andersons formalized their alliance, calling themselves The Four Horsemen, with Blanchard 's manager J.J. Dillon also coming on board. Upon the group 's inception, it was clear that The Four Horsemen were unlike any villainous alliance that had ever existed, as the four rule breakers immediately used their strength in numbers to decimate the NWA 's top fan favorites while controlling the majority of the championship titles.
By 1986, wrestling promoter Jim Crockett had consolidated the various NWA member promotions he owned into a single entity, running under the banner of the National Wrestling Alliance. Controlling much of the traditional NWA territories in the southeast and Midwestern United States, Crockett looked to expand nationally and built his promotion around Flair as champion. During this time, Flair 's bookings as champion were tightly controlled by Crockett, and a custom championship belt was created for Flair. Flair lost the NWA World Heavyweight Championship in Detroit to Ron Garvin on September 25, 1987. Garvin held the title for two months before losing to Flair on November 26, 1987 at WCW 's first pay - per - view event, Starrcade, in Chicago.
In early 1988, Sting and Flair fought to a 45 - minute time - limit draw at the first ever Clash of the Champions. On February 20, 1989, at Chi - Town Rumble in Chicago, Ricky Steamboat pinned Flair to win the NWA World Heavyweight Championship. This prompted a series of rematches, where Steamboat was presented as a "family man '' (often accompanied by his wife and young son), while Flair opposed him as an immoral, fast - living "ladies man ''. Following a best - of - three falls match with Steamboat that lasted just short of the 60 - minute time limit (and ended with a disputed finish where Steamboat retained the title) at Clash of the Champions VI: Ragin ' Cajun on April 2, Flair regained the title from Steamboat on May 7, 1989 at WrestleWar in a match that was voted 1989 's "Match of the Year '' by Pro Wrestling Illustrated. On July 23, 1989, Flair defeated Terry Funk at The Great American Bash, but the two continued to feud through the summer and eventually Flair reformed The Four Horsemen, with the surprise addition of longtime rival Sting, to combat Funk 's J - Tex Corporation. This led to an "I Quit '' match at Clash of the Champions IX: New York Knockout which Flair won. Flair then kicked Sting out of The Four Horsemen upon his challenge for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, resulting in a revived feud between the two. On July 7, 1990, Flair dropped the title to Sting at The Great American Bash. After being unmasked as The Black Scorpion at Starrcade in 1990, Flair regained the title from Sting on January 11, 1991.
Subsequent to this title win, Flair was recognized by WCW as the first WCW World Heavyweight Champion, though he was still also recognized as NWA World Heavyweight Champion. On March 21, 1991, Tatsumi Fujinami defeated Flair in a match in Tokyo at the WCW / New Japan Supershow. While the NWA recognized Fujinami as their new champion, WCW did not because Fujinami had backdropped Flair over the top rope in a violation of WCW rules. On May 19, 1991, Flair defeated Fujinami at SuperBrawl I in St. Petersburg, Florida to reclaim the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and retain the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. In the spring of 1991, Flair had a contract dispute with WCW president Jim Herd, who wanted him to take a substantial pay cut. Herd had removed Flair as head booker in February 1990 and wanted to reduce Flair 's role in the promotion even further, despite the fact that Flair was still a top draw. According to Flair, Herd also proposed changes in his appearance and ring name (i.e. by shaving his hair, wearing a diamond earring and going by the name Spartacus) in order to "change with the times ''. Flair disagreed with the proposals and two weeks before The Great American Bash, Herd fired him and vacated the WCW World Heavyweight Championship. While Flair had left for the WWF, he was still recognized as the NWA World Heavyweight Champion until September 8, when the title was officially vacated.
Flair signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in September 1991 and began appearing on television with the Big Gold Belt, calling himself "The Real World Champion ''. Led by his "financial adviser '' Bobby Heenan and his "executive consultant '' Mr. Perfect, Flair repeatedly issued challenges to WWF wrestlers like "Rowdy '' Roddy Piper and Hulk Hogan, wrestling a team led by Piper at Survivor Series in November 1991 and helping The Undertaker defeat Hogan for the WWF Championship that same night. WCW sued Flair in an attempt to reclaim the championship belt, but Flair claimed that he owned the title belt in lieu of the US $25,000 deposit paid by NWA champions upon winning the title, which had not been returned to him when he was fired from WCW.
At the 1992 Royal Rumble, Flair won the Rumble match to claim the vacant WWF Championship. Flair entered as number three in the Rumble match and lasted 60 minutes, last eliminating Sid Justice with help from Hulk Hogan, who had been eliminated by Justice seconds earlier. Randy Savage then challenged Flair for the WWF Championship as part of the double main event at WrestleMania VIII. In the storyline, Flair taunted Savage by claiming that he had a prior relationship with Savage 's wife, Miss Elizabeth. Savage defeated Flair for the title at WrestleMania. In July 1992, as Savage prepared to defend the title against The Ultimate Warrior at SummerSlam, Flair and Mr. Perfect sowed distrust between the two by suggesting that they would back one or the other during their match. They actually attacked both Savage and Warrior and injured Savage 's knee, an injury that Flair exploited to regain the title in a match with Savage on September 1. His second reign was short - lived, however, as he lost the title to Bret Hart on October 12, 1992.
Flair teamed with Razor Ramon to take on Savage and Perfect at the Survivor Series in November 1992. Flair appeared in the Royal Rumble in January 1993, then lost a Loser Leaves the WWF match to Mr. Perfect on the next night 's (January 25) Monday Night Raw in a match taped six days earlier. Flair then fulfilled his remaining house show commitments, making his last appearance on February 10, 1993, before returning to WCW.
Flair triumphantly returned to WCW as a hero in February 1993, as a result of a "no - compete '' clause he was unable to wrestle, so he hosted a short - lived talk show in WCW called A Flair for the Gold. Arn Anderson usually appeared at the bar on the show 's set, and Flair 's maid Fifi cleaned or bore gifts. Once he returned to action, Flair briefly held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship for a tenth time after defeating Barry Windham at Beach Blast before WCW finally left the NWA in September 1993. At Fall Brawl, Flair lost the title, now rebranded the WCW International World Heavyweight Championship, to "Ravishing Rick '' Rude. At Starrcade in 1993, Flair defeated Vader to win the WCW World Heavyweight title for the second time. In the spring of 1994, Flair began a tweener turn and started another feud with longtime rival Ricky Steamboat and challenged Steamboat to a match at Spring Stampede which ended in a no contest from a double pin, causing the title to be held up. Flair then defeated Steamboat in a rematch to reclaim the held - up title on an episode of WCW Saturday Night. The WWE does not count this victory as a new title win. Flair then challenged Col. Robert Parker to wrestle one of his men at Slamboree, which turned out to be Barry Windham, whom Flair defeated, afterwards he quietly turned heel and took Sherri Martel as his manager. He would also wrestle Lord Steven Regal in a five - match series under Marquess of Queensberry Rules, which aired on WCW Worldwide between April 30 and May 28, in which Flair won the series, with 2 wins, 1 loss, and 2 draws.
In June 1994 at Clash of the Champions XXVII, Flair defeated Sting in a unification match, merging the WCW International World Heavyweight Championship with the WCW World Heavyweight Championship, and solidifying his heel turn. After becoming the unified and undisputed WCW champion, Flair feuded with Hulk Hogan upon Hogan 's arrival in WCW in June 1994, losing the WCW World Heavyweight Championship to him in July at Bash at the Beach. Flair continued to feud with Hogan and finally lost to Hogan in a steel cage retirement match at Halloween Havoc. Flair took a few months off afterwards before returning as a wrestler and part - time manager for Vader in 1995 (explained on - air by having Flair nag Hogan for months until Hogan and Savage both petitioned WCW management to let Flair come back).
On April 29, 1995, Flair wrestled Antonio Inoki in front of 190,000 spectators in Pyongyang, North Korea at the May Day Stadium in a losing effort under a joint show between New Japan Pro Wrestling and World Championship Wrestling. The event was broadcast on August 4, 1995 on pay - per - view under the title of Collision in Korea. In the fall of 1995, Flair began a short feud with Arn Anderson, which culminated in a tag match that saw Flair turning on Sting to reform the new Four Horsemen with Flair as the leader, Arn Anderson, Brian Pillman, and Chris Benoit as the members. With the new Four Horsemen, Flair won the WCW World Heavyweight Championship two more times before the nWo invasion storyline began in WCW, with the first one being in December 1995 at Starcade, where Flair defeated Lex Luger and Sting by countout and then defeated Savage after all three Four Horsemen members ran to the ring and Arn Anderson knocked out Savage with brass knuckles, thus allowing Flair to pin Savage to win the match and the title. Afterwards Savage won the title back on Nitro after Starcade, but Flair won the next match at SuperBrawl VI to regain the championship. During the feud, Savage 's manager Miss Elizabeth turned against him and became Flair 's valet. Together with Woman and Debra McMichael they would escort Flair to his matches until Miss Elizabeth was taken by the nWo in the fall and eventually returned as Savage 's valet when he joined the nWo in 1997. Flair lost the WCW World Heavyweight Championship eventually three months later to The Giant. The feud with Savage continued with The New Four Horseman joining the Dungeon of Doom to create an Alliance to end Hulkamania. Together the factions wrestled Hogan and Savage in a triple steel cage, End of Hulkamania match; losing to the reunited Mega Powers. Afterwards, Flair went on to win the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship and there were also changes in the Four Horseman in 1996, as Brian Pillman left WCW and Steve "Mongo '' McMichael became the fourth member.
Once again as a top fan favorite, Flair played a major role in the New World Order (nWo) invasion storyline in late 1996 and throughout 1997. He and the other Horsemen often took the lead in the war against Scott Hall, Kevin Nash, and Hollywood Hulk Hogan, whom Flair immediately challenged for the WCW World Heavyweight Championship at the Clash of the Champions XXXIII, but won only by disqualification. In September 1996, Flair and Anderson teamed with their bitter rivals, Sting and Lex Luger, to lose to the nWo (Hogan, Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and an impostor Sting) in the WarGames match at Fall Brawl when Luger submitted to the impostor Sting 's Scorpion Deathlock.
In October 1996, two developments occurred that affected the Four Horsemen when Jeff Jarrett came over to WCW from the WWF, and expressed his desire to join the Horsemen as he immediately gained a fan in Ric Flair, much to the chagrin of the other Horsemen. Flair finally let Jarrett join the group in February 1997, but the others did not want him, and in July 1997 was ultimately kicked out of the group by Flair himself, who had enough of the instability Jarrett 's presence caused the Horsemen. Flair also feuded with Roddy Piper, Syxx, and his old nemesis Curt Hennig in 1997, after Hennig was offered a spot in The Four Horsemen only to turn on Flair and The Four Horsemen at Fall Brawl in September 1997, in which Hennig punctuated the act by slamming the cage door onto Flair 's head.
In April 1998, Flair disappeared from WCW television, due to a lawsuit filed by Eric Bischoff for no - showing a live episode of Thunder on April 16, 1998 in Tallahassee, Florida. After the case was settled, Flair made a surprise return on September 14, 1998 to ceremoniously reform the Four Horsemen (along with Steve McMichael, Dean Malenko, and Chris Benoit). Flair feuded with Bischoff for several months afterward. Flair repeatedly raked Eric Bischoff 's eyes during this feud. This culminated in a match at Starrcade between Bischoff and Flair in December 1998, which Bischoff won after interference from Curt Hennig, a former member of the Four Horsemen. The following night in Baltimore on Nitro, Flair returned and threatened to leave WCW, demanding a match against Bischoff for the presidency of the company. The match was made, and despite the nWo interfering on Bischoff 's behalf Flair won and was granted the position of president of WCW. This resulted in a match at Superbrawl between Flair and Hollywood Hogan for the WCW Championship, which Flair lost after being betrayed by his own son David Flair.
In spite of his son 's betrayal, Flair signed a rematch at Uncensored which was billed as a First Blood barbed wire steel cage Match against Hogan where Flair 's presidency and Hogan 's WCW World Heavyweight Championship were on the line. Despite being the first to bleed, Flair won the match by pinfall thanks to the bias of the referee Charles Robinson, who counted Hogan out.
As on - air WCW President, Flair began abusing his power much like Bischoff had, favoring villains over fan favorites and even awarding the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship (which was vacated by Scott Steiner due to injury) to his son David and resorting to whatever means necessary to keep him as United States Heavyweight Champion. Flair eventually formed a stable of followers which included Roddy Piper, Arn Anderson and the Jersey Triad to keep things in order. Flair 's reign as president came to an end on the July 19 episode of Nitro, when he faced and lost to Sting for the position. During the course of the match, Sting had Flair in his Scorpion Death Lock, but with the referee knocked unconscious, no decision could be reached. A returning Eric Bischoff came to the ring and began ordering the timekeeper to ring the bell, which he eventually did, awarding the match and the presidency to Sting (who promptly gave it up upon receiving it).
Flair won his last world titles in his career by winning the WCW World Heavyweight Championship twice during 2000, the company 's last full year of operation. When WCW was purchased by the WWF in March 2001, Flair was the leader of the villainous group called the Magnificent Seven. Flair lost the final match of Nitro to Sting, recreating the second match of Nitro in 1995. Nevertheless, Flair has repeatedly stated in various interviews how happy he was when WCW finally closed down, although at the same time the fact that many people would lose their jobs saddened him.
After an eight - month hiatus from wrestling, Flair made a return to the WWF in November 2001. Flair reappeared on Raw following the end of the "WCW / ECW Invasion '' that culminated in a "Winner Take All '' match at Survivor Series won by the WWF. Flair 's new on - screen role was that of the co-owner of the WWF, with the explanation that Shane and Stephanie McMahon had sold their stock in the company to a consortium (namely Flair) prior to purchasing World Championship Wrestling and Extreme Championship Wrestling. Flair 's feud with Vince McMahon led them to a match at the Royal Rumble in January 2002 in a Street Fight, where Flair defeated McMahon. Flair also wrestled The Undertaker at WrestleMania X8 in March 2002 where Flair lost. The "co-owner '' angle culminated in early 2002, when Flair controlled Raw and McMahon controlled SmackDown! After Stone Cold Steve Austin abruptly left the renamed WWE in June while in a program with Flair, a match was hotshotted between Flair and McMahon for sole ownership of WWE, which Flair lost after interference from Brock Lesnar.
In September 2002 at Unforgiven, Triple H defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Rob Van Dam. During the match, Flair came down to the ring and grabbed the sledgehammer from Triple H and teased hitting him before hitting Van Dam, allowing Triple H to get the win, turning him heel in the process and accompanied Triple H to the ring as his manager. Shortly after, Batista moved from SmackDown! to Raw and Flair also began accompanying him to the ring while continuing to second Triple H. In June 2003 at Bad Blood, Flair was able to defeat Shawn Michaels after Orton struck Michaels with a chair.
At the height of Evolution 's power, the group controlled all of the male - based championships of Raw after Armageddon. Batista teamed with Flair to win the World Tag Team Championship from the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D - Von Dudley) in a tag team turmoil match and Triple H regained the World Heavyweight Championship from Goldberg (in a triple threat match that also involved Kane), with the help of the other members. In January 2004 at the Royal Rumble, Flair and Batista successfully defended the World Tag Team Championship against the Dudley Boyz in a tables match, and World Heavyweight Champion Triple H fought Shawn Michaels to no contest in a Last Man Standing match, thus retaining the championship. Flair and Batista lost the World Tag Team Championship on February 16 edition of Raw to Booker T and Rob Van Dam. At WrestleMania XX, Evolution defeated the Rock ' n ' Sock Connection (The Rock and Mick Foley) in a 3 - on - 2 handicap match. The following week on Raw during the 2004 WWE draft lottery, Flair and Batista defeated Booker T and Rob Van Dam to win their second and final World Tag Team Championship. While still world champion, Benoit teamed with Edge to take the World Tag Team Championship from Flair and Batista on April 19 Raw.
At SummerSlam, Orton pinned Benoit to become the new World Heavyweight Champion and the youngest World Champion in WWE history to date. Batista hoisted Orton on to his shoulders in what appeared to be a celebration, but following the thumbs down from Triple H, the group proceeded to attack Orton. At Unforgiven, Triple H beat Orton to regain the World Heavyweight Championship, with help from Flair, Batista, and Jonathan Coachman. Orton 's feud with Evolution continued until Survivor Series where Triple H, Batista, Gene Snitsky, and Edge were defeated by Orton, Maven, Chris Jericho, and Chris Benoit in a Survivor Series match for control of Raw over the following month.
In the Elimination Chamber match at New Year 's Revolution, Batista, Orton and Triple H were the last three remaining in the match. Orton eliminated Batista with a RKO and Triple H pinned Orton with Batista 's help to win the title. Triple H suggested that Batista not enter the Royal Rumble match, wanting the group to focus on Triple H retaining the title. Batista declined, entered the Rumble at number 28 and won. Triple H tried to persuade Batista to challenge the WWE Champion John "Bradshaw '' Layfield of SmackDown! rather than for his World Heavyweight Championship. This involved Triple H plotting a feud between JBL and Batista, showing JBL badmouthing Batista in an interview and staging an attack on Batista with a limousine designed to look like Layfield 's. The scheme was unsuccessful and at the brand contract signing ceremony, Batista chose to remain on Raw, infuriating Triple H and thus quitting the faction. Batista defeated Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 21.
After Vengeance, Triple H took time off, Flair turned face for the first time since 2002 before going on to win the Intercontinental Championship, and the group was dissolved. Triple H returned at the "Homecoming '' episode of Raw on October 3 where he was to team with Flair in a tag team match against Carlito and Chris Masters. After winning that match, Triple H betrayed Flair and attacked him with a sledgehammer. Flair retained the Intercontinental Championship against Triple H at Taboo Tuesday in a steel cage match, which was voted as such by the fans. Flair later lost to Triple H in a Last Man Standing non-title match at Survivor Series which ended their feud.
At the end of 2005, Flair had a feud with Edge that culminated in a WWE Championship Tables, Ladder and Chairs match on Raw in early 2006, which Flair lost. On the February 20 episode of Raw, he lost the Intercontinental Championship to Shelton Benjamin, thus ending his reign at 155 days. Flair took some time off in mid-2006 to rest and marry for the third time and he returned in June to work a program with his real - life rival Mick Foley that played off their legitimate past animosity. Flair defeated Foley at Vengeance in a two out of three falls match, then at SummerSlam in an "I Quit '' match.
Subsequently, he was involved in a rivalry with the Spirit Squad on Raw. On November 5, 2006 at Cyber Sunday, he captured the World Tag Team Championship from the Squad with Roddy Piper. On the November 13 episode of Raw, Flair and Piper lost the Tag Titles to Rated - RKO, due to a disc problem with Piper and had to be flown immediately back to the USA as soon as Raw was off the air. On November 26, 2006 at Survivor Series, Flair was the sole survivor of a match that featured himself, Ron Simmons (replacing an injured Piper), Dusty Rhodes and Sgt. Slaughter versus the Spirit Squad. Flair then left television due to his divorce hearings.
Flair then began teaming with Carlito after Flair said that Carlito had no heart. Flair defeated Carlito in a match after which Carlito realized that Flair was right. Flair and Carlito faced off against Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch in a number one contender 's match for the World Tag Team Championship but were defeated. The two teamed up on the WrestleMania 23 pre-show, and defeated the team of Chavo Guerrero and Gregory Helms. After weeks of conflict between Flair and Carlito, the team split up when Carlito attacked Flair during a match. At Judgment Day, Flair defeated Carlito with the figure four leglock.
On the June 11 episode of Raw, Flair was drafted from Raw to SmackDown! as part of the 2007 WWE draft. He briefly feuded against Montel Vontavious Porter and rejoined forces with Batista to feud with The Great Khali; the alliance was short - lived, however, as Flair was "injured '' during a match with Khali.
After a three - month hiatus, Flair returned to WWE programming on the November 26 episode of Raw to announce "I will never retire ''. Vince McMahon retaliated by announcing that the next match Flair lost would result in a forced retirement. Later in the night, Flair defeated Orton after a distraction by Chris Jericho. It was revealed on the 15th anniversary of Raw that the win or retire ultimatum only applied in singles matches. Flair won several "career threatening '' matches against the opponents such as Triple H, Umaga, William Regal, Mr. Kennedy, and Vince McMahon himself among others. On March 29, 2008, Flair was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame as a part of the class of 2008 by Triple H. The day after, Flair wrestled at WrestleMania XXIV in Orlando, Florida, losing to Shawn Michaels. The match was lauded by fans and critics and was voted the 2008 Pro Wrestling Illustrated (PWI) Match of the Year. Flair 's fight to keep his career going garnered him the 2008 PWI "Most Inspirational Wrestler of the Year '' award.
On the March 31, 2008 episode of Raw, Flair delivered his farewell address. Afterward, Triple H brought out many current and retired superstars to thank Flair for all he has done, including Shawn Michaels, some of the Four Horsemen, Harley Race, and Chris Jericho, followed by The Undertaker and then Vince McMahon. Along with the wrestlers, the fans gave Flair a standing ovation. This event represented a rare moment in WWE as both the heels and the faces broke character and came out to the ring together. Flair made his first post retirement appearance on the June 16, 2008 episode of Raw to confront Chris Jericho about his actions during a rivalry with Shawn Michaels. He challenged Jericho to a fight in the parking lot, rather than an official match, but was ejected from the building by Vince McMahon.
The following year on February 9, Flair once again confronted Jericho on Raw. Jericho was attacking Hall of Fame members and Flair demanded he respect them, before punching Jericho. Flair appeared a month later to distract him during a Money in the Bank Qualifying Match. Jericho then challenged Flair to come out of retirement for WrestleMania XXV; instead Flair managed Roddy Piper, Jimmy Snuka and Ricky Steamboat in a three - on - one handicap match at WrestleMania in a losing effort. On May 17, Flair returned during the Judgment Day pay - per - view, coming to the aid of Batista, who was being attacked by The Legacy (Randy Orton, Cody Rhodes and Ted DiBiase). On the June 1 episode of Raw, Flair challenged Orton in a parking lot brawl match, after an interference from the rest of The Legacy, the fight ended with Flair was trapped inside a steel cage and was punted by Orton. After Raw, Flair left WWE when his contract expired on June 2, 2009.
Flair signed with Ring of Honor (ROH) and appeared at the Stylin ' And Profilin ' event in March 2009, clearing the ring after an ROH World Championship match ended with a run - in. He soon served as the company 's ambassador, in an on - screen authority role, and appeared on the television show Ring of Honor Wrestling in May to cement his role. After a number one contender 's match ended in a time - limit draw, and the following week a double count out, Flair announced Ring of Honor Wrestling 's first ROH World Title match as a four - way contest.
On November 21, 2009, Flair returned to the ring as a villain on the "Hulkamania: Let The Battle Begin '' tour of Australia, losing to Hulk Hogan in the main event of the first show by brass knuckles. Hogan defeated Flair again on November 24 in Perth, Australia after both men bled heavily. Flair also lost to Hogan on the two remaining matches on the tour.
On the January 4, 2010 episode Total Nonstop Action Wrestling 's (TNA) Impact!, Flair made his debut appearance for the company arriving via limo and later observing the main event between A.J. Styles and longtime rival Kurt Angle. It was later reported that Flair had signed a one - year deal with the company. In the past, Flair has openly stated that he was loyal to the McMahons and wanted to end his career in WWE, however he had not had contact from WWE since June 2009 and decided to sign with TNA Wrestling after waiting for the call from WWE for six months. On January 17 at Genesis, Flair helped Styles cheat to pin Angle and retain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship.
In addition to Styles, Flair began informally managing Beer Money, Inc. (Robert Roode and James Storm) and Desmond Wolfe as a loose alliance. On the March 8 episode of Impact!, Hulk Hogan and Abyss defeated Flair and Styles when Abyss pinned Styles. Afterwards, the returning Jeff Hardy saved Abyss and Hogan from a beatdown at the hands of Flair, Styles and Beer Money, Inc. At Lockdown, Team Flair (Ric Flair, Sting, Desmond Wolfe, Robert Roode and James Storm) was defeated by Team Hogan (Hulk Hogan, Abyss, Jeff Jarrett, Jeff Hardy and Rob Van Dam) in a Lethal Lockdown match. On the April 26 episode of Impact!, Flair was defeated by Abyss in a match where Flair 's and Hogan 's WWE Hall of Fame rings were at stake, and as a result Flair lost possession of his ring to Hogan. The following week, Hogan gave the ring to Jay Lethal, who returned it to Flair out of respect. This, however, was not enough for Flair, who attacked Lethal along with the members of Team Flair. After Styles dropped the TNA World Heavyweight Championship to Rob Van Dam, then failed to regain it in a rematch and later was pinned by Jay Lethal, Flair adopted Kazarian as his newest protégé, seemingly replacing Styles as his number one wrestler.
On the June 17 episode of Impact!, Flair announced that he would reform the Four Horsemen under the new name Fourtune, a group consisting of A.J. Styles, Kazarian, Robert Roode, James Storm, and Desmond Wolfe. Flair made a return to the ring on July 11 at Victory Road, losing to Jay Lethal. On the August 5 episode of Impact!, Flair faced Lethal in a rematch, this time contested under Street Fight rules, with the members of Fourtune banned from ringside; Flair managed to win the match after an interference from Douglas Williams. The following week, Williams and Matt Morgan were added to Fourtune. In the weeks leading to Bound for Glory, Flair 's stable 's name was tweaked to Fortune to represent the expansion in the number of members in the group. On the October 7 episode of Impact!, Flair was defeated by Mick Foley in a Last Man Standing match.
On the following episode of Impact!, Fortune formed an alliance with Hulk Hogan 's and Eric Bischoff 's new stable, Immortal. On the November 18 episode of Impact!, Flair returned to the ring, competing in a match where he faced Matt Morgan, who had been kicked out of Fortune the previous month; Morgan won the match after Douglas Williams turned on the rest of Fortune, when they interfered in the match. On January 25, 2011, it was reported that Flair had pulled out of TNA 's Maximum Wooo! tour of Europe mid -- tour after monetary disputes. After missing a show in Berlin, Germany, Flair returned to the tour on January 27 in Glasgow, Scotland, reportedly apologizing to the locker room prior to the show. On January 29, Flair wrestled his only match of the tour, defeating Douglas Williams in London, tearing his rotator cuff in the process. During Flair 's time away from TNA, Fortune turned on Immortal. Flair returned at the February 14 tapings of the February 17 episode of Impact!, turning on Fortune during a match between A.J. Styles and Matt Hardy and jumping to Immortal. On the March 10 episode of Impact!, Flair defeated Styles and Hardy in a three -- way street fight, contested as more of a two -- on -- one handicap match. On April 17 at Lockdown, Immortal, represented by Flair, Abyss, Bully Ray and Matt Hardy, was defeated by Fortune members James Storm, Kazarian and Robert Roode and Christopher Daniels, who replaced an injured A.J. Styles, in a Lethal Lockdown match, when Flair tapped out to Roode. The match was used to write Flair off television, as the following week he was scheduled to undergo surgery for his torn rotator cuff; however, Flair ultimately chose not to have the surgery as it would have required six months of rehab.
Flair returned to television in a non -- wrestling role on the May 12 episode of Impact! Flair did not appear again for three months, until making his return on August 9 at the tapings of the August 18 episode of Impact Wrestling, confronting old rival Sting and challenging him to one more match. In exchange for Sting agreeing to put his career on the line, Flair promised to deliver him his match with Hogan if he was victorious. The match, which Flair lost, took place on the September 15 episode of Impact Wrestling. During the match, Flair tore his left triceps on a superplex spot, sidelining him indefinitely from in - ring action. In May 2012, Flair tried to have his TNA contract terminated, which led to TNA filing a lawsuit against WWE for contract tampering and eventually firing Flair on May 11. Having been inactive since his September 2011 injury, Flair announced in a December 3, 2012 interview that he would never wrestle again, owing chiefly to an on - air heart attack suffered by age peer Jerry Lawler following a Raw match three months earlier.
On March 31, 2012, while still contracted to TNA, Flair became the first person to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame twice, the second time as part of the Four Horsemen. On December 17, 2012, Flair returned to WWE as a non-wrestling personality on the annual Slammy Awards show to present the Superstar of the Year award to John Cena, who in turn gave the award to Flair. Flair 's return was interrupted by CM Punk and Paul Heyman, escalating into a confrontation that ended with him locking Heyman in the figure - four leglock. After clearing the ring, Flair was assaulted by The Shield, until Ryback and Team Hell No (Kane and Daniel Bryan) helped Flair fend off the group.
Flair appeared on the main roster sporadically throughout 2013, as The Miz 's mentor. He also occasionally appeared on NXT in 2013 and 2014, accompanying his daughter Charlotte to the ring.
Flair appeared on the April 28, 2014, episode of Raw, alongside the reunited Evolution (minus Flair) and The Shield; Flair showed his endorsement for The Shield, Evolution 's opponents at Extreme Rules, effectively turning his back on his old teammates. On July 14, John Cena symbolically handed over his World Heavyweight Championship belt to Flair, telling him to "take it '' while promoting his match at Battleground. On the post-SummerSlam Raw in August 2015, Flair interrupted Jon Stewart, who had saved Flair 's 16 world title record by preventing Cena 's victory the previous night, telling him that the record would be broken eventually and he would rather it would be by someone who he respects.
Flair began making more frequent appearances with Charlotte after she won the Divas Championship. In January 2016, Flair and Charlotte began displaying villainous traits, with Flair often getting involved in Charlotte 's Divas Championship and later WWE Women 's Championship defenses. This lasted until the May 23, 2016 episode of Raw, when Charlotte turned on him. On the November 28, 2016 episode of Raw, Flair returned to congratulate the new Raw Women 's Champion Sasha Banks, who had defeated Charlotte to win the title. On the November 14, 2017 edition of SmackDown, Flair returned to congratulate his daughter, after she won the SmackDown Women 's title from Natalya, incidentally in Charlotte 's hometown of Charlotte, North Carolina, this being his first appearance for WWE since nearly dying earlier in the year.
Flair was often popular with the crowd due to his in - ring antics, including rulebreaking (earning him the distinction of being "the dirtiest player in the game ''), strutting and his shouting of "Wooooooo! '' (Flair got the inspiration from Jerry Lee Lewis ' "Great Balls of Fire ''). The "Wooo! '' yell has since become a tribute to Flair, and is often shouted by the crowd whenever a wrestler performs a knife - edge chop, one of Flair 's signature moves. It is also often shouted by the crowd whenever a wrestler utilizes Flair 's figure - four leg lock finisher. From the late 1970s, Flair wore ornate fur - lined robes of many colors with sequins during in - ring appearances, and since the early 1980s, his approach to the ring was usually heralded by the playing of the "Dawn '' section of Richard Strauss ' "Also sprach Zarathustra '' (famous for being used in the 1968 motion picture 2001: A Space Odyssey and for the introduction to Elvis Presley 's concerts of the 1970s). Flair also described himself as a "limousine - ridin ', jet - flyin ', kiss stealin ', wheelin ' dealin ', son - of - a-gun (who kissed all the girls worldwide and made em cry) ''.
On October 19, 1998, it was declared "Ric Flair Day '' in Minneapolis, Minnesota by Mayor Sharon Belton and on November 15, 2008, it was declared "Ric Flair Day '' in Norfolk, Virginia. On March 24, 2008, Mayor Bob Coble, of Columbia, South Carolina, declared March 24 to be Ric Flair Day in Columbia. Flair also received the key to the city. He received the key to the city of Greensboro, North Carolina on December 5, 2008, to commemorate Flair 's victory in a steel cage match against Harley Race at the inaugural Starrcade event. April 18, 2009 was declared "Ric Flair Day '' in Charleston, West Virginia and he was presented with the key to the city by the mayor. Also, on June 12, 2009, Flair was presented with the key to the city of Myrtle Beach, South Carolina and, in September, he received the key to the city in Marion County, South Carolina. On July 17, 2010, Flair made a special appearance at Scotland Motors in Laurinburg, North Carolina and received the key to that city, as well.
On the February 18, 2008 episode of Raw, Shawn Michaels announced Flair as the first inductee into the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2008. The induction ceremony took place on March 29, 2008, with Triple H inducting him. This made him the first person to be inducted while still an active competitor. Flair was later inducted into the NWA Hall of Fame in Atlanta, Georgia, but he did not participate in the event. On January 9, 2012 it was announced that the Four Horsemen would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, thus making Flair the first person to have been inducted into the Hall of Fame twice.
On April 15, 2008, Flair was honored in Congress by a representative from North Carolina, Republican Sue Myrick, who praised his career and what he means to the state. On September 29, 2008, it was announced that Flair 's signature sequin covered robe that he wore at WrestleMania XXIV, in what was to be his last WWE match, would be placed in the pop culture section of the National Museum of American History in Washington, D.C.
In 1999, a large group of professional wrestling experts, analysts and historians named Flair the greatest NWA World Heavyweight Champion of all time. In 2002, Flair was named the greatest professional wrestler of all time in the magazine article 100 Wrestlers of All Time by John Molinaro, edited by Dave Meltzer and Jeff Marek. in July 2016, Luke Winkie of Sports Illustrated also named Flair the greatest professional wrestler of all time.
Flair 's "Wooo '' chant has been used throughout pop culture, in hip - hop music in particular. Rapper Pusha T has paid homage to Flair in numerous songs. For example, on the track "Sweet Serenade '', he says, "Triple doubles, two hoes and check please (Wooo!), They love me on my Ric Flair shit (Wooo!), In that Phantom like I 'm Blair Witch (Wooo!), Who are you to be compared with? (Wooo!) ''. Rapper Killer Mike also has a track named "Ric Flair ''. Rapper Offset played tribute to Flair in his hit song "Ric Flair Drip ''.
Some have looked unfavorably upon Flair 's career from the 1990s onward. In 1998, wrestler and former WCW colleague Stone Cold Steve Austin said that Flair had reached the "time to hang it up '', having not been great for a "long time ''. John Molinaro of Slam! Sports penned a 1999 article titled, "Ric Flair is tarnishing his legacy ''; Molinaro saw Flair as a wrestler whose prestige was "in jeopardy ''. In 2006, Pro Wrestling Illustrated writer Frank Ingiosi said that Flair had a "personal vendetta against his legend ''. He nevertheless continued to wrestle until retiring in 2008, at age 59. Following an elaborate farewell ceremony staged for Flair by WWE, wrestling personality Paul Heyman lamented his cutting promos at "low rent wrestling shows '', calling it "painful to watch ''.
Flair would ultimately return to the ring in 2009 and signed to wrestle for TNA the following year, breaking a vow to never again lace up his boots. Wrestler Axl Rotten, NFL writer Adam Rank, and many fans felt that he sullied his legend by continuing to wrestle in TNA. Asked in 2011 if Flair was tainting his prestige, former opponent Shane Douglas was harsher, stating that he had "been tarnishing his legacy since 1990 ''. Also that year, Kevin Eck of The Baltimore Sun criticized the aging Flair for being unable to separate himself from his ostentatious gimmick when not wrestling, and said: "I do n't know what 's sadder, Ric Flair tarnishing his legacy in the ring or embarrassing himself away from the ring ''. Asked about Flair in 2015, wrestler The Honky Tonk Man felt that viewers would "remember only the last years of his career '', which consist of "bad memories ''.
Conversely, professional wrestling announcer Jim Ross in 2012 felt that Flair had not tarnished his legacy, observing only "passion and need to earn a living ''. In 2016, Flair said continuing to wrestle in TNA was the "number one '' regret of his career.
Flair has made numerous appearances in television shows. In 1996, Flair, along with other WCW wrestlers, appeared in an episode of Baywatch as themselves. In 2013, Flair made an appearance in, Stuff You Should Know, in the episode, "Bacteriopolis '', as Dr. Roland Grayson. In 2014, Flair voiced himself in the animated series, Uncle Grandpa, in the episode, "History of Wrestling ''.
Flair released his autobiography, To Be the Man, in July 2004. The title is taken from one of his catchphrases, "To be the man, you got ta beat the man! ''.
In 2009, Flair voiced the character, Commander Douglas Hill, in the video game, Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 - Uprising.
It was announced on July 8, 2012 that Flair was to appear at Insane Clown Posse 's 13th Annual Gathering of the Juggalos weekend as a main stage host who was in charge of announcing the performers. However, his appearance at the event was cut short after he was struck with a water bottle thrown from the crowd before announcing Tech N9ne to enter the main stage, at which point he left and did not announce Tech N9ne or go back out on the main stage to announce the remaining performers.
In 2015, Flair made his feature film debut, appearing in Magic Mike XXL. From May 2015 - April 2016, Flair was host of a podcast titled "WOOOOO! Nation ''. The podcast was placed on hiatus after episode 46 which was uploaded on April 1, 2016. Flair returned to podcasting on MLW Radio with a new show called The Ric Flair Show in July 2016. The final episode of The Ric Flair Show was uploaded on December 16, 2016.
ESPN aired Nature Boy, a 30 for 30 documentary directed by Rory Karpf.
On October 31, 2017, hip - hop artist Offset released a single titled Ric Flair Drip, which Flair made an appearance in the music video for.
On December 5, 2017, Bad Bunny released a new music video entitled Chambea, of which Flair made an appearance.
Flair married his first wife, Leslie Goodman, on August 28, 1971. They had two children, daughter Megan and son David, before divorcing in 1983 after twelve years of marriage. On August 27, 1983, he married his second wife, Elizabeth Harrell. Promoter Jim Crockett Jr. served as the best man for the wedding. They had two children, daughter Ashley and son Reid. Beth also made periodic appearances in WCW between 1998 and 2000. Flair and Beth divorced in 2006 after nearly 23 years of marriage. On May 27, 2006, Flair married his third wife Tiffany VanDemark, a fitness competitor. In 2008, Tiffany filed for divorce from Flair, which was finalized in 2009. On November 11, 2009, Flair married his fourth wife, Jacqueline "Jackie '' Beems, in Charlotte, North Carolina. In 2012, Flair filed for divorce from Beems, which was finalized in 2014. Flair is dating Wendy Barlow (the maid "Fifi '' from Flair 's WCW interview segment "A Flair for the Gold '') as documented on ABC TV 's Celebrity Wife Swap where he swapped wife / girlfriend with Roddy Piper and his wife Kitty. Flair and Barlow got engaged in July 2016.
Flair 's son David is a semi-retired professional wrestler. Flair 's younger son Reid, who signed a developmental contract with WWE near the end of 2007, was an accomplished high school wrestler and made several appearances on WCW television along with his sister Ashley and half - sister Megan. In 2004, Flair became a grandfather at the age of 55, when his older daughter, Megan Fliehr Ketzner, gave birth to her first child, a daughter named Morgan Lee Ketzner on May 9. On May 17, 2012, it was reported that Flair 's daughter Ashley had signed with WWE adopting the ring name, Charlotte (which was later changed to include the Flair surname). On March 29, 2013, Reid died from an accidental overdose of heroin, Xanax and a muscle relaxer.
In December 2005, a judge issued arrest warrants for Flair after a road rage incident that took place in Charlotte, North Carolina in which Flair allegedly got out of his car, grabbed a motorist by the neck, and kicked the door off the motorist 's sport utility vehicle. Flair was charged with two misdemeanors, injury to personal property and simple assault and battery. This incident was ridiculed on WWE programming, most notably by the wrestler Edge.
In September 2007, Flair opened a financial business called Ric Flair Finance. In July 2008, Flair Finance filed for bankruptcy. Following Flair 's debut in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling his former employer, Ring of Honor, filed a lawsuit in 2010, alleging that Flair owed them over $40,000 and that he had not appeared at several events that he was contractually obligated to appear at. The lawsuit was never resolved.
Highspots Inc. claimed that Flair had given them the NWA World Heavyweight Championship belt as collateral for the loan. A warrant for Flair 's arrest was issued in May 2011 for being held in contempt of court for violating the terms of his settlement with Highspots. If Flair had failed to comply he could have potentially faced 90 days in jail. On June 25, Highspots released a statement over their official Facebook page stating that someone had paid Flair 's debts.
Flair has long supported Republican political candidates in North Carolina politics. In 2000, Flair explored the possibility of running for governor of North Carolina, but he never filed the papers.
In the 2008 presidential race, Flair declared his support for the Republican presidential candidate Mike Huckabee. He said of Huckabee, "(Huckabee) is a quality person, self - made, a great family man and he has a great vision for our country. And I 'm here to excite the crowd ''.
Flair endorsed Ted Cruz during the 2016 presidential election.
Flair has a heart condition called alcoholic cardiomyopathy.
On August 14, 2017, Flair had surgery in Georgia to remove an obstructive piece of his bowel, which led to various complications, most seriously kidney failure, necessitating dialysis treatment and ongoing hospitalization. He was discharged from rehabilitation and allowed to return home on September 21, 2017.
Flair engaged in an off - screen rivalry with Bret Hart. In October 1993, Hart gave a radio interview in which he said Flair "sucks '' and described his workplace, WCW, as "minor league ''. In Flair 's autobiography, Flair criticizes Hart for over-exploiting the death of his brother Owen and the controversy surrounding the Montreal Screwjob. Flair also claimed in his autobiography that -- despite Hart 's popularity in Canada -- he was not a formidable money - making draw in the United States, a claim which Hart dismissed as "plain ridiculous '' in a column written for the Calgary Sun. Hart claimed that he drew greater revenue than Flair, citing his headlining performances on consistently sold out tours throughout his WWF career, while Flair wrestled to allegedly near - empty arenas. He also criticized Flair on what he perceived as insults to fellow wrestlers Mick Foley and Randy Savage, both personal friends of Hart. Hart acknowledged a decline in the WWF 's popularity during the mid-1990s, but he and others felt that this was largely attributed to the WWF 's well publicized sex and steroid scandals, as well as WCW 's acquisition of former top WWF stars. In contrast to Flair 's claims, prominent industry historian Dave Meltzer said there was "no denying '' Hart 's major drawing power in the United States. WWE owner Vince McMahon asserted that whichever company hired Hart could "have built the entire franchise around Hart '' and described him as an "extraordinary star ''. McMahon added that it was "fortunate for me, in terms of my company '', that his chief competitor, WCW, did not utilize Hart to his full potential. WCW described Hart as "an incredible international draw, attracting standing room only crowds in every corner of the globe ''. Professional wrestling magazine Power Slam has spoken to Hart 's drawing power, placing him number 7 in "The 10 Best U.S. - Style All - Rounders '', a list that considered drawing ability along with workrate and promo skills. Hart also criticized Flair in his own autobiography, mainly his in - ring talent and what Hart perceived as Flair 's unsubtle blading. However, they have reconciled and are now friends.
Flair also had a long running feud with Shane Douglas, who would refer to him as "Dick Flair '' and accuse him of sabotaging his push in the NWA / WCW after getting a solid push and a rub from his tag team partner Ricky Steamboat. In turn, Flair responded that Douglas was always the guy that would blame his shortcomings on others. He called Douglas out as well as accused him of steroid abuse during a broadcast of the Internet radio show WCW Live! in which he said that he would meet him anytime and anywhere if he would "take the needle out of his ass ''.
Flair has also had problems with Mick Foley. In his 1999 autobiography Have a Nice Day!, Foley said that "Flair was every bit as bad on the booking side of things as he was great on the wrestling side of it ''. This was in reference to how poorly Foley thought he was booked during his WCW career when Flair was on the booking committee. Flair responded in his autobiography by writing: "I do not care how many thumbtacks Mick Foley has fallen on, how many ladders he 's fallen off, how many continents he 's supposedly bled on, he will always be known as a glorified stuntman ''. However, they have reconciled and are now friends.
In his book, Flair also touched on some real - life tension between himself and Hulk Hogan which largely stemmed from an incident that followed the conclusion of a tag team match between Flair and his son David and the team of Curt Hennig and Barry Windham at WCW 's Souled Out pay - per - view on January 17, 1999, in Charleston, South Carolina. However, Flair has stated that he and Hogan remained friends despite their differences.
Flair and wrestler Bruno Sammartino had a real - life disagreement over what reports call "the infamous backstage snub '' where Flair claims that Sammartino refused to shake his hand at a live event. While Flair claims Sammartino ignored him due to comments made in his book, stating Sammartino was "a Northeast star who could n't draw fans outside New York '', Sammartino referred to Flair as a "liar '' and stating: "No, I do n't respect Ric Flair. I do n't respect him at all ''. They have since reconciled and are now friends.
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how many seasons of dora the explorer are there | Dora the Explorer - wikipedia
Dora the Explorer is an American educational animated TV series created by Chris Gifford, Valerie Walsh Valdes and Eric Weiner. Dora the Explorer became a regular series in 2000. The show is carried on the Nickelodeon cable television network, including the associated Nick Jr. channel. The show aired in reruns on "Nick on CBS '' for 6 years from September 16, 2000, to September 9, 2006. A Spanish - dubbed version first aired as part of a Nick en español block on NBC Universal - owned Telemundo through September 2006; since April 2008, this version of the program has been carried on Univision as part of the Planeta U block.
The series is co-produced by Nickelodeon Productions and Nickelodeon Animation Studio. Dora the Explorer is one of the longest - running shows of Nick Jr. During the sixth season, the show became the Nick Jr. series with the most episodes, surpassing Blue 's Clues with 143 episodes, having 144 after it had completed broadcasting on television. It ended on June 5, 2014 after 8 seasons and 172 episodes.
A live - action film adaptation is underway at Paramount Pictures and is scheduled for an August 2, 2019 release.
The series centers around Dora, a seven - year - old Latina girl, with a love of embarking on quests related to an activity that she wants to partake of or a place that she wants to go to, accompanied by her talking purple backpack and anthropomorphic monkey companion named Boots (named for his beloved pair of red boots). Each episode is based around a series of cyclical events that occur along the way during Dora 's travels, along with obstacles that she and Boots are forced to overcome or puzzles that they have to solve (with "assistance '' from the viewing audience) relating to riddles, the Spanish language, or counting. Common rituals may involve Dora 's encounters with Swiper, a bipedal, anthropomorphic masked thieving fox whose theft of the possessions of others must be prevented through fourth wall - breaking interaction with the viewer. To stop Swiper, Dora must say "Swiper no swiping '' three times. However, on occasions where Swiper steals the belongings of other people, the viewer is presented with the challenge of helping Boots and Dora locate the stolen items. Another obstacle involves encounters with another one of the program 's antagonists; the "Grumpy Old Troll '' dwelling beneath a bridge that Dora and Boots must cross, who challenges them with a riddle before permitting them the past that needs to be solved with the viewer 's help. Known for the constant breaking of the fourth - wall depicted in every episode, the audience is usually presented to two primary landmarks that must be passed before Dora can reach her destination, normally being challenged with games or puzzles along the way. The episode always ends with Dora successfully reaching the locale, singing the "We Did It! '' song with Boots in triumph.
On numerous occasions, television specials have been aired for the series in which the usual events of regular episodes are altered, threatened, or replaced. Usually said specials will present Dora with a bigger, more whimsical adventure than usual or with a magical task that must be fulfilled, or perhaps even offer a series of different adventures for Boots and Dora to travel through. They might be presented with an unusual, difficult task (such as assisting Swiper in his attempts to be erased from Santa Claus 's Naughty List) that normally is not featured in average episodes, or challenge Dora with a goal that must be achieved (such as the emancipation of a trapped mermaid). Sometimes, the specials have involved the debut of new characters, such as the birth of Dora 's superpowered twin baby siblings and the introduction of the enchanted anthropomorphic stars that accompany Dora on many of her quests.
The show was developed out of Nickelodeon 's desire to "come up with the next big hit '' similar to the network 's other hit preschool shows at the time Little Bear and Blue 's Clues. The creators sought to combine both shows format, with the narrative focus of Little Bear combined with the interactivity of Blue 's Clues. The creators further developed the concept by observing preschoolers with the creators coming to the conclusion that "they are little explorers ''
Dora is a Latina. According to a Nickelodeon spokesman, "she was developed to be pan-Latina to represent the diversity of Latino cultures ''. Initially the character was not planned to be Latina although after an executive at Nickelodeon attended a conference about the lack of Latino representation, the creators were asked if they could include such elements. At first there was hesitancy, but eventually they realized that they had "a great opportunity '' and the character was designed as such. Nickelodeon at first did not like the antagonist Swiper, at first with researchers stating that "he was bad modeling and unsettling to kids ''; however, the creators felt strongly about the inclusion of a villainous character and he remained in the final show.
On March 8, 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon announced that Dora will receive a tweenage makeover, switching from a young age to a teenage attending middle school. Initially, it was announced that the new look would not be revealed until late 2009, but after a short controversy, the tween Dora was unveiled on March 16, 2009. The change was criticized by one writer that did not support the feminization of Dora 's image.
In 2012, a CGI opening was created for new episodes of the series.
In 2009, Mattel and Nickelodeon introduced a preteen version of Dora, with four friends named Naiya, Kate, Emma, and Alana, who call themselves the Explorer Girls. The Explorer Girls were included in the Dora and Friends spin - off in 2014.
Dora the Explorer has been produced in various other languages worldwide. It facilitates the learning of important foreign language words or phrases (mostly English, interspersed with a local language (e.g. Norwegian, Russian, Hindi, or German), with occasional use of Spanish (used in the Irish, Serbian, and Turkish versions)) through its simplicity and use of repetition.
As shown by the list above, the usual second language is English, but Spanish is used in the original American version in English (broadcast also for Malay speakers), in the Irish, Serbian, and the trilingual Turkish versions.
Two stage versions of Dora the Explorer toured North America, the first being "City of Lost Toys '', and the second being "Dora 's Pirate Adventure ''. Produced by Nickelodeon and LiveNation, these productions featured live actors portraying the roles of Dora and her friends, including Boots, Diego, Isa, and the Fiesta Trio. Many of the characters wore elaborate foam costumes designed to resemble the Dora characters. Each production featured a structure similar to an episode of the television series. City of Lost Toys featured Christina Bianco as Dora while Dora 's Pirate Adventure featured Danay Ferrer of the band Innosense in the role of Dora and Frankie Grande as Boots. Both productions featured a version of the popular Gloria Estefan song "Get On Your Feet '' as the final number of the show. Both productions were conceived by Chris Gifford, creator of the television show, and directed by Gip Hoppe.
There have been three Dora touring companies. The "City of Lost Toys '' company and the "Pirate Adventure '' company featured actors and crew that were members of Actor 's Equity and IATSE, respectively, the unions for professional actors and stagehands in the United States. The third company performs a reduced version of "Pirate Adventure '' and does not employ union personnel. This production is currently touring North America, and scheduled to travel to the United Kingdom and France.
There are many action figures and playsets available in many markets, along with DVDs, cosmetics, hygiene products, ride - ons, books, board games, plush dolls, apparel, handbags, play tents, play kitchens, and more. Licensees include Fisher - Price in the United States and Holland Publishing in the United Kingdom.
In 2004 Lego released four sets based on the TV series ' characters. These include 7330 Dora 's Treasure Island, 7331 Diego 's Rescue Truck, 7332 Dora and Boots at Play Park, and 7333 Dora and Diego 's Animal Adventure.
In 2007, lead paint used by a contract toy manufacturer in China prompted Mattel to issue recalls for nearly a million toys, many of which featured Sesame Street and Nickelodeon characters, including Dora the Explorer. Nickelodeon responded that they would introduce "third - party monitoring '' of all manufacturers of products under its brands.
Contains: Dora 's picnic, Follow those feet, Dora in the deep sea, I love my Papi!, Say "Cheese ''
Contains: Dora 's Backpack, Little Star, Happy Birthday, Mami!, Meet Diego!, Dora Saves the Prince, Dora 's Treasure Hunt, Good Night, Dora!
Contains: Dora 's Book of Manners, Dora Goes to School, Dora 's Fairy - Tale Adventure, Dora 's Chilly Day, Show Me Your Smile!, Dora 's Pirate Adventure, Big Sister Dora!
Video games based on the 2000 television show Dora the Explorer were released. In Canada, Cheerios offered a free Dora the Explorer the Game CD - ROMs in specially marked packages. However, packages sold in Quebec would only have the French version. Dora the Explorer: Barnyard Buddies is a video game released for the PlayStation in 2003 in the US, thus making it the first Dora the Explorer video game for the home consoles. It was not released in Europe until 2005 being one of the very last games released on that platform in that territory following the PlayStation 's discontinuation the following year and all production on PS1 games in 2006. Dora the Explorer: Super Star Adventures is an adventure video game for the Game Boy Advance released in 2004. It was developed by Imaginengine and published by Global Star.
Dora the Explorer: Journey to the Purple Planet is an action - adventure video game, developed by Monkey Bar Games, published by Global Star Software and powered by Vicious Engine. The game was released for GameCube in North America on October 13, 2005, and later in PAL regions on December 16, 2005. The PlayStation 2 version was released on PAL regions on December 2, 2005, and later in North America on February 9, 2006. The game is about Dora and Boots who finds some lost aliens from the purple planet. However, to take them home, she and Boots are required to collect keys to open the space gate, leading to the saturn planet. The game is unique in that it uses pictures and symbols to communicate rather than words. The object of the game is to capture one of the six explorer stars. Each explorer star has a special power such as the ability to be noisy or the ability to create music. In order to capture the star, the player must complete a hide - and - seek activity. These activities include maze navigation, matching games, side - scrolling race games, a "Frogger '' - type game, a complete - the - pattern activity and a song playing game.
Dora Puppy is a puppy simulator where players must help Dora take care of her puppy, Perrito, and help train him for doggie competitions. All the actions are performed by either tracing certain shapes with the stylus or calling out commands into the DS 's microphone. It was developed by Take - Two Interactive for the Nintendo DS and published by 2K Play in North America and Australia in 2009, and in Europe in 2010.
Dora the Explorer: Dora 's Cooking Club is a cooking video game for the Nintendo DS. It was published by 2K Play in 2010. In the game, players have to chop veggies, stir soups, top pizzas, and more using math skills. They may be sorting cookies into numbered groups or counting out different amounts of ingredients.
On August 31, 2017, the first five seasons of the show were added to the NOGGIN app.
In 2013, Nickelodeon announced that it will have a sequel to Dora the Explorer titled as Dora and Friends: Into the City!. It will star the Latina heroine Dora as a 10 - year - old who goes on city adventures with the Explorer Girls, accompanied by a male pal named Pablo. The series has been picked up for 20 episodes and aired on Nickelodeon on August 18, 2014.
On October 23, 2017, it was announced that a live - action film adaptation is in the works at Paramount Pictures and is slated for an August 2, 2019 release. It will be filmed on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia at Village Roadshow Studios directed by James Bobin with the screenplay written by Nick Stoller and Andrew Form and Brad Fuller producing. Unlike the TV series, the film is expected to follow the title character as a teenager. Dora 's cousin Diego is also confirmed to be a character in the film. The film will be produced in association with director Michael Bay 's production company Platinum Dunes, though Bay himself will not be involved with the film. On May 2, 2018 Isabela Moner was announced to portray the titular character
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where does the guzman last name come from | Guzmán - wikipedia
Guzmán (also de Guzmán) (IPA: (ɡuzˈman) or (ɡuðˈman)) is a Spanish surname.
The surname is of toponymic origin, de Guzmán ("of Guzmán ''), deriving from the village of Guzmán (es) in the region of Burgos. The earliest individual documented using this surname was Rodrigo Muñoz de Guzmán, who first appears in a document from 1134 and was the founder of the noble family of this name.
In the Philippines, Canada and the United States the name usually becomes Guzman (without acute accent), while the Portuguese form of the name is Gusmão.
People with this surname include:
Guzmán has also rarely been used as a given name. Notable people with the given name Guzmán include:
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what happened at the end of curse of chucky | Curse of Chucky - wikipedia
Curse of Chucky is a 2013 American supernatural slasher film and the sixth installment of the Child 's Play franchise. The film was written and directed by Don Mancini, who created the franchise and wrote all films to date. It stars Brad Dourif as Chucky and Fiona Dourif as Nica Pierce, as well as Danielle Bisutti, A Martinez and Brennan Elliott. The film grossed $3.4 million in DVD sales.
The film sees the return to the franchise 's source material and bringing back the straightforward horror elements found in the first three Child 's Play films. The film, which went into production in September 2012, is the first direct - to - video installment of the series. Curse of Chucky is distributed by Universal Studios Home Entertainment, and debuted via VOD, September 24, 2013. This was followed by a DVD and Blu - ray Disc release, October 8, 2013, in the United States. The film was also turned into a scare zone for 2013 's annual Halloween Horror Nights at Universal Studios Hollywood. Even the film was filmed direct - to - video, it also was released theatrically in some countries as Mexico and Brazil. The film was followed by Cult of Chucky in 2017.
Twenty - five years after the first film, Chucky (voiced by Brad Dourif) mysteriously arrives in the mail to the home of paraplegic Nica Pierce (Fiona Dourif) and her mother Sarah (Chantal Quesnel). Later that night Sarah is found dead from a stab wound, and her death is ruled as a suicide.
A short while later, Nica is visited by her domineering older sister Barb (Danielle Bisutti), accompanied by Barb 's husband Ian (Brennan Elliott), their six - year - old daughter Alice (Summer H. Howell), live - in nanny Jill (Maitland McConnell), and Father Frank (A Martinez). Alice finds Chucky, and, since everyone thinks that he 's just a doll, is allowed to keep him. That evening, while Alice and Nica are making soup, Chucky secretly pours rat poison into one of the dinner bowls. Father Frank eats the poison and, after leaving the house, is decapitated in a car accident.
Later that night, after everyone else has gone to sleep, Nica investigates the Chucky doll on the internet and finds news articles of the unsolved Chucky murders and the doll 's link to serial killer Charles Lee Ray. Elsewhere, Chucky kicks a bucket of rain water onto the floor 's power outlets, killing Jill and causing an electrical blackout. Barb gets up to check on Alice and is attacked by Chucky, who stabs her in the eye with a kitchen knife. Nica hears Barb 's cries but has to crawl up the stairs with her hands due to the blackout making the elevator unusable. By the time Nica gets there, Barb is dead with her eyes gouged out, and Nica sees for herself that the Chucky doll is alive. When Chucky flees, Nica wakes Ian up in a panic. He takes Nica to the garage before going back into the house to look for Alice.
Ian can not find Alice, so he returns to the garage and disarms Nica, believing her to be responsible for the murders. Nica tries to explain that Chucky is alive, but Chucky acts like a lifeless doll when Ian looks at him. Ian decides to review the footage from a hidden camera that he planted on Chucky earlier (to get evidence of Barb 's affair with Jill) and learns that Alice is locked in a closet and that Chucky truly is alive. Exposed, Chucky murders Ian with a hatchet before he can act. Nica manages to break out of her restraints and tries to kill Chucky, but she fails and Chucky pushes her over the balcony onto the ground floor.
When Nica asks why Chucky is doing this, he explains through flashbacks that as Charles Lee Ray, he was a friend of her family and in love with Sarah. Ray killed Nica 's father and kidnapped Sarah while she was pregnant with Nica. When Sarah betrayed him, he stabbed her in the stomach (which resulted in Nica being born paraplegic) and escaped. Ray 's flight from the police ultimately led to his death as a human, which is why he came back to Sarah for revenge. Before Chucky can kill Nica, she fights back, leading to an extended scuffle. A police officer then arrives at the house, but when he enters he only sees Barb 's body upstairs and Nica holding the bloody knife. A motionless Chucky watches from a nearby chair.
Some time later, Nica is sent to a mental asylum for the murders. Chucky has been retained by the police as an exhibit for the trials, and afterward the arresting officer takes Chucky away. The officer gets in his car and sees Chucky breathing in the bag. Before the officer can inspect the bag, he is killed by Tiffany, who had been hiding in the backseat. Tiffany collects Chucky and asks, "Who 's next? ''
Alice, now living with her grandmother, comes home from school to find Chucky waiting for her. Chucky persuades Alice to play "Hide The Soul '', and starts the infamous voodoo chant to transfer his soul to Alice 's body. The grandmother, who had been tied up and strangled with a bag over her head but is not dead, sits up suddenly, shortly after Chucky begins the chant.
In a post-credits scene set six months later, Chucky, still in his doll body, is delivered to the now - adult Andy Barclay (Alex Vincent). When Andy turns his back to answer a phone call from his mother, Chucky cuts his way out of the package with a knife. However, after Chucky looks at a picture of Kyle and Andy with his mother, he turns to face Andy, who had anticipated Chucky coming after him again and is now pointing a shotgun at Chucky 's head. Andy says firmly, "Play with this, '' right before pulling the trigger.
In an August 2008 interview, Don Mancini and David Kirschner spoke of a planned reboot of the Chucky franchise to be written and directed by Mancini. They described their choice of a remake over a sequel as a response to the will of the fans, who "want to see a scary Chucky movie again '', and "want to go back to the straightforward horror rather than the horror comedy. '' They indicated that Brad Dourif would return as the voice of Chucky.
In a subsequent interview, Mancini described the remake as a darker and scarier retelling of the original movie, but one that, while having new twists and turns, will not stray too far from the original concept. At a 2009 horror convention, Brad Dourif confirmed his role in the remake. At a reunion panel at the Mad Monster Party horror and sci - fi convention, the cast and crew from the original film confirmed both a remake and a spin - off are in development. Writer Don Mancini and producer David Kirschner were working on a sequel titled Revenge of Chucky.
In June 2012, it was confirmed that a sequel would enter production, entitled Curse of Chucky and be released direct - to - video.
The film began production in early September 2012 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada and ended in mid-October. In November 2012, Don Mancini announced that filming for Curse of Chucky had been completed and he planned to release it Halloween 2013.
In May 2013, Fiona Dourif released the first image of Chucky through her Instagram. The image is from the film 's soundtrack cover and shows Chucky looking more like the doll from the first three films rather than the previous last two films. The official trailer was released on July 8, 2013. The film 's official Red band trailer was released August 1, 2013. The film received its world premiere on August 2, 2013, at the Fantasia Festival in Montreal. The film also received its European premiere at the London FrightFest Film Festival on August 22, 2013, accompanied with a screening of the original trilogy of Child 's Play films. The DVD was released on October 8, 2013, and grossed $3.4 million in the US.
The film holds an 81 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 16 reviews, making it the best - reviewed film in the Child 's Play franchise. An early review posted on Bloody Disgusting on August 2, 2013, was very favorable of the film. Brad Miska stated, "Curse of Chucky may just be the best home video sequel since Wrong Turn 2. It 's alarmingly good, which puts pressure on Universal to answer as to why they did n't let Mancini shoot this for theaters ''. He continued to say, "Chucky fans should rejoice, though, as Curse of Chucky is clearly going to re-ignite the franchise for years to come. '' Ryan Larson of Shock Till You Drop also had mostly positive things to say about it, stating that "the movie does so much right that it 's easy to overlook the very few flaws it has. The pacing and writing coincide to create a fun blood - soaked jaunt that never gets boring or dull. '' He goes on to praise the director, pointing out that "Mancini (pulling double duty as writer as well as director) does a great job at introducing and ushering off characters in a fashion that does n't bog the film down with a bunch of characters who get three minutes of film time before getting the axe, or butcher knife in this case. The kills are kitschy, but in the best way possible, waxing nostalgic of the slasher films of the late eighties and early nineties. ''
At the film 's world premiere at the Montreal Fantasia Festival, it received a Gold Award for Best International Feature.
Curse of Chucky received its own scarezone in the 2013 lineup at Universal Studios Hollywood 's Halloween Horror Nights.
This is not the first time Chucky has been featured at Halloween Horror Nights. In 2009, the franchise received its own maze, entitled Chucky 's Fun House in Hollywood, a seasonal re-themeing of Universal Studios Hollywood 's year - round attraction Universal 's House of Horrors and Chucky: Friends Till the End at Universal Studios Florida, themed around the Good Guys factory and scenes featuring Chucky and other childhood toys gone bad. Since 1992, Chucky has starred in his own shows Hollywood, Chucky 's In - Your - Face Insults and Chucky 's Insult Emporium. In 2010, Chucky was featured in the "20 Years of Fear '' scarezone in Florida.
On December 2, 2013, it was confirmed that there would be a sequel to Curse of Chucky. Mainstream news and quotes from cast and crew via Twitter say that filming will take place in South Africa. In February 2015, Mancini confirmed that the script was being written. A year later, Mancini, Jennifer Tilly and Fiona Dourif confirmed that shooting would begin soon for the film. On January 5th 2017 it was confirmed the film will be titled Cult of Chucky and would begin filming soon. The film was released on October 3, 2017, to mostly positive reviews.
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who was the first published american woman writer | List of American Women 's firsts - wikipedia
This is a list of American women 's firsts, noting the first time that an American woman or women achieved a given historical feat. Inclusion on the list is reserved for achievements by American women that have significant historical impact.
17th century 18th century 19th century: 1820s 1830s 1840s 1850s 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 20th century: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 21st century: 2000s 2010s See also References
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the meaning of the song auld lang syne | Auld lang Syne - wikipedia
"Auld Lang Syne '' (Scots pronunciation: (ˈɔːl (d) lɑŋˈsəin): note "s '' rather than "z '') is a Scots poem written by Robert Burns in 1788 and set to the tune of a traditional folk song (Roud # 6294). It is well known in many countries, especially in the English - speaking world, its traditional use being to bid farewell to the old year at the stroke of midnight on New Year 's Eve. By extension, it is also sung at funerals, graduations, and as a farewell or ending to other occasions. The international Scouting movement, in many countries, uses it to close jamborees and other functions.
The song 's Scots title may be translated into standard English as "old long since '', or more idiomatically, "long long ago '', "days gone by '' or "old times ''. Consequently, "For auld lang syne '', as it appears in the first line of the chorus, might be loosely translated as "for (the sake of) old times ''.
The phrase "Auld Lang Syne '' is also used in similar poems by Robert Ayton (1570 -- 1638), Allan Ramsay (1686 -- 1757), and James Watson (1711) as well as older folk songs predating Burns. Matthew Fitt uses the phrase "In the days of auld lang syne '' as the equivalent of "Once upon a time... '' in his retelling of fairy tales in the Scots language.
Robert Burns sent a copy of the original song to the Scots Musical Museum with the remark, "The following song, an old song, of the olden times, and which has never been in print, nor even in manuscript until I took it down from an old man. '' Some of the lyrics were indeed "collected '' rather than composed by the poet; the ballad "Old Long Syne '' printed in 1711 by James Watson shows considerable similarity in the first verse and the chorus to Burns ' later poem, and is almost certainly derived from the same "old song ''.
Should Old Acquaintance be forgot, and never thought upon; The flames of Love extinguished, and fully past and gone: Is thy sweet Heart now grown so cold, that loving Breast of thine; That thou canst never once reflect On old long syne.
It is a fair supposition to attribute the rest of the poem to Burns himself.
There is some doubt as to whether the melody used today is the same one Burns originally intended, but it is widely used in Scotland and in the rest of the world.
Singing the song on Hogmanay or New Year 's Eve very quickly became a Scots custom that soon spread to other parts of the British Isles. As Scots (not to mention English, Welsh and Irish people) emigrated around the world, they took the song with them.
The song begins by posing a rhetorical question: Is it right that old times be forgotten? The answer is generally interpreted as a call to remember long - standing friendships. Thomson 's Select Songs of Scotland was published in 1799 in which the second verse about greeting and toasting was moved to its present position at the end.
Most common use of the song involves only the first verse and the chorus. The last lines of both of these are often sung with the extra words "For the sake of '' or "And days of '', rather than Burns ' simpler lines. This allows one note for each word, rather than the slight melisma required to fit Burns ' original words to the melody.
Should auld acquaintance be forgot, and never brought to mind? Should auld acquaintance be forgot, and auld lang syne *?
And surely ye 'll be your pint - stoup! and surely I 'll be mine! And we 'll tak ' a cup o ' kindness yet, for auld lang syne.
We twa hae run about the braes, and pou 'd the gowans fine; But we 've wander 'd mony a weary fit, sin ' auld lang syne.
We twa hae paidl 'd in the burn, frae morning sun till dine; But seas between us braid hae roar 'd sin ' auld lang syne.
And there 's a hand, my trusty fiere! and gie 's a hand o ' thine! And we 'll tak ' a right gude - willie waught, for auld lang syne.
Should old acquaintance be forgot, and never brought to mind? Should old acquaintance be forgot, and old lang syne?
And surely you 'll buy your pint cup! and surely I 'll buy mine! And we 'll take a cup o ' kindness yet, for auld lang syne.
We two have run about the slopes, and picked the daisies fine; But we 've wandered many a weary foot, since auld lang syne.
We two have paddled in the stream, from morning sun till dine; But seas between us broad have roared since auld lang syne.
And there 's a hand my trusty friend! And give me a hand o ' thine! And we 'll take a right good - will draught, for auld lang syne.
Shid ald akwentans bee firgot, an nivir brocht ti mynd? Shid ald akwentans bee firgot, an ald lang syn *?
An sheerly yil bee yur pynt - staup! an sheerly al bee myn! An will tak a cup o kyndnes yet, fir ald lang syn.
We twa hay rin aboot the braes, an pood the gowans fyn; Bit weev wandert monae a weery fet, sin ald lang syn.
We twa hay pedilt in the burn, fray mornin sun til dyn; But seas between us bred hay roard sin ald lang syn.
An thers a han, my trustee feer! an gees a han o thyn! And we 'll tak a richt gude - willie - waucht, fir ald lang syn.
ʃɪd o̜ːld ə. kwɛn. təns bi fəɾ. ɡot, ən nɪ. vəɾ brɔxt tɪ məin? ʃɪd o̜ːld ə. kwɛn. təns bi fəɾ. ɡot, ən o̜ːl lɑŋ səin?
ən ʃeːr. li jiːl bi juːɾ pəin. stʌup! ən ʃeːr. li ɑːl bi məin! ən wiːl tɑk ə kʌp ə kəin. nəs jɛt, fəɾ o̜ːl lɑŋ səin.
wi two̜̜ː heː rɪn ə. but ðə breːz, ən puːd ðə ɡʌu. ənz fəin; bʌt wiːv wɑn. əɾt mʌ.ne ə wiːɾɪ fɪt, sɪn o̜ːl lɑŋ səin.
wi two̜̜ː heː pe. dlt ɪn ðə bʌɾn, freː moːɾ. nɪn sɪn tɪl dəin; bʌt siːz ə. twin ʌs bred heː roːrd sɪn o̜lː lɑŋ səin.
ən ðeːrz ə ho̜ːn, mɑ trʌs. tɪ fiːɾ! əŋ ɡiːz ə ho̜ːn ə ðəin! ən wiːl tɑk ə rɪxt ɡɪd wʌ. lɪ wo̜ːxt, fəɾ o̜lː lɑŋ səin.
dine = "dinner time '' ch = voiceless velar fricative, / x /, at the back of the mouth like / k / but with the mouth partly open like / f /. Similar to "Bach '' in German syne = "since '' or "then '' -- pronounced like "sign '' rather than "zine ''.
The tune to which "Auld Lang Syne '' is commonly sung is a pentatonic Scots folk melody, probably originally a sprightly dance in a much quicker tempo.
English composer William Shield seems to quote the "Auld Lang Syne '' melody briefly at the end of the overture to his opera Rosina, which may be its first recorded use. The contention that Burns borrowed the melody from Shield is for various reasons highly unlikely, although they may very well both have taken it from a common source, possibly a strathspey called The Miller 's Wedding or The Miller 's Daughter. The problem is that tunes based on the same set of dance steps necessarily have a similar rhythm, and even a superficial resemblance in melodic shape may cause a very strong apparent similarity in the tune as a whole. For instance, Burns ' poem Coming Through the Rye is sung to a tune that might also be based on the Miller 's Wedding. The origin of the tune of God Save the Queen presents a very similar problem and for just the same reason, as it is also based on a dance measure. (See the note in the William Shield article on this subject.)
In 1855, different words were written for the Auld Lang Syne tune by Albert Laighton and titled, "Song of the Old Folks. '' This song was included in the tunebook, Father Kemp 's Old Folks Concert Tunes published in Boston, Massachusetts in 1860. For many years it was the tradition of the Stoughton Musical Society to sing this version in memory of those who had died that year.
Songwriter George M. Cohan quotes the first line of the "Auld Lang Syne '' melody in the second to last line of the chorus of You 're a Grand Old Flag. It is plain from the lyrics that this is deliberate.
John Philip Sousa quotes the melody in the Trio section of his 1924 march "Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company ''
In the Sacred Harp choral tradition, an arrangement of it exists under the name "Plenary ''. The lyrics are a memento mori and begin with the words "Hark! from the tomb a doleful sound ''. Another Christian setting, using the name "Fair Haven '' for the same tune, uses the text "Hail! Sweetest, Dearest Tie That Binds '' by Amos Sutton.
The University of Virginia 's alma mater ("The Good Old Song '') is also sung to the tune of "Auld Lang Syne ''.
"Auld Lang Syne '' is traditionally sung at the conclusion of New Year gatherings in Scotland and around the world, especially in English - speaking countries.
At Hogmanay in Scotland, it is common practice that everyone joins hands with the person next to them to form a great circle around the dance floor. At the beginning of the last verse, everyone crosses their arms across their breast, so that the right hand reaches out to the neighbour on the left and vice versa. When the tune ends, everyone rushes to the middle, while still holding hands. When the circle is re-established, everyone turns under the arms to end up facing outwards with hands still joined.
In countries other than Scotland the hands are often crossed from the beginning of the song at variance with Scottish custom. The Scottish practice was demonstrated by the Queen at the Millennium Dome celebrations for the year 2000. The English press berated her for not "properly '' crossing her arms, unaware that she was correctly following the Scottish tradition.
As well as celebrating the New Year, "Auld Lang Syne '' is very widely used to symbolise other "endings / new beginnings '' -- including farewells, funerals (and other memorials of the dead), graduations, the end of a (non-New Year) party or a Scout gathering, the election of a new government, the last lowering of the Union Jack as a British colony achieves independence and even as a signal that a retail store is about to close for the day. The melody is also widely used for other words, especially hymns, the songs of sporting and other clubs, and even national anthems. In Scotland and other parts of Britain, in particular, it is associated with celebrations and memorials of Robert Burns. The following list of specific uses is far from comprehensive.
"Auld Lang Syne '' has been translated into many languages, and the song is widely sung all over the world. The song 's pentatonic scale matches scales used in Korea, Japan, India, China and other East Asian countries, which has facilitated its "nationalisation '' in the East. The following particular examples mostly detail things that are special or unusual about the use of the song in a particular country.
The strong and obvious associations of the song and its melody have made it a common staple for film soundtracks from the very early days of "talking '' pictures to the present -- a large number of films and television series ' episodes having used it for background, generally but by no means exclusively to evoke the New Year.
As a standard in music, Auld Lang Syne has been recorded many times, in every conceivable style, by many artists, both well - known and obscure.
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kal bhi meri na thi tu full song download | List of songs recorded by Mohammed Rafi (t) - wikipedia
This is an alphabetical list of lists of known Hindi songs performed, sung and / or recorded by Mohammed Rafi between 1942 and 1980. Over 5,000 of his songs are listed here. Mohammed Rafi also sang in several other different languages, which might not be included here. The genre of song is first, followed by any other singers and the music director or lyricist, then Album name and Year released. "No Fankar Tujhsa Tere Baad Aaya, Mohammed Rafi Bahut Tu Bahut Yaad Aaya '' - this song written by Anand Bakshi and sung by Mohammed Aziz with Music by Laxmikant Pyarelal from 1990 Movie Kroadh says it all about this singer.
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what would 450 volts do to a person | Electrical injury - wikipedia
Electrical injury is a physiological reaction caused by electric current passing through the (human) body. Electric shock occurs upon contact of a (human) body part with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient magnitude of current to pass through the victim 's flesh, viscera or hair. Physical contact with energized wiring or devices is the most common cause of an electric shock. In cases of exposure to high voltages, such as on a power transmission tower, physical contact with energized wiring or objects may not be necessary to cause electric shock, as the voltage may be sufficient to "jump '' the air gap between the electrical device and the victim.
The injury related to electric shock depends on the magnitude of the current. Very small currents may be imperceptible or produce a light tingling sensation. A shock caused by low current that would normally be harmless could startle an individual and cause injury due to suddenly jerking away from the source of electricity, resulting in one striking a stationary object, dropping an object being held or falling. Stronger currents may cause some degree of discomfort or pain, while more intense currents may induce involuntary muscle contractions, preventing the victim from breaking free of the source of electricity. Still larger currents usually result in tissue damage and may trigger fibrillation of the heart or cardiac arrest, any of which may ultimately be fatal. If death results from an electric shock the cause of death is generally referred to as electrocution.
Heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. Voltage levels of 500 to 1000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the voltage divided by resistance) available from the source. Damage due to current is through tissue heating. For most cases of high - energy electrical trauma, the Joule heating in the deeper tissues along the extremity will reach damaging temperatures in a few seconds.
A domestic power supply voltage (110 or 230 V), 50 or 60 Hz alternating current (AC) through the chest for a fraction of a second may induce ventricular fibrillation at currents as low as 30 mA. With direct current (DC), 300 to 500 mA is required. If the current has a direct pathway to the heart (e.g., via a cardiac catheter or other kind of electrode), a much lower current of less than 1 mA (AC or DC) can cause fibrillation. If not immediately treated by defibrillation, fibrillation is usually lethal because all of the heart muscle fibres move independently instead of in the coordinated pulses needed to pump blood and maintain circulation. Above 200 mA, muscle contractions are so strong that the heart muscles can not move at all, but these conditions prevent fibrillation.
Current can cause interference with nervous control, especially over the heart and lungs. Repeated or severe electric shock which does not lead to death has been shown to cause neuropathy. Recent research has found that functional differences in neural activation during spatial working memory and implicit learning oculomotor tasks have been identified in electrical shock victims.
When the current path is through the head, it appears that, with sufficient current applied, loss of consciousness almost always occurs swiftly. (This is borne out by some limited self - experimentation by early designers of the electric chair and by research from the field of animal husbandry, where electric stunning has been extensively studied).
OSHA found that up to 80 percent of its electrical injuries involve thermal burns due to arcing faults. The arc flash in an electrical fault produces the same type of light radiation from which electric welders protect themselves using face shields with dark glass, heavy leather gloves, and full - coverage clothing. The heat produced may cause severe burns, especially on unprotected flesh. The arc blast produced by vaporizing metallic components can break bones and damage internal organs. The degree of hazard present at a particular location can be determined by a detailed analysis of the electrical system, and appropriate protection worn if the electrical work must be performed with the electricity on.
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type (AC or DC) as well as frequency for AC. A person can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at 60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10 milliamperes, AC current passing through the arm of a 68 - kilogram (150 lb) human can cause powerful muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and can not release an electrified object. This is known as the "let go threshold '' and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.
The current may, if it is high enough and is delivered at sufficient voltage, cause tissue damage or fibrillation which can cause cardiac arrest; more than 30 mA of AC (rms, 60 Hz) or 300 -- 500 mA of DC at high voltage can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let - go threshold, while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths through the body that the currents take. If the voltage is less than 200 V, then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macroshock -- the passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above 450 -- 600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if electricity causes muscles to contract above the let - go threshold for a sustained period of time.
If an electrical circuit is established by electrodes introduced in the body, bypassing the skin, then the potential for lethality is much higher if a circuit through the heart is established. This is known as a microshock. Currents of only 10 μ A can be sufficient to cause fibrillation in this case with a probability of 0.2 %.
The voltage necessary for electrocution depends on the current through the body and the duration of the current. Ohm 's law states that the current drawn depends on the resistance of the body. The resistance of human skin varies from person to person and fluctuates between different times of day. The NIOSH states "Under dry conditions, the resistance offered by the human body may be as high as 100,000 ohms. Wet or broken skin may drop the body 's resistance to 1,000 ohms, '' adding that "high - voltage electrical energy quickly breaks down human skin, reducing the human body 's resistance to 500 ohms ''.
The International Electrotechnical Commission gives the following values for the total body impedance of a hand to hand circuit for dry skin, large contact areas, 50 Hz AC currents (the columns contain the distribution of the impedance in the population percentile; for example at 100 V 50 % of the population had an impedance of 1875Ω or less):
The voltage - current characteristic of human skin is non-linear and depends on many factors such as intensity, duration, history, and frequency of the electrical stimulus. Sweat gland activity, temperature, and individual variation also influence the voltage - current characteristic of skin. In addition to non-linearity, skin impedance exhibits asymmetric and time varying properties. These properties can be modeled with reasonable accuracy. Resistance measurements made at low voltage using a standard ohmmeter do not accurately represent the impedance of human skin over a significant range of conditions.
For sinusoidal electrical stimulation less than 10 volts, the skin voltage - current characteristic is quasilinear. Over time, electrical characteristics can become non-linear. The time required varies from seconds to minutes, depending on stimulus, electrode placement, and individual characteristics.
Between 10 volts and about 30 volts, skin exhibits non-linear but symmetric electrical characteristics. Above 20 volts, electrical characteristics are both non-linear and symmetric. Skin conductance can increase by several orders of magnitude in milliseconds. This should not be confused with dielectric breakdown, which occurs at hundreds of volts. For these reasons, current flow can not be accurately calculated by simply applying Ohm 's law using a fixed resistance model.
The term "electrocution, '' coined about the time of the first use of the electric chair in 1890, originally referred only to electrical execution and not to accidental or suicidal electrical deaths. However, since no English word was available for non-judicial deaths due to electric shock, the word "electrocution '' eventually took over as a description of all circumstances of electrical death judicial punishment or not.
The lethality of an electric shock is dependent on several variables:
Other issues affecting lethality are frequency, which is an issue in causing cardiac arrest or muscular spasms. Very high frequency electric current causes tissue burning, but does not penetrate the body far enough to cause cardiac arrest (see electrosurgery). Also important is the pathway: if the current passes through the chest or head, there is an increased chance of death. From a main circuit or power distribution panel the damage is more likely to be internal, leading to cardiac arrest. Another factor is that cardiac tissue has a chronaxie (response time) of about 3 milliseconds, so electricity at frequencies of higher than about 333 Hz requires more current to cause fibrillation than is required at lower frequencies.
The comparison between the dangers of alternating current at typical power transmission frequences (i.e., 50 or 60 Hz), and direct current has been a subject of debate ever since the War of Currents in the 1880s. Animal experiments conducted during this time suggested that alternating current was about twice as dangerous as direct current per unit of current flow (or per unit of applied voltage).
It is sometimes suggested that human lethality is most common with alternating current at 100 -- 250 volts; however, death has occurred below this range, with supplies as low as 42 volts. Assuming a steady current flow (as opposed to a shock from a capacitor or from static electricity), shocks above 2,700 volts are often fatal, with those above 11,000 volts being usually fatal, though exceptional cases have been noted. According to a Guinness Book of World Records comic, seventeen - year - old Brian Latasa survived a 230,000 volt shock on the tower of an ultra-high voltage line in Griffith Park, Los Angeles on November 9, 1967. A news report of the event stated that he was "jolted through the air, and landed across the line '', and though rescued by firemen, he suffered burns over 40 % of his body and was completely paralyzed except for his eyelids.
There were 550 reported electrocutions in the US in 1993, 2.1 deaths per million inhabitants. At that time, the incidence of electrocutions was decreasing. Electrocutions in the workplace make up the majority of these fatalities. From 1980 -- 1992, an average of 411 workers were killed each year by electrocution. A recent study conducted by the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) in Australia has revealed three - hundred and twenty - one (321) closed case fatalities (and at least 39 case fatalities still under coronial investigation) that had been reported to Australian coroners where a person died from electrocution between July 2000 and October 2011.
In Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway the number of electric deaths per million inhabitants was 0.6, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.2, respectively, in years 2007 - 2011.
People who survive electrical trauma may suffer a host of injuries including loss of consciousness, seizures, aphasia, visual disturbances, headaches, tinnitus, paresis, and memory disturbances. Even without visible burns, electric shock survivors may be faced with long - term muscular pain and discomfort, fatigue, headache, problems with peripheral nerve conduction and sensation, inadequate balance and coordination, among other symptoms. Electrical injury can lead to problems with neurocognitive function, affecting speed of mental processing, attention, concentration, and memory. The high frequency of psychological problems is well established and may be multifactorial. As with any traumatic and life - threatening experience, electrical injury may result in post traumatic psychiatric disorders. There exist several non-profit research institutes that coordinate rehabilitation strategies for electrical injury survivors by connecting them with clinicians that specialize in diagnosis and treatment of various traumas that arise as a result of electrical injury.
Electric shock is also used as a medical therapy, under carefully controlled conditions:
Mild electric shocks are also used for entertainment, especially as a practical joke for example in such devices as a shocking pen or a shocking gum. However devices such as a joy buzzer and most other machines in amusement parks today only use vibration that feels somewhat like an electric shock to someone not expecting it.
Electroshock weapons are incapacitant weapons used for subduing a person by administering electric shock to disrupt superficial muscle functions. One type is a conductive energy device (CED), an electroshock gun popularly known by the brand name "Taser '', which fires projectiles that administer the shock through a thin, flexible wire. Although they are illegal for personal use in many jurisdictions, Tasers have been marketed to the general public. Other electroshock weapons such as stun guns, stun batons ("cattle prods ''), and electroshock belts administer an electric shock by direct contact.
Electric fences are barriers that uses electric shocks to deter animals or people from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from uncomfortable, to painful or even lethal. Most electric fencing is used today for agricultural fencing and other forms of animal control purposes, though it is frequently used to enhance security of restricted areas, and there exist places where lethal voltages are used.
Electric shocks are used as a method of torture, since the received voltage and current can be controlled with precision and used to cause pain and fear without always visibly harming the victim 's body.
Such torture uses electrodes attached to parts of the victim 's body: most typically, while wires are wound around the fingers, toes, or tongue; attached to the genitals; or inserted in the vagina to provide a return circuit; the voltage source (typically some sort of prod) of precisely controllable pressure is applied to other sensitive parts of the body, such as the genitals, breasts, or head. The parrilla is an example of this technique. Other methods of electrical torture (such as the picana) do not use a fixed wire but the prod has two electrodes of different polarity a short distance apart so as to make a circuit through the flesh between them when it is placed on the body, thus making it easy for the operator to target the shocks accurately in the places that cause the victim most pain and distress. When the voltage and current is controlled (most typically, high voltage and low current) the victim feels the pain of electric shock but is not physically harmed. Repeated shocks to the genitals will result in the victim losing control of his or her bladder and unintentionally urinating, while extensive passage of the current through the buttocks will cause the victim to unintentionally defecate.
Electrical torture has been used in war and by repressive regimes since the 1930s: The U.S. Army is known to have used electrical torture during World War II and during the Algerian War electrical torture was a favorite method of French military forces; Amnesty International published an official statement that Russian military forces in Chechnya tortured local women with electric shocks by attaching wires onto their breasts; Japanese serial killer Futoshi Matsunaga used electric shocks to control his victims.
Advocates for the mentally ill and some psychiatrists such as Thomas Szasz have asserted that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is torture when used without a bona fide medical benefit against recalcitrant or non-responsive patients. A similar argument and opposition apply to the use of painful shocks as punishment for behavior modification, a practice that is openly used only at the Judge Rotenberg Institute.
Electric shock delivered by an electric chair is sometimes used as an official means of capital punishment in the United States, although its use has become rare in recent times. Although some original proponents of the electric chair considered it to be a more humane execution method than hanging, shooting, poison gassing, etc., it has now generally been replaced by lethal injections in states that practice capital punishment. Modern reporting has claimed that it sometimes takes several shocks to be lethal, and that the condemned person may actually catch fire before the process is complete.
Other than in parts of the United States, only the Philippines reportedly has used this method, from 1926 to 1976. It was intermittently replaced by the firing squad, until the death penalty was abolished in that country. Electrocution remains legal in at least 5 states (Virginia, Florida, Alabama, North Carolina and Kentucky) of the United States.
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where does the river nidd start and end | River Nidd - wikipedia
The River Nidd is a tributary of the River Ouse in the English county of North Yorkshire. In its first few miles it is dammed three times to create Angram Reservoir, Scar House Reservoir and Gouthwaite Reservoir which attract around 150,000 visitors a year. The Nidd can overflow the reservoirs, flooding the caves in the valley, in which case the river then flows along the normally dry river bed past Lofthouse through to Gouthwaite Reservoir. The Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust YDRT has a remit to conserve the ecological condition of the River Nidd from its headwaters to the Humber estuary. The river gets its name for the Celtic word for brilliant.
The upper river valley, Nidderdale, was designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in 1994.
The Nidd rises in Nidderdale at Nidd Head Spring on the slopes of Great Whernside in the Yorkshire Dales. It flows east into Angram and Scar House Reservoirs before turning south just downstream of Newhouses. In dry conditions the river disappears underground into the sink hole known as Manchester Hole. If Scar House reservoir overflows, water flows past Manchester Hole to Goyden Pot, another sinkhole. In severe floods the river flows past Goyden Pot down the valley. The water sinking into the Nidderdale caves reappears at the rising Nidd Head to the south of the village of Lofthouse.
Below Lofthouse the river is joined by How Stean Beck, and turns south south - east towards Ramsgill before flowing into Gouthwaite Reservoir. Continuing on the same heading, the first major settlement is reached at Pateley Bridge. Turning more south - easterly it flows past Glasshouses and Summerbridge, where it turns south again past Dacre Banks. Passing by Darley, the river turns east before reaching Birstwith where it flow south - east to Hampsthwaite. A series of large bends in the river take the flow north, east and then south and then east again, to enter Nidd Gorge.
Below the gorge the river meanders south - east through the town of Knaresborough heading north and looping south again to enter flatter terrain. Near Little Ribston it meanders south - easterly and easterly crossing underneath the A1 and the A1 (M) near the small village of Cowthorpe. The river continues meandering past Cattal north - easterly towards Moor Monkton towards its junction with the River Ouse at Nun Monkton.
The two most northerly reservoirs on the course of the river were built to provide water to the Bradford area in the early 1900s by way of the Nidd Aqueduct. As of 2017, they are maintained by Yorkshire Water.
The reservoir takes its name from Angram, a settlement in the township of Stonebeck Up, submerged when the reservoir was built. Completed in 1919 with a dam height of 61 metres (200 ft) covering 34 hectares with a volume of 1,041 million gallons and a depth of 33.4 metres (110 ft).
A temporary village was built at Scar House to house the workers building the reservoirs and some remains can still be seen. The old Village Hall, was moved to Darley, where it now serves as the local Village Hall. The dam at Scar House was completed in 1936. The dam height is 71 m (233 ft) with the reservoir covering area 70 hectares and a depth of36. 3 metres (119 ft) giving a volume of 2,200 million gallons. The reservoir is fed almost exclusively from the Angram dam.
Gouthwaite reservoir is designated a Site for Special Scientific Interest. It provides a compensation release for the river. It covers an area of 126.2 metres (414 ft).
The head of the river is located on moorland and the river character is affected by the run - off levels from the three reservoirs. The upper valley is primarily millstone grit with fluvio - glacial deposits. The overlaying soil is prone to water - logging due to its slow permeability, being composed of loamy soils on top of clay with peat on the top layer. Around Lofthouse there are outcrops of Upper Yoredale limestone, which is more permeable than millstone grit and has created the Nidderdale Caves, where the river flows underground.
Lower down on the flood plain, the nature of the underlying ground is Magnesian limestone over alluvium and terrace drift deposits. On top of this is a combination of slowly permeable and well drained fine loam over clay.
Where the river passes through the Nidd Gorge, Carboniferous (Namurian) and Upper Permian rock is exposed.
Along the river valley can be found the Nidderdale Museum, which is located in Pateley Bridge, and features sections about the traditional agriculture, industries, religion, transport and costume of Nidderdale.
Lower down the river is the town of Knaresborough, which is home to Knaresborough Castle and Knaresborough Museum.
There are many way - marked walking routes throughout the river valley, including the Nidderdale Way, a 53 - mile circular walk whose usual starting point is Ripley.
River Nidd less than 1 km from source
River Nidd at Lofthouse
River Nidd near West House Farm
River Nidd near Pateley Bridge
River Nidd at Glasshouses
River Nidd below Dacre
River Nidd between Birstwith and Hampsthwaite
River Nidd from Killinghall Bridge
The River Nidd at Knaresborough
River Nidd near Tockwith Road
Ordnance Survey Maps
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which of the following countries celebrate christmas in their summer | New Year 's Eve - wikipedia
In the Gregorian calendar, New Year 's Eve (also known as Old Year 's Day or Saint Sylvester 's Day in many countries), the last day of the year, is on 31 December which is the seventh day of Christmastide. In many countries, New Year 's Eve is celebrated at evening social gatherings, where many people dance, eat, drink alcoholic beverages, and watch or light fireworks to mark the new year. Some Christians attend a watchnight service. The celebrations generally go on past midnight into New Year 's Day, 1 January.
Samoa, Tonga and Kiritimati (Christmas Island), part of Kiribati, are the first places to welcome the New Year while American Samoa and Baker Island in the United States of America are among the last.
In Algeria, New Year 's Eve (French: Réveillon; Arabic: Ra 's al - ' Ām ) is usually celebrated with family and friends. In the largest cities, such as Algiers, Constantine, Annaba, Oran, Sétif and Béjaïa, there are large celebrations which may feature concerts, late - night partiying, firecrackers, fireworks at midnight and sparklers and shouts of "Bonne année! ''.
The Martyrs ' Memorial and the Grand - Post Place in Algiers are the main attraction for the majority of Algerians during the celebration; while some others prefer spending this special night outside the country, generally in Tunis or Paris.
At 8pm (AST), the President 's message of greetings to Algerians is read on TV. EPTV network airs a yearly New Year 's Eve entertainment show, variying its name, hosts and guests, which features sketches and musical performances. Popular films are also broadcast.
At home or at restaurants, a special type of pastry cake, called "la bûche '' is eaten, and black coffee or soda is drunk with it, few minutes before the New Year 's countdown.
On New Year 's Day (le jour de l'an), people, especially children, write their "New Year 's letter '' on decorated paper, called "Carte de bonne année '', to their parents and relatives, featuring their resolutions and wishes.
In Egypt the new year is celebrated with fireworks, fire crackers, smashing glass bottles or breaking things on the street also.
In Ghana, many people celebrate New Year 's Eve by going to Church; others go to nightclubs, pubs, or take to the street to celebrate. At midnight, fireworks are displayed across various cities of Ghana, especially in Accra and Tema.
In Morocco, New Year 's Eve (Arabic: رأس العام -- Rass l'aam -- "head of the year '' ) is celebrated in the company of family and friends. People get together to eat cake, dance, and laugh. Traditionally, people celebrate it at home, but some prefer to go to nightclubs. At midnight, fireworks are displayed across Ain Diab, in the corniche of Casablanca.
In Nigeria, the New Year 's Eve is often celebrated by going to Church; others go to nightclubs, and parties organised by individuals, communities or State government like the Lagos Countdown. The Lagos Countdown is an event in Nigeria, created to increase tourism and making Lagos a premium destination for business and leisure. The event kicks off in December and lasts till 1 January. It is attended by an average of 100,000 people. The event takes place at the Eko Atlantic city, beside the Barbeach attracting thousands of domestic and foreign tourists who are entertained every evening by different artists...
In South Sudan, people attend church services at many churches in Juba. The service begins at 9PM. At the stroke of midnight, people sing the famous carol, Hark! The Herald Angels Sing to mark the end and beginning of the year with a blessing. The service ends at 12: 30AM.
Traditional celebrations in Argentina include a family dinner of traditional dishes, including vitel tonné, asado, sandwiches de miga, piononos. Like dessert: turrón, mantecol and pan dulce.
Just before midnight, people flock to the streets to enjoy fireworks and light firecrackers. The fireworks can be seen in any terrace. The first day of the New Year is celebrated at midnight with cider or champagne. People wish each other a happy New Year, and sometimes share a toast with neighbours. Parties often continue until dawn.
The celebration is during the summer, like in many South American countries, so it 's normal to see many families in the New Year at tourist centers of the Argentine Atlantic coast (Mar del Plata, Necochea, Villa Gesell, Miramar, etc.).
The New Year (Portuguese: Ano Novo), is one of Brazil 's main holidays. It officially marks the beginning of the summer holidays, which last until Carnival. Brazilians traditionally have a copious meal with family or friends at home, in restaurants or private clubs, and consume alcoholic beverages. Champagne is traditionally drunk. Those spending New Year 's Eve at the beach usually dress in white, to bring good luck into the new year. Fireworks and eating grapes or lentils are customs associated with the holiday.
The beach at Copacabana in Rio de Janeiro is ranked among the top 10 New Year Fireworks display. The combination of live concerts, a spectacular fireworks display and millions of revelers combine to make the Copacabana 's New Year 's party one of the best in the world. In addition, the celebrations are broadcast on TV, the most famous being the Adues A Tudo Isso on Rede Globo.
In other regions, different events also take place. The most famous are on the edge of coastal cities, such as Copacabana. In the Northeast, in Fortaleza, the party is in Iracema Beach, and in Salvador, the change of year happens in a great music festival. In the South, the most famous festivities on the coast take place in Santa Catarina: on the Beira - mar Norte Avenue, in Florianópolis, and in the Central Beach of Balneário Camboriú. Other celebrations that stand out even from the sea are those of Manaus, in the northern state of Amazonas, and the Paulista Avenue, in São Paulo, the largest city in the country, and Ministries Esplanade, in the capital Brasília. The party attracts more than one million people. It features fireworks and live music shows.
The city of São Paulo hosts the Saint Silvester Marathon (Corrida de São Silvestre) which traverses streets between Paulista Avenue and the downtown area.
New Year traditions and celebrations in Canada vary regionally. New Year 's Eve (also called New Year 's Eve Day or Veille du Jour de l'An in French) is generally a social holiday. In many cities, such as Toronto, Ottawa and Niagara Falls in Ontario, Edmonton and Calgary in Alberta, Vancouver, British Columbia and Montreal, Quebec, there are large celebrations which may feature concerts, late - night partying, sporting events, and fireworks, with free public transit service during peak party times in most major cities. In some areas, such as in rural Quebec, people ice fish in the old days. Since 2000, the highlight of New Year 's Eve celebrations is in Montreal 's old port, which comes alive with concerts that take place and fireworks at midnight.
From 1956 to 1976, Guy Lombardo and his Royal Canadians serenaded Canada on the CBC, via a feed from CBS, from the ballroom of the Waldorf - Astoria Hotel on Park Avenue in New York City. After Lombardo 's death in 1977, the Royal Canadians continued on CBC and CBS until 1978.
In 1992, the sketch comedy troupe Royal Canadian Air Farce began airing its annual Year of the Farce special on CBC Television, which features sketches lampooning the major events and news stories of the year. While the original 1992 edition was a one - off special, Year of the Farce episodes continued as a regular feature of the Air Farce television series which ran from 1993 to 2008 -- airing its series finale on 31 December 2008. Following the finale of the television series, the original cast continued to participate in New Year 's Eve specials in the years following.
Similarly, the CBC 's French language network Ici Radio - Canada Télé airs its own yearly New Year 's Eve comedy special, Bye Bye. Unlike Year of the Farce, Bye Bye has been presented by various comedians; originally running from 1968 to 1998, it was revived in 2006 by the Québécois troupe Rock et Belles Oreilles. Its 2008 edition, hosted and co-produced by Québécois television personality Véronique Cloutier, became infamous for several sketches that many viewers perceived as offensive, including sketches making fun of English Canadians and then American president - elect Barack Obama.
New Year 's Eve is celebrated in Chile by the observation of traditional rituals, such as wearing yellow underwear and yellow clothing. It is said to restore vitality to your life. People who want to travel walk the streets with a suitcase in hand, others hold money in their hand or place coins at their door for good fortune in the new year. Celebrations include a family dinner with special dishes, usually lentils for good luck, and twelve grapes to symbolize wishes for each month of the coming year. Family celebrations usually last until midnight, then some continue partying with friends until dawn. In Chile 's capital Santiago, thousands of people gather at the Entel Tower to watch the countdown to midnight and a fireworks display.
There are several fireworks shows across the country. Over one million spectators attend the most popular, the "Año Nuevo en el Mar '', in Valparaiso. Since 2000, the sale of fireworks to individuals has been illegal, meaning fireworks can now only be observed at major displays.
Many people also travel to Easter Island, off Chile 's coast, to welcome the New Year.
In Colombia it is a traditional celebration. There are many traditions across the country. Included among these traditions are: a family dinner with special dishes, fireworks, popular music, wearing special or new clothes, eating empanadas and different parties. With each stroke of the clock until midnight, the families eat grapes.
In Costa Rica, families usually gather around 8 pm for parties that last until 1 or 2 am, the next day. There are several traditions among Costa Rican families, including eating 12 grapes representing 12 wishes for the new year, and running across the street with luggage to bring new trips and adventures in the upcoming year.
In El Salvador, New Year 's Eve is spent with families. Family parties start around 5: 00 pm, and last until 1: 00 to 3: 00 am, the following day. Families eat dinner together and sing traditional New Year 's Eve songs, such as "Cinco para las Doce ''. After the dinner, individuals light fireworks and continue partying outside. A radio station broadcasts a countdown to midnight. When the clock strikes midnight, fireworks are lit across the country. People start exchanging hugs and wishes for the new year.
A New Year 's Eve tradition in Ecuador is for men to dress haphazardly in drag (clowny looking make - up, cheap colorful wigs, very hairy legs in miniskirts) for New Year 's Eve representing the "widow '' of the year that has passed. The "widows '' then go to the streets and stop each car that passes on that particular street in order to parody some form of sexy dancing. Large crowds would gather around to watch and laugh at the entertainment and the drivers are forced to give the "widows '' some coins in order to obtain passage through the street.
There are also traditional family events and meals and modern celebrations such as hosting parties and going to nightclubs. People usually eat grapes and drink Champagne with close family members and friends.
The main event takes place at midnight where fireworks are lit along with thousands of life - size effigies called "Año Viejo ''. Most every local family creates the effigy from paper scraps, old clothes or purchases it altogether. They place just outside the front of their home. The effigy represents things you disliked from the previous year and are made to look like famous celebrities, politicians, public servants, cartoons, etc. They are burnt right at midnight to shed the old year and represent a new beginning. Some of the braver Ecuadorians jump through these burning effigies 12 times to represent a wish for every month.
In Guatemala, banks close on New Year 's Eve, and businesses close at noon. In the town of Antigua, people usually gather at the Santa Catalina Clock Arch to celebrate New Year 's Eve (Spanish: Fin del Año). In Guatemala City the celebrations are centered on Plaza Mayor. Firecrackers are lit starting at sundown, continuing without interruption into the night. Guatemalans wear new clothes for good fortune and eat a grape with each of the twelve chimes of the bell during the New Year countdown, while making a wish with each one.
The celebrations include religious themes which may be either Mayan or Catholic. Catholic celebrations are similar to those at Christmas. Gifts are left under the tree on Christmas morning by the Christ Child for the children, but parents and adults do not exchange gifts until New Year 's Day.
Mexicans celebrate New Year 's Eve, (Spanish: Vispera de Año Nuevo) by eating a grape with each of the twelve chimes of a clock 's bell during the midnight countdown, while making a wish with each one. Mexican families decorate homes and parties in colors that represent wishes for the upcoming year: red encourages an overall improvement of lifestyle and love, yellow encourages blessings of improved employment conditions, green for improved financial circumstances, and white for improved health. Mexican sweet bread is baked with a coin or charm hidden in the dough. When the bread is served, the recipient of the slice with the coin or charm is said to be blessed with good luck in the New Year. Another tradition is to make a list of all the bad or unhappy events over the past 12 months; before midnight, this list is thrown into a fire, symbolizing the removal of negative energy from the new year. At the same time, they are expressed for all the good things during the year that is ending so that they will continue in the new year.
Mexicans celebrate with a late - night dinner with their families, the traditional meal being turkey or pork loin. Afterwards many people attend parties outside the home, for example, in night clubs. In Mexico City there is a street festival on New Year 's Eve centered on the Zocalo, the city 's main square. Celebrations include firecrackers, fireworks and sparklers and shouts of "¡ Feliz Año Nuevo! ''
In Puerto Rico, New Year 's Eve is celebrated with friends and family. The Puerto Rico Convention Center in San Juan is the main attraction for Puerto Ricans during the celebration. It has Latin music and fireworks at midnight along with the signature song "Auld Lang Syne '' in Spanish.
During New Year 's Eve in Suriname, the Surinamese population goes into cities ' commercial districts to watch fireworks shows. This is a spectacle based on the famous red - firecracker - ribbons. The bigger stores invest in these firecrackers and display them in the streets. Every year the length of them is compared, and high praises are held for the company that has managed to import the largest ribbon. These celebrations start at 10 am and finish the next day. The day is usually filled with laughter, dance, music, and drinking. When the night starts, the big street parties are already at full capacity. The most popular fiesta is the one that is held at café ' t Vat in the main tourist district. The parties there stop between 10 and 11 pm after which the people go home to light their pagaras (red - firecracker - ribbons) at midnight. After midnight, the parties continue and the streets fill again until daybreak.
In Port of Spain the tradition is to celebrate in one 's yard with friends, family and neighbors, and eat and drink till sunrise. At midnight the city becomes festive with fireworks in every direction. The celebration only starts at midnight. Music is heard from all the houses and bars, nightclubs, street parties, Soca raves. The people are celebrating not only the new year but the beginning of the carnival season as well.
In the United States, New Year 's Eve is celebrated with formal parties and concerts, family - oriented activities, and large public events such as firework shows and "drops ''.
The most prominent celebration in the country is the "ball drop '' held in New York City 's Times Square. Inspired by the time balls that were formerly used as a time signal, at 11: 59 p.m. ET, an 11,875 - pound (5,386 kg), 12 - foot - diameter (3.7 m) ball covered in panels made of Waterford crystal, is lowered down a 70 feet (21 m) high pole on the roof of One Times Square, reaching the roof of the building 60 seconds later at midnight. The event has been held since 1907, and has seen an average attendance of 1,000,000 yearly. The popularity of the spectacle has inspired similar events outside of New York City, where objects that represent a region 's culture, geography, or history are raised or lowered in a similar fashion -- such as Atlanta 's Peach Drop, representing Georgia 's identity as the "Peach State '', and Brasstown, North Carolina 's lowering of a live opossum in a glass enclosure (an event which has historically attracted criticism from animal rights groups).
Radio and television broadcasts of festivities from New York City helped to ingrain them in American pop culture; beginning on the radio in 1928, and on CBS television from 1956 to 1976 with ball drop coverage, Guy Lombardo and his band, The Royal Canadians, presented an annual New Year 's Eve broadcast from the ballroom of New York 's Waldorf - Astoria Hotel. The specials were best known for the Royal Canadians ' signature performance of "Auld Lang Syne '' at midnight, which made the standard synonymous with the holiday. Following Lombardo 's death in 1977, the competing program New Year 's Rockin ' Eve (which premiered for 1973 on NBC before moving to its current home, ABC, for 1975), succeeded the Royal Canadians as the most - watched New Year 's Eve special on U.S. television. Its creator and host, Dick Clark, intended the program to be a modern and youthful alternative to Lombardo 's big band music, by showcasing performances by popular musicians as part of the broadcast. Including ABC 's special coverage of the year 2000, Clark would host New Year 's Eve coverage on ABC for 33 straight years. After suffering a stroke in December 2004 (resulting in Regis Philbin guest hosting for 2005), Clark retired as full - time host of the special for the 2006 edition, and was succeeded by Ryan Seacrest. Clark continued to make limited appearances on the special until his death in 2012.
Other notable celebrations include those on the Las Vegas Strip, where streets are closed to vehicle traffic on the evening of New Year 's Eve, and a fireworks show is held at midnight which spans across multiple buildings on the Strip. Los Angeles, a city long without a major public New Year celebration, held an inaugural gathering in Downtown 's newly completed Grand Park to celebrate the beginning of 2014. The event included food trucks, art installations, and culminating with a projection mapping show on the side of Los Angeles City Hall near midnight. The inaugural event drew over 25,000 spectators and participants. For 2016, Chicago introduced an event known as Chi - Town Rising, which ended for 2018. Alongside the festivities in Times Square, New York 's Central Park hosts a "Midnight Run '' event organized by the New York Road Runners, which culminates in a fireworks show and a race around the park that begins at midnight. Major theme parks may also hold New Year 's celebrations; Disney theme parks, such as Walt Disney World Resort in Florida and Disneyland in Anaheim, California, are traditionally the busiest during the days up to and including New Year 's Eve.
In the Roman Catholic Church, 1 January is a solemnity honoring the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Mother of Jesus; it is a Holy Day of Obligation in most countries (Australia being a notable exception), thus the Church requires the attendance of all Catholics in such countries for Mass that day. However a vigil Mass may be held on the evening before a Holy Day; thus it has become customary to celebrate Mass on the evening of New Year 's Eve. (New Year 's Eve is a feast day honoring Pope Sylvester I in the Roman Catholic calendar, but it is not widely recognized in the United States.)
Many Christian congregations have New Year 's Eve watchnight services. Some, especially Lutherans and Methodists and those in the African American community, have a tradition known as "Watch Night '', in which the faithful congregate in services continuing past midnight, giving thanks for the blessings of the outgoing year and praying for divine favor during the upcoming year. In the English - speaking world, Watch Night can be traced back to John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, who learned the custom from the Moravian Brethren who came to England in the 1730s. Moravian congregations still observe the Watch Night service on New Year 's Eve. Watch Night took on special significance to African Americans on New Year 's Eve 1862, as slaves anticipated the arrival of 1 January 1863, when Lincoln had announced he would sign the Emancipation Proclamation.
Radio specials give a countdown and announce the New Year. In Caracas, the bells of the Cathedral of Caracas ring twelve times. During these special programs, is a tradition to broadcast songs about the end of the year. It is a non-working holiday. Popular songs include "Viejo año '' ("Old year ''), by Gaita group Maracaibo 15, and "Cinco pa ' las 12 '' ("Five minutes before twelve ''), which was versioned by several popular singers including Nestor Zavarce, Nancy Ramos and José Luis Rodríguez El Puma. The unofficial hymn for the first minutes of the New Year is "Año Nuevo, Vida Nueva '' ("New Year, New Life ''), by the band Billo 's Caracas Boys. Many people play the national anthem in their houses.
Traditions include wearing yellow underwear, eating Pan de jamón, and 12 grapes with sparkling wine.
Special holiday programs are broadcast on Venezuelan television stations including Venevision.
The New Year celebrations take place in all around the country mostly in Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Khulna, Barishal, Cox 's Bazar etc. The celebrations mostly take place at night. On this day, people go to the parties at club or hotels, beaches, at the crowdy roadsides and bridges where firecrackers are blast out in the sky at night. The roadsides and bridges are also lighted up by colourful lights at night. People do a get - together as well as enjoy with their families. That day, Cox 's Bazar becomes a popular tourist destination for both Bangladeshi and foreign tourists.
Music, songs and dances are organized in the auditoriums, hotels, beaches and as well as in the grounds which are shown live concert on T.V where many Dhallywood celebrities along with many personalities participate in the dance, music, songs and often drama to liven up the concert more. Sometimes often marriages and weddings take place in the clubs at night of 31 December so that the people can enjoy more. People also enjoy the New Year 's Eve with their families, relatives and friends in the ships and yachts specially in the sea while going to Saint Martin where DJs liven up their night through their music and songs.
The Muslims during the year 's last Jumma prayer of mosque permanently pray a Munajat (which is done all over the mosques of the country) so that Allah may bless them and the coming year can be fruitful. Hindus organize a Puja so that the coming year can be fruitful for them. The Christians go to the churches for a watch night service till midnight, praying for blessing in the coming new year as it is also part of the Christmastide season observances.
In China, although the celebrations of the Lunar New Year are not until a few weeks after the Gregorian New Year, celebrations of the Gregorian New Year are held in some areas, particularly in major cities. For example, celebrations with fireworks and rock concerts have taken place in Beijing 's Solana Blue Harbor Shopping Park, while cultural shows and other events are held at the city 's Millennium Monument, Temple of Heaven, Great Wall of China, Olympic Green, and the Summer Palace. Since 2011, a light and sound show has been held at The Bund in Shanghai, a few minutes before midnight.
In Hong Kong, many gather in shopping districts like Central, Causeway Bay and Tsim Sha Tsui. Beginning in 2008, a 60 - second numerical countdown to New Year 's, consisting of LED lights and pyrotechnic display effects, on the facade of Two International Finance Centre was launched, followed by a firework display, alongside an exhibition of the Symphony of Lights. For the arrival of 2013, the Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre initiated the countdown, while the fireworks display and A Symphony of Lights show were extended to eight minutes.
Shopping malls are often major celebration venues. The Times Square shopping mall, for instance, holds their own celebration of the ball drop held at Times Square, New York City. There are also various district - wide celebrations.
In Central Asia, New Year 's Eve celebrations were inherited from Soviet traditions; thus they are similar to those of Russia. An example of such traditions would be the playing of the national anthem at midnight and the presidential address before it.
Most celebrations take place in the major metropolitan cities like Kochi, Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Chandigarh, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Pune, Ahmedabad. New Year is also celebrated in other cities and towns around the country like Agra, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Vadodara, etc., There are lots of shows, events, awards and parties organized all over India. Big and small celebrities and personalities perform as well as enjoy in these parties. Many Discos and Pubs organize big singers, DJs or local talent to liven up the night with their music and songs. Goa and Kerala are the most visited destination during New Year 's celebration both by Indian and foreign tourists.
Major events like live concerts and dances by Bollywood stars are also organized and attended mostly by youngsters. More often people like to celebrate the New Year Eve with their family. Hotels and resorts are also decked up in anticipation of tourist arrival and intense competition makes them entice the tourists with exciting New Year offers. Many people across the country also follow old traditions. The Hindu community organize Pujas for a fruitful year ahead and the Christian community often go to church for a watch night service till midnight praying for blessing in the coming new year.
New Year 's Eve celebrations in Medan (capital of North Sumatra) first Dunia Terbalik New Year Countdown Celebrations fireworks in Indonesia was part of the Fiesta Black Tea, named "Medan Pelita Harapan University down eve countdown. '' Apart from the Lippo Plaza Medan, the tallest building in Lippo Malls at the time on both sides of the CIMB Niaga Plaza. The event, which celebrated the arrival of 2018, attracted 400,000 spectators along both sides of the CIMB Niaga. The countdown was televised live coverage in Indonesia via digital high - definition on satellite transmission aired on RCTI HD 's Dunia Terbalik and main sponsor by Fiesta Black Tea inviting various national performances such as Dunia Terbalik All Star along with Dunia Terbalik, reaching more than 1.9 million television audiences. Over 200 local and overseas media covered the spectacular that generated publicity value of more than RP 1000 million was six officially opening ceremony to grand opening by Father of Albert Effendy Darmawan Effendy, Medan Pelita Harapan University Angelia Chairiana, Medan Pelita Harapan University Viona Valencia, President of the Republic of Indonesia Joko Widodo, CEO of MNC Group Hary Tanoesoedibjo and Governor of Jakarta Anies Baswedan in time for regional celebrated its first years of anniversary alongside fireworks, Mayor Dzulmi Eldin lit an "eternal flame ''.
In Japan, New Year 's Eve is used to prepare for and welcome Toshigami (年 神), the New Year 's god. People clean their home and prepare Kadomatsu or Shimenawa to welcome the god before New Year 's Eve. Buddhist temples ring their bells 108 times at midnight in the tradition Joya no Kane (除夜の鐘). The rings represent the 108 elements of bonō (煩悩), mental states that lead people to take unwholesome actions.
In most cities and urban areas across Japan, New Year 's Eve celebrations are usually accompanied by concerts, countdowns, fireworks and other events. In Tokyo, the two most crowded celebrations are held at the Shibuya crossing in Shibuya and the Zojoji Temple in Minato. People gather around the Zojoji Temple to release helium balloons with New Year 's wishes up in the sky and watch the lighting of Tokyo Tower and Tokyo Skytree with a year number displayed on the observatory at the stroke of midnight.
Three notable music - oriented television specials air near New Year 's Eve. Since 1951, NHK has traditionally broadcast Kōhaku Uta Gassen (Red and White Song Battle) on New Year 's Eve, a music competition where two teams of popular musicians (the red and white teams, which predominantly contain female and male performers respectively) perform songs, with the winning team determined by a panel of judges and viewer votes. The special is traditionally one of the most - watched television programs of the year in Japan. Although it did air on 31 December from 1959 to 2006, the Japan Record Awards ceremony, recognizing outstanding achievements in the Japanese music industry, is held annually on 30 December and is broadcast by TBS. Since 1996, artists from Johnny & Associates perform a special concert titled Johnny 's Countdown at the Tokyo Dome and is broadcast live by Fuji TV every 31 December.
There are two New Years celebrated in both North Korea and South Korea, which are Lunar New Year and Solar New Year. The Solar New Year are always celebrated on the first day of January while Lunar New Year varies. Sometimes there are some traits that both North and South Korea celebrate, while some traits are celebrated differently or only on one side.
In both Koreas, they call New Year 's Day 설날 (Seoll - Nal). They eat a special soup called 떡국 (Tteok - Guk) which is a hot soup with thin, flat rice cakes and most of the times, eggs are inserted. The Koreans believe that one would get to earn one age if you eat the soup on New Year 's Day. They say if one dares to not eat the soup on New Year 's Day, then he or she will lose luck.
Most cities and urban areas in both Koreas host New Year 's Eve gatherings. In South Korea, two of the biggest celebrations take place in Seoul: the ringing of Bosingak bell 33 times at midnight and fireworks display at Myeong - dong, and an LED laser light show and fireworks display at the Lotte World Tower in Songpa - gu. In Pyongyang, North Korea, the chimes of the clock at the Grand People 's Study House and fireworks display along Kim Il - sung Square, Juche Tower and the surrounding areas signal the start of the New Year. The celebration in Pyongyang, however, also marks the beginning of the North Korean calendar or the Juche Year, which is based on 15 April 1912, Kim Il - sung 's date of birth.
Ambang Tahun Baru, a celebration sponsored by the government was held at Merdeka Square, the field opposite the Sultan Abdul Samad Building in the Malaysian capital of Kuala Lumpur in the early days. The event was broadcast live on government as well as private TV stations at those times. Fireworks are displayed at the Petronas Towers.
There are New Year countdown parties in major cities such as George Town, Shah Alam and Kuching, typically organised by the private sector in these cities.
Mongolians began celebrating the Gregorian New Year in the Socialist period, with influence from the former Soviet Union. As a modern tradition, New Year 's Eve as well as New Year 's Day are public holidays, and are two of the biggest holidays of the year. They celebrate New Year 's Eve with their family. It is common, just like in the former Soviet Union, that the National Anthem of Mongolia is to be played at the midnight hour on television.
New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with fireworks in big cities (e.g. Lahore, Karachi and Islamabad). Musical nights and concerts are also held.
Many Pakistani youngsters enjoy the type of celebrations held the world over. The elite and educated classes participate in night - long activities in urban and cosmopolitan cities like Karachi, Lahore, and the capital of Islamabad.
Families enjoy a traditional dish called Biryani.
In the Philippines, New Year 's Eve (Bisperas ng Bagong Taon) is a special non-working holiday. Filipinos usually celebrate New Year 's Eve in the company of family or close friends. Traditionally, most households host or attend a midnight feast called the Media Noche. Typical dishes included holiday fare, pancit (for long life) and ham ón. Lechon (roasted pig), is usually prepared, as is barbecued food. Some refrain from serving chicken, as their scratching and pecking for food is unlucky, being an idiom for a hand - to - mouth existence.
Many opt to wear new, bright, or colourful clothes with circular patterns, such as polka dots, or display sweets and twelve round fruits as the centrepiece, in the belief that circles attract money and fortune and that candies represent a sweeter year ahead. Several customs must only be done at midnight: some throw about coins to increase wealth in the coming year, or jump to increase their height, while some follow the Spanish custom of eating twelve grapes, one for each month of the year. People also make loud noises by blowing on cardboard or plastic horns, called torotot, banging on pots and pans, playing loud music, blowing car horns, or by igniting firecrackers, in the belief that the din scares away bad luck and evil spirits. Bamboo cannons are also fired on the night in some places.
Urban areas usually host many New Year 's Eve parties and countdown celebrations hosted by the private sector with the help of the local government. These parties, which include balls hosted by hotels, usually display their own fireworks and are often very well - attended. Some popular locations for celebrations include the area along Manila Bay at Roxas Boulevard or Luneta Park in Manila, the intersection of Ayala and Makati Avenues in Makati City, Resorts World Manila and SM Mall of Asia in Pasay City, Quezon Memorial Circle in Diliman and Eastwood City in Libis, Quezon City, Bonifacio Global City in Taguig City, Entertainment City in Parañaque City, and the Philippine Arena at Ciudad de Victoria in Bocaue and Santa Maria, Bulacan.
The biggest New Year 's Eve celebration in Singapore takes place in the Marina Bay area. It is attended by 250,000 or more people. The party spans around the bay area starting from the Marina Bay floating Stadium to the Esplanade promenade, the Esplanade Bridge, Benjamin Sheares Bridge, Merlion Park, and the Padang at City Hall facing the Marina Bay. The celebrations are also visible from nearby hotels such as The Fullerton Hotel, Marina Mandarin, The Ritz - Carlton Millenia, Marina Bay Sands, offices located at Raffles Place, Marina Bay Financial Centre, Residential Apartments at The Sail @ Marina Bay, and from The Singapore Flyer. On the waterfront of Marina Bay, 20,000 inflatable "wishing spheres '' carrying 500,000 wishes written by Singaporeans form a visual arts display filled with brilliant colors beamed from the spotlights erected along the Esplanade promenade open area. Audiences are also entertained by a host of variety shows and concerts staged at the Marina Bay floating platform stage, featuring local and overseas artists. The shows are viewable by all at the bay and telecast live on various television channels in Republic of Singapore, as well as internationally all over Southeast Asia through Channel News Asia.
At one minute to midnight, the concert emcees initiate the final countdown together with the audience. When midnight arrives, fireworks are launched from the waters at Marina Bay, lighting up the whole bay against the backdrop of the Singapore skyline.
There are other countdown parties across Singapore; these include VivoCity and areas such as -
The most prominent New Year 's event in Taiwan is a major fireworks show launched from the Taipei 101 skyscraper in Taipei. In 2018, the show was enhanced by the installation of a new LED display system on the north face of the tower between its 35th and 90th floors, which can be used to display digital animation effects. This change countered a reduction in the number of firework shells launched during the show, as part of an effort to produce less pollution.
Aside from the traditional Thai New Year called Songkran (Thailand) (which falls on 13 April or 14 April), Thais also celebrate the arrival of the Gregorian New Year on 1 January with their families, relatives and friends, which includes a family dinner and following different customs. It is a public holiday. In most cities and urban areas across Thailand, New Year 's Eve celebrations are accompanied by countdowns, fireworks, concerts and other major events, notably, the CentralWorld Square at CentralWorld and the area along Chao Phraya River in Bangkok, and the Pattaya Beach in Pattaya, while public places such as hotels, pubs, restaurants and nightclubs, also host New Year 's Eve parties by offering food, entertainment and music to the guests, and they usually stay open until the next morning.
Preparations for New Year 's Eve in Albania start long before 31 December. It starts with the Christmas tree which in Albania is known as "New Year 's Tree '' or "New Year 's Pine ''. On this day, parents, children and relatives are gathered together to spend some remarkable moments all together. Having an abundant dinner with different kinds of delicious dishes is also a tradition. Part of the tradition is also watching a lot of comedy shows on that night, as the New Year should find people smiling and full of joy. The most amazing moment of the night is the last minute of The Old Year and the minute to come of the New Year. At 00: 00 everyone toasts and greets each other and a lot of fireworks brighten up the sky of the city. They wish each other a prosperous new year, full of happiness, joy, good health and lots of fortune. It is a tradition that at 00: 00 people call each other on the phone to greet one another or send SMS to all their friends. 31 December is the busiest day of an Albanian.
In Austria, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with friends and family. At exactly midnight, all radio and television programmes operated by ORF broadcast the sound of the Pummerin, the bell of St. Stephen 's Cathedral in Vienna, followed by the Donauwalzer ("The Blue Danube '') by Johann Strauss II. Many people dance to this at parties or in the street. Large crowds gather in the streets of Vienna, where the municipal government organises a series of stages where bands and orchestras play. Fireworks are set off by both municipal governments and individuals.
In Belgium, New Year 's Eve (Sint Sylvester Vooravond ("Saint Sylvester 's Eve '') or Oudjaar ("old year '')) is celebrated with family parties, called réveillons in the French speaking areas. On television, a stand - up comedian reviews the past year after which a musical or variety show signals midnight, when everyone kisses, exchanges good luck greetings, and toasts the New Year and absent relatives and friends with champagne. Many people light fireworks or go into the street to watch them. Most cities have their own fireworks display: the most famous is at Mont des Arts in Brussels. Cities, cafés and restaurants are crowded. Free bus services and special New Year 's Eve taxis (the Responsible Young Drivers) bring everyone home afterwards.
On 1 January (Nieuwjaarsdag in Dutch) children read their "New Year 's letter '' and give holiday greeting cards of decorated paper featuring golden cherubs and angels, colored roses and ribbon - tied garlands to parents and godparents, on decorated paper.
Belgian farmers also wish their animals a happy New Year.
New Year is widely celebrated in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Streets are decorated for New Year 's Eve and there is a fireworks show and concerts in all the larger cities. Restaurants, clubs, cafes and hotels are usually full of guests and they organize New Year 's Eve parties.
In Sarajevo, people gather in the Square of children of Sarajevo where a local rock band entertains them. Several trumpet and rock groups play until the early morning hours. At midnight there is a big fireworks show.
New Year 's Eve (Silvestr / Silvester) celebrations and traditions in Czech Republic and Slovakia are very similar. New Year 's Eve is the noisiest day of the year. People generally gather with friends at parties, in pubs, clubs, in the streets, or city squares to eat, drink, and celebrate the new year. Fireworks are a popular tradition; in large cities such as Bratislava, or Prague, the fireworks start before noon and steadily increase until midnight. In the first minutes after midnight, people toast with champagne, wish each other a happy new year, fortune and health, and go outside for the fireworks.
In both countries all major TV stations air entertainment shows before and after the midnight countdown, which is followed by the National anthem of each country. The Presidents of the republics gave their New Year speech in the morning - the new Czech President Miloš Zeman renewed the tradition of Christmas speeches. In recent years however the Czechoslovak national anthem is played at midnight, in honor of the shared history of both nations.
People in Denmark may go to parties or entertain guests at home. There is a special evening meal that concludes with Kransekage, a special dessert, along with champagne. Other traditional dishes are boiled cod, stewed kale and cured saddle of pork. However, expensive cuts of beef as well as sushi have become increasingly popular.
Two significant traditional events are broadcast on television and radio on 31 December: the monarch 's New Year message from Amalienborg Palace at 6pm and the Town Hall Clock in Copenhagen striking midnight. Thousands of people gather together in Rådhuspladsen (the Town Hall Square) and cheer. The Royal Guard parade in their red gala uniforms. The climax of the celebration is fireworks launched as the Town Hall Tower bells chime on the stroke of midnight. After the midnight, all radio & television stations plays: "Vær Velkommen Herrens År '' (Danish new year 's anthem), "Kong Kristian '' (Danish Royal Anthem), "Det er et Yndigt Land '' (Danish National Anthem).
To celebrate New Year 's Eve in Estonia, people decorate villages, visit friends and prepare lavish meals.
Some believe that people should eat seven, nine, or twelve times on New Year 's Eve. These are lucky numbers in Estonia; it is believed that for each meal consumed, the person gains the strength of that many men the following year. Meals should not be completely finished -- some food should be left for ancestors and spirits who visit the house on New Year 's Eve.
Traditional New Year food includes pork with sauerkraut or Estonian sauerkraut (mulgikapsad), baked potatoes and swedes with hog 's head, and white and blood sausage. Vegetarians can eat potato salad with navy beet and pâté. Gingerbread and marzipan are very popular for dessert. Traditional New Year drinks include beer and mead, but mulled wine and champagne have become modern favourites.
In Finland, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with family or friends. Late supper is served, often featuring wieners, Janssons frestelse, and potato salad. Some municipalities organize fireworks at midnight. Consumer fireworks are also very popular. A Finnish tradition is molybdomancy - to tell the fortunes of the New Year by melting "tin '' (actually lead) in a tiny pan on the stove and throwing it quickly in a bucket of cold water. The resulting blob of metal is analyzed, for example by interpreting shadows it casts by candlelight. These predictions are however never taken seriously.
The Finnish Broadcasting Company broadcasts the reception of the New Year at Helsinki Senate Square. Countdown to New Year is with the Helsinki Cathedral clock. In the afternoon programme, the German comedy sketch Dinner for One is shown every year. On the radio, just before midnight, the poem Hymyilevä Apollo (Smiling Apollo) by Eino Leino is read.
In France, New Year 's Eve (la Saint - Sylvestre) is usually celebrated with a feast, le Réveillon de la Saint - Sylvestre (Cap d'Any in Northern Catalonia). This feast customarily includes special dishes including foie gras, seafood such as oysters, and champagne. The celebration can be a simple, intimate dinner with friends and family or, une soirée dansante, a much fancier ball.
On New Year 's Day (le Jour de l'An) friends and family exchange New Year 's resolutions, kisses, and wishes. Some people eat ice cream.
The holiday period ends on 6 January with the celebration of Epiphany (Jour des Rois). A traditional type of flat pastry cake, la galette des rois, made of two sheets of puff pastry, filled with frangipane (almond paste) is eaten. The cake contains a fève, a small china doll; whomever finds it becomes king or queen and gets to wear a gold paper crown and choose his or her partner. This tradition can last up to two weeks.
In Germany, parties are common on New Year 's Eve. Fireworks are very popular, both with individuals and at large municipal displays. 31 December and the three days leading up to it are the only four days of the year on which fireworks may be sold in Germany. Every year Berlin hosts one of the largest New Year 's Eve celebrations in all of Europe, attended by over a million people. The focal point is the Brandenburg Gate, where midnight fireworks are centered. Germans toast the New Year with a glass of Sekt (German sparkling wine) or champagne. Molybdomancy (Bleigießen) is another German New Year 's Eve tradition, which involves telling fortunes by the shapes made by molten lead dropped into cold water. Other auspicious actions are to touch a chimney sweep or rub some ash on your forehead for good luck and health. Jam - filled doughnuts with and without liquor fillings are eaten. Finally a tiny marzipan pig is consumed for more good luck. In some northern regions of Germany (e.g. East Frisia) the making of Speckdicken is another tradition - people go door to door visiting their neighbors and partaking in this dish. It looks similar to a pancake, but the recipe calls for either dark molasses or dark syrup, with summer sausage and bacon in the center.
Another notable tradition is the British comedy sketch Dinner for One, which has traditionally been broadcast on German television on New Year 's Eve since 1972. The version traditionally broadcast on German television was originally recorded in 1963, and was occasionally used as filler programming by NDR due to popular demand; in 1972, Dinner for One received its traditional New Year 's Eve scheduling. The sketch, as well as its catchphrase "the same procedure as every year '', are well - known in German pop culture. Dinner for One is also broadcast on or around New Year 's Eve in other European countries, although it is, ironically, relatively unknown in the United Kingdom.
New Year 's Eve in Greece has many traditions. During the day, children sing the New Year 's carols to be given money or treats. Then, it is time to have family lunch or dinner. In the evening, people cook a pie named "King 's pie (Vassilopita locally) '', which is a cake flavored with almonds. Following tradition, they put a coin wrapped in aluminium foil inside the pie.
During the family dinner, the hostess puts some of her jewelry in a plate and serves it in the side of the table, as a symbol of the coming year 's prosperity. After the dinner is over, the dishes are not washed until the next day. The reason for that is that Saint Vassilis (Greek Santa Claus) is awaited during the New Year 's Eve and it is considered common courtesy to leave some food for the traveler who visits the house to bring the presents during the night.
When midnight arrives, the families count down and then they turn off all the lights and reopen their eyes to "enter the year with a new light ''. After the fireworks show, they cut the "Vassilopita '' and serve it. The person that gets the wrapped coin is the lucky person of the day and he is also blessed for the rest of the year. Gifts exchanges may follow.
New Year 's Eve (Szilveszter) in Hungary is celebrated with home parties and street parties, including a gathering in downtown Budapest. Fireworks and firecrackers are popular. Champagne, wine and traditional Hungarian New Year dishes -- frankfurter sausages with horseradish, lentil soup, fish, and roast pig -- are consumed. The national anthem is commonly sung at midnight.
In past centuries, some Hungarians believed that animals were able to speak on New Year 's Eve, and that onion skins sprinkled with salt could indicate a rainy month.
Hungarian Christian communities focus on celebrating Mass on both New Year 's Eve and New Year 's Day.
Fireworks are very popular in Iceland, particularly on New Year 's Eve. Iceland 's biggest New Year 's Eve events are usually in and around the capital, Reykjavík.
Áramótaskaupið ("The New Year 's comedy '') is an annual Icelandic television comedy special, which is an important part of the New Year for most. It focuses satirically on the past year, and shows little mercy for its victims, especially politicians, artists, prominent business people and activists.
New Year 's Eve (Oíche Chinn Bliana, Oíche na Coda Móire, or Oíche Chaille) celebrations in major cities are modest, with most people favouring small parties in the home for family and friends.
In Italy, New Year 's Eve (Vigilia di Capodanno or Notte di San Silvestro) is celebrated by the observation of traditional rituals, such as wearing red underwear. An ancient tradition in southern regions (rarely followed today) was disposing of old or unused items by dropping them from the window.
Dinner is traditionally eaten with relatives and friends. It often includes zampone or cotechino (a meal made with pig 's trotters or entrails), and lentils. At 20: 30, the President reads a television message of greetings to Italians.
At midnight, fireworks are displayed all across the country. Rarely followed today is the tradition that consist in eating lentil stew when bell tolls midnight, one spoonful per bell. This is supposed to bring good fortune; the round lentils represent coins.
New Year 's Eve is celebrated across Macedonia. New Year 's Day is celebrated by day - long fireworks shows. The day is celebrated together with family or friends at home or in restaurants, clubs, cafés and hotels. During the day - time celebration, children get gifts. Evening celebrations include food, music, and dancing to both traditional Macedonian folk music, and modern music. New Year 's Eve is celebrated on 31 December and also on 14 January according to the Macedonian Orthodox Calendar.
Malta organized its first New Year 's street party in 2009 in Floriana. The event was not highly advertised and proved controversial, due to the closing of an arterial street for the day. In 2010 there were the first national celebrations in St. George 's Square, Valletta Although professional fireworks are very popular in Malta, they are almost totally absent on New Year 's Eve. Usually the Maltese hit nightclubs and specific dance music parties to celebrate New Year 's Eve.
In Montenegro, New Year 's Eve celebrations are held in all large cities, usually accompanied by fireworks. It is usually celebrated with family or friends, at home or outside. Restaurants, clubs, cafés and hotels organize celebrations with food and music.
New Year 's Eve (Oud en Nieuw or Oudejaarsavond) in the Netherlands is usually celebrated as a cozy evening with family or friends, although many people attend big organized parties. Traditional snack foods are oliebollen (oil dumplings) and appelbeignets (apple slice fritters). On television, the main feature is the oudejaarsconference, a performance by one of the major Dutch cabaretiers (comparable to stand - up comedy, but more serious, generally including a satirical review of the year 's politics). Historically, in Reformed Protestant families, Psalm 90 is read, although this tradition is now fading away. At midnight, Glühwein (bishops wine) or champagne is drunk. Many people light their own fireworks. Towns do not organize a central fireworks display, except for Rotterdam where the national fireworks display can be seen near the Erasmus Bridge.
In Norway New Year 's Eve (Nyttårsaften) is the second biggest celebration of the year, after Christmas Eve. While Christmas Eve is a family celebration, New Year 's Eve is an opportunity to celebrate with friends.
Traditionally, there is first a feast, commonly consisting of stuffed, roast turkey with potatoes, sprouts, gravy and Waldorf salad. The accompanying beverage is traditionally beer (commonly either Christmas beer or lager beer). Dessert will often be vanilla pudding or rice cream, and there will be cakes and coffee later in the evening - commonly accompanied by a glass of cognac. Then, at close to 12 am on New Year 's Day, people will go outside to send up fireworks. Fireworks are only permitted to be sold to the general public on the days leading up to New Year 's Eve, and only to be launched that night.
Due to the general use of fireworks, more fires occur on New Year 's Eve than on any other day of the year in Norway. Accordingly, most Norwegian cities, and many towns, host a large, public fireworks display in order to discourage private use of fireworks in built - up areas. People will then congregate in a central square or similar to watch and celebrate.
In Poland New Year 's Eve (Sylwester) celebrations include both indoor and outdoor festivities. A large open - air concert is held in the Main Square in Kraków. 150,000 to 200,000 revelers celebrate the New Year with live music and a fireworks display over St. Mary 's Basilica. Similar festivities are held in other cities around Poland.
For those who do not wish to spend the New Year in the city, the mountains are a popular destination. Zakopane, located in the Carpathian Mountains, is the most popular Polish mountain resort in winter.
Also, New Year 's Eve (Sylwester) celebrations are in Katowice, near the Spodek arena. In Sławatycze, people tour the streets dressed up as bearded men.
In Portugal the New Year celebration is taken very seriously. The tradition is to drink champagne and eat twelve raisins - one for each month of the year, making a wish for each. Another Portuguese tradition is a special cake called Bolo - Rei (literally: King Cake). Bolo - Rei is a round cake with a large hole in the centre, resembling a crown covered with crystallised and dried fruit. It is baked from a soft, white dough, with raisins, various nuts and crystallised fruit. Inside is hidden the characteristic fava (broad bean). Tradition dictates that whoever finds the fava has to pay for the Bolo - Rei next year. Initially, a small prize (usually a small metal toy) was also included within the cake. However, the inclusion of the prize was forbidden by the European Union for safety reasons. The Portuguese brought the recipe of the Gateau des Rois from France in the second half of the 19th century. To this day, this recipe is a very well kept secret.
In Lisbon the New Year is celebrated with a grand concert. The New Year 's Concert is held at the CCB (Centro Cultural de Belém) on the evening of 1 January, featuring the prestigious Lisbon Metropolitan Orchestra.
Traditional celebrations of New Year 's Eve (Revelion) are the norm in Romania. Romanians follow centuries - old customs, rituals, and conventions. Children sing "Plugușorul '' and "Sorcova '', traditional carols that wish goodwill, happiness and success.
Parties are common in the evening. Since the Romanian Revolution of 1989, Romanians have gathered in the University Square in Bucharest. Other significant parties occur in Piața Constituției. New Year 's Eve is also marked by a national all - night telecast on Romanian Television, which also celebrates its anniversary on this holiday, having opened its doors in the New Year 's Eve of 1956.
Most Russians celebrate New Year 's Eve with their families and close friends. The origin of this holiday in Russia derives from Christmas. Christmas was also a major holiday in Russia until it was banned, with all other religious holidays, by the Communist Party. To compensate for the absence of Christmas, New Year 's was celebrated as much as Christmas was, but without the religious aspect of the holiday and lot of a Christmas attributes were repurposed, such as Christmas tree, which became a New Year tree. Even after the fall of the Soviet Union, New Year 's is still celebrated in Russia and has become a Russian tradition. There is an old superstition that if the first visitor (especially an unexpected one) on 1 January is a male, the year will be good. People also try to start the new year without debts.
The celebration usually starts one or two hours before midnight. A common tradition is to "say farewell to the old year '' by remembering the most important events of the last twelve months. At five minutes to midnight most people watch the president 's New Year speech on TV and watch popular films or New Year TV shows before and after midnight. There is a tradition to listen to the Kremlin clock bell ringing twelve times on the radio or on TV, which is followed by the national anthem. During these twelve seconds people keep silence and make their secret wishes for the next year. After the clock strikes, they drink champagne and have rich dinner, watching TV concerts and having fun. Some people light fireworks outside and visit their friends and neighbors. As 30 and 31 December are working days, a lot of people also have parties at work (so - called "corporatives ''), though 31 December is mostly spent at home or with friends. Grandfather Frost and his granddaughter Snowmaiden bring presents on New Year 's Eve.
On 13 January, some of people celebrates "Old New Year '', according to the Julian calendar.
New Year 's Eve in Serbia is traditionally celebrated extensively. Indoors, families celebrate New Year 's Eve with an abundance of food. Serbs decorate trees, Novogodišnja jelka, at New Year 's Eve, rather than at Christmas Eve. Near, or after midnight, Santa Claus (Deda Mraz) visits houses and leaves presents under the tree, to be unpacked then or, if the family is asleep, to be discovered in the morning.
Serbian New Year 's celebrations take place in Belgrade, and several other major cities such as Novi Sad and Niš. As of mid-December, cities are extensively decorated and lit. The decorations remain until way into January due to the influence of the Julian calendar. Throughout the region, especially amongst former Yugoslav republics, Belgrade is the most popular destination for major parties.
On 13 January, a large part of the population celebrates "Serbian New Year '', according to the Julian calendar. Usually one concert is organized in front of either City Hall or the National Parliament in Belgrade, while fireworks are prepared by the Serbian Orthodox Church and fired from the Cathedral of Saint Sava, where people also gather. Other cities also organize such celebrations.
In Slovenia, New Year 's Eve is known as a Saint Sylvester 's Day (Silvestrovo). Streets are decorated for the whole December. In larger cities like Ljubljana, Maribor, Celje or Koper there are concerts, culture programm and countdown followed by fireworks. There is also special programme on the national TV. Tradition is, that family comes together and have a dinner. At midnight, people toast with champagne, wish each other a happy new year, fortune and health. People have already decorated the Christmas tree before Christmas and children are waiting for the third "Good man of December - Dedek Mraz. ''
Spanish New Year 's Eve (Nochevieja or Fin de Año) celebrations usually begin with a family dinner, traditionally including shrimp or prawns, and lamb or capon. The actual countdown is primarily followed from the clock on top of the Casa de Correos building in Puerta del Sol Square in Madrid. It is traditional to eat Twelve Grapes, one on each chime of the clock. This tradition has its origins in 1909, when grape growers in Alicante thought of it as a way to cut down on the large production surplus they had had that year. Nowadays, the tradition is followed by almost every Spaniard, and the twelve grapes have become synonymous with the New Year. After the clock has finished striking twelve, people greet each other and toast with sparkling wine such as cava or champagne, or with cider. The song "Un año más, '' by the Spanish group Mecano, is frequently played.
Earlier in the evening at around 20: 00, there is a 10k run called San Silvestre Vallecana, which starts on Paseo de la Castellana, next to Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, and ends at the Vallecas Stadium. Professional runners come to Madrid for this 10k.
After the family dinner and the grapes, many young people attend cotillones de nochevieja parties (named for the Spanish word cotillón, which refers to party supplies like confetti, party blowers, and party hats) at pubs, clubs, and similar places. Parties usually last until the next morning and range from small, personal celebrations at local bars to huge parties with guests numbering the thousands at hotel convention rooms. Early the next morning, party attendees usually gather to have the traditional winter breakfast of hot chocolate and fried pastry (chocolate con churros).
In Sweden, New Year 's Eve is usually celebrated with families or with friends. A few hours before and after midnight, people usually party and eat a special dinner, often three courses. New Year 's Eve is celebrated with large fireworks displays throughout the country, especially in the cities. People over the age of 18 are allowed to buy fireworks, which are sold by local stores or by private persons. While watching or lighting fireworks at midnight, people usually drink champagne.
In Switzerland, New Year 's Eve is typically celebrated at a residence with friends. There are no particular main dishes associated with the event, although sweets and desserts are usual. Each commune has its own government - arranged countdown in a public space, accompanied with formal fireworks shows in smaller cities.
Numerous decorations and customs traditionally associated with Christmas and Bayrams are part of secular New Year 's Eve celebrations in Turkey. Homes and streets are lit in glittering lights. Small gifts are exchanged, and large family dinners are organized with family and friends, featuring a special turkey dish stuffed with a zante currant, pine nuts, pimiento and dill iç pilav, dolma, hot börek, baklava, and various other Turkish dishes, accompanied with rakı, Turkish wine, or boza, şerbet, salep, and Turkish tea or coffee. Even though Turkish people generally do not celebrate Christmas, decorating Christmas trees is a very popular tradition on New Year 's Eve in Turkey, and the Turks associate Santa Claus with New Year 's Eve.
Television and radio channels are known to continuously broadcast a variety of special New Year 's Eve programs, while municipalities all around the country organize fundraising events for the poor, in addition to celebratory public shows such as concerts and family - friendly events, as well as more traditional forms of entertainment such as the Karagöz and Hacivat shadow - theater, and even performances by the Mehter -- the Janissary Band that was founded during the days of the Ottoman Empire.
Public and private parties with large public attendances are organised in a number of cities and towns, particularly in the largest metropolitan areas such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Adana, Bursa and Antalya, with the biggest celebrations taking place in Istanbul 's Taksim, Beyoğlu, Nişantaşı and Kadıköy districts and Ankara 's Kızılay Square, which generally feature dancing, concerts, laser and lightshows as well as the traditional countdown and fireworks display.
In the countries that were formerly part of the Soviet Union, New Year 's has the same cultural significance as Christmas has in the United States, but without the religious connotations. Ukrainian families traditionally install spruce trees at home, the equivalent of a Christmas tree. Families gather to eat a large feast and reflect on the past year. They have a large celebration, make toasts, and make wishes for a happy New Year. Families give presents to their friends as well as informal acquaintances. As Ukrainians are traditionally a closely knit community, it is seen as a taboo to not give presents to those the family associates with. Children stay up until midnight, waiting for the New Year. During these celebrations many Ukrainians tune to special New Year shows, which have become a long - standing tradition for the Ukrainian TV. And just before midnight the President of Ukraine gives his New Year 's message to the nation, and when the clock strikes 12, the National Anthem Shche ne vmerla Ukraina is played in all TV and radio stations as well as in Independence Square in Kiev and other cities where holiday celebrations are held.
The first New year dish in Ukraine which associates with the New year for every Ukrainian person is the Olivier salad. It has become the main "character '' of many jokes and anecdotes. There are several versions about where the name Olivier comes from, but most people say that it appeared thanks to the French chef Olivier, who lived in the USSR in the 1960s and was the owner of a French restaurant in Moscow. He was the first one to cook this dish. Nowadays this salad is also called Russian, potato and meat salad.
New Year is often considered a "pre-celebration '' for Greek Catholics and Eastern Orthodox living in Eastern Europe, primarily in Ukraine, since Christmas is celebrated on 7 January.
The most prominent New Year 's celebration in England is that of Central London, where the arrival of midnight is greeted with the chimes of Big Ben. In recent years, a major fireworks display has also been held, with fireworks launched from the nearby London Eye Ferris wheel. On New Year 's Eve 2010, an estimated 250,000 people gathered to view an eight - minute fireworks display around and above the London Eye which was, for the first time, set to a musical soundtrack. The celebrations in London continued into 1 January, with the New Year 's Day Parade, held annually since 1987. The 2011 parade involved more than 10,000 musicians, cheerleaders and performers.
Other major New Year events are held in the cities of Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Newcastle.
In Scotland, New Year 's (Hogmanay) is celebrated with several different customs, such as First - Footing, which involves friends or family members going to each other 's houses with a gift of whisky and sometimes a lump of coal.
Edinburgh, the Scottish capital, hosts one of the world 's most famous New Year celebrations. The celebration is focused on a major street party along Princes Street. The cannon is fired at Edinburgh Castle at the stroke of midnight, followed by a large fireworks display. Edinburgh hosts a festival of four or five days, beginning on 28 December, and lasting until New Year 's Day or 2 January, which is also a bank holiday in Scotland.
Other cities across Scotland, such as Aberdeen, Glasgow and Stirling have large organised celebrations too, including fireworks at midnight.
BBC Scotland broadcast the celebrations in Edinburgh to a Scottish audience, with the celebrations also screened across the world. STV covers both worldwide New Year celebrations, and details of events happening around Scotland.
The Welsh tradition of giving gifts and money on New Year 's Day (Welsh: Calennig) is an ancient custom that survives in modern - day Wales, though nowadays it is now customary to give bread and cheese.
Thousands of people descend every year on Cardiff to enjoy live music, catering, ice - skating, funfairs and fireworks. Many of the celebrations take place at Cardiff Castle and Cardiff City Hall.
Every New Year 's Eve, the Nos Galan road race (Rasys Nos Galan), a 5 - kilometre (3.1 mi) running race, is held in Mountain Ash in the Cynon Valley, Rhondda Cynon Taf, South Wales. The race celebrates the life and achievements of Welsh runner Guto Nyth Brân.
Founded in 1958 by local runner Bernard Baldwin, it is run over the 5 kilometre route of Guto 's first competitive race. The main race starts with a church service at Llanwynno, and then a wreath is laid on Guto 's grave in Llanwynno graveyard. After lighting a torch, it is carried to the nearby town of Mountain Ash, where the main race takes place.
The race consists of a double circuit of the town centre, starting in Henry Street and ending in Oxford Street, by the commemorative statue of Guto. Traditionally, the race was timed to end at midnight, but in recent times it was rescheduled for the convenience of family entertainment, now concluding at around 9pm.
This has resulted in a growth in size and scale, and the proceedings now start with an afternoon of street entertainment, and fun run races for children, concluding with the church service, elite runners ' race and presentations.
New Year 's Eve (Sylvester) in Israel, is celebrated by parties, social get togethers, concerts, and dining out in major cities such as Jerusalem and Tel Aviv. Immigrants from the former USSR celebrate Novy God, the Russian version of the holiday.
In Lebanon and Syria, people celebrate New Year 's Eve with a dinner attended by family and friends. The dinner features traditional dishes such as tabouli, hummus, kibbi, and other Lebanese foods. These celebrations could also take place in restaurants and clubs. Game shows are also organized where people can try to win money. The countdown to New Year 's is broadcast through the leading TV channel and the celebrations usually continue until sunrise. Fireworks are lit throughout the night.
In Saudi Arabia, New Year 's is solely celebrated in private gatherings. As the Islamic calendar is the official civic calendar, the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice -- Saudi Arabia 's religious police, has enforced a ban on public festivities of the Gregorian New Year. The organization can also fine shops for offering New Year 's - related products, and confiscate them. However, the organization does not go after individual citizens holding private celebrations.
In Dubai, United Arab Emirates, New Year 's fireworks are set off from Jumeirah Beach (including Burj Al Arab) and the world 's tallest building, Burj Khalifa. The New Year fireworks display at Burj Khalifa is among the world 's most expensive.
Each major city in Australia holds New Year 's Eve celebrations, usually accompanied by a fireworks display and other events. Gloucester Park, a racecourse in central Perth, is the largest and most recognized display in the Western Australian city. In Brisbane events are held at Southbank. At night, 50,000 people gather at sites around the Brisbane River to watch a fireworks display.
The largest celebration in Australia is held in its largest city: Sydney. Each year, the celebrations in Sydney are accompanied by a theme with two pyrotechnic shows: the 9: 00 pm Family Fireworks and the Midnight Fireworks. Centering on the Sydney Harbour Bridge, the fireworks are synchronized to a blend of popular music and a lighting display called the "Bridge Effect '', which displays various symbols and other images related to the current year 's theme, located on the bridge itself. The "Midnight Fireworks '' are regularly watched by approximately 1.5 -- 2 million people at Sydney Harbour. As one of the first major New Year 's celebrations globally each year, Sydney 's Midnight Fireworks are often broadcast throughout the world during the day of 31 December. In Melbourne, the city follows suit with Sydney having a 9: 30 Family Fireworks followed by the midnight fireworks. Celebrations are mostly centered on the Yarra River and Federation Square, as well as Docklands. Most of the firework shows in Melbourne are launched from boats along the river and from atop the city 's various skyscrapers.
Kiritimati (UTC + 14), part of Kiribati, is one of the first locations in the world to welcome the New Year. Other Kiribati islands follow at UTC + 13 and UTC + 12.
Gisborne, New Zealand -- 496.3 kilometres (308.4 mi) west of the International Date Line -- is the first major city to see the beginning of the new year. In New Zealand, cities celebrate with large street parties and fireworks displays. Local councils usually organise parties and street carnivals and fireworks displays.
In Auckland, the top of the Sky Tower -- the tallest freestanding structure tower in the Southern Hemisphere -- is the launch site for a fireworks show.
The New Zealand national cricket team have begun playing a one - day International cricket game in Queenstown during the day of New Year 's Eve.
Since changing the time zone from UTC - 11 to UTC + 13 in winter and UTC + 14 in summer (including new year), Samoa is the first country to receive the New Year as a whole, sharing it with some parts of Kiribati.
Music associated with New Year 's Eve comes in both classical and popular genres, and there is also Christmas song focus on the arrival of a new year during the Christmas and holiday season.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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who sings i only have eyes for you | I Only Have Eyes for You - wikipedia
"I Only Have Eyes for You '' is a romantic love song by composer Harry Warren and lyricist Al Dubin, written for the film Dames (1934) where it was introduced by Dick Powell and Ruby Keeler. The song is a jazz standard, and has been covered by numerous musicians. Successful recordings of the song have been made by Ben Selvin (in 1934), The Flamingos (in 1959), The Lettermen (in 1966) and Art Garfunkel (in 1975), among others.
The song was a # 2 hit for Ben Selvin in 1934. The orchestras of Eddie Duchin and Anson Weeks also figured in the song 's 1934 popularity.
The vocal group The Lettermen released a version in 1966 that charted in the United States and Canada, and reached # 4 on the US Billboard Easy Listening chart.
This song was included on The Flamingos ' debut album Flamingo Serenade. The version by the Flamingos features a prominent reverb effect, creating a dreamy ambience. This version peaked at number 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 3 on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. It ranked as the 73rd biggest hit of 1959 by Billboard. Rolling Stone magazine ranked the Flamingos ' version # 157 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
A recording of the song by Art Garfunkel was a number one hit on the UK Singles Chart in October 1975 for two weeks. The song was his first hit as a solo artist in the UK. In the US, the song reached number 18 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and # 1 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. The B - side of the single release was "Looking for the Right One, '' a song written and later recorded by Stephen Bishop. Garfunkel performed "I Only Have Eyes for You '' on the second episode of Saturday Night Live.
In addition to the above artists, these notable artists have also covered this song:
The song was sung in the 1935 film The Woman in Red, produced by Warner Bros., starring Barbara Stanwyck and Gene Raymond. It was also used in the 1950 film Tea for Two, sung by Gordon MacRae.
The Flamingos ' version was also used in the 1991 movie "Do n't Tell Mom the Babysitter 's Dead. ''
The Flamingos ' version was included on the soundtracks for the 1972 version of Kenneth Anger 's Rabbit 's Moon, 1973 film American Graffiti, 1983 films The Right Stuff and Heart Like a Wheel, the 1991 film My Girl, the 1993 Robert De Niro film A Bronx Tale and the 2003 movie Something 's Gotta Give starring Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton. Grace (Nicole Kidman) also sings a portion of the song to Charles (Christopher Eccleston) in the 2001 film The Others. The trailer of The Grudge 2 also briefly features the song. In the 2001 sci - fi movie A.I. Artificial Intelligence, Gigolo Joe, a lover robot, has this song built into him, and he can play it by a tilt of his head. He plays it to seduce women.
On television, it was used as a recurring theme in a Tex Avery - directed Warner Bros. Merrie Melodies cartoon of the same title, in a scene in the 1989 episode of The Wonder Years, "How I 'm Spending My Summer Vacation '', and in a 1998 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer involving two ghosts from the 1950s borrowing its title from the song and features excerpts of it in several scenes. In scenes from the September 25, 1989 episode of Designing Women, "One Night with You. '' Disney also featured a music video of the song in the special DTV Doggone Valentine set to clips from Lady and the Tramp. Most recently, the song has been used in episodes of the supernatural drama TV series 666 Park Avenue and in 2013 was featured in the series Glee. It was also featured in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Lifesigns ''. In 2014 this song appeared in the horror movie Annabelle followed by the alternate history thriller, The Man in the High Castle, in 2016. It was also recently used in the newest season of Ray Donovan covered by Tashaki Miyaki. The version by The Flamingos was featured in Season 2, Episode 4 of Netflix 's The Crown in 2017.
The song was included in the 1980 revival of the musical 42nd Street.
This song makes an appearance twice in the game The Darkness 2, when Jackie Estacado dances with his love Jenny.
It is briefly played in the movie Twins (1998 film). In the scene where Arnold Schwarzenegger gets his girl. A 35 - minute version of the song alternately featuring Beck, Devendra Banhart, No Age, Tilda Swinton, and other artists formed the audio portion of Doug Aitken 's installation Song \ 1 at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington, D.C. from March 22 to May 20, 2012.
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how much is a shilling in american money | Shilling - wikipedia
The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in Austria, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. Currently the shilling is used as a currency in four east African countries of Kenya (Kenyan shilling) Tanzania (Tanzanian shilling) Uganda (Ugandan shilling) and Somalia (Somali shilling) (autonomous region of Somalia Somaliland (Somaliland Shilling). It is also the proposed currency of the east African community plans to introduce (east African shilling). The word shilling comes from scilling, an accounting term that dates back to Anglo - Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse, where it means "division ''.
Slang terms for the old shilling coins include "bob '' and "hog ''. While the derivation of "bob '' is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was "bobstick '' and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole.
One abbreviation for shilling is s (for solidus, see £ sd). Often it was represented by a solidus symbol ("/ ''), which may have originally stood for a long s or s, thus 1 / 9 would be one shilling and ninepence (and equivalent to 21 d; the shilling itself was equal to 12 d). A price with no pence was sometimes written with a solidus and a dash: 11 / --.
The solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh.
During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound (weighing 5760 grains or 373 g) of standard (0.925 fine) silver into 66 shillings, or its equivalent in other denominations. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, when a new smaller 5p coin was introduced.
In the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere.
A shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII (or Edward VI around 1550). The shilling continued in use after the Acts of Union of 1707 created a new United Kingdom from the Kingdoms of England and Scotland, and under Article 16 of the Articles of Union, a common currency for the new United Kingdom was created.
The term shilling (Scots: schilling) was in use in Scotland from early medieval times.
The common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, and thus there were 240 pence in a pound.
Three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. They were:
At decimalisation in 1971, the shilling coin was superseded by the new five - pence piece, which initially was of identical size and weight and had the same value, and inherited the shilling 's slang name of a bob. Shillings remained in circulation until the five pence coin was reduced in size in 1991.
Between 1701 and the unification of the currencies in 1825, the Irish shilling was valued at 13 pence and known as the "black hog '', as opposed to the 12 - pence English shillings which were known as "white hogs ''.
In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish. It was worth 1 / 20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side. The first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75 % silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin (retained after decimalisation)) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, when a smaller five pence coin was introduced.
Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new ram 's head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963. In 1966, Australia 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin (Australian), where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar.
The slang term for a shilling coin in Australia was "deener ''. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was "bob '', the same as in the United Kingdom.
After 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10 - cent coins of the same size and weight.
New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933 and featured the image of a Maori warrior carrying a taiaha "in a warlike attitude '' on the reverse. In 1967, New Zealand 's currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight. Smaller 10 - cent coins were introduced in 2006.
Shillings were used in Malta, prior to decimalisation in 1972, and had a face value of five Maltese cents.
In British Ceylon, a shilling (Sinhalese: Silima, Tamil: Silin) was equivalent to eight fanams. With the replacement of the rixdollar by the rupee in 1852, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to half a rupee. On the decimalisation of the currency in 1869, a shilling was deemed to be equivalent to 50 Ceylon cents. The term continued to be used colloquially until the late 20th century.
The East African shilling was in use in the British colonies and protectorates of British Somaliland, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda and Zanzibar from 1920, when it replaced the rupee, until after those countries became independent, and in Tanzania after that country was formed by the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar in 1964. Upon independence in 1960, the East African shilling in the State of Somaliland (former British Somaliland) and the Somali somalo in the Trust Territory of Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) were replaced by the Somali shilling.
In 1966, the East African Monetary Union broke up, and the member countries replaced their currencies with the Kenyan shilling, the Ugandan shilling and the Tanzanian shilling, respectively. Though all these currencies have different values at present, there were plans to reintroduce the East African shilling as a new common currency by 2009, although this has not come about.
In the thirteen British colonies that became the United States in 1776, British money was often in circulation. Each colony issued its own paper money, with pounds, shillings, and pence used as the standard units of account. Some coins were minted in the colonies, such as the 1652 pine - tree shilling in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. After the United States adopted the dollar as its unit of currency and accepted the gold standard, one British shilling was worth 24 US cents. Due to ongoing shortages of US coins in some regions, shillings continued to circulate well into the 19th century. Shillings are described as the standard monetary unit throughout the autobiography of Solomon Northup (1853) and mentioned several times in the Horatio Alger, Jr. story, Ragged Dick (1868).
The Somali shilling is the official currency of Somalia. It is subdivided into 100 cents (English), senti (Somali, also سنت) or centesimi (Italian).
The Somali shilling has been the currency of parts of Somalia since 1921, when the East African shilling was introduced to the former British Somaliland protectorate. Following independence in 1960, the somalo of Italian Somaliland and the East African shilling (which were equal in value) were replaced at par in 1962 by the Somali shilling. Names used for the denominations were cent, centesimo (plural: centesimi) and سنت (plurals: سنتيمات and سنتيما) together with shilling, scellino (plural: scellini) and شلن.
That same year, the Banca Nazionale Somala issued notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 scellini / shillings. In 1975, the Bankiga Qaranka Soomaaliyeed (Somali National Bank) introduced notes for 5, 10, 20 and 100 shilin / shillings. These were followed in 1978 by notes of the same denominations issued by the Bankiga Dhexe Ee Soomaaliya (Central Bank of Somalia). 50 shilin / shillings notes were introduced in 1983, followed by 500 shilin / shillings in 1989 and 1000 shilin / shillings in 1990. Also in 1990 there was an attempt to reform the currency at 100 to 1, with new banknotes of 20 and 50 new shilin prepared for the redenomination.
Following the breakdown in central authority that accompanied the civil war, which began in the early 1990s, the value of the Somali shilling was disrupted. The Central Bank of Somalia, the nation 's monetary authority, also shut down operations. Rival producers of the local currency, including autonomous regional entities such as the Somaliland territory, subsequently emerged.
Somalia 's newly established Transitional Federal Government revived the defunct Central Bank of Somalia in the late 2000s. In terms of financial management, the monetary authority is in the process of assuming the task of both formulating and implementing monetary policy. Owing to a lack of confidence in the Somali shilling, the US dollar is widely accepted as a medium of exchange alongside the Somali shilling. Dollarization notwithstanding, the large issuance of the Somali shilling has increasingly fueled price hikes, especially for low value transactions. This inflationary environment, however, is expected to come to an end as soon as the Central Bank assumes full control of monetary policy and replaces the presently circulating currency introduced by the private sector.
The Somaliland shilling is the official currency of Somaliland, a self - declared republic that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. The currency is not recognised as legal tender by the international community, and it currently has no official exchange rate. It is regulated by the Bank of Somaliland, the territory 's central bank. Although the authorities in Somaliland have attempted to bar usage of the Somali shilling, Somalia 's official currency is still the preferred means of exchange for many peoples in the region.
Elsewhere in the former British Empire, forms of the word shilling remain in informal use. In Vanuatu and Solomon Islands, selen is used in Bislama and Pijin to mean "money ''; in Malaysia, syiling (pronounced like shilling) means "coin ''. In Egypt and Jordan the shillin (Arabic: شلن ) is equal to 1 / 20th (five qirshes -- Arabic: قرش , English: piastres) of the Egyptian pound or the Jordanian dinar. In Belize, the term shilling is commonly used to refer to twenty - five cents.
The Austrian schilling was the currency of Austria between 1924 and 1938 and again between 1945 and 2002. It was replaced by the euro at a fixed parity of € 1 = 13.7603 schilling. The schilling was divided into 100 groschen.
Shillings were issued in the Scandinavian countries (skilling) until the Scandinavian Monetary Union of 1873, and in the city of Hamburg, Germany.
In Poland szeląg was used.
In the principalities covering present Netherlands, Belgium and Luxemburg, the cognate term schelling was used as an equivalent ' arithmetic ' currency, a ' solidus ' representing 12 ' denarii ' or 1 / 20 ' pound ', while actual coins were rarely physical multiples of it, but still expressed in these terms.
The sol, later the sou, both also derived from the Roman solidus, were the equivalent coins in France, while the (nuevo) sol (PEN) remains the currency of Peru.
As in France, the Peruvian sol was originally named after the Roman solidus, but the name of the Peruvian currency is now much more closely linked to the Spanish word for the sun (sol). This helps explain the name of its temporary replacement, the inti, named for the Incan sun god.
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an element short form that is the same in every language | List of chemical element name etymologies - wikipedia
This is the list of etymologies for all chemical element names.
Unnilseptium was used as a temporary systematic element name.
Unnilpentium was used as a temporary systematic element name.
Unnilnilium would have been used as a temporary systematic element name if the IUPAC system had been in place at the time.
Ununquadium was used as a temporary systematic element name.
Gallium was called eka - aluminium by Mendeleev who predicted its existence.
The symbol has been Lr since 1963; formerly Lw was used. Unniltrium would have been used as a temporary systematic element name if the IUPAC system had been in place at the time.
Ununhexium was used as a temporary systematic element name.
Unnilbium would have been used as a temporary systematic element name if the IUPAC system had been in place at the time.
Unnilquadium was used as a temporary systematic element name.
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where did influenza come from in the columbian exchange | Columbian Exchange - wikipedia
The Columbian Exchange was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, related to European colonization and trade following Christopher Columbus 's 1492 voyage. Invasive species, including communicable diseases, were a byproduct of the Exchange. The changes in agriculture significantly altered and changed global populations. However, the most significant immediate impact of the Columbian Exchange was the cultural exchanges and the transfer of people between continents.
The new contact between the global population circulated a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in population in both hemispheres, although diseases initially caused precipitous declines in the numbers of indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Europe by the 18th century.
The term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by other historians and journalists and has become widely known.
In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange. This book covers the environmental impact of Columbus ' landing in the new world.
The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C. Mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosby 's original research.
Four plants native to the Americas have spread around the world: Potato, maize, tomato, and tobacco. Before 1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to about 25 % of the population growth in Afro - Eurasia between 1700 and 1900. Many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.
Maize and cassava, introduced to the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum and millet as Africa 's most important food crops. 16th - century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia. On a larger scale, the coming of potatoes and maize to the old world "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples '' throughout the Eurasian landmass as they created more varied and abundant food production.
Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value (see below). From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general. Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Middle East and sugarcane (introduced from South Asia) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an integral part of Indian cuisine.
Before the Columbian Exchange, there were no oranges in Florida, no bananas in Ecuador, no paprika in Hungary, no potatoes in Ireland, no coffee in Colombia, no pineapples in Hawaii, no rubber trees in Africa, no chili peppers in Thailand, no tomatoes in Italy, and no chocolate in Switzerland.
It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted. Of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th - century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the generator of "melancholic humours. '' In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. On October 31, 1548 the tomato was given its first name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de ' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De ' Medici 's private secretary that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely. '' At this time, the label pomi d'oro was also used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.
In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought only for their beauty '' and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were only occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote, "it is said (tomatoes) are good for sauces. '' Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, but rarely for culinary use. The combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (12,950 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italy, although there are still areas where relatively few tomatoes are grown and consumed.
Initially, at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went through one route, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses. One of the first European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes in the mountains. They shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, as opposed to agriculture, based on hunting bison on horseback and moved down to the Great Plains. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.
Still, the effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean, the proliferation of European animals had large effects on native fauna and undergrowth and damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.
European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle - cell disease.
Before regular communication had been established between the two hemispheres, the varieties of domesticated animals and infectious diseases that jumped to humans, such as smallpox, were substantially more numerous in the Old World than in the New due to more extensive long - distance trade networks. Many had migrated west across Eurasia with animals or people, or were brought by traders from Asia, so diseases of two continents were suffered by all occupants. While Europeans and Asians were affected by the Eurasian diseases, their endemic status in those continents over centuries resulted in many people gaining acquired immunity.
By contrast, "Old World '' diseases had a devastating effect when introduced to Native American populations via European carriers, as the people in the Americas had no natural immunity to the new diseases. Measles caused many deaths. The smallpox epidemics are believed to have caused the largest death tolls among Native Americans, surpassing any wars and far exceeding the comparative loss of life in Europe due to the Black Death. It is estimated that upwards of 80 -- 95 percent of the Native American population died in these epidemics within the first 100 -- 150 years following 1492. Many regions in the Americas lost 100 %. The beginning of demographic collapse on the North American continent has typically been attributed to the spread of a well - documented smallpox epidemic from Hispaniola in December 1518. At that point in time, approximately only 10,000 indigenous people were still alive in Hispaniola.
Similarly, yellow fever is thought to have been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave trade. Because it was endemic in Africa, many people there had acquired immunity. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African - descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and continuing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave - based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by sugar plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical area by reducing the number of potential natural predators. Yet, the means of the transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.
The history of syphilis has been well - studied, but the exact origin of the disease is unknown and remains a subject of debate. There are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas by the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe but went unrecognized. These are referred to as the "Columbian '' and "pre-Columbian '' hypotheses. The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493. The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494 / 1495 in Naples, Italy, among the army of Charles VIII, during their invasion of Naples.
One of the influences related to the migration of people were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500 -- 1800 '' Pieter Remmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a ' clash of cultures ' had begun in the Atlantic ''. This clash of culture transferred European values to indigenous cultures. For example, the emergence of private property in regions where there were little to no rights to lands, the concepts of monogamy and the nuclear family, the role of women and children in the family system, and the "superiority of free labor ''. An example of this type of cultural exchange occurred during the 1500s in North America. When these early European colonizers first entered North America, they encountered fence-less lands which indicated to them that this land was unimproved. For these Europeans, they were seeking economic opportunities, therefore, land and resources were important for the success of the mission. When these colonizers entered North America they encountered a fully established culture of people called the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots within larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for naturally growing and useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as "hallmarks of civilization '' they set about transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves ''. In implementing their practices, the Europeans enslaved, murdered, and exploited indigenous populations. Furthermore, in cases of enslaved peoples (and in particular, enslaved Africans) the Europeans simultaneously implemented their value system while at the same time justifying enslaving people through a philosophy which reduced the enslaved people to property. Thus, the slave traders and some of the plantation owners used the concept of family to exploit and control the enslaved people. In other subtle ways, which had a large impact the cultural exchanges involved sharing practices and traditions. An example of this can be found in the tobacco industry.
Tobacco was one of the luxury goods which was spread as a direct result of the Columbian Exchange. As is discussed in regard to the trans - Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for free labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493 -- 1588) noted that "The black people that have gone from these parts to the Indies, have taken up the same manner and use of tobacco that the Indians have ''. As the European colonizers and enslaved Africans traveled the globe and came into contact with indigenous peoples, they took with them the cultural practices related to tobacco, and spread them to additional regions. Therefore, demand for tobacco grew in the course of the cultural exchanges and increased contacts among peoples.
Plants that arrived by land, sea, or air in the times before 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by chance, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Japan to the United States to help control soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.
Fungi have also been transported, such as the one responsible for Dutch elm disease, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted as street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems after establishing in the New World environments. A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now thought to have originated in Patagonia.
In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals as brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New World), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships. Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals have thrived in both the Old and New Worlds, often negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New World, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses and cattle are common, and Burmese pythons are considered problematic. In the Old World, Eastern gray squirrel have been particularly successful in colonising Great Britain and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus and Japan. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations. Canada geese are also common.
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who wrote my first my last my everything | You 're the First, the Last, My Everything - wikipedia
"You 're the First, the Last, My Everything '' is a popular song recorded by Barry White. Written by White, Tony Sepe and Peter Radcliffe and produced by White, "You 're the First, the Last, My Everything '' was White 's fourth top ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, reaching # 2; it spent a week at # 1 on the Billboard Hot Soul Singles chart. The track made it to number two on the disco / dance charts. In the UK Singles Chart it fared even better, spending two weeks at the top in December 1974. It appeared on White 's 1974 album Ca n't Get Enough.
Radcliffe originally wrote the track as a country song with the title "You 're My First, You 're My Last, My In - Between '', which went unrecorded for 21 years. White recorded it as a disco song, retaining most of the musical structure while rewriting the lyrics.
It was certified silver for 200,000 sold copies in United Kingdom in 1974.
The song is featured in the films Money Talks (1997; also on its CD soundtrack album, where White had recorded an alternative version, as simply "My Everything '' as a duet with Faith Evans), Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason (2004; also on its CD soundtrack album), Zookeeper (2011), and anachronistically in Tim Burton 's film Dark Shadows (2012; also on its CD soundtrack album) as the film was set in 1972, two years before the song was released.
It was also in several episodes of the Fox series Ally McBeal, accompanying John Cage (Peter MacNicol) during his life most of the time. Whenever he gets into a difficult situation, he withdraws and concentrates on the song, hearing it and dancing to it, to regain strength and concentrate on whatever comes along.
The song is featured in the music video game Just Dance 4 (2012) for PlayStation 3, Wii, Wii U, and Xbox 360.
This song also featured in Nutricia Bebelac Growth Milk TV Commercial in Indonesia until 2011
A cover version of the song performed by Howard Brown was released in 2005 in the UK as a charity single. It peaked at # 13 in the UK singles chart. Prior to its release it had been adapted for a popular television commercial for Halifax Bank in which Brown could be seen singing and dancing.
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what country dominated eastern europe after world war ii | Aftermath of World war II - wikipedia
The Aftermath of World War II was the beginning of an era defined by the decline of all great powers except for the Soviet Union and the United States, and the simultaneous rise of two superpowers: the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States of America (USA). Allies during World War II, the USA and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared hot war between the two powers but was instead characterized by espionage, political subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe and Japan were rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan whereas Central and Eastern Europe fell under the Soviet sphere of influence and eventually an "Iron Curtain ''. Europe was divided into a US - led Western Bloc and a Soviet - led Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War also saw a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers; part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot '' war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually assured destruction standoff.
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to the League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Common Market and ultimately into the current European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France by economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources.
The end of the war also increased the rate of decolonization from the great powers with independence being granted to India (from the United Kingdom), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from the US) and a number of Arab nations, primarily from specific rights which had been granted to great powers from League of Nations Mandates in the post World War I - era but often having existed de facto well before this time. Also related to this was the US helping Israel gain controversial independence from its previous status as part of Palestine in the years immediately following the war. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came more slowly.
The aftermath of World War II also saw the rise of communist influence in Southeast Asia, with the People 's Republic of China, as the Chinese Communists emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
At the end of the war, millions of people were dead and millions homeless, the European economy had collapsed, and much of the European industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. The Soviet Union, too, had been heavily affected. In response, in 1947, U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall devised the "European Recovery Program '', which became known as the Marshall Plan. Under the plan, during 1948 -- 1952 the United States government allocated US $13 billion (US $142 billion in 2017 dollars) for the reconstruction of Western Europe.
By the end of the war, the economy of the United Kingdom was one of severe privation. More than a quarter of its national wealth had been consumed. Until the introduction in 1941 of Lend - Lease aid from the US, the UK had been spending its assets to purchase American equipment including aircraft and ships -- over £ 437 million on aircraft alone. Lend - lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. Britain had placed 55 % of its total labour force into war production.
In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the wartime coalition government, in an effort to oust Winston Churchill, forcing a general election. Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than 60 % of the seats in the House of Commons and formed a new government on 26 July 1945 under Clement Attlee.
Britain 's war debt was described by some in the American administration as a "millstone round the neck of the British economy ''. Although there were suggestions for an international conference to tackle the issue, in August 1945 the U.S. announced unexpectedly that the Lend - Lease programme was to end immediately.
The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend Lease support to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a severe blow to the plans of the new government. It was only with the completion of the Anglo - American loan by the United States to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of economic stability was restored. However, the loan was made primarily to support British overseas expenditure in the immediate post-war years and not to implement the Labour government 's policies for domestic welfare reforms and the nationalisation of key industries. Although the loan was agreed on reasonable terms, its conditions included what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for Sterling. From 1946 - 1948, the UK introduced bread rationing which it never did during the war.
The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German - controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union. The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.
Soviet ex-POWs and civilians repatriated from abroad were suspected of having been Nazi collaborators, and 226,127 of them were sent to forced labour camps after scrutiny by Soviet intelligence, NKVD. Many ex-POWs and young civilians were also conscripted to serve in the Red Army. Others worked in labour battalions to rebuild infrastructure destroyed during the war.
The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union 's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet - occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.
The immediate post-war period in Europe was dominated by the Soviet Union annexing, or converting into Soviet Socialist Republics, all the countries invaded and annexed by the Red Army driving the Germans out of central and eastern Europe. New satellite states were set up by the Soviets in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and East Germany; the last of these was created from the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. Yugoslavia emerged as an independent Communist state allied but not aligned with the Soviet Union, owing to the independent nature of the military victory of the Partisans of Josip Broz Tito during World War II in Yugoslavia. The Allies established the Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan to administer their occupation of that country while the establishment Allied Control Council, administered occupied Germany. In accordance with the Potsdam Conference agreements, the Soviet Union occupied and subsequently annexed the strategic island of Sakhalin.
In the west, Alsace - Lorraine was returned to France. The Sudetenland reverted to Czechoslovakia following the European Advisory Commission 's decision to delimit German territory to be the territory it held on 31 December 1937. Close to one quarter of pre-war (1937) Germany was de facto annexed by the Allies; roughly 10 million Germans were either expelled from this territory or not permitted to return to it if they had fled during the war. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council. The Saar was detached and put in economic union with France in 1947. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was created out of the Western zones. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic.
Germany paid reparations to the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union, mainly in the form of dismantled factories, forced labour, and coal. German standard of living was to be reduced to its 1932 level. Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the US and Britain pursued an "intellectual reparations '' programme to harvest all technological and scientific know - how as well as all patents in Germany. The value of these amounted to around US $10 billion (US $125 billion in 2017 dollars). In accordance with the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947, reparations were also assessed from the countries of Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Finland.
US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the minimum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies ' immediate post-war "industrial disarmament '' plan for Germany had been to destroy Germany 's capability to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50 % of its 1938 level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6.7 million tons. After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President Truman rescinded on "national security grounds '' the directive that had ordered the US occupation forces to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany. '' A new directive recognised that "(a) n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany. '' From mid-1946 onwards Germany received US government aid through the GARIOA programme. From 1948 onwards West Germany also became a minor beneficiary of the Marshall Plan. Volunteer organisations had initially been forbidden to send food, but in early 1946 the Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate in Germany was founded. The prohibition against sending CARE Packages to individuals in Germany was rescinded on 5 June 1946,
After the German surrender, the International Red Cross was prohibited from providing aid such as food or visiting POW camps for Germans inside Germany. However, after making approaches to the Allies in the autumn of 1945 it was allowed to investigate the camps in the UK and French occupation zones of Germany, as well as to provide relief to the prisoners held there. On 4 February 1946, the Red Cross was permitted to visit and assist prisoners also in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany, although only with very small quantities of food. The Red Cross petitioned successfully for improvements to be made in the living conditions of German POWs.
The 1947 Treaty of Peace with Italy spelled the end of the Italian colonial empire, along with other border revisions. The 1947 Paris Peace Treaties compelled Italy to pay $360 million (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war reparations: $125 million to Yugoslavia, $105 million to Greece, $100 million to the Soviet Union, $25 million to Ethiopia and $5 million to Albania. In the 1946 Italian constitutional referendum the Italian monarchy was abolished, having been associated with the deprivations of the war and the Fascist rule, especially in the North.
Unlike in Germany and Japan, no war crimes tribunals were held against Italian military and political leaders, though the Italian resistance summarily executed some of them (such as Mussolini) at the end of the war; the Togliatti amnesty, taking its name from the Communist Party secretary at the time, pardoned all wartime common and political crimes in 1946.
The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria.
After the war, the Allies rescinded Japanese pre-war annexations such as Manchuria, and Korea became independent. The Philippines and Guam were returned to the United States. Burma, Malaya and Singapore were returned to Britain and French Indo - China back to France. The Dutch East Indies was to be handed back to the Dutch, but was resisted leading to the Indonesian war for independence. At the Yalta Conference, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt had secretly traded the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin to the Soviet Union in return for Soviet entry in the war with Japan. The Soviet Union annexed the Kuril Islands, provoking the Kuril Islands dispute, which is ongoing, as Russia continues to occupy the islands.
Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a main US staging point. The US covered large areas of it with military bases and continued to occupy it until 1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main islands. The bases still remain. To skirt the Geneva Convention, the Allies classified many Japanese soldiers as Japanese Surrendered Personnel instead of POWs and used them as forced labour until 1947. The UK, France, and the Netherlands conscripted some Japanese troops to fight colonial resistances elsewhere in Asia. General Douglas MacArthur established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. The Allies collected reparations from Japan.
To further remove Japan as a potential future military threat, the Far Eastern Commission decided to de-industrialise Japan, with the goal of reducing Japanese standard of living to what prevailed between 1930 and 1934. In the end, the de-industrialisation programme in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree than the one in Germany. Japan received emergency aid from GARIOA, as did Germany. In early 1946, the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia were formed and permitted to supply Japanese with food and clothes. In April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recommended that the economy of Japan should be reconstructed due to the high cost to US taxpayers of continuous emergency aid.
Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, known as hibakusha (被爆 者), were ostracized by Japanese society. Japan provided no special assistance to these people until 1952. By the 65th anniversary of the bombings, total casualties from the initial attack and later deaths reached about 270,000 in Hiroshima and 150,000 in Nagasaki. About 230,000 hibakusha were still alive as of 2010, and about 2,200 were suffering from radiation - caused illnesses as of 2007.
In the Winter War of 1939 -- 1940, the Soviet Union invaded neutral Finland and annexed some of its territory. From 1941 until 1944, Finland aligned itself with Nazi Germany in a failed effort to regain lost territories from the Soviets. Finland retained its independence following the war, but remained subject to Soviet - imposed constraints in its domestic affairs.
In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neutral Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In June 1941, the Soviet governments of the Baltic states carried out mass deportations of "enemies of the people ''; as a result, many treated the invading Nazis as liberators when they invaded only a week later.
The Atlantic Charter promised self - determination to peoples deprived of it during the war. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, argued for a weaker interpretation of the Charter to permit the Soviet Union to continue to control the Baltic states. In March 1944 the U.S. accepted Churchill 's view that the Atlantic Charter did not apply to the Baltic states.
With the return of Soviet troops at the end of the war, the Forest Brothers mounted a guerrilla war. This continued until the mid-1950s.
An estimated one million military and civilian Filipinos were killed from all causes; of these 131,028 were listed as killed in seventy - two war crime events. According to a United States analysis released years after the war, U.S. casualties were 10,380 dead and 36,550 wounded; Japanese dead were 255,795.
As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland lost the Kresy region (about half of its pre-War territory) and received most of Germany east of the Oder - Neisse line, including the industrial regions of Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a protectorate of France, but later returned to German administration. As set forth at Potsdam, approximately 12 million people were expelled from Germany, including seven million from Germany proper, and three million from the Sudetenland.
During the war, the United States government interned approximately 110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese who lived along the Pacific coast of the United States in the wake of Imperial Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor. Canada interned approximately 22,000 Japanese Canadians, 14,000 of whom were born in Canada. After the war, some internees chose to return to Japan, while most remained in North America.
The Soviet Union expelled at least 2 million Poles from east of the new border approximating the Curzon Line. This estimate is uncertain as both the Polish Communist government and the Soviet government did not keep track of the number of expelled. The number of Polish citizens inhabiting Polish borderlands (Kresy region) was about 13 million before World War II broke out according to official Polish statistics. Polish citizens killed in the war that originated from the Polish borderlands territory (killed by both German Nazi regime and the Soviet regime or expelled to distant parts of Siberia) were accounted as Russian, Ukrainian or Belorussian casualties of war in official Soviet historiography. This fact imposes additional difficulties in making the correct estimation of the number of Polish citizens forcibly transferred after the war. The border change also reversed the results of the 1919 - 1920 Polish - Soviet War. Former Polish cities such as Lwów came under control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. Additionally, the Soviet Union transferred more than two million people within their own borders; these included Germans, Finns, Crimean Tatars, and Chechens.
As Soviet troops marched across the Balkans, they committed rapes and robberies in Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. The population of Bulgaria was largely spared this treatment, due possibly to a sense of ethnic kinship or to the leadership of Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin. The population of Germany was treated significantly worse. Rape and murder of German civilians was as bad as, and sometimes worse than, Nazi propaganda had anticipated. Political officers encouraged Soviet troops to seek revenge and terrorise the German population. On "the basis of Hochrechnungen (projections or estimations) '', "1.9 million German women altogether were raped at the end of the war by Red Army soldiers. '' About one - third of all German women in Berlin were raped by Soviet forces. A substantial minority was raped multiple times. In Berlin, contemporary hospital records indicate between 95,000 and 130,000 women were raped by Soviet troops. About 10,000 of these women died, mostly by suicide. Over 4.5 million Germans fled towards the West. The Soviets initially had no rules against their troops "fraternising '' with German women, but by 1947 they started to isolate their troops from the German population in an attempt to stop rape and robbery by the troops. Not all Soviet soldiers participated in these activities.
Foreign reports of Soviet brutality were denounced as false. Rape, robbery, and murder were blamed on German bandits impersonating Soviet soldiers. Some justified Soviet brutality towards German civilians based on previous brutality of German troops toward Russian civilians. Until the reunification of Germany, East German histories virtually ignored the actions of Soviet troops, and Russian histories still tend to do so. Reports of mass rapes by Soviet troops were often dismissed as anti-Communist propaganda or the normal byproduct of war.
Rapes also occurred under other occupation forces, though the majority were committed by Soviet troops. French Moroccan troops matched the behaviour of Soviet troops when it came to rape, especially in the early occupations of Baden and Württemberg. In a letter to the editor of TIME published in September 1945, an American army sergeant wrote, "Our own Army and the British Army along with ours have done their share of looting and raping... This offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, but the percentage is large enough to have given our Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered an army of rapists. '' Robert Lilly 's analysis of military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands of US soldiers between 1942 and 1945. Lilly assumed that only 5 % of rapes by American soldiers were reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while analysts estimate that 50 % of (ordinary peace - time) rapes are reported. Supporting Lilly 's lower figure is the "crucial difference '' that for World War II military rapes "it was the commanding officer, not the victim, who brought charges ''.
German soldiers left many war children behind in nations such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for an extended period. After the war, the children and their mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the "Tyskerunger "(German - kids) suffered greatly.
In the first few weeks of the American military occupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka, but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture. Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture, there were 119 known rapes in September 1945.
Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that "When US paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of looting, sexual violence, and drunken brawling ensued. Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent '' and some of the rape victims committed suicide.
General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when the Japanese formed a self - help vigilante guard to protect women from off - duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armored vehicles in battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms.
According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were also involved in rapes:
A former prostitute recalled that as soon as Australian troops arrived in Kure in early 1946, they "dragged young women into their jeeps, took them to the mountain, and then raped them. I heard them screaming for help nearly every night '. Such behavior was commonplace, but news of criminal activity by Occupation forces was quickly suppressed.
Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes:
Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the marines "mopped up '' the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started "hunting for women '' in broad daylight and those who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.
According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape - murder were reported during the first five years of the American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were unreported.
The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate even before the war was over, when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill exchanged a heated correspondence over whether the Polish government - in - exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill, or the Provisional Government, backed by Stalin, should be recognised. Stalin won.
A number of allied leaders felt that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May 1945, American Under - Secretary of State Joseph Grew went so far as to say that it was inevitable.
On 5 March 1946, in his "Sinews of Peace '' (Iron Curtain) speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill said "a shadow '' had fallen over Europe. He described Stalin as having dropped an "Iron Curtain '' between East and West. Stalin responded by charging that co-existence between communist countries and the West was impossible. In mid-1948 the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation in Berlin.
Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code - named Operation Dropshot in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union and its allies in order to counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near East and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would begin around 1957. In response, the US would saturate the Soviet Union with atomic and high - explosive bombs, and then invade and occupy the country. In later years, to reduce military expenditures while countering Soviet conventional strength, President Dwight Eisenhower would adopt a strategy of massive retaliation, relying on the threat of a US nuclear strike to prevent non-nuclear incursions by the Soviet Union in Europe and elsewhere. The approach entailed a major buildup of US nuclear forces and a corresponding reduction in America 's non-nuclear ground and naval strength. The Soviet Union viewed these developments as "atomic blackmail ''.
In Greece, civil war broke out in 1946 between Anglo - American - supported royalist forces and communist - led forces, with the royalist forces emerging as the victors. The US launched a massive programme of military and economic aid to Greece and to neighbouring Turkey, arising from a fear that the Soviet Union stood on the verge of breaking through the NATO defence line to the oil - rich Middle East. On 12 March 1947, to gain Congressional support for the aid, President Truman described the aid as promoting democracy in defence of the "free world '', a principle that became known as the Truman Doctrine.
The US sought to promote an economically strong and politically united Western Europe to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly using tools such as the European Recovery Program, which encouraged European economic integration. The International Authority for the Ruhr, designed to keep German industry down and controlled, evolved into the European Coal and Steel Community, a founding pillar of the European Union. The United States also worked covertly to promote European integration, for example using the American Committee on United Europe to funnel funds to European federalist movements. In order to ensure that Western Europe could withstand the Soviet military threat, the Western European Union was founded in 1948 and NATO in 1949. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organisation 's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down ''. However, without the manpower and industrial output of West Germany no conventional defence of Western Europe had any hope of succeeding. To remedy this, in 1950 the US sought to promote the European Defence Community, which would have included a rearmed West Germany. The attempt was dashed when the French Parliament rejected it. On 9 May 1955, West Germany was instead admitted to NATO; the immediate result was the creation of the Warsaw Pact five days later.
The Cold War also saw the creation of propaganda and espionage organisations such as Radio Free Europe, the Information Research Department, the Gehlen Organization, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Special Activities Division, and the Ministry for State Security.
In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was complicated by the split between East and West as well as by the movement toward national self - determination in European colonial territories.
As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union went to war against Japan three months after the defeat of Germany. The Soviet forces invaded Manchuria. This was the end of the Manchukuo puppet state and all Japanese settlers were forced to leave China. The Soviet Union dismantled the industrial base in Manchuria built up by the Japanese in the preceding years. Manchuria also became a base for the Communist Chinese forces because of the Soviet presence.
After the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek) and the Communist Chinese forces resumed their civil war, which had been temporarily suspended when they fought together against Japan. The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strengthened popular support among the Chinese for the Communist guerrilla forces while it weakened the KMT, who depleted their strength fighting a conventional war. Full - scale war between the opposing forces broke out in June 1946. Despite U.S. support to the Kuomintang, Communist forces were ultimately victorious and established the People 's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949. Hostilities had largely ceased in 1950.
With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that it had been promised by the Western Allies during World War II. The defeat of the US - backed KMT led to a debate in the United States about who in the US government was responsible for this, the debate is commonly labeled "Who lost China? ''
The outbreak of the Korean War diverted the attention of the PRC at the same time as it bolstered US support for Chiang Kai - shek, the two main factors that prevented the PRC from invading Taiwan. Intermittent military clashes occurred between the PRC and Taiwan from 1950 - 1979. Taiwan unilaterally declared the civil war over in 1991, but no formal peace treaty or truce exists and the PRC officially sees Taiwan as a breakaway province that rightfully belongs to it and has expressed its opposition to Taiwanese independence. Even so, tensions between the two states has decreased over time for example with the Chen - Chiang summits (2008 - 2011).
Sino - American relations (between the PRC and the US) continued to be mostly hostile up until US president Nixon visited China in 1972. From this point the relations between them have improved over time although some tension and rivalry remain even with the end of the Cold War and the PRC 's distancing from the Communist ideology.
At the Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed that an undivided post-war Korea would be placed under four - power multinational trusteeship. After Japan 's surrender, this agreement was modified to a joint Soviet - American occupation of Korea. The agreement was that Korea would be divided and occupied by the Soviets from the north and the Americans from the south.
Korea, formerly under Japanese rule, and which had been partially occupied by the Red Army following the Soviet Union 's entry into the war against Japan, was divided at the 38th parallel on the orders of the US War Department. A US military government in southern Korea was established in the capital city of Seoul. The American military commander, Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, enlisted many former Japanese administrative officials to serve in this government. North of the military line, the Soviets administered the disarming and demobilisation of repatriated Korean nationalist guerrillas who had fought on the side of Chinese nationalists against the Japanese in Manchuria during World War II. Simultaneously, the Soviets enabled a build - up of heavy armaments to pro-communist forces in the north. The military line became a political line in 1948, when separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel, each republic claiming to be the legitimate government of Korea. It culminated in the north invading the south, start of the Korean War two years later.
Labour and civil unrest broke out in the British colony of Malaya in 1946. A state of emergency was declared by the colonial authorities in 1948 with the outbreak of acts of terrorism. The situation deteriorated into a full - scale anti-colonial insurgency, or Anti-British National Liberation War as the insurgents referred to it, led by the Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA), the military wing of the Malayan Communist Party. The Malayan Emergency would endure for the next 12 years, ending in 1960. In 1967, communist leader Chin Peng reopened hostilities, culminating in a second emergency that lasted until 1989.
Events during World War II in the colony of French Indochina (consisting of the modern - day states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.
During World War II, the Vichy French aligned colonial authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The communist - controlled common front Viet Minh (supported by the Allies) was formed among the Vietnamese in the colony in 1941 to fight for the independence of Vietnam, against both the Japanese and prewar French powers. After the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 support for the Viet Minh was bolstered as the front launched a rebellion, sacking rice warehouses and urging the Vietnamese to refuse to pay taxes. Because the French colonial authorities started to hold secret talks with the Free French, the Japanese interned them 9 March 1945. When Japan surrendered in August, this created a power vacuum, and the Viet Minh took power in the August Revolution, declaring the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, the Allies (including the Soviet Union) all agreed that the area belonged to the French. Nationalist Chinese forces moved in from the north and British from the south (as the French were unable to do so immediately themselves) and then handed power to the French, a process completed by March 1946. Attempts to integrate the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with French rule failed and the Viet Minh launched their rebellion against the French rule starting the First Indochina War that same year (the Viet Minh organized common fronts to fight the French in Laos and Cambodia).
The war ended in 1954 with French withdrawal and a partition of Vietnam that was intended to be temporary until elections could be held. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam held the north while South Vietnam formed into a separate republic in control of Ngo Dinh Diem who was backed in his refusal to hold elections by the US. The communist party of the south eventually organized the common front NLF to fight to unite south and north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and thus began the Vietnam War, which ended with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam conquering the South in 1975.
Japan invaded and occupied Indonesia during the war and replaced much of the Dutch colonial state. Although the top positions were held by Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four and a half - year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony, using a significant portion of their Marshall Plan aid to this end. The Dutch were directly helped by UK forces who sought to re-establish the colonial dominions in Asia. The UK also kept 35,000 Japanese Surrendered Personnel under arms to fight the Indonesians.
Although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia 's territory, a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty.
British covert operations in the Baltic States, which began in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated after the war. In Operation Jungle, the Secret Intelligence Service (known as MI6) recruited and trained Estonians, Latvians and Lithuanians for the clandestine work in the Baltic states between 1948 and 1955. Leaders of the operation included Alfons Rebane, Stasys Žymantas, and Rūdolfs Silarājs. The agents were transported under the cover of the "British Baltic Fishery Protection Service ''. They launched from British - occupied Germany, using a converted World War II E-boat captained and crewed by former members of the wartime German navy. British intelligence also trained and infiltrated anti-communist agents into Russia from across the Finnish border, with orders to assassinate Soviet officials. In the end, counter-intelligence supplied to the KGB by Kim Philby allowed the KGB to penetrate and ultimately gain control of MI6 's entire intelligence network in the Baltic states.
Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the reputation gained by the US during its successes in Europe.
The KGB believed that the Third World rather than Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold War. Moscow would in later years fuel an arms buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used as proxies in the Cold War would often become "failed states '' of their own.
When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge, the war crimes programmes and denazification policies of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and long - range rocket scientists. Many of these, prior to their capture, had worked on developing the German V - 2 long - range rocket at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde. Western Allied occupation force officers in Germany were ordered to refuse to cooperate with the Soviets in sharing captured wartime secret weapons, the recovery for which, specifically in regards to advanced German aviation technology and personnel, the British had sent the Fedden Mission into Germany to contact its aviation technology centers and key personnel, paralleled by the United States with its own Operation Lusty aviation technology personnel and knowledge recovery program.
In Operation Paperclip, beginning in 1945, the United States imported 1,600 German scientists and technicians, as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the US and the UK, including about $10 billion (US $125 billion in 2017 dollars) in patents and industrial processes. In late 1945, three German rocket - scientist groups arrived in the U.S. for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees ''.
The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip scientists would later be investigated. Arthur Rudolph left the United States in 1984, in order to not be prosecuted. Similarly, Georg Rickhey, who came to the United States under Operation Paperclip in 1946, was returned to Germany to stand trial at the Mittelbau - Dora war crimes trial in 1947. Following his acquittal, he returned to the United States in 1948 and eventually became a US citizen.
The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thousands of military - related technical specialists from the Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the Soviet Union. The Soviets used 92 trains to transport the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000 - 15,000 people. Much related equipment was also moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and production centres, such as the relocated V - 2 rocket centre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the Soviet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gröttrup and about two hundred scientists and technicians from Mittelwerk. Personnel were also taken from AEG, BMW 's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Farben 's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG.
The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy Colonel General Serov, outside the control of the local Soviet Military Administration. The major reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being condemned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council agreements on the liquidation of German military installations. Some Western observers thought Operation Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim was clearly planned before that.
As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to maintain international peace, the Allies formed the United Nations (UN), which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945. The UN replaced the defunct League of Nations (LN) as an intergovernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved on 20 April 1946, but had in practice ceased to function in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such as the International Labour Organization.
League of Nations mandates, mostly territories that had changed hands in World War I, became United Nations Trust Territories. South - West Africa, an exception, was still governed under terms of the original mandate. As the successor body to the League, the UN still assumed a supervisory role over the territory. The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous city state that was partly overseen by the League, became part of Poland.
The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, "as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations. '' The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The US did not ratify the social and economic rights sections.
The five major Allied powers were given permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council. The permanent members can veto any United Nations Security Council resolution, the only UN decisions that are binding according to international law. The five powers at the time of founding were: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. The Republic of China lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to the island of Taiwan by 1950 but continued to be a permanent member of the Council even though the de facto state in control of mainland China was the People 's Republic of China (PRC). This was changed in 1971 when the PRC was given the permanent membership previously held by the Republic of China. Russia inherited the permanent membership of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the dissolution of that state.
Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dispute.
By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with some 70 % of its industrial infrastructure destroyed. The property damage in the Soviet Union consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages / hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments. The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general it was quite robust, particularly in the United States.
In Europe, West Germany, after having continued to decline economically during the first years of the Allied occupation, later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war levels. Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition, but by the 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth. France rebounded quickly and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernisation under the Monnet Plan. The UK, by contrast, was in a state of economic ruin after the war and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.
The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era. Japan experienced rapid economic growth, becoming one of the most powerful economies in the world by the 1980s. China, following the conclusion of its civil war, was essentially bankrupt. By 1953, economic restoration seemed fairly successful as production had resumed pre-war levels. This growth rate mostly persisted, though it was interrupted by economic experiments during the disastrous Great Leap Forward.
At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world 's industrial output. The US, of course, had been spared industrial and civilian devastation. Further, much of its pre-war industry had been converted to wartime usage. As a result, with its industrial and civilian base in much better shape than most of the world, the US embarked on an economic expansion unseen in human history. US Gross Domestic Product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975.
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who led the parliament in passing unpopular acts | Townshend Acts - wikipedia
The Townshend Acts were a series of British acts passed beginning in 1767 and relating to the British American colonies in North America. The acts are named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who proposed the program. Historians vary slightly as to which acts they include under the heading "Townshend Acts '', but five acts are often mentioned: The Revenue Act of 1767, the Indemnity Act (1767), the New York Restraining Act (1767), the Commissioners of Customs Act (1767) and the Vice Admiralty Court Act (1767). The purpose of the Townshend Acts was to raise revenue in the colonies to pay the salaries of governors and judges so that they would remain loyal to Great Britain, to create a more effective means of enforcing compliance with trade regulations, to punish the province of New York for failing to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act, and to establish the precedent that the British Parliament had the right to tax the colonies. The Townshend Acts were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770.
The Townshend Acts placed an indirect tax on glass, lead, paints, paper and tea. These goods, were not produced within the colonies and had to be imported from Britain. This form of generating revenue was Townshend 's response to the failure of the Stamp Act, which served as the first form of direct taxation placed upon the colonies. However, the import duties proved to be similarly controversial. Colonial indignation over the Townshend Acts was predominantly driven by John Dickinson 's anonymous publication of Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, as well as the Massachusetts Circular Letter. As a result of widespread protest and non-importation of British goods in colonial ports, Parliament began to partially repeal the Townshend duties. In March 1770, most of the indirect taxes from the Townshend Acts were repealed by Parliament under Frederick Lord North. However, the import duty on tea was retained in order to demonstrate to the colonists that Parliament withheld the sovereign authority to tax its colonies an accordance with the Declaratory Act of 1766. The British government continued in its attempt to tax the colonists without their consent. Retaining the Townshend Acts ' taxation on imported tea, re-enforced by the Tea Act of 1773, subsequently led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773, which in turn sparked the Intolerable Acts in 1774. The American Revolution soon followed.
Following the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), the British Empire was deep in debt. To help pay some of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the British Parliament decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America. Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts, Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire. But with the Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved.
The Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament but the British government retorted they had "virtual representation, '' a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following the Sugar Act, became a major point of contention following Parliament 's passage of the 1765 Stamp Act. The Stamp Act proved to be wildly unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year, along with the lack of substantial revenue being raised.
Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was an issue more fundamental than taxation and representation: the question of the extent of Parliament 's authority in the colonies. Parliament provided its answer to this question when it repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 by simultaneously passing the Declaratory Act, which proclaimed that Parliament could legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''.
The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes simply known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act of 1767. This act represented the Chatham ministry 's new approach for generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. The British government had gotten the impression that because the colonists had objected to the Stamp Act on the grounds that it was a direct (or "internal '') tax, colonists would therefore accept indirect (or "external '') taxes, such as taxes on imports. With this in mind, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were only allowed to buy from Great Britain.
The colonists ' objection to "internal '' taxes did not mean that they would accept "external '' taxes; the colonial position was that any tax laid by Parliament for the purpose of raising revenue was unconstitutional. "Townshend 's mistaken belief that Americans regarded internal taxes as unconstitutional and external taxes constitutional '', wrote historian John Phillip Reid, "was of vital importance in the history of events leading to the Revolution. '' The Townshend Revenue Act received the royal assent on 29 June 1767. There was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. "Never could a fateful measure have had a more quiet passage '', wrote historian Peter Thomas.
The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act of 1767, which was intended to make the tea of the British East India Company more competitive with smuggled Dutch tea. The Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to the colonies. This tax cut in England would be partially offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies. The Revenue Act also reaffirmed the legality of writs of assistance, or general search warrants, which gave customs officials broad powers to search houses and businesses for smuggled goods.
The original stated purpose of the Townshend duties was to raise a revenue to help pay the cost of maintaining an army in North America. Townshend changed the purpose of the tax plan, however, and instead decided to use the revenue to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges. Previously, the colonial assemblies had paid these salaries, but Parliament hoped to take the "power of the purse '' away from the colonies. According to historian John C. Miller, "Townshend ingeniously sought to take money from Americans by means of parliamentary taxation and to employ it against their liberties by making colonial governors and judges independent of the assemblies. ''
Some members of Parliament objected because Townshend 's plan was expected to generate only £ 40,000 in yearly revenue, but he explained that once the precedent for taxing the colonists had been firmly established, the programme could gradually be expanded until the colonies paid for themselves. According to historian Peter Thomas, Townshend 's "aims were political rather than financial ''.
To better collect the new taxes, the Commissioners of Customs Act of 1767 established the American Board of Customs Commissioners, which was modeled on the British Board of Customs. The Board was created because of the difficulties the British Board faced in enforcing trade regulations in the distant colonies. Five commissioners were appointed to the board, which was headquartered in Boston. The American Customs Board would generate considerable hostility in the colonies towards the British government. According to historian Oliver M. Dickerson, "The actual separation of the continental colonies from the rest of the Empire dates from the creation of this independent administrative board. ''
The American Board of Customs Commissioners was notoriously corrupt according to historians. Political scientist Peter Andreas argues:
Historian Edmund Morgan says:
Historian Doug Krehbiel argues:
Another measure to enforce the trade laws was the Vice Admiralty Court Act of 1768. Although often included in discussions of the Townshend Acts, this act was initiated by the Cabinet when Townshend was not present, and was not passed until after his death. Before this act, there was just one vice admiralty court in North America, located in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Established in 1764, this court proved to be too remote to serve all of the colonies, and so the 1768 Vice Admiralty Court Act created four district courts, which were located at Halifax, Boston, Philadelphia, and Charleston. One purpose of the vice admiralty courts, which did not have juries, was to help customs officials prosecute smugglers, since colonial juries were reluctant to convict persons for violating unpopular trade regulations.
Townshend also faced the problem of what to do about the New York Provincial Assembly, which had refused to comply with the 1765 Quartering Act because its members saw the act 's financial provisions as levying an unconstitutional tax. The New York Restraining Act, which according to historian Robert Chaffin was "officially a part of the Townshend Acts '', suspended the power of the Assembly until it complied with the Quartering Act. The Restraining Act never went into effect because, by the time it was passed, the New York Assembly had already appropriated money to cover the costs of the Quartering Act. The Assembly avoided conceding the right of Parliament to tax the colonies by making no reference to the Quartering Act when appropriating this money; they also passed a resolution stating that Parliament could not constitutionally suspend an elected legislature.
Townshend knew that his program would be controversial in the colonies, but he argued that, "The superiority of the mother country can at no time be better exerted than now. '' The Townshend Acts did not create an instant uproar like the Stamp Act had done two years earlier, but before long, opposition to the programme had become widespread. Townshend did not live to see this reaction, having died suddenly on September 4, 1767.
The most influential colonial response to the Townshend Acts was a series of twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania '', which began appearing in December 1767. Eloquently articulating ideas already widely accepted in the colonies, Dickinson argued that there was no difference between "internal '' and "external '' taxes, and that any taxes imposed on the colonies by Parliament for the sake of raising a revenue were unconstitutional. Dickinson warned colonists not to concede to the taxes just because the rates were low, since this would set a dangerous precedent.
Dickinson sent a copy of his "Letters '' to James Otis of Massachusetts, informing Otis that "whenever the Cause of American Freedom is to be vindicated, I look towards the Province of Massachusetts Bay ''. The Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by first sending a petition to King George asking for the repeal of the Revenue Act, and then sending a letter to the other colonial assemblies, asking them to join the resistance movement. Upon receipt of the Massachusetts Circular Letter, other colonies also sent petitions to the king. Virginia and Pennsylvania also sent petitions to Parliament, but the other colonies did not, believing that it might have been interpreted as an admission of Parliament 's sovereignty over them. Parliament refused to consider the petitions of Virginia and Pennsylvania.
In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently been appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the colonial governors in America, instructing them to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also sent a letter to Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard, instructing him to have the Massachusetts House rescind the Circular Letter. By a vote of 92 to 17, the House refused to comply, and Bernard promptly dissolved the legislature.
Merchants in the colonies, some of them smugglers, organized economic boycotts to put pressure on their British counterparts to work for repeal of the Townshend Acts. Boston merchants organized the first non-importation agreement, which called for merchants to suspend importation of certain British goods effective 1 January 1769. Merchants in other colonial ports, including New York City and Philadelphia, eventually joined the boycott. In Virginia, the non-importation effort was organized by George Washington and George Mason. When the Virginia House of Burgesses passed a resolution stating that Parliament had no right to tax Virginians without their consent, Governor Lord Botetourt dissolved the assembly. The members met at Raleigh Tavern and adopted a boycott agreement known as the "Association ''.
The non-importation movement was not as effective as promoters had hoped. British exports to the colonies declined by 38 percent in 1769, but there were many merchants who did not participate in the boycott. The boycott movement began to fail by 1770, and came to an end in 1771.
The newly created American Customs Board was seated in Boston, and so it was there that the Board concentrated on strictly enforcing the Townshend Acts. The acts were so unpopular in Boston that the Customs Board requested naval and military assistance. Commodore Samuel Hood complied by sending the fifty - gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768.
On June 10, 1768, customs officials seized the Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, on allegations that the ship had been involved in smuggling. Bostonians, already angry because the captain of the Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection. With John Adams serving as his lawyer, Hancock was prosecuted in a highly publicized trial by a vice-admiralty court, but the charges were eventually dropped.
Given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed Governor Bernard to try to find evidence of treason in Boston. Parliament had determined that the Treason Act 1543 was still in force, which would allow Bostonians to be transported to England to stand trial for treason. Bernard could find no one who was willing to provide reliable evidence, however, and so there were no treason trials. The possibility that American colonists might be arrested and sent to England for trial produced alarm and outrage in the colonies.
Even before the Liberty riot, Hillsborough had decided to send troops to Boston. On 8 June 1768, he instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander - in - Chief, North America, to send "such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston '', although he conceded that this might lead to "consequences not easily foreseen ''. Hillsborough suggested that Gage might send one regiment to Boston, but the Liberty incident convinced officials that more than one regiment would be needed.
People in Massachusetts learned in September 1768 that troops were on the way. Samuel Adams organized an emergency, extralegal convention of towns and passed resolutions against the imminent occupation of Boston, but on 1 October 1768, the first of four regiments of the British Army began disembarking in Boston, and the Customs Commissioners returned to town. The "Journal of Occurrences '', an anonymously written series of newspaper articles, chronicled clashes between civilians and soldiers during the military occupation of Boston, apparently with some exaggeration. Tensions rose after Christopher Seider, a Boston teenager, was killed by a customs employee on 22 February 1770. Although British soldiers were not involved in that incident, resentment against the occupation escalated in the days that followed, resulting in the killing of five civilians in the Boston Massacre of 5 March 1770. After the incident, the troops were withdrawn to Castle William.
On the 5th of March 1770 -- the same day as the Boston Massacre although news traveled slowly at the time, and neither side of the Atlantic were aware of this coincidence -- Lord North, the new Prime Minister, presented a motion in the House of Commons that called for partial repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. Although some in Parliament advocated a complete repeal of the act, North disagreed, arguing that the tea duty should be retained to assert "the right of taxing the Americans ''. After debate, the Repeal Act received the Royal Assent on 12 April 1770.
Historian Robert Chaffin argued that little had actually changed:
It would be inaccurate to claim that a major part of the Townshend Acts had been repealed. The revenue - producing tea levy, the American Board of Customs and, most important, the principle of making governors and magistrates independent all remained. In fact, the modification of the Townshend Duties Act was scarcely any change at all.
The Townshend duty on tea was retained when the 1773 Tea Act was passed, which allowed the East India Company to ship tea directly to the colonies. The Boston Tea Party soon followed, which set the stage for the American Revolution.
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what channel is the women's network on shaw | W Network - wikipedia
W Network (often shortened to W) is a Canadian English language Category A specialty channel, owned by Corus Entertainment. W Network broadcasts lifestyle and entertainment programming aimed at women.
The channel is available in two time shifted feeds, East (operating from the Eastern Time Zone) and West (operating from the Pacific Time Zone).
In June 1994, Linda Rankin, on behalf of a corporation to be incorporated, (later incorporated as Lifestyle Television (1994) Limited, principally owned by Moffat Communications) was granted a television broadcasting licence by the Canadian Radio - television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to operate a channel called Lifestyle Television, described as offering "information and entertainment programming of particular interest to women. ''
The channel subsequently launched on January 1, 1995 as Women 's Television Network (WTN). Like Moffat 's other cable television operations, WTN was headquartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Linda Rankin served as the president of the network from its launch.
Programming on the network was originally largely focused on lifestyle programming that many had suggested was "feminist '' in nature. Such programming included female takes on traditionally male - dominated activities such as fishing and mechanics, with Natural Angler and Car Care, respectively. While other programs, such as Go Girl!, took a comedic approach at parodying typical female - targeted talk shows that discussed subjects such as beauty, fashion, etc. Other programs included films, current affairs, and occasionally sports.
The channel suffered from low ratings in the beginning. Of the slew of new channels launched on January 1, WTN was initially the lowest rated channel on average. Linda Rankin later resigned in August 1995 citing "differences in management philosophy ''.
In December 2000, Shaw Communications announced it intended to purchase Moffat. The deal was later closed in early 2001. Shaw announced in March 2001 that it would sell WTN to Corus Entertainment, a company that it spun off in 1999, for $205 million CAD (Shaw had primarily acquired Moffat for its cable television systems). Once Corus took ownership of the channel, it moved operations from Winnipeg to Toronto in mid-January 2002, laying off 50 employees in the process. Subsequently, Corus relaunched the network as "W '' on April 15, 2002 with a more entertainment - oriented mix of recent dramas and movies. On the same date, Corus launched the west coast feed.
In 2009, Corus Entertainment acquired SexTV: The Channel from CTVglobemedia, and relaunched the channel as W Movies -- a spin - off of W Network focusing on films aimed towards women, on March 1, 2010.
On August 3, 2011, W Network HD was launched as a high definition simulcast of W Network 's standard definition Eastern time zone feed. The HD feed was added to Bell TV satellite and Bell Fibe TV channel lineups on March 23, 2012. It is also available on Eastlink, Telus TV and Shaw Direct.
On October 1, 2013, an HD feed for the Pacific time zone was launched on Shaw Cable.
W Network airs a mix of lifestyle and entertainment television series including films, comedies, dramas, reality TV, cooking, and makeover series.
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the food safety laws are based on standards from | Food safety - wikipedia
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent food - borne illness. The occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illnesses resulting from the ingestion of a common food is known as a food - borne disease outbreak. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potential health hazards. In this way food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering industry to market practices, food safety considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines for the management of governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. In considering market to consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the consumer.
Food can transmit pathogens which can result in the illness or death of the person or other animals. The main mediums are bacteria, viruses, mold, and fungus (which is Latin for mushroom). It can also serve as a growth and reproductive medium for pathogens. In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries there are less standards and enforcement of those standards. Another main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item in the spreading of diseases. In theory, food poisoning is 100 % preventable. However this can not be achieved due to the number of persons involved in the supply chain, as well as the fact that pathogens can be introduced into foods no matter how many precautions are taken. The five key principles of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:
Food safety issues and regulations concern:
ISO 22000 is a standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization dealing with food safety. This is a general derivative of ISO 9000. ISO 22000 standard: The ISO 22000 international standard specifies the requirements for a food safety management system that involves interactive communication, system management, prerequisite programs, HACCP principles. ISO 22000 was first published in 2005. It is the culmination of all previous attempts from many sources and areas of food safety concern to provide an end product that is safe as possible from pathogens and other contaminants. Every 5 years standards are reviewed to determine whether a revision is necessary, to ensure that the standards remain as relevant and useful to businesses as possible.
A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30 % of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European Region occur in private homes. According to the WHO and CDC, in the USA alone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborne illness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths.
In 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety.
However, according to Unit 04 - Communication of Health & Consumers Directorate - General of the European Commission (SANCO): "The Codex, while being recommendations for voluntary application by members, Codex standards serve in many cases as a basis for national legislation. The reference made to Codex food safety standards in the World Trade Organizations ' Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) means that Codex has far reaching implications for resolving trade disputes. WTO members that wish to apply stricter food safety measures than those set by Codex may be required to justify these measures scientifically. '' So, an agreement made in 2003, signed by all member states, inclusive all EU, in the codex Stan Codex 240 -- 2003 for coconut milk, sulphite containing additives like E223 and E 224 are allowed till 30 mg / kg, does NOT mean, they are allowed into the EU, see Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF) entries from Denmark: 2012.0834; 2011.1848; en 2011.168, "sulphite unauthorised in coconut milk from Thailand ". Same for polysorbate E 435: see 2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates in coconut milk and, 2007. AIC from France. Only for the latter the EU amended its regulations with (EU) No 583 / 2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, already used for decades and absolutely necessary.
Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business. Food safety training is delivered in various forms by, among other organisations, Registered Training Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued a nationally recognised unit of competency code on their certificate. Basic food safety training includes:
Food safety standards and requirements are set out at the national level in the Food Standards Code, and brought Into force in each state by state - based Acts and Regulations. Legislation means that people responsible for selling or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines.
Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture. The Chinese government oversees agricultural production as well as the manufacture of food packaging, containers, chemical additives, drug production, and business regulation. In recent years, the Chinese government attempted to consolidate food regulation with the creation of the State Food and Drug Administration in 2003, and officials have also been under increasing public and international pressure to solve food safety problems. However, it appears that regulations are not well known by the trade. Labels used for "green '' food, "organic '' food and "pollution - free '' food are not well recognized by traders and many are unclear about their meaning. A survey by the World Bank found that supermarket managers had difficulty in obtaining produce that met safety requirements and found that a high percentage of produce did not comply with established standards.
Traditional marketing systems, whether in China or the rest of Asia, presently provide little motivation or incentive for individual farmers to make improvements to either quality or safety as their produce tends to get grouped together with standard products as it progresses through the marketing channel. Direct linkages between farmer groups and traders or ultimate buyers, such as supermarkets, can help avoid this problem. Governments need to improve the condition of many markets through upgrading management and reinvesting market fees in physical infrastructure. Wholesale markets need to investigate the feasibility of developing separate sections to handle fruits and vegetables that meet defined safety and quality standards.
The parliament of the European Union (EU) makes legislation in the form of directives and regulations, many of which are mandatory for member states and which therefore must be incorporated into individual countries ' national legislation. As a very large organisation that exists to remove barriers to trade between member states, and into which individual member states have only a proportional influence, the outcome is often seen as an excessively bureaucratic ' one size fits all ' approach. However, in relation to food safety the tendency to err on the side of maximum protection for the consumer may be seen as a positive benefit. The EU parliament is informed on food safety matters by the European Food Safety Authority.
Individual member states may also have other legislation and controls in respect of food safety, provided that they do not prevent trade with other states, and can differ considerably in their internal structures and approaches to the regulatory control of food safety.
From 13 December 2014, new legislation - the EU Food Information for Consumers Regulation 1169 / 2011 - require food businesses to provide allergy information on food sold unpackaged, in for example catering outlets, deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars.
Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement et du travail (anses) is a French governmental agency dealing with food safety.
The Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMEL) is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. History: Founded as Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Foresting in 1949, this name did not change until 2001. Then the name changed to Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. At 22 November 2005, the name got changed again to its current state: Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. The reason for this last change was that all the resorts should get equal ranking which was achieved by sorting the resorts alphabetically. Vision: A balanced and healthy diet with safe food, distinct consumer rights and consumer information for various areas of life, and a strong and sustainable agriculture as well as perspectives for our rural areas are important goals of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV). The Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety is under the control of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. It exercises several duties, with which it contributes to safer food and thereby intensifies health - based consumer protection in Germany. Food can be manufactured and sold within Germany without a special permission, as long as it does not cause any damage on consumers ' health and meets the general standards set by the legislation. However, manufacturers, carriers, importers and retailers are responsible for the food they pass into circulation. They are obliged to ensure and document the safety and quality of their food with the use of in - house control mechanisms.
In Hong Kong SAR, the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department is in charge of ensuring food sold is safe and fit for consumption.
In Hungary, the National Food Chain Safety Office controls the food business operators including agricultural producers, food processors, retailers, caterers, input material suppliers and private laboratories. Its activities also cover risk assessment, risk communication and related research.
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, is the regulating body related to food safety and laying down of standards of food in India.
The New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), or Te Pou Oranga Kai O Aotearoa is the New Zealand government body responsible for food safety. NZFSA is also the controlling authority for imports and exports of food and food - related products. The NZFSA as of 2012 is now a division of the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) and is no longer its own organization.
The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 consolidates and amends the law in relation to the preparation and the sale of foods. Its aim is to ensure purity of food being supplied to people in the market and, therefore, provides for preventing adulteration.
Pakistan Hotels and Restaurant Act, 1976 applies to all hotels and restaurants in Pakistan and seeks to control and regulate the standard of service (s) by hotels and restaurants. In addition to other provisions, under section 22 (2), the sale of food or beverages that are contaminated, not prepared hygienically or served in utensils that are not hygienic or clean is an offense.
Korea Food & Drug Administration (KFDA) is working for food safety since 1945. It is part of the Government of South Korea.
IOAS - Organic Certification Bodies Registered in KFDA: "Organic '' or related claims can be labelled on food products when organic certificates are considered as valid by KFDA. KFDA admits organic certificates which can be issued by 1) IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement) accredited certification bodies 2) Government accredited certification bodies -- 328 bodies in 29 countries have been registered in KFDA.
Food Import Report: According to Food Import Report, it is supposed to report or register what you import. Competent authority is as follows:
National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation (NIFDS) is functioning as well. The National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation is a national organization for toxicological tests and research. Under the Korea Food & Drug Administration, the Institute performs research on toxicology, pharmacology, and risk analysis of foods, drugs, and their additives. The Institute strives primarily to understand important biological triggering mechanisms and improve assessment methods of human exposure, sensitivities, and risk by (1) conducting basic, applied, and policy research that closely examines biologically triggering harmful effects on the regulated products such as foods, food additives, and drugs, and operating the national toxicology program for the toxicological test development and inspection of hazardous chemical substances assessments. The Institute ensures safety by investigation and research on safety by its own researchers, contract research by external academicians and research centers.
In Taiwan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare in charge of Food and Drug Safety, also evaluate the catering industry to maintenance the food product quality. Currently, US $29.01 million of budget is allocated each year for food safety - related efforts.
In the UK the Food Standards Agency is an independent government department responsible for food safety and hygiene across the UK. They work with businesses to help them produce safe food, and with local authorities to enforce food safety regulations. In 2006 food hygiene legislation changed and new requirements came into force. The main requirement resulting from this change is that if you own or run a food business in the UK, you must have a documented Food Safety Management System, which is based on the principles of Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point HACCP.
The US food system is regulated by numerous federal, state and local officials. Since 1906 tremendous progress has been made in producing safer foods as can be seen in the section below. Still, it has been criticized as lacking in "organization, regulatory tools, and not addressing food borne illness. ''
The Food and Drug Administration publishes the Food Code, a model set of guidelines and procedures that assists food control jurisdictions by providing a scientifically sound technical and legal basis for regulating the retail and food service industries, including restaurants, grocery stores and institutional foodservice providers such as nursing homes. Regulatory agencies at all levels of government in the United States use the FDA Food Code to develop or update food safety rules in their jurisdictions that are consistent with national food regulatory policy. According to the FDA, 48 of 56 states and territories, representing 79 % of the U.S. population, have adopted food codes patterned after one of the five versions of the Food Code, beginning with the 1993 edition.
In the United States, federal regulations governing food safety are fragmented and complicated, according to a February 2007 report from the Government Accountability Office. There are 15 agencies sharing oversight responsibilities in the food safety system, although the two primary agencies are the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS), which is responsible for the safety of meat, poultry, and processed egg products, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which is responsible for virtually all other foods.
The Food Safety and Inspection Service has approximately 7,800 inspection program personnel working in nearly 6,200 federally inspected meat, poultry and processed egg establishments. FSIS is charged with administering and enforcing the Federal Meat Inspection Act, the Poultry Products Inspection Act, the Egg Products Inspection Act, portions of the Agricultural Marketing Act, the Humane Slaughter Act, and the regulations that implement these laws. FSIS inspection program personnel inspect every animal before slaughter, and each carcass after slaughter to ensure public health requirements are met. In fiscal year (FY) 2008, this included about 50 billion pounds of livestock carcasses, about 59 billion pounds of poultry carcasses, and about 4.3 billion pounds of processed egg products. At U.S. borders, they also inspected 3.3 billion pounds of imported meat and poultry products.
Recognition of food safety issues and attempts to address them began after Upton Sinclair published the novel The Jungle in 1906. It was an fictional account of the lives of immigrants in the industrial cities in the U.S. around this time. Sinclair spent nine months undercover as an employee in a Chicago meat plant doing research. The book inadvertently raised public concern about food safety and sanatization of the Chicago meat packing industry. Upon reading The Jungle, President Theodore Roosevelt called on Congress to pass the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), which passed in 1906 and 1907 respectively. These laws were the first to address food safety in the U.S. Misbranding and adulteration were defined as they concerned food additives and truth in labeling. Food preservatives such as formaldehyde and borax used to disguise unsanitary production processes were also addressed.
The first test and major court battle involving the Pure Food and Drug Act was United States v. Forty Barrels & Twenty Kegs of Coca - Cola, an attempt to outlaw Coca - Cola due to its excessive caffeine content. The Meat Inspection Act led to the formation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Between 1906 and 1938, acts were created that monitored food coloration additives, and other chemical additives such as preservatives, as well as food labeling and food marketing.
During the winter of 1924 -- 1925, the worst food - borne illness to date in the U.S. occurred because of improper handling of oysters. This produced a typhoid fever epidemic, and food - borne illness outbreaks gained national attention. Unfortunately, it was not until 1969 that the FDA began sanitization programs specifically for shellfish and milk, and began its focus and implementation on the food service industry as a whole.
In 1970 the Center for Disease Control (CDC) began keeping records on food - borne illness deaths. This was the beginning of effective record keeping that could be used to control and prevent similar outbreaks in the future. The first major food recall in the U.S. was caused by canned mushrooms in 1973. This outbreak of botulism produced the National Botulism Surveillance System. This system collected the data on all confirmed cases of botulism in the U.S. This led to processing regulations for low - acid foods to ensure proper heat treating of canned foods. The Jack in the Box E. coli outbreak of 1993 led the Clinton administration to put $43 million into the Food Safety Initiative to create many of the common specific regulations in place today. This initiative produced regulations on seafood, meat, poultry, and shell - eggs. This initiative produced a program for DNA fingerprinting to help track outbreaks and to determine their source. It also called for a cooperative detection and response effort between the CDC, FDA, USDA and local agencies called FoodNet.
In 2011 the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) produced what is considered the most significant food safety legislation in over 70 years. The significant difference between this and previous acts was that it shifted to focus from response and containment of food - borne disease outbreaks to their prevention. This act is still in the early implementation phase but gives the FDA authority to regulate the way foods are grown, processed, and harvested.
There have been concerns over the efficacy of safety practices and food industry pressure on U.S. regulators. A study reported by Reuters found that "the food industry is jeopardizing U.S. public health by withholding information from food safety investigators or pressuring regulators to withdraw or alter policy designed to protect consumers ''. A survey found that 25 % of U.S. government inspectors and scientists surveyed have experienced during the past year corporate interests forcing their food safety agency to withdraw or to modify agency policy or action that protects consumers. Scientists have observed that management undercuts field inspectors who stand up for food safety against industry pressure. According to Dr. Dean Wyatt, a USDA veterinarian who oversees federal slaughterhouse inspectors, "Upper level management does not adequately support field inspectors and the actions they take to protect the food supply. Not only is there lack of support, but there 's outright obstruction, retaliation and abuse of power. '' A growing number of food and beverage manufacturers are improving food safety standards by incorporating a food safety management system which automates all steps in the food quality management process.
A number of U.S. states have their own meat inspection programs that substitute for USDA inspection for meats that are sold only in - state. Certain state programs have been criticized for undue leniency to bad practices.
However, other state food safety programs supplement, rather than replace, Federal inspections, generally with the goal of increasing consumer confidence in the state 's produce. For example, state health departments have a role in investigating outbreaks of food - borne disease bacteria, as in the case of the 2006 outbreak of Escherichia coli O157: H7 (a pathogenic strain of the ordinarily harmless bacteria, E. coli) from processed spinach. Health departments also promote better food processing practices to eliminate these threats.
In addition to the US Food and Drug Administration, several states that are major producers of fresh fruits and vegetables (including California, Arizona and Florida) have their own state programs to test produce for pesticide residues.
Restaurants and other retail food establishments fall under state law and are regulated by state or local health departments. Typically these regulations require official inspections of specific design features, best food - handling practices, and certification of food handlers. In some places a letter grade or numerical score must be prominently posted following each inspection. In some localities, inspection deficiencies and remedial action are posted on the Internet. In addition, states may maintain and enforce their own model of the FDA Food Code. For example California maintains the California Retail Food Code (CalCode), which is part of the Health and Safety Code and is based on most current and safe food handling practices in the retail industry.
The Vietnam Food Administration is reafor managing food hygiene, safety, and quality and has made significant progress since its establishment in 1999. Food safety remains a high priority in Vietnam with the growth of export markets and increasing food imports raising the need to rapidly build capacity of the Food Administration in order to reduce threats of foodborne disease. The Food Administration has demonstrated commitment to the food safety challenges it faces, and has embarked on an innovative capacity building activity with technical assistance from the World Health Organization.
Foodstuffs in the UK have one of two labels to indicate the nature of the deterioration of the product and any subsequent health issues. EHO Food Hygiene certification is required to prepare and distribute food. While there is no specified expiry date of such a qualification the changes in legislation it is suggested to update every five years.
Best before indicates a future date beyond which the food product may lose quality in terms of taste or texture amongst others, but does not imply any serious health problems if food is consumed beyond this date (within reasonable limits).
Use by indicates a legal date beyond which it is not permissible to sell a food product (usually one that deteriorates fairly rapidly after production) due to the potential serious nature of consumption of pathogens. Leeway is sometimes provided by producers in stating display until dates so that products are not at their limit of safe consumption on the actual date stated (this latter is voluntary and not subject to regulatory control). This allows for the variability in production, storage and display methods.
With the exception of infant formula and baby foods which must be withdrawn by their expiration date, Federal law does not require expiration dates. For all other foods, except dairy products in some states, freshness dating is strictly voluntary on the part of manufacturers. In response to consumer demand, perishable foods are typically labelled with a Sell by date. It is up to the consumer to decide how long after the Sell by date a package is usable. Other common dating statements are Best if used by, Use - by date, Expiration date, Guaranteed fresh < date >, and Pack date.
Guide to Food Labelling and Other Information Requirements: This guide provides background information on the general labelling requirements in the Code. The information in this guide applies both to food for retail sale and to food for catering purposes. Foods for catering purposes means those foods for use in restaurants, canteens, schools, caterers or self - catering institutions, where food is offered for immediate consumption. Labelling and information requirements in the new Code apply both to food sold or prepared for sale in Australia and New Zealand and food imported into Australia and New Zealand. Warning and Advisory Declarations, Ingredient Labelling, Date Marking, Nutrition Information Requirements, Legibility Requirements for Food Labels, Percentage Labelling, Information Requirements for Foods Exempt from Bearing a Label.
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surface on the head where the head changes | Head crash - wikipedia
A head crash is a hard - disk failure that occurs when a read -- write head of a hard disk drive comes in contact with its rotating platter, resulting in permanent and usually irreparable damage to the magnetic media on the platter surface. It is most commonly caused by a sudden severe motion of the disk, for example the jolt caused by dropping a laptop to the ground while it is operating or physically shocking a computer.
A head normally rides on a thin film of moving air entrapped at the surface of its platter (some drives of the mid-1990s used a thin liquid layer instead). The distance between the head and platter is called the flying height. The topmost layer of the platter is made of a Teflon - like material that acts like a lubricant. Underneath is a layer of sputtered carbon. These two layers protect the magnetic layer (data storage area) from most accidental touches of the read - write head.
The disk read - and - write head is made using thin film techniques that include materials hard enough to scratch through the protective layers. A head crash can be initiated by a force that puts enough pressure on the platters from the heads to scratch through to the magnetic storage layer. A tiny particle of dirt or other detritus, excessive shock or vibration (such as accidentally dropping a running drive), can cause a head to bounce against its disk, destroying the thin magnetic coating on the area the heads come in contact with, and often damaging the heads in the process. After this initial crash, countless numbers of fine particles from the damaged area can land onto other areas and can cause more head crashes when the heads move over those particles, quickly causing significant damage and data loss, and rendering the drive useless. Some modern hard disks incorporate free fall sensors to offer protection against head crashes caused by accidentally dropping the drive.
Since most modern drives spin at rates between 5,400 and 15,000 RPM, the damage caused to the magnetic coating can be extensive. At 7,200 RPM, the edge of the platter is traveling at over 120 kilometres per hour (75 mph), and as the crashed head drags over the platter surface, the read - write head generally overheats, making the drive or at least parts of it unusable until the heads cool.
Older drives typically rotated far more slowly and had larger heads flying higher above the surface of the medium. However, since in many cases, the medium was housed in a removable cartridge or pack and since air filtration was comparatively crude, crashes were fairly frequent and invariably expensive.
Head crashes were a common problem on laptop computers, since they are subject to sudden motion. This has led to the development of technologies that detect sudden motion and take evasive action (for example by parking the heads), sometimes known as active hard - drive protection or "sudden motion sensing. '' In very old laptop designs, the head of a hard disk drive could become stuck if the laptop lost power, leaving the disk head in an unparked state and potentially leading to scoring of the drive if the laptop was moved. This is now an uncommon problem, as modern hard disk drives which are designed with portability in mind ' self - park ' in the event of a power failure. Where such an event occurs in laptops built since 2000, it is more likely that the hard disk controller within the drive was already failing.
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hallmark movie i do i do i do | I Do, I Do, I Do - Wikipedia
I Do, I Do, I Do is a 2015 American - Canadian romantic comedy television film directed by Ron Oliver and starring Autumn Reeser. The film premiered on the Hallmark Channel on February 6, 2015.
After her wedding ceremony turned to disaster, a young bride will be offered the opportunity to relive this day over and over until she gets it right. In the process, she will learn more about herself than she ever could have imagined.
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lord of the rings home of the elves | Elf (Middle - earth) - wikipedia
In J.R.R. Tolkien 's legendarium, Elves are one of the races that inhabit a fictional Earth, often called Middle - earth, and set in the remote past. They appear in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings, but their complex history is described more fully in The Silmarillion. Tolkien had been writing about Elves long before he published The Hobbit.
The modern English word elf derives from the Old English word ælf (which has cognates in all other Germanic languages). Numerous types of elves appear in Germanic mythology, the West Germanic concept appears to have come to differ from the Scandinavian notion in the early Middle Ages, and Anglo - Saxon concept diverged even further, possibly under Celtic influence. Tolkien would make it clear in a letter that his Elves differ from those "of the better known lore '', referring to Scandinavian mythology.
By 1915 when Tolkien was writing his first elven poems, the words elf, fairy and gnome had many divergent and contradictory associations. Tolkien had been gently warned against using the term ' fairy ', which John Garth supposes may have been due to the word becoming increasingly used to indicate homosexuality, although despite this warning Tolkien continued to use it.
By the late 19th century, the term ' fairy ' had been taken up as a utopian theme, and was used to critique social and religious values, a tradition which Tolkien along with T.H. White are seen to continue. One of the last of the Victorian Fairy - paintings, The Piper of Dreams by Estella Canziani, sold 250,000 copies and was well known within the trenches of World War I where Tolkien saw active service. Illustrated posters of Robert Louis Stevenson 's poem Land of Nod had been sent out by a philanthropist to brighten servicemen 's quarters, and Faery was used in other contexts as an image of "Old England '' to inspire patriotism.
According to Marjorie Burns, Tolkien eventually chose the term elf over fairy, but still retained some doubts. In his 1939 essay On Fairy - Stories Tolkien wrote that "English words such as elf have long been influenced by French (from which fay and faërie, fairy are derived); but in later times, through their use in translation, fairy and elf have acquired much of the atmosphere of German, Scandinavian and Celtic tales, and many characteristics of the huldu - fólk, the daoine - sithe, and the tylwyth - teg. ''
Traditional Victorian dancing fairies and elves appear in much of Tolkien 's early poetry, and have influence upon his later works in part due to the influence of a production of J.M. Barrie 's Peter Pan in Birmingham in 1910 and his familiarity with the work of Catholic mystic poet, Francis Thompson which Tolkien had acquired in 1914.
O! I hear the tiny horns Of enchanted leprechauns And the padded feet of many gnomes a-coming!
As a philologist, Tolkien 's interest in languages led him to invent several languages of his own as a pastime. In considering the nature of who might speak these languages, and what stories they might tell, Tolkien again turned to the concept of elves.
In his The Book of Lost Tales, Tolkien develops a theme that the diminutive fairy - like race of Elves had once been a great and mighty people, and that as Men took over the world, these Elves had "diminished '' themselves. This theme was influenced especially by the god - like and human - sized Ljósálfar of Norse mythology, and medieval works such as Sir Orfeo, the Welsh Mabinogion, Arthurian romances and the legends of the Tuatha Dé Danann. Some of the stories Tolkien wrote as elven history have been seen to be directly influenced by Celtic mythology. For example, "Flight of The Noldoli '' is based on the Tuatha Dé Danann and Lebor Gabála Érenn, and their migratory nature comes from early Irish / Celtic history. John Garth also sees that with the underground enslavement of the Noldoli to Melkor, Tolkien was essentially rewriting Irish myth regarding the Tuatha Dé Danann into a Christian eschatology.
The name Inwe (in the first draft Ing), given by Tolkien to the eldest of the elves and his clan, is similar to the name found in Norse mythology as that of the god Ingwi - Freyr (and Ingui - Frea in Anglo - Saxon paganism), a god who is gifted the elf world Álfheimr. Terry Gunnell also claims that the relationship between beautiful ships and the Elves is reminiscent of the god Njörðr and the god Freyr 's ship Skíðblaðnir. He also retains the usage of the French derived term "fairy '' for the same creatures.
The larger Elves are also inspired by Tolkien 's personal Catholic theology -- as representing the state of Men in Eden who have not yet "fallen '', similar to humans but fairer and wiser, with greater spiritual powers, keener senses, and a closer empathy with nature. Tolkien wrote of them: "They are made by man in his own image and likeness; but freed from those limitations which he feels most to press upon him. They are immortal, and their will is directly effective for the achievement of imagination and desire. ''
In The Book of Lost Tales Tolkien includes both the more serious "medieval '' type of elves such as Fëanor and Turgon alongside the frivolous, Jacobean type of elves such as the Solosimpi and Tinúviel.
Alongside the idea of the greater Elves, Tolkien also developed the idea of children visiting Valinor, the island - homeland of the Elves in their sleep. Elves would also visit children at night and comfort them if they had been chided or were upset. This theme, linking elves with children 's dreams and nocturnal travelling was largely abandoned in Tolkien 's later writing.
Along with Book of Lost Tales, Douglas Anderson shows that in The Hobbit, Tolkien again includes both the more serious ' medieval ' type of elves, such as Elrond and the Wood - elf king, and frivolous elves, such as those at Rivendell.
In 1937, having had his manuscript for The Silmarillion rejected by a publisher who disparaged all the "eye - splitting Celtic names '' that Tolkien had given his Elves, Tolkien denied the names had a Celtic origin:
Needless to say they are not Celtic! Neither are the tales. I do know Celtic things (many in their original languages Irish and Welsh), and feel for them a certain distaste: largely for their fundamental unreason. They have bright colour, but are like a broken stained glass window reassembled without design. They are in fact "mad '' as your reader says -- but I do n't believe I am.
Dimitra Fimi proposes that these comments are a product of his Anglophilia rather than a commentary on the texts themselves or their actual influence on his writing, and cites evidence to this effect in her essay "' Mad ' Elves and ' elusive beauty ': some Celtic strands of Tolkien 's mythology ''.
Terry Gunner notes that the titles of the Germanic gods Freyr and Freyja (Old Norse ' lord ' and ' lady ') are also given to Celeborn and Galadriel in the Lord of The Rings.
According to Tom Shippey, the theme of diminishment from semi-divine Elf to diminutive Fairy resurfaces in The Lord of the Rings in the dialogue of Galadriel. "Yet if you succeed, then our power is diminished, and Lothlórien will fade, and the tides of Time will sweep it away. We must depart into the West, or dwindle to a rustic folk of dell and cave, slowly to forget and to be forgotten. ''
Writing in 1954, part way through proofreading The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien claimed the Elvish language Sindarin has a character very like British - Welsh "because it seems to fit the rather ' Celtic ' type of legends and stories told of its speakers ''. In the same letter, Tolkien goes on to say that the elves had very little in common with elves or fairies of Europe, and that they really represent men with greater artistic ability, beauty and a longer life span. Tolkien also notes an Elven bloodline was the only real claim to ' nobility ' that the Men of Middle - earth can have. Tolkien also wrote that the elves are primarily to blame for many of the ills of Middle - earth in The Lord of the Rings, having independently created the Three Rings in order to stop their domains in mortal - lands from ' fading ' and attempting to prevent inevitable change and new growth.
Originally, in Tolkien 's writings from the 1910s and 1920s, Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë (their final names) were the eldest of the Elves. By 1959 or 1960, Tolkien wrote a detailed account of the awakening of the Elves, called Cuivienyarna, part of Quendi and Eldar. Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë now became the first ambassadors and the Kings of the Elves. This text only saw print in The War of the Jewels, part of the analytical The History of Middle - earth series, in 1994, but a similar version was included in The Silmarillion in 1977.
According to the earliest account, the first Elves are awakened by Eru Ilúvatar near the bay of Cuiviénen during the Years of the Trees in the First Age. They awake under the starlit sky, as the Sun and Moon have yet to be created. The first Elves to awake are three pairs: Imin ("First '') and his wife Iminyë, Tata ("Second '') and Tatië, and Enel ("Third '') and Enelyë.
Imin, Tata, and Enel and their wives join up and walk through the forests. They come across six, nine, and twelve pairs of Elves, and each "patriarch '' claims the pairs as his folk in order. The now sixty Elves dwell by the rivers, and they invent poetry and music in Middle - earth (the continent). Journeying further, they come across eighteen pairs of Elves watching the stars, whom Tata claims as his. These are tall and dark - haired, the fathers of most of the Noldor. The ninety - six Elves now invented many new words. Continuing their journey, they find twenty - four pairs of Elves, singing without language, and Enel adds them to his people. These are the ancestors of most of the Lindar or "singers '', later called Teleri. They find no more Elves; Imin 's people, the smallest group, are the ancestors of the Vanyar. All in all the Elves number 144. Because all Elves had been found in groups of twelve, twelve becomes their base number and 144 their highest number (for a long time), and none of the later Elvish languages have a common name for a greater number.
They were discovered by the Vala Oromë, who brought the tidings of their awakening to Valinor.
The Silmarillion states that Melkor, the Dark Lord, had already captured some wandering Elves, and twisted and mutilated them until they became the Orcs. However, Tolkien ultimately became uncomfortable with this Elvish origin, and devised different theories about the origin of Orcs.
The Valar decided to summon the Elves to Valinor rather than leaving them dwelling in the place where they were first awakened, near the Cuiviénen lake in the eastern extremity of Middle - earth. They sent Oromë, who took Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë as ambassadors to Valinor.
Returning to Middle - earth, Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë convinced a large host to take the Great Journey to Valinor. Not all Elves accepted the summons though, and those who did not became known as the Avari, The Unwilling.
The others were called Eldar, the People of the Stars by Oromë, and they took Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë as their leaders, and became respectively the Vanyar, Noldor and Teleri. On their journey, some of the Teleri feared the Misty Mountains and dared not cross them. They turned back and stayed in the vales of the Anduin, and became the Nandor; these were led by Lenwë.
Oromë led the others over the Misty Mountains and Ered Lindon into Beleriand. There Elwë became lost, and the Teleri stayed behind looking for him. The Vanyar and the Noldor moved onto a floating island that was moved by Ulmo to Valinor.
After years, Ulmo returned to Beleriand to seek out the remaining Teleri. As Elwë had not yet been found, a great part of the Teleri took his brother Olwë as their leader and were ferried to Valinor. Some Teleri stayed behind though, still looking for Elwë, and others stayed on the shores, being called by Ossë. They took Círdan as their leader and became the Falathrim. All Teleri who stayed in Beleriand later became known as the Sindar.
note: Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë are not the same elves as Imin, Tata and Enel
In Valinor, Fëanor, son of Finwë, and the greatest of the Noldor, created the Silmarils in which he stored a part of the light of the Two Trees that were lighting Valinor. After three ages in the Halls of Mandos, Melkor was released, feigning reform. He however spread his evil and started to poison the minds of the Elves against the Valar. Eventually he killed Finwë and stole the Silmarils. Fëanor then named him Morgoth (S. The Black Enemy). Fëanor and his seven sons then swore to take the Silmarils back, and led a large army of the Noldor to Beleriand.
In Beleriand, Elwë was eventually found, and married Melian the Maia. He became the overlord of Beleriand, naming himself Thingol (S. Grey - cloak). After the First Battle of Beleriand, during the first rising of the Moon, the Noldor arrived in Beleriand. They laid a siege around Morgoth 's fortress of Angband, but were eventually defeated.
Then Eärendil the Mariner, a half - elf from the House of Finwë, sailed to Valinor to ask the Valar for help. Then the Ban of the Noldor was lifted, and the Valar started the War of Wrath, in which Morgoth was finally overcome.
After the War of Wrath, the Valar tried to summon the Elves back to Valinor. Many complied, but some stayed. During the Second Age they founded the Realms of Lindon, Eregion and Mirkwood. Sauron, Morgoth 's former servant, made war upon them, but with the aid of the Númenóreans they defeated him.
During the Second and Third Age, they held some protected realms with the aid of the Rings of Power, but after the War of the Ring they waned further, and most Elves left Middle - earth for Valinor. Tolkien 's published writings give somewhat contradictory hints as to what happened to the Elves of Middle - earth after the One Ring was destroyed at the end of the Third Age.
After the destruction of the One Ring, the power of the Three Rings of the Elves would also end and the Age of Men would begin. Elves that remained in Middle - earth were doomed to a slow decline until, in the words of Galadriel, they faded and became a "rustic folk of dell and cave, '' and were greatly diminished from their ancient power and nobility. While the power of the remaining Noldor would be immediately lessened, the "fading '' of all Elvenkind was a phenomenon that would play out over hundreds and even thousands of years; until, in fact, our own times, when occasional glimpses of rustic Elves would fuel our folktales and fantasies.
There are many references in The Lord of the Rings to the continued existence of Elves in Middle - earth during the early years of the Fourth Age. Elladan and Elrohir, the sons of Elrond, do not accompany their father when the White Ship bearing the Ring - bearer and the chief Noldorin leaders sails from the Grey Havens to Valinor; they are said to have remained in Lindon for a time. Celeborn is said (in Appendix A) to have added most of southern Mirkwood to the realm of Lórien at the end of the Third Age, but elsewhere Tolkien wrote that Celeborn dwelt for a while in Lindon before at last leaving Middle - earth for Valinor.
Tolkien also wrote that Legolas founded an elf colony in Ithilien during King Elessar 's reign in the Fourth Age, and that the elves there assisted in the rebuilding of Gondor. They primarily resided in southern Ithilien, along the shores of the Anduin. After Elessar 's death in 120 F.A., Legolas built a ship and sailed to Valinor and, eventually, all of the elves in Ithilien followed him. It is also implied that Elves continued to dwell at the Grey Havens, at least for a certain period. Tolkien states that Sam Gamgee sailed from the Havens decades after Elrond 's departure, implying that some Elves might have remained in Mithlond at that time.
In "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen '' that is found in Appendix A, Tolkien depicts a Middle - earth where most Elves have already left. The majority of those who remained lived in Mirkwood, while a much smaller population was in Lindon. Aragorn speaks of the empty garden of Elrond in Rivendell. Most strikingly, after Elessar 's voluntary death, Arwen flees to a Lórien that is depicted as wholly abandoned, and gives up her own spirit in its sad and silent confines.
As told in The History of Middle - earth and in Tolkien 's Letters, Elves had a different life cycle from Men. Most of the following information strictly refers only to the Eldar, as found in his essay Laws and Customs among the Eldar, found in Morgoth 's Ring.
Elves are born about one year from their conception. The day of their conception is celebrated, not the actual birthday itself. Their minds develop more quickly than their bodies; by their first year, they can speak, walk and even dance, and their quicker onset of mental maturity makes young Elves seem, to Men, older than they really are. Physical puberty comes in around their fiftieth to one hundredth year (by age fifty they reach their adult height), and by their first hundred years of life outside the womb all Elves are fully grown. Elven bodies eventually stop aging physically, while human bodies do not.
Elves marry freely and for love early in life. Monogamy is practiced and adultery is unthinkable; they marry only once (Finwë, first High King of the Noldor, was an exception, as he remarried after his first wife died).
Spouses can choose each other even long before they are married, thus becoming betrothed. The betrothal is subject to parental approval unless the parties are of age and intend to marry soon, at which point the betrothal is announced. They exchange rings and the betrothal lasts at least a year, and is revocable by the return of the rings; however, it is rarely broken. After their formal betrothal, the couple appoint a date, at least a year later, for the wedding.
Only the words exchanged by the bride and groom (including the speaking of the name of Eru Ilúvatar) and the consummation are required for marriage. More formally, the couple 's families celebrate the marriage with a feast. The parties give back their betrothal rings and receive others worn on their index fingers. The bride 's mother gives the groom a jewel to wear (Galadriel 's gift of the Elfstone to Aragorn reflects this tradition; she is grandmother to his betrothed, Arwen, Arwen 's mother Celebrían having left Middle - earth for Valinor after grievous psychological injury after her capture by Orcs and liberation by her sons).
The Elves view the sexual act as extremely special and intimate, for it leads to the conception and birth of children. Extra-marital and premarital sex are unthinkable, adultery is also unheard of and fidelity between spouses is absolute. Yet separation during pregnancy or during the early years of parenthood (caused by war, for example) is so grievous to the couple that they prefer to have children in peaceful times. Living Elves can not be raped or forced to have sex; before that they will lose the will to endure and go to Mandos.
Elves have few children, as a rule (Fëanor and Nerdanel were an exception, conceiving seven sons), and there are relatively sizeable intervals between each child (but see below for notes on Elvish birth rates in Middle - earth versus in Aman). They are soon preoccupied with other pleasures; their libido wanes and they focus their interests elsewhere, like the arts. Nonetheless, they take great delight in the union of love, and they cherish the days of bearing and raising children as the happiest days of their lives.
There seems to only be one known example of extreme marital strife in Tolkien 's mythology, that of Eöl and Aredhel, in which the latter actually left the former without his knowledge, resulting in Eöl ultimately killing her (albeit he was actually trying to kill their son Maeglin). However, this marriage was far from typical of the Elves.
The Elves, particularly the Noldor, preoccupy themselves with various things such as smithwork, sculpture, music and other arts, and of course, what to eat. Males and females can do almost everything equally; however, the females often specialize in the arts of healing while the males go to war. This is because they believe that taking life interferes with the ability to preserve life. However, Elves are not stuck in rigid roles; females can defend themselves at need as well as males, and many males are skilled healers as well, such as Elrond.
Eventually, if they do not die in battle or from some other cause, the Elves of Middle - earth grow weary of it and desire to go to Valinor, where the Valar originally sheltered their kind. Those who wish to leave for the Undying Lands often go by boats provided at the Grey Havens, where Círdan the Shipwright dwells with his folk.
Despite Tolkien 's statements in The Hobbit that Elves (and Hobbits) have no beards, Círdan in fact has a beard, which appears to be an anomaly and a simple oversight. However, Tolkien later devised at least three "cycles of life '' for Elves around 1960; Círdan had a beard because he was in his third cycle of life. (Mahtan, Nerdanel 's father, had a beard in his second cycle of life, a rare phenomenon.) It is unclear what these cycles exactly are, since Tolkien left no notes further explaining this. Apparently, beards were the only sign of further natural physical ageing beyond maturity.
Nevertheless, Tolkien may have ultimately changed his mind about whether Elves had facial hair. As Christopher Tolkien states in Unfinished Tales, his father wrote in December 1972 or later that the Elvish strain in Men, such as Aragorn, was "observable in the beardlessness of those who were so descended '', since "it was a characteristic of all Elves to be beardless ''. This would seemingly contradict the information above.
Elves sometimes appear to age under great stress. Círdan appeared to be aged himself, since he is described as looking old, save for the stars in his eyes; this may be due to all the sorrows he had seen and lived through since the First Age. Also, the people of Gwindor of Nargothrond had trouble recognizing him after his time as a prisoner of Morgoth.
Elves are naturally immortal, and remain unwearied with age. In addition to their immortality, Elves can recover from wounds which would normally kill a mortal Man. However, Elves can be slain, or die of grief and weariness.
Spirits of dead Elves go to the Halls of Mandos in Valinor. After a certain period of time and rest that serves as "cleansing '', their spirits are clothed in bodies identical to their old ones. However, they almost never go back to Middle - earth and remain in Valinor instead. An exception was Glorfindel in The Lord of the Rings; as shown in later books, Tolkien decided he was a "reborn '' hero from The Silmarillion rather than an individual with the same name. A rare and more unusual example of an Elf coming back from the Halls of Mandos is found in the tale of Beren and Lúthien, as Lúthien was the other Elf to be sent back to Middle - earth -- as a mortal, however. Tolkien 's Elvish words for "spirit '' and "body '' were fëa (plural fëar) and hröa (plural hröar) respectively.
Eventually, their immortal spirits will overwhelm and consume their bodies, rendering them "bodiless '', whether they opt to go to Valinor or remain in Middle - earth. At the end of the world, all Elves will have become invisible to mortal eyes, except to those to whom they wish to manifest themselves. Tolkien called the Elves of Middle - earth who had undergone this process "Lingerers ''.
The lives of Elves only endure as the world endures. It is said in the Second Prophecy of Mandos that at the end of time the Elves will join the other Children of Ilúvatar in singing the Second Music of the Ainur. However it is disputable whether the Prophecy is canon, and the published Silmarillion states that only Men shall participate for certain in the Second Music, and that the ultimate fate of the Elves is unknown. However, they do not believe that Eru will abandon them to oblivion.
In The Lord of the Rings Tolkien pretends to be merely the translator of Bilbo and Frodo 's memoirs, collectively known as the Red Book of Westmarch. He says that those names and terms in the work (as well in the earlier The Hobbit) that appear in English are meant to be his purported translations from the Common Speech.
Tolkien repeatedly expressed his misgivings concerning the name "elf '' and its "associations of a kind that I should particularly desire not to be present (...) e.g. those of Drayton or of A Midsummer Night 's Dream '', for the purpose of translations stating his preference that "the oldest available form of the name to be used, and leave it to acquire its own associations for readers of my tale ''. He wanted to avoid the Victorian notions of "fairies '' or mischievous imps associated with the word and was aiming at the more elevated notions of beings "supposed to possess formidable magical powers in early Teutonic mythology '' (OED viz. the Old English ælf, from Proto - Germanic * albiz).
The Elves are also called the "Firstborn '' (Q. Minnónar) or the "Elder Kindred '' (as opposed to Men, the Secondborn) as they were "awakened '' before Men by Eru Ilúvatar (the creator). The Elves named themselves Quendi ("the Speakers ''), in honour of the fact that, when they were created, they were the only living beings able to speak. The Dúnedain called them Nimîr ("the Beautiful ''), while their usual name in Sindarin was Eledhrim.
In other writings, part of The History of Middle - earth, Tolkien details Elvish naming conventions. The Quenya word for "name '' was essë. An Elf of Valinor was typically given one name (ataressë) at birth by the father. It usually reflected either the name of the father or mother, indicating the person 's descent, to which later some distinguishing prefix could be added. As the Elf grew older, they received a second name (amilessë), given by the mother. This name was extremely important and reflected personality, skills, or fate, sometimes being "prophetic ''.
The epessë or the "after - name '' is the third type. It was given later in life, not necessarily by kin, as a title of admiration and honour. In some circumstances, yet another name was chosen by the Elf themselves, called kilmessë meaning "self - name ''.
The "true names '' remained the first two, though an Elf could be referred to by any of these. Mother - names were usually not used by those who did not know the Elf well. In later history and song any of the four could become the one generally used and recognized.
After their Exile to Middle - earth and adoption of Sindarin as the daily speech, most of the Noldor also chose for themselves a name that fitted the style of that language, translating or altering one of their Quenya names.
A patronymic surname is also used -- the father 's name with the suffix "- ion '' (meaning "son '') or "- iel '' (meaning "daughter '') added. Thus, Gildor Inglorion is "Gildor, son of Inglor ''.
Several examples include:
Tolkien created many languages for his Elves. His interest was primarily philological, and he said his stories grew out of his languages. Indeed, the languages were the first thing Tolkien ever created for his mythos, starting with what he originally called "Elfin '' or "Qenya ''. This was later spelled Quenya (High - elven) and, along with Sindarin (Grey - elven), is one of the two most complete of Tolkien 's constructed languages. In addition to these two Tolkien also created many other (related) Elvish languages.
Elves are also credited with creating the Tengwar (by Fëanor) and Cirth (Daeron) scripts.
The 1977 Rankin Bass animated version of The Hobbit, with character designs by Lester Abrams, features Wood Elves as green - skinned warriors with slightly Austrian - German accents. High Elves are shown with pointed ears and beards.
In Peter Jackson 's Lord of the Rings film series (2001 -- 2003), all of the elves (including Wood Elves) are portrayed as fair, graceful, and wise beings with supernatural abilities like enhanced eyesight. While they facially resemble humans, they transcend beauty, with much longer and finer hair and an apparent inner glow. They also have pointed ears and no facial hair.
In Middle - earth Role Playing (Iron Crown Enterprises, 1986), three tribes of elves are presented as player character race options, the Silvan, Sindar and Noldor -- each receiving statistic bonuses (ranging from 5 to 15) to all attributes apart from Strength, with the Noldor receiving the highest accumulative bonuses of any racial type in the game. All three tribes are statistically immune to disease (+ 100 % chance of resistance), and must be given "Presence '' as the highest randomly generated statistic. Elven characters also receive significant skill bonuses with missile weapons (such as a bow and arrow) and stealth skills (such as hiding).
All three elven tribes (Silvan, Noldor, Sindar) depicted in The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game (Decipher, Inc., 2001) have varying (one or two points) statistic bonuses to Bearing, Perception and Nimbleness, with the Noldor also receiving a bonus to Wits and the Sindar to Vitality, giving both of these the highest accumulative bonuses available to Player Characters. The system of skills, feats and flaws further outlines racial and cultural characteristics, bonuses being given to the Noldor in Lore and "Resisting the Shadow '', to the Silvan elves for various wood - craft skills, and the Sindar to musical performance. All elves have the ability to enchant objects, and receive bonuses in any test regarding magic.
In The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game (Games Workshop, 2001), Elves have similar statistics to similarly armed Men, except for much higher scores for their Fighting and Courage attributes. On average, Elven wargear (armour and weapons) give twice the advantage of weapons made by Men.
Some notable Elves include:
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pieces of art that use the golden ratio | List of works designed with the golden ratio - wikipedia
Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the golden ratio. However, many of these claims are disputed, or refuted by measurement.
The golden ratio, an irrational number, is approximately 1.618; it is often denoted by the Greek letter φ (phi).
Various authors have claimed that early monuments have golden ratio proportions, often on conjectural interpretations, using approximate measurements, and only roughly corresponding to 1.618. For example, claims have been made about golden ratio proportions in Egyptian, Sumerian and Greek vases, Chinese pottery, Olmec sculptures, and Cretan and Mycenaean products from the late Bronze Age. These predate by some 1,000 years the Greek mathematicians first known to have studied the golden ratio. However, the historical sources are obscure, and the analyses are difficult to compare because they employ differing methods.
It is claimed, for instance, that Stonehenge (3100 BC -- 2200 BC) has golden ratio proportions between its concentric circles. Kimberly Elam proposes this relation as early evidence of human cognitive preference for the golden ratio. However, others point out that this interpretation of Stonehenge "may be doubtful '' and that the geometric construction that generates it can only be surmised. As another example, Carlos Chanfón Olmos states that the Sculpture of King Gudea (c. 2350 BC) has golden proportions between all of its secondary elements repeated many times at its base.
The Great Pyramid of Giza (constructed c. 2570 BC by Hemiunu) exhibits the golden ratio according to various pyramidologists, including Charles Funck - Hellet. John F. Pile, interior design professor and historian, has claimed that Egyptian designers sought the golden proportions without mathematical techniques and that it is common to see the 1.618: 1 ratio, along with many other simpler geometrical concepts, in their architectural details, art, and everyday objects found in tombs. In his opinion, "That the Egyptians knew of it and used it seems certain. ''
From before the beginning of these theories, other historians and mathematicians have proposed alternative theories for the pyramid designs that are not related to any use of the golden ratio, and are instead based on purely rational slopes that only approximate the golden ratio. The Egyptians of those times apparently did not know the Pythagorean theorem; the only right triangle whose proportions they knew was the 3: 4: 5 triangle.
The Acropolis of Athens (468 -- 430 BC), including the Parthenon, according to some studies, has many proportions that approximate the golden ratio. Other scholars question whether the golden ratio was known to or used by Greek artists and architects as a principle of aesthetic proportion. Building the Acropolis is calculated to have been started around 600 BC, but the works said to exhibit the golden ratio proportions were created from 468 BC to 430 BC.
The Parthenon (447 -- 432 BC), was a temple of the Greek goddess Athena. The Parthenon 's facade as well as elements of its facade and elsewhere are claimed to be circumscribed by a progression of golden rectangles. Some more recent studies dispute the view that the golden ratio was employed in the design.
Hemenway claims that the Greek sculptor Phidias (c. 480 -- c. 430 BC) used the divine proportion in some of his sculptures. He created Athena Parthenos in Athens and Statue of Zeus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. He is believed to have been in charge of other Parthenon sculptures, although they may have been executed by his alumni or peers. In the early 20th century, American mathematician Mark Barr proposed the Greek letter phi (φ), the first letter of Phidias 's name, to denote the golden ratio.
Lothar Haselberger claims that the temple of Apollo in Didyma (c. 334 BC), designed by Daphnis of Mileto and Paionios of Ephesus, has golden proportions.
Between 1950 and 1960, Manuel Amabilis applied some of the analysis methods of Frederik Macody Lund and Jay Hambidge in several designs of prehispanic buildings, such as El Toloc and La Iglesia de Las Monjas (the Nuns Church), a notable complex of Terminal Classic buildings constructed in the Puuc architectural style at Chichen Itza. According to his studies, their proportions are concretized from a series of polygons, circles and pentagrams inscribed, as Lund found in his studies of Gothic churches. Manuel Amabilis published his studies along with several self - explanatory images of other pre-columbian buildings made with golden ratio proportions in La Arquitectura Precolombina de Mexico. The work was awarded the gold medal and the title of Academico by the Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Spain) in the Fiesta de la Raza (Columbus day) of 1929.
The Castle of Chichen Itza was built by the Maya civilization between the 11th and 13th centuries AD as a temple to the god Kukulcan. John Pile claims that its interior layout has golden ratio proportions. He says that the interior walls are placed so that the outer spaces are related to the central chamber by the golden ratio.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (built by Uqba ibn Nafi c. 670 A.D.) has been claimed to use the golden ratio in the design including its plan, the prayer space, court, and minaret, but the ratio does not appear in the original parts of the mosque.
The Stupa of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia (built eighth to ninth century AD), the largest known Buddhist stupa, has the dimension of the square base related to the diameter of the largest circular terrace as 1.618: 1, according to Pile.
The Romanesque style of architecture prevailed in Europe between 900 -- 1200, a period which ends with the transition to Gothic architecture. The contrast between Romanesque and Gothic concepts in religious buildings can be understood in the epistolary between St. Bernard, Cistercian, and the Abbot Suger of the order of Cluny, the initiator of Gothic art in St. Denis.
One of the most beautiful works of Romanesque Cistercian is the Abbey of Sénanque in Provence. The Sénanque abbatial was founded in 1148 and consecrated in 1178. It was initiated in life of St Bernard of Clairvaux. "La Lumière à Sénanque '' (The Light in Sénanque), a chapter of Cîteaux: commentarii cistercienses, a publication of the Cistercian Order. Its author, Kim Lloveras i Montserrat, made in 1992 a complete study of the abbatial, and argues that the abbatial church was designed using a system of measures founded in the golden ratio, and that the instruments used for its construction were the "Vescica '' and the medieval squares used by the constructors, both designed with the golden ratio. The "Vescica '' of Sénanque is located in the cloister of the monastery, in front of the Chapter, the site of the workshop.
In his 1919 book Ad Quadratum, Frederik Macody Lund, a historian who studied the geometry of several gothic structures, claims that the Cathedral of Chartres (begun in the 12th century), the Notre - Dame of Laon (1157 -- 1205), and the Notre Dame de Paris (1160) are designed according to the golden ratio. Other scholars argue that until Luca Pacioli 's 1509 De Divina Proportione (see next section), the golden ratio was unknown to artists and architects, although this is not likely the case since the ratio was explicitly defined by Euclid.
A 2003 conference on medieval architecture resulted in the book Ad Quadratum: The Application of Geometry to Medieval Architecture. According to a summary by one reviewer:
Most of the contributors consider that the setting out was done ad quadratum, using the sides of a square and its diagonal. This gave an incommensurate ratio of (square root of (2)) by striking a circular arc (which could easily be done with a rope rotating around a peg). Most also argued that setting out was done geometrically rather than arithmetically (with a measuring rod). Some considered that setting out also involved the use of equilateral or Pythagorean triangles, pentagons, and octagons. Two authors believe the Golden Section (or at least its approximation) was used, but its use in medieval times is not supported by most architectural historians.
The Australian architectural historian John James made a detailed study of the Cathedral of Chartres. In his work The Master Masons of Chartres he says that Bronze, one of the master masons, used the golden ratio. It was the same relation as between the arms of their metal square:
Bronze by comparison was an innovator, in practical rather than in philosophic things. Amongst other things Bronze was one of the few masters to use the fascinating ratio of the golden mean. For the builder, the most important function Fi, as we write the golden mean, is that if the uses is consistently he will find that every subdivision, no matter how accidentally it may have been derived, will fit somewhere into the series. Is not too difficult a ratio to reproduce, and Bronze could have had the two arms of his metal square cut to represent it. All he would than have had to do was to place the square on the stone and, using the string draw between the corners, relate any two lengths by Phi. Nothing like making life easy.
De divina proportione, written by Luca Pacioli in Milan in 1496 -- 1498, published in Venice in 1509, features 60 drawings by Leonardo da Vinci, some of which illustrate the appearance of the golden ratio in geometric figures. Starting with part of the work of Leonardo da Vinci, this architectural treatise was a major influence on generations of artists and architects.
Vitruvian Man, created by Leonardo da Vinci around the year 1492, is based on the theories of the man after which the drawing takes its name, Vitruvius, who in De Architectura: The Planning of Temples (c. I BC) pointed that the planning of temples depends on symmetry, which must be based on the perfect proportions of the human body. Some authors feel there is no actual evidence that Da Vinci used the golden ratio in Vitruvian Man; however, Olmos (1991) observes otherwise through geometrical analysis. He also proposes Leonardo da Vinci 's self portrait, Michelangelo 's David (1501 -- 1504), Albrecht Dürer 's Melencolia I and the classic violin design by the masters of Cremona (Guarneri, Stradivari and several members of the Amati family) as having similar regulator lines related to the golden ratio.
Da Vinci 's Mona Lisa (c. 1503 -- 1506) "has been the subject of so many volumes of contradicting scholarly and popular speculations that it virtually impossible to reach any unambiguous conclusions '' with respect to the golden ratio, according to Livio.
The Tempietto chapel at the Monastery of Saint Peter in Montorio, Rome, built by Bramante, has relations to the golden ratio in its elevation and interior lines.
José Villagrán García has claimed that the golden ratio is an important element in the design of the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral (circa 1667 -- 1813). Olmos claims the same for the design of the cities of Coatepec (1579), Chicoaloapa (1579) and Huejutla (1580), as well as the Mérida Cathedral, the Acolman Temple, Cristo Crucificado by Diego Velázquez (1639) and La Inmaculada Concepción (pictured) of Bartolomé Esteban Murillo.
Matila Ghyka and others contend that Georges Seurat used golden ratio proportions in paintings like La Parade, Le Pont de Courbevoie and Bathers at Asnières. However, there is no direct evidence to support these claims.
While the golden ratio appears to govern the geometric structure of Seurat 's Parade de cirque (Circus Sideshow), modern consensus among art historians is that Seurat never used this divine proportion in his work.
The final study of Parade, executed prior to the oil on canvas, is divided horizontally into fourths and vertically into sixths (4: 6 ratio) corresponding to the dimensions of the canvas, which is one and one - half times wider than its vertical dimension. These axes do not correspond precisely to the golden section, 1: 1.6, as might have been expected. Rather, they correspond to basic mathematical divisions (simple ratios that appear to approximate the golden section), as noted by Seurat with citations from the mathematician, inventor, esthetician Charles Henry.
The idea of the Section d'Or (or Groupe de Puteaux) originated in the course of conversations between Albert Gleizes, Jean Metzinger and Jacques Villon. The group 's title was suggested by Villon, after reading a 1910 translation of Leonardo da Vinci 's Trattato della Pittura by Joséphin Péladan. Peladan attached great mystical significance to the golden section (French: Section d'Or), and other similar geometric configurations. For Villon, this symbolized his belief in order and the significance of mathematical proportions, because it reflected patterns and relationships occurring in nature. Jean Metzinger and the Duchamp brothers were passionately interested in mathematics. Jean Metzinger, Juan Gris and possibly Marcel Duchamp at this time were associates of Maurice Princet, an amateur mathematician credited for introducing profound and rational scientific arguments into Cubist discussions. The name La Section d'Or represented simultaneously a continuity with past traditions and current trends in related fields, while leaving open future developments in the arts.
The Sacrament of the Last Supper (1955): The canvas of this surrealist masterpiece by Salvador Dalí is a golden rectangle. A huge dodecahedron, with edges in golden ratio to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and dominates the composition.
Some works in the Dutch artistic movement called De Stijl, or neoplasticism, exhibit golden ratio proportions. Piet Mondrian used the golden section extensively in his neoplasticist, geometrical paintings, created circa 1918 -- 38. Mondrian sought proportion in his paintings by observation, knowledge and intuition, rather than geometrical or mathematical methods.
The Farnsworth House, designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, has been described as "the proportions, within the glass walls, approach 1: 2 '' and "with a width to length ratio of 1: 1.75 (nearly the golden section) '' and has been studied with his other works in relation to the golden ratio.
The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier 's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the very root of human activities. They resound in man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages and the learned. ''
Modulor: Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his system for the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci 's "Vitruvian Man '', the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the double unit. He took Leonardo 's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body 's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.
In The Modulor: A Harmonious Measure to the Human Scale, Universally Applicable to Architecture and Mechanics Le Corbusier reveals he used his system in the Marseilles Unite D'Habitation (in the general plan and section, the front elevation, plan and section of the apartment, in the woodwork, the wall, the roof and some prefabricated furniture), a small office in 35 rue de Sèvres, a factory in Saint - Die and the United Nations Headquarters building in New York City. Many authors claim that the shape of the facade of the second is the result of three golden rectangles; however, each of the three rectangles that can actually be appreciated have different heights.
Catalan architect Josep Lluis Sert, a disciple of Le Corbusier, applied the measures of the Modulor in all his particular works, including the Sert 's House in Cambridge and the Joan Miró Foundation in Barcelona.
According to the official tourism page of Buenos Aires, Argentina, the ground floor of the Palacio Barolo (1923), designed by Italian architect Mario Palanti, is built according to the golden section.
Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his designs on geometric figures. Several private houses he designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the central section and the side sections of the house.
Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók 's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, though other music scholars reject that analysis. In Bartók 's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta the xylophone progression occurs at the intervals 1: 2: 3: 5: 8: 5: 3: 2: 1. The French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including Sonneries de la Rose + Croix.
The golden ratio is also apparent in the organisation of the sections in the music of Claude Debussy 's Image: Reflections in the Water, in which "the sequence of keys is marked out by the intervals 34, 21, 13 and 8, and the main climax sits at the phi position. ''
The musicologist Roy Howat has observed that the formal boundaries of Debussy 's La mer correspond exactly to the golden section. Trezise finds the intrinsic evidence "remarkable '', but cautions that no written or reported evidence suggests that Debussy consciously sought such proportions.
Leonid Sabaneyev hypothesizes that the separate time intervals of the musical pieces connected by the "culmination event '', as a rule, are in the ratio of the golden section. However the author attributes this incidence to the instinct of the musicians: "All such events are timed by author 's instinct to such points of the whole length that they divide temporary durations into separate parts being in the ratio of the golden section. ''
Ron Knott exposes how the golden ratio is unintentionally present in several pieces of classical music:
According to author Leon Harkleroad, "Some of the most misguided attempts to link music and mathematics have involved Fibonacci numbers and the related golden ratio. ''
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when does season 5 of marvels agents of shield start | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity while in deep space. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in May 2017. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons, while Natalia Cordova - Buckley is promoted to the principal cast after appearing in a recurring role since season three.
The fifth season is set to begin airing on December 1, 2017, after Marvel 's Inhumans has finished airing its episodes, and run for 22 episodes.
Clark Gregg will direct the sixth episode in the season.
In January 2017, ahead of the mid-season premiere of the fourth season, ABC 's Channing Dungey said that she was "very bullish '' about S.H.I.E.L.D. 's future, feeling that "the episodes just keep getting better and stronger ''. The series was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, with ABC looking to lower the cost of the series moving forward, by reducing its budget and licensing fee. Asked whether she had considered giving the season a shorter episode order, Dungey noted that every season of the series had been 22 episodes long, and she felt its prior success in delayed viewership and overseas justified continuing that. She added that the "show has continued to grow creatively every season. I feel like last season (was) its strongest creatively yet. I 'm very excited for what we have planned for Season 5. '' It was reported that Disney, the parent company of Marvel Television, ABC Studios, and ABC, had given a mandate to ABC to renew Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "despite the desire by some at the network to end the series ''.
In May 2017, ahead of the fifth season renewal, showrunner and executive producer Jed Whedon said the writers were not sure what would happen in the season, and that it would be "by the seat of our pants. '' The season will also explore the ramifications of Phil Coulson making a deal with Ghost Rider. Additionally, the season will continue to explore the groundwork laid by Aida for humans to fear S.H.I.E.L.D. and Inhumans, with Whedon stating, "The public perception of S.H.I.E.L.D. is at an all - time low, so we have not resolved that, and there will be still more fallout from it. ''
Regarding if they would break the season up into pods again as with season four, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "A 22 - episode arc is a lot for people to hold onto. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it 's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you 're telling some of these stories. '' Whedon also noted it would depend on how the season would be "broken up in terms of airing. If everything is running back - to - back, it feels weird to start calling it different things... We will try to have it in bite - sized chunks. '' The writers for the season began work at the end of May 2017.
Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, and Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie, respectively. Before the 2017 New York Comic - Con, it was revealed that Natalia Cordova - Buckley had been promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the past two seasons as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez.
In August 2017, Jeff Ward was cast in a recurring role. A month later, it was revealed that former series regular Nick Blood would be returning to reprise his role as Lance Hunter. Blood left the series during the third season, to star on the spin - off series Marvel 's Most Wanted, which never came to fruition. Adrianne Palicki, who portrayed Bobbi Morse and also left in the third season to star on Most Wanted with Blood, expressed interest in October 2017 in returning to guest star in the season, saying she "would absolutely come back '' if asked.
After leaving the series during the fourth season, costume designer Ann Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted her on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2017. In May 2017, Gregg expressed interest in directing an episode in the season, and confirmed that September he would be directing an episode, which will be the sixth of the season. Bennet felt Gregg was able to bring out performances from the cast "that another director probably would n't have been able to because he knows the characters so well. ''
In terms of having connections to Marvel 's Inhumans, Whedon felt it was doubtful, but noted "we also want there to be a bigger reward for people who watch all of (the MCU series), so they 'll start to see that there 's lines connecting it. It 's more fun for people who are playing the whole game, but if you do n't, you 'll still have a great rollercoaster ride. ''
The season is set to begin airing in the United States on ABC on December 1, 2017, beginning once Inhumans has finished airing its episodes. It is set to run for 22 episodes. The fifth season is moving to a Friday timeslot, alongside the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time, with ABC chief Channing Dungey explaining, "We 've turned Friday into more of a destination for our fantasy and science fiction fans. Once Upon a Time and S.H.I.E.L.D. are airing on the same night for the first time, which is giving many fans of both shows what they 've been asking for for a long time. '' Andy Kubitz, executive vice president for program planning and scheduling at ABC, added that ABC had "confidence that (the S.H.I.E.L.D.) core audience... (would) travel with it '' to its new Friday time slot. He continued, "The great thing about Friday night for these shows is it gives three days of downtime for a lot of these younger viewers to be able to catch up on it. You 've got Saturday and Sunday viewing that will be able to be counted into our C3 to help us monetize it. ''
The main cast of the season appeared at New York Comic Con on October 7, 2017, where they promoted the season and debuted the first 20 minutes of the first episode of the season.
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what is the score in the nfl hall of fame game | Pro Football Hall of Fame game - wikipedia
The Pro Football Hall of Fame Game is an annual National Football League (NFL) exhibition game that is held the weekend of the Pro Football Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies. The game is played at Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium, which is located adjacent to the Hall of Fame building in Canton, Ohio. It is traditionally the first game played in the NFL preseason for any given year, marking the end of the NFL 's six - month off - season.
The two teams that play in the Pro Football Hall of Fame Game are typically selected by the league in advance of the remainder of the preseason schedule. The participants are usually announced around the time that the new Hall of Fame members are announced, which coincides with Super Bowl week. Often, if a particularly notable player will be entering the Hall of Fame that year, a team they were strongly associated with may be selected to play in the game to help maximize attendance and publicity of the game itself. From 1971 to 2010, the opponents for each game usually included one AFC team and one NFC team. In 2009, as recognition of the 50th anniversary of the American Football League, the game paired two AFC teams who were part of the "original eight '' franchises of the AFL, the Tennessee Titans (dressed as their previous incarnation, the Houston Oilers) and the Buffalo Bills, whose owner, Ralph Wilson, was inducted into the Hall that year. An all - NFC matchup was scheduled for 2011, but it was canceled due to the 2011 NFL lockout; the following year, another intra-conference matchup of two NFC teams took its place. From 2011 onward, each team selected to play in the game has had at least one prominent alumnus being inducted into the Hall that year.
Because this game and the Hall of Fame 's induction ceremonies are scheduled on the weekend before the league 's regular four - week exhibition season begins, both teams end up playing five exhibition games instead of the normal four, and unlike the Canadian Football League (which plays its two - game exhibition season over three weeks), the league does not remove antone. The last four expansion teams to have been added to the league each played in the Hall of Fame Game as their first game. In 1995, expansion clubs Jacksonville and Carolina played each another, and in 2002, Houston was one of the participants. When the Cleveland Browns returned to the league with a rebooted roster in 1999, they too played in the Hall of Fame Game. The Baltimore Ravens, while officially considered as being established in 1996, did not play in the Hall of Fame Game until 2018. With the Ravens ' participation in the 2018 game, all 32 current NFL teams have now played in the Hall of Fame game at least once.
Prior to the AFL -- NFL merger, the Hall of Fame Game was played in August or September, in some cases at the end of the preseason. In 1970, it was moved to the beginning of the preseason. Prior to 2002, it was not uncommon for the game to be played in July. Since 2002, when the league permanently moved the start of the season to the weekend after Labor Day, the game has always been played in early August.
The 2011 game was originally scheduled between the St. Louis Rams and the Chicago Bears, but the game was canceled due to an ongoing labor dispute that had disrupted nearly all league activity during the 2011 offseason. The two clubs had set a deadline of July 22 to ratify a resolution in enough time to prepare for the game. The league and players did not ratify the agreement until July 25, forcing cancellation of the game.
The 2016 edition, which was scheduled to be played between the Green Bay Packers and the Indianapolis Colts, was canceled due to unsafe playing conditions. Mike Silver of NFL.com reported that on the morning of game day, the logos at midfield and the end zones had been painted using paint which was not intended for use on artificial turf. When it was apparent the paint was n't drying fast enough, the field was heated to speed up the drying process, but this caused the turf 's rubber to melt. These issues led to unfavorable play conditions. The affected areas were described as being slick and "like cement, '' making it impossible to get decent footing. Stadium officials attempted to address this by applying a solvent, reportedly paint thinner, to the turf. A Packers employee noticed a label warning that this substance could result in burns when exposed to skin, and alerted others to the discovery. When officially cancelling the game, both the league and the Players Association cited safety concerns. Both teams were told at 6: 40 p.m. -- an hour and 20 minutes before kickoff -- that the game was going to be canceled. However, fans in the stadium only learned of the pending cancellation via social media. No official announcement was made until just before the scheduled 8 p.m. kickoff.
On December 28, 2016, the NFL announced that the 2017 edition of the game would be played on a Thursday (August 3). This scheduling change made the Hall of Fame Game the first event of the Hall of Fame Weekend. The 2018 game was also played on a Thursday (August 2). Come 2019, the game will be played on August 1.
Unlike the majority of NFL preseason games, which air on local TV stations, the Hall of Fame Game airs nationwide. From 1999 to 2005, the game was held on Monday night, televised as part of ABC 's Monday Night Football package. It had previously been held typically on Saturday afternoons, except from 1963 to 1965 on Sunday afternoons, televised as part of ABC 's Wide World of Sports package (still using the MNF crew). In 1998, the game was put in the MNF package, and played on a Saturday night, which served as a test run for the move to Monday night. Starting in 2006, it was moved to Sunday night, coinciding with the new NBC Sunday Night Football television package. The 2007 game was telecast on NFL Network as NBC was intending to televise the China Bowl game in Beijing, China (a game which was postponed to 2009 and later canceled). The Hall of Fame Game has since bounced between both networks. The 2012 game aired on NFL Network due to NBC 's coverage of the Summer Olympics. After a two - year absence, the game returned to NBC in 2013 and remained on the network until 2015. The 2016 game was scheduled to air on ESPN as it was to be played two days into the 2016 Summer Olympics but the game was canceled due to field conditions, it returned to NBC in 2017 and will remain on the network until 2019. The 2020 game will be on either ESPN or NFL Network due to NBC 's coverage of the 2020 Summer Olympics.
Westwood One owns national radio rights; it is the only preseason game to air on a nationwide network. Each team 's radio network is also allowed to broadcast the games (albeit usually with fewer affiliates since exhibition games are traditionally much lower priority to non-sports and non-flagship stations).
In 2007 and 2008, the game was broadcast live in both Ireland and the United Kingdom by Sky Sports. It was not shown in 2009 because of a dispute between Sky Sports and the NFL over TV rights. ESPN America (formerly North American Sports Network) broadcasts the game in the rest of Europe.
From 1998 to 2005, the Global Television Network aired the game in Canada, simulcasting ABC; upon the move to Sunday night in 2006, the CTV Television Network aired the game until 2010. With CTV airing the 2012 Summer Olympics, TSN broadcast the Hall of Fame Game in 2012. Azteca 7 aired Spanish - language coverage of the Hall of Fame Game in Mexico from 1998 to 2005; the Game moved to Canal 5 in 2006 and aired on that station until 2010. Due to the cancellation of the 2011 Hall of Fame Game and Televisa 's Summer Olympics coverage, the Hall of Fame Game moved to Televisa Deportes in 2012 and then to Galavision in 2013.
Tom Benson Hall of Fame Stadium is part of the Cleveland market, and is also within 75 miles of numerous other television markets in northeast Ohio and western Pennsylvania. As such, the NBC affiliates (and before them, the ABC affiliates) were within league requirements to blackout the game in the rare event the game does not sell out, during the time the league had a blackout policy (the policy has been suspended indefinitely since 2015). Because the stadium only holds 22,375 fans (less than half the capacity of any other NFL stadium except the StubHub Center, which is the temporary home of the Los Angeles Chargers while their permanent stadium Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park is built) and the Hall of Fame induction ceremonies bring large numbers of outside fans to Canton, the game has, to date, always sold out; several NFL teams, as well as the Super Bowl, have similarly enjoyed long sellout streaks.
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difference between elected and nominated members of parliament of india | Parliament of India - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 2 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 29 '' E / 28.61722 ° N 77.20806 ° E / 28.61722; 77.20806
The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body of the Republic of India. The Parliament is composed of the President of India and the houses. It is bicameral with two houses: the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People). The President in his role as head of legislature has full powers to summon and prorogue either house of Parliament or to dissolve Lok Sabha. The president can exercise these powers only upon the advice of the Prime Minister and his Union Council of Ministers.
Those elected or nominated (by the President) to either house of Parliament are referred to as members of parliament (MP). The Members of Parliament, Lok Sabha are directly elected by the Indian public voting in Single - member districts and the Members of Parliament, Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of all of the State Legislative Assembly by proportional representation. The Parliament has a sanctioned strength of 545 in Lok Sabha including the 2 nominees from the Anglo - Indian Community by the President, and 245 in Rajya Sabha including the 12 nominees from the expertise of different fields of science, culture, art and history. The Parliament meets at Sansad Bhavan in New Delhi.
The Sansad Bhavan (Parliament House) is located in New Delhi. It was designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker, who were responsible for planning and construction of New Delhi by British government. The construction of buildings took six years and the opening ceremony was performed on 18 January 1927 by the then Viceroy and Governor - General of India, Irwin. The construction costs for the building were ₹ 8.3 million (US $130,000). The parliament is 560 feet (170 m) in diameter and covers an area of 6 acres (2.4 ha). The Central hall consists of the chambers of Lok sabha, Rajya Sabha and the Library hall. Surrounding these three chambers is the four storied circular structure providing accommodations for members and houses Parliamentary committees, offices and the Ministry of Parliamentary Affairs.
The centre and the focus of the building is the Central Hall. It consists of chambers of Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and the Library Hall and between them lie garden courts. Surrounding these three chambers is the four storyed circular structure providing accommodations for Ministers, Chairmen, Parliamentary committees, Party offices, important offices of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha Secretariats and also the offices of the ministry of Parliamentary affairs. The Central Hall is circular in shape and the dome is 98 feet (29.87 meters) in diameter. It is a place of historical importance. The Indian Constitution was framed in the Central Hall. The Central Hall was originally used in the library of erstwhile Central Legislative Assembly and the Council of States. In 1946, it was converted and refurbished into Constituent Assembly Hall. At present, the Central Hall is used for holding joint sittings of both the houses of parliament and also used for address by the President in the commencement of first session after each general election.
A new Parliament building may replace the existing complex. The new building is being considered on account of the stability concerns regarding the current complex. A committee to suggest alternatives to the current building has been set up by the Former Speaker, Meira Kumar. The present building, an 85 - year - old structure suffers from inadequacy of space to house members and their staff and is thought to suffer from structural issues. The building also needs to be protected because of its heritage tag.
The Indian Parliament consists of two houses called the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha with the President of India acting as their head.
The President of India, the Head of state is a component of Parliament. Under Article 60 and Article 111, President 's responsibility is to scrutinise that bills / laws passed by the parliament are in accordance with constitutional mandate and stipulated procedure is followed before according his / her approval to the bills. The President of India is elected by the members of Parliament of India and the state legislatures and serves for a term of five years.
Lok Sabha (House of the People) or the lower house has 545 members. 543 members are directly elected by citizens of India on the basis of universal adult franchise representing Parliamentary constituencies across the country and 2 members are appointed by the President of India from Anglo - Indian Community. Every citizen of India who is over 18 years of age, irrespective of gender, caste, religion or race, who is otherwise not disqualified, is eligible to vote for the Lok Sabha. The Constitution provides that the maximum strength of the House be 552 members. It has a term of five years. To be eligible for membership in the Lok Sabha, a person must be a citizen of India and must be 25 years of age or older, mentally sound, should not be bankrupt and should not be criminally convicted. The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.
Rajya Sabha (Council of States) or the upper house is a permanent body not subject to dissolution. One third of the members retire every second year, and are replaced by newly elected members. Each member is elected for a term of six years. Its members are indirectly elected by members of legislative bodies of the states. The Rajya Sabha can have a maximum of 250 members. It currently has a sanctioned strength of 245 members, of which 233 are elected from States and Union Territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The number of members from a state depends on its population. The minimum age for a person to become a member of Rajya Sabha is 30 years.
The period during which the House meets to conduct its business is called a session. The Constitution empowers the president to summon each House at such intervals that there should not be more than a six - month gap between the two sessions. Hence the Parliament must meet at least twice a year. In India, the parliament conducts three sessions each year:
Legislative proposals are brought before either house of the Parliament in the form of a bill. A bill is the draft of a legislative proposal, which, when passed by both houses of Parliament and assented to by the President, becomes an Act of Parliament. Money bills must originate in the Lok Sabha. The council of states can only make recommendations over the bills to the House, within a period of fourteen days.
Parliamentary committees are formed to deliberate specific matters at length. The public is directly or indirectly associated and studies are conducted to help committees arrive at the conclusions. Parliamentary committees are of two kinds: Ad hoc committees and the Standing committees.
Standing committees are permanent committees constituted from time to time in pursuance of the provisions of an act of Parliament or rules of procedure and conduct of business in Parliament. The work of these committees is of a continuing nature. Ad hoc committees are appointed for a specific purpose and they cease to exist when they finish the task assigned to them and submits a report.
On 13 December 2001, Indian Parliament was attacked by a terrorist organisation. The perpetrators were Lashkar - e-Taiba (Let) and Jaish - e-Mohammed (JeM) terrorists. The attack led to the deaths of five terrorists, six Delhi Police personnel, two Parliament Security Services personnel and a gardener, which totalled 14 fatalities. It also led to increased tensions between India and Pakistan, resulting in the 2001 - 2002 India - Pakistan standoff.
On 16 November 2016, The winter session of Indian Parliament had started and during the sittings in both Upper and Lower Houses of Parliament, observed strong opposition, and uproar by political parties, on note ban initiative by Narendra Modi Government on 8 November 2016.
Jawaharlal Nehru and other members taking pledge during the midnight session of the Constituent Assembly of India held on 14 and 15 August 1947.
Constituent Assembly of India
Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the Constituent Assembly in 1946.
Indian Prime Minister, Morarji Desai listens to Jimmy Carter as he addresses the Indian Parliament House.
President of the United States, Barack Obama addressing Joint Session of the Parliament, 2010.
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who sang i'm gonna swing from the chandelier | Chandelier (song) - Wikipedia
"Chandelier '' is a song by Australian singer Sia from her sixth studio album, 1000 Forms of Fear (2014). Written by Sia and Jesse Shatkin and produced by Shatkin and Greg Kurstin, the song was released on 17 March 2014 as the lead single from the album. It 's an electropop song, featuring electronica, R&B and reggae influences. Lyrically, the song has a melancholic theme, detailing the demoralisation and rationalisation of alcoholism through the typical thought process of a "party girl ''.
The single reached the top 5 on record charts in 20 countries including France, Italy, Poland, Norway, Australia and New Zealand. In the United States, the single peaked at number 8 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Sia 's first single as a lead artist to appear on the Hot 100, and has sold over 2 million copies in the country. The song received 4 nominations at the 57th Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Record of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance, with its video receiving a nomination for Best Music Video.
A music video for the song, directed by Sia and Daniel Askill, and choreographed by Ryan Heffington, features dancer Maddie Ziegler. It has been viewed on YouTube more than 1.7 billion times, becoming one of the most viewed YouTube videos ever posted. In support of the single and 1000 Forms of Fear, Sia, often with Ziegler, performed "Chandelier '' on a number of television shows, including The Ellen DeGeneres Show, Late Night with Seth Meyers, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Saturday Night Live, Dancing With the Stars, and at 57th Grammy Awards.
In 2010, Sia released her fifth studio album We Are Born, which ended up at number two on the Australian Albums Chart. Following the release, Sia took a hiatus from performing and co-wrote songs for other recording artists, including Beyoncé, Rihanna, Christina Aguilera, Flo Rida and David Guetta. In 2013, Sia recorded the track "Elastic Heart '' for The Hunger Games: Catching Fire soundtrack.
In May 2014, Sia announced her sixth studio album 1000 Forms of Fear and released "Chandelier '' as its lead single. Sia revealed that she initially wrote the track for Rihanna or Beyoncé, but decided to record the song herself. The melody was formed after Sia played the piano, while Greg Kurstin and Jesse Shatkin played the marimba in the studio. In the United States, "Chandelier '' was released for digital download onto iTunes Stores on 17 March 2014 through Monkey Puzzle, with distribution by RCA Records. In the United Kingdom, "Chandelier '' was released digitally on 29 June 2014. A day later, it was sent by RCA Records to US hot adult contemporary radio.
"Chandelier '' was written by Sia and Shatkin and was produced by Kurstin and Shatkin. It was described as an electropop ballad, featuring "soaring '' synthesisers, "militant '' drums, and hip hop beats with electronica, R&B, and reggae influences. The song features Sia 's "jaw - dropping '' vocal performance. The song is written in the key of B ♭ minor and it follows the chord progression of Bbm -- Gbmaj7 -- Ab -- Fm in the verses, Gbmaj7 -- Bbm - Ab in the pre-chorus, and Gbmaj7 -- Ab -- Db / F -- Gbmaj7 in the chorus.
Lyrically, "Chandelier '' has a sad theme talking about "the glitter and fatigue of a party girl 's life ''. John Walker from MTV Buzzworthy opined that the song has a dark theme, "toeing the line between celebration and self - destruction as it becomes increasingly more blurred ''. The song 's opening lyrics, "Party girls do n't get hurt, ca n't feel anything... I push it down '', are sung over a reggae - influenced background. Walker noted that during the chorus, Sia sings, "I 'm gon na swing from the chandelier, from the chandelier / I 'm gon na live like tomorrow does n't exist, like it does n't exist ''. A few critics compared the song 's musical style to works done by Rihanna, including Jeremy Gordon from Pitchfork Media, and Melinda Newman of HitFix.
' Chandelier ' has received critical acclaim. Andrew Trendall from Gigwise wrote that the song "springboards Sia from a behind - the - scenes genius into a superstar in her own right ''. Gordon from Pitchfork Media praised Sia 's vocal performance on the track and commented that the track "is enough to make you want to swing from a chandelier ''. Bradley Stern from the website MuuMuse labelled "Chandelier '' the best pop single of 2014, complimenting Sia 's songwriting credits and her voice on the song. In a VH1 article, Emily Exton shared that thought, deeming it the best song Sia had ever written. Writing for Time magazine, Jamieson Cox deemed "Chandelier '' a "disarming, unforgettable listen that 'll make you glad Sia kept this one for herself. '' In a less enthusiastic review, Melinda Newman from HitFix thought that Sia "can do a lot better than this ''.
Billboard listed "Chandelier '' as the best song of 2014. The song received nominations at the 57th Grammy Awards for Song of the Year, Record of the Year and Best Pop Solo Performance, with its video receiving a nomination for Best Music Video.
In the United States, "Chandelier '' debuted at number 75 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart dated 31 May 2014. It peaked at number eight on the chart, becoming the first top ten single by Sia to appear on the chart as a lead artist. The song reached one million units sold in the US in August 2014, and surpassed the 2 million mark in sales in January 2015. The song also reached number six on the Canadian Hot 100. In June 2014, the single was certified platinum by Music Canada.
"Chandelier '' was successful in Oceania and Europe, peaking in the top five on 20 national record charts including: France, and Poland (number one); Australia, Italy and Norway (number two); New Zealand and Slovakia (number three); and Norway and Scotland (number five). The single was certified quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and platinum by the Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ). In the United Kingdom, "Chandelier '' charted at number six on the UK Singles Chart. In France, the single was the third best - selling single of 2014, according to Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique.
The music video for "Chandelier '' was released on 6 May 2014, featuring then - 11 - year - old dancer Maddie Ziegler. In the video, Ziegler wears a medium - length blonde wig matching the one that Sia used to promote the album. Throughout the video, Ziegler performs an interpretive dance in a deserted, dirty apartment "while spinning, kicking, leaping, crawling, falling, twirling and hiding herself behind window drapes ''. An alternative one - take version of the clip was released in June 2014. Sia had seen Ziegler on Dance Moms and asked her to appear in the video via Twitter. The video was directed by Sia and Daniel Askill, shot by cinematographer Sebastian Wintero and was choreographed by Ryan Heffington. Ziegler shared her thoughts about the choreography with New York magazine:
I like the whole dance. It was really different and weird for me, because I usually do n't, you know, be a crazy person every time. It was so fun to do and it was really out of the box and it expanded me a lot, because I 'm used to competition dances where you 're like, "Point your toes! '' But this time it was like, you just need to let go and feel it.
The choreography was praised by media outlets; an editor from The Guardian wrote that Ziegler "dances with such impressive flexibility ''. Nolan Feenay from Time magazine commented that the dance moves in the video could be the best dance routine of 2014. "Chandelier '' received nominations at the MTV Video Music Awards for Video of the Year and Best Choreography, and ultimately won the latter. It was also nominated for a 2015 Grammy Award for Best Music Video. The video went viral on YouTube and became the seventh most - watched video on the video - sharing website of 2014. As of December 2017, it has received over 1.7 billion views and was, at one point, the 13th most viewed YouTube video of all time. It has since moved down to 25th on the list of YouTube 's Most Viewed Videos of All Time. As of January 2015, Billboard ranked the video at number 12 on the list of the 20 best of the 2010s (so far). Both Rolling Stone magazine and Spin magazine named it the Best Music Video of 2014. VH1 listed it first among the "most groundbreaking '' videos of 2014. In 2016, several items related to the "Chandelier '' video were introduced into the "Right Here, Right Now '' exhibit of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Sia performed "Chandelier '' on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on 19 May 2014, with Ziegler recreating the choreography in the music video. Sia also performed the song on Late Night with Seth Meyers on 9 June 2014, with Girls star Lena Dunham performing new choreography. In July 2014, Sia performed the song on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and Ziegler taught host Jimmy Kimmel and his sidekick Guillermo some of the dance moves from the music video. In July 2014, Sia performed the song on the VH1 's show "SoundClash '', along with her songs "Elastic Heart '' and "Big Girls Cry '' from the album. Sia sang the song on Dancing with the Stars, with Ziegler dancing a duet with Allison Holker, and at the 2014 We Can Survive Concert at the Hollywood Bowl. In February 2015, Sia sang the song in a cluttered apartment set for the 2015 Grammy Awards telecast. Ziegler danced in a cluttered apartment with actress Kristen Wiig. For all of these performances, Sia sang the track with her back to the camera. She performed the song on Saturday Night Live in January 2015, veiled, with a sad - looking mime who performed the lyrics in American sign language.
In May 2014, Puddles, the "sad clown with the golden voice '' performed a version with Postmodern Jukebox that by December 2017 has had over 7 million views on YouTube. He also performed the song on the 12th - season premiere of America 's Got Talent, stunning the judges and gaining the four votes needed to move to the next round. In July 2014, Sara Bareilles performed an acoustic version of "Chandelier '' during her Little Black Dress Tour. Reut Odinak from the Seattle Weekly lauded Bareilles ' vocals on the cover. Likewise, MuchMusic 's Evan Desouza wrote that "The song sounds almost (unrecognisable) with the stripped, acoustic cover. Of course no one can match Sia 's insane voice, but Sara does a decent job. Her vocals sound amazing. '' Later that month, contestant Emily West from the ninth season of America 's Got Talent performed the song with an orchestral background to advance past the quarterfinals.
The song was covered on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge on 5 August 2014 by Scottish band Twin Atlantic and again in September 2014 by Irish band The Script; Music and Lyrics praised the latter group 's three - man harmonies. Reigan Derry performed the song the third live show of the sixth series of The X Factor Australia in August 2014, gaining a standing ovation by the judges. In March 2015, British singer - songwriter and 2012 X Factor winner James Arthur recorded a highly acclaimed acoustic version of the song, which he also later performed for MTV International. Also Andrea Faustini performed the song on The X Factor UK in November 2014. The tenth episode of Selfie, "Imperfect Harmony '', featured Karen Gillan singing a karaoke version of the song that segued into a cover by The Wind and The Wave and a sequence mimicking the original video. In the Glee episode "We Built This Glee Club '' (119th episode overall), in March 2015, Samantha Marie Ware, Becca Tobin, and Laura Dreyfuss perform the song while J.J. Totah does Ziegler 's dance routine and Marshall Williams swings on a chandelier. Keegan Joyce sings the song in the third - season episode "Simple Carbohydrates '' of the Australian TV series Please Like Me.
In January 2015, Swiss singer Mélanie René performed a slower version of the song at the Swiss national final for the Eurovision Song Contest 2015, winning the right to represent her country in Vienna. The Belgian representative in the European contest Loïc Nottet also released a cover of the song on YouTube in November 2014, later praised by Sia on Twitter. Months later, he danced the song twice (including one in the final) in the French Dancing with the Stars, winning the competition. On 22 June 2015, Punk Goes Pop 6 was re-released with three new songs, one being a cover of "Chandelier '' by PVRIS.
In October 2014, the dance moves on the music video for "Chandelier '' were parodied on Saturday Night Live by Jim Carrey, Kate McKinnon and Iggy Azalea in a sketch. Other parodies include Miranda Sings ' parody video, which has accumulated more than 9 million views. Derek Hough lip - synced the song while performing a parody of Ziegler 's routine on the eighth episode of Lip Sync Battle. "Chandelier '' was played as the background music in the closing scene of the episode "Truth '' on the TV show UnREAL. Jordan Smith covered it in his audition for The Voice in September 2015. Trent Harmon covered it in his Top 4 performance for the American Idol in March 2016. Also in March, English close harmony trio The Puppini Sisters covered the song in a mash up with Rappers Delight for their 5th studio album The High Life (The Puppini Sisters album). The song was covered by Pentatonix on the May 19, 2016 episode of Bones entitled "The Strike in the Chord ''. Kim Yewon from Pledis Entertainment trainee group Pledis Girlz sang a cover of this song. Also in 2016, Finnish singer Saara Aalto covered the song twice during the 13th series of the UK version of The X Factor, first as her initial audition piece and later in the live semi-final round. In March 2017, Elha Nympha covered it in the season 2 premiere of Little Big Shots.
The song is also featured in the television shows Hit the Floor, Wonderland, Selfie, Unreal, Transparent, Shades of Blue, American Dad!, and Dance Moms.
A karaoke version was briefly played in the 2016 movie Sing.
The 2017 film Happy End written and directed by Michael Haneke includes a karaoke cover of the song that has been described as "the movie 's most indelible scene ''.
Credits for "Chandelier '' are adapted from CD single liner notes
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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when was god added to pledge of allegience | Pledge of Allegiance (United States) - wikipedia
The Pledge of Allegiance of the United States is an expression of allegiance to the Flag of the United States and the republic of the United States of America. It was originally composed by Captain George Thatcher Balch, a Union Army Officer during the Civil War and later a teacher of patriotism in New York City schools. The form of the pledge used today was largely devised by Francis Bellamy in 1892, and formally adopted by Congress as the pledge in 1942. The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The most recent alteration of its wording came on Flag Day in 1954, when the words "under God '' were added.
Congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except Hawaii, Iowa, Vermont and Wyoming require a regularly - scheduled recitation of the pledge in the public schools, although the Supreme Court has ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette that students can not be compelled to recite the Pledge, nor can they be punished for not doing so. In a number of states, state flag pledges of allegiance are required to be recited after this.
The United States Flag Code says:
The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag -- "I pledge allegiance to the Flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all. '' -- should be rendered by standing at attention facing the flag with the right hand over the heart. When not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, and render the military salute. Members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform.
The Pledge of Allegiance, as it exists in its current form, was composed in August 1892 by Francis Bellamy (1855 -- 1931), who was a Baptist minister, a Christian socialist, and the cousin of socialist utopian novelist Edward Bellamy (1850 -- 1898). There did exist a previous version created by Captain George T. Balch, a veteran of the Civil War, who later became auditor of the New York Board of Education. Balch 's pledge, which existed contemporaneously with the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read:
We give our heads and hearts to God and our country; one country, one language, one flag!
Balch was a proponent of teaching children, especially those of immigrants, loyalty to the United States, even going so far as to write a book on the subject and work with both the government and private organizations to distribute flags to every classroom and school. Balch 's pledge, which predates Bellamy 's by 5 years and was embraced by many schools, by the Daughters of the American Revolution until the 1910s, and by the Grand Army of the Republic until the 1923 National Flag Conference, is often overlooked when discussing the history of the Pledge. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as "too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' The Bellamy "Pledge of Allegiance '' was first published in the September 8 issue of the popular children 's magazine The Youth 's Companion as part of the National Public - School Celebration of Columbus Day, a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in the Americas. The event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students and to encourage children to raise flags above their schools. According to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Upham 's patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. According to Miller, Upham "would often say to his wife: ' Mary, if I can instill into the minds of our American youth a love for their country and the principles on which it was founded, and create in them an ambition to carry on with the ideals which the early founders wrote into The Constitution, I shall not have lived in vain. ' ''
Bellamy 's original Pledge read:
I pledge allegiance to my Flag and the Republic for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
The Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds. As a socialist, he had initially also considered using the words equality and fraternity but decided against it, knowing that the state superintendents of education on his committee were against equality for women and African Americans.
Francis Bellamy and Upham had lined up the National Education Association to support the Youth 's Companion as a sponsor of the Columbus Day observance and the use in that observance of the American flag. By June 29, 1892, Bellamy and Upham had arranged for Congress and President Benjamin Harrison to announce a proclamation making the public school flag ceremony the center of the Columbus Day celebrations. This arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. Subsequently, the Pledge was first used in public schools on October 12, 1892, during Columbus Day observances organized to coincide with the opening of the World 's Columbian Exposition (the Chicago World 's Fair), Illinois.
In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge, Francis Bellamy said, "At the beginning of the nineties patriotism and national feeling was (sic) at a low ebb. The patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story... The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that patriotic education should begin in the public schools. '' James Upham "felt that a flag should be on every schoolhouse, '' so his publication "fostered a plan of selling flags to schools through the children themselves at cost, which was so successful that 25,000 schools acquired flags in the first year (1892 - 93).
As the World 's Columbian Exposition was set to celebrate the 400th anniversary the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas, Upham sought to link the publication 's flag drive to the event, "so that every school in the land... would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions. '' Bellamy was placed in charge of this operation and was soon lobbying "not only the superintendents of education in all the States, but (he) also worked with governors, Congressmen, and even the President of the United States. '' The publication 's efforts paid off when Benjamin Harrison declared Wednesday October 12, 1892, to be Columbus Day for which The Youth 's Companion made "an official program for universal use in all the schools. '' Bellamy recalled that the event "had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity. ''
Edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and "There was also an oration suitable for declamation. '' Bellamy held that "Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag, with a salute to the flag recited by the pupils in unison. '' He found "There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, "I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, '' seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. '' After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, "It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea. I especially stressed the word ' allegiance '... Beginning with the new word allegiance, I first decided that ' pledge ' was a better school word than ' vow ' or ' swear '; and that the first person singular should be used, and that ' my ' flag was preferable to ' the. ' '' Bellamy considered the words "country, nation, or Republic, '' choosing the last as "it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers and established by the Revolution. The true reason for allegiance to the flag is the Republic for which it stands. '' Bellamy then reflected on the sayings of Revolutionary and Civil War figures, and concluded "all that pictured struggle reduced itself to three words, one Nation indivisible. ''
Bellamy considered the slogan of the French Revolution, Liberté, égalité, fraternité ("liberty, equality, fraternity ''), but held that "fraternity was too remote of realization, and... (that) equality was a dubious word. '' Concluding "Liberty and justice were surely basic, were undebatable, and were all that any one Nation could handle. If they were exercised for all. They involved the spirit of equality and fraternity. ''
After being reviewed by Upham and other members of The Youth 's Companion, the Pledge was approved and put in the official Columbus Day program. Bellamy noted that, "In later years the words ' to my flag ' were changed to ' to the flag of the United States of America ' because of the large number of foreign children in the schools. '' Bellamy disliked the change, as "it did injure the rhythmic balance of the original composition. ''
In 1906, The Daughters of the American Revolution 's magazine, The American Monthly, listed the "formula of allegiance '' as being the Balch Pledge of Allegiance, which reads:
I pledge allegiance to my flag, and the republic for which it stands. I pledge my head and my heart to God and my country. One country, one language and one flag.
In subsequent publications of the Daughters of the American Revolution, such as in 1915 's "Proceedings of the Twenty - Fourth Continental Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution '' and 1916 's annual "National Report, '' the Balch Pledge, listed as official in 1906, is now categorized as "Old Pledge '' with Bellamy 's version under the heading "New Pledge. '' However, the "Old Pledge '' continued to be used by other organizations until the National Flag Conference established uniform flag procedures in 1923.
In 1923, the National Flag Conference called for the words "my Flag '' to be changed to "the Flag of the United States, '' so that new immigrants would not confuse loyalties between their birth countries and the US. The words "of America '' were added a year later. Congress officially recognized the Pledge for the first time, in the following form, on June 22, 1942:
I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America, and to the Republic for which it stands, one Nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.
Louis Albert Bowman, an attorney from Illinois, was the first to suggest the addition of "under God '' to the pledge. The National Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution gave him an Award of Merit as the originator of this idea. He spent his adult life in the Chicago area and was chaplain of the Illinois Society of the Sons of the American Revolution. At a meeting on February 12, 1948, he led the society in reciting the pledge with the two words "under God '' added. He said that the words came from Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address. Although not all manuscript versions of the Gettysburg Address contain the words "under God '', all the reporters ' transcripts of the speech as delivered do, as perhaps Lincoln may have deviated from his prepared text and inserted the phrase when he said "that the nation shall, under God, have a new birth of freedom. '' Bowman repeated his revised version of the Pledge at other meetings.
In 1951, the Knights of Columbus, the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization, also began including the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance. In New York City, on April 30, 1951, the board of directors of the Knights of Columbus adopted a resolution to amend the text of their Pledge of Allegiance at the opening of each of the meetings of the 800 Fourth Degree Assemblies of the Knights of Columbus by addition of the words "under God '' after the words "one nation. '' Over the next two years, the idea spread throughout Knights of Columbus organizations nationwide. On August 21, 1952, the Supreme Council of the Knights of Columbus at its annual meeting adopted a resolution urging that the change be made universal, and copies of this resolution were sent to the President, the Vice President (as Presiding Officer of the Senate), and the Speaker of the House of Representatives. The National Fraternal Congress meeting in Boston on September 24, 1952, adopted a similar resolution upon the recommendation of its president, Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart. Several State Fraternal Congresses acted likewise almost immediately thereafter. This campaign led to several official attempts to prompt Congress to adopt the Knights of Columbus policy for the entire nation. These attempts were eventually a success.
At the suggestion of a correspondent, Representative Louis C. Rabaut (D - Mich.), of Michigan sponsored a resolution to add the words "under God '' to the Pledge in 1953.
Before February 1954, no endeavor to get the pledge officially amended had succeeded. The final successful push came from George MacPherson Docherty. Some American presidents honored Lincoln 's birthday by attending services at the church Lincoln attended, New York Avenue Presbyterian Church by sitting in Lincoln 's pew on the Sunday nearest February 12. On February 7, 1954, with President Eisenhower sitting in Lincoln 's pew, the church 's pastor, George MacPherson Docherty, delivered a sermon based on the Gettysburg Address entitled "A New Birth of Freedom. '' He argued that the nation 's might lay not in arms but rather in its spirit and higher purpose. He noted that the Pledge 's sentiments could be those of any nation: "There was something missing in the pledge, and that which was missing was the characteristic and definitive factor in the American way of life. '' He cited Lincoln 's words "under God '' as defining words that set the US apart from other nations.
President Eisenhower had been baptized a Presbyterian very recently, just a year before. He responded enthusiastically to Docherty in a conversation following the service. Eisenhower acted on his suggestion the next day and on February 8, 1954, Rep. Charles Oakman (R - Mich.), introduced a bill to that effect. Congress passed the necessary legislation and Eisenhower signed the bill into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954. Eisenhower said:
From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city and town, every village and rural school house, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty... In this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America 's heritage and future; in this way we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country 's most powerful resource, in peace or in war.
The phrase "under God '' was incorporated into the Pledge of Allegiance on June 14, 1954, by a Joint Resolution of Congress amending § 4 of the Flag Code enacted in 1942.
On October 6, 1954, the National Executive Committee of the American Legion adopted a resolution, first approved by the Illinois American Legion Convention in August 1954, which formally recognized the Knights of Columbus for having initiated and brought forward the amendment to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Even though the movement behind inserting "under God '' into the pledge might have been initiated by a private religious fraternity and even though references to God appear in previous versions of the pledge, author Kevin M. Kruse asserts that this movement was an effort by corporate America to instill in the minds of the people that capitalism and free enterprise were heavenly blessed. Kruse acknowledges the insertion of the phrase was influenced by the push - back against atheistic communism during the Cold War, but argues the longer arc of history shows the conflation of Christianity and capitalism as a challenge to the New Deal played the larger role.
Swearing of the Pledge is accompanied by a salute. An early version of the salute, adopted in 1887, known as the Balch Salute, which accompanied the Balch pledge, instructed students to stand with their right hand outstretched toward the flag, the fingers of which are then brought to the forehead, followed by being placed flat over the heart, and finally falling to the side.
In 1892, Francis Bellamy created what was known as the Bellamy salute. It started with the hand outstretched toward the flag, palm down, and ended with the palm up. Because of the similarity between the Bellamy salute and the Nazi salute, which was adopted in Germany later, the US Congress stipulated that the hand - over-the - heart gesture as the salute to be rendered by civilians during the Pledge of Allegiance and the national anthem in the US would be the salute to replace the Bellamy salute. Removal of the Bellamy salute occurred on December 22, 1942, when Congress amended the Flag Code language first passed into law on June 22, 1942. Attached to bills passed in Congress in 2008 and then in 2009 (Section 301 (b) (1) of title 36, United States Code), language was included which authorized all active duty military personnel and all veterans in civilian clothes to render a proper hand salute during the raising and lowering of the flag, when the colors are presented, and during the National Anthem.
A musical setting for "The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag '' was created by Irving Caesar, at the suggestion of Congressman Louis C. Rabaut whose House Resolution 243 to add the phrase "under God '' was signed into law on Flag Day, June 14, 1954.
The composer, Irving Caesar, wrote and published over 700 songs in his lifetime. Dedicated to social issues, he donated all rights of the musical setting to the U.S. government, so that anyone can perform the piece without owing royalties.
It was sung for the first time on the floor of the House of Representatives on Flag Day, June 14, 1955 by the official Air Force choral group the "Singing Sergeants ''. A July 29, 1955 House and Senate resolution authorized the U.S. Government Printing Office to print and distribute the song sheet together with a history of the pledge.
Other musical versions of the Pledge have since been copyrighted, including by Beck (2003), Lovrekovich (2002 and 2001), Roton (1991), Fijol (1986), and Girardet (1983).
In 1940, the Supreme Court, in Minersville School District v. Gobitis, ruled that students in public schools, including the respondents in that case -- Jehovah 's Witnesses who considered the flag salute to be idolatry -- could be compelled to swear the Pledge. In 1943, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme Court reversed its decision. Justice Robert H. Jackson, writing for the 6 to 3 majority, went beyond simply ruling in the precise matter presented by the case to say that public school students are not required to say the Pledge on narrow grounds, and asserted that such ideological dogmata are antithetical to the principles of the country, concluding with:
If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein. If there are any circumstances which permit an exception, they do not now occur to us.
In a later case, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals held that students are also not required to stand for the Pledge.
Requiring or promoting of the Pledge on the part of the government has continued to draw criticism and legal challenges on several grounds.
One objection is that a democratic republic built on freedom of dissent should not require its citizens to pledge allegiance to it, and that the First Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right to refrain from speaking or standing, which itself is also a form of speech in the context of the ritual of pledging allegiance. Another objection is that the people who are most likely to recite the Pledge every day, small children in schools, can not really give their consent or even completely understand the Pledge they are making. Another criticism is that a government requiring or promoting the phrase "under God '' violates protections against the establishment of religion guaranteed in the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.
In 2004, linguist Geoffrey Nunberg said the original supporters of the addition thought that they were simply quoting Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address, but to Lincoln and his contemporaries, "under God '' meant "God willing '', so they would have found its use in the Pledge of Allegiance grammatically incorrect and semantically odd.
Prominent legal challenges were brought in the 1930s and 1940s by Jehovah 's Witnesses, a denomination whose beliefs preclude swearing loyalty to any power other than God, and who objected to policies in public schools requiring students to swear an oath to the flag. They said requiring the pledge violated their freedom of religion guaranteed by the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. The first case was in 1935, when two children, Lillian and William Gobitas, ages ten and twelve, were expelled from the Minersville, Pennsylvania, public schools that year for failing to salute the flag and recite the Pledge of Allegiance.
In a 2002 case brought by atheist Michael Newdow, whose daughter was being taught the Pledge in school, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled the phrase "under God '' an unconstitutional endorsement of monotheism when the Pledge was promoted in public school. In 2004, the Supreme Court heard Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, an appeal of the ruling, and rejected Newdow 's claim on the grounds that he was not the custodial parent, and therefore lacked standing, thus avoiding ruling on the merits of whether the phrase was constitutional in a school - sponsored recitation. On January 3, 2005, a new suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of California on behalf of three unnamed families. On September 14, 2005, District Court Judge Lawrence Karlton ruled in their favor. Citing the precedent of the 2002 ruling by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, Judge Karlton issued an order stating that, upon proper motion, he would enjoin the school district defendants from continuing their practices of leading children in pledging allegiance to "one Nation under God. ''
In 2006, in the Florida case Frazier v. Alexandre, a federal district court in Florida ruled that a 1942 state law requiring students to stand and recite the Pledge of Allegiance violates the First and Fourteenth Amendments of the U.S. Constitution. As a result of that decision, a Florida school district was ordered to pay $32,500 to a student who chose not to say the pledge and was ridiculed and called "unpatriotic '' by a teacher.
In 2009, a Montgomery County, Maryland, teacher berated and had school police remove a 13 - year - old girl who refused to say the Pledge of Allegiance in the classroom. The student 's mother, assisted by the American Civil Liberties Union of Maryland, sought and received an apology from the teacher, as state law and the school 's student handbook both prohibit students from being forced to recite the Pledge.
On March 11, 2010, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the words "under God '' in the Pledge of Allegiance in the case of Newdow v. Rio Linda Union School District. In a 2 -- 1 decision, the appellate court ruled that the words were of a "ceremonial and patriotic nature '' and did not constitute an establishment of religion. Judge Stephen Reinhardt dissented, writing that "the state - directed, teacher - led daily recitation in public schools of the amended ' under God ' version of the Pledge of Allegiance... violates the Establishment Clause of the Constitution. ''
On November 12, 2010, in a unanimous decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit in Boston affirmed a ruling by a New Hampshire lower federal court which found that the pledge 's reference to God does not violate non-pledging students ' rights if student participation in the pledge is voluntary. A United States Supreme Court appeal of this decision was denied on June 13, 2011.
In September 2013, a case was brought before the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, arguing that the pledge violates the Equal Rights Amendment of the Constitution of Massachusetts. In May 2014, Massachusetts ' highest court ruled that the pledge does not discriminate against atheists, saying that the words "under God '' represent a patriotic, not a religious, exercise.
In February 2015 New Jersey Superior Court Judge David F. Bauman dismissed a lawsuit, ruling that "... the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the rights of those who do n't believe in God and does not have to be removed from the patriotic message. '' The case against the Matawan - Aberdeen Regional School District had been brought by a student of the district and the American Humanist Association that argued that the phrase "under God '' in the pledge created a climate of discrimination because it promoted religion, making non-believers "second - class citizens. '' In a twenty - one page decision, Bauman wrote, "Under (the association members ') reasoning, the very constitution under which (the members) seek redress for perceived atheistic marginalization could itself be deemed unconstitutional, an absurd proposition which (association members) do not and can not advance here. '' Bauman said the student could skip the pledge, but upheld a New Jersey law that says pupils must recite the pledge unless they have "conscientious scruples '' that do not allow it. He noted, "As a matter of historical tradition, the words ' under God ' can no more be expunged from the national consciousness than the words ' In God We Trust ' from every coin in the land, than the words ' so help me God ' from every presidential oath since 1789, or than the prayer that has opened every congressional session of legislative business since 1787. ''
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who was the leader of mexico in 1845 | List of heads of state of México - wikipedia
The Head of State in Mexico is the person who controls the executive power in the country. Under the current constitution, this responsibility lies with the President of the United Mexican States, who is head of the supreme executive power of the Mexican Union. Throughout its history, Mexico has had several forms of government. Under the federal constitutions, the title of President was the same as the current. Under the Seven Laws (centralist), the chief executive was named President of the Republic. In addition, there have been two periods of monarchical rule, during which the executive was controlled by the Emperor of Mexico.
The chronology of the heads of state of Mexico is complicated due to the country 's political instability during most of the nineteenth century and early decades of the twentieth century. With few exceptions, most of the Mexican presidents elected during this period did not complete their terms. Until the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas, each president had remained in office an average of fifteen months.
This list also includes the self - appointed presidents during civil wars and the collegiate bodies that performed the Mexican Executive duties during periods of transition.
After the end of the Mexican War of Independence, a Provisional Board of Governing consisting of thirty - four persons was set up. The Board decreed and signed the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire and appointed a regency composed of six people.
The Provisional Government of 1823 -- 24 was an organization that served as the Executive in the government of Mexico after the end of the Mexican Empire of Agustín I, in 1823. The organization was responsible for convening the body that created the Federal Republic and existed from April 1, 1823 to October 10, 1824.
On June 22, 1863, a "Superior Governing Board '' was established. On July 11, the Board became the Regency of the Empire.
Anti-Reelectionist Party → Progressive Constitutionalist Party Independent
Liberal Constitutionalist Party Laborist Party
National Revolutionary Party
After the constitutional reform of 1933, the presidential term in Mexico was extended to six years with the ineligible of reelection. After the federal election of 1934 all the presidents have completed their six - year terms.
National Revolutionary Party → Party of the Mexican Revolution → Institutional Revolutionary Party National Action Party
As of February 2018, there are five living former Presidents of Mexico. The most recent death of a former President was that of Miguel de la Madrid (1982 -- 1988), on April 1, 2012.
Luis Echeverría (born 1922), served 1970 -- 1976
Carlos Salinas de Gortari (born 1948), served 1988 -- 1994
Ernesto Zedillo (born 1951), served 1994 -- 2000
Vicente Fox (born 1942), served 2000 -- 2006
Felipe Calderón (born 1962), served 2006 -- 2012
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where is the sergeant major of the army stationed | Sergeant Major of the Army - wikipedia
The Sergeant Major of the Army (SMA) is a unique non-commissioned rank and position of office in the United States Army. The holder of this rank and position is the most senior enlisted member of the Army unless an Army Sergeant Major is serving as the senior enlisted advisor to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in which case he or she would be the most senior enlisted member and the SMA will be the second-most senior enlisted member of the Army. The SMA is appointed to serve as a spokesman to address the issues of enlisted soldiers to all officers, from warrant officers and lieutenants to the Army 's highest positions. As such, he or she is the senior enlisted advisor to the Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army. The exact duties vary depending on the chief of staff, though much of the SMA 's time is spent traveling throughout the Army, observing training and talking with soldiers and their families.
Kenneth O. Preston held the rank from 15 January 2004 through 28 February 2011, the only incumbent to serve longer than four years. SMA Raymond F. Chandler III was succeeded by Command Sergeant Major Daniel A. Dailey, on 30 January 2015.
While the SMA is a non-commissioned officer, protocol places the SMA higher than all lieutenant generals.
The rank and position were based on those of the Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps (established in its current incarnation on 23 May 1957). The Chief of Staff of the Army created the position in 1966 after asking leaders of the major commands for a personal recommendation. He asked that it not be considered a near - retirement type assignment. He listed seven duties and functions he expected the Sergeant Major to perform, including service as a personal adviser and assistant on matters pertaining to enlisted soldiers. From 4,700 proposed candidates, 21 nominees were selected. Finally chosen was the only one then serving in Vietnam, Sergeant Major William O. Wooldridge of the 1st Infantry Division.
The other services later followed, creating the positions of Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy and Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force in 1967, Master Chief Petty Officer of the Coast Guard in 1969, and Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman in 2005. These six positions are collectively referred to as "senior enlisted advisors '' ("SEAs '').
The Sergeant Major of the Army base pay is $7,844.70 a month ($94,136.40 per year)
1966 -- 1968, the only authorized insignia for all sergeants major
1968 -- 1979, became Command Sergeant Major
1979 -- 1994
1994 -- 2015
2015 -- present
The sergeant major of the army, like counterparts in the other branches, wears a unique rank insignia, including a unique collar insignia ("brass '').
The collar insignia of the SMA is the shield portion of the collar insignia of an aide - de-camp to the Army Chief of Staff (less the surmounting eagle), placed upon an enlisted collar disk of gold color, one inch in diameter. The insignia worn by SMA Wooldridge was hand - soldered by Colonel Jasper J. Wilson from the cannibalized insignia and enlisted collar brass of an aide. The insignia was approved on 4 July 1966. Originally, the SMA would wear the device on each collar, but he now wears the standard "U.S. '' disk on his right collar as do all enlisted soldiers. This insignia is also worn in place of a unit insignia on the SMA 's beret, garrison cap, and pull - over sweater. The collar insignia of the senior enlisted advisor to the chairman ("SEAC '') of the JCS, approved 2 February 2006, is based directly upon that of the SMA, and features the shield of an aide de camp to the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff (without the surmounting eagle), on a gold - colored disk.
The SMA 's cap device, worn on the front of the blue service cap (and, formerly, the white service cap; and, until 2011 the green service cap) is a gold - colored rendering of the United States ' coat of arms, surrounded by a wreath. The cap device for all other U.S. Army enlisted soldiers is a gold - colored rendering of the United States ' coat of arms on a gold - colored disk (males) or surrounded by a gold colored ring (females). The chief master sergeant of the Air Force has the same cap device as the SMA, but in silver - colored metal.
The Sergeant Major of the Army, Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force and the Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman are the only members of the United States armed forces below the rank of brigadier general / rear admiral, lower half to be authorized a positional color (flag). First considered in 1992, the SMA 's color has been authorized since 22 March 1999. It is based on the design of his collar insignia and the positional flag of the Chief of Staff, Army. Like the SEAC 's collar brass, the SEAC 's positional color was patterned after the SMA 's color.
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top of the lake series 2 how many episodes | Top of the Lake - Wikipedia
Top of the Lake is a mystery drama television series created and written by Jane Campion and Gerard Lee, and directed by Campion and Garth Davis. It aired in 2013, and the sequel, entitled Top of the Lake: China Girl, in 2017. It marks Campion 's first work for television since An Angel at My Table in 1990.
Season 1 follows Detective Robin Griffin (Elisabeth Moss) and deals with her investigation of the disappearance of a pregnant 12 - year - old girl in New Zealand. Season 2, China Girl, is set in Sydney four years later, as Detective Griffin investigates the death of an unidentified Asian girl found at Bondi Beach.
Top of the Lake was co-produced for BBC Two in the UK, BBC UKTV in Australia and New Zealand, and Sundance Channel in the United States. It has been generally very well received.
Actress Jennifer Ehle auditioned for the role of GJ, which went to Holly Hunter. Jane Campion originally offered the role of Robin to Anna Paquin, who had worked with her on The Piano (1993). Paquin declined due to her pregnancy, and the role went to American Elisabeth Moss.
The series was originally intended as a co-production with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. But after Moss was cast as Robin, the network pulled their funding before production began, citing a prior agreement to put an Australian actress in the lead. Australian - based channel UKTV, owned by BBC Worldwide, filled the funding gap left by the ABC. Philippa Campbell was the New Zealand - based producer.
Filming took 18 weeks and was shot entirely on location in Queenstown and Glenorchy, in Otago, on the South Island of New Zealand. While Queenstown is referred to during the series, Glenorchy doubles as the fictitious town of Laketop. The scenes in the women 's commune were filmed at Moke Lake.
In early 2013, co-creator Jane Campion said that Top of the Lake comes to a distinct ending, and there would be no additional series. Despite this, it was announced in October 2014 that the series had been renewed for a second season. China Girl began shooting on location in Sydney, Australia in December 2015.
Campion returned as co-writer and co-director. Gerard Lee returned as co-writer. The original co-director, Garth Davis, was replaced by Ariel Kleiman due to scheduling conflicts. Philippa Campbell returned as producer. Actress Nicole Kidman joined the cast for China Girl, which is the second time she has worked with Campion. Kidman "plays an Australian mother, Julia, whose story dovetails with that of Detective Robin Griffin '', played by Elisabeth Moss. Christie, a fan of Campion 's The Piano, joined the cast after sending a letter through a mutual friend.
Top of the Lake screened in its entirety at the January 2013 Sundance Film Festival, in a single seven - hour session with one intermission and a break for lunch. This was the first such screening in the history of the festival. Top of the Lake was additionally shown at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.
The US premiere was on the Sundance Channel on 18 March 2013, in Australia on BBC UKTV on 24 March 2013, and in New Zealand on 25 March, also on BBC UKTV.
China Girl was screened in its entirety at the May 2017 Cannes Film Festival. In the UK, it premiered on BBC Two on 27 July 2017, and the entire series was released on the BBC iPlayer immediately afterwards. In the US, it premiered in September 2017, on Sundance TV, and each episode will be available on Hulu the day after its screening on SundanceTV. In Canada, China Girl premiered on October 25, 2017, on CBC Television.
Reviews of Top of the Lake have been positive, referring to the series as "masterfully made '', "beautiful '', "mysterious '', "riveting '', and "a masterpiece ''. It received a score of 86 out of 100 from Metacritic and a score of 93 per cent from Rotten Tomatoes.
There were also some less positive reviews. Mike Hale of The New York Times criticized the "elaborately introduced plotlines '' and described Tui 's disappearance as "less a story element than a metaphor for the kind of armed resistance to male hegemony that constitutes the central idea of Ms Campion 's body of work. ''
Top of the Lake was lauded by feminist critics for its explicit effort to analyse rape culture as well as its radical construction of narratives entirely foregrounding the experiences of single women.
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how did sumerian religious beliefs affect their architecture | Sumerian religion - wikipedia
Sumerian religion was the religion practiced and adhered to by the people of Sumer, the first literate civilization of ancient Mesopotamia. The Sumerians regarded their divinities as responsible for all matters pertaining to the natural and social orders.
Before the beginning of kingship in Sumer, the city - states were effectively ruled by theocratic priests and religious officials. Later, this role was supplanted by kings, but priests continued to exert great influence on Sumerian society. In early times, Sumerian temples were simple, one - room structures, sometimes built on elevated platforms. Towards the end of Sumerian civilization, these temples developed into ziggurats -- tall, pyramidal structures with sanctuaries at the tops.
The Sumerians believed that the universe had come into being through a series of cosmic births. First, Nammu, the primeval waters, gave birth to An (the sky) and Ki (the earth), who mated together and produced a son named Enlil. Enlil separated heaven from earth and claimed the earth as his domain. Humans were believed to have been created by Enki, the son of An and Nammu.
The major deities in the Sumerian pantheon included An, the god of the heavens, Enlil, the god of wind and storm, Enki, the god of water and human culture, Ninhursag, the goddess of the earth and of fertility, Inanna, the goddess of sex, beauty, and warfare, Utu, the god of the sun, and Ereshkigal, the queen of the Underworld.
Sumerian religion heavily influenced the religious beliefs of later Mesopotamian peoples; elements of it are retained in the mythologies and religions of the Hurrians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other Middle Eastern culture groups. Scholars of comparative mythology have noticed many parallels between the stories of the ancient Sumerians and those recorded in the early parts of the Hebrew Bible.
Sumerian myths were passed down through the oral tradition until the invention of writing. Early Sumerian cuneiform was used primarily as a record - keeping tool; it was not until the late early dynastic period that religious writings first became prevalent as temple praise hymns and as a form of "incantation '' called the nam - šub (prefix + "to cast ''). These tablets were also made of stone clay or stone, and they used a small pick to make the symbols.
In the Sumerian city - states, temple complexes originally were small, elevated one - room structures. In the early dynastic period, temples developed raised terraces and multiple rooms. Toward the end of the Sumerian civilization, ziggurats became the preferred temple structure for Mesopotamian religious centers. Temples served as cultural, religious, and political headquarters until approximately 2500 BC, with the rise of military kings known as Lu - gals ("man '' + "big '') after which time the political and military leadership was often housed in separate "palace '' complexes.
Until the advent of the lugals, Sumerian city states were under a virtually theocratic government controlled by various En or Ensí, who served as the high priests of the cults of the city gods. (Their female equivalents were known as Nin.) Priests were responsible for continuing the cultural and religious traditions of their city - state, and were viewed as mediators between humans and the cosmic and terrestrial forces. The priesthood resided full - time in temple complexes, and administered matters of state including the large irrigation processes necessary for the civilization 's survival.
During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian city - state of Lagash was said to have had sixty - two "lamentation priests '' who were accompanied by 180 vocalists and instrumentalists.
The Sumerians envisioned the universe as a closed dome surrounded by a primordial saltwater sea. Underneath the terrestrial earth, which formed the base of the dome, existed an underworld and a freshwater ocean called the Apsû. The deity of the dome - shaped firmament was named An; that of the earth was named Ki. First the underground world was believed to be an extension of the goddess Ki, but later developed into the concept of Kur. The primordial saltwater sea was named Nammu, who became known as Tiamat during and after the Sumerian Renaissance.
The main source of information about the Sumerian creation myth is the prologue to the epic poem Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, which briefly describes the process of creation: originally, there was only Nammu, the primeval sea. Then, Nammu gave birth to An, the sky, and Ki, the earth. An and Ki mated with each other, causing Ki to give birth to Enlil, the god of wind, rain, and storm. Enlil separated An from Ki and carried off the earth as his domain, while An carried off the sky.
The ancient Mesopotamians regarded the sky as a series of domes (usually three, but sometimes seven) covering the flat earth. Each dome was made of a different kind of precious stone. The lowest dome of heaven was made of jasper and was the home of the stars. The middle dome of heaven was made of saggilmut stone and was the abode of the Igigi. The highest and outermost dome of heaven was made of luludānītu stone and was personified as An, the god of the sky. The celestial bodies were equated with specific deities as well. The planet Venus was believed to be Inanna, the goddess of love, sex, and war. The sun was her brother Utu, the god of justice, and the moon was their father Nanna. Ordinary mortals could not go to heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone. Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went to Kur (later known as Irkalla), a dark shadowy underworld, located deep below the surface of the earth.
The Sumerian afterlife was a dark, dreary cavern located deep below the ground, where inhabitants were believed to continue "a shadowy version of life on earth ''. This bleak domain was known as Kur, and was believed to be ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal. All souls went to the same afterlife, and a person 's actions during life had no affect on how the person would be treated in the world to come. Nonetheless, funerary evidence indicates that some people believed that the goddess Inanna, Ereshkigal 's younger sister, had the power to award her devotees with special favors in the afterlife.
The entrance to Kur was believed to be located in the Zagros mountains in the far east. It had seven gates, through which a soul needed to pass. The god Neti was the gatekeeper. Ereshkigal 's sukkal, or messenger, was the god Namtar. Galla were a class of demons that were believed to reside in the underworld; their primary purpose appears to have been to drag unfortunate mortals back to Kur. They are frequently referenced in magical texts, and some texts describe them as being seven in number. Several extant poems describe the galla dragging the god Dumuzid into the underworld. The later Mesopotamians knew this underworld by its East Semitic name: Irkalla. During the Akkadian Period, Ereshkigal 's role as the ruler of the underworld was assigned to Nergal, the god of death. The Akkadians attempted to harmonize this dual rulership of the underworld by making Nergal Ereshkigal 's husband.
It is generally agreed that Sumerian civilization began at some point between c. 4500 and 4000 BC, but the earliest historical records only date to around 2900 BC. The Sumerians originally practiced a polytheistic religion, with anthropomorphic deities representing cosmic and terrestrial forces in their world. The earliest Sumerian literature of the third millennium BC identifies four primary deities: An, Enlil, Ninhursag, and Enki. These early deities were believed to occasionally behave mischievously towards each other, but were generally viewed as being involved in co-operative creative ordering.
During the middle of the third millennium BC, Sumerian society became more urbanized. As a result of this, Sumerian deities began to lose their original associations with nature and became the patrons of various cities. Each Sumerian city - state had its own specific patron deity, who was believed to protect the city and defend its interests. Lists of large numbers of Sumerian deities have been found. Their order of importance and the relationships between the deities has been examined during the study of cuneiform tablets.
During the late 2000s BC, the Sumerians were conquered by the Akkadians. The Akkadians syncretized their own gods with the Sumerian ones, causing Sumerian religion to take on a Semitic coloration. Male deities became dominant and the gods completely lost their original associations with natural phenomena. People began to view the gods as living in a feudal society with class structure. Powerful deities such as Enki and Inanna became seen as receiving their power from the chief god Enlil.
The majority of Sumerian deities belonged to a classification called the Anunna ("(offspring) of An ''), whereas seven deities, including Enlil and Inanna, belonged to a group of "underworld judges '' known as the Anunnaki ("(offspring) of An '' + Ki). During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian pantheon was said to include sixty times sixty (3600) deities.
Nammu was the primeval sea (Engur), who gave birth to An (heaven) and Ki (earth) and the first deities; she eventually became known as the goddess Tiamat. An was the ancient Sumerian god of the heavens. He was the ancestor of all the other major deities and the original patron deity of Uruk.
Enlil was the god of air, wind, and storm. He was also the chief god of the Sumerian pantheon and the patron deity of the city of Nippur. His primary consort was Ninlil, the goddess of the south wind, who was one of the matron deities of Nippur and was believed to reside in the same temple as Enlil. Ninurta was the son of Enlil and Ninlil. He was worshipped as the god of war, agriculture, and one of the Sumerian wind gods. He was the patron deity of Girsu and one of the patron deities of Lagash.
Enki was god of freshwater, male fertility, and knowledge. His most important cult center was the E-abzu temple in the city of Eridu. He was the patron and creator of humanity and the sponsor of human culture. His primary consort was Ninhursag, the Sumerian goddess of the earth. Ninhursag was worshipped in the cities of Kesh and Adab.
Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of love, sexuality, prostitution, and war. She was the divine personification of the planet Venus, the morning and evening star. Her main cult center was the Eanna temple in Uruk, which had been originally dedicated to An. Deified kings may have re-enacted the marriage of Inanna and Dumuzid with priestesses. Accounts of her parentage vary; in most myths, she is usually presented as the daughter of Nanna and Ningal, but, in other stories, she is the daughter of Enki or An along with an unknown mother. The Sumerians had more myths about her than any other deity. Many of the myths involving her revolve around her attempts to usurp control of the other deities ' domains.
Ereshkigal was the goddess of the Sumerian Underworld, which was known as Kur. She was Inanna 's older sister. In later myth, her husband was the god Nergal. The gatekeeper of the underworld was the god Neti.
Utu was god of the sun, whose primary center of worship was the E-babbar temple in Sippar. Utu was principally regarded as a dispenser of justice; he was believed to protect the righteous and punish the wicked. Nanna was god of the moon and of wisdom. He was the father of Utu and one of the patron deities of Ur. He may have also been the father of Inanna and Ereshkigal. Ningal was the wife of Nanna, as well as the mother of Utu, Inanna, and Ereshkigal.
The Sumerians had an ongoing linguistic and cultural exchange with the Semitic Akkadian peoples in northern Mesopotamia for generations prior to the usurpation of their territories by Sargon of Akkad in 2340 BC. Sumerian mythology and religious practices were rapidly integrated into Akkadian culture, presumably blending with the original Akkadian belief systems that have been mostly lost to history. Sumerian deities developed Akkadian counterparts. Some remained virtually the same until later Babylonian and Assyrian rule. The Sumerian god An, for example, developed the Akkadian counterpart Anu; the Sumerian god Enki became Ea. The gods Ninurta and Enlil kept their original Sumerian names.
The Amorite Babylonians gained dominance over southern Mesopotamia by the mid-17th century BC. During the Old Babylonian Period, the Sumerian and Akkadian languages were retained for religious purposes; the majority of Sumerian mythological literature known to historians today comes from the Old Babylonian Period, either in the form of transcribed Sumerian texts (most notably the Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh) or in the form of Sumerian and Akkadian influences within Babylonian mythological literature (most notably the Enûma Eliš). The Sumerian - Akkadian pantheon was altered, most notably with the introduction of a new supreme deity, Marduk. The Sumerian goddess Inanna also developed the counterpart Ishtar during the Old Babylonian Period.
The Hurrians adopted the Akkadian god Anu into their pantheon sometime no later than 1200 BC. Other Sumerian and Akkadian deities adapted into the Hurrian pantheon include Ayas, the Hurrian counterpart to Ea; Shaushka, the Hurrian counterpart to Ishtar; and the goddess Ninlil, whose mythos had been drastically expanded by the Babylonians.
Some stories in Sumerian mythology bear strong similarities to the stories recorded in the older parts of the Hebrew Bible. For example, the biblical account of Noah and the Great Flood bears a striking resemblance to the Sumerian deluge myth, recorded in a Sumerian tablet discovered at Nippur. The Judaic underworld Sheol is very similar in description with the Sumerian Kur, ruled by the goddess Ereshkigal, as well as the Babylonian underworld Irkalla. Sumerian scholar Samuel Noah Kramer has also noted similarities between many Sumerian and Akkadian "proverbs '' and the later Hebrew proverbs, many of which are featured in the Book of Proverbs.
Sumerian myths suggest a prohibition against premarital sex. Marriages were often arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride 's father. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that premarital sex was a common, but surreptitious, occurrence.
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what is the graphic on the field at gillette stadium | Gillette Stadium - wikipedia
Gillette Stadium is a stadium located in Foxborough, Massachusetts, 28 miles (45 km) southwest of downtown Boston and 20 miles (32 km) northeast of downtown Providence, Rhode Island. It serves as the home stadium and administrative offices for both the NFL 's New England Patriots football franchise and MLS 's New England Revolution soccer team. In 2012, it also became the home stadium for the football program of the University of Massachusetts (UMass), while on - campus Warren McGuirk Alumni Stadium was undergoing renovations. Gillette will continue to host higher attended home games.
The facility opened in 2002, replacing the old Foxboro Stadium. The seating capacity is 65,878, including 5,876 club seats and 89 luxury suites. The stadium is owned and operated by Kraft Sports Group, a subsidiary of The Kraft Group, the company through which businessman Robert Kraft owns the Patriots and Revolution.
The stadium was originally known as CMGI Field before the naming rights were bought by Gillette after the "dot - com '' bust. Although Gillette has since been acquired by Procter & Gamble, the stadium retains the Gillette name because P&G has continued to use the Gillette brand name and because the Gillette company was founded in the Boston area. Gillette and the Patriots jointly announced in September 2010 that their partnership, which includes naming rights to the stadium, will extend through the 2031 season. Additionally, uBid (until April 2003 a wholly owned subsidiary of CMGI) as of 2009 continues to sponsor one of the main entrance gates to the stadium.
The Town of Foxborough approved plans for the stadium 's construction on December 6, 1999, and work on the stadium began on March 24, 2000. The first official event was a New England Revolution soccer game on May 11, 2002. The Rolling Stones played at Gillette Stadium on September 5, 2002 on the band 's Licks Tour. Jeremiah Freed was the first band to play at the WBCN river rave on June 9, 2002 making them the first band to ever play Gillette Stadium. Grand opening ceremonies were held four days later on September 9 when the Patriots unveiled their Super Bowl XXXVI championship banner before a Monday Night Football game against the Pittsburgh Steelers.
Gillette Stadium is accessible by rail via the Providence / Stoughton and Franklin lines at the Foxboro MBTA station, but only during Patriots games and some concerts.
The Patriots have sold out every home game since moving to the stadium -- preseason, regular season, and playoffs. This streak dates back to the 1994 season, while the team was still at Foxboro Stadium. By September 2016 this streak was 231 straight games.
From the 1971 NFL season until the 2001 NFL season, the Patriots played all of their home games at Foxboro Stadium. The stadium was privately funded on an extremely small budget and featured few amenities. Its aluminum benches would freeze over during games with cold weather and it had an unorganized dirt parking lot. Foxboro Stadium did not prove to bring in the profit that was needed to keep an NFL team in New England, as it was one of the smallest stadiums in the NFL, with just over 60,000 seats. The team had fallen into debt after team executive Chuck Sullivan funded the Jackson Victory Tour, in an attempt to earn more profit for the team. Tickets sales failed, however, and the team 's debt increased even further -- to a final total of US $126 million. After two unsuccessful owners bought the team and stadium, it was clear that a new stadium had to be built for the team to stay in New England. This is when other cities in the New England area, including Boston (which was previously home to the Patriots and already had a stadium they could, and for a time before Foxboro Stadium opened, did, play in), Hartford, and Providence became interested in building new stadiums to lure the Patriots away from Foxborough.
The first major stadium proposal from another city came in September 1993. Lowell Weicker, the Governor of Connecticut, proposed to the Connecticut General Assembly that a new stadium should be built in Hartford to attract the Patriots to move there, stating that a stadium had "potentially great benefit '' if it were built. The bill passed in the State Assembly on September 27, 1993.
In Massachusetts, there was a proposal to build a "Megaplex '' in Boston, which would be the site of the stadium, as well as a new Fenway Park (the home park of the Boston Red Sox) and a much needed convention center. The proposed sites for this hybrid convention center - stadium were along Summer Street in South Boston or at the so - called Crosstown site along Melnea Cass Boulevard in Roxbury, adjacent to Boston 's South End. The administration of Massachusetts Governor William Weld pushed for construction of a full "Megaplex '' at the crosstown site, with then - new Boston Mayor Thomas Menino favoring construction of a new, stand - alone convention center in South Boston. Ultimately, the residents of neither of these neighborhoods wanted a stadium, and as a result, Menino backed out, fearing that it would affect his chance at re-election. The Fenway Park plan was cancelled after many "Save Fenway Park! '' groups popped up to save the historic ballpark.
Kraft then began a plan to build a new stadium in South Boston. In that plan, Kraft was to pay for the stadium himself, hoping to win the support of Weld and Menino. He began to sketch designs, but the project was leaked to the press in December 1996. The residents of South Boston objected to a stadium being built in that location, causing Menino and Weld to become angry at Kraft. Kraft abandoned all plans for a Boston Stadium after the affair. In January 1997, Kraft began talks with Providence mayor Vincent Cianci to relocate the team to Providence and build a new stadium there. The proposed 68,000 - seat domed stadium would have cost $250 million, and would have been paid through income taxes, public bonds, surcharges on tickets, and private funds. Residents of the neighborhood of the proposed project were extremely opposed to the project because the surrounding area would have needed massive infrastructure improvements. The proposal fell through after a few weeks.
During a news conference in September 1998, the team revealed plans to build a new stadium in Foxborough, keeping the team in Massachusetts. It was to be funded by the state as well as Kraft himself. This plan brought more competition from Connecticut, as a $1 billion plan to renovate an area of Hartford, including building a stadium. Kraft then signed an agreement to move the team to Hartford on November 18, 1998. The proposed stadium included 68,000 seats, 60 luxury boxes, and had a projected cost of $375 million. As before in Boston and Providence, construction of the stadium was challenged by the residents. Problems with the site were discovered, and an agreement could not be reached regarding the details of the stadium. The entire plan eventually fell through, enraging then Connecticut governor John G. Rowland, who lobbied hard for the stadium and spent weeks deliberating with Robert Kraft. Rowland announced at a press conference that he was officially "a New York Jets fan, now and probably forever ''. In 1999, the team officially announced that it would remain in Foxborough, which led to Gillette Stadium 's construction. After the Hartford proposal fell through, Robert Kraft paid for 100 % of the construction costs, a rare instance of an NFL owner privately financing the construction of a stadium.
On April 18, 2000, the team revealed plans for the new stadium in Foxborough. It was announced as a 68,000 - seat stadium at a cost of $325 million, with the entire cost privately funded. Boston is thus the only city in professional sports in which all facilities are privately owned and operated. The Patriots own Gillette Stadium, the Red Sox own Fenway Park, and TD Garden is owned by Delaware North (the owner of the Bruins) (the Celtics rent the TD Garden from Delaware North).
Concurrently announced was a new road to access the stadium from U.S. Route 1, and an additional 3,000 parking spaces to accommodate the increased number of fans.
The stadium was designed by HOK Sport (now Populous). Kraft wanted it modeled on M&T Bank Stadium which had opened in Baltimore, Maryland in 1998. Kraft insisted on it having a "front door '' with a Disneyland - like entrance. Populous went through 200 designs before coming up with one that Kraft liked. The entrance includes a lighthouse (which was originally designed to shoot a light 2 miles (3.2 km) high) and a bridge modeled on Boston 's Longfellow Bridge. The lighthouse and bridge are now featured on the stadium 's logo.
For the first eight years of its existence the stadium used a video display, with a smaller LED scoreboard just beneath it, at each end of the field. The south side also had a large LED scoreboard in addition to the smaller one. In 2010, the stadium installed two new high definition Daktronics video displays to replace the entire previous setup at both ends. At the time of their construction, the larger screen, at 41.5 feet tall and 164 feet wide (12.6 mx 50.0 m), was the second - largest video monitor in any NFL stadium; only AT&T Stadium had a larger one.
Gillette Stadium ranks first among all NFL venues in stadium food safety with a 0 % critical violations. The Gillette Stadium food service, instead of being outsourced like most NFL teams, is run in - house and is led by the Patriots executive director of foods and beverage David Wheeler.
The venue has hosted the NFL 's nationally -- televised primetime season -- opening games in 2004, 2005, 2015, and 2017 (when the Patriots unveiled their championship banners from Super Bowl XXXVIII, XXXIX, XLIX and LI). The stadium also played host to the 2003 AFC Championship Game, in which the Patriots defeated the Indianapolis Colts 24 -- 14. Eight days earlier the Patriots hosted the coldest game (4 ° F, − 12 ° F wind chill) in New England Patriots history in the AFC Divisional Playoff game when the Patriots defeated the Tennessee Titans, 17 -- 14. Gillette Stadium also hosted the 2007 AFC Championship Game, with the Patriots defeating the San Diego Chargers, 21 -- 12.
On January 10, 2010, the Baltimore Ravens beat the Patriots 33 -- 14 here giving the Patriots their first home loss in the playoffs in Gillette Stadium. The Patriots suffered their second home playoff loss on January 16, 2011 in a 28 -- 21 New York Jets victory. During the 2012 NFL playoffs, the Patriots defeated the Denver Broncos, 45 -- 10, and again hosted the AFC Championship, where they won against the Baltimore Ravens, 23 -- 20. The following year, they again hosted the AFC Championship game, where they lost 28 -- 13 to the Baltimore Ravens. During the 2015 NFL playoffs, the Patriots avenged their previous defeat by the Baltimore Ravens by edging the Ravens 35 - 31. They then defeated the Indianapolis Colts, 45 - 7 in the AFC Championship. The stadium hosted its sixth AFC Championship game during the 2016 playoffs, as the Patriots defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 36 -- 17. In all, the Patriots are 16 -- 3 at Gillette Stadium in the playoffs.
As part of the UMass football program 's move to Division I FBS, the Minutemen played all of their home games at Gillette Stadium for the 2012 and 2013 seasons. The stadium is 95 miles away from the UMass campus in Amherst -- the longest trip of any FBS member. The Minutemen 's on - campus stadium, Warren McGuirk Alumni Stadium, was not suitable for FBS football in its previous configuration. Its small size (17,000 seats) would have made it prohibitively difficult to meet FBS average attendance requirements, and its press box and replay facilities were well below Mid-American Conference standards. Additionally, several nonconference teams would not even consider playing games in Amherst. McGuirk Stadium was renovated to FBS standards for the 2014 season, but the Minutemen 's current deal with the Kraft Group calls for the Minutemen to play four of their home games in Foxborough from 2014 to 2016 in exchange for keeping part of the revenue from ticket sales. Moving forward, Gillette will continue to host UMass football with those games of anticipated larger attendance.
Gillette Stadium also hosted the eighth edition of the NHL Winter Classic, between the Boston Bruins and Montreal Canadiens, on January 1, 2016.
Memorable Major League Soccer playoff victories include wins over the Chicago Fire in the 2005 and 2007 Eastern Conference Final, sending the Revs to the MLS Cup. Additionally, the venue hosted MLS Cup 2002, four games of the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup, and some Copa America Centenario matches in 2016.
Gillette Stadium hosted the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championships in 2008, 2009, 2012, and 2017.
The AMA Supercross Championship has been racing at Gillette Stadium since 2016.
Monster Jam has been coming to the stadium since 2014.
On November 14, 2006, two days after a rainstorm contributed to the deterioration of the grass surface in a Patriots game against the Jets, team management decided to replace the natural grass surface with a synthetic surface, FieldTurf. The Patriots ' first game on the surface was a victory over the previously 9 -- 1 Chicago Bears on November 26. At the conclusion of the 2007 season, Patriots quarterback Tom Brady had a career record of 31 -- 3 on artificial turf. The team lost a preseason matchup in August 2007 to the Tennessee Titans on the new FieldTurf but otherwise won its first eleven regular - season and playoff games on the surface covering the period of November 2006 until September 2008, when the Patriots lost to the Miami Dolphins.
In February 2010, the surface was pulled and upgraded to FieldTurf "Duraspine Pro '', which was expected to meet FIFA standards that the previous turf did not, preventing the team from having to place sod on top of their turf to host international soccer matches.
The surface was upgraded again in April 2014 to FieldTurf "Revolution '' with "VersaTile '' drainage system. The FieldTurf Revolution product is currently used at many venues across North America, including CenturyLink Field (home to the NFL 's Seattle Seahawks and MLS 's Seattle Sounders) and Providence Park, home of the MLS 's Portland Timbers, where its installation was recently completed.
When the field is configured for American football, the Patriots have their "Flying Elvis '' logo painted on the field at dead center of the 50 - yard line. Off to both sides along the 50 - yard line, the Gillette Stadium logo is also painted on the field. This is a gray - and - yellow stylized representation of the bridge and tower at the north entrance of the stadium.
In 2006, the Patriots and Kraft announced plans to build a "super regional lifestyle and entertainment center '' in the area around Gillette Stadium named Patriot Place. The cost of the project was $350 million, more than the cost to build Gillette Stadium itself; Kraft had purchased much of the surrounding land, about 700 acres (280 ha), when he bought Foxboro Stadium in the late 1980s.
The first phase of the project opened in fall of 2007, and featured the first Bass Pro Shops in New England, as well as Circuit City (now closed), Bed Bath & Beyond, Five Guys Burgers, Christmas Tree Shops, and Staples. In December 2007, the Patriots and CBS announced plans to build a themed restaurant and nightclub, named "CBS Scene '', at the site, which would also include studios for CBS - owned WBZ - TV. The restaurant was part of the second phase of the project, which included an open mall, a health center, a Cinema de Lux movie theater, a four - star Renaissance hotel, and "The Hall at Patriot Place. '' Attached to Gillette Stadium, the Hall includes a two - level interactive museum honoring the Patriots accomplishments and Super Bowl championships, plus the Patriots Pro Shop. The first restaurants and stores in phase two began opening in July 2008, and were followed by the openings of the Hall at Patriot Place and the CBS Scene in time for the beginning of the 2008 New England Patriots season. More locations, including the health center and hotel, opened in 2009, along with additional sites in phase one.
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who has the power in a representative democracy | Representative democracy - wikipedia
Representative democracy (also indirect democracy, representative republic or psephocracy) is a type of democracy founded on the principle of elected officials representing a group of people, as opposed to direct democracy. Nearly all modern Western - style democracies are types of representative democracies; for example, the United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy, Ireland is a unitary parliamentary republic, and the United States is a federal republic.
It is an element of both the parliamentary and the presidential systems of government and is typically used in a lower chamber such as the House of Commons (United Kingdom), Lok Sabha (India) or Dáil Éireann (Republic of Ireland), and may be curtailed by constitutional constraints such as an upper chamber. It has been described by some political theorists including Robert A. Dahl, Gregory Houston and Ian Liebenberg as polyarchy. In it the power is in the hands of the representatives who are elected by the people.
Representatives are elected by the public, as in national elections for the national legislature. Elected representatives may hold the power to select other representatives, presidents, or other officers of the government or of the legislature, as the Prime Minister in the latter case. (indirect representation).
The power of representatives is usually curtailed by a constitution (as in a constitutional democracy or a constitutional monarchy) or other measures to balance representative power:
Theorists such as Edmund Burke believe that part of the duty of a representative was not simply to communicate the wishes of the electorate but also to use their own judgement in the exercise of their powers, even if their views are not reflective of those of a majority of voters:
... it ought to be the happiness and glory of a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, and the most unreserved communication with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him; their opinion, high respect; their business, unremitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasures, his satisfactions, to theirs; and above all, ever, and in all cases, to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened conscience, he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. These he does not derive from your pleasure; no, nor from the law and the constitution. They are a trust from Providence, for the abuse of which he is deeply answerable. Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.
The Roman Republic was the first government in the western world to have a representative government, despite taking the form of a direct government in the Roman assemblies. The Roman model of governance inspired many political thinkers over the centuries, and today 's modern representative democracies imitate more the Roman than the Greek models because it was a state in which supreme power was held by the people and their elected representatives, and which had an elected or nominated leader. Representative democracy is a form of democracy in which people vote for representatives who then vote on policy initiatives as opposed to a direct democracy, a form of democracy in which people vote on policy initiatives directly. A European medieval tradition of selecting representatives from the various estates (classes, but not as we know them today) to advise / control monarchs led to relatively wide familiarity with representative systems inspired by Roman systems.
In Britain, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.
The American Revolution led to the creation of a new Constitution of the United States in 1787, with a national legislature based partly on direct elections of representatives every two years, and thus responsible to the electorate for continuance in office. Senators were not directly elected by the people until the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. Women, men who owned no property, and blacks, and others not originally given voting rights in most states eventually gained the vote through changes in state and federal law in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. Until it was repealed by the Fourteenth Amendment following the Civil War, the Three - Fifths Compromise gave a disproportionate representation of slave states in the House of Representatives relative to the voters in free states.
In 1789, Revolutionary France adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and, although short - lived, the National Convention was elected by all males in 1792. Universal male suffrage was re-established in France in the wake of the French Revolution of 1848.
Representative democracy came into particular general favour in post-industrial revolution nation states where large numbers of citizens evinced interest in politics, but where technology and population figures remained unsuited to direct democracy. As noted above, Edmund Burke in his speech to the electors of Bristol classically analysed their operation in Britain and the rights and duties of an elected representative.
Globally, a majority of the world 's people live in representative democracies including constitutional monarchies and republics with strong representative branches.
Separate but related, and very large, bodies of research in political philosophy and social science investigate how and how well elected representatives, such as legislators, represent the interests or preferences of one or another constituency.
In his book Political Parties, written in 1911, Robert Michels argues that most representative systems deteriorate towards an oligarchy or particracy. This is known as the iron law of oligarchy. Representative democracies which are stable have been analysed by Adolf Gasser and compared to the unstable representative democracies in his book "Gemeindefreiheit als Rettung Europas '' which was published in 1943 (first edition in German) and a second edition in 1947 (in German). Adolf Gasser stated the following requirements for a representative democracy in order to remain stable, unaffected by the iron law of oligarchy:
A drawback to this type of government is that elected officials are not required to fulfill promises made before their election and are able to promote their own self - interests once elected, providing an incohesive system of governance. Legislators are also under scrutiny as the system of majority - won legislators voting for issues for the large group of people fosters inequality among the marginalized.
The system of stochocracy has been proposed as an improved system compared to the system of representative democracy, where representatives are elected. Stochocracy aims to at least reduce this degradation by having all representatives appointed by lottery instead of by voting. Therefore, this system is also called lottocracy. The system was proposed by the writer Roger de Sizif in 1998 in his book La Stochocratie. Choosing officeholders by lot was also the standard practice in ancient Athenian democracy. The rationale behind this practice was to avoid lobbying and electioneering by economic oligarchs.
The system of deliberative democracy is a mix between a majority ruled system and a consensus - based system. It allows for representative democracies or direct democracies to coexist with its system of governance, providing an initial advantage. It is a system which allows for legislators to discuss the issues in a productive manner trying to reach a consensus. If the group can not reach a consensus then a majority - wins vote must be taken.
The system of delegative democracy or Liquid Democracy is a dynamic mixture of representative democracy and direct democracy, meaning that each participant can decide himself when he wants to participate in a decision by direct voting, or whether he rather wants a delegate to vote for him by using a software system. The voter can delegate his vote to an organization, a political party or an individual. One can have different delegates in different subject areas, and always change the delegate. When the voter votes directly in an issue, the delegates vote will be erased and the direct vote will be counted. This system also contains room for popular initiatives and deliberation. The first example of delegative or Liquid Democracy using a software program in a real political setting involved the local political party Demoex in Vallentuna near Stockholm, Sweden. Pirate Parties in Germany, Italy, Austria, Norway, France and the Netherlands use delegative democracy with the open - source software LiquidFeedback, while members of the Belgian Pirate Party have developed their own software called Get Opinionated.
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who sings keep it on the down low | Down Low (Nobody has to know) - wikipedia
"Down Low (Nobody Has to Know) '' is an R&B song about infidelity, released as a single by R. Kelly and featuring The Isley Brothers, on his self - titled album, in 1995. The song was a hit, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and reaching number one on the R&B Singles Chart for seven weeks, making it Kelly 's fifth single to do so on the latter.
The music video was directed by Hype Williams and R. Kelly. The song was a tongue - in - cheek song that had the narrator fooling around with another man 's woman and telling the woman to keep their relationship as a closely guarded secret, hence the chorus "Keep it on the down low / Nobody has to know. '' While Kelly sings along, the "husband '', Ronald Isley, sings in his trademark falsetto exclaiming "How could you go so low? ''
The music video to the song was as popular as the song. It was one of Kelly 's first self - directed videos, and was the first large - scale video Kelly had done. Introducing Isley as the character Mr. Frank Biggs, a mob boss who employs Kelly. Mr. Biggs sends for Kelly, telling him he 's going on a business trip and wants Kelly to take care of his wife, Lila Heart (played by Garcelle Beauvais), explaining "You know Lila means everything to me '', even leaving him money to take her out. Biggs tells Kelly "Take her out, take her shopping, Give her anything she wants, But you are never to touch her. '' Kelly replies "Hey, man, you can trust me, '' in which Biggs responds, "do n't fuck me, Kelly ''. Kelly plays out the lyrics to the song by having Mr. Biggs go out of town on business while Kelly and Lila go out on the town. At one point, Lila shows up at Kelly 's home where they make love, despite Mr. Biggs telling Kelly to not get physically involved with her.
Later that night, Biggs and his bodyguards break into the room. Kelly and Mr. Biggs 's bodyguards fight; after injuring Kelly, the bodyguards turn on Lila. Dropping Kelly off in a desert location, bloodied and beaten, Mr. Biggs angrily shouts, "Look at me! Look at me! I did this to you! '' and then throws him down to the ground, leaving Kelly stranded out in the middle of nowhere. Later taken to a hospital where he rests in a wheelchair, Kelly discovers a badly beaten Lila in a nearby room and goes in to see her heavily sedated in intensive care. After Kelly tearfully tells her he loves her, Lila squeezes Kelly 's hand, then dies from her injuries, ending the video.
This song, along with TLC 's smash hit "Creep '', 2Pac 's "I Get Around '' and Brian McKnight 's "On The Down Low '' incorporates the "down low '' theme as it can be used to refer to men sleeping around with married women.
The success of the video shown on both MTV and BET helped send the song to number - four pop and number - one R&B, giving the Isley Brothers their first Top 40 pop record since 1980 's "Do n't Say Goodnight (It 's Time For Love) '', reviving the career of the group 's front man Ronald Isley, who later used "Mr. Biggs '' as his moniker, and was Kelly 's third top 5 pop record. As Mr. Biggs, Isley would frequently duet with Kelly, the two most notable examples being in 1998 on Kelly Price 's breakout hit "Friend of Mine '' (though without any involvement with his brothers), and in 2001 on his group 's song "Contagious '', which would serve as a sequel to this song.
In the final scene, music from the Dutch artist Frank Boeijen is used, from the song "Zeg me dat het niet zo is '' (1). The title of the song could be translated as "Please, please tell me this is not happening '', which fully alignes with the atmosphere of the movie scene.
The song is considered one of the most impactful songs of the 1990s, the video has received positive reviews and has inspired different musicians. R&B singer The Weeknd called it the reason he 's in the business of making music. Chris Brown and Trey Songz both sampled this song on "Songs on 12 Play '' from Brown 's sixth album X.
In 2017. The Weeknd also decided to drop of the premiere of his latest new track on OVO Sound Radio after teasing the new drop this week on his social channels, which ended up being a cover of Down Low.
The song appeared in the eleventh episode of the first season of the sitcom Moesha - The Ditch Party and the 2003 film "Old School ''.
This video is loosely based on the 1946 noir classic Gilda, and the Kevin Costner film, Revenge.
The Isley Brothers and R. Kelly released a follow - up to "Down Low '' in 2001 entitled "Contagious ''. In both the song and music video, Mr. Biggs returns home to find his new girlfriend (played by Chante Moore) having an affair with Kelly. Once again Mr. Biggs bodyguards come in the room to do some damage, but this time R. Kelly 's bodyguards come in the room as well, and no harm is done.
sales figures based on certification alone
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how many senators make up the us senate | United States Senate - wikipedia
Majority (51)
Minority (49)
The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress, which along with the United States House of Representatives -- the lower chamber -- comprise the legislature of the United States.
The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. The Senate is composed of senators, each of whom represents a single state in its entirety, with each state being equally represented by two senators, regardless of its population, serving staggered terms of six years; with 50 states currently in the Union, there are 100 U.S. Senators. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by legislatures of the states they represented; following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, they are now popularly elected. The Senate chamber is located in the north wing of the Capitol, in Washington, D.C.
As the upper house, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it; these include the ratification of treaties and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, Supreme Court justices, federal judges, other federal executive officials, flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, and other federal uniformed officers. In addition to these, in cases wherein no candidate receives a majority of electors for Vice President, the duty befalls upon the Senate to elect one of the top two recipients of electors for that office. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House. The Senate is widely considered both a more deliberative and more prestigious body than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan atmosphere.
The presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice President of the United States, who is President of the Senate. In the Vice President 's absence, the President Pro Tempore, who is customarily the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate. In the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers.
The creators of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the Legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Commons did in the United Kingdom. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a "People 's House '' directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.
First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex meaning old man in Latin).
James Madison made the following comment about the Senate:
In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability.
The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that state 's consent. The District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation allowed to vote in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two "shadow U.S. Senators '', but they are officials of the D.C. City Government and not members of the U.S. Senate. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.
The disparity between the most and least populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state two members of the Senate and at least one member of the House of Representatives, for a total minimum of three presidential Electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2000 censuses. This means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, reducing the disparity of representation.
Before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures. Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the inability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, and even bribery and intimidation had gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct election of senators.
Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must be at least 30 years old; (2) they must have been citizens of the United States for the past 9 years or longer; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the time of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this arrangement by arguing that the "senatorial trust '' called for a "greater extent of information and stability of character. ''
The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator 's qualifications. During its early years, however, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. As a result, three senators who failed to meet the age requirement were nevertheless admitted to the Senate: Henry Clay (aged 29 in 1806), Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, however, has not been repeated since. In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. In November 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the age of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday before the swearing - in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.
The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution disqualifies from the Senate any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to support the Constitution, but later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the United States. This provision, which came into force soon after the end of the Civil War, was intended to prevent those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, however, also provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two - thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.
Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures, not by popular elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums. Popular election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment.
Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one - third of the seats are up for election every two years. This was achieved by dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of one - third expired after two years, the terms of another third expired after four, and the terms of the last third expired after six years. This arrangement was also followed after the admission of new states into the union. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are not contested in the same general election, except when a mid-term vacancy is being filled. Current senators whose six - year terms are set to expire on January 3, 2019, belong to Class I. There is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.
The Constitution set the date for Congress to convene -- Article 1, Section 4, Clause 2 originally set that date for the third day of December. The Twentieth Amendment, however, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Amendment also states that Congress shall assemble at least once in every year and allows Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules as it desires. Article 1, Section 3 provides that the President has the power to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.
A member who has been elected, but not yet seated, is called a "senator - elect ''; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a "senator - designate ''.
Elections to the Senate are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even - numbered years, Election Day, and coincide with elections for the House of Representatives. Senators are elected by their state as a whole. In most states (since 1970), a primary election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties, with the general election following a few months later. Ballot access rules for independent and minor party candidates vary from state to state. The winner is often the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote. In some states, runoffs are held if no candidate wins a majority.
The Seventeenth Amendment requires that mid-term vacancies in the Senate be filled by special election. Whenever a Senator must be appointed or elected, the Secretary of the Senate mails one of three forms to the state 's governor to inform them of the proper wording to certify the appointment of a new senator. If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state 's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office as soon as possible after the election and serves until the original six - year term expires (i.e. not for a full term).
The Seventeenth Amendment also allows state legislatures to give their governors the power "to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct ''. The temporary appointee may run in the special election in their own right.
As of 2015, forty - five states permit their governors to make such appointments. In thirty - seven of these states, the special election to permanently fill the U.S. Senate seat is customarily held at the next general election. The other ten states require that seat remain vacant until an election can be held, often a special elections be held outside of the normal two - year election cycle. In six states, the governor must appoint someone of the same political party as the previous incumbent. In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to appoint a temporary replacement for the late Senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010.
In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a separate ballot referendum that took effect on the same day, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot - approved law is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator. Because the 17th Amendment vests the power to grant that authority to the legislature -- not the people or the state generally -- it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature 's statute granting that authority. As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special election is held to fill the vacancy.
The Constitution requires that senators take an oath or affirmation to support the Constitution. Congress has prescribed the following oath for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:
I, ___ ___, do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.
The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000; the president pro tempore and party leaders receive $193,400. In June 2003, at least 40 of the then - senators were millionaires.
Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested after five years of service. Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) or Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants ' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. The amount of a senator 's pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest 3 years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Senators are regarded as more prominent political figures than members of the House of Representatives because there are fewer of them, and because they serve for longer terms, usually represent larger constituencies (the exception being House at - large districts, which similarly cover entire states), sit on more committees, and have more staffers. Far more senators have been nominees for the presidency than representatives. Furthermore, three senators (Warren Harding, John F. Kennedy, and Barack Obama) have been elected president while serving in the Senate, while only one Representative (James Garfield) has been elected president while serving in the House, though Garfield was also a Senator - designate at the time of his election to the Presidency, having been chosen by the Ohio Legislature to fill a Senate vacancy.
According to the convention of Senate seniority, the senator with the longer tenure in each state is known as the "senior senator ''; the other is the "junior senator ''. This convention does not have official significance, though seniority generally is a factor in the selection of physical offices. In the 115th Congress, the most - senior "junior senator '' is Maria Cantwell of Washington, who was sworn in on January 3, 2001 and is currently 21st in seniority, behind Patty Murray who was sworn in on January 3, 1993 and is currently 9th in seniority. The most - junior "senior senator '' is Bill Cassidy of Louisiana, who was sworn in January 3, 2015, and is currently 81st in seniority, ahead of senator John Neely Kennedy who was sworn in January 3, 2017 and is currently 98th in seniority.
The Senate may expel a senator by a two - thirds vote. Fifteen senators have been expelled in the Senate 's history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Confederate secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings -- for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires only a simple majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002.
The "Majority party '' is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can form a coalition or caucus with a majority of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president 's affiliation determines which party is the majority party. The next - largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and some other officials are generally from the majority party; they have counterparts (for instance, the "ranking members '' of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (so long as they do not caucus with or support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party.
At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. One hundred desks are arranged in the chamber in a semicircular pattern and are divided by a wide central aisle. The Democratic Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer 's right, and the Republican Party traditionally sits to the presiding officer 's left, regardless of which party has a majority of seats. In this respect, the Senate differs from the House of Commons of the United Kingdom and other parliamentary bodies in the Commonwealth of Nations and elsewhere.
Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the party. By custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center aisle. Forty - eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate chamber was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Further desks of similar design were added as new states entered the Union. It is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their name on the inside of the desk 's drawer.
Except for the President of the Senate, the Senate elects its own officers, who maintain order and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and interpret the Senate 's rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various day - to - day functions of the Senate.
Under the Constitution, the Vice President serves as President of the Senate. He or she may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for he or she is not an elected member of the Senate) in the case of a tie, but is not required to. For much of the nation 's history the task of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the Vice President 's principal duties (the other being to receive from the states the tally of electoral ballots cast for President and Vice President and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, '' so that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, Vice Presidents have presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, joint sessions, or at times to announce the result of significant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important issue is anticipated.
The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a time '') who presides over the chamber in the vice president 's absence, and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service. Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, but typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a majority - party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of one hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are usually mere mouthpieces for the Senate 's parliamentarian, who whispers what they should do ''.
The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate chamber. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the Speaker of the House. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the first senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of order (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, subject to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes.
Each party elects Senate party leaders. Floor leaders act as the party chief spokesmen. The Senate Majority Leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the chamber by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip) who works to ensure that his party 's senators vote as the party leadership desires.
In addition to the Vice President, the Senate has several officers who are not members. The Senate 's chief administrative officer is the Secretary of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of stationery and supplies, and oversees clerks. The Assistant Secretary of the Senate aids the secretary 's work. Another official is the Sergeant at Arms who, as the Senate 's chief law enforcement officer, maintains order and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the Chaplain, who is elected by the Senate, and Pages, who are appointed.
The Senate uses Standing Rules for operation. Like the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one end of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television, usually by C - SPAN 2.
Senate procedure depends not only on the rules, but also on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in practice, objections are rare. The presiding officer enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order.
A "hold '' is placed when the leader 's office is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A hold may be placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at any time. A senator may place a hold simply to review a bill, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill can be held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration.
Holds can be overcome, but require time - consuming procedures such as filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications between a senator and the Leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds ''. A senator may disclose that he or she has placed a hold.
The Constitution provides that a majority of the Senate constitutes a quorum to do business. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum ''; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are present. In practice, senators rarely request quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are generally used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders time to negotiate. Once the need for a delay has ended, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.
Debate, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed by internal rules adopted by the Senate. During debate, senators may only speak if called upon by the presiding officer, but the presiding officer is required to recognize the first senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officer has little control over the course of debate. Customarily, the Majority Leader and Minority Leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises first. All speeches must be addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President '' or "Madam President '', and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators do not refer to each other by name, but by state or position, using forms such as "the senior senator from Virginia '', "the gentleman from California '', or "my distinguished friend the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee ''. Senators address the Senate standing next to their desk.
Apart from rules governing civility, there are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter before the Senate.
The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may make more than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in most cases, senators may speak for as long as they please. Often, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed by statute. However, the right to unlimited debate is generally preserved.
Within the United States, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world 's greatest deliberative body ''.
The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions by prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the support of three - fifths of the Senate; however, if the matter before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body -- this includes amending provisions regarding the filibuster -- a two - thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of filibuster is more important than its use; almost any motion that does not have the support of three - fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This means that 41 senators can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is usually necessary to obtain the required supermajority, so a bill that already has bipartisan support is rarely subject to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in recent years.
If the Senate invokes cloture, debate does not end immediately; instead, it is limited to 2 additional hours unless increased by another three - fifths vote. The longest filibuster speech in the Senate 's history was delivered by Strom Thurmond, who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.
Under certain circumstances, the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 provides for a process called "reconciliation '' by which Congress can pass bills related to the budget without those bills being subject to a filibuster. This is accomplished by limiting all Senate floor debate to 20 hours.
When debate concludes, the motion in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and Members respond either "Yea / Aye '' (in favor of the motion) or "Nay '' (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote. A senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer 's assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted only if it is seconded by one - fifth of the senators present. In practice, however, senators second requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the roll of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators respond when their name is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their name was called may still cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open for a minimum of 15 minutes. A majority of those voting determines whether the motion carries. If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie - breaking vote. If the vice president is not present, the motion fails.
Filibustered bills require a three - fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually means 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a simple majority (usually 51 votes) approves the bill. This has caused some news media to confuse the 60 votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to approve a bill, with for example USA Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58 - 39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed carry permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That fell two votes short of the 60 needed to approve the measure ''.
On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a secret or closed session. During a closed session, the chamber doors are closed, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone not sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or not essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and usually held only when the Senate is discussing sensitive subject matter such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may call for and force a closed session if the motion is seconded by at least one other member, but an agreement usually occurs beforehand. If the Senate does not approve release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy. In 1973 the House adopted a rule that all committee sessions should be open unless a majority on the committee voted for a closed session.
The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Calendar. The former identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor actions. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee (s) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.
The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In practice, however, the choice of members is made by the political parties. Generally, each party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall strength.
Most committee work is performed by 16 standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such as finance or foreign relations. Each standing committee may consider, amend, and report bills that fall under its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Committee considers nominees for positions in the Department of State.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, standing committees have the power to hold hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.
The Senate also has several committees that are not considered standing committees. Such bodies are generally known as select or special committees; examples include the Select Committee on Ethics and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc basis for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Committee was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees cease to exist after fulfilling their tasks.
The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for example, there exists a Joint Committee on Taxation. Bills and nominees are not referred to joint committees. Hence, the power of joint committees is considerably lower than those of standing committees.
Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led by a chair (usually a member of the majority party). Formerly, committee chairs were determined purely by seniority; as a result, several elderly senators continued to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility. Committee chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the committee 's agenda, and so decide how much, if any, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they act with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a bill or a nomination by the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last role was particularly important in mid-century, when floor amendments were thought not to be collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to accomplish more good for their states than those who do not. The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising it, than they were before reform. The second - highest member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member. In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice chair.
Recent criticisms of the Senate 's operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a result of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of arcane rules.
Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution 's Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ''. As a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not have the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds. Historically, the Senate has disputed the interpretation advocated by the House. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the House simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in practice. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing revenue bills is based on the practice of the British Parliament, in which only the House of Commons may originate such measures.
Although the Constitution gave the House the power to initiate revenue bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. As Woodrow Wilson wrote:
The Senate 's right to amend general appropriation bills has been allowed the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may go altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not only the amounts but even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular chamber measures of an almost totally new character.
The approval of both houses is required for any bill, including a revenue bill, to become law. Both Houses must pass the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies.
The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that form its ability to "check and balance '' the powers of other elements of the Federal Government. These include the requirement that the Senate may advise and must consent to some of the president 's government appointments; also the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; it tries all impeachments, and it elects the vice president in the event no person gets a majority of the electoral votes.
The president can make certain appointments only with the advice and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate 's approval include members of the Cabinet, heads of most federal executive agencies, ambassadors, Justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Under Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution, a large number of government appointments are subject to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the appointment of many officials without the Senate 's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most significant final decision - making authority). Typically, a nominee is first subject to a hearing before a Senate committee. Thereafter, the nomination is considered by the full Senate. The majority of nominees are confirmed, but in a small number of cases each year, Senate committees purposely fail to act on a nomination to block it. In addition, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they appear unlikely to be confirmed. Because of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are infrequent (there have been only nine Cabinet nominees rejected outright in United States history).
The powers of the Senate concerning nominations are, however, subject to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an appointment during a congressional recess without the Senate 's advice and consent. The recess appointment remains valid only temporarily; the office becomes vacant again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents have frequently used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may reject the nominee. Furthermore, as the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate 's advice and consent is required for the appointment of certain executive branch officials, it is not necessary for their removal. Recess appointments have faced a significant amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.S. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution against recess appointments.
The Senate also has a role in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may only "make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur '' in order to benefit from the Senate 's advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the process. However, not all international agreements are considered treaties under US domestic law, even if they are considered treaties under international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make congressional - executive agreements with the approval of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional - executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as Laurence Tribe and John Yoo to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty - ratification process. However, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.
The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors '' and empowers the Senate to try such impeachments. If the sitting President of the United States is being tried, the Chief Justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit on oath or affirmation. Conviction requires a two - thirds majority of the senators present. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office. No further punishment is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.
The House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. (One resigned before the Senate could complete the trial.) Only two presidents of the United States have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction.
Under the Twelfth Amendment, the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Electoral College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral College deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only broken a deadlock once; in 1837, it elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The House elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that choice.
The party composition of the Senate during the 115th Congress:
The 115th United States Congress runs from January 3, 2017 to January 3, 2019.
The following are published by the Senate Historical Office.
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 26 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.89056 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.89056; - 77.00889
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who is the owner of kkr ipl team | Kolkata Knight Riders - wikipedia
T20I kit
The Kolkata Knight Riders (also known by the acronym KKR) are a franchise cricket team representing the city of Kolkata in the Indian Premier League. The franchise is owned by Bollywood actor Shahrukh Khan, actress Juhi Chawla and her spouse Jay Mehta. The team is coached by Jacques Kallis. The home of the Knight Riders is Eden Gardens, the largest cricket stadium in India and the second largest in the world by seating capacity.
Although the team has gained immense popularity due to its association with celebrity owners, it was surrounded with controversy and poor on - field performance through the first three years of the tournament. The team 's performance, however, improved from the fourth season as it qualified for the IPL playoffs as well as the now defunct Champions League Twenty20. They eventually became the IPL champions for the first time in 2012, by defeating Chennai Super Kings in the final and repeated the feat in 2014, defeating Kings XI Punjab. The Knight Riders hold the record for the longest winning streak by any Indian team in T20s (14).
The leading run - scorer of the side is Gautam Gambhir, while the leading wicket - taker is Sunil Narine. The official theme of the team is Korbo, Lorbo, Jeetbo Re (we will perform, fight and win!) and the official colours are purple and gold. The brand value of the Knight Riders was estimated at $99 million in 2017, second highest among IPL franchises..
In 2007, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) created the cricket tournament Indian Premier League based on the Twenty20 form of the game. Eight teams would participate in the inaugural tournament held in April -- June of the same year. The teams representing the eight different cities of India were put up on auction in Mumbai on 20 February. The team representing Kolkata was eventually bought by Bollywood superstar Shah Rukh Khan 's company Red Chillies Entertainment in partnership with actress Juhi Chawla and her husband Jay Mehta for a price of $75.09 million, equal to approximately ₹ 2.98 billion at that time. Sourav Ganguly, former captain of the Indian national team and a native of West Bengal, was named the Icon Player for the team. The name of the team is a reference to the popular 1980s American television series Knight Rider.
In June 2015, they bought a stake in the Caribbean Premier League cricket team Trinidad and Tobago Red Steel and later in 2016, renamed it Trinbago Knight Riders. In July 2017, they bought Cape Town Knight Riders in the newly formed T20 Global League.
Initially, when Kolkata Knight Riders were first introduced in 2008, the logo of the team consisted of a blazing golden Viking helmet against a black background with the name of the team written in gold next to it. However, the black background was changed to purple in the fourth season. It was in 2012 that the current logo, which has a blazing purple Corinthian helmet trimmed with gold, with Kolkata Knight Riders written within a shield was introduced.
The tagline of the team was "All the King 's Men '' during the first four seasons. However, in the fifth it was replaced by "New Dawn, New Knights ''. The team 's official colours were black and gold during the first two seasons. At the time, Khan said that "golden symbolizes spirit of life and black presents the Goddess Kali. '' It was later changed to purple and gold during the third season and was kept so. The jersey was created by Bollywood fashion designer Manish Malhotra.
The main theme of the team Korbo, Lorbo, Jeetbo Re (we will act, fight and win!) was scored by Vishal - Shekhar duo. A Knight Riders album featuring several singers and music composers including Usha Uthup and Bappi Lahiri was also created.
The home venue of the Knight Riders is the iconic Eden Gardens (with the two ends of the crease called the High Court End and the Club House End). Owned by the Cricket Association of Bengal, it is the largest cricket stadium in India and had a seating capacity of over 90,000. In 2011, the stadium was renovated to meet the standards set by the ICC for the 2011 Cricket World Cup; reducing its capacity to around 68,000. The renovated stadium includes a new clubhouse and players ' facilities, upgrading the exterior wall, cladding the existing roof structure with a new metal skin, and general infrastructure improvements. In 2013, two of the team 's home matches were hosted by the JSCA International Cricket Stadium in Ranchi.
Multinational communications corporation Nokia was the official founding sponsor of the Kolkata Knight Riders and remained their principal sponsor until 2014. In 2015, Chinese mobile phone manufacturer Gionee took over as their principal sponsor and signed a three - year deal worth ₹ 540 million (US $7.9 million). In 2018, Nokia returned as the main sponsor of the Knight Riders, signing a two - year deal. Star Plus, Reebok, HDIL, Kit Kat, Sprite, SB Nation, Doublemint, SAP AG, Red FM 93.5, Seiko, U.S. Polo Assn., Uber, Dish TV, Sansui, Ola Cabs, Pepsi and Sony Music India have all formerly been either their co-sponsors or partners.
As of 2018, they have co-sponsorship deals with Jio, Lux Cozi, SRMB Steel, Exide, Royal Stag, JBL, The Telegraph, Fever 104 FM, Greenply and Kingfisher Premium along with several others.
Sourav Ganguly, the former captain of the Indian cricket team was the icon player and led the franchise in the 2008 and 2010 seasons. Brendon McCullum lead the team in the intervening period. Both captains were released before the 2011 season. The former team included all - rounders Chris Gayle, David Hussey, Laxmi Ratan Shukla, Angelo Mathews, batsman Ricky Ponting and wicket keeper Wriddhiman Saha. The main bowlers were Umar Gul, Ishant Sharma, Ashok Dinda, Ajit Agarkar and Murali Karthik. Australian batsman Brad Hodge and bowlers Ajantha Mendis and Charl Langeveldt were bought outside the IPL auction in late 2008.
At the 2009 auction the team bought Bangladeshi all - rounder Mashrafe Mortaza at a whopping price of $600,000 dollars. Due to the unavailability of Pakistani players starting 2009, KKR had to suspend the contract of Umar Gul, who was a key performer from the 2008 season. On 26 April 2009, KKR administration sent back two of its players Akash Chopra and Sanjay Bangar on the premises of poor performance. Shane Bond was acquired after releasing Ricky Ponting, Morne van Wyk and the Pakistani players Umar Gul, Salman Butt, Mohammad Hafeez and Shoaib Akhtar before the third season. Moises Henriques was traded to Delhi in return for Owais Shah and Manoj Tiwary. Thus, their overseas roster for the 2010 season consisted of Shane Bond, Mashrafe Mortaza, Brendon McCullum, Charl Langeveldt, Ajantha Mendis, Angelo Mathews, Brad Hodge, David Hussey, Owais Shah and Chris Gayle.
In the 2011 season, KKR drastically revamped their squad. Former captain and icon player Sourav Ganguly was not purchased in the January auction. This led to protest rallies, signature campaigns throughout the country and abroad along with stadium protests by various fan groups, such as No Dada No KKR, which received both national and international press attention. The team appointed Gautam Gambhir, who was bought for a record - breaking $2.4 million as skipper. Yusuf Pathan was also picked up for a whopping $2.1 million. Other international names who were added include Shakib Al Hasan, Brad Haddin, Jacques Kallis, Brett Lee, Ryan ten Doeschate, Eoin Morgan and James Pattinson. Haddin was replaced by Mark Boucher mid-season due to injury.
In the 2012 auction, KKR bought back their former captain, Brendon McCullum. They also acquired West Indian spinner Sunil Narine and South African fast bowler Marchant de Lange.
The team later added four domestic players to their squad, including Debabrata Das and Iresh Saxena from Bengal, Saurashtra 's Chirag Jani and Sanju Samson from Kerala. However, in November 2012, KKR released the latter three from their team along with Jaydev Unadkat, a key performer from the previous seasons. In the 2013 auction, the team acquired only two overseas players, Sachithra Senanayake and Ryan McLaren.
Before the February 2014 auction, the team had only retained their key performers Gautam Gambhir and Sunil Narine. From the auctions that took place, the team brought back Jacques Kallis and Yusuf Pathan with their right - to - match (RTM) card. Also keeping their place in the squad was Ryan ten Doeschate and Shakib Al Hasan. New international players were Morne Morkel, Patrick Cummins and Chris Lynn. Prominent Indian players bought included Robin Uthappa, Umesh Yadav, Manish Pandey, Suryakumar Yadav and Piyush Chawla.
KKR 's impressive additions in the 2015 auction were veteran Australian bowler Brad Hogg and wicket - keeper Sheldon Jackson. Before the auction in February 2016, they released Ryan ten Doeschate who was a part of their team for five consecutive seasons along with pace bowler Pat Cummins. The Knight Riders were particularly noted for their change in approach from the previous auctions where they had concentrated on spinners. For the 2016 edition, however, they acquired as many as six pacers in the form of all - rounders John Hastings, Colin Munro, Jason Holder and Rajagopal Sathish as well as bowlers Ankit Rajpoot and Jaydev Unadkat, with the latter being a former player of the squad. They signed one spinner in Manan Sharma. Before the 2017 auctions, they released Morne Morkel, Brad Hogg, Jason Holder, Colin Munro, John Hastings, Jaydev Unadkat, Rajagopal Sathish, Manan Sharma and replacement signing Shaun Tait. From the 2017 Indian Premier League auction, they signed Trent Boult, English all - rounder Chris Woakes, Australian Nathan Coulter - Nile, West Indian Darren Bravo and Jamaican Rovman Powell. The domestic players signed were Rishi Dhawan, Ishank Jaggi, Sayan Ghosh and R Sanjay Yadav. At the time, Andre Russell was banned for one year for doping; he was replaced by Colin de Grandhomme for the season. In January 2018, they only retained West Indian cricketers Sunil Narine and Andre Russell. Their two - time title winning captain Gautam Gambhir was released. At the auction, they retained Robin Uthappa, Piyush Chawla and Kuldeep Yadav using RTM (Right - To - Match) card. KKR also bought back their impressive opener Chris Lynn and uncapped Indian batsman Ishank Jaggi. Other uncapped batsmen bought were Nitish Rana, Shubman Gill, Cameron Delport, Rinku Singh and Apoorv Wankhade. They also bought West Indian uncapped all - rounder Javon Searles and uncapped Indian all - rounders Kamlesh Nagarkoti and Shivam Mavi. Other signings were veteran Indian wicket - keeper Dinesh Karthik, Australian pace bowlers Mitchell Starc and Mitchell Johnson and former Knight Riders player Vinay Kumar.
On 4 March 2018, Dinesh Karthik was appointed as the captain of KKR for IPL 2018 and Robin Uthappa was named vice-captain. Mitchell Starc was ruled out before the season due to injury and Tom Curran was announced as his replacement.
The Knight Riders qualified for the Champions League Twenty20 in 2011, 2012 and 2014. The latter was the last edition of the tournament before it being permanently called off. The team was eliminated in the group stage in 2011 and 2012, but finished as runners - up in the ultimate season.
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the voice of louise from bob's burgers | Kristen Schaal - wikipedia
Kristen Joy Schaal (/ ʃɑːl /; born January 24, 1978) is an American comedian, actress, voice actress and writer best known for current roles as Carol in The Last Man on Earth (since 2015), as well as for playing Mel in Flight of the Conchords, the over-sexed nurse Hurshe Heartshe on The Heart, She Holler, Mabel Pines in Gravity Falls and Louise Belcher in Bob 's Burgers.
She also provides several voices for BoJack Horseman, most notably for the character of Sarah Lynn, for which she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice - Over Performance. Other roles include Amanda Simmons on The Hotwives of Orlando, Hazel Wassername on 30 Rock, Victoria Best on WordGirl, Trixie in Toy Story 3 and Anne on Wilfred. She was also an occasional commentator on The Daily Show from 2008 to 2016.
Schaal was born in Longmont, Colorado, to a Lutheran family of Dutch ancestry. She was raised on her family 's cattle ranch, in a rural area near Boulder. Her father is a construction worker and her mother is a secretary. She has a brother, David, who is three years older. She graduated from Northwestern University and then moved to New York in 2000 to pursue a comedy career. In 2005, she had her first break when she was included in New York magazine 's article "The Ten Funniest New Yorkers You 've Never Heard Of ''.
In 2006, Schaal performed at the 2006 HBO US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen, where she won the award for "Best Alternative Comedian ''. She was also the winner of the second annual Andy Kaufman Award (hosted by the New York Comedy Festival), Best Female Stand - up at the 2006 Nightlife Awards in New York City, and "Best Female Stand Up Comedian '' at the 2007 ECNY Awards. At the 2008 Melbourne International Comedy Festival, she won the Barry Award for her show Kristen Schaal As You Have Probably Never Seen Her Before, tying with Nina Conti. Also in 2006, Schaal appeared on the first season of the Comedy Central show Live at Gotham. She co-hosts the weekly variety show Hot Tub in Los Angeles, which was voted "Best Variety Show of 2005 '' by Time - Out New York 's readers poll. She also performs at the Peoples Improv Theater on the improv team, "Big Black Car '', which was awarded best improv troupe of 2005 at the Emerging Comics of New York awards. She is a founding member of the theatre company The Striking Viking Story Pirates, which adapts stories by children into sketches and songs.
Schaal performed live at the Edinburgh Fringe 2007 in Scotland, where she was one of six acts (chosen from over two hundred American productions at the Fringe) requested to perform at the US Consul General - sponsored "Fringe USA '' Showcase.
On her return to the Edinburgh Fringe Festival in August 2008, Schaal was nominated for the If. comedy award for Kristen Schaal And Kurt Braunohler: Double Down Hearts.
Schaal has also performed at the Royal Albert Hall, London, as part of The Secret Policeman 's Ball 2008 in aid of Amnesty International, and at the Bonnaroo 2009 music festival. In 2010, Schaal appeared as a stand - up comic on John Oliver 's New York Stand Up Show and at the Solid Sound Festival at the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art.
Schaal appeared on HBO 's Flight of the Conchords as the stalker - fan Mel, a role which earned her an EWwy nomination for Best Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2009. She was also a credited consultant and writer for Season 11 of South Park, appeared on the BBC 's Never Mind the Buzzcocks and played the boss in Fuse 's mockumentary The Intern. She made her first appearance as a "special commentator '' on Comedy Central 's The Daily Show on March 13, 2008, often presented in recurring appearances as its news team 's "Senior Women 's Issues Correspondent ''. On April 13, 2008, she made an appearance on Good News Week during the Melbourne International Comedy Festival and in October 2008 she appeared in Amnesty International 's The Secret Policeman 's Ball 2008.
Her other film and television credits include Kate and Leopold, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, Snake ' n ' Bacon, Norbit, Get Him to the Greek, Conviction, Cheap Seats, Freak Show, Cirque du Freak: The Vampire 's Assistant, Adam and Steve, The Goods: Live Hard, Sell Hard, Delirious, Australian show Good News Week, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Law & Order: Criminal Intent, The Education of Max Bickford, Comedy Central 's Contest Searchlight, Ugly Betty, How I Met Your Mother, MTV 's Human Giant and Mad Men. She was also a contributor to the sketch / music series The Nighttime Clap on the Fuse music network. She also appeared on Fuse 's original comedy series The P.A. Schaal appeared in two TV pilots written and directed by Jersey City comedian Dan McNamara -- The Calderons and Redeeming Rainbow, both of which were screened as official selections at the 2006 and 2007 New York Television Festivals. She was also in television commercials for Wendy 's, RadioShack, and Starburst. She made an appearance, in April 2008, on the IFC sketch comedy show The Whitest Kids U ' Know. On April 3, 2009 she taped an episode of Comedy Central Presents. In 2010, she added her voice to the PBS Kids GO! series WordGirl as Victoria Best, a child prodigy whose parents taught her to be the best at everything that she does. Schaal voiced 13 - year - old Mabel Pines on Disney Channel 's hit TV series Gravity Falls. She currently voices the character Louise on the FOX Network series Bob 's Burgers.
She also stars in A.D. Miles ' MyDamnChannel.com series Horrible People. In October 2008, Schaal appeared in an episode of Spicks and Specks. On June 10, 2009, Schaal broadcast her first radio show, High Five!!, on Sirius XM Radio 's ' RawDog ' channel with co-host Kurt Braunohler. She played Gertha Teeth in the 2009 movie The Vampire 's Assistant. Schaal stars in her own web series, Penelope Princess of Pets, one episode of which doubled as the video for the New Pornographers ' "Mutiny, I Promise You ''. She voiced Trixie the Triceratops in Toy Story 3 and Pumpkin Witch and Palace Witch in Shrek Forever After. She was also in the music video for Joey Ramone 's "New York City ''. She also guest starred in the Modern Family episode "Fifteen Percent '', as well as the music video for "Conversation 16 '' by The National. Schaal guest starred on the MC Frontalot album Solved. She was featured with Kurt Braunohler on the Radiolab episode "Loops ''. Schaal was in a commercial for the Xperia Play version of Minecraft.
Schaal guest starred on The Simpsons May 8, 2011 episode "Homer Scissorhands '' in which she plays Taffy, a love interest of Milhouse. She is incorrectly listed in the credits as "Kristen Schall ''. This prompted Simpsons writers to issue her a unique apology on the next week 's episode in which Bart 's chalkboard joke in the intro to the show states "It 's Kristen Schaal, not Kristen Schall. '' Schaal also appeared in a music video for "Weird Al '' Yankovic 's 2014 song "Tacky '', a parody of Pharrell Williams 's "Happy ''.
In 2013, Schaal guest starred in the two part episode "Sea Tunt '' of Archer, lending her voice to a character named Tiffy.
In 2014, Schaal co-starred alongside Casey Wilson, Danielle Schneider, Tymberlee Hill, Andrea Savage, and Angela Kinsey in the first season of the Hulu original series The Hotwives of Orlando. She is currently co-starring alongside Will Forte in the FOX comedy The Last Man on Earth, which premiered on March 1, 2015.
Schaal also voices the character Sarah Lynn in the Netflix original animated series BoJack Horseman. In 2017, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Character Voice - Over Performance for her performance as Sarah Lynn.
Schaal appears in A Walk in the Woods (2015) as hiker Mary Ellen.
Schaal wrote a book of humor, The Sexy Book of Sexy Sex, with her future husband, former Daily Show writer Rich Blomquist. It was published in July 2010 by Chronicle Books. She originally intended for them to write the book under pseudonyms, "because I do n't want anyone to imagine me doing those things, '' but realized it would be harder to promote the book without using their real names.
Schaal has been married to Daily Show staff writer Rich Blomquist since 2012.
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play the song maggie may by rod stewart | Maggie May - wikipedia
5: 15 (Album version)
"Maggie May '' is a song co-written with Martin Quittenton and performed by singer Rod Stewart from his album Every Picture Tells a Story, released in 1971.
In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked the song number 131 on their list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
"Maggie May '' expresses the ambivalence and contradictory emotions of a boy involved in a relationship with an older woman, and was written from Stewart 's own experience. In the January 2007 issue of Q magazine, Stewart recalled: "Maggie May was more or less a true story, about the first woman I had sex with, at the 1961 Beaulieu Jazz Festival. '' The woman 's name was not "Maggie May ''; Stewart has stated that the name was taken from "... an old Liverpudlian song about a prostitute. ''
The song was recorded in just two takes in one session. Drummer Micky Waller often arrived at recording sessions with the expectation that a drum kit would be provided and, for "Maggie May '', it was -- except that no cymbals could be found. The cymbal crashes had to be overdubbed separately some days later.
The song was released as the B - side of the single "Reason to Believe '', but soon radio stations began playing the B - side and "Maggie May '' became the more popular side. The song was Stewart 's first substantial hit as a solo performer and launched his solo career. It remains one of his best - known songs. A live performance of the song on Top of the Pops saw the Faces joined onstage by DJ John Peel, who pretended to play the mandolin (the mandolin player on the recording was Ray Jackson of Lindisfarne).
The album version of "Maggie May '' incorporates a 30 - second solo guitar intro, "Henry '', composed by Martin Quittenton. The original recording has appeared on almost all his compilations, and even appeared on the Ronnie Wood retrospective, Ronnie Wood Anthology: The Essential Crossexion. A version by the Faces recorded for BBC Radio appeared on the four - disc box set Five Guys Walk into a Bar... A live version recorded in 1993 by Stewart joined by Wood for a session of MTV Unplugged is included on the album Unplugged... and Seated.
In October 1971, the song went to number one in the UK Singles Chart (for five weeks), and simultaneously topped the charts in the United States. Every Picture Tells a Story achieved the same status at the same time. Billboard ranked it as the No. 2 record for 1971. The song also topped the charts in Australia for four weeks at the same time.
The song re-entered the UK chart in December 1976, but only reached number 31.
"At first, I did n't think much of "Maggie May. '' I guess that 's because the record company did n't believe in the song. I did n't have much confidence then. I figured it was best to listen to the guys who knew better. What I learned is sometimes they do and sometimes they do n't. ''
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what was the result of the first persian invasion | First Persian invasion of Greece - wikipedia
The first Persian invasion of Greece, during the Persian Wars, began in 492 BC, and ended with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. The invasion, consisting of two distinct campaigns, was ordered by the Persian king Darius I primarily in order to punish the city - states of Athens and Eretria. These cities had supported the cities of Ionia during their revolt against Persian rule, thus incurring the wrath of Darius. Darius also saw the opportunity to extend his empire into Europe, and to secure its western frontier.
The first campaign in 492 BC, led by Mardonius, re-subjugated Thrace and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom part of Persia, after being a vassal to Persia as early as the late 6th century BC. However, further progress was prevented when Mardonius 's fleet was wrecked in a storm off the coast of Mount Athos. The following year, having demonstrated his intentions, Darius sent ambassadors to all parts of Greece, demanding their submission. He received it from almost all of them, except Athens and Sparta, both of whom executed the ambassadors. With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year.
The second Persian campaign, in 490 BC, was under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. The expedition headed first to the island Naxos, which it captured and burnt. It then island - hopped between the rest of the Cycladic Islands, annexing each into the Persian empire. Reaching Greece, the expedition landed at Eretria, which it besieged, and after a brief time, captured. Eretria was razed and its citizens enslaved. Finally, the task force headed to Attica, landing at Marathon, en route for Athens. There, it was met by a smaller Athenian army, which nevertheless proceeded to win a remarkable victory at the Battle of Marathon.
This defeat prevented the successful conclusion of the campaign, and the task force returned to Asia. Nevertheless, the expedition had fulfilled most of its aims, punishing Naxos and Eretria, and bringing much of the Aegean under Persian rule, as well as the full inclusion of Macedon. The unfinished business from this campaign led Darius to prepare for a much larger invasion of Greece, to firmly subjugate it, and to punish Athens and Sparta. However, internal strife within the empire delayed this expedition, and Darius then died of old age. It was thus left to his son Xerxes I to lead the second Persian invasion of Greece, beginning in 480 BC.
The main source for the Greco - Persian Wars is the Greek historian Herodotus. Herodotus, who has been called the ' Father of History ', was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his ' Enquiries ' (Greek -- Historia; English -- (The) Histories) around 440 -- 430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco - Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC). Herodotus 's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented ' history ' as we know it. As the British author Tom Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people 's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally. ''
Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with Thucydides. Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus 's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. Plutarch criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus '', describing Herodotus as "Philobarbaros '' (barbarian - lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even - handed. A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events. The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism. Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.
The Sicilian historian Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century BC in his Bibliotheca Historica, also provides an account of the Greco - Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian Ephorus. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus 's. The Greco - Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, Ctesias of Cnidus, and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright Aeschylus. Archaeological evidence, such as the Serpent Column, also supports some of Herodotus 's specific claims.
The first Persian invasion of Greece had its immediate roots in the Ionian Revolt, the earliest phase of the Greco - Persian Wars. However, it was also the result of the longer - term interaction between the Greeks and Persians. In 500 BC the Persian Empire was still relatively young and highly expansionist, but prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples. Moreover, the Persian king Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule. Even before the Ionian Revolt, Darius had begun to expand the Empire into Europe, subjugating Thrace, expanding past the Danube river, conquering Paeonia, and forcing Macedon to become a client kingdom to Persia; though the latter retaining an amount of autonomy up to 492 BC. Attempts at further expansion into the politically fractious world of Ancient Greece may have been inevitable. However, the Ionian Revolt had directly threatened the integrity of the Persian empire, and the states of mainland Greece remained a potential menace to its future stability. Darius thus resolved to subjugate and pacify Greece and the Aegean, and to punish those involved in the Ionian Revolt.
The Ionian revolt had begun with an unsuccessful expedition against Naxos, a joint venture between the Persian satrap Artaphernes and the Miletus tyrant Aristagoras. In the aftermath, Artaphernes decided to remove Aristagoras from power, but before he could do so, Aristagoras abdicated, and declared Miletus a democracy. The other Ionian cities, ripe for rebellion, followed suit, ejecting their Persian - appointed tyrants, and declaring themselves democracies. Aristagoras then appealed to the states of Mainland Greece for support, but only Athens and Eretria offered to send troops.
The involvement of Athens in the Ionian Revolt arose from a complex set of circumstances, beginning with the establishment of the Athenian Democracy in the late 6th century BC In 510 BC, with the aid of Cleomenes I, King of Sparta, the Athenian people had expelled Hippias, the tyrant ruler of Athens. With Hippias 's father Peisistratus, the family had ruled for 36 out of the previous 50 years and fully intended to continue Hippias 's rule. Hippias fled to Sardis to the court of the Persian satrap, Artaphernes and promised control of Athens to the Persians if they were to help restore him. In the meantime, Cleomenes helped install a pro-Spartan tyranny under Isagoras in Athens, in opposition to Cleisthenes, the leader of the traditionally powerful Alcmaeonidae family, who considered themselves the natural heirs to the rule of Athens. In a daring response, Cleisthenes proposed to the Athenian people that he would establish a ' democracy ' in Athens, much to the horror of the rest of the aristocracy. Cleisthenes 's reasons for suggesting such a radical course of action, which would remove much of his own family 's power, are unclear; perhaps he perceived that days of aristocratic rule were coming to an end anyway; certainly he wished to prevent Athens becoming a puppet of Sparta by whatever means necessary. However, as a result of this proposal, Cleisthenes and his family were exiled from Athens, in addition to other dissenting elements, by Isagoras. Having been promised democracy however, the Athenian people seized the moment and revolted, expelling Cleomenes and Isagoras. Cleisthenes was thus restored to Athens (507 BC), and at breakneck speed began to establish democratic government. The establishment of democracy revolutionised Athens, which henceforth became one of the leading cities in Greece. The new - found freedom and self - governance of the Athenians meant that they were thereafter exceptionally hostile to the return of the tyranny of Hippias, or any form of outside subjugation; by Sparta, Persia or anyone else.
Cleomenes, unsurprisingly, was not pleased with events, and marched on Athens with the Spartan army. Cleomenes 's attempts to restore Isagoras to Athens ended in a debacle, but fearing the worst, the Athenians had by this point already sent an embassy to Artaphernes in Sardis, to request aid from the Persian Empire. Artaphernes requested that the Athenians give him a ' earth and water ', a traditional token of submission, which the Athenian ambassadors acquiesced to. However, they were severely censured for this when they returned to Athens. At some point later Cleomenes instigated a plot to restore Hippias to the rule of Athens. This failed and Hippias again fled to Sardis and tried to persuade the Persians to subjugate Athens. The Athenians dispatched ambassadors to Artaphernes to dissuade him from taking action, but Artaphernes merely instructed the Athenians to take Hippias back as tyrant. Needless to say, the Athenians balked at this, and resolved instead to be openly at war with Persia. Having thus become the enemy of Persia, Athens was already in a position to support the Ionian cities when they began their revolt. The fact that the Ionian democracies were inspired by the example of Athens no doubt further persuaded the Athenians to support the Ionian Revolt; especially since the cities of Ionia were (supposedly) originally Athenian colonies.
The city of Eretria also sent assistance to the Ionians for reasons that are not completely clear. Possibly commercial reasons were a factor; Eretria was a mercantile city, whose trade was threatened by Persian dominance of the Aegean. Herodotus suggests that the Eretrians supported the revolt in order to repay the support the Milesians had given Eretria in a past war against Chalcis.
The Athenians and Eretrians sent a task force of 25 triremes to Asia Minor. Whilst there, the Greek army surprised and outmaneuvered Artaphernes, marching to Sardis and there burning the lower city. However, this was as much as the Greeks achieved, and they were then pursued back to the coast by Persian horsemen, losing many men in the process. Despite the fact their actions were ultimately fruitless, the Eretrians and in particular the Athenians had earned Darius 's lasting enmity, and he vowed to punish both cities. The Persian naval victory at the Battle of Lade (494 BC) all but ended the Ionian Revolt, and by 493 BC, the last hold - outs were vanquished by the Persian fleet. The revolt was used as an opportunity by Darius to extend the empire 's border to the islands of the East Aegean and the Propontis, which had not been part of the Persian dominions before. The completion of the pacification of Ionia allowed the Persians to begin planning their next moves; to extinguish the threat to the empire from Greece, and to punish Athens and Eretria.
In the spring of 492 BC an expeditionary force, to be commanded by Darius 's son - in - law Mardonius, was assembled, consisting of a fleet and a land army. Whilst the ultimate aim was to punish Athens and Eretria, the expedition also aimed to subdue as many of the Greek cities as possible. Departing from Cilicia, Mardonius sent the army to march to the Hellespont, whilst he travelled with the fleet. He sailed round the coast of Asia Minor to Ionia, where he spent a short time abolishing the tyrannies that ruled the cities of Ionia. Ironically, since the establishment of democracies had been a key factor in the Ionian Revolt, he replaced the tyrannies with democracies.
Thence the fleet continued on to the Hellespont, and when all was ready, shipped the land forces across to Europe. The army then marched through Thrace, re-subjugating it, since these lands had already been added to the Persian Empire in 512 BC, during Darius 's campaign against the Scythians. Upon reaching Macedon, the Persians forced it to become a fully subordinate part of the Persian Empire; they had been vassals of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained their general autonomy.
Meanwhile, the fleet crossed to Thasos, resulting in the Thasians submitting to the Persians. The fleet then rounded the coastline as far as Acanthus in Chalcidice, before attempting to round the headland of Mount Athos. However, they were caught in a violent storm, which drove them against the coastline of Athos, wrecking (according to Herodotus) 300 ships, with the loss of 20,000 men.
Then, whilst the army was camped in Macedon, the Brygians, a local Thracian tribe, launched a night raid against the Persian camp, killing many of the Persians, and wounding Mardonius. Despite his injury, Mardonius made sure that the Brygians were defeated and subjugated, before leading his army back to the Hellespont; the remnants of the navy also retreated to Asia. Although this campaign ended ingloriously, the land approaches to Greece had been secured, and the Greeks had no doubt been made aware of Darius 's intentions for them.
Perhaps reasoning that the expedition of the previous year may have made his plans for Greece obvious, and weakened the resolve of the Greek cities, Darius turned to diplomacy in 491 BC. He sent ambassadors to all the Greek city states, asking for "earth and water '', a traditional token of submission. The vast majority of cities did as asked, fearing the wrath of Darius. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well. This firmly and finally drew the battle - lines for the coming conflict; Sparta and Athens, despite their recent enmity, would together fight the Persians.
However, Sparta was then thrown into disarray by internal machinations. The citizens of Aegina had submitted to the Persian ambassadors, and the Athenians, troubled by the possibility of Persia using Aegina as a naval base, asked Sparta to intervene. Cleomenes travelled to Aegina to confront the Aeginetans personally, but they appealed to Cleomenes 's fellow king Demaratus, who supported their stance. Cleomenes responded by having Demaratus declared illegitimate, with the help of the priests at Delphi (whom he bribed); Demaratus was replaced by his cousin Leotychides. Now faced with two Spartan kings, the Aeginetans capitulated, and handed over hostages to the Athenians as a guarantee of their good behaviour. However, in Sparta news emerged of the bribes Cleomenes had given at Delphi, and he was expelled from the city. He then sought to rally the northern Peloponnesus to his cause, at which the Spartans relented, and invited him back to the city. By 491 BC though, Cleomenes was widely considered insane and was sentenced to prison where he was found dead the following day. Cleomenes was succeeded by his half - brother Leonidas I.
Taking advantage of the chaos in Sparta, which effectively left Athens isolated, Darius decided to launch an amphibious expedition to finally punish Athens and Eretria. An army was assembled in Susa, and marched into Cilicia, where a fleet had been gathered. Command of the expedition was given to Datis the Mede and Artaphernes, son of the satrap Artaphernes.
According to Herodotus, the fleet sent by Darius consisted of 600 triremes. There is no indication in the historical sources of how many transport ships accompanied them, if any. Herodotus claimed that 3,000 transport ships accompanied 1,207 triremes during Xerxes 's invasion in 480 BC. Among modern historians, some have accepted this number of ships as reasonable; it has been suggested either that the number 600 represents the combined number of triremes and transport ships, or that there were horse transports in addition to 600 triremes.
Herodotus does not estimate the size of the Persian army, only saying that they formed a "large infantry that was well packed ''. Among other ancient sources, the poet Simonides, a near - contemporary, says the campaign force numbered 200,000, while a later writer, the Roman Cornelius Nepos estimates 200,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. Plutarch and Pausanias both independently give 300,000, as does the Suda dictionary; Plato and Lysias assert 500,000; and Justin 600,000.
Modern historians generally dismiss these numbers as exaggerations. One approach to estimate the number of troops is to calculate the number of marines carried by 600 triremes. Herodotus tells us that each trireme in the second invasion of Greece carried 30 extra marines, in addition to a probable 14 standard marines. Thus, 600 triremes could easily have carried 18,000 -- 26,000 infantry. Numbers proposed for the Persian infantry are in the range 18,000 -- 100,000. However, the consensus is around 25,000.
The Persian infantry used in the invasion was probably a heterogeneous group drawn from across the empire. However, according to Herodotus, there was at least a general conformity in the type of armour and style of fighting. The troops were, generally speaking, armed with a bow, ' short spear ' and sword, carried a wicker shield, and wore at most a leather jerkin. The one exception to this may have been the ethnic Persian troops, who may have worn a corslet of scale armour. Some contingents would have been armed somewhat differently; for instance, the Saka were renowned axemen. The ' elite ' contingents of the Persian infantry seem to have been the ethnic Persians, Medians, Cissians and the Saka; Herodotus specifically mentions the presence of Persians and Saka at Marathon. The style of fighting used by the Persians was probably to stand off from an enemy, using their bows (or equivalent) to wear down the enemy before closing in to deliver the coup de grace with spear and sword.
Estimates for the cavalry are usually in the 1,000 -- 3,000 range. The Persian cavalry was usually provided by the ethnic Persians, Bactrians, Medes, Cissians, and Saka; most of these probably fought as lightly armed missile cavalry. The fleet must have had at least some proportion of transport ships, since the cavalry was carried by ship; whilst Herodotus claims the cavalry was carried in the triremes, this is improbable. Lazenby estimates 30 -- 40 transport ships would be required to carry 1,000 cavalry.
Once assembled, the Persian force sailed from Cilicia firstly to the island of Rhodes. A Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos, but was unsuccessful.
The fleet then moved north along the Ionian coast towards Samos, before abruptly turning west into the Aegean Sea. The fleet sailed next to Naxos, in order to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition that the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier. Many of the inhabitants fled to the mountains; those that the Persians caught were enslaved. The Persians then burnt the city and temples of the Naxians.
Moving on, the Persian fleet approached Delos, whereupon the Delians also fled from their homes. Having demonstrated Persian power at Naxos, Datis now intended to show clemency to the other islands, if they submitted to him. He sent a herald to the Delians, proclaiming:
"Holy men, why have you fled away, and so misjudged my intent? It is my own desire, and the king 's command to me, to do no harm to the land where the two gods were born, neither to the land itself nor to its inhabitants. So return now to your homes and dwell on your island. ''
Datis then burned 300 talents of frankincense on the altar of Apollo on Delos, to show his respect for one of the gods of the island. The fleet then proceeded to island - hop across the rest of Aegean on its way to Eretria, taking hostages and troops from each island.
The Persians finally arrived off the southern tip of Euboea, at Karystos. The citizens of Karystos refused to give hostages to the Persians, so they were besieged, and their land ravaged, until they submitted to the Persians.
The task force then sailed around Euboea to the first major target, Eretria. According to Herodotus, the Eretrians were divided amongst themselves as to the best course of action; whether to flee to the highlands, or undergo a siege, or to submit to the Persians. In the event, the majority decision was to remain in the city. The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians landing, or advancing, and thus allowed themselves to be besieged. For six days the Persians attacked the walls, with losses on both sides; however, on the seventh day two reputable Eretrians opened the gates and betrayed the city to the Persians. The city was razed, and temples and shrines were looted and burned. Furthermore, according to Darius 's commands, the Persians enslaved all the remaining townspeople.
The Persian fleet next headed south down the coast of Attica, landing at the bay of Marathon, roughly 25 miles (40 km) from Athens, on the advice of Hippias, son of the former tyrant of Athens, Peisistratus. The Athenians, joined by a small force from Plataea, marched to Marathon, and succeeded in blocking the two exits from the plain of Marathon. At the same time, Athens ' greatest runner, Pheidippides (or Philippides) was sent to Sparta to request that the Spartan army march to Athens ' aid. Pheidippides arrived during the festival of Carneia, a sacrosanct period of peace, and was informed that the Spartan army could not march to war until the full moon rose; Athens could not expect reinforcement for at least ten days. They decided to hold out at Marathon for the time being, and they were reinforced by a contingent of hoplites from Plataea.
Stalemate ensued for five days, before the Athenians (for reasons that are not completely clear) decided to attack the Persians. Despite the numerical advantage of the Persians, the hoplites proved devastatingly effective, routing the Persians wings before turning in on the centre of the Persian line; the remnants of the Persian army left the battle and fled to their ships. Herodotus records that 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the battlefield; the Athenians lost just 192 men and the Plataeans 11.
In the immediate aftermath of the battle, Herodotus says that the Persian fleet sailed around Cape Sunium to attack Athens directly, although some modern historians place this attempt just before the battle. Either way, the Athenians evidently realised that their city was still under threat, and marched as quickly as possible back to Athens. The Athenians arrived in time to prevent the Persians from securing a landing, and seeing that the opportunity was lost, the Persians turned about and returned to Asia. On the next day, the Spartan army arrived, having covered the 220 kilometers (140 mi) in only three days. The Spartans toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.
The defeat at Marathon ended for the time being the Persian invasion of Greece. However, Thrace and the Cycladic islands had been resubjugated into the Persian empire, and Macedon reduced to a subordinate kingdom part of the empire; since the late 6th century BC they had been vassals of the Persians, but remained having a broad scope of autonomy. Darius was still fully intent on conquering Greece, to secure the western part of his empire. Moreover, Athens remained unpunished for its role in the Ionian Revolt, and both Athens and Sparta were unpunished for their treatment of the Persian ambassadors.
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his Egyptian subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition. Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece. This expedition was finally ready by 480 BC, and the second Persian invasion of Greece thereby began, under the command of Xerxes himself.
For the Persians, the two expeditions to Greece had been largely successful; new territories had been added to their empire and Eretria had been punished. It was only a minor setback that the invasion had met defeat at Marathon; that defeat barely dented the enormous resources of the Persian empire. Yet, for the Greeks, it was an enormously significant victory. It was the first time that Greeks had beaten the Persians, and showed them that the Persians were not invincible, and that resistance, rather than subjugation, was possible.
The victory at Marathon was a defining moment for the young Athenian democracy, showing what might be achieved through unity and self - belief; indeed, the battle effectively marks the start of a ' golden age ' for Athens. This was also applicable to Greece as a whole; "their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three centuries, during which western culture was born ''. John Stuart Mill 's famous opinion was that "the Battle of Marathon, even as an event in British history, is more important than the Battle of Hastings ''.
Militarily, a major lesson for the Greeks was the potential of the hoplite phalanx. This style had developed during internecine warfare amongst the Greeks; since each city - state fought in the same way, the advantages and disadvantages of the hoplite phalanx had not been obvious. Marathon was the first time a phalanx faced more lightly armed troops, and revealed how devastating the hoplites could be in battle. The phalanx formation was still vulnerable to cavalry (the cause of much caution by the Greek forces at the Battle of Plataea), but used in the right circumstances, it was now shown to be a potentially devastating weapon. The Persians seem to have more - or-less disregarded the military lessons of Marathon. The composition of infantry for the second invasion seems to have been the same as during the first, despite the availability of hoplites and other heavy infantry in Persian - ruled lands. Having won battles against hoplites previously, the Persians may simply have regarded Marathon as an aberration.
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i will fly you to the moon and back | To the Moon and Back - wikipedia
To the Moon and Back can refer to:
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t or transverse tubules in skeletal muscle function to | T - tubule - wikipedia
Transverse tubules (T - tubules) are extensions of the cell membrane that penetrate into the centre of skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. With membranes that contain large concentrations of ion channels, transporters, and pumps, T - tubules permit rapid transmission of the action potential into the cell, and also play an important role in regulating cellular calcium concentration. Through these mechanisms, T - tubules allow heart muscle cells to contract more forcefully by synchronising calcium release throughout the cell. T - tubule structure may be affected by disease, potentially contributing to heart failure and arrhythmias. Although these structures were first seen in 1897, research into T - tubule biology is ongoing.
T - tubules are tubules formed from the same phospholipid bilayer as the surface membrane or sarcolemma of skeletal or cardiac muscle cells. They connect directly with the sarcolemma at one end before travelling deep within the cell, forming a network of tubules with sections running both perpendicular (transverse) to and parallel (axially) to the sarcolemma. Due to this complex orientation, some refer to T - tubules as the transverse - axial tubular system. The inside or lumen of the T - tubule is open at the cell surface, meaning that the T - tubule is filled with fluid containing the same constituents as the solution that surrounds the cell (the extracellular fluid). Rather than being just a passive connecting tube, the membrane which forms T - tubules is highly active, being studded with proteins including L - type calcium channels, sodium - calcium exchangers, calcium ATPases and Beta adrenoceptors.
T - tubules are found in both atrial and ventricular cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes), in which they develop in the first few weeks of life. They are found in ventricular muscle cells in most species, and in atrial muscle cells from large mammals. In c ardiac muscle cells, T - tubules are between 20 and 450 nanometers in diameter and are usually located in regions called Z - discs where the actin filaments anchor within the cell. T - tubules within the heart are closely associated with the intracellular calcium store known as the sarcoplasmic reticulum in specific regions referred to as terminal cisternae. The association of the T - tubule with a terminal cistern is known as a diad.
In skeletal muscle cells, T - tubules are between 20 and 40 nm in diameter and are typically located either side of the myosin strip, at the junction of overlap between the A and I bands. T - tubules in skeletal muscle are associated with two terminal cisternae, known as a triad.
The shape of the T - tubule system is produced and maintained by a variety of proteins. The protein Amphyphysin - 2 is encoded by the gene BIN1 and is responsible for forming the structure of the T - tubule and ensuring that the appropriate proteins (in particular L - type calcium channels) are located within the T - tubule membrane. Junctophilin - 2 is encoded by the gene JPH2 and helps to form a junction between the T - tubule membrane and the sarcoplasmic reticulum, vital for excitation - contraction coupling. Titin capping protein or Telethonin is encoded by the gene TCAP and helps with T - tubule development and is potentially responsible for the increasing number of T - tubules seen as muscles grow.
T - tubules are an important link in the chain from electrical excitation of a cell to its subsequent contraction (excitation - contraction coupling). When contraction of a muscle is needed, stimulation from a nerve or an adjacent muscle cell causes a characteristic flow of charged particles across the cell membrane known as an action potential. At rest there are fewer positively charged particles on the inner side of the membrane compared to the outer side, and the membrane is described as being polarised. During an action potential, positively charged particles (predominantly sodium and calcium ions) flow across the membrane from the outside to the inside. This reverses the normal imbalance of charged particles and is referred to as depolarisation. One region of membrane depolarises adjacent regions, and the resulting wave of depolarisation then spreads along the cell membrane. The polarisation of the membrane is restored as potassium ions flow back across the membrane from the inside to the outside of the cell.
In cardiac muscle cells, as the action potential passes down the T - tubules it activates L - type calcium channels in the T - tubular membrane. Activation of the L - type calcium channel allows calcium to pass into the cell. T - tubules contain a higher concentration of L - type calcium channels than the rest of the sarcolemma and therefore the majority of the calcium that enters the cell occurs via T - tubules. This calcium binds to and activates a receptor, known as a ryanodine receptor, located on the cell 's own internal calcium store, the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Activation of the ryanodine receptor causes calcium to be released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing the muscle cell to contract. In skeletal muscle cells, however, the L - type calcium channel is directly attached to the ryanodine receptor on the sarcoplasmic reticulum allowing activation of the ryanodine receptor directly without the need for an influx of calcium.
The importance of T - tubules is not solely due to their concentration of L - type calcium channels, but lies also within their ability to synchronise calcium release within the cell. The rapid spread of the action potential along the T - tubule network activates all of the L - type calcium channels near - simultaneously. As T - tubules bring the sarcolemma very close to the sarcoplasmic reticulum at all regions throughout the cell, calcium can then released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum across the whole cell at the same time. This synchronisation of calcium release allows muscle cells to contract more forcefully. In cells lacking T - tubules such as smooth muscle cells, diseased cardiomyocytes, or muscle cells in which T - tubules have been artificially removed, the calcium that enters at the sarcolemma has to diffuse gradually throughout the cell, activating the ryanodine receptors much more slowly as a wave of calcium leading to less forceful contraction.
As the T - tubules are the primary location for excitation - contraction coupling, the ion channels and proteins involved in this process are concentrated here - there are 3 times as many L - type calcium channels located within the T - tubule membrane compared to the rest of the sarcolemma. Furthermore, beta adrenoceptors are also highly concentrated in the T - tubular membrane, and their stimulation increases calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
As the space within the lumen of the T - tubule is continuous with the space that surrounds the cell (the extracellular space), ion concentrations between the two are very similar. However, due to the importance of the ions within the T - tubules (particularly calcium in cardiac muscle), it is very important that these concentrations remain relatively constant. As the T - tubules are very thin, they essentially trap the ions. This is important as, regardless of the ion concentrations elsewhere in the cell, T - tubules still have enough calcium ions to permit muscle contraction. Therefore, even if the concentration of calcium outside the cell falls (hypocalcaemia), the concentration of calcium within the T - tubule remains relatively constant, allowing cardiac contraction to continue.
As well as T - tubules being a site for calcium entry into the cell, they are also a site for calcium removal. This is important as it means that calcium levels within the cell can be tightly controlled in a small area (i.e. between the T - tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum, known as local control). Proteins such as the sodium - calcium exchanger, and the sarcolemmal ATPase are located mainly in the T - tubule membrane. The sodium - calcium exchanger passively removes one calcium ion from the cell in exchange for three sodium ions. As a passive process it can therefore allow calcium to flow into or out of the cell depending on the combination of the relative concentrations of these ions and the voltage across the cell membrane (the electrochemical gradient). The calcium ATPase removes calcium from the cell actively, using energy derived from adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
In order to study T - tubule function, T - tubules can be artificially uncoupled from the surface membrane using a technique known as detubulation. Chemicals such as glycerol or formamide (for skeletal and cardiac muscle respectively) can be added to the extracellular solution that surrounds the cells. These osmotically active agents can not cross the cell membrane, and their addition to the extracellular solution causes the cells to shrink. When these agents are withdrawn, the cells rapidly expand and return to their normal size. The rapid expansion causes T - tubules to detach from the surface membrane.
The idea of a cellular structure that later became known as a T - tubule was first proposed in 1881. The very brief time lag between stimulating a striated muscle cell and its subsequent contraction was too short to have been caused by a signalling chemical travelling the distance between the sarcolemma and the sarcoplasmic reticulum. It was therefore suggested that pouches of membrane reaching into the cell might explain the very rapid onset of contraction that had been observed. It took until 1897 before the first T - tubules were seen, using light microscopy to study cardiac muscle injected with India ink. Imaging technology advanced, and with the advent of transmission electron microscopy the structure of T - tubules became more apparent leading to the description of the longitudinal component of the T - tubule network in 1971. In the 1990s and 2000s confocal microscopy enabled three - dimensional reconstruction of the T - tubule network and quantification of T - tubule size and distribution, and the important relationships between T - tubules and calcium release began to be unravelled with the discovery of calcium sparks. While early work focussed on ventricular cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle, in 2009 an extensive T - tubule network in atrial cardiac muscle cells was observed. Ongoing research focusses on the regulation of T - tubule structure and how T - tubules are affected by and contribute to cardiovascular diseases.
The structure of T - tubules can be altered by disease, which in the heart may contribute to weakness of the heart muscle or abnormal heart rhythms. The alterations seen in disease range from a complete loss of T - tubules to more subtle changes in their orientation or branching patterns. T - tubules may be lost or disrupted following a myocardial infarction, and are also disrupted in the ventricles of patients with heart failure, contributing to reduced force of contraction and potentially decreasing the chances of recovery. Heart failure can also cause the near - complete loss of T - tubules from atrial cardiomyocytes, reducing atrial contractility and potentially contributing to atrial fibrillation.
Structural changes in T - tubules can lead to the L - type calcium channels moving away from the ryanodine receptors. This can increase the time taken for calcium levels within the cell to rise leading to weaker contractions and arrhythmias. However, disordered T - tubule structure may not be permanent, as some suggest that T - tubule remodelling might be reversed through the use of interval training.
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gandhi the story of my experiment with truth | The story of my experiments with truth - wikipedia
The Story of My Experiments with Truth is the autobiography of Mohandas K. Gandhi, covering his life from early childhood through to 1921. It was written in weekly instalments and published in his journal Navjivan from 1925 to 1929. Its English translation also appeared in installments in his other journal Young India. It was initiated at the insistence of Swami Anand and other close co-workers of Gandhi, who encouraged him to explain the background of his public campaigns. In 1999, the book was designated as one of the "100 Best Spiritual Books of the 20th Century '' by a committee of global spiritual and religious authorities.
This section is written by Mahadev Desai who translated the book from Gujarati to English in 1940. In this preface Desai notes that the book was originally published in two volumes, the first in 1927 and second in 1929. He also mentions that the original was priced at ₹ 1 (1.6 ¢ US) and had a run of five editions by the time of the writing of his preface. 50,000 copies had been sold in Gujarati but since the English edition was expensive it prevented Indians from purchasing it. Desai notes the need to bring out a cheaper English version. He also mentions that the translation has been revised by an English scholar who did not want his name to be published. Chapters XXIX - XLIII of Part V were translated by Desai 's friend and colleague Pyarelal.
The introduction is written by Gandhi himself mentioning how he has resumed writing his autobiography at the insistence of Jeramdas, a fellow prisoner in Yerwada Central Jail with him. He mulls over the question a friend asked him about writing an autobiography, deeming it a Western practice, something "nobody does in the east ''. Gandhi himself agrees that his thoughts might change later in life but the purpose of his story is just to narrate his experiments with truth in life. He also says that through this book he wishes to narrate his spiritual and moral experiments rather than political.
The first part narrates incidents of Gandhi 's childhood, his experiments with eating meat, smoking, drinking, stealing and subsequent atonement. There are two texts that had a lasting influence on Gandhi, both of which he read in childhood. He records the profound impact of the play Harishchandra and says, "I read it with intense interest... It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number. '' Another text he mentions reading that deeply affected him was Shravana Pitrabhakti Nataka, a play about Shravana 's devotion to his parents. Gandhi got married at the age of 13. In his words, "It is my painful duty to have to record here my marriage at the age of thirteen... I can see no moral argument in support of such a preposterously early marriage. '' Another important event documented in this part is the demise of Gandhi 's father Karamchand Gandhi. Gandhi wrote the book to deal with his experiment for truth. His disdain for physical training at school, particularly gymnastics has also been written about in this part.
After a long history of antagonism, the British and the Dutch shared power in South Africa, with Britain ruling the regions of Natal and Cape Colony, while the Dutch settlers known as the Boers taking charge in the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, two independent republics. The white settler and the independent Boer states continued to engage in volatile interactions with the British so a threat of violent eruptions always loomed large. In order to placate both the Boer and other white settlers, the British adopted a number of racist policies, and while the Indians, most of them working on sugar and coffee plantations, did not suffer as much as the black population, they clearly experienced a treatment as second - class citizens. The initial story of Gandhi 's travails in South Africa and of his systematic struggle against oppression is well known. Gandhi repeatedly experienced the sting of humiliation during his long African sojourn. The incident at Maritzburg, where Gandhi was thrown off the train has become justly famous. When Gandhi, as a matter of principle, refused to leave the first class compartment, he was thrown off the train. Later, Gandhi also had difficulty being admitted to hotels, and saw that his fellow - Indians, who were mostly manual laborers, experienced even more unjust treatment.
Very soon after his arrival, Gandhi 's initial bafflement and indignation at racist policies turned into a growing sense of outrage and propelled him into assuming a position as a public figure at the assembly of Transvaal Indians, where he delivered his first speech urging Indians not to accept inequality but instead to unite, work hard, learn English and observe clean living habits. Although Gandhi 's legal work soon start to keep him busy, he found time to read some of Tolstoy 's work, which greatly influenced his understanding of peace and justice and eventually inspired him to write to Tolstoy, setting the beginning of a prolific correspondence. Both Tolstoy and Gandhi shared a philosophy of non-violence and Tolstoy 's harsh critique of human society resonated with Gandhi 's outrage at racism in South Africa.
Both Tolstoy and Gandhi considered themselves followers of the Sermon on the Mount from the New Testament, in which Jesus Christ expressed the idea of complete self - denial for the sake of his fellow men. Gandhi also continued to seek moral guidance in the Bhagavad - Gita, which inspired him to view his work not as self - denial at all, but as a higher form of self - fulfillment. Adopting a philosophy of selflessness even as a public man, Gandhi refused to accept any payment for his work on behalf of the Indian population, preferring to support himself with his law practice alone.
But Gandhi 's personal quest to define his own philosophy with respect to religion did not rely solely on sacred texts. At the time, he also engaged in active correspondence with a highly educated and spiritual Jain from Bombay, his friend Raychandra, who was deeply religious, yet well versed in a number of topics, from Hinduism to Christianity. The more Gandhi communicated with Raychandra, the more deeply he began to appreciate Hinduism as a non violent faith and its related scriptures. Yet, such deep appreciation also gave birth to a desire to seek inner purity and illumination, without solely relying on external sources, or on the dogma within every faith. Thus, although Gandhi sought God within his own tradition, he espoused the idea that other faiths remained worthy of study and contained their own truths.
Not surprisingly, even after his work assignment concluded, Gandhi soon found a reason to remain in South Africa. This pivotal reason involved the "Indian Franchise Bill '', with which the Natal legislature intended to deprive Indians of the right to vote. No opposition existed against this bill, except among some of Gandhi 's friends who asked him to stay in South Africa and work with them against this new injustice against Indians, who white South Africans disparagingly called "coolies. '' He found that racist attitudes had become deeply entrenched, especially in the Dutch - ruled regions, where they lived in the worst urban slums and could not own property or manage agricultural land. Even in Natal, where Indians had more influence, they were not allowed to go out after 9 p.m. without a pass, while in Cape Colony, another British territory, they were not allowed to walk on the sidewalk. The new bill which prohibited Indians from voting in Natal only codified existing injustice in writing.
Although a last - minute petition drive failed to the Indian Franchise Bill from passing, Gandhi remained active and organized a much larger petition, which he sent to the Secretary of State for the Colonies in London, and distributed to the press in South Africa, Britain and India. The petition raised awareness of the plight of Indians and generating discussions in all three continents to the point where both the Times of London and the Times of India published editorials in support of the Indian right to the vote. Gandhi also formed a new political organization called the Natal Indian Congress (a clear reference to the Indian National Congress), which held regular meetings and soon, after some struggles with financing, started its own library and debating society. They also issued two major pamphlets, An Appeal to Every Briton in South Africa, and The Indian Franchise -- An Appeal, which offered a logical argument against racial discrimination. He was also thrown of the Train when he did n't agree to move from his first class seat which he paid for.
Though, at first, Gandhi intended to remain in South Africa for a month, or a year at most, he ended up working in South Africa for about twenty years. After his initial assignment was over, he succeeded in growing his own practice to about twenty Indian merchants who contracted manage their affairs. This work allowed him to both earn a living while also finding time to devote to his mission as a public figure. During his struggle against inequality and racial discrimination in South Africa, Gandhi became known among Indians all around the world as "Mahatma, '' or "Great Soul. ''
In South Africa with the Family, the Boer War, Bombay and South Africa Again.
In 1896, Gandhi made a brief return to India and returned with his wife and children. In India, he published another pamphlet, known as the Green Pamphlet, on the plight of Indians in South Africa. For the first time, Gandhi realized that Indians had come to admire his work greatly and experienced a taste of his own popularity among the people, when he visited Madras, an Indian province, where most manual laborers had originated. Although his fellow - Indians greeted him in large crowds with applause and adulation, he sailed back to South Africa with his family in December 1896.
Gandhi had become very well known in South Africa as well, to the point where a crowd of rioters awaited him at Port Natal, determined that he should not be allowed to enter. Many of them also mistakenly believed that all the dark - skinned passenger on the ship that took Gandhi to Natal were poor Indian immigrants he had decided to bring along with him, when, in reality, these passengers were mostly returning Indian residents of Natal. Fortunately, Gandhi was able to establish a friendly relationship with the British in South Africa so the Natal port 's police superintendent and his wife escorted him to safety. After this incident, local white residents began to actually regard him with greater respect.
As Gandhi resumed his work at the Natal Indian Congress, his loyalty to the British guided him to assist them in the Boer War, which started three years later. Because Gandhi remained a passionate pacifist, he wanted to participate in the Boer War without actually engaging in violence so he organized and led an Indian Medical Corps which served the British in a number of battles, including the important battle of Spion Kop in January 1900.
At the time, Gandhi believed that the British Empire shared the values of liberty and equality that he himself embraced and that, by virtue of defending those principles, the British constitution deserved the loyalty of all British subjects, including Indians. He viewed racist policy in South Africa as a temporary characteristic aberration, rather than a permanent tendency. With respect to the British in India, at this point in his life, Gandhi considered their rule beneficial and benevolent.
The armed conflict between the British and Dutch raged on for over three years of often brutal fighting with the British conquering the Transvaal and Orange Free state territories. Gandhi expected that the British victory would establish justice in South Africa and present him with an opportunity to return to India. He wanted to attend the 1901 meeting of the Indian National Congress, whose mission was to provide a social and political forum for the Indian upper class. Founded in 1885 by the British, the Congress had no real political power and expressed pro-British positions. Gandhi wanted to attend its meeting nevertheless, as he was hoping to pass a resolution in support of the Indian population in South Africa. Before he left for Bombay, Gandhi promised the Natal Indian Congress that he would return to support their efforts, should they need his help.
As Gandhi attended the 1901 Indian National Congress, his hopes came true. G.K. Gokhale, one of the most prominent Indian politicians of the time, supported the resolution for the rights of Indians in South Africa and the resolution passed. Through Gokhale, in whose house Gandhi stayed for a month, Gandhi met many political connections that would serve him later in life.
However, his promise to always aid his friends in Natal soon prompted him to return to South Africa, when he received an urgent telegram informing him that the British and Boers had now formed a peaceful relationship and often acted together to the detriment of the Indian population, as Britain was planning to live local white individuals in power in South Africa, much like it had done in Canada and Australia.
Gandhi travelled back to South Africa immediately and met with Joseph Chamberlain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, and presented him with a paper on the injustice against the Indian population but Chamberlain indicated that the Indians would have to obey the new rulers of South Africa, now called the "Afrikaners, '' which included both Dutch and British local settlers.
Gandhi began to organize a fast response to this new South African political configuration. Instead of working in Natal, he now established a camp in the newly conquered Transvaal region and began helping Indians who had escaped from the war in that region, and now had to purchase overly expensive re-entry passes. He also represented poor Indians whose dwellings in a shantytown the authorities had dispossessed. Gandhi also started a new magazine, Indian Opinion, that advocated for political liberty and equal rights in South Africa. The magazine, which initially included several young women from Europe, expanded its staff around the country, increasing both Gandhi 's popularity and the public support for his ideas.
At round same time, Gandhi read John Ruskin 's book Unto This Last, which maintained that the life of manual labor was superior to all other ways of living. As he adopted this belief, Gandhi chose to abandon Western dress and habits, and he moved his family and staff to a Transvaal farm called the Phoenix, where he even gave renounced the use of an oil - powered engine and printed Indian Opinion by hand - wheel, and performed agriculture labor using old, manual farming equipment. He began to conceive of his public work as a mission to restore old Indian virtue and civilization, rather than fall prey to modern Western influence, which included electricity and technology.
Between 1901 and 1906, he also changed another aspect of his personal life by achieving Brahmacharya, or the voluntary abstention from sexual relations. He made this choice as part of his philosophy of selflessness and self - restraint. Finally, he also formulated his own philosophy of political protest, called Satyagraha, which literally meant "truth - force '' in Sanskrit. In practice, this practice meant protesting injustice steadfastly, but in a non-violent manner.
He put this theory into practice on September 8, 1906, when, at a large gathering of the Indian community in Transvaal, he asked the whole community to take a vow of disobedience to the law, as the Transvaal government had started an effort to register every Indian child over the age of eight, which would make them an official part of the South African population.
Setting a personal example, Gandhi became the first Indian to appear before a magistrate for his refusal to register, and he was sentenced to two months in prison. He actually asked for a heavier sentence, a request, consistent with his philosophy of self - denial. After his release, Gandhi continued his campaign and thousands of Indians burned their registration cards, crossing the Transvaal - Natal border without passes. Many went to jail, including Gandhi, who went to jail again in 1908.
Gandhi did not waiver when a South African General by the name of Jan Christiaan Smuts promised to eliminate the registration law, but broke his word. Gandhi went all the way to London in 1909 and gathered enough support among the British to convince Smuts to eliminate the law in 1913. Yet, the Transvaal Prime Minister continued to regard Indians as second - class citizens while the Cape Colony government passed another discriminatory law making all non-Christian marriages illegal, which meant that all Indian children would be considered born out of wedlock. In addition, the government in Natal continued to impose crippling poll tax for entering Natal only upon Indians.
In response to these strikingly unjust rules, Gandhi organized a large - scale satyagraha, which involved women crossing the Natal - Transvaal border illegally. When they were arrested, five thousand Indian coal miners also went on strike and Gandhi himself led them across the Natalese border, where they expected arrest.
Although Smuts and Gandhi did not agree on many points, they had respect for each other. In 1913, Smuts relented due to the sheer number of Indians involved in protest and negotiated a settlement which provided for the legality of Indian marriages and abolished the poll tax. Further, the import of indentured laborers from India was to be phased out by 1920. In July 1914, Gandhi sailed for Britain, now admired as "Mahatma, '' and known throughout the world for the success of satyagraha.
Part IV. Mahatma in the Midst of World Turmoil
Gandhi was in England when World War I started and he immediately began organizing a medical corps similar to the force he had led in the Boer War, but he also faced health problems that caused him to return to India, where he met the applauding crowds with enthusiasm once again. Indians continued to refer to him as "Mahatma '' or "Great Soul, '' an appellation reserved only for the holiest men of Hinduism. While Gandhi accepted the love and admiration of the crowds, he also insisted that all souls were equal and did not accept the implication of religious sacredness that his new name carried.
In order to retreat into a life of humility and restraint, as his personal principles mandated, he decided to withdraw from public life for a while spending his first year in India focusing on his personal quest for purity and healing. He also lived in a communal space with untouchables, a choice which many of his financial supporters resented, because they believed that the very presence of untouchables defiled higher - caste Indians. Gandhi even considered moving to a district in Ahmedabad inhabited entirely by the untouchables when a generous Muslim merchant donated enough money to keep up his current living space for another year. By that time, Gandhi 's communal life with the untouchables had become more acceptable.
Although Gandhi had withdrawn from public life, he briefly met with the British Governor of Bombay (and future Viceroy of India), Lord Willington, whom Gandhi promised to consult before he launched any political campaigns. Gandhi also felt the impact of another event, the passing of G.K. Gokhale, who had become his supporter and political mentor. He stayed away from the political trend of Indian nationalism, which many of the members of the Indian National Congress embraced. Instead, he stayed busy resettling his family and the inhabitants of the Phoenix Settlement in South Africa, as well as the Tolstoy Settlement he had founded near Johannesburg. For this purpose, on May 25, 1915, he created a new settlement, which came to be known as the Satyagraha ashram (from the Indian word for "communal '') near the town of Ahmedabad and close to his place of birth in the western Indian province of Gujarati. All the inhabitants of the ashram, which included one family of untouchables, swore to poverty and chastity.
After a while, Gandhi became influenced by the idea of Indian independence from the British, but he dreaded the possibility that a westernized Indian elite would replace the British government. He developed a strong conviction that Indian independence should take place as a large - scale sociopolitical reform, which would remove the old plagues of extreme poverty and caste restrictions. In fact, he believed that Indians could not become worthy of self - government unless they all shared a concern for the poor.
As Gandhi resumed his public life in India in 1916, he delivered a speech at the opening of the new Hindu University in the city of Benares, where he discussed his understanding of independence and reform. He also provided specific examples of the abhorrent living conditions of the lower classes that he had observed during his travels around India and focused specifically on sanitation.
Although the Indians of the higher - castes did not readily embrace the ideas in the speech, Gandhi had now returned to public life and he felt ready to convert these ideas to actions. Facing the possibility of arrest, just like he always did in South Africa, Gandhi first spoke for the rights of impoverished indigo - cultivators in the Champaran district. His efforts eventually led to the appointment of a government commission to investigate abuses by the indigo planters.
He also interefered whenever he saw violence. When a group of Ahmedabad mill workers went on strike and became violent, he resolved to fast until they returned to peace. Though some political commentators condemned Gandhi 's behavior as a form of blackmail, the fast only lasted three days before the workers and their employers negotiated an agreement. Through this situation, Gandhi discovered the fast as one of his most effective weapons in late years and set a precedent for later action as part of satyagraha.
As the First World War continued, Gandhi also became involved in recruiting men for the British Army, an involvement which his followers had a difficult time accepting, after listening to his passionate speeches about resisting injustice in a non-violent manner. Not surprisingly, at this point, although Gandhi still remained loyal to Britain and enamored with the ideals of the British constitution, his desire to support and independent home rule became stronger. As time passed, Gandhi became exhausted from his long journey around the country and fell ill with dysentery. He refused conventional treatment and chose to practice his own healing methods, relying on diet and spending a long time bedridden, while in recovery in his ashram.
In the meantime, India 's unrest was overwhelming at the prospect of the British destroying the world 's only Muslim power, the Ottoman Empire. While the British alleged that they fought to protect the rights of small states and independent peoples from tyranny, in India, an increasing number of people found this alleged commitment less than genuine.
After the end of the war, the British government decided to follow the recommendations of the Rowlatt Committee, which advocated the retention of various wartime restrictions in India, including curfews and measures to suppress free speech. Gandhi was still sick when these events took place and, although he could not protest actively, he felt his loyalty to the British Empire weaken significantly.
Later, when the Rowlatt Act actually became law, Gandhi proposed that the entire country observe a day of prayer, fasting, and abstention from physical labor as a peaceful protest against the injustice of the oppressive law. Gandhi 's plea generated an overwhelming response as millions of Indians did not go to work on April 6, 1919.
As the entire country stood still, the British arrested Gandhi, which provoked angry crowds to fill the streets of India 's cities and, much to Gandhi 's dislike, violence erupted everywhere. Gandhi could not tolerate violence so he called off his campaign and asked that everyone return to their homes. He acted in accordance with his firm belief that if satyagraha could not be carried out without violence, it should not take place at all.
Unfortunately, not all protesters shared Gandhi 's conviction as ardently. In Amritsar, capital of the region known as the Punjab, where the alarmed British authorities had deported the local Hindu and Muslim members of the Congress, the street mobs became very violent and the British summoned Brigadier - General Reginald E.H. Dyer to restore order. Dyer prohibited all public meetings and instituted public whippings for Indians who approached British policemen. Despite these new regulations, a crowd of over ten thousand protesters gathered in the center of Armitsar, and Dyer responded with bringing his troops there and opening fire without warning. Tightly packed together, the protesters had nowhere to run from the fire, even when they threw themselves down on the ground the fire was then directed on the ground, ceasing only when the British troops no longer had ammunition. Hundreds died and many more were wounded.
This unfortunate occurrence became known as the Amritsar Massacre, it outraged the British public almost as much as Indian society. The authorities in London eventually condemned Dyer 's conduct, forcing him to resign in disgrace. The effect the massacre had on Indian society became even more profound as more moderate politicians, like Gandhi, now began to wholeheartedly support the idea of Indian independence, creating an intense climate of mutual hostility. After the massacre, Gandhi eventually obtained permission to travel to Amritsar and conduct his own investigation. He produced a report months later and his work on the report motivated him to contact a number of Indian politicians, who advocated for the idea of independence from British rule.
After Amritsar, Gandhi attended the Muslim Conference being held in Delhi, where Indian Muslims discussed their fears that the British would suppress Caliphs of Turkey. Muslims considered the Caliphs as heirs of Mohammed and spiritual heads of Islam. While the British considered such suppression a necessary effort to restore order after World War I, the Muslim populations viewed it as slap in the face. Gandhi urged them not to accept the actions of the British. He proposed a boycott of British goods, and stated that if the British continued to insist on the elimination of the Caliphate, Indian Muslims should take even more drastic measures of non-cooperation, involving areas such as government employment and taxes.
During the months that followed, Gandhi continued to advocate for peace and caution, however, since Britain and Turkey were still negotiating their peace terms. Unlike more nationalistic politicians, he also supported the Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms for India, as they laid the foundation for constitutional self - government. Eventually, other politicians who thought the reforms did not go far enough had to agree with Gandhi simply because his popularity and influence had become so great that the Congress could accomplish little without him.
As the British remained determined to put an end to the Muslim Caliphate, they enforced the Rowlatt Act resolutely. Even Gandhi became less tolerant towards British practices and in April 1920, he urged all Indians, Muslim and Hindu, to begin a "non-cooperation '' protest against the British rule by giving up their Western clothing and British jobs. As a personal example, on August 1, he returned the medals for valor that he had received in the Boer War in South Africa. He also became the first president of the Home Rule League, a largely symbolic position which confirmed his position as an advocate for Indian Independence.
In September 1920, Gandhi also passed an official constitution for the Congress, which created a system of two national committees and numerous local units, all working to mobilize a spirit of non-cooperation across India. Gandhi and other volunteers traveled around India further establishing this new grass roots organization, which achieved great success. The new British Viceory in India, Lord Reading, did not dare to interfere because of Gandhi 's immense popularity.
By 1922, Gandhi decided that the initiative of non-cooperation had to transform into open civil disobedience, but in March 1922, Lord Reading finally ordered Gandhi 's arrest after a crowd in the city of Chauri Chaura attacked and killed the local representatives of British authority. Gandhi, who had never encouraged or sanctioned this type of conduct, condemned the actions of the violent crowds and retreated into a period of fasting and prayer as a response to this violent outburst. However, the British saw the event as a trigger point and a reason for his arrest.
The British authorities placed Gandhi on trial for sedition and sentenced him to six years in prison, marking the first time that he faced prosecution in India. Because of Gandhi 's fame, the judge, C.N. Broomfield, hesitated to impose a harsher punishment. He considered Gandhi clearly guilty as charged, despite the fact that Gandhi admitted his guilt and even went as far as requesting the heaviest possible sentence. Such willingness to accept imprisonment conformed to his philosophy of satyagraha, so Gandhi felt that his time in prison only furthered his commitment and goals. The authorities allowed him to use a spinning wheel and receive reading materials while in prison, so he felt content. He also wrote most of his autobiography while serving his sentence.
However, in Gandhi 's absence, Indians returned to their British jobs and their every day routines. Even worse, the unity between Muslims and Hindu, which Gandhi advocated so passionately, had already begun to fall apart to the point where the threat of violence loomed large over many communities with mixed population. The fight for Indian independence could not continue while Indians themselves suffered disunity and conflict, all the more difficult to overcome in a huge country like India, which had always suffered religious divisions, as well as divisions by language, and even caste.
Gandhi realized that Independence and that the British had lost the will and power to sustain their empire, but he always acknowledged that Indians could not rely simply on the weakening of Britain in order to achieve independence. He believed that Indians had to become morally ready for Independence. He planned to contribute to such readiness through his speeches and writing, advocating humility, restraint, good sanitation, as well as an end to child marriages. He acknowledged that he had changed his position on many issues, like child marriages, and that he had not always managed to discern the most moral course of action in his life.
After his imprisonment ended, he resumed his personal quest for purification and truth. He ends his autobiography by admitting that he continues to experience and fight with "the dormant passion '' that lie within his own soul. He felt ready to continue the long and difficult path of taming those passions and putting himself last among his fellow human beings, the only way to achieve salvation, according to him.
"That is why the worlds ' praise fails to move me; indeed it very often stings me. To conquer the subtle passions is far harder than the physical conquest of the world by the force of arms, ''
Gandhi writes in his "Farewell '' to the readers, a suitable conclusion for an autobiography that he never intended to be an autobiography, but a tale of experiments with life, and with truth.
After its initiation, The Story of My Experiments with Truth remained in the making for 4 -- 5 years (including the time while Gandhi was imprisoned at Yerwada Central Jail near Pune, Maharashtra), and then it first appeared as a series in the weekly Gujarati magazine Navjivan during 1925 -- 28, which was published from Ahmedabad, India.
Gandhi wrote in his autobiography that the three most important modern influences in his life were Leo Tolstoy 's The Kingdom of God Is Within You, John Ruskin 's Unto This Last and the poet Shrimad Rajchandra (Raychandbhai).
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list of visa free countries for canadian citizens | Visa requirements for Canadian citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Canadian citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Canada. As of 1 January 2017, Canadian citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 171 countries and territories, ranking the Canadian passport 6th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Greek, Portuguese and Swiss passports) according to the Henley visa restrictions index.
Starting 1 January 2018, reciprocity fee will not be required for entry.
Visa requirements for Canadian citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries, and restricted zones:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival. Note that some nations have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the passport validity cut - off period for each other 's citizens.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Some countries (for example, Canada) routinely deny entry to foreigners who have a criminal record.
Several countries including Argentina, Cambodia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, South Korea demand that all passengers be fingerprinted on arrival.
Canada has diplomatic and consular offices (including honorary consuls) in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.
According to the statistics these are the numbers of Canadian visitors to various countries per annum in 2015 (unless otherwise noted):
1400 300 1000 100
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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effects of price floor on demand and supply | Price floor - wikipedia
A price floor is a government - or group - imposed price control or limit on how low a price can be charged for a product. A price floor must be higher than the equilibrium price in order to be effective.
A price floor can be set below the free - market equilibrium price. In the first graph at right, the dashed green line represents a price floor set below the free - market price. In this case, the floor has no practical effect. The government has mandated a minimum price, but the market already bears a higher price.
By contrast, in the second graph, the dashed green line represents a price floor set above the free - market price. In this case, the price floor has a measurable impact on the market. It ensures prices stay high so that product can continue to be made.
A price floor set above the market equilibrium price has several side - effects. Consumers find they must now pay a higher price for the same product. As a result, they reduce their purchases or drop out of the market entirely. Meanwhile, suppliers find they are guaranteed a new, higher price than they were charging before. As a result, they increase production.
Taken together, these effects mean there is now an excess supply (known as a "surplus '') of the product in the market to maintain the price floor over the long term. The equilibrium price is determined when the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied.
Further, the effect of mandating a higher price transfers some of the consumer surplus to producer surplus, while creating a deadweight loss as the price moves upward from the equilibrium price.
An example of a price floor is minimum wage laws; in this case, employees are the suppliers of labor and the company is the consumer. When the minimum wage is set above the equilibrium market price for unskilled labor, unemployment is created (more people are looking for jobs than there are jobs available). A minimum wage above the equilibrium wage would induce employers to hire fewer workers as well as allow more people to enter the labor market; the result is a surplus in the amount of labor available. However, workers would have higher wages. The equilibrium wage for workers would be dependent upon their skill sets along with market conditions.
This model makes several assumptions which may not hold true in reality, however. It assumes the costs of providing labor (food, commuting costs) are below the minimum wage, and that employment status and wages are not sticky. Unemployment in the United States, however, only includes participants of the labor force, which excludes 37.2 percent of Americans as of June 2016.
Previously, price floors in agriculture have been common in Europe. Today the EU uses a "softer '' method: if the price falls below an intervention price, the EU buys enough of the product that the decrease in supply raises the price to the intervention price level. As a result of this, "butter mountains '' in EU warehouses have sometimes resulted.
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can you buy alcohol in ct on sunday | List of alcohol laws of the United states - wikipedia
The following table of alcohol laws of the United States provides an overview of alcohol - related laws by first level jurisdictions throughout the US. This list is not intended to provide a breakdown of such laws by local jurisdiction within a state; see that state 's alcohol laws page for more detailed information.
On July 17, 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. The bill would force all states to raise their drinking age from 18, 19, or 20 to 21. States that did not choose to raise their drinking age to 21 would risk losing 8 % (10 % before 2012) of federal highway funding as a penalty. As of July 1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had a minimum purchase age of 21, with some grandfather clauses, and with the exception of Louisiana 's complicated legal situation that was not resolved until July 2, 1996. Prior to 1988, the minimum purchase age varied by jurisdiction. After Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in July 1984, states not in compliance had a portion of their federal highway budget withheld. South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply, in mid-1988. However, most states continue to allow those under 21 to drink in certain circumstances. Examples are some states like Tennessee and Washington, which allow those under 21 to drink for religious purposes. States including Oregon and New York allow those under 21 to drink on private non-alcohol selling premises.
Unlike on the mainland, the U.S. territories of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a minimum purchase and drinking age of 18. The minimum purchase age is 21 in the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and US Minor Outlying Islands.
U.S. military reservations are exempt under federal law from state, county, and locally enacted alcohol beverage laws. Class Six stores in a base exchange facility, officers ' or NCO clubs, as well as other military commissaries which are located on a military reservation, may sell and serve alcohol beverages at any time during their prescribed hours of operation to authorized patrons. While the installation commander is free to set the drinking age, with some exceptions, most stateside military bases have a drinking age that mirrors the local community.
Individual states remain free to restrict or prohibit the manufacture of beer, mead, hard cider, wine, and other fermented alcoholic beverages at home. Homebrewing beer became legal in all 50 states in 2013 as the governor of Mississippi signed a bill legalizing homebrewing on March 19, 2013 and as the governor of Alabama signed a bill legalizing homebrewing of beer and wine which came into effect on May 9, 2013. The Mississippi bill went into effect July 1, 2013. Most states allow brewing 100 US gallons (380 L) of beer per adult per year and up to a maximum of 200 US gallons (760 L) per household annually when there are two or more adults residing in the household. Because alcohol is taxed by the federal government via excise taxes, homebrewers are prohibited from selling any beer they brew. This similarly applies in most Western countries. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter signed into law a bill allowing home beers, which was at the time not permitted without paying the excise taxes as a holdover from the prohibition of alcoholic beverages (repealed in 1933). This change also exempted home brewers from posting a "penal bond '' (which is currently $1000.00).
Production of distilled alcohols is regulated at the National level under USC Title 26 subtitle E Ch51. Numerous requirements must be met to do so and production carries an excise tax. Owning or operating a distillation apparatus without filing the proper paperwork and paying the taxes carries federal criminal penalties.
In land or property that is being rented or owned by the federal government, state, territory, and federal district alcohol laws do not apply. Instead, only laws made by the federal government apply.
Distilled spirits (liquor) are purchasable in either state - owned retail liquor stores, known as ABC Stores, or privately - owned retail liquor stores. Privately - owned retail liquor stores tend to be open on Sundays, public (federal & state) holidays, and later hours than state - owned liquor stores.
3.2 beer: 5 a.m. - midnight
Beer can be purchased at grocery / convenience stores. Spirits and wine can be purchased only at liquor stores.
No off - premises alcohol sales on Thanksgiving, Christmas Day, and New Year 's Day.
Open container law applies only to drivers, not passengers.
8 a.m. -- 3 a.m. Fri. -- Sat.
9 a.m. -- midnight daily * Grocery Stores: 9 a.m. - 12 a.m. daily
No singles sold, but stores in some areas may apply for an exemption. Certain wards may be made dry by the decision of the local ANC, but as of 2005 none are The day before a federal or district holiday, on - premises retailers may sell / serve from 8 a.m. - 3 a.m. On New Yer 's Eve, on - premises retailers may sell / serve until 4 a.m. on January 1.
No retail sale of wine in containers larger than 1 gallon. FS 564.05 Supermarkets and other licensed business establishments may sell beer, low - alcohol liquors, and wine. Liquor must be sold in dedicated liquor stores which may be in a separate part of a grocery or a drug store. As of July 1, 2015, the restriction on 64 ounce refillable containers, or growlers, has been lifted and beer may be sold in quantities of 64 ounces, in addition to the previously legal 32 and 128 ounce sizes.
Sunday off - premises sales from 12: 30 p.m. to 11: 30 p.m. allowed only by local referendum. In general, one may not be drunk in public. Though there is no state law prohibiting drinking in public, most municipal corporations and political subdivisions limit the possession of open containers of alcohol to private property, with notable exceptions being Savannah and Roswell. A charge of public drunkenness is only warranted when one is drunk in public and his acts are either loud or disorderly.
Minors, including babies, are not allowed to enter a liquor store.
Indiana has a photo identification requirement for all off - premises transactions to anyone who is or reasonably appears to be less than forty (40) years of age. (See IC 7.1 - 5 - 10 - 23).
Public intoxication is a class B misdemeanor. (IC 7.1 - 5 - 1 - 3)
Alcohol sale restriction and wet / dry (both by drink and package) allowed by both county and city local option. Approximately 39 counties in the state (mostly eastern and southern counties) are dry, all alcohol sale and possession prohibited; 22 "moist '' counties (with "wet '' cities allowing package liquor sales in counties otherwise dry); 29 counties that are otherwise dry but have communities with local option that allow sales of liquor by the drink or under special exemptions allowing sales at wineries. Majority of wet counties are around major metropolitan areas (Louisville, Lexington, Covington, Bowling Green). Note: Beginning in 2013 Liquor by the drink and beer by the drink are available on Sundays in Louisville, KY beginning at 10: 00 am. Bowling Green, KY recently began allowing Sunday sales in December 2013 for carry - out beer, wine, and liquor. Prohibition on liquor sales on Election Day was repealed effective June 24, 2013. Kentucky was one of only two states to still have Election Day prohibition, the other being South Carolina.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.
Alcohol can be consumed in the streets of New Orleans as long as it is in an "unbreakable container '' (no glass) and may be taken from club to club if both establishments allow it. Otherwise, it depends on the locality. Most parishes other than Orleans Parish do not permit alcoholic beverages served on premises to be carried out. However, many parishes and municipalities permit consumption of packaged beverages (for example, cans of beer) on the street. Glass bottles on the streets are prohibited. One can enter most bars at 18 years of age but must be 21 years old to purchase or consume alcohol. Also, it is legal in the state of Louisiana for a legal parent or guardian to purchase alcoholic beverages for their underaged child.
Drive - thru frozen daiquiri stands are legal and common, but the police can arrest you for driving with an open container, if you have put the straw in the cup
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension
noon - 2 a.m. (Sunday) * sales may begin at 7 a.m. with special license extension,
11: 00 a.m. - 6: 00 p.m. (Sun)
No sales on Christmas Day. No state open container laws. Complimentary alcohol all day and night in coastal casinos. In most counties, alcohol can not be sold on Sundays. There are many dry counties in which it is illegal to possess alcoholic beverages, though some cities within dry counties have voted in beer sales.
(Mon -- Sat) 6: 00am -- 1: 30am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00pm
Special licenses in Kansas City and St. Louis:
(Daily) 6: 00am -- 3: 00am
(Sunday) 9: 00am -- 12: 00am
Sales permitted until 3: 00 am in those Kansas City and St. Louis bars grandfathered into the ability to double as liquor stores.
Missouri law recognizes two types of alcoholic beverage: liquor, which is any beverage containing more than 0.5 % alcohol except "non-intoxicating beer ''; and "non-intoxicating beer, '' which is beer containing between 0.5 % and 3.2 % alcohol. Liquor laws apply to all liquor, and special laws apply to "non-intoxicating beer. ''
State law also renders public intoxication legal, and explicitly prohibits any local or state law from making it a public offence. Alcohol purchase is only controlled in Panaca.
Though there is not a ban on selling alcoholic beverages at grocery stores, New Jersey limits each chain to two licenses, so with only a few exceptions, most supermarkets / convenience stores / gas stations / pharmacies do not sell alcoholic beverages. In addition, liquor sales are only permitted in a separate department or attached sister store. Bars are allowed to off - sale packaged goods. With the exception of Jersey City and Newark, all municipalities MUST allow off - sales of beer and wine at any time on - sales are permitted. However, since alcoholic beverages are generally only found in package stores, this right is rarely exercised. Alcoholic beverages by the drink as well as off - sales of beer and wine are permitted 24 hours a day in Atlantic City and Brigantine.
7 a.m. -- 11 p.m., except Sundays, for restaurants with beer and wine license.
Some counties may retain the Sunday morning beer prohibition which the state discontinued as of July 30, 2006. Twelve dry towns, mostly in western region of state. Many counties have more restrictive off - premises hours, such as bans on beer sales overnight (hours vary). All liquor stores must be owned by a single owner, who owns that store and lives within a certain distance of it -- effectively banning chain liquor stores from the state. New York City law does not allow open containers of alcohol in public.
Beverages with less than 0.5 % ABV can be sold / given to people under the age of eighteen if given by a physician in the regular line of his practice or given for established religious purposes, or the underage person is accompanied by a parent, spouse who is not an underage person, or legal guardian.
9 a.m. -- 10 p.m. (Mon -- Sat) Noon -- 5 p.m. (Sun)
Grocery Stores:
7 a.m. - 10 p.m. (Mon -
Sat)
9 a.m. - 10pm
(Sun)
Beer (but not wine) to go can be purchased at beverage outlets in any quantity. Prior to 2015 beverage centers could only sell 24 pack cases or greater. The rules were relaxed to permit sales of beer in any quantity in 2016.
* Beer and wine to go can be purchased in restaurants and grocery stores (at a separate point of purchase for alcohol and prepared foods sales in grocery stores) (six and 12 packs / 192oz max. purchase (two six packs)) with Liquor Control Board -- issued licenses
Sunday sales were prohibited in LCB stores until 2003 (selected locations) and beverage outlets (owner 's option) until 2005.
Special permits may be purchased for certain organizations for fundraisers once per calendar year, and are valid for a total of six days under the same rules governing restaurants. Grain alcohol prohibited as a beverage.
Liquor: Mon - Sat: 8 am - Midnight, Sun: Prohibited
Nonalcoholic beer is not regulated by state law.
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the birthday party by harold pinter short summary | The Birthday Party (play) - wikipedia
The Birthday Party (1957) is the second full - length play by Harold Pinter. It is one of his best - known and most frequently performed plays.
In the setting of a rundown seaside boarding - house, a little birthday party is turned into a nightmare on the unexpected arrival of two sinister strangers. The play has been classified as a comedy of menace, characterised by Pinteresque elements such as ambiguous identity, confusions of time and place, and dark political symbolism.
(The Birthday Party (Grove Press ed.) 8)
The Birthday Party is about Stanley Webber, an erstwhile piano player who lives in a rundown boarding house, run by Meg and Petey Boles, in an English seaside town, "probably on the south coast, not too far from London ''. Two sinister strangers, Goldberg and McCann, who arrive supposedly on his birthday and who appear to have come looking for him, turn Stanley 's apparently innocuous birthday party organised by Meg into a nightmare.
The Birthday Party has been described (some say "pigeonholed '') by Irving Wardle and later critics as a "comedy of menace '' and by Martin Esslin as an example of the Theatre of the Absurd. It includes such features as the fluidity and ambiguity of time, place, and identity and the disintegration of language.
Produced by Michael Codron and David Hall, the play had its world première at the Arts Theatre, in Cambridge, England, on 28 April 1958, where the play was "warmly received '' on its pre-London tour, in Oxford and Wolverhampton, where it also met with a "positive reception '' as "the most enthralling experience the Grand Theatre has given us in many months. ''
On 19 May 1958, the production moved to the Lyric Opera House, Hammersmith (now the Lyric Hammersmith), for its début in London, where it was a commercial and mostly critical failure, instigating "bewildered hysteria '' and closing after only eight performances. The weekend after it had already closed, Harold Hobson 's belated rave review, "The Screw Turns Again '', appeared in The Sunday Times, rescuing its critical reputation and enabling it to become one of the classics of the modern stage.
The Lyric celebrated the play 's 50th anniversary with a revival, directed by artistic director David Farr, and related events from 8 to 24 May 2008, including a gala performance and reception hosted by Harold Pinter on 19 May 2008, exactly fifty years after its London première.
Like many of Pinter 's other plays, very little of the expository information in The Birthday Party is verifiable; it is often contradicted by the characters and otherwise ambiguous, and, therefore, one can not take what they say at face value. For example, in Act One, Stanley describes his career, saying "I 've played the piano all over the world, '' reduces that immediately to "All over the country, '' and then, after a "pause '', undercuts both hyperbolic self - representations in stating "I once gave a concert. ''
While the title and the dialogue refer to Meg 's planning a party to celebrate Stanley 's birthday: "It 's your birthday, Stan. I was going to keep it a secret until tonight, '' even that "fact '' is dubious, as Stanley denies that it is his birthday: "This is n't my birthday, Meg '' (48), telling Goldberg and McCann: "Anyway, this is n't my birthday. (...) No, it 's not until next month, '' adding, in response to McCann 's saying "Not according to the lady (Meg), '' "Her? She 's crazy. Round the bend '' (53).
Although Meg claims that her house is a "boarding house, '' her husband, Petey, who was confronted by "two men '' who "wanted to know if we could put them up for a couple of nights '' is surprised that Meg already has "got a room ready '' (23), and, Stanley (being the only supposed boarder), also responds to what appears to him to be the sudden appearance of Goldberg and McCann as prospective guests on a supposed "short holiday, '' flat out denies that it is a boarding house: "This is a ridiculous house to pick on. (...) Because it 's not a boarding house. It never was '' (53).
McCann claims to have no knowledge of Stanley or Maidenhead when Stanley asks him "Ever been anywhere near Maidenhead? (...) There 's a Fuller 's teashop. I used to have my tea there. (...) and a Boots Library. I seem to connect you with the High Street. (...) A charming town, do n't you think? (...) A quiet, thriving community. I was born and brought up there. I lived well away from the main road '' (51); yet Goldberg later names both businesses that Stanley used to frequent connecting Goldberg and possibly also McCann to Maidenhead: "A little Austin, tea in Fuller 's a library book from Boots, and I 'm satisfied '' (70). Of course, both Stanley and Goldberg could just be inventing these apparent "reminiscences '' as they both appear to have invented other details about their lives earlier, and here Goldberg could conveniently be lifting details from Stanley 's earlier own mention of them, which he has heard; as Merritt observes, the factual basis for such apparent correspondences in the dialogue uttered by Pinter 's characters remains ambiguous and subject to multiple interpretations.
Shifting identities (cf. "the theme of identity '') makes the past ambiguous: Goldberg is called "Nat, '' but in his stories of the past he says that he was called "Simey '' (73) and also "Benny '' (92), and he refers to McCann as both "Dermot '' (in talking to Petey (87)) and "Seamus '' (in talking to McCann (93)). Given such contradictions, these characters ' actual names and thus identities remain unclear. According to John Russell Brown (94), "Falsehoods are important for Pinter 's dialogue, not least when they can be detected only by careful reference from one scene to another... Some of the more blatant lies are so casually delivered that the audience is encouraged to look for more than is going to be disclosed. This is a part of Pinter 's two - pronged tactic of awakening the audience 's desire for verification and repeatedly disappointing this desire '' (Brown 94).
Although Stanley, just before the lights go out during the birthday party, "begins to strangle Meg (78), she has no memory of that the next morning, quite possibly because she had drunk too much and got tipsy (71 -- 74); oblivious to the fact that Goldberg and McCann have removed Stanley from the house -- Petey keeps that information from her when she inquires, "Is he still in bed? '' by answering "Yes, he 's... still asleep '' -- -- she ends the play focusing on herself and romanticising her role in the party, "I was the belle of the ball. (...) I know I was '' (102). For some, Petey 's final reply only makes dramatic sense if the framework of the whole play is in Meg 's mind, that her invention of Stan was ' necessary ' in an empty marriage, and what the audience has seen was a tragic ' possible ' - no doubt to be followed by another narrative when her Stan ' comes down '.
While on tour with L. du Garde 's A Horse! A Horse!, Pinter found himself in Eastbourne without a place to stay. He met a stranger in a pub who said "I can take you to some digs but I would n't recommend them exactly, '' and then led Pinter to the house where he stayed. Pinter told his official biographer, Michael Billington,
I went to these digs and found, in short, a very big woman who was the landlady and a little man, the landlord. There was no one else there, apart from a solitary lodger, and the digs were really quite filthy... I slept in the attic with this man I 'd met in the pub... we shared the attic and there was a sofa over my bed... propped up so I was looking at this sofa from which hairs and dust fell continuously. And I said to the man, "What are you doing here? '' And he said, "Oh well I used to be... I 'm a pianist. I used to play in the concert - party here and I gave that up. ''... The woman was really quite a voracious character, always tousled his head and tickled him and goosed him and would n't leave him alone at all. And when I asked him why he stayed, he said, "There 's nowhere else to go. ''
According to Billington, "The lonely lodger, the ravenous landlady, the quiescent husband: these figures, eventually to become Stanley, Meg, and Petey, sound like figures in a Donald McGill seaside postcard '' (Harold Pinter 76).
Goldberg and McCann "represent not only the West 's most autocratic religions, but its two most persecuted races '' (Billington, Harold Pinter 80). Goldberg goes by many names, sometimes Nat, but when talking about his past he mentions that he was called by the names "Simey '' and also "Benny ''. He seems to idolise his Uncle Barney as he mentions him many times during the play. Goldberg is portrayed as a Jewish man which is reinforced by his typically Jewish name and his appropriate use of Yiddish words. McCann is an unfrocked priest and has two names. Petey refers to him as Dermot but Goldberg calls him Seamus. The sarcasm in the following exchange evokes some distance in their relationship:
McCANN: You 've always been a true Christian
GOLDBERG: In a way.
Stanley Webber -- "a palpably Jewish name, incidentally -- is a man who shores up his precarious sense of self through fantasy, bluff, violence and his own manipulative form of power - play. His treatment of Meg initially is rough, playful, teasing,... but once she makes the fateful, mood - changing revelation -- ' I 've got to get things ready for the two gentlemen ' -- he 's as dangerous as a cornered animal '' (Billington, Harold Pinter 78). asaerutheen
Lulu is a woman in her twenties "whom Stanley tries vainly to rape '' (Billington, Harold Pinter 112) during the titular birthday party at the end of Act II.
According to Pinter 's official biographer, Michael Billington, in Harold Pinter, echoing Pinter 's own retrospective view of it, The Birthday Party is "a deeply political play about the individual 's imperative need for resistance, '' yet, according to Billington, though he "doubts whether this was conscious on Pinter 's part, '' it is also "a private, obsessive work about time past; about some vanished world, either real or idealised, into which all but one of the characters readily escapes... From the very outset, the defining quality of a Pinter play is not so much fear and menace -- -- though they are undoubtedly present -- -- as a yearning for some lost Eden as a refuge from the uncertain, miasmic present '' (82).
As quoted by Arnold P. Hinchliffe, Polish critic Grzegorz Sinko points out that in The Birthday Party "we see the destruction of the victim from the victim 's own point of view:
"One feels like saying that the two executioners, Goldberg and McCann, stand for all the principles of the state and social conformism. Goldberg refers to his ' job ' in a typically Kafka-esque official language which deprives the crimes of all sense and reality. ''... (Of Stanley 's removal, Sinko adds:) "Maybe Stanley will meet his death there or maybe he will only receive a conformist brainwashing after which he is promised... many other gifts of civilization... ''
In an interview with Mel Gussow, which is about the 1988 Classic Stage Company production of The Birthday Party, later paired with Mountain Language in a 1989 CSC production, in both of which David Strathairn played Stanley, Gussow asked Pinter: "The Birthday Party has the same story as One for the Road? ''
In the original interview first published in The New York Times, on 30 December 1988, Gussow quotes Pinter as stating: "The character of the old man, Petey, says one of the most important lines I 've ever written. As Stanley is taken away, Petey says, ' Stan, do n't let them tell you what to do. ' I 've lived that line all my damn life. Never more than now. ''
In responding to Gussow 's question, Pinter refers to all three plays when he replies: "It 's the destruction of an individual, the independent voice of an individual. I believe that is precisely what the United States is doing to Nicaragua. It 's a horrifying act. If you see child abuse, you recognize it and you 're horrified. If you do it yourself, you apparently do n't know what you 're doing. ''
As Bob Bows observes in his review of the 2008 Germinal Stage Denver production, whereas at first "' The Birthday Party ' appears to be a straightforward story of a former working pianist now holed up in a decrepit boarding house, '' in this play as in his other plays, "behind the surface symbolism... in the silence between the characters and their words, Pinter opens the door to another world, cogent and familiar: the part we hide from ourselves ''; ultimately, "Whether we take Goldberg and McCann to be the devil and his agent or simply their earthly emissaries, the puppeteers of the church - state apparatus, or some variation thereof, Pinter 's metaphor of a bizarre party bookended by birth and death is a compelling take on this blink - of - an - eye we call life. ''
Lyric Hammersmith, London, UK, directed by Peter Wood, May 1958.
(The Birthday Party (Grove Press ed.) 8)
Booth Theatre, New York, US, directed by Alan Schneider, October 1967.
(The Birthday Party (Grove Press ed.) 8) The production was profiled in the William Goldman book The Season: A Candid Look at Broadway.
March 1972 City College of San Francisco production Stanley: Lance Greenfield
Classic Stage Company (CSC Repertory Theatre), New York City, directed by Carey Perloff; first production from 12 April to 22 May 1988; second production in a double bill with the American première of Mountain Language, from 31 October to 23 December 1989).
American Repertory Theater (ART), Loeb Drama Center, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, directed by Joanne Akalaitis, from 6 to 27 March 2004.
Northwest High School Theatre Department, Vernon Solomon Performing Arts Center, Northwest High School, Ft. Worth, Texas, directed by Alva Hascall, fall 2005
Germinal Stage Denver, Denver, Colorado, directed by Ed Baierlein, from 4 April to 4 May 2008.
Lyric Hammersmith, London, UK, directed by David Farr, from 8 May to 24 May 2008 (Lee); "Cast include (d): Sian Brooke; Sheila Hancock; Lloyd Hutchinson; Justin Salinger; Alan Williams; Nicholas Woodeson '' (revival website).
Melbourne Theatre Company presents ' The Birthday Party ' at the Fairfax Theatre, The Arts Centre
L'Anniversaire (The Birthday Party), adapted and directed by Michel Fagadau, at the Théâtre des Champs Elysées, Paris, through 26 March 2009.
Cast:
Kansas City Actors Theatre (KCAT) presents The Birthday Party, directed by Bruce Roach, in repertory with three Pinter one - acts, The Collection, The Lover and Night, 16 Aug. -- 11 September 2011.
Teatro La Plaza, Lima, Perú, presents "La fiesta de cumpleaños '' (The Birthday Party) directed by Chela de Ferrari
Steppenwolf Theatre Company, Chicago directed by Austin Pendleton 24 January -- 28 April 2013. The cast included Ian Barford as "Stanley '', John Mahoney as "Petey '', and Moira Harris as "Meg ''.
The play is being revived by Ian Rickson at the Harold Pinter Theatre starring Toby Jones (who reprised the role of Stanley after his 2016 performance for BBC Radio 3), Stephen Mangan, Zoe Wanamaker and Pearl Mackie, 9 January - 14 April 2018.
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when did tv become popular in the us | Television in the United States - wikipedia
Television is one of the major mass media of the United States. As of 2011, household ownership of television sets in the country is 96.7 %, with approximately 114,200,000 American households owning at least one television set as of August 2013. The majority of households have more than one set. The peak ownership percentage of households with at least one television set occurred during the 1996 -- 97 season, with 98.4 % ownership.
As a whole, the television networks that broadcast in the United States are the largest and most distributed in the world, and programs produced specifically for U.S. - based networks are the most widely syndicated internationally. Due to a recent surge in the number and popularity of critically acclaimed television series during the 2000s and the 2010s to date, many critics have said that American television is currently undergoing a modern golden age.
In the United States, television is available via broadcast (also known as "over-the - air '' or OTA) -- the earliest method of receiving television programming, which merely requires an antenna and an equipped internal or external tuner capable of picking up channels that transmit on the two principal broadcast bands, very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF), in order to receive the signal -- and four conventional types of multichannel subscription television: cable, unencrypted satellite ("free - to - air ''), direct - broadcast satellite television and IPTV (internet protocol television). There are also competing video services on the World Wide Web, which have become an increasingly popular mode of television viewing since the late 2000s, particularly with younger audiences as an alternative or a supplement to the aforementioned traditional forms of viewing television content.
Individual broadcast television stations in the U.S. transmit on either VHF channels 2 through 13 or UHF channels 14 through 51. During the era of analog television, broadcast stations transmitted on a single universal channel; however due to the technical complexities of the present digital television standard, most stations now transmit physically on an RF channel (or "minor channel '') that is mapped to a virtual channel (or "major channel ''), which -- with some exceptions -- typically differs from their physical allocation and corresponds to the station 's former analog channel. The UHF band originally spanned from channels 14 to 83, though the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has twice rescinded the high - end portions of the band from television broadcasting use for emergency and other telecommunications purposes in 1983 (when channels 70 to 83 were removed) and 2009 (when channels 52 to 69 were removed by mandate at the completion of the transition from analog to digital television).
As in other countries, television stations require a license to broadcast legally (which any prospective broadcaster can apply for through the FCC) and must comply with certain requirements (such as those involving programming of public affairs and educational interest, and regulations prohibiting the airing of indecent content) in order to retain it; the FCC 's Board of Commissioners maintains oversight of the renewal of existing station licenses approaching their expiration, with individuals or groups who wish to oppose the granting of a renewal to a licensee based on any disagreement over rule compliance or any other issues inclined to contest it for consideration of revocation. Free - to - air and subscription television networks, however, are not required to file for a license to operate.
Over-the - air and free - to - air television do not necessitate any monthly payments, while cable, direct broadcast satellite (DBS) and IPTV services require monthly payments that vary depending on the number of channels that a subscriber chooses to pay for in a particular package. Channels are usually sold in groups (known as "tiers ''), rather than singularly (or on an a la carte basis). Most conventional subscription television services offer a limited basic (or "lifeline '') tier, a minimum base package that includes only broadcast stations within the television market where the service is located, and public, educational, and government access (PEG) cable channels; in many smaller markets, this tier may offer stations from adjacent markets that act as default network affiliates for areas not served by a local affiliate of one or more of the major broadcast networks; however, since the digital television transition in the late 2000s, these have been replaced in some cases by digital subchannels that have agreed to provide a particular network 's programming within the local market.
Elevated programming tiers commonly start with an expanded basic package, offering a selection of subscription channels intended for wide distribution (primarily those that launched between the 1970s and the 1990s); since the upspring of digital cable and satellite television during the mid - and late 1990s, additional channels with more limited distribution are offered as add - ons to the basic packages through separate tiers, which are commonly organized based on the programming format of the channels sold in the tier. A la carte subscription services in the U.S. are primarily limited to pay television (more commonly known as "premium '') channels that are offered as add - ons to any programming package that a customer of a multichannel video programming distributor (also known as a cable or satellite "system '' or "provider '') can subscribe to for an additional monthly fee.
The United States has a "decentralized '', market - oriented television system, particularly in regard to broadcast television. The nation has a national public television service known as the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Local media markets have their own television stations, which may either be affiliated with or owned and operated by a television network. Stations may sign affiliation agreements with one of the national networks for the local rights to carry their programming; these contracts can last anywhere from one to ten years, although such agreements often last on average between four and six years. Except in very small markets with a limited number of commercial stations (generally, fewer than five), affiliation agreements are usually exclusive: for example, if a station is affiliated with NBC, it consequently would not air programs from ABC, CBS or other networks.
Arrangements in which television stations carried more than one network on its main signal (which often resulted in some network programs being not being cleared to air locally by the station, thereby limiting their national carriage and resulting in viewers having to rely on an out - of - market station receivable in their area that airs the locally pre-empted show through an affiliation with that same network in order to see it) were more common between the 1940s and the 1960s, although some arrangements continued as late as 2010. Today, programming from networks other than that with which the station maintains a primary affiliation are usually carried over digital subchannels, which increasingly since the mid-2000s, have allowed one of the major broadcast networks to expand their national coverage to markets where they would have previously either had to settle for a secondary affiliation with a full - power television station (which maintain transmitting power as high as 1,000 kilowatts and outputs a signal extending as far as 80 miles (130 km) from the transmitter site), or an exclusive or primary affiliation with a low - power station with more limited signal coverage (which maintain a reduced transmitting power not exceeding 100 kilowatts, with a more limited signal radius covering an area 30 -- 60 miles (48 -- 97 km) from the transmitter).
However unlike in other countries, to ensure local presences in television broadcasting, federal law restricts the amount of network programming that local stations can run. Until the 1970s and 1980s, local stations supplemented network programming with a sizeable amount of their own locally produced shows, which encompassed a broad content spectrum that included variety, talk, music and sports programming. Today however, many (though not all) stations produce only local news programs, and in some cases, public affairs programs (most commonly, in the form of news and / or political analysis shows); the remainder of their schedules are filled with syndicated programs, or material produced independently and sold to individual stations in each local market.
The method of most commercial stations -- those that rely, at least partly, on advertising for revenue -- acquiring programs through distributors of syndicated content to fill time not allotted to network and / or local programming differs from other countries worldwide where networks handle the responsibility of programming first - run and syndicated programs, whereas their partner stations are only responsible for the programming of local content. The international programming model is used in the U.S. by some smaller networks and multicast services, which are more cost - effective for their affiliate stations since they require little to no acquired or locally produced programming to fill airtime at the local level.
The federal government has imposed limits on how many stations an individual owner can hold. The earliest limits restricted owners from holding more than five stations across the entire country, and no more than one in any given market. As of 2017, these limits have been relaxed substantially; an ownership group is now legally allowed to own up to two signals in a market (which can amount to many more actual channels through digital transmission), can use a shell company to circumvent certain ownership restrictions by way of a local marketing agreement, and can cover up to 78 % of the United States with their signals. All four of the major television networks directly own and operate a number of stations, concentrating mostly on the largest metropolitan areas. The largest ownership group in terms of coverage of the U.S. is Ion Television, whose stations cover 65 % of the nation and are entirely centrally operated, with no local programming. Two other ownership groups in particular, Sinclair Broadcast Group and Nexstar Media Group, do not produce network programming (Sinclair has produced original programs for its stations but not on a full - time network) but each own over 150 stations, each covering over three - eighths of the country. In terms of number of stations, Nexstar and Sinclair run first and second, with third place held by Gray Television, whose 131 stations cover mostly smaller metropolitan areas reaching only 10 % of the population.
The five major U.S. broadcast television networks are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), CBS (formerly known as the Columbia Broadcasting System), the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), the Fox Broadcasting Company (Fox) and the CW Television Network. The first and elder three (which are colloquially known as the "Big Three '') began as radio networks: NBC and CBS respectively began operations in 1924 and 1927, while ABC was spun off from NBC to Edward J. Noble in 1943 as the Blue Network during FCC inquiries over NBC 's dominant share of the American radio market, although the ABC television network would not reach viewership and distribution parity with NBC and CBS until the late 1960s. Fox is a relative newcomer that began operation on October 6, 1986 with a limited schedule of late - night programming (the network would launch a weekend - only prime time lineup seven months later on April 9, 1987), although it is built upon the remnants of the former DuMont Television Network, an earlier attempt at a "fourth network '' that operated from January 1948 to August 1956; the Paramount Television Network also flourished simultaneously, if less successfully.
The CW was created in September 2006 when CBS Corporation and Time Warner decided to merge the respective programming assets of the United Paramount Network (UPN) and The WB, both of which launched in January 1995, with The CW also drawing from the latter 's broadcast and cable assets and scheduling model (The WB 's online assets remained separate, although its former web domain -- which was revamped as a streaming service -- was shut down in December 2013 and replaced with a promotional website for Warner Bros. Television programs). All in all, the U.S. broadcasting landscape dramatically evolved towards a conglomeratization of players -- an effect also called concentration of media ownership, which describes the narrowing of competition in modern television broadcasting.
Weekday schedules on ABC, CBS, and NBC affiliates tend to be similar, with programming choices sorted by dayparts (Fox does not air network programming outside of prime time other than sports programming that airs on weekends and, on fairly rare occasions, weekdays). Typically, these begin with an early - morning national newscast (such as ABC 's America This Morning), followed by a local morning news program; these are typically followed by a network morning program (such as NBC 's Today), which usually mixes news, weather, lifestyle segments, interviews and music performances.
Network daytime schedules consist of talk shows and soap operas, although one network -- CBS -- still carries game shows (a handful of other game shows otherwise air in syndication); local newscasts may air at midday timeslots. Syndicated talk shows are shown in the late afternoon, followed by additional local newscasts in the early evening time period. ABC, CBS and NBC offer network news programs each evening, generally airing at 6: 30 or 7: 00 p.m. in the Eastern Time Zone (5: 30 or 6: 00 p.m. in other areas), however these are sometimes subject to pre-emption on weekends and select holidays due to sports programming that overlaps into the time slot, either because the event is scheduled to occur later in the day or extends beyond the set time block (due to regulations imposed by sports leagues, particularly as a result of the infamous 1968 "Heidi Bowl '' telecast in which NBC interrupted a National Football League (NFL) game between the New York Jets and the Oakland Raiders to air a made - for - television film in its scheduled time slot due to a failure in communications between network executives, most televised sporting events are required to be broadcast until their completion).
Local newscasts or syndicated programs fill the "prime access '' hour or half - hour (7: 00 to 8: 00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones, 6: 30 to 7: 00 p.m. in other areas), and lead into the networks ' prime time schedules, which are the day 's most - watched three hours of television. The traditional prime time schedule runs from 8: 00 to 11: 00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones and 7: 00 to 10: 00 p.m. elsewhere, although this varies depending on the network and the day: the four major networks program an additional hour (running from 7: 00 to 8: 00 p.m. Eastern and Pacific, 6: 00 to 7: 00 p.m. elsewhere) on Sunday evenings (many Spanish language broadcast networks also program this additional hour to begin their prime time lineups on all seven nights of the week); Fox, The CW and MyNetworkTV, in contrast, do not carry any programming during the 10: 00 / 9: 00 p.m. hour and leave that hour for their affiliates to provide programming of their own.
Typically, family - oriented comedy programs led in the early part of prime time, although in recent years, reality television programs (such as Dancing with the Stars and American Idol), and more adult - oriented scripted programs -- both comedies and dramas -- have largely replaced them. Later in the evening, drama series of various types (such as NCIS, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit and Grey 's Anatomy) air. Sunday is the most - watched night on American television, with many of TV 's most popular shows airing on that night. Viewership tends to then decline throughout the week, culminating in the lowest ratings being registered on Friday and Saturday night; most broadcast networks abandoned the programming of first - run scripted fare on Saturdays by 2004, in favor of sports, newsmagazines and burn - offs and reruns of other prime time series; however first - run scripted programming continues to air on Fridays, being mixed in with newsmagazines and / or reality series, depending on the network. Networks, however, pay special attention to Thursday night, which is the last night for advertisers of weekend purchases -- such as cars, movie tickets and home video rentals -- to reach large television audiences. Throughout the 1990s, NBC called its own Thursday night lineup "Must See TV '', and during that decade, some of the country 's most watched television shows aired on Thursday nights (several of which aired on NBC), before the re-emergence of Sunday as the top night of prime time programming in the 2000s.
At the end of prime time, another local news program is broadcast, usually followed by late - night interview shows (such as The Late Show with Stephen Colbert or The Tonight Show). Rather than sign off in the early pre-dawn hours of the morning (as was standard practice until the early 1970s in larger markets and until the mid-1980s in smaller ones), television stations now fill the time with syndicated programming, reruns of prime time television shows or late local newscasts (the latter becoming less common since the early 2000s), or 30 - minute advertisements, known as infomercials, and in the case of CBS and ABC, overnight network news programs. On some stations, syndicated programming may fill timeslots where local newscasts would traditionally air, either due to the station not programming news in certain time periods or because it does not operate a news department; similarly, local news programs in the late evening hours may air during the final hour of prime time (10: 00 p.m. in the Eastern and Pacific Time Zones and 9: 00 p.m. in all others) and / or during the morning commute period (7: 00 to 9: 00 or 10: 00 a.m. in all time zones), usually on stations affiliated with networks other than those classified as part of the "Big Three '' (ABC, NBC and CBS) and those without a network affiliation.
Saturday mornings usually feature network programming aimed at children (traditionally these mainly consisted of animated cartoons and in some cases, live - action scripted series and even game shows targeted at the demographic, although live - action lifestyle, science and wildlife programs have become the norm for the timeslot since 2009, while animated series have primarily been relegated to non-commercial and non-English language networks), while Sunday mornings include a form of public affairs program known as the Sunday morning talk shows (which maintain a "week - in - review '' format that focuses primarily on political and socioeconomic issues, and if a particular program 's format is more fluid in regards to topical content, other news stories of major interest). Both of these help fulfill stations ' legal obligations, respectively to provide educational children 's programs (through a law passed in 1990 known as the Children 's Television Act, which requires stations to carry a minimum of three hours of programs featuring content benefiting the educational needs of youth each week) and public service programming. Sports and infomercials (and on some stations, syndicated feature film packages) can be found on weekend afternoons, followed again by the same type of prime - time shows aired during the week.
From 1956 to 1986, the majority of English - language television stations that were not affiliated with the Big Three networks, nor affiliates of National Educational Television nor, arguably, (from 1956 - 1961) the smaller NTA Film Network were "independent, '' airing only syndicated and some locally produced programming to fill their daily schedules. Many independent stations still exist in the U.S., usually historically broadcasting on the UHF band; however the number of them had drastically decreased (especially within individual markets) after 1995 due to the formation of newer broadcast networks that were created to compete against the four established competitors. Syndicated shows, often reruns of television series currently in or out of production and movies released as recently as three years prior to their initial syndication broadcast, take up much of their schedules.
However, in October 1986, the Fox Broadcasting Company was launched as a challenge to the Big Three networks, with six independent stations that News Corporation (which acquired the 20th Century Fox the year before) had acquired from Metromedia as its cornerstone charter outlets, along with many independents owned by other companies. Thanks largely to the success of shows like The Simpsons, Beverly Hills, 90210 and The X-Files, as well as the network 's acquisition of rights to show games from the National Football League 's National Football Conference arm in December 1993, Fox has established itself as a major player in broadcast television. However, Fox differs from the three older networks in that it does not air daily morning and nightly news programs or have network - run daytime or weeknight late night schedules (though late night shows do air on Saturday nights, and beforehand, the network made previous failed attempts at late night programming on Monday through Friday evenings between 1986 and 1993). Its nightly prime - time schedule runs only two hours long on Monday through Saturdays and three hours on Sundays (something the network intentionally did to sidestep FCC regulations for television networks in effect at Fox 's launch), and some of its major market affiliates used to broadcast on UHF before the digital transition (several affiliates though broadcast on VHF pre-transition, primarily as a result of affiliation deals with former longtime Big Three affiliates owned by now - defunct station groups New World Communications and SF Broadcasting that it signed after acquiring the NFL rights).
Many of its affiliates in mid-size and small markets outsource news production to Big Three affiliates rather produce their own newscasts, and its flagship stations in New York City and Los Angeles do not include the network 's name within their callsigns (Fox 's owned - and - operated stations in New York City and Los Angeles instead use the respective callsigns WNYW and KTTV; the WFOX - TV and KFOX - TV calls are respectively used by Fox affiliates in Jacksonville, Florida and El Paso, Texas). Fox 's only scheduled news program is Fox News Sunday, which it airs on Sunday mornings; special news coverage on the network comes from the staff of its sister cable network Fox News Channel (which launched in August 1996, around the same time as its affiliate video service Fox NewsEdge), though not every affiliate carries breaking news bulletins from Fox News outside of prime time presidential addresses, and national and international events of utmost urgency. Most of Fox 's affiliates now have local newscasts (only a small number of affiliates, mainly based in larger markets, carried news programming prior to the mid-1990s), often scheduled during the final hour of prime time -- an hour earlier than newscasts seen on major network stations -- at which time they compete with network dramas, rather than other local newscasts (although some news - producing Fox stations also carry newscasts in the traditional late news time period), and for one to three additional hours in the morning that overlap with morning news programs on ABC, NBC and CBS.
Three new networks launched in the 1990s: within six days of each other in January 1995, The WB (which was originally formed as a venture between Time Warner, Tribune Broadcasting -- which made the majority of its independent stations principal charter affiliates of the network -- and former Fox executive Jamie Kellner, who served as The WB 's original chief executive officer) and UPN (created as a programming partnership between Chris - Craft Industries / United Television and Paramount Television, which had been acquired the year prior by Viacom, which would gain full ownership of UPN five years after the network 's launch) were launched primarily to compete against Fox, targeting the same younger demographic (teenagers and young adults 12 to 34) that network had built its success upon during the first half of the decade. In August 1998, Paxson Communications (now Ion Media Networks) launched Pax TV to counterprogram the four larger networks as well as The WB and UPN, with a focus on family - oriented original and acquired programming; due to underperforming viewership in its initial format, Pax relaunched as i: Independent Television (focusing more on reruns and movies aimed at a broader audience) in July 2005 and then as Ion Television in September 2007.
On September 18, 2006, Time Warner and CBS Corporation shut down The WB and UPN to launch a "merger '' of those networks, The CW; meanwhile, two weeks earlier on September 5, News Corporation created MyNetworkTV, originally intended to replace UPN programming on Fox - owned stations that were affiliated with the latter network.
The CW broadcasts ten hours a week of programming in prime time, all airing only on Monday through Fridays (the network maintained a three - hour evening lineup on Sundays from 2006 to 2009, when that time was turned over to its affiliates), and five hours on Saturday mornings (its children 's program block may bleed into the afternoon hours on weekends on a few stations due to other locally scheduled programs). The CW is the only major network that operates a fully programmed alternate feed for smaller markets, The CW Plus (a successor to The WB 's group of cable - only affiliates, The WB 100 + Station Group, which launched in September 1998 to provide the network 's programming to markets where it would otherwise not be able to gain adequate over-the - air coverage), which, as a cost - effective method that reduces programming responsibilities on prospective affiliate stations, fills airtime not occupied by CW network programming with syndicated programs and infomercials; The CW Plus is distributed via digital subchannel and cable - only affiliates, making it also one of the only networks that has local affiliates that do not broadcast over-the - air.
MyNetworkTV originally started as a conventional network with a format primarily consisting of English language telenovelas; however, after experiencing continued low ratings for its prime time - exclusive schedule (even after several programming revamps that followed over the next three years after the initial format faltered), it converted into a "broadcast syndication service '' in September 2009, adopting a format made up of reruns of series originally aired on other networks for ten hours a week on Monday through Fridays. Ion broadcasts 24 hours a day, seven days a week (though only eighteen hours of its schedule each day consist of entertainment programming, with infomercials and religious programming making up the remainder of the schedule), making the Ion network the largest English - language commercial television network to be totally responsible for its affiliates ' programming. Ion differs from other commercial networks in that the majority of its stations are owned - and - operated by its parent company with very few affiliates, and it is distributed exclusively via cable and satellite in markets where the network does not have a local station; Ion was the last of the seven conventional English language commercial broadcast networks to expand into distribution via digital multicasting, having relied entirely on cable and satellite distribution in markets where it otherwise could not maintain a primary affiliation until 2014, when it began accepting subchannel - only affiliates through deals with Telemundo Station Group and Media General.
With the digital television transition, which was completed in two phases in February and June 2009, the use of digital multicasting has given breed to various networks created for distribution on these multiplexed feeds of new and existing stations. However, for the most part, very few of these networks have been able to gain a national reach on parity with many of the conventional commercial and non-commercial networks, in part due to the fact that many stations transmit high definition programming on their main feed in 1080i, which requires a bitrate less compartmentalized for allowing more than one multicast feed (which are generally transmitted in standard definition) without risking diminished picture quality; some alternately transmit their main feed in 720p, which favors multiplexing of more than two subchannels at a time (ATSC 3.0, which began development around the time of the 2009 transition with FCC consideration to replace the current ATSC 1.0 as the technological standard for digital television expected to occur in 2016, utilizes improved compression technology able to fit additional subchannels on a single programming stream as well as allowing for the transmission of high definition content in the 4K resolution format).
Retro Television Network was among the first networks to be produced specifically for the digital television market; Equity Broadcasting created the network in 2005, originally relying mostly on public domain series before expanding to a broader library of licensed reruns. RTN 's initial success was dented by its owner 's financial collapse and further difficulties pertaining to its successor, current owner Luken Communications.
The most popular and widely distributed network that uses digital subchannels as its primary form of distribution is MeTV, a classic television network originally launched by station owner Weigel Broadcasting in 2003 as a programming format on one of its flagship television stations in Chicago, WFBT - CA (now WWME - CD), and evolved into a national network in November 2010; Me - TV now has affiliations with primary channels in a number of markets (WJLP in the New York City market, KJWP in Philadelphia and Delaware, WBBZ - TV in Buffalo). Both MeTV and its most prominent rival, Tribune Broadcasting - owned Antenna TV, popularized the format for multicasting that relies on archived programming. This TV (also part - owned by Tribune and co-founded by Weigel with Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer) used a similar format, focusing on older as well as some relatively recent feature films; it helped to spawn similar movie - oriented broadcast networks such as Movies! (a joint venture between Weigel and Fox Television Stations, which relies primarily on films from the library of the latter 's sister film studio, 20th Century Fox) and GetTV (which mainly airs films from the library of owner Sony Pictures Entertainment).
Demographically focused networks were created during the 2010s; Bounce TV was launched in September 2011 by Martin Luther King III and Andrew Young, featuring a broader general entertainment format aimed at African American adults. Katz Broadcasting, owned by Bounce executive Jonathan Katz, launched two gender - focused networks with specific formats in August 2014 -- Grit (aimed at men with a lineup heavy on western and action films) and Escape (aimed at women and featuring mystery and true crime programs) -- and a genre - based network in April 2015, Laff (featuring a mix of comedic feature films and sitcoms). Luken Communications is the largest operator of subchannel networks by total number (which are largely carried on low - power outlets), which in addition to the Retro Television Network include among others country and rural themed Heartland, automotive - centered Rev'n, children 's network PBJ and a modern version of The Family Channel. Men 's network Tuff TV was formerly managed as a Luken network but is now independent.
Other subchannel - based networks include those that also rely on archived programming such as Buzzr (a network focusing of game shows sourced from the programming library of owner Fremantle Media) and Comet (launched by the Sinclair Broadcast Group and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer in October 2015, focusing on science fiction series and films sourced from the MGM library), and networks which do not completely if at all rely on archived scripted programming Ion Life (a network carried on Ion Television stations, which mainly airs lifestyle and home improvement programming), WeatherNation TV (an independently owned 24 - hour weather network which features subchannels as part of its multiplatform distribution model), TheCoolTV and The Country Network (which rely on music videos).
In smaller cities and rural areas, the major broadcast networks may also rely on digital subchannels to be seen in these areas, as the market may not be populous enough to support a financially independent station for each network. As such FCC regulations govern cable providers must provide basic TV at a reasonable cost (Since advent of Digital TV equipment cost is responsibility of consumer).
Several Spanish language broadcast (as well as cable) networks exist, which are the most common form of non-English television broadcasts. These networks are not as widely distributed over-the - air as their English counterparts, available mostly in markets with sizeable Latino and Hispanic populations; several of these over-the - air networks are alternatively fed directly to cable, satellite and IPTV providers in markets without either the availability or the demand for a locally based owned - and - operated or affiliate station.
The largest of these networks, Univision, launched in 1986 as a successor to the Spanish International Network (which debuted in September 1962, with Spanish language independent stations KMEX - TV in Los Angeles and KCOR - TV (now KWEX - DT) in San Antonio, Texas as its charter stations). It has risen to become the fifth highest - rated television network in the U.S. (behind NBC, CBS, ABC and Fox) and is the dominant Spanish language network in the U.S., with its ratings having risen to levels where it has beaten at least one of its English language competitors since the late 1990s. Although Univision originally featured programming content from a variety of distributors, the network now relies mainly on programs sourced from Mexico 's dominant broadcaster, Televisa (which has maintained partial ownership of Univision 's corporate parent on and off throughout its history) as well as domestically produced programming.
Its major competition is Telemundo (est. 1986), a sister network of NBC (which acquired Telemundo in 2001). It was considered an also - ran to Univision until the late 2000s, when parent company NBCUniversal began heavily investing in its news and entertainment programming. Unlike Univision, the majority of Telemundo 's programming is produced specifically for the network. In addition to carrying the traditional programming format for Spanish language broadcasters (which typically incorporates telenovelas, variety series, news, sports and films imported from Latin American countries), also includes dubbed versions of American feature film releases.
Other popular Spanish - language broadcast networks are Univision - owned UniMás, which was launched in January 2002 and is aimed at a younger Hispanic demographic; Azteca, the American version of Mexico 's Azteca networks, which debuted in July 2001; TeleXitos aimed at Hispanic and Latino Americans, the network airs a mix of dramatic television series from the 1970s to the 2000s and movies, with all programming consisting of shows dubbed into Spanish; and independent networks Estrella TV (which began as a programming format on Liberman Broadcasting 's Spanish language independent stations in the early 2000s and eventually launched nationally in September 2009, featuring a traditional lineup of Latino - focused programming largely produced by Liberman) and LATV (which originated in 2002 as a programming format on KJLA in Los Angeles before becoming a national network in September 2007, and focuses mostly on unscripted music, talk and variety programs). V - me (Spanish pronunciation: (ˈbeme), a pun on veme, "watch me '') is a Spanish broadcast television network formerly carried in association with public television stations created for the United States Hispanic market, which is currently pursuing a pay - TV model. V - me delivers drama, music, current affairs, food, lifestyle, nature and educational pre-school content to its viewers.
Currently, The Hispanic Information and Telecommunications Network, Inc. (HITN) is the largest Spanish - language broadcasting network in the United States. It delivers educational programming to over 42 million homes nationwide, and reaches over 40 % of US households. Its distribution network includes Comcast, DirecTV, Verizon FiOS, DISH Network, Cablevision, AT&T U-verse TV, Charter Communications, and a host of smaller distributors. Its stated mission is "to advance the educational, social, cultural, and economic circumstances of Hispanics. ''
French language programming is generally limited in scope, with some locally produced French and creole programming available in the Miami area (serving refugees from Haiti) and Louisiana, along with some locales along the heavily populated Eastern Seaboard. Francophone areas near the eastern portion of the Canada -- United States border generally receive television broadcasts presented in the language from French Canadian networks (such as Ici Radio - Canada Télé and TVA), which are widely available over-the - air and on cable in those areas.
Many large cities also have television stations that broadcast programming in various Asian languages (such as KTSF in San Francisco and KYAZ in Houston), especially after the digital television transition, which has allowed some smaller stations in areas with heavy populations of Asian immigrants and American natives of Asian origin fluent in one of that continent 's indigenous languages to carry such programming either as primary channel or subchannel affiliations.
There have also been a few local stations that have broadcast programming in American Sign Language, accompanied by English closed captioning. Prior to the development of closed captioning, it was not uncommon for some public television programs to incorporate ASL translations by an on - screen interpreter. An interpreter may still be utilized for the deaf and hard - of - hearing community for on - air emergency broadcasts (such as severe weather alerts given by local governments) as well as televised press conferences by local and state government officials accompanied by closed captioning.
Public television has a far smaller role in the United States than in most other countries. The federal government, through the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), does operate NASA TV (a service focusing on the U.S. space program with some educational programming) for public consumption, but only distributes that service via satellite and the Internet and not through terrestrial outlets; the United States Department of Defense produced the Pentagon Channel (later renamed DoD News Channel), a military news outlet that operated from 2004 to 2015. In addition, Broadcasting Board of Governors content (the most well - known being Voice of America) has been available to U.S. consumers since the partial repeal of the Smith -- Mundt Act in 2013; VOA and its sister outlets are likewise restricted to shortwave and Internet broadcasts.
The Public Broadcasting Service is the largest public television broadcaster in the United States, originating in October 1970 as the successor of National Educational Television (which was established in 1954). Unlike the commercial networks, PBS does not officially produce any of its own programming; instead, individual PBS stations (most notably, WNET in Newark, New Jersey / New York City, WGBH - TV in Boston and WETA - TV in Washington, D.C.), station groups and affiliated producers create programming and provide these through PBS to other affiliates. While it does provide a base slate of programming to its member stations (which is limited to roughly thirteen hours a week of programming in prime time, airing on Sunday through Fridays with fewer programs on Thursday and Friday evenings, as well as daytime children 's programming during the morning and afternoon), PBS does not schedule all programs it supplies in set time slots, giving its members leeway in scheduling these programs in time slots of their choosing. Like the six larger commercial English language broadcast networks, its member stations handle the responsibility of programming time periods where programming supplied by the service is not broadcast, which are filled by cultural and public affairs programming of relevance to their market or region of service, and syndicated programs of various genres.
Most (but, by no means, all) public television stations are members of PBS, sharing programs such as Sesame Street, NOVA and Masterpiece Theatre. Although many PBS stations operate individually, a number of states -- such as Wisconsin, Maryland, Minnesota, Oklahoma and South Carolina -- have state - owned public broadcasting authorities that operate and fund all public television stations in their respective states. The Alabama Educational Television Commission, licensee for the nine stations comprising Alabama Public Television, was established by the Alabama Legislature in 1953. In January 1955, WCIQ on Mount Cheaha began operation as the nation 's ninth non-commercial television station. Four months later in April 1955 with the sign - on of WBIQ in Birmingham, Alabama became the first state in the country with an educational television network. Alabama Public Television was a model for other states in the nation and for television broadcasters in other countries. 25 other states copied Alabama 's system of operation to provide service through multiple, linked television stations, using full - power satellite stations and (in some cases) low - power translators to relay the originating station 's programming to other areas. Similar state networks have also been created by commercial broadcasters to relay network programming throughout portions or even the entirety of a state.
The federal government does subsidize non-commercial educational television stations through the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. The income received from the government is insufficient to cover expenses and stations rely on corporate sponsorships and viewer contributions (including from private benefactors) to finance their operations and programming production. Various public television outlets -- albeit not on all individual PBS member and independent public broadcasting stations and PBS member networks simultaneously -- hold pledge drives two to four times per year, which account for a decent portion of the non-government - subsidized income through public and private contributions.
American public television stations air programming that commercial stations do not offer, such as educational (including cultural and arts) and public affairs programming. There are also a number of syndicators dealing exclusively or primarily with public broadcast stations, both PBS and independent public television stations (most prominently, American Public Television). Additionally, there are a number of smaller networks feeding programming to public stations -- including World, MHz Worldview (both of which feature news, documentary and discussion programs) and Create (focusing on lifestyle, travel, cooking and how - to programs) -- primarily through digital multicasting; the German public broadcaster Deutsche Welle has also provided blocks of programming to a variety of affiliates in the U.S., and increasingly feeds from other national broadcasters have been distributed through digital subchannels belonging to public stations in the U.S. New York City 's municipally - owned broadcast service, NYC Media, creates original programming that airs in several markets. Few cities have major municipally - owned stations.
Many religious broadcast networks and stations exist, also surviving on viewer contributions and time leased to the programming producers; the two most prominent are the Trinity Broadcasting Network, which was founded in 1973 by Paul and Jan Crouch as a part - time ministry that leased programming time on KBSA (now UniMás owned - and - operated station KFTR - DT) in the Los Angeles exurb of Ontario, California, before moving to KLXA - TV (now KTBN - TV) in Fontana, which it began purchasing time on the following year after KBSA was sold; it gradually became the most widely distributed Christian television network in the world with 20 networks (including five in the United States that are primarily available through multicasting, The Church Channel, the youth - oriented JUCE TV and Smile of a Child TV, and the Latino - oriented TBN Enlace USA and TBN Salsa) and several affiliates internationally; and the Daystar Television Network, founded in 1993 by Marcus and Joni Lamb, when the former 's Word of God Fellowship ministry purchased the license of defunct UHF station KMPX (now an Estrella TV owned - and - operated station) in Dallas, Texas. Most of their stations are owned by the television ministries directly or through subsidiary companies (Community Educational Television and Word of God Fellowship, respectively) used by them to operate stations that TBN and Daystar can not own outright due to FCC regulations prohibiting individual broadcasting companies from owning television stations reaching more than 39 % of all U.S. television markets.
Other religious broadcasters include the Three Angels Broadcasting Network, Cornerstone Television, World Harvest Television (WHT), Hope Channel, Amazing Facts Television, The Word Network, The Worship Network, Total Christian Television and The Inspiration Network (INSP). These networks rely mainly on church services or other religious teaching series for programming, although they also incorporate faith - based children 's programming and at least three such networks -- TBN, Daystar and Cornerstone Television -- also air religious - themed feature - length films. INSP and WHT -- similar to the Christian Broadcasting Network (CBN), which owned independent stations that maintained such a format from the 1960s until 2001 -- also incorporate secular entertainment programs, primarily in the form of classic television series.
Public access television is a noncommercial form of television required by law to be offered to cable television consumers, in which members of the public are free to place their programming on the cable service. It is a subset of public, educational and government access. Most popular in the 1980s and early 1990s, the rise of the Internet and satellite TV (the latter of which is not required to carry public - access TV) rendered it partially obsolete.
While pay television systems existed as early as the late 1940s, until the early 1970s, cable television only served to distribute distant over-the - air television stations to rural areas not served by stations that are based locally. This role was reflected in the original meaning of the CATV acronym, "community antenna TV ''. In that decade, national networks that exclusively transmitted via cable and maintained their own individual programming formats began to launch, while cable system franchises began operating in major cities with over-the - air television stations. By the mid-1970s, some form of cable television was available in almost every market that already had over-the - air television service. Today, most American households receive cable television, and cable networks collectively have greater viewership than broadcast networks, even though individual programs on most of the major commercial broadcast networks often have relatively higher viewership than those seen on cable channels.
Unlike broadcast networks, most cable networks air the same programming nationwide. Top cable networks include USA Network (which maintains a general entertainment format), ESPN and Fox Sports 1 (which focus on sports programming), MTV (which originally focused on music videos when it launched in April 1981, but now largely features music - related, original scripted and reality television programming), CNN, MSNBC and Fox News Channel (which are dedicated news channels with some opinion and other feature - driven programming), Syfy (which focuses on science fiction and fantasy programming), Freeform (which launched in September 1977 as the CBN Satellite Service, a religious - based cable arm of the Christian Broadcasting Network, before refocusing on secular family - oriented programming, and since 2001 has also featured shows aimed mainly at teenagers and young adults), Disney Channel, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network (which focus on children 's programming, although the latter two run nighttime blocks aimed at a teen and adult audience, Nick at Nite and Adult Swim), Discovery Channel and Animal Planet (which focus on reality and documentary programs), TBS (a general entertainment network with a principal focus on comedy), TNT and FX (also general entertainment networks, with some focus on drama) and Lifetime (which targets at a female audience, with a mix of television films, and original and acquired comedy, reality and drama series).
Premium channels -- cable networks that subscribers have to pay an additional fee to their provider to receive -- began launching in the 1970s and initially grew in popularity as it allowed subscribers to watch movies without time or content editing common with over-the - air television broadcasts of theatrically released feature films and without interruptions by advertising. The most well known as well as the oldest - existing pay service is Home Box Office (HBO), which launched on November 8, 1972 with a mix of movies, music and concert specials; by the late 1990s, HBO began to be known for groundbreaking first - run series (such as The Larry Sanders Show, The Sopranos and Sex and the City) that were edgier and more risque in content than those allowed to air on broadcast networks. Other pay - extra networks launched in subsequent years including Showtime, which launched on September 16, 1976 with a similar format; and movie - oriented services such as Star Channel (which launched in April 1973, and later became The Movie Channel in November 1979) and HBO - owned Cinemax (which launched on August 1, 1980, and later became more known for its late - night softcore pornographic films). Although attempts at such services date back to the 1950s, pay - per - view services (such as Viewer 's Choice and Request TV) began launching in the mid-1980s, allowing subscribers to purchase movies and events on a one - time - only basis via telephone; with the advent of digital cable, interactive technologies allowed pay - per - view selections to be purchased by remote.
In addition to sports networks that are distributed to a national audience, two other types of sports - oriented television networks exist. Regional sports networks are cable outlets designed to cover a limited geographic region and metropolitan area, which carry events from local professional and collegiate sports teams, as well as team - related programs, news and magazine programs. The most prominent of these are the Fox Sports Networks, Comcast SportsNet, AT&T SportsNet and Spectrum Sports, which comprise multiple networks serving different regions of the United States. Independently owned regional sports networks also exist in some regions served by one of the major groups. Out - of - market sports packages, meanwhile, are composed of individual multichannel packages broadcasting events from an individual sport that are carried by regional sports networks, and national and local broadcasters that hold rights to individual teams or sports leagues; the out - of - market sports package is the most expensive form of a la carte television service, ranging in price from $50 to $75 per month.
The national cable television network became possible in the mid-1970s with the launch of domestic communications satellites that could economically broadcast television programs to cable operators anywhere in the continental United States (some domestic satellites also covered Alaska and Hawaii with dedicated spot beams that reached the contiguous states). Until then, cable networks like HBO had been limited to regional coverage through distribution over expensive terrestrial microwave links leased from the telephone companies (primarily AT&T). Satellites were generally used only for international (i.e., transoceanic) communications; their antennas covered an entire hemisphere, producing weak signals that required large, expensive receiving antennas. The first domestic communications satellite, Westar 1, was launched in 1974. By concentrating its signal on the continental United States with a directional antenna, Westar 1 could transmit to TVRO ("television receive - only '') dishes only a few meters in diameter, well within the means of local cable television operators. HBO became the first cable network to transmit programming via satellite in September 1975.
Cable system operators now receive programming by satellite, terrestrial optical fiber (a method used primarily to relay local stations based within metropolitan areas to the franchise, and acts as a backup for the system operator if a broadcast station 's over-the - air signal is affected by a power outage or other technical malfunction involving the main transmitter), off the air (a method used to relay broadcast stations to cable franchises in outlying areas and satellite providers), and from in - house sources and relay it to subscribers ' homes. Usually, local governments award a monopoly to provide cable television service in a given area. By law, cable systems must include local broadcast stations in their offerings to customers.
Enterprising individuals soon found they could install their own satellite dishes and eavesdrop on the feeds to the cable operators. The signals were transmitted as unscrambled analog FM feeds that did not require advanced or expensive technology. Since these same satellites were also used internally by the television networks, they could also watch programs not intended for public broadcast such as affiliate feeds without commercials and / or intended for another time zone; raw footage from remote news teams; advance transmissions of upcoming programs; and live news and talk shows during breaks when those on camera might not realize that anyone outside the network could hear them.
Encrypting was introduced to prevent people from receiving pay content for free, and nearly every pay channel was encrypted by the mid-to - late 1980s (this did not happen without protest, such as an incident in which a Florida satellite dealer intercepted the signal of HBO during a film telecast in 1986 to transmit a text - based message over color bars objecting to the network 's decision to encrypt its feed). Satellite television also began a digital transition, well before over-the - air broadcasting did the same, to increase satellite capacity and / or reduce the size of the receiving antennas; this also made it more difficult for individuals to intercept these signals. Eventually, the industry began to cater to individuals who wanted to continue to receive satellite television (and were willing to pay for it) in two ways: by authorizing the descrambling of the original satellite feeds to the cable television operators, and with new direct broadcast satellite television services using their own satellites. These latter services, which began operating in the mid-1990s, offer programming similar to cable television.
DirecTV and Dish Network are the major DBS providers in the country, with 20 and 14 million customers respectively as of February 2014. Meanwhile, the major cable television providers are Comcast with 22 million customers, Time Warner Cable with 11 million, and Cox Communications, Charter Communications, AT&T U-verse and Verizon FiOS with five to six million each.
Although most networks make viewers pay a fee to receive their programming, some networks broadcast using unencrypted feeds. After broadcast television switched to a digital infrastructure, new channels became available on unencrypted satellites to bring more free television to Americans; some of these are available as a digital subchannel to local broadcasters, this reason may be for the expensive costs of the DVB - S equipment. NASA TV, Pentagon Channel, Antenna TV, This TV, TheCoolTV and the Retro Television Network (through its affiliates) are examples, international news channels like NHK World, France 24, i24news and Al Jazeera English until the launch of Al Jazeera America are commonly watched this way as a result to the lack of availability on cable, DBS and IPTV.
Some cable providers use interactive features built into set - top boxes leased to their subscribers to distribute video on demand services within their internal networks. Many providers of subscription television services -- both networks and system operators -- also have TV Everywhere services, which usually mix the video on demand model with live streaming capabilities (allowing viewers to watch broadcasts from over-the - air networks and stations, and cable channels in near real - time), but require password and username authentication through participating pay television providers.
IPTV (internet protocol television) is similar to a cable subscription, but instead of the set - top box receiving information via a dedicated wire, video is transmitted over the public Internet or private internet protocol - based network to a set - top box.
OTT, or Over-the - top content bypasses multiple system operators entirely, and allows viewing of programs hosted by independent providers. Internet television, also known as web television, began in the 1990s and has become popular in the 2000s onward, resulting in a trend of cord - cutting -- the canceling of cable subscriptions in favor of online content that consumers supplement with either over-the - air broadcasts, DVD rentals or a combination of all three viewing methods.
Web television providers in the United States include Hulu, Netflix (which was originally structured as a mail - order DVD rental service), MyTV, and many international websites such as YouTube, Myspace, Newgrounds, Blip and Crackle. Viewers can watch these programs from any web browser, whether on a desktop computer, laptop, tablet or smartphone. Mobile television services also include mobile apps for both traditional and new programming providers, usually optimized for a small screen and mobile bandwidth constraints. Mobile video is available for direct download or streaming (usually for a one - time download fee) from the iTunes Store, Google Play and Amazon Video.
Internet - connected video game consoles and dedicated Smart TV boxes are available that connect televisions to internet television and / or online video services. These devices are marketed as more convenient for consumers who would otherwise have trouble connecting a computer to a full - size television and using a web browser to view content. Some televisions have built - in capabilities; dedicated boxes include Google TV, Apple TV, Roku, Netgear Digital Entertainer, Amkette EvoTV and formerly the Nexus Q. Devices that require a PC and television include Windows Media Center Extender, HP MediaSmart Connect, Boxee and Hauppauge MediaMVP.
Aereo provided a cloud - based digital video recorder service for over-the - air broadcasts, which it also streamed; although it and the similarly structured FilmOn have run into legal problems with broadcasters who accused the services of transmitting programs from broadcast television stations in violation of copyrights. Although Aereo and FilmOn both stated that their use of "miniature '' antennas for transmission of programs to individual users is legal, following mixed decisions by circuit courts that declared them either legal or in infringement of copyrights, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in July 2014 that Aereo 's business model had an "overwhelming likeness to cable companies, '' and its transmission of local station signals constituted an unauthorized public performance in violation of copyright rules, forcing Aereo and FilmOn to stop transmitting local stations from several markets. Aereo eventually suspended operations and filed for bankruptcy in November of that year, later choosing to auction off its assets and technology; FilmOn however remains in operation, offering other free - to - air U.S. - based networks in addition to its own exclusive channels, but was found in contempt by New York district court in July 2014 for briefly continuing to stream U.S. stations after the Supreme Court ruling.
Over-the - top subscription services that mirrored cable and TV Everywhere services began emerging in the mid-2010s. In 2015, Dish Network and Sony respectively launched Sling TV and PlayStation Vue, cable - style online and mobile streaming services priced at lower monthly rates than packages offered by traditional pay television system operators. Each include slimmed down tiers of cable and satellite - originated networks from a relatively limited number of network owners. Sling TV, in an effort to cap programming costs, does not include local broadcast stations or regional sports networks; conversely, PlayStation Vue does carry ABC -, NBC -, CBS - and Fox - affiliated stations in select cities where the service is available.
Conventional broadcast and cable networks also launched OTT services during 2014 and 2015 to primarily reach cord - cutters -- most of which are younger adults, particularly around college age, and to combat online copyright infringement of their programming. These networks include CBS (launched CBS All Access in October 2014, featuring both on - demand content and live streams of the network 's owned - and - operated stations and affiliates), HBO (in April 2015, launched HBO Now, a standalone internet - only subscription service similar to its TV Everywhere service HBO Go), and Showtime (which launched a VOD / live streaming service of the same name in May 2015).
Over-the - air (OTA) commercial stations and networks generate the vast majority of their revenue from advertisements. According to a 2001 survey, broadcast stations allocated 16 to 21 minutes of programming time per hour to commercials. Most cable networks also generate income from advertisements, although most basic cable networks also receive subscription fees, which are the other main source of revenue for the cable operators. However, premium cable networks (such as HBO) do not air commercials; instead, cable television subscribers must pay an extra fee to receive this type of pay television service.
Networks traditionally allocate a portion of commercial time during their programs (usually totaling between five and 61⁄2 minutes per hour, depending on the length of the program being aired, sometimes less during sporting events) to their local affiliates, which allow the local stations to generate revenue. In the same manner, in addition to subscription fees, cable television providers generate some of their revenue by selling local commercial time (usually allocating around four minutes per hour) for each advertiser - supported cable network it carries. However, while much of this time is sold to local and national advertisers, portions of the allocated commercial time are reserved by network affiliates and cable providers for in - house advertising (cable providers use some of this time to carry commercials for their services, which may also include business solutions, residential telephone and broadband internet services; network affiliates, as do other commercial broadcast stations, use this reserved time to carry promotions for their programming or station imaging).
Cable companies are required by the 1992 Cable Television Consumer Protection and Competition Act to negotiate for retransmission consent, usually paying broadcasters for the right to carry their signals. This provision, over time, has resulted in problems between pay television providers and companies that own subscription television services as well as those own and / or operate over-the - air television stations, as disagreements over terms in retransmission contracts sometimes arise during negotiations to renew and (occasionally) strike new agreements to carry certain channels. The carriage disputes that occur because of these differences typically result in broadcast stations or cable channels being pulled for a protracted period of time, often due to carriage fee increases that a provider may consider to be too expensive (since retransmission consent fees are a form of subscriber fee, any increase in fees that a provider carries will be passed on to the subscriber, which providers are hesitant to do out of concern that it may result in subscriber defections due to the resulting rate increases for program packages).
American television has had very successful programs that have inspired television networks across the world to develop shows of similar types. Some of these shows are still on the air and some have maintained decent runs in syndication. Conversely, many programs produced for U.S. television are also routinely syndicated to broadcasters in other countries, and a number of popular American programs have been based on shows that originated in other countries, especially the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Canada.
The major networks all offer a morning news program, with CBS 's CBS This Morning, NBC 's Today and ABC 's Good Morning America as standard bearers, as well as an early - evening newscast anchored by the de facto face of the network 's news division like Walter Cronkite and Dan Rather for CBS; Chet Huntley, David Brinkley and Tom Brokaw for NBC; and Peter Jennings for ABC. Successful news magazines have included 60 Minutes, 20 / 20 and Dateline NBC in prime time, and Meet the Press, Face the Nation and This Week on Sunday mornings.
Local news programming airs on many television stations, with individual markets supporting as few as two or as many as eight television news operations, depending on the number of available viewers that live in the market. Most stations originally aired locally produced newscasts only in evening time periods (usually at 6: 00 and 10: 00 or 11: 00 p.m. local time) until the 1970s or as late as the mid-1980s on some stations. During that period, stations began local news programs in the midday and 5: 00 p.m. time slots, while morning newscasts began to become common during the 1980s (first on weekdays, with weekend morning newscasts launching in many cities beginning in the early 1990s).
Two television stations in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, KYW - TV and WPVI - TV, were the respective progenitors of two popular news formats that shaped the modern presentation of television news, Eyewitness News, which had reporters present their stories instead of having the anchor read them, and became popularized after the format expanded to WABC - TV in New York City in 1968, and Action News, which placed set time limits on story packages presented during the program, in order to cover a broader array of stories. WSVN in Miami also served as a pioneer in local news in 1989, when the station (which adopted the format in January of that year, after assuming the Fox affiliation from WCIX (now WFOR - TV) as a result of a three - way swap resulting from CBS ' purchase of WCIX and NBC 's purchase of longtime CBS affiliate WTVJ) originated the "news - intensive '' programming format, which in its typical structure -- which has become common of Fox affiliates, particularly as a result of affiliation deals signed following the network 's acquisition of NFL rights, as well as certain other stations that are either affiliated with a non-Big Three network or operate as independent stations in recent years -- mixes newscasts in traditional time periods with those in non-traditional ones (most commonly, in time periods that the major networks fill with national morning and evening news programs or prime time programming). This format spread to Big Three affiliates in a modified form during the 2000s and 2010s.
Cable news channels traditionally carry blocks of more generalized news coverage during the morning and afternoon hours; programs focusing on politics (that are similar in format to the Sunday morning talk shows) and documentaries typically air on these channels during prime time and late night, with general news coverage during that time usually limited to occasional coverage of breaking news events.
Daytime television has been home of many popular game shows over the years, particularly during the 1970s, such as The Price Is Right, Family Feud, Match Game, The Newlywed Game and Concentration. Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy! have found their greatest success in the early - evening slot preceding primetime. However, game shows that also aired within prime time had great popularity in the 1950s and 1960s such as What 's My Line?, I 've Got a Secret and To Tell the Truth; and again, intermittently, in the 2000s with Who Wants to Be a Millionaire, The Weakest Link and Deal or No Deal.
The Price Is Right, which has aired on CBS since 1972, and Let 's Make a Deal, which was revived on that same network in October 2009, are the only daytime game shows remaining on the broadcast networks. Since the mid-1990s, game shows have been commonly found more in syndication, although the number of syndicated game shows overall has decreased during the 2000s and 2010s; the highest - rated of these are Jeopardy! and Wheel of Fortune (which are both distributed by CBS Television Distribution and Sony Pictures Television, and air together on the same station in some markets), both of which have consistently ranked among the top ten syndicated programs since they began in the early 1980s, and Family Feud, which has run continuously in daytime syndication since 1999 but saw its viewership rise rapidly in the early 2010s after more risqué questions and new host Steve Harvey were installed.
American daytime soap operas have been running on television for over seven decades. Currently as of 2017, there are four daytime soap operas in production: ABC 's General Hospital, NBC 's Days of Our Lives, and CBS 's The Young and the Restless and The Bold and the Beautiful. Long - running soaps no longer in production include Search for Tomorrow, Guiding Light, As the World Turns, Another World, One Life to Live and All My Children.
The soap opera genre experienced a gradual decline beginning in the 1980s due to the continued migration of women into the workplace, culminating in six soaps being canceled by NBC, CBS and ABC between 2003 and 2011 (of those, one, Passions, moved to DirecTV - owned network The 101 for one additional season after its cancellation by NBC in 2009, while All My Children and One Life to Live were revived on Hulu for one additional season in 2013 with those series ' second cancellations resulting from a dispute between originating broadcaster ABC and the production company that acquired them, Prospect Park, over various issues).
Soap operas have also become common in prime time, which differ from their daytime counterparts as they utilize the traditional weekly format and maintain a visual style traditional of other nighttime network series (particularly, nighttime soaps are recorded on film in a single - camera setup, whereas daytime soaps are shot on multiple cameras that record the program on videotape). Prime time soaps of note have included Peyton Place, Dallas, Dynasty, Knots Landing, Falcon Crest, Beverly Hills, 90210, Melrose Place, Revenge and Scandal.
Comedy programming on American television has been more noted for situation comedies such as I Love Lucy, The Honeymooners, The Andy Griffith Show, The Dick Van Dyke Show, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, All in the Family, Happy Days, Family Ties, Cheers, The Cosby Show, Seinfeld, Friends, Frasier, Everybody Loves Raymond, The King of Queens, How I Met Your Mother, The Big Bang Theory and Modern Family. However, there have also existed sketch comedy / variety series during prime time such as Texaco Star Theatre, The Carol Burnett Show and Rowan and Martin 's Laugh - In. The most prominent as well as the longest - running sketch comedy program is Saturday Night Live, a late - night series which debuted on NBC in November 1975, and has spawned the careers of many popular comedic actors (such as Chevy Chase, Eddie Murphy, Dennis Miller and Will Ferrell).
Dramatic series have taken many forms over the years. Westerns such as Gunsmoke (the longest - running prime time scripted drama series in U.S. television history, having aired from 1955 to 1975) and Bonanza had experienced their greatest popularity in the 1950s and 1960s. Medical dramas such as Marcus Welby, M.D., St. Elsewhere, ER, House and Grey 's Anatomy have endured success; as well as family dramas such as The Waltons, Little House on the Prairie and 7th Heaven; and crime dramas such as Dragnet, Hawaii Five - O, Hill Street Blues, Miami Vice, L.A. Law, 21 Jump Street, Law & Order, JAG, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation and NCIS.
Dramedy, a term for a television series that mixes elements of comedy and drama, have seen its popularity grown among viewers, thanks to programs like M * A * S * H, Ally McBeal, Ugly Betty, Desperate Housewives, Psych, Glee, Devious Maids, Jane the Virgin and Crazy Ex-Girlfriend.
Television series featuring fantasy and science fiction are also popular with American viewers, since these programs take elements of comedy, drama, adventure, or a combination of all of the above. Among the most notable fantasy series in this genre include Touched by an Angel (centering on angels helping humans in times of personal crisis), Bewitched (a sitcom centering on a witch adjusting to married life with a mortal male), Fantasy Island (which was set at a resort where people live out their fantasies, but at a price), Drop Dead Diva (focusing on a deceased model inhabiting the body of a lawyer) and Once Upon a Time (centering on fairytale characters that are trapped in the present day after the enactment of a curse), while Star Trek (which spawned four spin - off series, two in syndication -- The Next Generation and Deep Space Nine -- and two on network television -- Voyager and Enterprise -- between 1987 and 2005), Battlestar Galactica and the British series Doctor Who rank among the most watched programs in the sci - fi genre.
Reality television has long existed in the United States, both played for laughs (such as Candid Camera and Real People) and as drama (such as COPS and The Real World). A new variant -- competition series placing ordinary people in unusual circumstances or in talent contests, generally eliminating at least one participant per week, exploded in popularity in turn of the millennium (with shows such as Survivor, Big Brother, The Amazing Race, American Idol, America 's Next Top Model, Dancing with the Stars, The Bachelor and its spin - off The Bachelorette, So You Think You Can Dance and The Voice).
The most successful talk show has been The Tonight Show, particularly during the 30 - year run of third host Johnny Carson. Tonight ushered in a multi-decade period of dominance by one network -- NBC -- in American late - night programming and paved the way for many similar programs combining comedy and celebrity interviews, such as The Merv Griffin Show and Late Night with David Letterman. Despite initial failed attempts during the late 1980s by Fox as well as the success of The Arsenio Hall Show in syndication during its first five - year run beginning in 1989, the late - night talk show genre would not become a more competitive field until the 1990s, when CBS gained a major foothold in the field with the Late Show with David Letterman; competition in the genre increased even further as cable networks entered into the genre in the 2000s and 2010s with the rise of parody news show The Daily Show under host Jon Stewart and newer shows such as The Colbert Report, Jimmy Kimmel Live!, and Conan.
Daytime talk show hits have included Live with Kelly and Ryan (and its previous iterations with Regis Philbin as co-host), The Jenny Jones Show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, Rachael Ray, Dr. Phil, Ricki Lake (TV series), The Ellen DeGeneres Show, and Harry which run the gamut from serious to lighthearted in topicality and format; a subset of so - called "trash TV '' talk shows such as The Jerry Springer Show, which hit their peak during the 1990s, also veered into exploitation and titillation. Most daytime talk programs air in syndication, with various attempts airing on network television to mixed results (among the more notable network efforts are the female - driven panel talk shows The View, The Talk, The Real and Get It Girl on LATV.
Children 's television programs are also quite popular. Early ventures into children 's television in the 1950s aired on weekdays with shows such as Howdy Doody, Captain Kangaroo, Mr. Wizard, and the Mickey Mouse Club. However children 's programing had experienced its greatest success on Saturday mornings from the late 1960s to the early 1990s. Programs shown during these time periods mainly consisted of animated programming including classic cartoons (such as Looney Tunes, Tom and Jerry and Woody Woodpecker), reruns of prime time animated sitcoms (such as The Flintstones and The Jetsons), foreign acquisitions (such as Astro Boy and Kimba the White Lion), animated adaptations of films and television series (such as Back to the Future, Ghostbusters, Batman, ALF and Star Trek), and original programs (such as The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, Scooby - Doo, Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids, The Smurfs, Alvin and the Chipmunks, Garfield and Friends and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles).
Some locally produced children 's programs -- which often mixed cartoons, special guests and audience - participation games -- also became popular in the local markets where they were broadcast; one of the most popular was the Bozo the Clown franchise, which became most well known for its Chicago version, which began airing nationally when WGN - TV became a superstation in October 1978.
However, in 1990, due to concerns regarding commercial advertising and cross-promotion in children 's programs by parental advocacy groups, the Federal Communications Commission passed the Children 's Television Act, legislation that among other provisions requires all broadcast television networks and stations to air at least three hours of educational children 's programming each week. This has made it much harder for broadcast stations to profit from children 's programs than was possible in previous years, eventually leading the major broadcast networks to abandon traditional scripted programs in favor of unscripted educational series with formats appealing to a more generalized audience to fulfill the requirements; noncommercial networks are exceptions to this new standard, as PBS in particular has long excelled in providing E / I - compliant children 's programs that mix educational and entertainment content (such as Sesame Street, Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood, Thomas the Tank Engine and Arthur).
Since the mid-2000s, popular children 's programs have been produced for cable networks such as Nickelodeon, Disney Channel and Cartoon Network that are targeted at the demographic and only provide educational content voluntarily -- in which case, it is primarily aimed at preschool - aged children and relegated to morning hours, unless incorporated full - time as part of the channel 's format, as is the case with the spin - offs of the former two aforementioned networks Nick Jr. and Disney Junior -- as they are not bound by the Children 's Television Act 's guidelines.
Professional wrestling had been aired on local television during its earliest days and began to be aired in national television during the 1950s. It underwent a resurgence in the 1980s as Vince McMahon 's World Wrestling Federation and Ted Turner 's World Championship Wrestling (WCW) each built rivalling national wrestling empires. During the Monday Night Wars of the 1990s, WWF and WCW maintained a heated televised rivalry. The boom eventually collapsed by 2001, leading to McMahon acquiring the WCW, merging it with the WWF. The renamed WWE maintains a dominant presence in professional wrestling, with rivals Impact Wrestling (formerly TNA) and Ring of Honor (ROH) also having a presence on American television (the latter primarily as a result of its 2011 acquisition by television station owner Sinclair Broadcast Group). Foreign wrestling promotions such as Lucha Underground and New Japan Pro-Wrestling have seen increased exposure in the 2010s.
The broadcasting of sports events is a major component of the American commercial television industry. Sports tend to draw a large, wealthy audience that can command large sums of revenue from advertising and subscription fees.
In the early days of television, sports quickly became a fixture of American broadcast television. Boxing was carried on almost every television station and network since the beginnings. The sport earned a negative reputation after Emile Griffith killed his opponent on national television in a 1962 contest, followed by the death of Davey Moore from an indirect in - ring injury during another televised contest a year later; by 1964, boxing was off national television. The rise of pay - per - view and premium channels led to most of the highest - profile matches returning to the airwaves via subscription television. While it still maintains a limited (and rising, thanks to the efforts of Premier Boxing Champions) presence on American broadcast television, boxing has declined in popularity since the 1990s with mixed martial arts, a more broad - based combat sport, rising to take its place.
The major professional sports leagues began regular television broadcasts in the 1950s. The National Football League (NFL) 's embrace of television broadcasting at the early onset of the medium helped boost its popularity as a sport, and by the 1960s, the combined success of NFL and American Football League (AFL) telecasts helped earn professional football a status as a mainstay of the major television networks. American television pays the NFL billions of dollars each year to maintain their television rights; the Super Bowl, in return, is a cash windfall for the network which airs it as the broadcaster which holds the rights in a given year (which is rotated annually among the broadcast networks that hold rights to the league 's regular season and playoff games) can make hundreds of millions of dollars in revenue from advertising sales alone. Major League Baseball (MLB) has been televised on U.S. television since the inception of the medium, most notably by way of a "Game of the Week '' that has usually aired on Saturdays on various broadcasters since 1954.
The National Hockey League (NHL), in contrast, was much slower to embrace television, due to its initially regional nature and greater reliance on Canadian television, though it would begin broadcasting its events nationally on a wider basis after Fox acquired the rights to the league 's game broadcasts in 1995; the NHL has struggled to gain competitive ratings for most of its time on television.
College sports have also been a feature of American television. The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) restricted television broadcasts of college football, as well as college basketball, from the early 1950s until 1984. In the latter year, the Supreme Court struck down the NCAA 's collective television contract as a violation of antitrust law, deregulating the sale of college sports telecasts and allowing individual teams and athletic conferences to negotiate their own deals with broadcast and cable networks.
Other sports that have maintained a regular presence on U.S. television include auto racing (NASCAR, in particular, rose rapidly in television popularity in the 1990s; the IndyCar series has also had some presence, particularly its signature event, the Indianapolis 500), professional golf (promintently through the Professional Golfers Association of America (PGA), Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), and the United States Golf Association (USGA)), thoroughbred racing (particularly, the Triple Crown and Breeders Cup) and ten - pin bowling. Other sports have been televised through anthology series such as ABC 's Wide World of Sports (that same network would launch a documentary - based anthology, ESPN Sports Saturday, in 2011), CBS Sports Spectacular and NBC SportsWorld, sometimes through time - buy arrangements with event organizers.
Sports broadcasts are carried through a number of televised media. Most of the major sports have some presence on commercial broadcast television, including all NFL regular season and most playoff games. National cable networks, beginning with ESPN in 1979 (along with its later sister channels that gradually launched beginning in the 1990s) and later joined by competitors such as NBCSN and Fox Sports 1, carry packages of assorted major professional and college sports. The vast majority of MLB, NHL and National Basketball Association (NBA) games are carried through regional sports networks, however the NFL only permits preseason games to air on RSNs on a limited basis (the league otherwise prohibits regular season and playoff games from airing on regional sports networks, but does permit national cable networks to acquire the rights to air them); the leagues (as well as the NFL) restrict the broadcast of their sports on regional networks to specific territories and require any person outside those territories to purchase an out - of - market sports package to watch the majority of their favored team 's games. Regional sports networks can also provide outlets for minor league sports to broadcast their events. Unlike in some other countries, public television does not own any sports rights, nor has it ever been a major factor in sports television.
While the majority of programs broadcast on American television are produced domestically, some programs carried in syndication, on public television or on cable are imported from other countries -- most commonly, from the primarily English - speaking countries of Canada and the United Kingdom. PBS in particular, is commonly known for its broadcasts of British sitcoms (such as Monty Python 's Flying Circus, Fawlty Towers, Keeping Up Appearances and Are You Being Served?), which typically air on its member stations on weekend evenings (although their scheduling is at the discretion of the station as these programs are primarily syndicated on the behalf of outside distributors); PBS was also responsible for bringing the hit period drama Downton Abbey to the U.S. and for initially popularizing the long - running science - fiction series Doctor Who in the country (the latter show now airs first - run episodes on BBC America, an outlet launched in 1998 that was specifically designed to bring BBC programming direct to the United States, although it continues to be syndicated to public television stations and is also syndicated to commercial digital multicast networks such as the Retro Television Network).
Many of the programs imported from Canada are children 's programs originally aired by channels such as YTV and Family Channel (such as Are You Afraid of the Dark?, Naturally, Sadie and Life with Derek). However, other Canadian series aimed at adults or more general audiences have also been syndicated in the United States; one network, Ion Life (a spin - off of Ion Television), has much of its schedule composed of reruns of since - discontinued Canadian lifestyle series. Among some of the more well - known Canadian television series among American viewers include the Degrassi High franchise (which aired in Canada on CBC Television, with the later incarnation Degrassi: The Next Generation airing on CTV and presently MuchMusic), Rookie Blue, SCTV Network and The Red Green Show.
Programming from Japan has had a niche market in American television, with some anime programs (generally dubbed into English) having been seen on American television since the 1960s. The Power Rangers series was heavily edited from a Japanese live - action tokusatsu series, Super Sentai, with newly filmed bridging sequences involving American actors (as the action sequences were entirely done in full costume, those scenes only had to be dubbed). The success of Power Rangers led to a wave of tokusatsu adaptations in the mid-1990s, none of which survived beyond two years.
American Spanish - language networks also import much of their programming; for example, Univision imports much of its programming, especially telenovelas that are broadcast on the network, from Mexican broadcaster Televisa, and MundoMax distributes programming from Colombian broadcaster and network owner RCN Television.
Television production companies either commission teleplays for television pilots or buy spec scripts. Some of these scripts are turned into pilots for proposed television programs. The production company markets those they consider commercially viable to television networks -- or television distributors for first - run syndication (for example, CBS Television Distribution distributes Dr. Phil in first - run syndication, because that show is syndicated -- it is not carried on a particular network). A few things that a television network takes under consideration in deciding to order a show is if the show itself is compatible with the network 's target audience, the cost of production, and if the show is well liked among network executives, and in many cases, test audiences.
Networks sometimes preemptively purchase pilots to prevent other networks from controlling them -- and the purchase of a pilot is no guarantee that the network will order additional episodes. In other cases, the network may be forced to commission the pilot in order to avoid shouldering monetary penalties if it is not produced. The producers hire a director and other crew members (in some cases, using staff employed with an existing series) to work on the pilot; in some cases, if the pilot 's concept was pitched by producers that would not write for the proposed show before a script is drafted, writers may also be assigned to pen the script and would be given credit as the series ' creator (s). Pilots that do get "picked up '' get either a full or partial - season order (starting with an initial order of between seven and 13 episodes, which may be extended if the program 's viewership is strong during the early run of episodes); the show goes into production, usually establishing itself with permanent sets. Writers, additional directors and some full - time crew members are hired, and work begins -- usually during the late spring and summer before the fall season - series premieres (shows can also serve as a midseason replacement, meaning they are ordered specifically to fill holes in a network schedule created by the failure and cancellation of shows that premiered in the fall; Buffy the Vampire Slayer and The Office are examples of successful midseason replacements). Unscripted series have a different stage of development, as the program is generally pitched only as a concept, often without a pilot being ordered or already produced.
The standard broadcast television season in the United States consists of 22 episodes (which are typically broadcast over a period of nine months from September to May, depending on the date on which the program begins its season), although prior to the 1970s, a single season of a weekly television program consisted of as many as 40 episodes, with few breaks in the show 's airing schedule. Sitcoms may have 24 or more; animated programs may have more (or fewer) episodes (some are broken up into two 11 - minute shorts, often with separate self - contained storylines, that are folded into a single half - hour episode); cable networks with original programming seem to have settled on about 10 to 13 episodes per season, much in line with British television programming, though there are exceptions (particularly with cable networks specializing in children 's programming, which utilize the network television model of total per - season episode counts, but spread out the episodes over a single calendar year).
American soap operas air in the afternoon, five days a week, without any significant break in taping and airing schedules throughout the year. This means that these serials air approximately 260 episodes a year, making their cast and crew members the busiest in show business. These shows are rarely, if ever, repeated (unless the network chooses not to air a new episode on certain major holidays), making it difficult for viewers to "catch up '' when they miss an episode, though the television networks ' adoption of online streaming during the late 2000s has made it easier for viewers to watch recent episodes of a particular soap. Cable channel SoapNet provided weekly repeats for some broadcasts until it shut down in December 2013, after which TVGN (now Pop, and originally a television listings service formerly known under several names including the Prevue Channel) began airing same - day repeats of some network soaps.
Networks use profits from commercials that run during the show to pay the production company, which in turn pays the cast and crew, and keeps a share of the profits for itself (networks sometimes act as both production companies and distributors, though due to the vertical integration of networks and major media companies since the 1990s, production arms operated by the broadcast networks have largely been absorbed into the existing production arms of their corporate parents). As advertising rates are based on the size of the audience, measuring the number of people watching a network is very important. This measurement is known as a show or network 's ratings. Sweeps months (which occur in November, February, May, and to a lesser extent July) are important landmarks in the television season -- ratings earned during these periods determine advertising rates until the next sweeps period, therefore shows often have their most exciting plot developments happen during sweeps.
Shows that are successful with audiences and advertisers receive authorization from the network to continue production, until the plotline ends (only for scripted shows) or if the contract expires. Those that are not successful are often quickly told to discontinue production by the network, known as "cancellation ''. There are instances of initially low - rated shows surviving cancellation and later becoming highly popular, but these are rare. For the most part, shows that are not immediately or even moderately successful are cancelled by the end of November sweeps, if not shortly thereafter or earlier. Usually if a show is canceled, there is little chance of it ever coming back again especially on the same network it was canceled from; the only show in the U.S. to ever come back from cancellation on the same network is Family Guy (which was cancelled by Fox in 2002 and was revived by the network in 2005 due to the increased popularity of the series through reruns on cable and DVD releases). However, canceled shows like Scrubs, Southland, Medium and Wonder Woman have been picked up by other networks, which is becoming an increasingly common practice; similarly, in the 2010s, some programs cancelled by traditional television networks like Arrested Development, Community and The Mindy Project have been picked up or revived by internet television streaming services. It is also somewhat common for series to continue production for the purpose of completing a DVD set, even if these episodes will never air on television (these episodes would, in years past, be "burned off '' by airing them in less - prominent time slots).
Once a television series reaches a threshold of approximately 88 to 100 episodes, it becomes a candidate to enter reruns in off - network syndication. Reruns are a lucrative business for television producers, who can sell the rights to a "used '' series without the expenses of producing it (though they may have to pay royalties to the affected parties, depending on union contracts). The sale of previously aired programs to other outlets, including the Internet, television stations outside the United States and traditional off - network syndication, constitutes up to half of an individual show 's revenue stream as of 2017, with the other half coming from first - run advertising.
Sitcoms are traditionally the most widely syndicated reruns and are usually aired in a five - day - a-week strip (standardly with two episode "runs '', separate sets of episodes of a particular program that are usually from different seasons, packaged for stations to air back - to - back or in different time slots), and in most cases, with additional weekend runs consisting of two (or in some cases, four) additional episodes. Marginally performing shows tend to last less than three to five years in broadcast syndication, sometimes moving to cable channels (although rerun packages of some series are sold simultaneously into both broadcast syndication and cable, and sometimes to more than one cable network) or into limited - run barter syndication (such as through The Program Exchange) after the end of their syndication runs, while more widely successful series can have a life in syndication that can run for decades (I Love Lucy, the first series designed to be rerun, remains popular in syndication more than 60 years after its 1951 debut).
Cable and digital broadcast networks have provided outlets for programming that either has outlived its syndication viability, lacks the number of episodes necessary for syndication, or for various reasons was not a candidate for syndication in the first place. Popular dramas, for instance, have permanent homes on several basic cable channels, often running in marathons (multiple episodes airing back - to - back for several hours), and there are also cable channels devoted to game shows (Game Show Network and Buzzr), soap operas (the now - defunct SoapNet), Saturday morning cartoons (Boomerang) and even sports broadcasts (ESPN Classic). Digital broadcast networks specializing in classic television programming that have become popular since the early 2010s have also served as short - term or long - term homes for many older series that have not been syndicated in decades or have ever been aired in reruns. Most reality shows perform poorly in reruns and are rarely seen as a result, other than reruns of series still in production, on the same network on which they air (almost always cable outlets), where they air as filler programming.
Broadcast television is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. The FCC awards and oversees the renewal of licenses to local stations, which stipulate stations ' commitments to educational and public - interest programming. During the early years of commercial television, the FCC permitted a single company to own a maximum of five television stations nationwide (later raised to seven stations in 1984 and then to twelve in 1992), although until the 1960s, very few companies outside of the major broadcast networks owned multiple stations. Since a change to its media ownership regulations in 1999 that counted television station ownership maximums by a national market percentage rather than by the number of stations that could be allowed in their portfolio, FCC rules mandate that the total number of television stations owned by any company can only reach a maximum of 39 % of all markets in the U.S. Until 2016, a "discount '' allowed a broadcaster to cover up to 78 % of the U.S. with UHF signals; this loophole was closed in 2016, although existing companies above the 39 % threshold will be covered under a grandfather clause and, although they will not be allowed to acquire any more stations, they will also not be forced to sell their existing portfolios.
Most commercial stations are now owned - and - operated or controlled through outsourcing agreements by group owners (either independent companies or network - owned subsidiary groups), with a relatively limited number of companies that remain which own stations in five or fewer markets; a series of station purchases that have occurred since 2011 (when the Sinclair Broadcast Group acquired the Four Points Media Group) has concentrated the number of station owners even further, as a result of increasing competition between over-the - air broadcasters and subscription television outlets as well as to increase leverage in negotiations with cable and satellite providers for retransmission consent (which since the early 2000s, has increasingly become a primary form of revenue for broadcast networks, which have required their affiliates to share a portion of the revenue received by pay television providers as an additional source of operational revenue).
Outsourcing agreements (known by multiple terms, mainly local marketing agreements (LMA), shared services agreements (SSA) or joint sales agreements (JSA), albeit with little differentiation in their structure) have allowed some broadcasting companies to operate stations that they could otherwise not legally own outright due to in - market ownership regulations; these arrangements first began in 1991, when the Sinclair Broadcast Group entered into such an arrangement to run WPTT (now WPNT) in Pittsburgh, after it sold the station to its manager Edwin Edwards to acquire Fox affiliate WPGH - TV. However, as companies like Sinclair and the Nexstar Broadcasting Group have used outsourcing as loopholes around ownership regulations at the expense of independent (and particularly, minority) ownership, the FCC has made attempts to restrict broadcasters from using them, passing a rule in April 2014 that disallowed all JSAs in which one company sells 15 % of advertising for another station and required all existing ones to be unwound within five years (the National Association of Broadcasters backed a provision passed as part of a November 2015 Congressional budget bill that extended to the time limit to unwind existing JSAs to ten years).
The FCC also previously barred companies from owning more than one television station within a single market, unless it operated as a satellite station (a full - power station that relays programming from its parent station to areas within the market that are not adequately covered if at all by the main signal) or a low - power station (either one that maintains its own programming or operates as a translator); however, it eventually allowed operators of public television stations to sign - on or acquire a second station that did not repeat the parent 's signal (some of which were originally licensed as commercial outlets). In August 1999, the FCC legalized the common ownership of two commercial stations, known as duopolies, if one of them is not among the market 's four highest - rated, and if there are at least eight companies that each own full - power stations within the market. While the parent companies of NBC, ABC, CBS and Fox are not prohibited from owning a second broadcast network (and all of them, except for ABC, are co-owned with one), an FCC law known as the "dual - network rule '' does disallow a single company from owning two or more of the major networks.
The FCC also prohibits the airing of "indecent '' material over-the - air between 6: 00 a.m. and 10: 00 p.m. Broadcast stations can legally air almost anything they want late at night -- and cable networks at all hours. However, nudity and graphic profanity are rare on American television. Though the FCC gives them leeway to air programs containing "indecent '' material within its designated watershed period, broadcasters are hesitant to do this, concerned that airing such material would alienate advertisers and encourage the federal government to strengthen regulation of television content. Premium cable networks are exceptions, and often air very racy programming at night, though premium channels often air program content with strong to graphic profanity, violence and nudity in some cases during the daytime hours. Such content is common on pay television services, as they are not subjected to FCC regulations and pressure from advertisers, and often require a subscription to view them. Some networks (such as Playboy TV) are devoted exclusively to "adult '' content, specifically pornographic material, and therefore viewers may find scenes of simulated or graphic sexual intercourse and nudity on such channels.
Cable television is largely, but not entirely, unregulated. Cable providers must include local over-the - air stations in their offerings on each system (stations can opt to gain carriage by seeking a must - carry option) and give them low channel numbers, unless the stations decide to demand compensation of any sort (through retransmission consent). The systems can not carry broadcast network affiliates from other parts of the country (this regulation has largely been openly ignored in recent years during carriage disputes), however cable systems can carry stations from nearby markets if there are no local stations affiliated with one of the major networks (though this is becoming far less common with the shift, particularly since 2006, towards over-the - air stations carrying one network affiliation on their main channel and an affiliation with another network on a digital subchannel, thus allowing these network - affiliated digital subchannels to be carried at least via digital cable).
Cable systems can also air satellite - relayed broadcast stations originating from other areas of the United States, known as superstations (of which there are currently only five around the country), which for the most part are often aired in rural areas and may omit network programming from that station 's network affiliation; all superstations, are currently affiliated with a broadcast television network: WPIX in New York City, KWGN - TV in Denver and KTLA in Los Angeles are all affiliated with The CW, and WWOR - TV in Secaucus, New Jersey and WSBK - TV in Boston are affiliated with MyNetworkTV. A few of these superstations once had national distribution, carrying a separate feed that aired different programming than that of the local area feed and even some that also aired on the local feed that is SyndEx - proof (in other words, syndicated programming to which the superstation has obtained full signal rights to air nationally); the two most prominent of these nationally distributed stations were TBS and WGN - TV. TBS, whose former parent Atlanta station WTCG (now WPCH - TV) became the first "basic cable '' network to be uplinked to satellite in December 1976, had converted its national feed into a conventional cable channel in October 2007; WGN - TV in Chicago was uplinked in October 1978; its national feed, WGN America, also converted into a traditional cable channel in December 2014, when it dropped all remaining WGN - TV programming. WWOR - TV also once operated a national feed, which ceased operations in January 1997, before the station regained national superstation status as a satellite - exclusive service -- through its New York City feed -- a few months later.
The FCC has virtually no jurisdiction over the content of programming exclusively broadcast on cable. As a result, anyone is free to create any number of channels or any sort of programming whatsoever without consulting the FCC. The only restrictions are on the ability to secure carriage on cable or satellite (or, failing that, by streaming on Internet television) and securing the rights to programming. Because of this lack of restriction, channel drift (the shift of a channel 's programming format away from that which it originally maintained) is much more common in the United States than in other countries.
Because the United States had relatively weak copyright terms until 1976, a large body of older television series have lapsed into the public domain and are thus free to redistribute in any form.
After years of experimental broadcasts, television first became commercialized in the United States in New York City on July 1, 1941, initially by RCA (through NBC, which it owned) via its station WNBT (now WNBC) and CBS, via their station WCBW (now WCBS - TV). A number of different broadcast systems had been developed through the end of the 1930s. The National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) standardized on a 525 - line broadcast in 1941 that would provide the basis for television across the country through the end of the century.
Television development halted with the onset of World War II, but a few pioneer stations remained on the air throughout the war, primarily WNBT, WCBW and WABD (the former W2XWV, which became commercially licensed in 1944, owned by the DuMont Television Network, now WNYW) in New York City, WRGB in Schenectady, New York (owned by General Electric), WPTZ (now KYW - TV) in Philadelphia (owned by Philco), W9XBK (now WBBM - TV) in Chicago, as well as W6XAO (now KCBS - TV) and W6XYZ (now KTLA) in Los Angeles. When that conflict ended, these stations expanded their broadcast schedules and many other organizations applied for television station licenses.
After a flood of television license applications, the FCC froze the application process for new applicants in 1948, due to concerns over station interference. At the time, there were only a few dozen stations operating at the end of the decade, concentrated in many (but not all) major cities. The FCC began handing out broadcasting licenses to communities of all sizes in the early 1950s (with the highest concentration of license grants and station sign - ons occurring between 1953 and 1956), spurring an explosion of growth in the medium.
A brief dispute over the system to use for color broadcasts occurred at this time, but was soon settled. Half of all U.S. households had television sets by 1955, though color was a premium feature for many years (most households able to purchase television sets could only afford black - and - white models, and few programs were broadcast in color until the mid-1960s).
Many of the earliest television programs were modified versions of well - established radio shows. Barn dances and opries were regular staples of early television, as were the first variety shows. Reruns of film shorts (such as Looney Tunes, Our Gang and The Three Stooges) were also staples of early television and to a certain extent remain popular today, well after those film shorts mostly stopped being produced in the 1960s. The 1950s saw the first flowering of the genres that would distinguish television from movies and radio: talk shows like The Jack Paar Show and sitcoms like I Love Lucy. Although sitcoms were a radio fixture since the late 1930s (many 1940s radio sitcoms jumped directly to television), television allowed far greater use of physical comedy, an advantage that early television sitcoms used to its full potential.
Other popular genres in early television were westerns, police procedurals, suspense thrillers and soap operas, all of which were adapted from the radio medium. Anthology and wheel series thrived in the so - called "Golden Age of Television, '' but eventually faded in popularity by the 1970s. The big band remote, for the most part, did not survive (a victim of the concurrent start of the rock era), with two exceptions: The Lawrence Welk Show, a big band - driven musical variety show, ran from 1951 until Welk 's retirement in 1982 and in reruns from then onward (which eventually moved from commercial to public television syndication), and Guy Lombardo 's annual New Year 's Eve big - band remotes ran until 1979, two years after Lombardo 's death. Game shows were also a major part of the early part of television, aided by massive prizes unheard of in the radio era; however, the pressure to keep the programs entertaining led to the quiz show scandals, in which it was revealed many of the popular high - stakes games were rigged or outright scripted. The Saturday morning cartoons, animated productions made specifically for television (and, accordingly, with much tighter budgets and more limited animation), also debuted in the late 1950s.
Broadcast television stations in the United States were primarily transmitted on the VHF band (channels 2 - 13) in its earliest years; it was not until the All - Channel Receiver Act of 1964 that UHF broadcasting became a feasible medium.
Over the course of the 1960s and 1970s, concurrent with the development of color television, the evolution of television led to an event colloquially known as the rural purge; genres such as the panel game show, western, variety show, barn dance and rural - oriented sitcom all met their demise in favor of newer, more modern series targeted at wealthier suburban and urban viewers. Around the same time, videotape became a more affordable alternative to film for recording programs.
Stations across the country also produced their own local programs. Usually carried live, they ranged from simple advertisements to game shows and children 's shows that often featured clowns and other offbeat characters. Local programs could often be popular and profitable, but concerns about product promotion led them to almost completely disappear by the mid-1970s. The last remaining locally originated shows on American television as of 2016 are local newscasts, public affairs shows and some brokered programming (such as talk - lifestyle shows) paid for by advertisers.
Subscription television became popular in the early 1980s when cable television began to offer dedicated channels alongside local and out - of - market broadcast stations and service gradually expanded to more metropolitan areas, followed by the emergence of direct - broadcast satellite in the 1990s, and has been growing in significance since then -- spurring the emergence of multinational conglomerates such as Fox. As the number of outlets for potential new television channels increased, this also introduced the threat of audience fracturing, in that it would become more difficult to attain a critical mass of viewers in this highly competitive market (free - to - air satellite had a brief uptick in popularity during the 1980s, but never achieved mainstream popularity).
As ratings declined, the number of game shows and soap operas followed, with the former genre almost completely disappearing from American daytime television, to be replaced by much cheaper and more lowbrow tabloid talk shows, many of which in turn were canceled and replaced by televised binding arbitration court shows beginning in the late 1990s.
Infomercials were legalized in 1984, approximately the same time that cable television became widespread. Over the course of the 1980s and 1990s, stations began airing infomercials -- as well as news and entertainment programs -- throughout the night instead of signing off; infomercials also began to overtake other less - watched dayparts (such as weekends and during the daytime), which forced series that would otherwise be syndicated onto cable networks or off the air entirely. Cable networks have also begun selling infomercial space, usually in multiple - hour blocks in the early morning hours, while some dedicated channels devoted to infomercials have also launched since the early 1990s. Infomercials have earned a reputation as a medium for advertising scams and products of dubious quality, although by the same token, they have proven to be a successful method of selling products.
In the late 1990s, the U.S. began to deploy digital television, transitioning it into being the standard transmission method for over-the - air broadcasts. The major broadcast networks began transitioning to recording their programs in high definition (HD); prime time programs were the first to convert to the format, with daytime shows eventually being converted to HD beginning in the mid-2000s; the upgrade to full high - definition network schedules, at least among the conventional English language broadcast networks, was fully completed by September 2014 when the last standard - definition programs upgraded to HD. A law passed by Congress in 2006 required over-the - air stations to cease analog broadcasts in 2009, with the end of analog television arriving on June 12 of that year (originally set for February 17, before Congress delayed it due to concerns about national household penetration of digital television by viewers reliant on antennas for receive programming in advance the transition). Low - power television stations originally had until September 2015 to terminate analog broadcasts, a deadline that was later postponed and currently is slated to take effect in April 2021; most have already transitioned to digital as of 2014, with the exception of the "87.7 FM '' outlets, which operate primarily as radio stations by using the audio of analog channel 6 to broadcast to FM radios. There was an uptick in the number of "87.7 '' stations after the full - power transition, as low - power stations above channel 51 (UHF channels 52 to 69 were removed from the television spectrum as part of the transition) were required to choose a new channel allocation; many chose channel 6, as it allowed for the usage of the 87.7 audio channel to reach a wider audience.
The late 1990s also saw the invention of digital video recorders. While the ability to record a television program for home viewing was possible with the earlier VCRs, that medium was a bulky mechanical tape medium that was far less convenient than the all - digital technology that DVRs use (DVD recorders also began to be sold around this time, though this is also less convenient than the DVR technology since DVD discs are somewhat more fragile than videotapes, although both mediums allow to some extent for longer - term viewing than most DVRs). DVR technology allowed wide - scale time shifting of programming, which had a negative impact on programming in time slots outside of prime time by allowing viewers to watch their favorite programs on demand. It also put pressure on advertisers, since DVRs make it relatively easy to skip over commercials (satellite provider Dish Network 's Hopper technology, which eliminates commercials entirely, was even the subject of lawsuits by the major networks during the early and mid-2010s due to fears over diluted advertising revenue).
During the 2000s, the major development in U.S. television programming was the growth of reality television, which proved to be an inexpensive and entertaining alternative to scripted prime time programming. The process of nonlinear video editing and digital recording allowed for much easier and less expensive editing of mass amounts of video, making reality television more viable than it had been in previous decades. All four major broadcast networks carry at least one long - running reality franchise in their lineup at any given time of the year.
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when does harry find out he's a wizard | Harry Potter (character) - wikipedia
Harry James Potter is the title character and protagonist of J.K. Rowling 's Harry Potter series. The majority of the books ' plot covers seven years in the life of the orphan Potter, who, on his eleventh birthday, learns he is a wizard. Thus, he attends Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry to practice magic under the guidance of the kindly headmaster Albus Dumbledore and other school professors. Harry also discovers that he is already famous throughout the novel 's magical community, and that his fate is tied with that of Lord Voldemort, the internationally feared Dark Wizard and murderer of his parents, Lily and James.
According to Rowling, the idea for both the Harry Potter books and its eponymous character came while waiting for a delayed train from Manchester, England to London in 1990. She stated that her idea for "this scrawny, black - haired, bespectacled boy who did n't know he was a wizard became more and more real to me ''. While developing the ideas for her book, she also decided to make Harry an orphan who attended a boarding school called Hogwarts. She explained in a 1999 interview with The Guardian: "Harry had to be an orphan -- so that he 's a free agent, with no fear of letting down his parents, disappointing them... Hogwarts has to be a boarding school -- half the important stuff happens at night! Then there 's the security. Having a child of my own reinforces my belief that children above all want security, and that 's what Hogwarts offers Harry. ''
Her own mother 's death on 30 December 1990 inspired Rowling to write Harry as a boy longing for his dead parents, his anguish becoming "much deeper, much more real '' than in earlier drafts because she related to it herself. In a 2000 interview with The Guardian, Rowling also established that the character of Wart in T.H. White 's novel The Once and Future King is "Harry 's spiritual ancestor. '' Finally, she established Harry 's birth date as 31 July, the same as her own. However, she maintained that Harry was not directly based on any real - life person: "he came just out of a part of me ''.
Rowling has also maintained that Harry is a suitable real - life role model for children. "The advantage of a fictional hero or heroine is that you can know them better than you can know a living hero, many of whom you would never meet (...) if people like Harry and identify with him, I am pleased, because I think he is very likeable. ''
Harry first appears in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone). Starting in 1981, when Harry was just one year old, his parents, James and Lily, were murdered by the most powerful Dark Wizard, Lord Voldemort (subsequently called "You - Know - Who '' and "He - Who - Must - Not - Be-Named '' by those too superstitious to use his actual name). He attempted to kill Harry too, but was unsuccessful and only left a lightning bolt shaped scar on Harry 's forehead. Voldemort 's body was destroyed, but his soul was not. Harry later learns that the reason why he survived was because his mother sacrificed herself for him, and her love was something that Voldemort could not destroy.
According to Rowling, fleshing out this back story was a matter of reverse planning: "The basic idea (is that) Harry... did n't know he was a wizard... and so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be, that he would n't know what he was... That 's... When he was one year old, the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him. He killed Harry 's parents, and then he tried to kill Harry -- he tried to curse him... Harry has to find out, before we find out. And for some mysterious reason, the curse did n't work on Harry. So he 's left with this lightning - bolt shaped scar on his forehead, and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard who has been in hiding ever since ''.
As a result, Harry is written as an orphan living with his only remaining family, the Dursleys, who are neglectful and abusive. On his eleventh birthday in 1991, Harry learns he is a wizard when Rubeus Hagrid arrives to tell him that he is to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry. There he learns about the wizarding world, his parents, and his connection to the Dark Lord. When he is sorted into Gryffindor House, he becomes fast friends with classmates Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger, and foils Voldemort 's attempt to steal the Philosopher 's Stone. He also forms a rivalry with characters Draco Malfoy, a classmate from an elitist wizarding family, and the cold, condescending Potions master, Severus Snape, Draco 's mentor and the head of Slytherin House. Both feuds continue throughout the series and are settled at the series 's end (Draco 's in the West End play Harry Potter and the Cursed Child and Snape 's on his deathbed in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows. In a 1999 interview, Rowling stated that Draco is based on several prototypical schoolyard bullies she encountered and Snape on a sadistic teacher of hers who abused his power.
Rowling has stated that the "Mirror of Erised '' chapter in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone is her favourite; the mirror reflects Harry 's deepest desire, namely to see his dead parents and family. Her favourite funny scene is when Harry inadvertently sets a boa constrictor free from the zoo in the horrified Dursleys ' presence.
In the second book, Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Rowling pits Harry against Tom Riddle, Lord Voldemort 's "memory '' within a secret diary which has possessed Ron 's younger sister Ginny. When Muggle - born students are suddenly being Petrified, many suspect that Harry may be behind the attacks, further alienating him from his peers. Furthermore, Harry begins to doubt his worthiness for House of Gryffindor, particularly considering he discovers he shares Lord Voldemort 's ability to communicate with snakes via Parseltongue. In the climax, Ginny disappears. To rescue her, Harry battles Riddle and the monster he controls that is hidden in the Chamber of Secrets. To defeat the monster, Harry summons the Sword of Godric Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat supplied by Dumbledore 's pet phoenix, Fawkes. In doing so, Dumbledore later restores Harry 's self - esteem by explaining that that feat is clear proof of his worthiness of his present house.
In the third book, Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Rowling uses a time travel premise. Harry learns that his parents were betrayed to Voldemort by their friend Peter Pettigrew, who framed Harry 's godfather Sirius Black for the crimes, condemning him to Azkaban, the wizard prison. When Sirius escapes to find Harry, Harry and Hermione use a Time Turner to save him and a hippogriff named Buckbeak. When Pettigrew escapes, an innocent Sirius becomes a hunted fugitive once again. Harry learns how to create a Patronus, which takes the form of a stag, the same as his late father 's.
In the previous books, Harry is written as a child, but Rowling states that in the fourth novel, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, "Harry 's horizons are literally and metaphorically widening as he grows older. '' Harry 's developing maturity becomes apparent when he becomes romantically interested in Cho Chang, a student in Ravenclaw house. Tension mounts, however, when Harry is mysteriously chosen by the Goblet of Fire to compete in the dangerous Triwizard Tournament, even though another Hogwarts champion, Cedric Diggory, has already been selected. Voldemort uses the Tournament for an elaborate scheme to lure Harry into a deadly trap. During the Tournament 's final challenge, Harry and Cedric are transported to a graveyard, using a portkey, where Cedric is killed by Peter Pettigrew, and Voldemort, aided by Pettigrew, uses Harry 's blood in a gruesome ritual to resurrect his body. When Harry duels Voldemort, their wands ' magical streams connect, forcing the spirit echoes of Voldemort 's victims, including Cedric and James and Lily Potter, to be expelled from his wand. The spirits briefly protect Harry as he escapes to Hogwarts with Cedric 's body. For Rowling, this scene is important because it shows Harry 's bravery, and by retrieving Cedric 's corpse, he demonstrates selflessness and compassion. Says Rowling, "He wants to save Cedric 's parents additional pain. '' She added that preventing Cedric 's body from falling into Voldemort 's hands is based on the classic scene in the Iliad where Achilles retrieves the body of his best friend Patroclus from the hands of Hector. Rowling also mentioned that book four rounds off an era in Harry 's life, and the remaining three books are another, "He 's no longer protected. He 's been very protected until now. But he 's very young to have that experience. Most of us do n't get that until a bit later in life. He 's only just coming up to 15 and that 's it now. ''
In the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, the Ministry of Magic has been waging a smear campaign against Harry and Dumbledore, disputing their claims that Voldemort has returned. Harry is made to look like an attention - seeking liar, and Dumbledore a trouble - maker. A new character is introduced when the Ministry of Magic appoints Dolores Umbridge as the latest Hogwarts ' Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor (and Ministry spy). Because the paranoid Ministry suspects that Dumbledore is building a wizard army to overthrow them, Umbridge refuses to teach students real defensive magic. She gradually gains more power, eventually ousting Dumbledore and seizing control of the school. As a result, Harry 's increasingly angry and erratic behaviour nearly estranges him from Ron and Hermione.
Rowling says she put Harry through extreme emotional stress to show his emotional vulnerability and humanity -- a contrast to his nemesis, Voldemort. "(Harry is) a very human hero, and this is, obviously, a contrast, between him, as a very human hero, and Voldemort, who has deliberately dehumanised himself. And Harry, therefore, did have to reach a point where he did almost break down, and say he did n't want to play any more, he did n't want to be the hero any more -- and he 'd lost too much. And he did n't want to lose anything else. So that -- Phoenix was the point at which I decided he would have his breakdown. ''
At Hermione 's urging, Harry forms a secret student organisation called Dumbledore 's Army to teach more meaningful defence against the dark arts as Professor Umbridge is making them read off a textbook. Their plan is thwarted, however, when a Dumbledore 's Army member, Marietta Edgecombe, betrays them and informs Umbridge about the D.A., causing Dumbledore to be ousted as Headmaster. Harry suffers another emotional blow, when his beloved godfather, Sirius, is killed during a duel with Sirius ' cousin, the Death Eater Bellatrix Lestrange, at the Department of Mysteries, but Harry ultimately defeats Voldemort 's plan to steal an important prophecy. Rowling stated: "And now he (Harry) will rise from the ashes strengthened. '' A side plot of Order of the Phoenix involves Harry 's romance with Cho Chang, but the relationship quickly unravels. Says Rowling: "They were never going to be happy, it was better that it ended early! ''
In the sixth book, Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince Harry enters a tumultuous puberty that, Rowling says, is based on her and her younger sister 's own difficult teenage years. Rowling also made an intimate statement about Harry 's personal life: "Because of the demands of the adventure that Harry is following, he has had less sexual experience than boys of his age might have had. '' This inexperience with romance was a factor in Harry 's failed relationship with Cho. Now his thoughts concern Ginny, and a vital plot point in the last chapter includes Harry ending their budding romance to protect her from Voldemort.
A new character appears when former Hogwarts Potions master Horace Slughorn replaces Snape, who assumes the Defence Against the Dark Arts post. Harry suddenly excels in Potions, using an old textbook once belonging to a talented student known only as "The Half - Blood Prince. '' The book contains many handwritten notes, revisions, and new spells; Hermione, however, believes Harry 's use of it is cheating. Through private meetings with Dumbledore, Harry learns about Voldemort 's orphaned youth, his rise to power, and how he splintered his soul into Horcruxes to achieve immortality. Two Horcruxes have been destroyed -- the diary and a ring; and Harry and Dumbledore locate another, although it is a fake. When Death Eaters invade Hogwarts, Snape kills Dumbledore. As Snape escapes, he proclaims that he is the Half - Blood Prince (being the son of a muggle father and the pure - blood Eileen Prince). It now falls upon Harry to find and destroy Voldemort 's remaining Horcruxes and to avenge Dumbledore 's death. In a 2005 interview, Rowling stated that (after the events in the sixth book) Harry has, "taken the view that they are now at war. He does become more battle - hardened. He 's now ready to go out fighting. And he 's after revenge (against Voldemort and Snape). ''
This book also focuses on the mysterious activities of Harry 's rival Draco Malfoy. Voldemort has coerced a frightened Malfoy into attempting to kill Dumbledore. During a duel in Moaning Myrtle 's bathroom, Harry uses the Half - Blood Prince 's spell, Sectumsempra, on Malfoy, who suffers near - fatal injuries as a result. Harry is horrified by what he has done and also comes to feel sympathy for Draco, after learning he was forced to do Voldemort 's bidding under the threat of his and his parents ' deaths.
In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Harry, Ron, and Hermione leave Hogwarts to complete Dumbledore 's task: to search for and destroy Voldemort 's remaining four Horcruxes, then find and kill the Dark Lord. The three pit themselves against Voldemort 's newly formed totalitarian police state, an action that tests Harry 's courage and moral character. Voldemort 's seizure of the Ministry of Magic leads to discriminatory and genocidal policies against Muggle - borns, fuelled by propaganda and fear. According to J.K. Rowling, telling scenes are when Harry uses Cruciatus Curse and Imperius Curse, unforgivable curses for torture and mind - control, on Voldemort 's servants, and also when he casts Sectumsempra on Draco Malfoy during the bathroom fight in the sixth book. Each time shows a "flawed and mortal '' side to Harry. However, she explains, "He is also in an extreme situation and attempting to defend somebody very good against a violent and murderous opponent. ''
Harry experiences occasional disturbing visions of Draco being forced to perform the Death Eaters ' bidding and feels "... sickened... by the use to which Draco was now being put by Voldemort, '' again showing his compassion for an enemy.
Each Horcrux Harry must defeat can not be destroyed easily. They must be destroyed with basilisk venom, Godric Gryffindor 's sword, or some other destructive substance. In Book Two, Harry destroys the first horcrux, Tom Riddle 's diary, with a basilisk fang, and in Book Six Dumbledore destroys the ring with Gryffindor 's sword. Ron destroys Slytherin 's locket with the sword, Hermione destroys Hufflepuff 's cup with a basilisk fang, and Crabbe destroys Ravenclaw 's diadem with Fiendfyre (cursed flame). Neville kills the snake Nagini with the sword, and Voldemort destroys the final accidental Horcrux: a fragment of soul embedded in Harry 's scar.
Harry comes to recognise that his own single - mindedness makes him predictable to his enemies and often clouds his perceptions. When Voldemort kills Snape later in the story, Harry discovers that Snape was not the traitorous murderer he believed him to be, but a tragic antihero who was loyal to Dumbledore. In Chapter 33 (' The Prince 's Tale ') Snape 's memories reveal that he loved Harry 's mother Lily, but their friendship ended over his association with future Death Eaters and his "blood purity '' beliefs. When Voldemort murdered the Potters, a grieving Snape vowed to protect Lily 's child, although he loathed young Harry for being James Potter 's son. The memories also reveal that Snape did not murder Dumbledore, but carried out Dumbledore 's prearranged plan. Dumbledore, dying from a slow - spreading curse, wanted to protect Snape 's position within the Death Eaters and to spare Draco from completing Voldemort 's task of murdering him.
To defeat Harry, Voldemort steals the most powerful wand ever created, the Elder Wand, from Dumbledore 's tomb and twice casts the Killing Curse on Harry with it. The first attempt merely stuns Harry into a deathlike state; the murder attempt fails because Voldemort used Harry 's blood in his resurrection during book four. The protection that his mother gave Harry with her sacrifice tethers Harry to life, as long as his blood and her sacrifice run in the veins of Voldemort. In the chapter "King 's Cross, '' Dumbledore 's spirit talks to Harry whilst in this deathlike state. Dumbledore informs Harry that when Voldemort disembodied himself during his failed attempt to kill Harry as a baby, Harry became an unintentional Horcrux; Harry could not kill Voldemort while the Dark Lord 's soul shard remained within Harry 's body. The piece of Voldemort 's soul within Harry was destroyed through Voldemort 's first killing curse with the Elder Wand because Harry willingly faced death, which cast a sacrificial protection on the defenders of Hogwarts.
In the book 's climax, Voldemort 's second Killing Curse hurled at Harry also fails and rebounds upon Voldemort, finally killing him. The spell fails because Harry, not Voldemort, had become the Elder Wand 's true master and the wand could not harm its own master. Harry has each of the Hallows (the Invisibility Cloak, the Resurrection Stone, and the Elder Wand) at some point in the story but never unites them. However, J.K. Rowling said the difference between Harry and Voldemort is that Harry willingly accepts mortality, making him stronger than his nemesis. "The real master of Death accepts that he must die, and that there are much worse things in the world of the living. '' At the very end, Harry decides to leave the Elder Wand in Dumbledore 's tomb and the Resurrection Stone hidden in the forest, but he keeps the Invisibility Cloak because it had belonged to his father.
In the epilogue of Deathly Hallows, which is set 19 years after Voldemort 's death, Harry and Ginny are a couple and have three children: James Sirius Potter, who has already been at Hogwarts for at least one year, Albus Severus Potter, who is starting his first year there, and Lily Luna Potter, who is two years away from her first year at the school.
According to Rowling, after Voldemort 's defeat, Harry joins the "reshuffled '' Auror Department under Kingsley Shacklebolt 's mentoring, and ends up eventually rising to become Head of said department in 2007. Rowling said that his old rival Draco has a grudging gratitude towards Harry for saving his life in the final battle, but the two are not friends.
In the eight Harry Potter films screened from 2001 to 2011, Harry Potter has been portrayed by British actor Daniel Radcliffe. Radcliffe was asked to audition for the role of Harry in 2000 by producer David Heyman, while in attendance at a play titled Stones in His Pockets in London. The role has been highly lucrative for Radcliffe; as of 2015, he had an estimated wealth of $110 million and was paid a collective $53 million for the last two films.
In a 2007 interview with MTV, Radcliffe stated that, for him, Harry is a classic coming of age character: "That 's what the films are about for me: a loss of innocence, going from being a young kid in awe of the world around him, to someone who is more battle - hardened by the end of it. '' He also said that for him, important factors in Harry 's psyche are his survivor 's guilt in regard to his dead parents and his lingering loneliness. Because of this, Radcliffe talked to a bereavement counsellor to help him prepare for the role. Radcliffe was quoted as saying that he wished for Harry to die in the books, but he clarified that he "ca n't imagine any other way they can be concluded. '' After reading the last book, where Harry and his friends do indeed survive and have children, Radcliffe stated he was glad about the ending and lauded Rowling for the conclusion of the story. Radcliffe stated that the most repeated question he has been asked is how Harry Potter has influenced his own life, to which he regularly answers it has been "fine, '' and that he did not feel pigeonholed by the role, but rather sees it as a huge privilege to portray Harry.
Radcliffe 's Harry was named the 36th greatest movie character of all time by Empire.
Throughout the series, Harry is described as having his father 's perpetually untidy black hair, his mother 's bright green eyes, and a lightning bolt - shaped scar on his forehead. He is further described as "small and skinny for his age '' with "a thin face '' and "knobbly knees '', and he wears round eyeglasses. In the first book, his scar is described as "the only thing Harry liked about his own appearance ''. When asked about the meaning behind Harry 's lightning bolt scar, Rowling said, "I wanted him to be physically marked by what he has been through. It was an outward expression of what he has been through inside... It is almost like being the chosen one or the cursed one, in a sense. '' Rowling has also stated that Harry inherited his parents ' good looks. In the later part of the series Harry grows taller, and by the seventh book is said to be ' almost ' the height of his father, and ' tall ' by other characters.
Rowling explained that Harry 's image came to her when she first thought up Harry Potter, seeing him as a "scrawny, black - haired, bespectacled boy ''. She also mentioned that she thinks Harry 's glasses are the clue to his vulnerability.
According to Rowling, Harry is strongly guided by his own conscience, and has a keen feeling of what is right and wrong. Having "very limited access to truly caring adults '', Rowling said, Harry "is forced to make his own decisions from an early age on. '' He "does make mistakes '', she conceded, but in the end, he does what his conscience tells him to do. According to Rowling, one of Harry 's pivotal scenes came in the fourth book when he protects his dead schoolmate Cedric Diggory 's body from Voldemort, because it shows he is brave and selfless.
Rowling has stated that Harry 's character flaws include anger and impulsiveness; however, Harry is also innately honourable. "He 's not a cruel boy. He 's competitive, and he 's a fighter. He does n't just lie down and take abuse. But he does have native integrity, which makes him a hero to me. He 's a normal boy but with those qualities most of us really admire. '' For the most part, Harry shows humility and modesty, often downplaying his achievements; though he uses a litany of his adventures as examples of his maturity early in the fifth book. However, these very same accomplishments are later employed to explain why he should lead Dumbledore 's Army, at which point he asserts them as having just been luck, and denies that they make him worthy of authority. After the seventh book, Rowling commented that Harry has the ultimate character strength, which not even Voldemort possesses: the acceptance of the inevitability of death.
Throughout the series, Harry Potter is described as a gifted wizard apprentice. He has a particular talent for flying, which manifests itself in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone the first time he tries it, and gets him a place on a Quidditch team one year before the normal minimum joining age. He captains it in his sixth year. In his fourth year (Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire), Harry is able to confront a dragon on his broomstick.
Harry is also gifted in Defence Against the Dark Arts, in which he becomes proficient due to his repeated encounters with Voldemort and various monsters. In his third year, Harry becomes able to cast the very advanced Patronus Charm, and by his fifth year he has become so talented at the subject that he is able to teach his fellow students in Dumbledore 's Army, some even older than him how to defend themselves against Dark Magic. At the end of that year, he achieves an ' Outstanding ' Defence Against the Dark Arts O.W.L., something that not even Hermione achieved. He is a skilled duellist, the only one of the six Dumbledore 's Army members to be neither injured nor incapacitated during the battle with Death Eaters in the Department of Mysteries in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. He also fends off numerous Death Eaters during his flight to the Burrow at the beginning of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
Harry also had the unusual ability to speak and understand "Parseltongue '', a language associated with Dark Magic. This, it transpires, is because he harbours a piece of Voldemort 's soul. He loses this ability after the part of Voldemort 's soul inside him is destroyed at the end of The Deathly Hallows.
Harry 's parents left behind a somewhat large pile of wizard 's gold, used as currency in the world of magic, in a vault in the wizarding bank, Gringotts. After Sirius ' death later in the series, all of his remaining possessions are also passed along to Harry, including Number Twelve, Grimmauld Place, and Sirius 's vast amount of gold were transferred into Harry 's account at Gringotts. Rowling noted that "Harry 's money never really is that important in the books, except that he can afford his books and uniforms and so on. ''
Among the school items Harry purchases in Diagon Alley after discovering his gold inheritance is his first wand, an 11 - inch - long holly and phoenix feather model that he learns is the twin of Voldemort 's wand, as the feathers that both wands contain as their cores both comes from Fawkes, the phoenix that Dumbledore keeps as a pet in his office until his death in Half - Blood Prince. Harry 's wand is broken in Deathly Hallows. For a time, he borrows Hermione 's wand, and later steals Draco 's. With his defeat of Voldemort at the end of the series, he comes into the possession of the Elder Wand, but uses it only to repair his holly wand, before returning it to Dumbledore 's tomb, from which Voldemort had stolen it. In the film version of Deathly Hallows Part 2, Harry destroys the Elder Wand.
Harry also inherits indirectly two of his father 's prized possessions. One is the Marauder 's Map, given to him by interim owners Fred and George Weasley, which endows Harry with comprehensive knowledge of Hogwarts ' facilities, grounds, and occupants. The other is his father 's Invisibility Cloak, given to him by Dumbledore, which eventually proves Harry 's descent from the Peverell family. Harry uses these tools both to aid in excursions at school and to protect those he cares about; the Invisibility Cloak, in particular, can hide two full - grown people. If three fully - grown people hide under the cloak their feet will be visible. When Harry reaches his age of maturity at seventeen, Molly Weasley gives him a pocket watch which had once belonged to her brother Fabian Prewett, as it is traditional to give a boy a watch when he turns seventeen.
Throughout the majority of the books, Harry also has a pet owl named Hedwig, used to deliver and receive messages and packages. Hedwig is killed in the seventh book, about which Rowling says: "The loss of Hedwig represented a loss of innocence and security. She has been almost like a cuddly toy to Harry at times. I know that death upset a lot of people! '' As a Quidditch player, Harry has owned two high - quality brooms. The first, a Nimbus Two Thousand, was procured for him by Professor Minerva Mcgonagall when Harry was added to Gryffindor 's Quidditch team despite being a first - year student. This broom was destroyed by the Whomping Willow during a match in Harry 's third year. It was replaced by a Firebolt, an even faster (and more expensive) broom, purchased for Harry by Sirius; however, as Sirius was believed to be trying to murder Harry at the time, the broom was subjected to stringent security inspections before Harry was allowed to ride it. Harry used it throughout his Hogwarts career until it, along with Hedwig, was lost during the July escape from Privet Drive in the final book.
Harry also owns a mokeskin pouch, or small ' bag ' that is used for storing items, which no one but the owner can get out. He receives this from Hagrid as a 17th birthday present. Harry uses the pouch throughout the course of Deathly Hallows to keep several sentimental (yet, as he himself admits, otherwise worthless) objects such as the Marauder 's Map, a shard of the magical mirror given to him by his god - father Sirius, the fake Horcrux locket that had belonged to Sirius 's brother R.A.B. (Regulus Arcturus Black), the Snitch bequeathed to him by Dumbledore, containing the Resurrection Stone that had previously been set into Voldemort 's grandfather Marvolo Gaunt 's signet ring, which Harry discovers is actually the second Hallow, a letter from his mother to Sirius with part of a photo (of him and his father, James), and eventually, his own broken wand (which Harry later repairs with the Elder Wand).
In the novels, Harry is the only child of James and Lily Potter, orphaned as an infant. Rowling made Harry an orphan from the early drafts of her first book. She felt an orphan would be the most interesting character to write about. However, after her mother 's death, Rowling wrote Harry as a child longing to see his dead parents again, incorporating her own anguish into him. Harry is categorised as a "half - blood '' wizard in the series, because although both his parents were magical, Lily was "Muggle - born '', and James was a pure - blood.
Harry 's aunt and uncle kept the truth about his parents ' deaths from Harry, telling him that they had died in a car crash. James Potter is a descendant of Ignotus Peverell, the third of the three original owners of the Deathly Hallows, and thus so is Harry, a realisation he makes during the course of the final book. The lineage continues at the end of the saga through his three children with Ginny: James Sirius Potter, Albus Severus Potter and Lily Luna Potter.
In an original piece published on the Pottermore website in September 2015, Rowling described the history of the Potter family in greater detail, beginning with the 12th - century wizard Linfred of Stinchcombe, "a locally well - beloved and eccentric man, whose nickname, ' the Potterer ', became corrupted in time to ' Potter ' ''. Linfred was the inventor of a number of remedies that evolved into potions still used in the modern day, including Skele - Gro and Pepperup Potion. These successful products garnered Linfred the earnings that formed the basis of the family 's wealth, which grew with the work of successive generations. Linfred 's oldest son, Hardwin, married a beautiful young witch from Godric 's Hollow named Iolanthe Peverell, the granddaughter of Ignotus Peverell, who continued the tradition of passing down Ignotus ' Invisibility Cloak through the generations. Two of Harry Potter 's ancestors have sat on the Wizengamot: Ralston Potter and Henry Potter. Ralston was a member from 1612 - 1652, and an ardent supporter of the Statute of Secrecy. Henry Potter, known as "Harry '' to his closest loved ones, was a direct descendant of Hardwin and Iolanthe, and a paternal great - grandfather of Harry Potter. Henry served on the Wizengamot from 1913 - 1921, and caused a minor controversy when he publicly condemned then Minister for Magic, Archer Evermonde, for prohibiting the magical community from helping Muggles waging the First World War. Henry 's son, Fleamont Potter, who was given his grandmother 's surname as his given name in order to grant the dying wish of Henry 's mother to continue her family name, garnered a reputation for his duels at Hogwarts, which were provoked when others mocked him for his name. Fleamont quadrupled the family gold by creating magical Sleekeazy 's Hair Potion, selling his company at a vast profit when he retired. Fleamont and his wife, Euphemia, had given up hope of having a child when she became pregnant with their son, James, who would go on to marry Lily Evans and bear a son of their own, Harry Potter. Fleamont and Euphemia lived to see James and Lily marry, but they would never meet their famous grandson, as they both died of dragon pox, stemming from their advanced age.
In 2002, Harry Potter was voted No. 85 among the "100 Best Fictional Characters '' by Book magazine and also voted the 35th "Worst Briton '' in Channel 4 's "100 Worst Britons We Love to Hate '' programme. Entertainment Weekly ranked Harry Potter number two on its 2010 "100 Greatest Characters of the Last 20 Years '' list, saying "Long after we 've turned the last page and watched the last end credit, Harry still feels like someone we know. And that 's the most magical thing about him. '' UGO Networks listed Harry as one of their best heroes of all time, who said that "Harry is a hero to the often oppressed and downtrodden young fan boys and girls out there, who finally have an icon that is respected and revered by those who might otherwise look down on robe - wearing and wand waving as dork fodder ''. Harry Potter was also ranked number thirty - six on Empire 's 2008 list of "100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time ''. IGN said that Harry Potter was their favourite Harry Potter character, calling him a "sympathetic figure '' and saying in response to his fights against Voldemort that "everybody loves an underdog story of good vs. evil ''. Despite being the main character, Watchmojo.com ranked him # 2 on their "Top 10 Harry Potter Characters '' list in 2014 (Severus Snape was ranked # 1 on the list).
According to halloweenonline.com, Harry Potter sets were the fifth - best selling Halloween costume of 2005. In addition, wizard rock bands like Harry and the Potters and others regularly dress up in the style of Harry Potter, sporting painted forehead scars, black wigs, and round bottle top glasses. Wizard rock is a musical movement dating from 2002 that consists of at least 200 bands made up of young musicians, playing songs about Harry Potter. The movement started in Massachusetts with the band Harry and the Potters, who cosplay as Harry during live performances.
In April 2009, a group of University of Michigan students eventually known as StarKid Productions performed Harry Potter: The Musical, a two - act musical parody that featured major elements from all seven books and an original score. They posted the entire musical on their YouTube channel but removed it in late June, to edit some more mature elements from the videos. The musical, re-titled A Very Potter Musical, was reposted on 5 July 2009, starring Darren Criss as Harry Potter. A sequel was premiered at the 2010 HPEF Harry Potter Conference Infinitus, and released on YouTube on 22 July at 8 pm EST. The sequel was called A Very Potter Sequel and featured the Death Eaters using the Time - Turner to go back in time to Harry 's first year in Hogwarts. Harry Potter is spoofed in the Barry Trotter series by American writer Michael Gerber, where a "Barry Trotter '' appears as the eponymous antihero. On his homepage, Gerber describes Trotter as an unpleasant character who "drinks too much, eats like a pig, sleeps until noon, and owes everybody money. '' The author stated "(s) ince I really liked Rowling 's books (...) I felt obligated to try to write a spoof worthy of the originals ''.
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give the name of a thing that never boils but is a liquid | Boiling - wikipedia
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. The higher the pressure the higher the boiling point. There are two main types of boiling; nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 ° C or 212 ° F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.
Boiling water is used as a method of making it potable by killing microbes that may be present. The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to heat varies, but if water is held at 70 ° C (158 ° F) for ten minutes, many organisms are killed, but some are more resistant to heat and require one minute at the boiling point of water.
Boiling is also used in cooking. Foods suitable for boiling include vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks, and soups. As a cooking method, it is simple and suitable for large - scale cookery. Tough meats or poultry can be given a long, slow cooking and a nutritious stock is produced. Disadvantages include loss of water - soluble vitamins and minerals. Commercially prepared foodstuffs are sometimes packed in polythene sachets and sold as "boil - in - the - bag '' products.
Nucleate boiling is characterized by the growth of bubbles or pops on a heated surface, which rises from discrete points on a surface, whose temperature is only slightly above the liquids. In general, the number of nucleation sites are increased by an increasing surface temperature.
An irregular surface of the boiling vessel (i.e., increased surface roughness) or additives to the fluid (i.e., surfactants and / or nanoparticles) can create additional nucleation sites, while an exceptionally smooth surface, such as plastic, lends itself to superheating. Under these conditions, a heated liquid may show boiling delay and the temperature may go somewhat above the boiling point without boiling.
As the boiling surface is heated above a critical temperature, a film of vapor forms on the surface. Since this vapor film is much less capable of carrying heat away from the surface, the temperature rises very rapidly beyond this point into the transition boiling regime. The point at which this occurs is dependent on the characteristics of boiling fluid and the heating surface in question.
Transition boiling may be defined as the unstable boiling, which occurs at surface temperatures between the maximum attainable in nucleate and the minimum attainable in film boiling.
The formation of bubbles in a heated liquid is a complex physical process which often involves cavitation and acoustic effects, such as the broad - spectrum hiss one hears in a kettle not yet heated to the point where bubbles boil to the surface.
If a surface heating the liquid is significantly hotter than the liquid then film boiling will occur, where a thin layer of vapor, which has low thermal conductivity, insulates the surface. This condition of a vapor film insulating the surface from the liquid characterizes film boiling.
In distillation, boiling is used for separating mixtures. This is possible because the vapor rising from a boiling fluid generally has a ratio of components different from that in the liquid.
As a method of disinfecting water, bringing it to its boiling point at 100 ° C (212 ° F), is the oldest and most effective way since it does not affect the taste, it is effective despite contaminants or particles present in it, and is a single step process which eliminates most microbes responsible for causing intestine related diseases. In places having a proper water purification system, it is recommended only as an emergency treatment method or for obtaining potable water in the wilderness or in rural areas, as it can not remove chemical toxins or impurities.
The elimination of micro-organisms by boiling follows first - order kinetics -- at high temperatures, it is achieved in less time and at lower temperatures, in more time. The heat sensitivity of micro-organisms varies, at 70 ° C (158 ° F), Giardia species (causes Giardiasis) can take ten minutes for complete inactivation, most intestine affecting microbes and E. coli (gastroenteritis) take less than a minute; at boiling point, Vibrio cholerae (cholera) takes ten seconds and hepatitis A virus (causes the symptom of jaundice), one minute. Boiling does not ensure the elimination of all micro-organisms; the bacterial spores Clostridium can survive at 100 ° C (212 ° F) but are not water - borne or intestine affecting. Thus for human health, complete sterilization of water is not required.
The traditional advice of boiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since microbes start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than 60 ° C (140 ° F) and bringing it to its boiling point is also a useful indication that can be seen without the help of a thermometer, and by this time, the water is disinfected. Though the boiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process.
Boiling is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water - based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.
The boiling point of water is typically considered to be 100 ° C or 212 ° F. Pressure and a change in the composition of the liquid may alter the boiling point of the liquid. For this reason, high elevation cooking generally takes longer since boiling point is a function of atmospheric pressure. In Denver, Colorado, USA, which is at an elevation of about one mile, water boils at approximately 95 ° C or 203 ° F. Depending on the type of food and the elevation, the boiling water may not be hot enough to cook the food properly. Similarly, increasing the pressure as in a pressure cooker raises the temperature of the contents above the open air boiling point.
Some science suggests adding a water - soluble substance, such as salt or sugar also increases the boiling point. This is called boiling - point elevation. At palatable concentrations of salt, the effect is very small, and the boiling point elevation is difficult to notice and this is why experiments to prove this are considered inconclusive. However, while making thick sugar syrup, such as for Gulab Jamun, one will notice boiling point elevation. Due to variations in composition and pressure, the boiling point of water is almost never exactly 100 ° C, but rather close enough for cooking.
Foods suitable for boiling include vegetables, starchy foods such as rice, noodles and potatoes, eggs, meats, sauces, stocks, and soups.
Boiling has several advantages. It is safe and simple, and it is appropriate for large - scale cookery. Older, tougher, cheaper cuts of meat and poultry can be made digestible. Nutritious, well - flavored stock is produced. Also, maximum color and nutritive value is retained when cooking green vegetables, provided boiling time is kept to the minimum.
On the other hand, there are several disadvantages. There is a loss of soluble vitamins from foods to the water (if the water is discarded). Boiling can also be a slow method of cooking food.
Boiling can be done in several ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory.
Water on the outside of a pot, i.e., a wet pot, increases the time it takes the pot of water to boil. The pot will heat at a normal rate once all excess water on the outside of the pot evaporates.
Boiling is also often used to remove salt from certain foodstuffs, such as bacon if a less saline product is required.
Also known as "boil - in - bag '', this involves heating or cooking ready - made foods sealed in a thick plastic bag. The bag containing the food, often frozen, is submerged in boiling water for a prescribed time. The resulting dishes can be prepared with greater convenience as no pots or pans are dirtied in the process. Such meals are available for camping as well as home dining.
At any given temperature, all the molecules in a liquid do not have the same kinetic energy. Some high energy particles on the liquid surface may have enough energy to escape the intermolecular forces of attraction of the liquid and become a gas. This is called evaporation.
Evaporation only happens on the surface while boiling happens throughout the liquid. When a liquid reaches its boiling point bubbles of gas form in it which rise into the surface and burst into the air. This process is called boiling. If the boiling liquid is heated more strongly the temperature does not rise but it boils more quickly.
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san andreas fault is what type of plate boundary | San Andreas fault - wikipedia
The San Andreas Fault is a continental transform fault that extends roughly 1,200 kilometers (750 mi) through California. It forms the tectonic boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, and its motion is right - lateral strike - slip (horizontal). The fault divides into three segments, each with different characteristics and a different degree of earthquake risk, the most significant being the southern segment, which passes within about 35 miles (56 km) of Los Angeles. The slip rate along the fault ranges from 20 to 35 mm (0.79 to 1.38 in) / yr.
The fault was first identified in 1895 by Professor Andrew Lawson of UC Berkeley, who discovered the northern zone. It is often described as having been named after San Andreas Lake, a small body of water that was formed in a valley between the two plates. However, according to some of his reports from 1895 and 1908, Lawson actually named it after the surrounding San Andreas Valley. Following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Lawson concluded that the fault extended all the way into southern California.
In 1953, geologist Thomas Dibblee astounded the scientific establishment with his conclusion that hundreds of miles of lateral movement could occur along the fault. A project called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) near Parkfield, Monterey County, is drilling into the fault to improve prediction and recording of future earthquakes.
The northern segment of the fault runs from Hollister, through the Santa Cruz Mountains, epicenter of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, then up the San Francisco Peninsula, where it was first identified by Professor Lawson in 1895, then offshore at Daly City near Mussel Rock. This is the approximate location of the epicenter of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The fault returns onshore at Bolinas Lagoon just north of Stinson Beach in Marin County. It returns underwater through the linear trough of Tomales Bay which separates the Point Reyes Peninsula from the mainland, runs just east of the Bodega Heads through Bodega Bay and back underwater, returning onshore at Fort Ross. (In this region around the San Francisco Bay Area several significant "sister faults '' run more - or-less parallel, and each of these can create significantly destructive earthquakes.) From Fort Ross, the northern segment continues overland, forming in part a linear valley through which the Gualala River flows. It goes back offshore at Point Arena. After that, it runs underwater along the coast until it nears Cape Mendocino, where it begins to bend to the west, terminating at the Mendocino Triple Junction.
The central segment of the San Andreas Fault runs in a northwestern direction from Parkfield to Hollister. While the southern section of the fault and the parts through Parkfield experience earthquakes, the rest of the central section of the fault exhibits a phenomenon called aseismic creep, where the fault slips continuously without causing earthquakes.
The southern segment (also known as the Mojave segment) begins near Bombay Beach, California. Box Canyon, near the Salton Sea, contains upturned strata associated with that section of the fault. The fault then runs along the southern base of the San Bernardino Mountains, crosses through the Cajon Pass and continues northwest along the northern base of the San Gabriel Mountains. These mountains are a result of movement along the San Andreas Fault and are commonly called the Transverse Range. In Palmdale, a portion of the fault is easily examined at a roadcut for the Antelope Valley Freeway. The fault continues northwest alongside the Elizabeth Lake Road to the town of Elizabeth Lake. As it passes the towns of Gorman, Tejon Pass and Frazier Park, the fault begins to bend northward, forming the "Big Bend ''. This restraining bend is thought to be where the fault locks up in Southern California, with an earthquake - recurrence interval of roughly 140 -- 160 years. Northwest of Frazier Park, the fault runs through the Carrizo Plain, a long, treeless plain where much of the fault is plainly visible. The Elkhorn Scarp defines the fault trace along much of its length within the plain.
The southern segment, which stretches from Parkfield in Monterey County all the way to the Salton Sea, is capable of an 8.1 - magnitude earthquake. At its closest, this fault passes about 35 miles (56 km) to the northeast of Los Angeles. Such a large earthquake on this southern segment would kill thousands of people in Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Riverside, and surrounding areas, and cause hundreds of billions of dollars in damage.
The Pacific Plate, to the west of the fault, is moving in a northwest direction while the North American Plate to the east is moving toward the southwest, but relatively southeast under the influence of plate tectonics. The rate of slippage averages about 33 to 37 millimeters (1.3 to 1.5 in) a year across California.
The southwestward motion of the North American Plate towards the Pacific is creating compressional forces along the eastern side of the fault. The effect is expressed as the Coast Ranges. The northwest movement of the Pacific Plate is also creating significant compressional forces which are especially pronounced where the North American Plate has forced the San Andreas to jog westward. This has led to the formation of the Transverse Ranges in Southern California, and to a lesser but still significant extent, the Santa Cruz Mountains (the location of the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989).
Studies of the relative motions of the Pacific and North American plates have shown that only about 75 percent of the motion can be accounted for in the movements of the San Andreas and its various branch faults. The rest of the motion has been found in an area east of the Sierra Nevada mountains called the Walker Lane or Eastern California Shear Zone. The reason for this is not clear. Several hypotheses have been offered and research is ongoing. One hypothesis -- which gained interest following the Landers earthquake in 1992 -- suggests the plate boundary may be shifting eastward away from the San Andreas towards Walker Lane.
Assuming the plate boundary does not change as hypothesized, projected motion indicates that the landmass west of the San Andreas Fault, including Los Angeles, will eventually slide past San Francisco, then continue northwestward toward the Aleutian Trench, over a period of perhaps twenty million years.
The San Andreas began to form in the mid Cenozoic about 30 Mya (million years ago). At this time, a spreading center between the Pacific Plate and the Farallon Plate (which is now mostly subducted, with remnants including the Juan de Fuca Plate, Rivera Plate, Cocos Plate, and the Nazca Plate) was beginning to reach the subduction zone off the western coast of North America. As the relative motion between the Pacific and North American Plates was different from the relative motion between the Farallon and North American Plates, the spreading ridge began to be "subducted '', creating a new relative motion and a new style of deformation along the plate boundaries. These geological features are what are chiefly seen along San Andreas Fault. It also includes a possible driver for the deformation of the Basin and Range, separation of the Baja California Peninsula, and rotation of the Transverse Range.
The main southern section of the San Andreas Fault proper has only existed for about 5 million years. The first known incarnation of the southern part of the fault was Clemens Well - Fenner - San Francisquito fault zone around 22 -- 13 Ma. This system added the San Gabriel Fault as a primary focus of movement between 10 -- 5 Ma. Currently, it is believed that the modern San Andreas will eventually transfer its motion toward a fault within the Eastern California Shear Zone. This complicated evolution, especially along the southern segment, is mostly caused by either the "Big Bend '' and / or a difference in the motion vector between the plates and the trend of the fault and it surrounding branches.
The fault was first identified in Northern California by UC Berkeley geology professor Andrew Lawson in 1895 and named by him after the Laguna de San Andreas, a small lake which lies in a linear valley formed by the fault just south of San Francisco. Eleven years later, Lawson discovered that the San Andreas Fault stretched southward into southern California after reviewing the effects of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Large - scale (hundreds of miles) lateral movement along the fault was first proposed in a 1953 paper by geologists Mason Hill and Thomas Dibblee. This idea, which was considered radical at the time, has since been vindicated by modern plate tectonics.
Seismologists discovered that the San Andreas Fault near Parkfield in central California consistently produces a magnitude 6.0 earthquake approximately once every 22 years. Following recorded seismic events in 1857, 1881, 1901, 1922, 1934, and 1966, scientists predicted that another earthquake should occur in Parkfield in 1993. It eventually occurred in 2004. Due to the frequency of predictable activity, Parkfield has become one of the most important areas in the world for large earthquake research.
In 2004, work began just north of Parkfield on the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). The goal of SAFOD is to drill a hole nearly 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) into the Earth 's crust and into the San Andreas Fault. An array of sensors will be installed to record earthquakes that happen near this area.
The San Andreas Fault System has been the subject of a flood of studies. In particular, scientific research performed during the last 23 years has given rise to about 3,400 publications.
A study published in 2006 in the journal Nature found that the San Andreas fault has reached a sufficient stress level for an earthquake of magnitude greater than 7.0 on the moment magnitude scale to occur. This study also found that the risk of a large earthquake may be increasing more rapidly than scientists had previously believed. Moreover, the risk is currently concentrated on the southern section of the fault, i.e. the region around Los Angeles, because massive earthquakes have occurred relatively recently on the central (1857) and northern (1906) segments of the fault, while the southern section has not seen any similar rupture for at least 300 years. According to this study, a massive earthquake on that southern section of the San Andreas fault would result in major damage to the Palm Springs - Indio metropolitan area and other cities in San Bernardino, Riverside and Imperial counties in California, and Mexicali Municipality in Baja California. It would be strongly felt (and potentially cause significant damage) throughout much of Southern California, including densely populated areas of Los Angeles County, Ventura County, Orange County, San Diego County, Ensenada Municipality and Tijuana Municipality, Baja California, San Luis Rio Colorado in Sonora and Yuma, Arizona. Older buildings would be especially prone to damage or collapse, as would buildings built on unconsolidated gravel or in coastal areas where water tables are high (and thus subject to soil liquefaction). The paper concluded:
The information available suggests that the fault is ready for the next big earthquake but exactly when the triggering will happen and when the earthquake will occur we can not tell (...) It could be tomorrow or it could be 10 years or more from now.
Nevertheless, in the ten years since that publication there has not been a substantial quake in the Los Angeles area, and two major reports issued by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) have made variable predictions as to the risk of future seismic events. The ability to predict major earthquakes with sufficient precision to warrant increased precautions has remained elusive.
The U.S. Geological Survey most recent forecast, known as UCERF3 (Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast 3), released in November 2013, estimated that an earthquake of magnitude 6.7 M or greater (i.e. equal to or greater than the 1994 Northridge earthquake) occurs about once every 6.7 years statewide. The same report also estimated there is a 7 % probability that an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 or greater will occur in the next 30 years somewhere along the San Andreas Fault. A different USGS study in 2008 tried to assess the physical, social and economic consequences of a major earthquake in southern California. That study predicted that a magnitude 7.8 earthquake along the southern San Andreas Fault could cause about 1,800 deaths and $213 billion in damage.
A 2008 paper, studying past earthquakes along the Pacific coastal zone, found a correlation in time between seismic events on the northern San Andreas Fault and the southern part of the Cascadia subduction zone (which stretches from Vancouver Island to northern California). Scientists believe quakes on the Cascadia subduction zone may have triggered most of the major quakes on the northern San Andreas within the past 3,000 years. The evidence also shows the rupture direction going from north to south in each of these time - correlated events. However the 1906 San Francisco earthquake seems to have been the exception to this correlation because the plate movement was moved mostly from south to north and it was not preceded by a major quake in the Cascadia zone.
The San Andreas Fault has had some notable earthquakes in historic times:
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we got married so eun and jae rim ep 2 | We Got Married (season 4) - wikipedia
We Got Married (Season 4) is the fourth season of South Korean MBC 's We Got Married (Hangul: 우리 결혼 했어요), a reality variety show and was a segment of the Sunday Sunday Night program. First broadcast in 2008, the show pairs up Korean celebrities to show what life would be like if they were married. Each week, couples are assigned missions to complete, while interviews with the participants reveal their thoughts and feelings.
Additional couples
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what is the meaning of gangster's paradise | Gangsta 's Paradise - wikipedia
"Gangsta 's Paradise '' is a song by American rapper Coolio, featuring singer L.V. The song was released on Coolio 's album of the same name, as well as the soundtrack for the 1995 film Dangerous Minds. It samples the chorus and instrumentation of Stevie Wonder 's 1976 song "Pastime Paradise ''.
The song was listed at number 85 on Billboard 's Greatest Songs of All - Time and number one biggest selling single of 1995 on U.S. Billboard. In 2008, it was ranked number 38 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop. Coolio was awarded a Grammy for Best Rap Solo Performance, two MTV Video Music Award 's for Best Rap Video and for Best Video from a Film and a Billboard Music Award for the song / album. The song was voted as the best single of the year in The Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics poll.
The song has sold over 5 million copies in the United States, United Kingdom and Germany alone, and at least 6 million worldwide, making it one of the best - selling singles of all time. Coolio has performed this song live at the 1995 Billboard Music Awards with L.V. and Wonder, at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards with L.V., and also with Dutch singer Trijntje Oosterhuis.
The artists co-wrote the song with its producer Doug Rasheed, with Stevie Wonder receiving writing credits for the sampling of his song "Pastime Paradise '' from his album Songs in the Key of Life.
The Stevie Wonder sample is the reason why this is one of few Coolio tracks without profanity, as Wonder would not allow it. Coolio said, "I had a few vulgarities... and he was n't with that. So I changed it. Once he heard it, he thought it was incredible. ''
The song begins with a line from Psalm 23: 4: "As I walk through the valley of the shadow of death '', but then diverges with: "I take a look at my life and realize there 's nothin ' left. '' Adding to some of the religious overtones are choral vocals in the background.
Coolio begins by reflecting on his life in a Biblical fashion: that his partaking in hoodlum activities has drained him of hope, and his damaged relationship with his mother. However, the narrative turns at this point with Coolio threatening rival gangs with certain death in the event that they take verbal liberties or transgress into his territory. He subsequently educates the listener on the history behind his current position in society; explaining the way in which his upbringing has entrapped him by creating his lust for power, money and murder. However it is at this point that he acknowledges the uncertainty of his survival on the street. Coolio therefore begins to lament the cyclical nature of the violence in which he partakes, as well as elucidating the collective chaos created by individual greed, selfishness and a lack of education or role models. He ends his personal journey on a hopeless admission: that his situation and surroundings will never improve.
The music video for the song was directed by Antoine Fuqua, and featured Michelle Pfeiffer reprising her earlier role in Dangerous Minds.
When Coolio won the Best Rap Video at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1996, he said in a press conference that Bone Thugs - n - Harmony deserved the award for "Tha Crossroads ''.
The single reached number one in the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Austria, Denmark, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, Australia, and New Zealand, making it Coolio 's most successful single. In Australia, the song stayed at No. 1 for 14 weeks, a record that would be broken 22 years later by Ed Sheeran 's "Shape of You ''. Following Coolio 's appearance on Celebrity Big Brother 6, it re-entered the UK singles chart peaking at No. 31. In the United Kingdom, "Gangsta 's Paradise '' is the first rap single to sell over a million copies.
In the United States, the single spent twelve weeks in the top two of the Billboard Hot 100, of which three were spent at No. 1 and nine at No. 2, putting "Gangsta 's Paradise '' in joint fourth place for the most weeks spent at No. 2 by a single in the chart 's history. The song was certified triple platinum by the RIAA on February 23, 1996 indicating 3 million copies sold. It has sold a further 1.8 million downloads in the US in the digital era as of September 2017.
There are several parodies of the song, including "Amish Paradise '' by "Weird Al '' Yankovic, which was released the following year, reaching number 53 on the U.S. chart. Coolio claimed that he did not give permission for the parody, which led to disagreements between the two. Yankovic claimed that he had been told Coolio had given the go - ahead through his record label, and apologized. Because of this incident, Yankovic now seeks approval for song parodies through receiving permission from the artists themselves, rather than communicating through intermediaries. Photos from the XM Satellite Radio booth at the 2006 Consumer Electronics Show suggest Yankovic and Coolio may have made amends. Coolio himself said in a 2011 interview that he had since "apologized to him (Yankovic) ''.
L.V. released a solo version of the single in 1996 on his debut album, I Am L.V. This version did not feature Coolio, and featured additional lyrics written by L.V. himself, rap lyrics written by Scarface and Dani Blooms.
In 1996, the song was covered by Battery for the electro - industrial various artists compilation Operation Beatbox. American post-hardcore band In Fear And Faith covered the song in 2008. Austrian melodic death metal band Artas covered the song in 2008 on the album "The Healing ''. American industrial band Battery covered the song on their 1996 album, "Distance ''. In 2014 post-hardcore band Falling in Reverse covered the song for the compilation album Punk Goes 90s Vol. 2. The video included an appearance by Coolio. In 2015 Postmodern Jukebox produced a version in a 1920s jazz style.
Billboard
Grammy Awards
MTV
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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determine the type of energy for each form | Energy - wikipedia
In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.
Common forms of energy include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object 's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object 's temperature.
Mass and energy are closely related. Due to mass -- energy equivalence, any object that has mass when stationary (called rest mass) also has an equivalent amount of energy whose form is called rest energy (in that frame of reference), and any additional energy (of any form) acquired by the object above that rest energy will increase the object 's total mass just as it increases its total energy. For example, after heating an object, its increase in energy could be measured as a small increase in mass, with a sensitive enough scale.
Living organisms require available energy to stay alive, such as the energy humans get from food. Human civilization requires energy to function, which it gets from energy resources such as fossil fuels, nuclear fuel, or renewable energy. The processes of Earth 's climate and ecosystem are driven by the radiant energy Earth receives from the sun and the geothermal energy contained within the earth.
The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified into potential energy, kinetic energy, or combinations of the two in various ways. Kinetic energy is determined by the movement of an object -- or the composite motion of the components of an object - and potential energy reflects the potential of an object to have motion, and generally is a function of the position of an object within a field or may stored in the field itself.
While these two categories are sufficient to describe all forms of energy, it is often convenient refer to particular combinations of potential and kinetic energy as its own form. For example, macroscopic mechanical energy is the sum of translational and rotational kinetic and potential energy in a system neglects the kinetic energy due to temperature, and nuclear energy which combines utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the weak force), among others.
The word energy derives from the Ancient Greek: ἐνέργεια, translit. energeia, lit. ' activity, operation ', which possibly appears for the first time in the work of Aristotle in the 4th century BC. In contrast to the modern definition, energeia was a qualitative philosophical concept, broad enough to include ideas such as happiness and pleasure.
In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two.
In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy '' instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave - Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy '' in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy ''. The law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for some years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.
These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether 's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time.
In 1843, James Prescott Joule independently discovered the mechanical equivalent in a series of experiments. The most famous of them used the "Joule apparatus '': a descending weight, attached to a string, caused rotation of a paddle immersed in water, practically insulated from heat transfer. It showed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the internal energy gained by the water through friction with the paddle.
In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of energy is the joule, named after James Prescott Joule. It is a derived unit. It is equal to the energy expended (or work done) in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre. However energy is also expressed in many other units not part of the SI, such as ergs, calories, British Thermal Units, kilowatt - hours and kilocalories, which require a conversion factor when expressed in SI units.
The SI unit of energy rate (energy per unit time) is the watt, which is a joule per second. Thus, one joule is one watt - second, and 3600 joules equal one watt - hour. The CGS energy unit is the erg and the imperial and US customary unit is the foot pound. Other energy units such as the electronvolt, food calorie or thermodynamic kcal (based on the temperature change of water in a heating process), and BTU are used in specific areas of science and commerce.
In classical mechanics, energy is a conceptually and mathematically useful property, as it is a conserved quantity. Several formulations of mechanics have been developed using energy as a core concept.
Work, a function of energy, is force times distance.
This says that the work (W (\ displaystyle W)) is equal to the line integral of the force F along a path C; for details see the mechanical work article. Work and thus energy is frame dependent. For example, consider a ball being hit by a bat. In the center - of - mass reference frame, the bat does no work on the ball. But, in the reference frame of the person swinging the bat, considerable work is done on the ball.
The total energy of a system is sometimes called the Hamiltonian, after William Rowan Hamilton. The classical equations of motion can be written in terms of the Hamiltonian, even for highly complex or abstract systems. These classical equations have remarkably direct analogs in nonrelativistic quantum mechanics.
Another energy - related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph - Louis Lagrange. This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).
Noether 's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether 's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that can not be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann 's population factor e -- that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.
In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds ' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel '' for the use of a given amount of energy.
Sunlight 's radiant energy is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low - energy compounds) are converted into the high - energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.
Any living organism relies on an external source of energy -- radiant energy from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals -- to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500 -- 2000 Calories (6 -- 8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C H O) and stearin (C H O) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria
and some of the energy is used to convert ADP into ATP.
The rest of the chemical energy in O and the carbohydrate or fat is converted into heat: the ATP is used as a sort of "energy currency '', and some of the chemical energy it contains is used for other metabolism when ATP reacts with OH groups and eventually splits into ADP and phosphate (at each stage of a metabolic pathway, some chemical energy is converted into heat). Only a tiny fraction of the original chemical energy is used for work:
It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical or radiant energy), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings ''). Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg / a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg / a (52 %) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.
In geology, continental drift, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth 's interior, while meteorological phenomena like wind, rain, hail, snow, lightning, tornadoes and hurricanes are all a result of energy transformations brought about by solar energy on the atmosphere of the planet Earth.
Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar - mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.
In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat. This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may be later released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth 's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks. Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long - destroyed supernova stars created these atoms.
In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma - ray bursts are the universe 's highest - output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.
In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space - and time - dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck 's relation: E = h ν (\ displaystyle E = h \ nu) (where h (\ displaystyle h) is Planck 's constant and ν (\ displaystyle \ nu) the frequency). In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.
When calculating kinetic energy (work to accelerate a massive body from zero speed to some finite speed) relativistically -- using Lorentz transformations instead of Newtonian mechanics -- Einstein discovered an unexpected by - product of these calculations to be an energy term which does not vanish at zero speed. He called it rest energy: energy which every massive body must possess even when being at rest. The amount of energy is directly proportional to the mass of the body:
where
For example, consider electron -- positron annihilation, in which the rest energy of these two individual particles (equivalent to their rest mass) is converted to the radiant energy of the photons produced in the process. In this system the matter and antimatter (electrons and positrons) are destroyed and changed to non-matter (the photons). However, the total mass and total energy do not change during this interaction. The photons each have no rest mass but nonetheless have radiant energy which exhibits the same inertia as did the two original particles. This is a reversible process -- the inverse process is called pair creation -- in which the rest mass of particles is created from the radiant energy of two (or more) annihilating photons.
In general relativity, the stress -- energy tensor serves as the source term for the gravitational field, in rough analogy to the way mass serves as the source term in the non-relativistic Newtonian approximation.
Energy and mass are manifestations of one and the same underlying physical property of a system. This property is responsible for the inertia and strength of gravitational interaction of the system ("mass manifestations ''), and is also responsible for the potential ability of the system to perform work or heating ("energy manifestations ''), subject to the limitations of other physical laws.
In classical physics, energy is a scalar quantity, the canonical conjugate to time. In special relativity energy is also a scalar (although not a Lorentz scalar but a time component of the energy -- momentum 4 - vector). In other words, energy is invariant with respect to rotations of space, but not invariant with respect to rotations of space - time (= boosts).
Energy may be transformed between different forms at various efficiencies. Items that transform between these forms are called transducers. Examples of transducers include a battery, from chemical energy to electric energy; a dam: gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy of moving water (and the blades of a turbine) and ultimately to electric energy through an electric generator; or a heat engine, from heat to work.
Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor. Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy in the object. If the object falls to the ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground. Our Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.
There are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process, e.g. in a heat engine, as described by Carnot 's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations. In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.
Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being "released '' (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored '' in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.
Energy is also transferred from potential energy (E p (\ displaystyle E_ (p))) to kinetic energy (E k (\ displaystyle E_ (k))) and then back to potential energy constantly. This is referred to as conservation of energy. In this closed system, energy can not be created or destroyed; therefore, the initial energy and the final energy will be equal to each other. This can be demonstrated by the following:
E p i + E k i = E p F + E k F (\ displaystyle E_ (pi) + E_ (ki) = E_ (pF) + E_ (kF))
(4)
The equation can then be simplified further since E p = m g h (\ displaystyle E_ (p) = mgh) (mass times acceleration due to gravity times the height) and E k = 1 2 m v 2 (\ displaystyle E_ (k) = (\ frac (1) (2)) mv ^ (2)) (half mass times velocity squared). Then the total amount of energy can be found by adding E p + E k = E t o t a l (\ displaystyle E_ (p) + E_ (k) = E_ (total)).
Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass - energy equivalence. The formula E = mc2, derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest - mass and rest - energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J.J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass - energy equivalence # History for further information).
Part of the rest energy (equivalent to rest mass) of matter may be converted to other forms of energy (still exhibiting mass), but neither energy nor mass can be destroyed; rather, both remain constant during any process. However, since c 2 (\ displaystyle c ^ (2)) is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of an everyday amount of rest mass (for example, 1 kg) from rest energy to other forms of energy (such as kinetic energy, thermal energy, or the radiant energy carried by light and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ 9 × 10 16 (\ displaystyle 9 \ times 10 ^ (16)) joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of an everyday amount energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure on a weighing scale, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of large transformations between rest energy (of matter) and other forms of energy (e.g., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in nuclear physics and particle physics.
Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it can not be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it can not be recovered, in order to be converted with 100 % efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and can not be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat - like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).
As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.
The fact that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed is called the law of conservation of energy. In the form of the first law of thermodynamics, this states that a closed system 's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out by work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.
While heat can always be fully converted into work in a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, for cyclic processes of practical interest in heat engines the second law of thermodynamics states that the system doing work always loses some energy as waste heat. This creates a limit to the amount of heat energy that can do work in a cyclic process, a limit called the available energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations. The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.
Richard Feynman said during a 1961 lecture:
There is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing all natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no known exception to this law -- it is exact so far as we know. The law is called the conservation of energy. It states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same.
Most kinds of energy (with gravitational energy being a notable exception) are subject to strict local conservation laws as well. In this case, energy can only be exchanged between adjacent regions of space, and all observers agree as to the volumetric density of energy in any given space. There is also a global law of conservation of energy, stating that the total energy of the universe can not change; this is a corollary of the local law, but not vice versa.
This law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether 's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.
Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy (like all other types of energy) appears as system mass, whenever present. For example, a compressed spring will be slightly more massive than before it was compressed. Likewise, whenever energy is transferred between systems by any mechanism, an associated mass is transferred with it.
In quantum mechanics energy is expressed using the Hamiltonian operator. On any time scales, the uncertainty in the energy is by
which is similar in form to the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (but not really mathematically equivalent thereto, since H and t are not dynamically conjugate variables, neither in classical nor in quantum mechanics).
In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.
Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat. Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy, and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.
Energy is strictly conserved and is also locally conserved wherever it can be defined. In thermodynamics, for closed systems, the process of energy transfer is described by the first law:
Δ E = W + Q (\ displaystyle \ Delta () E = W + Q)
(1)
where E (\ displaystyle E) is the amount of energy transferred, W (\ displaystyle W) represents the work done on the system, and Q (\ displaystyle Q) represents the heat flow into the system. As a simplification, the heat term, Q (\ displaystyle Q), is sometimes ignored, especially when the thermal efficiency of the transfer is high.
Δ E = W (\ displaystyle \ Delta () E = W)
(2)
This simplified equation is the one used to define the joule, for example.
Beyond the constraints of closed systems, open systems can gain or lose energy in association with matter transfer (both of these process are illustrated by fueling an auto, a system which gains in energy thereby, without addition of either work or heat). Denoting this energy by E (\ displaystyle E), one may write
Δ E = W + Q + E. (\ displaystyle \ Delta () E = W + Q + E.)
(3)
Internal energy is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy of a system. It is the energy needed to create the system. It is related to the potential energy, e.g., molecular structure, crystal structure, and other geometric aspects, as well as the motion of the particles, in form of kinetic energy. Thermodynamics is chiefly concerned with changes in internal energy and not its absolute value, which is impossible to determine with thermodynamics alone.
The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well - defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder - full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as
where the first term on the right is the heat transferred into the system, expressed in terms of temperature T and entropy S (in which entropy increases and the change dS is positive when the system is heated), and the last term on the right hand side is identified as work done on the system, where pressure is P and volume V (the negative sign results since compression of the system requires work to be done on it and so the volume change, dV, is negative when work is done on the system).
This equation is highly specific, ignoring all chemical, electrical, nuclear, and gravitational forces, effects such as advection of any form of energy other than heat and pV - work. The general formulation of the first law (i.e., conservation of energy) is valid even in situations in which the system is not homogeneous. For these cases the change in internal energy of a closed system is expressed in a general form by
where δ Q (\ displaystyle \ delta Q) is the heat supplied to the system and δ W (\ displaystyle \ delta W) is the work applied to the system.
The energy of a mechanical harmonic oscillator (a mass on a spring) is alternatively kinetic and potential. At two points in the oscillation cycle it is entirely kinetic, and at two points it is entirely potential. Over the whole cycle, or over many cycles, net energy is thus equally split between kinetic and potential. This is called equipartition principle; total energy of a system with many degrees of freedom is equally split among all available degrees of freedom.
This principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new '' and "old '' degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics. The second law of thermodynamics is valid only for systems which are near or in equilibrium state. For non-equilibrium systems, the laws governing system 's behavior are still debatable. One of the guiding principles for these systems is the principle of maximum entropy production. It states that nonequilibrium systems behave in such a way to maximize its entropy production.
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story of the year in the wake of determination zip | In the Wake of Determination - wikipedia
In the Wake of Determination is the second studio album by American rock band Story of the Year. The album is much heavier sounding than their debut album Page Avenue.
"We Do n't Care Anymore '' was released to radio on August 16, 2005. It was released on October 11, 2005 through Maverick. The band did a number of radio shows, as well as headlining shows with support from Stretch Arm Strong, in December. "Take Me Back '' was released to radio on January 17, 2006.
In January 2006, the group went tour with Every Time I Die, From First to Last, He Is Legend and Adair. On January 19, a music video was released for "Take Me Back ''. From February to April, the band went on the 2006 edition of the Taste of Chaos tour. Also in April, the band went on tour of the UK with Stretch Arm Strong. In July, the band went on a tour of Canada alongside Hawthorne Heights and Anberlin. In October and November, the band went on a tour of the U.S. alongside Anberlin, Greeley Estates and Monty Are I.
Even though In the Wake of Determination did not sell as well as Page Avenue, it reached number 19 on The Billboard 200.
All lyrics written by Dan Marsala and Adam Russell, all music composed by Ryan Philips.
Story of the Year
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the hart-rudman task force on homeland security took place during which president's administration | US Commission on national security / 21st century - wikipedia
The U.S. Commission on National Security / 21st Century (USCNS / 21), also known as the Hart - Rudman Commission or Hart - Rudman Task Force on Homeland Security, was chartered by Secretary of Defense William Cohen in 1998 to provide a comprehensive review of US national security requirements in the 21st century. USCNS / 21 was tasked "to analyze the emerging international security environment; to develop a US national security strategy appropriate to that environment; and to assess the various security institutions for their current relevance to the effective and efficient implementation of that strategy, and to recommend adjustments as necessary ''.
Released on 31 January 2001, USCNS / 21 was the most exhaustive review of US national security strategy since the National Security Act of 1947. USCNS / 21 was released in three distinct phases. The first phase, New World Coming: American Security in the 21st Century (see further below), anticipates the emerging international security environment within the first quarter of the 21st century and examines how the US fits into that environment. The second phase, Seeking a National Strategy: A Concert for Preserving Security and Promoting Freedom (see further below), proposes a new US national security strategy based on the anticipated threats and conditions outlined in the first phase report. The third phase, Roadmap for National Security: Imperative for Change (see further below), recommends changes to the US government 's structure, legislation, and policy to reflect a new national security strategy based on the anticipated 21st century international security environment.
According to the US Commission on National Security / 21st Century Charter:
The Department of Defense recognizes that America should advance its position as a strong, secure, and persuasive force for freedom and progress in the world. Consequently, there is a requirement to:
A Commission, the U.S. Commission on National Security / 21st Century (USCNS / 21), will be established to fulfill this requirement, supported by a Study Group. Two individuals who have national recognition and significant depth of experience and public service will oversee the efforts of this Commission and serve as its Co-chairpersons. The study effort shall be conducted by a Study Group, composed of individuals who will be appointed as Department of Defense personnel. Based on the results of this study and the Commission 's consideration thereof, the USCNS / 21 will advance practical recommendations that the President of the United States, with the support of the Congress, could begin to implement in the Fiscal Year 2002 budget, if desired.
Francis G. Hoffman
New World Coming: American Security in the 21st Century was the first report completed by the Commission. Released on 15 September 1999, it attempts to provide a picture of the international security environment within the first quarter of the 21st century and the anticipated role of the US in that environment. The Commission anticipates an increasingly technologically, economically, and socially integrated world, i.e. increasing globalization amidst social and political fragmentation. The report provides twelve basic assumptions of that environment and fourteen conclusions based on those assumptions.
Released on 15 April 2000, Seeking a National Strategy: A Concert for Preserving Security and Promoting Freedom proposes a new national security strategy based on the anticipated 21st century international security environment. The new strategy must consider how to minimize the potential destabilizing effects of the contradictory trends of globalization and political fragmentation while promoting US interests and values worldwide.
In developing this new strategy, the Commission suggests a number of strategic considerations:
Building on these considerations, the Commission suggests categorizing US national interests into three categories: survival, critical, and significant. Survival interests are defined as, "without which America would cease to exist as we know it ''. These interests encompass safety from direct attacks by hostile states and terrorists through the use of weapons of mass destruction. They also include preserving America 's founding principles as outlined in the US Constitution. Critical interests are defined as, "causally one step removed from survival interests ''. These interests lie in the continuation of key global systems, such as global energy, economic, communications, transportation, and health infrastructures. Other critical interests include the security of US allies and preventing potentially hostile alliances from being formed to threaten US national security. Significant interests, "importantly affect the global environment in which the US must act ''. These interests include spreading democracy abroad and ensuring basic human rights for all the world 's citizens.
Using these strategic considerations as a foundation, the Commission recommends the following as the priority objectives to the new national security strategy:
Released on 31 January 2001, Roadmap for National Security: Imperative for Change suggests "significant changes must be made in the structures and processes of the US national security apparatus ''. The Commission believes that without these reforms, "American power and influence can not be sustained ''. Five key areas are highlighted for reform, followed by the Commissions specific recommendations for each area.
The Commission believes that the combination of weapons proliferation and terrorism will result in increased vulnerability to the US homeland. "A direct attack against American citizens on American soil is likely over the next quarter century ''. In order protect the homeland against this threat, the Commission suggests:
The Commission finds that the scientific and educational systems of the US are in "serious crisis ''. It notes how the US is in danger of lagging behind other countries in this arena. "In the next quarter century, we will likely see ourselves surpassed, and in relative decline, unless we make a conscious national commitment to maintain our edge ''. < The report further highlights the Commission 's belief that this decline in emphasis on science and education is the gravest threat to US national security, even over weapons proliferation and terrorism. The Commission recommends:
The Commission finds that the US government has failed to restructure itself to the post -- Cold War world. It recommends significant restructuring to re-align government offices, branches, and procedures with the global realities of the 21st century as well as ensure that, "strategy once again drives the design and implementation of US national security policies ''. The Commission urges Congress to expand its understanding of national security matters, and streamline the appropriations and authorizations committees to make intelligence and security related legislation more efficient and effective. The Commission also recommends:
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where is the raiders stadium being built in las vegas | Las Vegas stadium - wikipedia
Las Vegas Stadium is the working name for a domed stadium under construction in Paradise, Nevada for the Las Vegas Raiders of the National Football League (NFL) and the UNLV Rebels football team from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV). It is located on about 62 acres west of Mandalay Bay at Russell Road and Hacienda Avenue and between Polaris Avenue and Dean Martin Drive, just west of Interstate 15. Construction of the $1.9 billion stadium began in September 2017 and is expected to be completed in time for the 2020 NFL season.
In January 2016, reports emerged that Las Vegas Sands was considering developing a stadium in conjunction with Majestic Realty and UNLV, on a 42 - acre site owned by UNLV. Raiders owner Mark Davis visited Las Vegas on January 29 to tour the site and meet with Sands chairman Sheldon Adelson and other local figures. A relocation to Las Vegas would be a long - term proposal for the Raiders, as Sam Boyd Stadium is undersized for the NFL and there are no other professional - caliber stadiums in Nevada; the Raiders plan to remain in Oakland until the stadium is complete.
On March 21, 2016, when asked about Las Vegas, Davis said, "I think the Raiders like the Las Vegas plan, '' and "it 's a very very very intriguing and exciting plan '', referring to the stadium plan in Las Vegas. Davis also met with Nevada Governor Brian Sandoval about the stadium plan. On April 1, 2016, Davis toured Sam Boyd Stadium to evaluate whether UNLV could serve as a temporary home of the team and was with UNLV football coach Tony Sanchez, athletic director Tina Kunzer - Murphy, adviser Don Snyder and school president Len Jessup to further explore the possibility of the Raiders moving to Las Vegas.
On April 28, 2016, Davis said he wanted to move the Raiders to Las Vegas and pledged $500 million toward the construction of the proposed $2.4 billion domed stadium. "Together we can turn the Silver State into the silver and black state, '' Davis said.
In the spring of 2016, the board of directors of Las Vegas Sands rejected Adelson 's stadium proposal. Adelson decided to move ahead with the stadium as an individual investment, pledging $650 million of his personal wealth to the project.
The viability of the Tropicana Avenue site was called into serious question in June 2016, when Southwest Airlines objected to the location because its proximity to the northern end of one of McCarran Airport 's runways could have a negative impact on the safety and capacity of air traffic at the airport. The list of potential locations soon expanded to nine candidates, including the sites of the Wild Wild West casino, the Wynn golf course, the Riviera casino, the Las Vegas Festival Grounds, and Cashman Center. By September, the list was narrowed to two possibilities: the Bali Hai Golf Club, south of Mandalay Bay, and a vacant lot on Russell Road, just west of Interstate 15.
On August 25, 2016, the Raiders filed a trademark application for "Las Vegas Raiders '' on the same day renderings of a proposed stadium design were released. On September 15, 2016, the Southern Nevada Tourism Infrastructure Committee unanimously voted to recommend and approve $750 million for the Las Vegas stadium plan.
Majestic Realty revealed in October 2016 that it had withdrawn from the stadium project.
Sandoval called a special session of the Nevada Legislature to consider the stadium and other tourism - related proposals in October 2016. The funding bill for the stadium was approved by a 16 -- 5 vote in the Senate and by 28 -- 13 in the Assembly, and was signed into law by Sandoval on October 17. The bill increased a hotel tax to provide the $750 million in funding.
The Raiders filed relocation papers on January 19 to move from Oakland to Las Vegas. On January 26, 2017, the Raiders submitted a proposed lease agreement for the stadium. It was reported that the Raiders had selected the Russell Road site as the stadium location. Also that the team would pay one dollar in rent and that they could control the naming rights for both the stadium and plaza and in addition keep signage sponsorship revenue.
Days after the Raiders ' announced proposal, Adelson dropped out of the stadium project, pulling his proposed $650 million contribution, and shortly after this announcement Goldman Sachs (one of the backers of stadium proposal) withdrew as well. ESPN reported on January 30, 2017, that the Raiders were expected to increase their contribution from $500 million to $1.15 billion.
On March 6, the Raiders revealed Bank of America would be replacing the Adelson portion of the funding.
NFL owners voted to approve the move by a near unanimous margin of 31 to 1 on March 27. Only Stephen M. Ross, owner of the Miami Dolphins, voted against the relocation. The next day, the Raiders and the Las Vegas Stadium Authority began accepting deposits for season tickets for the new stadium.
The Raiders closed the purchase of the land for the stadium at the Russell Road site on May 1. The purchase price was reported at $77.5 million. In a Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting on May 11, it was announced that in a joint venture Mortenson Construction and McCarthy Construction will be the developers for the stadium. Mortenson Construction previously worked on U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis for the Minnesota Vikings. The stadium authority approved a stadium lease with the Raiders on May 18. The lease is for 30 years with four successive extension options of five years each.
On September 18, construction activity began on the stadium site with site preparation.
The budget for development of the stadium is estimated at $1.9 billion. Of this, an estimated $375 million is to be spent on land and infrastructure costs, $1.35 billion on construction, and $100 million on a Raiders practice facility, with the remaining $100 million as a contingency allowance for unexpected costs.
The financing for the project is expected to come in the form of $750 million in public funding, $500 million from the Raiders, and $650 million lent by Bank of America. The public portion of the funding will come from municipal bonds issued by Clark County, backed by the proceeds of a special tax on hotel rooms in the Las Vegas area, which was initiated in March 2017. The Raiders ' contribution is expected to include a $200 million loan from the NFL 's stadium upgrade program, $250 million from sales of personal seat licenses at the stadium, and $50 million from cash reserves.
The government can not receive any rent or revenue sharing from the stadium, because such an arrangement would not be compatible with the tax - exempt status of the bonds. Proponents instead argued that the public financing would be justified by increased economic activity and tax revenue related to the stadium. Critics have argued that the economic projections were based on overly optimistic assumptions.
For the Las Vegas stadium, Mark Davis retained the same architecture firm MANICA Architecture that had designed the previous proposed Carson Stadium in Los Angeles because he liked the design of the stadium for Carson. The stadium as proposed is a 10 level domed stadium with a clear ETFE roof, silver and black exterior and large retractable curtain - like side windows facing the Las Vegas Strip. There is a large torch in one end that would house a flame in honor of Al Davis, the late long - time owner of the Raiders.
Updated renderings released after the relocation vote passed show the stadium with a roll - in natural grass field similar to the one at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. In a August 17, 2017 Las Vegas Stadium Authority meeting it was revealed that the stadium will have a designated pickup / drop off loop for ride sharing services such as Uber and Lyft, a first for a stadium in the NFL.
The stadium will replace Sam Boyd Stadium and will serve as the home of both the Raiders and the UNLV Rebels football program. In addition, it will host various events now held at Sam Boyd, such as the Las Vegas Bowl.
Stadium backers project 20 to 25 additional events per year, with plausible possibilities including the Super Bowl, the Pro Bowl, the NFL Draft, the NCAA Final Four, the USA Sevens rugby tournament, the Monster Jam World Finals, boxing matches, Ultimate Fighting Championship events, neutral - site college football games, international soccer matches, concerts, and corporate shows.
The stadium has also been cited as the possible home for a Major League Soccer expansion team owned by David Beckham.
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current loop as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment | Magnetic moment - wikipedia
The magnetic moment of a magnet is a quantity that determines the torque it will experience in an external magnetic field. A loop of electric current, a bar magnet, an electron, a molecule, and a planet all have magnetic moments.
The magnetic moment may be considered to be a vector having a magnitude and direction. The direction of the magnetic moment points from the south to north pole of the magnet (inside the magnet). The magnetic field produced by the magnet is proportional to its magnetic moment. More precisely, the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system 's magnetic dipole moment, which produces the first term in the multipole expansion of a general magnetic field. The dipole component of an object 's magnetic field is symmetric about the direction of its magnetic dipole moment, and decreases as the inverse cube of the distance from the object.
The magnetic moment is defined as a vector relating the aligning torque on the object from an externally applied magnetic field to the field vector itself. The relationship is given by:
where τ is the torque acting on the dipole and B is the external magnetic field, and μ is the magnetic moment.
This definition is based on how one would measure the magnetic moment, in principle, of an unknown sample if possible.
The unit for magnetic moment is not a base unit in the International System of Units (SI). As the torque is measured in newton - meters (N m) and the magnetic field in teslas (T), the magnetic moment is measured in newton - meters per tesla. This has equivalents in other base units:
where A is amperes.
In the CGS system, there are several different sets of electromagnetism units, of which the main ones are ESU, Gaussian, and EMU. Among these, there are two alternative (non-equivalent) units of magnetic dipole moment:
where statA is statamperes, cm is centimeters, erg is ergs, G is gauss and abA is abamperes (1 abampere = 10 amperes). The ratio of these two non-equivalent CGS units (EMU / ESU) is equal to the speed of light in free space, expressed in cm s.
All formulae in this article are correct in SI units; they may need to be changed for use in other unit systems. For example, in SI units, a loop of current with current I and area A has magnetic moment IA (see below), but in Gaussian units the magnetic moment is IA / c.
The preferred classical explanation of a magnetic moment has changed over time. Before the 1930s, textbooks explained the moment using hypothetical magnetic point charges. Since then, most have defined it in terms of Ampèrian currents. In magnetic materials, the cause of the magnetic moment are the spin and orbital angular momentum states of the electrons, and varies depending on whether atoms in one region are aligned with atoms in another.
The sources of magnetic moments in materials can be represented by poles in analogy to electrostatics. Consider a bar magnet which has magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite polarity. Each pole is the source of magnetic force which weakens with distance. Since magnetic poles always come in pairs, their forces partially cancel each other because while one pole pulls, the other repels. This cancellation is greatest when the poles are close to each other i.e. when the bar magnet is short. The magnetic force produced by a bar magnet, at a given point in space, therefore depends on two factors: the strength p of its poles (magnetic pole strength), and the vector l separating them. The moment is related to the fictitious poles as
It points in the direction from South to North pole. The analogy with electric dipoles should not be taken too far because magnetic dipoles are associated with angular momentum (see Magnetic moment and angular momentum). Nevertheless, magnetic poles are very useful for magnetostatic calculations, particularly in applications to ferromagnets. Practitioners using the magnetic pole approach generally represent the magnetic field by the irrotational field H, in analogy to the electric field E.
We start from the definition of the differential magnetic moment pseudovector:
where × is the vector cross product, r is the position vector, and j is the electric current density. It is very similar to the differential angular momentum, defined as:
where ρ is the mass density and v is the velocity vector. Like in every pseudovector, by convention the direction of the cross product is given by the right hand grip rule. Practitioners using the current loop model generally represent the magnetic field by the solenoidal field B, analogous to the electrostatic field D.
The integral magnetic moment of a charge distribution is therefore:
Let us start with a point particle; in this simple situation the magnetic moment is:
where r is the position of the electric charge q relative to the center of the circle and v is the instantaneous velocity of the charge, giving an electric current density j.
On the other hand, for a point particle the angular momentum is defined as:
and in the planar case:
by defining the electric current with a vector area S (the x -, y -, and z - coordinates of this vector are the areas of projections of the loop onto the yz -, zx -, and xy - planes):
It should be noted that this vector S is normal to the loop. By Stokes ' theorem, integral magnetic moment then becomes expressible as:
The factor 1 / 2 in our definition above is only due to historical reason: the old definition of the magnetic moment was this last integral equation. If one had started from a differential definition:
then the coherent integral expression would have been:
A generalization of the above current loop is a coil, or solenoid. Its moment is the vector sum of the moments of individual turns. If the solenoid has N identical turns (single - layer winding) and vector area S,
The magnetic moment has a close connection with angular momentum called the gyromagnetic effect. This effect is expressed on a macroscopic scale in the Einstein - de Haas effect, or "rotation by magnetization, '' and its inverse, the Barnett effect, or "magnetization by rotation. '' In particular, when a magnetic moment is subject to a torque in a magnetic field that tends to align it with the applied magnetic field, the moment precesses (rotates about the axis of the applied field). This is a consequence of the concomitance of magnetic moment and angular momentum, that in case of charged massive particles corresponds to the concomitance of charge and mass in a particle.
Viewing a magnetic dipole as a rotating charged particle brings out the close connection between magnetic moment and angular momentum. Both the magnetic moment and the angular momentum increase with the rate of rotation. The ratio of the two is called the gyromagnetic ratio and is simply the half of the charge - to - mass ratio.
For a spinning charged solid with a uniform charge density to mass density ratio, the gyromagnetic ratio is equal to half the charge - to - mass ratio. This implies that a more massive assembly of charges spinning with the same angular momentum will have a proportionately weaker magnetic moment, compared to its lighter counterpart. Even though atomic particles can not be accurately described as spinning charge distributions of uniform charge - to - mass ratio, this general trend can be observed in the atomic world, where the intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of each type of particle is a constant: a small half - integer times the reduced Planck constant ħ. This is the basis for defining the magnetic moment units of Bohr magneton (assuming charge - to - mass ratio of the electron) and nuclear magneton (assuming charge - to - mass ratio of the proton).
A magnetic moment in an externally produced magnetic field has a potential energy U:
In a case when the external magnetic field is non-uniform, there will be a force, proportional to the magnetic field gradient, acting on the magnetic moment itself. There has been some discussion on how to calculate the force acting on a magnetic dipole. There are two expressions for the force acting on a magnetic dipole, depending on whether the model used for the dipole is a current loop or two monopoles (analogous to the electric dipole). The force obtained in the case of a current loop model is
In the case of a pair of monopoles being used (i.e. electric dipole model)
and one can be put in terms of the other via the relation
In all these expressions μ is the dipole and B is the magnetic field at its position. Note that if there are no currents or time - varying electrical fields ∇ × B = 0 and the two expressions agree.
An electron, nucleus, or atom placed in a uniform magnetic field will precess with a frequency known as the Larmor frequency. See Resonance.
A magnetic dipole is the limit of either a current loop or a pair of poles as the dimensions of the source are reduced to zero while keeping the moment constant. As long as these limits only apply to fields far from the sources, they are equivalent. However, the two models give different predictions for the internal field (see below).
Any system possessing a net magnetic dipole moment m will produce a dipolar magnetic field (described below) in the space surrounding the system. While the net magnetic field produced by the system can also have higher - order multipole components, those will drop off with distance more rapidly, so that only the dipolar component will dominate the magnetic field of the system at distances far away from it.
In three dimensions, the vector potential of the magnetic field produced by magnetic moment m is
and magnetic flux density is
Alternatively one can obtain the scalar potential of magnetic field from the magnetic pole perspective,
and hence magnetic field strength is
The magnetic field of an ideal magnetic dipole is depicted on the right.
In two dimensions, the above expressions need to be rewritten. The vector potential of magnetic field is then
and magnetic flux density is
The scalar potential of magnetic field is
and hence magnetic field strength is
The two models for a dipole (current loop and magnetic poles) give the same predictions for the magnetic field far from the source. However, inside the source region, they give different predictions. The magnetic field between poles (see figure for Magnetic pole definition) is in the opposite direction to the magnetic moment (which points from the negative charge to the positive charge), while inside a current loop it is in the same direction (see the figure to the right). The limits of these fields must also be different as the sources shrink to zero size. This distinction only matters if the dipole limit is used to calculate fields inside a magnetic material.
If a magnetic dipole is formed by making a current loop smaller and smaller, but keeping the product of current and area constant, the limiting field is
Unlike the expressions in the previous section, this limit is correct for the internal field of the dipole.
If a magnetic dipole is formed by taking a "north pole '' and a "south pole '', bringing them closer and closer together but keeping the product of magnetic pole - charge and distance constant, the limiting field is
These fields are related by B = μ (H + M), where M (x) = mδ (x) is the magnetization.
As discussed earlier, the force exerted by a dipole loop with moment m on another with moment m is
where B is the magnetic field due to moment m. The result of calculating the gradient is
where r̂ is the unit vector pointing from magnet 1 to magnet 2 and r is the distance. An equivalent expression is
The force acting on m is in the opposite direction.
The torque of magnet 1 on magnet 2 is
Fundamentally, contributions to any system 's magnetic moment may come from sources of two kinds: motion of electric charges, such as electric currents; and the intrinsic magnetism of elementary particles, such as the electron.
Contributions due to the sources of the first kind can be calculated from knowing the distribution of all the electric currents (or, alternatively, of all the electric charges and their velocities) inside the system, by using the formulas below. On the other hand, the magnitude of each elementary particle 's intrinsic magnetic moment is a fixed number, often measured experimentally to a great precision. For example, any electron 's magnetic moment is measured to be 3023071523600000000 ♠ − 9.284 764 × 10 J / T. The direction of the magnetic moment of any elementary particle is entirely determined by the direction of its spin, with the negative value indicating that any electron 's magnetic moment is antiparallel to its spin.
The net magnetic moment of any system is a vector sum of contributions from one or both types of sources. For example, the magnetic moment of an atom of hydrogen - 1 (the lightest hydrogen isotope, consisting of a proton and an electron) is a vector sum of the following contributions:
Similarly, the magnetic moment of a bar magnet is the sum of the contributing magnetic moments, which include the intrinsic and orbital magnetic moments of the unpaired electrons of the magnet 's material and the nuclear magnetic moments.
For an atom, individual electron spins are added to get a total spin, and individual orbital angular momenta are added to get a total orbital angular momentum. These two then are added using angular momentum coupling to get a total angular momentum. For an atom with no nuclear magnetic moment, the magnitude of the atomic dipole moment is then
where j is the total angular momentum quantum number, g is the Landé g - factor, and μ is the Bohr magneton. The component of this magnetic moment along the direction of the magnetic field is then
where m is called the magnetic quantum number or the equatorial quantum number, which can take on any of 2j + 1 values:
The negative sign occurs because electrons have negative charge.
Due to the angular momentum, the dynamics of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic field differs from that of an electric dipole in an electric field. The field does exert a torque on the magnetic dipole tending to align it with the field. However, torque is proportional to rate of change of angular momentum, so precession occurs: the direction of spin changes. This behavior is described by the Landau -- Lifshitz -- Gilbert equation:
where γ is the gyromagnetic ratio, m is the magnetic moment, λ is the damping coefficient and H is the effective magnetic field (the external field plus any self - induced field). The first term describes precession of the moment about the effective field, while the second is a damping term related to dissipation of energy caused by interaction with the surroundings.
Electrons and many elementary particles also have intrinsic magnetic moments, an explanation of which requires a quantum mechanical treatment and relates to the intrinsic angular momentum of the particles as discussed in the article Electron magnetic moment. It is these intrinsic magnetic moments that give rise to the macroscopic effects of magnetism, and other phenomena, such as electron paramagnetic resonance.
The magnetic moment of the electron is
where μ is the Bohr magneton, S is electron spin, and the g - factor g is 2 according to Dirac 's theory, but due to quantum electrodynamic effects it is slightly larger in reality: 7000200231930435999 ♠ 2.002 319 304 36. The deviation from 2 is known as the anomalous magnetic dipole moment.
Again it is important to notice that m is a negative constant multiplied by the spin, so the magnetic moment of the electron is antiparallel to the spin. This can be understood with the following classical picture: if we imagine that the spin angular momentum is created by the electron mass spinning around some axis, the electric current that this rotation creates circulates in the opposite direction, because of the negative charge of the electron; such current loops produce a magnetic moment which is antiparallel to the spin. Hence, for a positron (the anti-particle of the electron) the magnetic moment is parallel to its spin.
The nuclear system is a complex physical system consisting of nucleons, i.e., protons and neutrons. The quantum mechanical properties of the nucleons include the spin among others. Since the electromagnetic moments of the nucleus depend on the spin of the individual nucleons, one can look at these properties with measurements of nuclear moments, and more specifically the nuclear magnetic dipole moment.
Most common nuclei exist in their ground state, although nuclei of some isotopes have long - lived excited states. Each energy state of a nucleus of a given isotope is characterized by a well - defined magnetic dipole moment, the magnitude of which is a fixed number, often measured experimentally to a great precision. This number is very sensitive to the individual contributions from nucleons, and a measurement or prediction of its value can reveal important information about the content of the nuclear wave function. There are several theoretical models that predict the value of the magnetic dipole moment and a number of experimental techniques aiming to carry out measurements in nuclei along the nuclear chart.
Any molecule has a well - defined magnitude of magnetic moment, which may depend on the molecule 's energy state. Typically, the overall magnetic moment of a molecule is a combination of the following contributions, in the order of their typical strength:
In atomic and nuclear physics, the Greek symbol μ represents the magnitude of the magnetic moment, often measured in Bohr magnetons or nuclear magnetons, associated with the intrinsic spin of the particle and / or with the orbital motion of the particle in a system. Values of the intrinsic magnetic moments of some particles are given in the table below:
For relation between the notions of magnetic moment and magnetization see magnetization.
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who represented georgia in the second continental congress | Second Continental Congress - wikipedia
The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting in the spring of 1775 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia between September 5, 1774 and October 26, 1774. The Second Congress managed the Colonial war effort and moved incrementally towards independence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States by raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties such as the Olive Branch Petition.
The Second Continental Congress came together on May 10, 1775, effectively reconvening the First Continental Congress. Many of the 56 delegates who attended the first meeting were in attendance at the second, and the delegates appointed the same president (Peyton Randolph) and secretary (Charles Thomson). Notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replaced in the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. Henry Middleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined. Hancock was elected president on May 24.
Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the Second Continental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second. On May 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John 's in the Colony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself. On July 4, 1775, revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to the American Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. They arrived on July 20.
The First Continental Congress had sent entreaties to King George III to stop the Coercive Acts; they had also created the Continental Association to establish a coordinated protest of those acts, putting a boycott on British goods. The Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 to plan further responses if the British government had not repealed or modified the acts; however, the American Revolutionary War had already started by that time with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and the Congress was called upon to take charge of the war effort.
For the first few months of the war, the Patriots carried on their struggle in an ad - hoc and uncoordinated manner. They had seized arsenals, driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On June 14, 1775, the Congress voted to create the Continental Army out of the militia units around Boston and appointed George Washington of Virginia as commanding general. On July 6, 1775 Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale and necessity for taking up arms in the Thirteen Colonies. '' On July 8, they extended the Olive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation; however, it was received too late to do any good. Silas Deane was sent to France as a minister (ambassador) of the Congress, and American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts.
The Continental Congress had no explicit legal authority to govern, but it assumed all the functions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties, raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money (called "Continentals ''), and disbursing funds. The Congress had no authority to levy taxes and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to support the war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests.
Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such a drastic action. Advocates of independence moved to have reluctant colonial governments revise instructions to their delegations, or even replace those governments which would not authorize independence. On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was. On May 15, they adopted a more radical preamble to this resolution, drafted by John Adams, which advised throwing off oaths of allegiance and suppressing the authority of the Crown in any colonial government that still derived its authority from the Crown. That same day, the Virginia Convention instructed its delegation in Philadelphia to propose a resolution that called for a declaration of independence, the formation of foreign alliances, and a confederation of the states. The resolution of independence was delayed for several weeks, as advocates of independence consolidated support in their home governments.
On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee offered a resolution before the Congress declaring the colonies independent. He also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreign alliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britain 's colonies. American leaders had rejected the divine right of kings in the New World, but recognized the necessity of proving their credibility in the Old World. Congress formally adopted the resolution of independence, but only after creating three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states. These three things together constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for conducting vital domestic and foreign affairs.
Congress finally approved the resolution of independence on July 2, 1776. They next turned their attention to a formal explanation of this decision, the United States Declaration of Independence which was approved on July 4 and published soon thereafter.
The Congress moved from Philadelphia to Baltimore in the winter of 1776 to avoid capture by British forces who were advancing on Philadelphia. Henry Fite 's tavern was the largest building in Baltimore Town at the time and provided a comfortable location of sufficient size for Congress to meet. Its site at the western edge of town was beyond easy reach of the British Royal Navy 's ships should they try to sail up the harbor and the Patapsco River to shell the town. Congress was again forced to flee Philadelphia at the end of September 1777, as British troops occupied the city; they moved to York, Pennsylvania and continued their work.
Congress passed the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, after more than a year of debate, and sent them to the states for ratification. Jefferson 's proposal for a Senate to represent the states and a House to represent the people was rejected, but a similar proposal was adopted later in the United States Constitution. One issue of debate was large states wanting a larger say, nullified by small states who feared tyranny. The small states won and each state had one vote. Congress urged the individual states to pass the Articles as quickly as possible, but it took three and a half years for all the states to ratify them. The State Legislature of Virginia was the first of the Thirteen States to ratify the Articles on December 16, 1777, and the State Legislature of Maryland was the last on February 2, 1781.
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what is the name of the first colony established by spain in the new world | Spanish colonization of the Americas - wikipedia
The overseas expansion under the crown of Castile was initiated under the royal authority and first accomplished by the Spanish conquistadores. The Americas were incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil and Canada, and the crown created civil and religious structures to administer the region. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Catholic faith through indigenous conversions.
Beginning with the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Caribbean and continuing control of vast territory for over three centuries, the Spanish Empire would expand across the Caribbean Islands, half of South America, most of Central America and much of North America (including present day Mexico, Florida and the Southwestern and Pacific Coastal regions of the United States). It is estimated that during the colonial period (1492 -- 1832), a total of 1.86 million Spaniards settled in the Americas and a further 3.5 million immigrated during the post-colonial era (1850 -- 1950); the estimate is 250,000 in the 16th century, and most during the 18th century as immigration was encouraged by the new Bourbon Dynasty.
In the early 19th century, the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the emancipation of most Spanish colonies in the Americas, except for Cuba and Puerto Rico, which were finally given up in 1898, following the Spanish -- American War, together with Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific. Spain 's loss of these last territories politically ended the Spanish rule in the Americas.
The Catholic Monarchs Isabella of Castile, Queen of Castile and her husband King Ferdinand, King of Aragon, pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created a single Spanish monarchy. Even though Castile and Aragon were ruled jointly by their respective monarchs, they remained separate kingdoms. The Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans of Genoese mariner Christopher Columbus for a voyage to reach India by sailing West. The funding came from the queen of Castile, so the profits from Spanish expedition flowed to Castile. In the extension of Spanish sovereignty to its overseas territories, authority for expeditions of discovery, conquest, and settlement resided in the monarchy.
Columbus made four voyages to the West Indies as the monarchs granted Columbus the governorship of the new territories, and financed more of his trans - Atlantic journeys. He founded La Navidad on the island later named Hispaniola (now divided into Haiti and the Dominican Republic), in what is the present - day Haiti on his first voyage. After its destruction by the indigenous Taino people, the town of Isabella was begun in 1493, on his second voyage. In 1496 his brother, Bartholomew, founded Santo Domingo. By 1500, despite a high death rate, there were between 300 and 1000 Spanish settled in the area. The local Taíno people continued to resist, refusing to plant crops and abandoning their Spanish - occupied villages. The first mainland explorations were followed by a phase of inland expeditions and conquest. In 1500 the city of Nueva Cádiz was founded on the island of Cubagua, Venezuela, followed by the founding of Santa Cruz by Alonso de Ojeda in present - day Guajira peninsula. Cumaná in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas, in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernández de Serpa 's foundation in 1569. The Spanish founded San Sebastian de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa María la Antigua del Darién.
The Spanish conquest of Mexico is generally understood to be the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire (1519 -- 21) which was the base for later conquests of other regions. Later conquests were protracted campaigns with less spectacular results than the conquest of the Aztecs. The Spanish conquest of Yucatán, the Spanish conquest of Guatemala, the war of Mexico 's west, and the Chichimeca War in northern Mexico expanded Spanish control over territory and indigenous populations. But not until the Spanish conquest of Peru was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scope by the victory over the Inca empire in 1532.
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire was led by Hernán Cortés. The victory over the Aztecs was relatively quick, from 1519 to 1521, and aided by his Tlaxcala and other allies from indigenous city - states or altepetl. These polities allied against the Aztec empire, to which they paid tribute following conquest or threat of conquest, leaving the city - states ' political hierarchy and social structure in place.
The Spanish conquest of Yucatán was a much longer campaign, from 1551 to 1697, against the Maya peoples in the Yucatán Peninsula of present - day Mexico and northern Central America. Hernán Cortés ' landing ashore at present day Veracruz and founding the Spanish city there on April 22, 1519 marked the beginning of 300 years of Spanish hegemony over the region. The assertion of royal control over the Kingdom of New Spain and the initial Spanish conquerors took over a decade, with importance of the region meriting the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Established by Charles V in 1535, the first viceroy was Don Antonio de Mendoza.
Spain colonized and exerted control of Alta California through the Spanish missions in California until the Mexican secularization act of 1833.
In 1532 at the Battle of Cajamarca a group of Spaniards under Francisco Pizarro and their indigenous Andean Indian auxiliaries native allies ambushed and captured the Emperor Atahualpa of the Inca Empire. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the following years Spain extended its rule over the Empire of the Inca civilization.
The Spanish took advantage of a recent civil war between the factions of the two brothers Emperor Atahualpa and Huáscar, and the enmity of indigenous nations the Incas had subjugated, such as the Huancas, Chachapoyas, and Cañaris. In the following years the conquistadors and indigenous allies extended control over Greater Andes Region. The Viceroyalty of Perú was established in 1542. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572.
European explorers arrived in Río de la Plata in 1516. Their first Spanish settlement in this zone was the Fort of Sancti Spiritu established in 1527 next to the Paraná River. Buenos Aires, a permanent colony, was established in 1536 and in 1537 Asunción was established in the area that is now Paraguay. Buenos Aires suffered attacks by the indigenous peoples that forced the settlers away, and in 1541 the site was abandoned. A second (and permanent) settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who arrived by sailing down the Paraná River from Asunción (now the capital of Paraguay). He dubbed the settlement "Santísima Trinidad '' and its port became "Puerto de Santa María de los Buenos Aires. '' The city came to be the head of the Governorate of the Río de la Plata and in 1776 elevated to be the capital of the new Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
Between 1537 and 1543, six Spanish expeditions entered highland Colombia, conquered the Muisca Confederation, and set up the New Kingdom of Granada (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de Granada). Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada was the leading conquistador with his brother Hernán second in command. It was governed by the president of the Audiencia of Bogotá, and comprised an area corresponding mainly to modern - day Colombia and parts of Venezuela. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The crown established the audiencia in 1549. Ultimately, the kingdom became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada first in 1717 and permanently in 1739. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia.
Spain 's administration of its colonies in the Americas was divided into the Viceroyalty of New Spain 1535 (capital, Mexico City), and the Viceroyalty of Peru 1542 (capital, Lima). In the 18th century the additional Viceroyalty of New Granada 1717 (capital, Bogotá), and Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata 1776 (capital, Buenos Aires) were established from portions of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
This evolved from the Council of the Indies and Viceroyalties into an Intendant system, raise more revenue and promote greater efficiency.
During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators '') were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. They were predominantly criollos (Americas - born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country.
In 1809 the first declarations of independence from Spanish rule occurred in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. The first two were in present - day Bolivia at Sucre (May 25), and La Paz (July 16); and the third in present - day Ecuador at Quito (August 10). In 1810 Mexico declared independence, with the Mexican War of Independence following for over a decade. In 1821 Treaty of Córdoba established Mexican independence from Spain and concluded the War. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico.
These began a movement for colonial independence that spread to Spain 's other colonies in the Americas. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. The British Empire offered support, wanting to end the Spanish monopoly on trade with its colonies in the Americas.
In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the Spanish -- American War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Spanish possession and rule of its remaining colonies in the Americas ended in that year with its sovereignty transferred to the United States. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico continues to be a possession of the United States, now officially continues as a self - governing unincorporated territory.
It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to Latin America in the period between 1492 and 1824, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.
In Hispaniola, the indigenous Taíno pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. Although population estimates vary, Dominican friar Bartolomé de las Casas, the "Defender of the Indians '' estimated there were 6 million (6,000,000) Taíno and Arawak in the Caribbean at the time of Columbus 's arrival in 1492.
The population of the Native Amerindian population in Mexico declined by an estimated 90 % (reduced to 1 -- 2.5 million people) by the early 17th century. In Peru the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. The overwhelming cause of the decline in both Mexico and Peru was infectious diseases, although the brutality of the Encomienda also played a significant part in the population decline.
Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (1896 -- 1974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. From decades of research he made estimates for the pre-contact population and the history of demographic decline during the Spanish and post-Spanish periods. According to Cook, the indigenous Californian population at first contact, in 1769, was about 310,000 and had dropped to 25,000 by 1910. The vast majority of the decline happened after the Spanish period, during the Mexican and US periods of Californian history (1821 -- 1910), with the most dramatic collapse (200,000 to 25,000) occurring in the US period (1846 -- 1910).
Cat egory: History of the Americas
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when was the last time a category 5 hurricane hit the united states | List of Category 5 Atlantic hurricanes - wikipedia
A total of 33 recorded tropical cyclones have reached Category 5 strength on the Saffir -- Simpson hurricane wind scale in the Atlantic Ocean north of the equator, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Hurricanes of such intensity occur once every three years in this region on average.
Only six times -- in the 1932, 1933, 1961, 2005, 2007, and 2017 hurricane seasons -- has more than one Category 5 recorded hurricane formed. Only in 2005 have more than two Category 5 hurricanes formed, and only in 2007 and 2017 did more than one make landfall at Category 5 strength.
A Category 5 Atlantic hurricane is one that is considered by the United States National Hurricane Center (NHC), to have had sustained wind speeds greater than 136 knots (157 mph; 252 km / h; 70 m / s) on the Saffir -- Simpson scale. The NHC considers sustained wind speeds to be those that occur over a one - minute period at 10 metres (32.8 ft) above ground. These wind speeds are estimated by using a blend of data from a variety of sources, which include observations from nearby ships, reconnaissance aircraft, or automatic weather stations and pictures from various satellites.
Between 1924 and 2017, 33 hurricanes were recorded at Category 5 strength. No Category 5 hurricanes were observed officially before 1924. It can be presumed that earlier storms reached Category 5 strength over open waters, but the strongest winds were not measured. The anemometer, a device used for measuring wind speed, was invented in 1846. However, during major hurricane strikes the instruments as a whole were often blown away, leaving the hurricane 's peak intensity unrecorded. For example, as the Great Beaufort Hurricane of 1879 struck North Carolina, the anemometer cups were blown away when indicating 138 mph (222 km / h).
A reanalysis of weather data is ongoing by researchers who may upgrade or downgrade other Atlantic hurricanes currently listed at Categories 4 and 5. For example, the 1825 Santa Ana hurricane is suspected to have reached Category 5 strength. Furthermore, paleotempestological research aims to identify past major hurricanes by comparing sedimentary evidence of recent and past hurricane strikes. For example, a "giant hurricane '' significantly more powerful than Hurricane Hattie (Category 5) has been identified in Belizean sediment, having struck the region sometime before 1500.
Officially, the decade with the most Category 5 hurricanes is 2000 -- 2009, with eight Category 5 hurricanes having occurred: Isabel (2003), Ivan (2004), Emily (2005), Katrina (2005), Rita (2005), Wilma (2005), Dean (2007), and Felix (2007). The previous decades with the most Category 5 hurricanes were the 1930s and 1960s, with six occurring between 1930 and 1939 (before naming began).
Nine Atlantic hurricanes -- Camille, Allen, Andrew, Isabel, Ivan, Dean, Felix, Irma and Maria -- reached Category 5 intensity on more than one occasion; that is, by reaching Category 5 intensity, weakening to a Category 4 or lower, and then becoming a Category 5 again. Such hurricanes have their dates shown together. Camille, Andrew, Dean, Felix, Irma, and Maria each attained Category 5 status twice during their lifespans. Allen, Isabel, and Ivan reached Category 5 intensity on three separate occasions. However, no Atlantic hurricane has reached Category 5 intensity more than three times during its lifespan. The November 1932 Cuba hurricane holds the record for most time spent as a Category 5 (although it took place before satellite or aircraft reconnaissance, so this record may be somewhat suspect). Irma holds the record for longest continuous span as a Category 5 storm in the satellite era.
Thirty - three Category 5s have been recorded in the Atlantic basin since 1851, when records began. Only one Category 5 has been recorded in July, eight in August, nineteen in September, five in October, and one in November. There have been no officially recorded June or off - season Category 5 hurricanes.
The July and August Category 5s reached their high intensities in both the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. These are the areas most favorable for tropical cyclone development in those months.
September sees the most Category 5 hurricanes. This coincides with the climatological peak of the Atlantic hurricane season, which occurs in early September. September Category 5s reached their strengths in any of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and open Atlantic. These places are where September tropical cyclones are likely to form. Many of these hurricanes are either Cape Verde - type storms, which develop their strength by having a great deal of open water; or so - called Bahama busters, which intensify over the warm Loop Current in the Gulf of Mexico.
All six Category 5s in October and November reached their intensities in the western Caribbean, a region that Atlantic hurricanes strongly gravitate toward late in the season. This is due to the climatology of the area, which sometimes has a high - altitude anticyclone that promotes rapid intensification late in the season, as well as warm waters.
All Atlantic Category 5 hurricanes have made landfall at some location at hurricane strength. Most Category 5 hurricanes in the Atlantic make landfall because of their proximity to land in the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico, where the usual synoptic weather patterns carry them towards land, as opposed to the westward, oceanic mean track of Eastern Pacific hurricanes. Sixteen of the storms made landfall while at Category 5 intensity; 2007 and 2017 are the only years in which two storms made landfall at this intensity.
Many of these systems made landfall shortly after weakening from a Category 5. This weakening can be caused by dry air near land, shallower waters due to shelving, interaction with land, or cooler waters near shore. In southern Florida, the return period for a Category 5 hurricane is roughly once every 50 years.
The following table lists these hurricanes by landfall intensity.
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where did the world's first civilization develop answers.com | Ancient history - wikipedia
Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the oldest discovered form of coherent writing from the protoliterate period around the 30th century BC.
The term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC (First Olympiad). This roughly coincides with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Archaic period in Ancient Greece. Although the ending date of ancient history is disputed, some Western scholars use the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD (the most used), the closure of the Platonic Academy in 529 AD, the death of the emperor Justinian I in 565 AD, the coming of Islam or the rise of Charlemagne as the end of ancient and Classical European history.
In India, ancient history includes the early period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China, the time up to the Qin dynasty.
Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world: archaeology and the study of source texts. Primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which often cite, comment on, or build upon primary sources.
Reasons that an area undergoes an archaeological field survey.
Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret and reconstruct past human behavior. Archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. Some important discoveries by archaeologists studying ancient history include:
Most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquity 's own historians. Although it is important to take into account the bias of each ancient author, their accounts are the basis for our understanding of the ancient past. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, and Tacitus.
A fundamental difficulty of studying ancient history is that recorded histories can not document the entirety of human events, and only a fraction of those documents have survived into the present day. Furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history.
The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 -- c. 425 BC). Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event.
The Roman Empire was one of the ancient world 's most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. For example, Livy, a Roman historian who lived in the 1st century BC, wrote a history of Rome called Ab Urbe Condita (From the Founding of the City) in 144 volumes; only 35 volumes still exist, although short summaries of most of the rest do exist. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived.
Prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago. The controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens (modern humans) emerged in Africa. 60 -- 70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia. 50,000 years ago, modern humans spread from Asia to the Near East. Europe was first reached by modern humans 40,000 years ago. Humans migrated to the Americas about 15,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic.
The 10th millennium BC is the earliest given date for the invention of agriculture and the beginning of the ancient era. Göbekli Tepe was erected by hunter - gatherers in the 10th millennium BC (c. 11,500 years ago), before the advent of sedentism. Together with Nevalı Çori, it has revolutionized understanding of the Eurasian Neolithic. In the 7th millennium BC, Jiahu culture began in China. By the 5th millennium BC, the late Neolithic civilizations saw the invention of the wheel and the spread of proto - writing. In the 4th millennium BC, the Cucuteni - Trypillian culture in the Ukraine - Moldova - Romania region develops. By 3400 BC, "proto - literate '' cuneiform is spread in the Middle East. The 30th century BC, referred to as the Early Bronze Age II, saw the beginning of the literate period in Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. Around the 27th century BC, the Old Kingdom of Egypt and the First Dynasty of Uruk are founded, according to the earliest reliable regnal eras.
(Common Era years in astronomical year numbering)
The Bronze Age forms part of the three - age system. It follows the Neolithic Age in some areas of the world.
In the 24th century BC, the Akkadian Empire was founded in Mesopotamia.
The First Intermediate Period of Egypt of the 22nd century BC was followed by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt between the 21st to 17th centuries BC. The Sumerian Renaissance also developed c. the 21st century BC in Ur. Around the 18th century BC, the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt began.
By 1600 BC, Mycenaean Greece developed. The beginning of the Shang dynasty emerged in China in this period, and there was evidence of a fully developed Chinese writing system. The beginning of Hittite dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean region is also seen in the 1600s BC. The time from the 16th to the 11th centuries BC around the Nile is called the New Kingdom of Egypt. Between 1550 BC and 1292 BC, the Amarna Period developed in Egypt.
The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three - age system, preceded by the Bronze Age. Its date and context vary depending on the country or geographical region.
During the 13th to 12th centuries BC, the Ramesside Period occurred in Egypt. Around 1200 BC, the Trojan War was thought to have taken place. By around 1180 BC, the disintegration of the Hittite Empire was under way.
In 1046 BC, the Zhou force, led by King Wu of Zhou, overthrew the last king of the Shang dynasty. The Zhou dynasty was established in China shortly thereafter.
Pirak is an early iron - age site in Balochistan, Pakistan, going back to about 1200 BC. This period is believed to be the beginning of the Iron Age in India and the subcontinent.
In 1000 BC, the Mannaean Kingdom began in Western Asia. Around the 10th to 7th centuries BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire developed in Mesopotamia. In 800 BC, the rise of Greek city - states began. In 776 BC, the first recorded Olympic Games were held.
Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered around the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest - recorded Greek poetry of Homer (9th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD), ending in the dissolution of classical culture with the close of Late Antiquity.
Such a wide sampling of history and territory covers many rather disparate cultures and periods. "Classical antiquity '' typically refers to an idealized vision of later people, of what was, in Edgar Allan Poe 's words, "the glory that was Greece, the grandeur that was Rome! '' In the 18th and 19th centuries AD, reverence for classical antiquity was much greater in Europe and the United States than it is today. Respect for the ancients of Greece and Rome affected politics, philosophy, sculpture, literature, theatre, education, and even architecture and sexuality.
In politics, the presence of a Roman Emperor was felt to be desirable long after the empire fell. This tendency reached its peak when Charlemagne was crowned "Roman Emperor '' in the year 800, an act which led to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion that an emperor is a monarch who outranks a mere king dates from this period. In this political ideal, there would always be a Roman Empire, a state whose jurisdiction extended to the entire civilized world.
Epic poetry in Latin continued to be written and circulated well into the 19th century. John Milton and even Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic educations in Latin. Genres like epic poetry, pastoral verse, and the endless use of characters and themes from Greek mythology left a deep mark on Western literature.
In architecture, there have been several Greek Revivals, (though while apparently more inspired in retrospect by Roman architecture than Greek). Still, one needs only to look at Washington, DC to see a city filled with large marble buildings with façades made out to look like Roman temples, with columns constructed in the classical orders of architecture.
In philosophy, the efforts of St Thomas Aquinas were derived largely from the thought of Aristotle, despite the intervening change in religion from paganism to Christianity. Greek and Roman authorities such as Hippocrates and Galen formed the foundation of the practice of medicine even longer than Greek thought prevailed in philosophy. In the French theatre, tragedians such as Molière and Racine wrote plays on mythological or classical historical subjects and subjected them to the strict rules of the classical unities derived from Aristotle 's Poetics. The desire to dance like a latter - day vision of how the ancient Greeks did it moved Isadora Duncan to create her brand of ballet. The Renaissance was partly caused by the rediscovery of classic antiquity.
The transition period from Classical Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages is known as Late Antiquity. Some key dates marking that transition are:
The beginning of the post-classical age (known generally as the Middle Ages) is a period in the history of Europe following the fall of the Western Roman Empire spanning roughly five centuries from AD 500 to 1000. Aspects of continuity with the earlier classical period are discussed in greater detail under the heading "Late Antiquity ''. Late Antiquity is the transitional centuries from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages in both mainland Europe and the Mediterranean world: generally from the end of the Roman Empire 's Crisis of the 3rd century (c. 284) to the Islamic conquests and the re-organization of the Byzantine Empire under Heraclius.
Dairy farming, textile, metal working, potter 's wheel, sexagesimal system
potter 's wheel, Agriculture, dams, city planning, Mathematics, temple builders, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine, literature, Martial arts
Egyptian Pyramids, Mummification, Decimal system, Solar calendar
Mud brick temple, pottery, Nubian pyramids, Solar calendar
Agriculture, Architecture, Astronomy, chemistry, cotton, drama, dyeing, mathematics, medicine, physics, poetry, vigesimal system
Silk, Pottery, Chinaware, Metals, Great Wall, Paper
Agriculture, architecture, landscaping, postal service
Agriculture, winemaking, architecture poetry, drama, philosophy, history, rhetoric, mathematics, political science, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medicine, warfare
Agriculture, Roman calendar, concrete
Agriculture, smelting, metalworking
Textile looms, agriculture, Inca architecture
The Ancient Near East is considered the cradle of civilization. It was the first to practice intensive year - round agriculture; created the first coherent writing system, invented the potter 's wheel and then the vehicular - and mill wheel, created the first centralized governments, law codes and empires, as well as introducing social stratification, slavery and organized warfare, and it laid the foundation for the fields of astronomy and mathematics.
Mesopotamia is the site of some of the earliest known civilizations in the world. Early settlement of the alluvial plain lasted from the Ubaid period (late 6th millennium BC) through the Uruk period (4th millennium BC) and the Dynastic periods (3rd millennium BC) until the rise of Babylon in the early 2nd millennium BC. The surplus of storable foodstuffs created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating after crops and herds. It also allowed for a much greater population density, and in turn required an extensive labor force and division of labor. This organization led to the necessity of record keeping and the development of writing (c. 3500 BC).
Babylonia was an Amorite state in lower Mesopotamia (modern southern Iraq), with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged when Hammurabi (fl. c. 1728 -- 1686 BC, according to the short chronology) created an empire out of the territories of the former kingdoms of Sumer and Akkad. The Amorites being ancient Semitic - speaking peoples, Babylonia adopted the written Akkadian language for official use; they retained the Sumerian language for religious use, which by that time was no longer a spoken language. The Akkadian and Sumerian cultures played a major role in later Babylonian culture, and the region would remain an important cultural center, even under outside rule. The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad, dating back to the 23rd century BC.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire, or Chaldea, was Babylonia under the rule of the 11th ("Chaldean '') dynasty, from the revolt of Nabopolassar in 626 BC until the invasion of Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Notably, it included the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, who conquered the Kingdom of Judah and Jerusalem.
Akkad was a city and its surrounding region in central Mesopotamia. Akkad also became the capital of the Akkadian Empire. The city was probably situated on the west bank of the Euphrates, between Sippar and Kish (in present - day Iraq, about 50 km (31 mi) southwest of the center of Baghdad). Despite an extensive search, the precise site has never been found. Akkad reached the height of its power between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of king Sargon of Akkad. Because of the policies of the Akkadian Empire toward linguistic assimilation, Akkad also gave its name to the predominant Semitic dialect: the Akkadian language, reflecting use of akkadû ("in the language of Akkad '') in the Old Babylonian period to denote the Semitic version of a Sumerian text.
Assyria was originally (in the Middle Bronze Age) a region on the Upper Tigris, named for its original capital, the ancient city of Assur. Later, as a nation and empire that came to control all of the Fertile Crescent, Egypt and much of Anatolia, the term "Assyria proper '' referred to roughly the northern half of Mesopotamia (the southern half being Babylonia), with Nineveh as its capital. The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old (20th to 15th centuries BC), Middle (15th to 10th centuries BC), and Neo-Assyrian (911 -- 612 BC) kingdoms, or periods, of which the last is the most well known and best documented. Assyrians invented excavation to undermine city walls, battering rams to knock down gates, as well as the concept of a corps of engineers, who bridged rivers with pontoons or provided soldiers with inflatable skins for swimming.
Mitanni was an Indo - Iranian empire in northern Mesopotamia from c. 1500 BC. At the height of Mitanni power, during the 14th century BC, it encompassed what is today southeastern Turkey, northern Syria and northern Iraq, centered around its capital, Washukanni, whose precise location has not been determined by archaeologists.
Elam is the name of an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Archaeological evidence associated with Elam has been dated to before 5000 BC. According to available written records, it is known to have existed from around 3200 BC -- making it among the world 's oldest historical civilizations -- and to have endured up until 539 BC. Its culture played a crucial role in the Gutian Empire, especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it, when the Elamite language remained among those in official use. The Elamite period is considered a starting point for the history of Iran.
The Medes were an ancient Iranian people. They had established their own empire by the 6th century BC, having defeated the Neo-Assyrian Empire with the Chaldeans. They overthrew Urartu later on as well. The Medes are credited with the foundation of the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified Iranian empire of the Medes and Persian, often referred to as the Achaemenid Persian Empire, by defeating his grandfather and overlord, Astyages the king of Media.
The Achaemenid Empire was the largest and most significant of the Persian Empires, and followed the Median Empire as the second great empire of the Iranians. It is noted in western history as the foe of the Greek city states in the Greco - Persian Wars, for freeing the Israelites from their Babylonian captivity, for its successful model of a centralized bureaucratic administration, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), and for instituting Aramaic as the empire 's official language. Because of the Empire 's vast extent and long endurance, Persian influence upon the language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law and government of nations around the world lasts to this day. At the height of its power, the Achaemenid dynasty encompassed approximately 8.0 million square kilometers, held the greatest percentage of world population to date, stretched three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa) and was territorially the largest empire of classical antiquity.
Parthia was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran. Their power was based on a combination of the guerrilla warfare of a mounted nomadic tribe, with organizational skills to build and administer a vast empire -- even though it never matched in power and extent the Persian empires that preceded and followed it. The Parthian Empire was led by the Arsacid dynasty, which reunited and ruled over significant portions of the Near East and beyond, after defeating and disposing the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late 3rd century BC. It was the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (after the Median and the Achaemenid dynasties). Parthia had many wars with the Roman Republic (and subsequently the Roman Empire), which marked the start of what would be over 700 years of frequent Roman - Persian Wars.
The Sassanid Empire, lasting the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of Iran 's most important and influential historical periods. In many ways the Sassanid period witnessed the highest achievements of Persian civilization and constituted the last great Iranian Empire before the Muslim conquest and the adoption of Islam. During Sassanid times, Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably, and the Romans reserved for the Sassanid Persians alone the status of equals. Sassanid cultural influence extended far beyond the empire 's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe, Africa, China, and India, playing a role, for example, in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.
The early history of the Hittite empire is known through tablets that may first have been written in the 17th century BC but survived only as copies made in the 14th and 13th centuries BC. These tablets, known collectively as the Anitta text, begin by telling how Pithana the king of Kussara or Kussar (a small city - state yet to be identified by archaeologists) conquered the neighbouring city of Neša (Kanesh). However, the real subject of these tablets is Pithana 's son Anitta, who conquered several neighbouring cities, including Hattusa and Zalpuwa (Zalpa).
Assyrian inscriptions of Shalmaneser I (c. 1270 BC) first mention Uruartri as one of the states of Nairi -- a loose confederation of small kingdoms and tribal states in the Armenian Highland from the 13th to 11th centuries BC. Uruartri itself was in the region around Lake Van. The Nairi states were repeatedly subjected to attacks by the Assyrians, especially under Tukulti - Ninurta I (c. 1240 BC), Tiglath - Pileser I (c. 1100 BC), Ashur - bel - kala (c. 1070 BC), Adad - nirari II (c. 900), Tukulti - Ninurta II (c. 890), and Ashurnasirpal II (883 -- 859 BC).
The Kingdom of Armenia was an independent kingdom from 190 BC to 387 AD, and a client state of the Roman and Persian empires until 428. Between 95 BC -- 55 BC under the rule of King Tigranes the Great, the kingdom of Armenia became a large and powerful empire stretching from the Caspian to the Mediterranean Seas. During this short time it was considered to be the most powerful state in the Roman East.
The history of Pre-Islamic Arabia before the rise of Islam in the 630s is not known in great detail. Archaeological exploration in the Arabian peninsula has been sparse; indigenous written sources are limited to the many inscriptions and coins from southern Arabia. Existing material consists primarily of written sources from other traditions (such as Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, etc.) and oral traditions later recorded by Islamic scholars.
The first known inscriptions of the Kingdom of Hadhramaut are known from the 8th century BC. It was first referenced by an outside civilization in an Old Sabaic inscription of Karab'il Watar from the early 7th century BC, in which the King of Hadramaut, Yada ` ' il, is mentioned as being one of his allies.
Dilmun appears first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the end of 4th millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun refers to a type of axe and one specific official; in addition, there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
The Sabaeans were an ancient people speaking an Old South Arabian language who lived in what is today Yemen, in south west Arabian Peninsula; from 2000 BC to the 8th century BC. Some Sabaeans also lived in D'mt, located in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, due to their hegemony over the Red Sea. They lasted from the early 2nd millennium to the 1st century BC. In the 1st century BC it was conquered by the Himyarites, but after the disintegration of the first Himyarite empire of the Kings of Saba ' and dhu - Raydan the Middle Sabaean Kingdom reappeared in the early 2nd century. It was finally conquered by the Himyarites in the late 3rd century.
The ancient Kingdom of Awsan with a capital at Hagar Yahirr in the wadi Markha, to the south of the wadi Bayhan, is now marked by a tell or artificial mound, which is locally named Hagar Asfal. Once it was one of the most important small kingdoms of South Arabia. The city seems to have been destroyed in the 7th century BC by the king and mukarrib of Saba Karib'il Watar, according to a Sabaean text that reports the victory in terms that attest to its significance for the Sabaeans.
The Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquered neighbouring Saba (Sheba) in c. 25 BC, Qataban in c. 200 AD and Hadramaut c. 300 AD. Its political fortunes relative to Saba changed frequently until it finally conquered the Sabaean Kingdom around 280 AD. It was the dominant state in Arabia until 525 AD. The economy was based on agriculture.
Foreign trade was based on the export of frankincense and myrrh. For many years it was also the major intermediary linking East Africa and the Mediterranean world. This trade largely consisted of exporting ivory from Africa to be sold in the Roman Empire. Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast, and the state also exerted a considerable amount of political control of the trading cities of East Africa.
The Nabataean origins remain obscure. On the similarity of sounds, Jerome suggested a connection with the tribe Nebaioth mentioned in Genesis, but modern historians are cautious about an early Nabatean history. The Babylonian captivity that began in 586 BC opened a power vacuum in Judah, and as Edomites moved into Judaean grazing lands, Nabataean inscriptions began to be left in Edomite territory (earlier than 312 BC, when they were attacked at Petra without success by Antigonus I). The first definite appearance was in 312 BC, when Hieronymus of Cardia, a Seleucid officer, mentioned the Nabateans in a battle report. In 50 BC, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus cited Hieronymus in his report, and added the following: "Just as the Seleucids had tried to subdue them, so the Romans made several attempts to get their hands on that lucrative trade. ''
Petra or Sela was the ancient capital of Edom; the Nabataeans must have occupied the old Edomite country, and succeeded to its commerce, after the Edomites took advantage of the Babylonian captivity to press forward into southern Judaea. This migration, the date of which can not be determined, also made them masters of the shores of the Gulf of Aqaba and the important harbor of Elath. Here, according to Agatharchides, they were for a time very troublesome, as wreckers and pirates, to the reopened commerce between Egypt and the East, until they were chastised by the Ptolemaic rulers of Alexandria.
The Lakhmid Kingdom was founded by the Lakhum tribe that immigrated out of Yemen in the 2nd century and ruled by the Banu Lakhm, hence the name given it. It was formed of a group of Arab Christians who lived in Southern Iraq, and made al - Hirah their capital in (266). The founder of the dynasty was ' Amr and the son Imru ' al - Qais converted to Christianity. Gradually the whole city converted to that faith. Imru ' al - Qais dreamt of a unified and independent Arab kingdom and, following that dream, he seized many cities in Arabia.
The Ghassanids were a group of South Arabian Christian tribes that emigrated in the early 3rd century from Yemen to the Hauran in southern Syria, Jordan and the Holy Land where they intermarried with Hellenized Roman settlers and Greek - speaking Early Christian communities. The Ghassanid emigration has been passed down in the rich oral tradition of southern Syria. It is said that the Ghassanids came from the city of Ma'rib in Yemen. There was a dam in this city, however one year there was so much rain that the dam was carried away by the ensuing flood. Thus the people there had to leave. The inhabitants emigrated seeking to live in less arid lands and became scattered far and wide. The proverb "They were scattered like the people of Saba '' refers to that exodus in history. The emigrants were from the southern Arab tribe of Azd of the Kahlan branch of Qahtani tribes.
Though the Ugaritic site is thought to have been inhabited earlier, Neolithic Ugarit was already important enough to be fortified with a wall early on. The first written evidence mentioning the city comes from the nearby city of Ebla, c. 1800 BC. Ugarit passed into the sphere of influence of Egypt, which deeply influenced its art.
Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant and had existed during the Iron Ages and the Neo-Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. The name Israel first appears in the stele of the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah c. 1209 BC, "Israel is laid waste and his seed is no more. '' This "Israel '' was a cultural and probably political entity of the central highlands, well enough established to be perceived by the Egyptians as a possible challenge to their hegemony, but an ethnic group rather than an organised state; Archaeologist Paula McNutt says: "It is probably... during Iron Age I (that) a population began to identify itself as ' Israelite ', '' differentiating itself from its neighbours via prohibitions on intermarriage, an emphasis on family history and genealogy, and religion.
Israel had emerged by the middle of the 9th century BC, when the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III names "Ahab the Israelite '' among his enemies at the battle of Qarqar (853). Judah emerged somewhat later than Israel, probably during the 9th century BC, but the subject is one of considerable controversy. Israel came into increasing conflict with the expanding neo-Assyrian empire, which first split its territory into several smaller units and then destroyed its capital, Samaria (722). A series of campaigns by the Neo-Babylonian Empire between 597 and 582 led to the destruction of Judah.
Followed by the fall of Babylon to the Persian empire, Jews were allowed, by Cyrus the Great, to return to Judea. The Hasmonean Kingdom (followed by the Maccabean revolt) had existed during the Hellenistic period and then the Herodian kingdom during the Roman period.
Phoenicia was an ancient civilization centered in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal regions of modern - day Lebanon, Syria and Israel. Phoenician civilization was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean between the period of 1550 to 300 BC.
A written reference, Herodotus 's account (written c. 440 BC) refers to a memory from 800 years earlier, which may be subject to question in the fullness of genetic results. (History, I: 1). This is a legendary introduction to Herodotus ' brief retelling of some mythical Hellene - Phoenician interactions. Though few modern archaeologists would confuse this myth with history, a grain of truth may yet lie therein.
Ancient Egypt was a long - lived civilization geographically located in north - eastern Africa. It was concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River reaching its greatest extension during the 2nd millennium BC, which is referred to as the New Kingdom period. It reached broadly from the Nile Delta in the north, as far south as Jebel Barkal at the Fourth Cataract of the Nile. Extensions to the geographical range of ancient Egyptian civilization included, at different times, areas of the southern Levant, the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea coastline, the Sinai Peninsula and the Western Desert (focused on the several oases).
Ancient Egypt developed over at least three and a half millennia. It began with the incipient unification of Nile Valley polities around 3500 BC and is conventionally thought to have ended in 30 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered and absorbed Ptolemaic Egypt as a province. (Though this last did not represent the first period of foreign domination, the Roman period was to witness a marked, if gradual transformation in the political and religious life of the Nile Valley, effectively marking the termination of independent civilisational development).
The civilization of ancient Egypt was based on a finely balanced control of natural and human resources, characterised primarily by controlled irrigation of the fertile Nile Valley; the mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions; the early development of an independent writing system and literature; the organisation of collective projects; trade with surrounding regions in east / central Africa and the eastern Mediterranean; finally, military ventures that exhibited strong characteristics of imperial hegemony and territorial domination of neighbouring cultures at different periods. Motivating and organizing these activities were a socio - political and economic elite that achieved social consensus by means of an elaborate system of religious belief under the figure of a (semi) - divine ruler (usually male) from a succession of ruling dynasties and which related to the larger world by means of polytheistic beliefs.
The Kushite state was formed before a period of Egyptian incursion into the area. The Kushite civilization has also been referred to as Nubia. The first cultures arose in Sudan before the time of a unified Egypt, and the most widespread is known as the Kerma civilization. It is through Egyptian, Hebrew, Roman and Greek records that most of our knowledge of Kush (Cush) comes.
It is also referred to as Ethiopia in ancient Greek and Roman records. According to Josephus and other classical writers, the Kushite Empire covered all of Africa, and some parts of Asia and Europe at one time or another. The Kushites are also famous for having buried their monarchs along with all their courtiers in mass graves. The Kushites also built burial mounds and pyramids, and shared some of the same gods worshipped in Egypt, especially Amon and Isis.
The Axumite Empire was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from the proto - Aksumite period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD. Its ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia, the Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia '' as early as the 4th century. Aksum is mentioned in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world, and states that the ruler of Aksum in the 1st century AD was Zoscales, who, besides ruling in Aksum also controlled two harbours on the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and Avalites (Assab). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek literature. It is also an alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and home of the Queen of Sheba. Aksum was also one of the first major empires to convert to Christianity.
The Land of Punt, also called Pwenet, or Pwene by the ancient Egyptians, was a trading partner known for producing and exporting gold, aromatic resins, African blackwood, ebony, ivory, slaves and wild animals. Information about Punt has been found in ancient Egyptian records of trade missions to this region. The exact location of Punt remains a mystery. The mainstream view is that Punt was located to the south - east of Egypt, most likely on the coast of the Horn of Africa. The earliest recorded Egyptian expedition to Punt was organized by Pharaoh Sahure of the Fifth Dynasty (25th century BC) although gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt in the time of king Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt. Subsequently, there were more expeditions to Punt in the Sixth Dynasty of Egypt, the Eleventh dynasty of Egypt, the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt and the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. In the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, trade with Punt was celebrated in popular literature in "Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor ''.
The Nok culture appeared in Nigeria around 1000 BC and mysteriously vanished around 200 AD. The civilization 's social system is thought to have been highly advanced. The Nok civilization was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life - sized Terracotta which have been discovered by archaeologists. A Nok sculpture resident at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, portrays a sitting dignitary wearing a "Shepherds Crook '' on the right arm, and a "hinged flail '' on the left. These are symbols of authority associated with ancient Egyptian pharaohs, and the god Osiris, which suggests that an ancient Egyptian style of social structure, and perhaps religion, existed in the area of modern Nigeria during the late Pharonic period. (Informational excerpt copied from Nigeria and Nok culture articles)
Carthage was founded in 814 BC by Phoenician settlers from the city of Tyre, bringing with them the city - god Melqart. Ancient Carthage was an informal hegemony of Phoenician city - states throughout North Africa and modern Spain from 575 BC until 146 BC. It was more or less under the control of the city - state of Carthage after the fall of Tyre to Babylonian forces. At the height of the city 's influence, its empire included most of the western Mediterranean. The empire was in a constant state of struggle with the Roman Republic, which led to a series of conflicts known as the Punic Wars. After the third and final Punic War, Carthage was destroyed then occupied by Roman forces. Nearly all of the territory held by Carthage fell into Roman hands.
The earliest evidence of human civilization in South Asia is from the Mehrgarh region (7000 BC to 3200 BC) of Pakistan. Located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River valley and between the present - day Pakistani cities of Quetta, Kalat and Sibi, Mehrgarh was discovered in 1974 by an archaeological team directed by French archaeologist Jean - François Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh -- in the northeast corner of the 495 acres (2.00 km) site -- was a small farming village dated between 7000 BC -- 5500 BC. Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six - row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500 BC to 2600 BC) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BC. (2)
In April 2006, it was announced in the scientific journal Nature that the oldest evidence in human history for the drilling of teeth in vivo (i.e. in a living person) was found in Mehrgarh. Mehrgarh is sometimes cited as the earliest known farming settlement in South Asia, based on archaeological excavations from 1974 (Jarrige et al.). The earliest evidence of settlement dates from 7000 BC. It is also cited for the earliest evidence of pottery in South Asia. Archaeologists divide the occupation at the site into several periods. Mehrgarh is now seen as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300 -- 1700 BC, flourished 2600 -- 1900 BC), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus and Ghaggar - Hakra river valleys primarily in what is now Pakistan, although settlements linked to this ancient civilization have been found in eastern Afghanistan, and western India. Minor scattered sites have been found as far away as Turkmenistan. Another name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa in the Pakistani province of Punjab. The IVC might have been known to the Sumerians as the Meluhha, and other trade contacts may have included Egypt, Africa, however, the modern world discovered it only in the 1920s as a result of archaeological excavations and rail road building. Prominent historians of Ancient India would include Ram Sharan Sharma and Romila Thapar.
The births of Mahavira and Buddha in the 6th century BC mark the beginning of well - recorded history in the region. Around the 5th century BC, the ancient region of Pakistan was invaded by the Achaemenid Empire under Darius in 522 BC forming the easternmost satraps of the Persian Empire. The provinces of Sindh and Panjab were said to be the richest satraps of the Persian Empire and contributed many soldiers to various Persian expeditions. It is known that an Indian contingent fought in Xerxes ' army on his expedition to Greece. Herodotus mentions that the Indus satrapy supplied cavalry and chariots to the Persian army. He also mentions that the Indus people were clad in armaments made of cotton, carried bows and arrows of cane covered with iron. Herodotus states that in 517 BC Darius sent an expedition under Scylax to explore the Indus. Under Persian rule, much irrigation and commerce flourished within the vast territory of the empire. The Persian empire was followed by the invasion of the Greeks under Alexander 's army. Since Alexander was determined to reach the eastern-most limits of the Persian Empire he could not resist the temptation to conquer India (i.e. the Punjab region), which at this time was parcelled out into small chieftain - ships, who were feudatories of the Persian Empire. Alexander amalgamated the region into the expanding Hellenic empire. The Rigveda, in Sanskrit, goes back to about 1500 BC. The Indian literary tradition has an oral history reaching down into the Vedic period of the later 2nd millennium BC.
Ancient India is usually taken to refer to the "golden age '' of classical Indian culture, as reflected in Sanskrit literature, beginning around 500 BC with the sixteen monarchies and ' republics ' known as the Mahajanapadas, stretched across the Indo - Gangetic plains from modern - day Afghanistan to Bangladesh. The largest of these nations were Magadha, Kosala, Kuru and Gandhara. Notably, the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata are rooted in this classical period.
Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of Ashoka Maurya, one of India 's most legendary and famous emperors. During the reign of Ashoka, the four dynasties of Chola, Chera, and Pandya were ruling in the South, while the King Devanampiya Tissa was controlling the Anuradhapura Kingdom (now Sri Lanka). These kingdoms, while not part of Ashoka 's empire, were in friendly terms with the Maurya Empire. There was a strong alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa (250 -- 210 BC) and Ashoka of India, who sent Arahat Mahinda, four monks, and a novice being sent to Sri Lanka. They encountered Devanampiya Tissa at Mihintale. After this meeting, Devanampiya Tissa embraced Buddhism the order of monks was established in the country. Devanampiya Tissa, guided by Arahat Mahinda, took steps to firmly establish Buddhism in the country.
The Satavahanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan Empire, and declared independence soon after the death of Ashoka (232 BC). Other notable ancient South Indian dynasties include the Kadambas of Banavasi, western Ganga dynasty, Badami Chalukyas, Western Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Kakatiya dynasty, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas of Manyaketha and Satavahanas.
The period between AD 320 -- 550 is known as the Classical Age, when most of North India was reunited under the Gupta Empire (c. AD 320 -- 550). This was a period of relative peace, law and order, and extensive achievements in religion, education, mathematics, arts, Sanskrit literature and drama. Grammar, composition, logic, metaphysics, mathematics, medicine, and astronomy became increasingly specialized and reached an advanced level. The Gupta Empire was weakened and ultimately ruined by the raids of Hunas (a branch of the Hephthalites emanating from Central Asia). Under Harsha (r. 606 -- 47), North India was reunited briefly.
The educated speech at that time was Sanskrit, while the dialects of the general population of northern India were referred to as Prakrits. The South Indian Malabar Coast and the Tamil people of the Sangam age traded with the Graeco - Roman world. They were in contact with the Phoenicians, Romans, Greeks, Arabs, Syrians, Jews, and the Chinese.
The regions of South Asia, primarily present - day Pakistan and India, were estimated to have had the largest economy of the world between the 1st and 15th centuries AD, controlling between one third and one quarter of the world 's wealth up to the time of the Mughals, from whence it rapidly declined during British rule.
The early part of the Shang dynasty described in traditional histories (c. 1600 -- 1300) is commonly identified with archaeological finds at Erligang, Zhengzhou and Yanshi, south of the Yellow River in modern - day Henan province. The last capital of the Shang (c. 1300 -- 1046 BC) at Anyang (also in Henan) has been directly confirmed by the discovery there of the earliest Chinese texts, inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals -- the so - called "oracle bones ''.
Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the Shang were overrun by the Zhou dynasty from the Wei River valley to the west. The death of King Wu of Zhou soon after the conquest triggered a succession crisis and civil war that was suppressed by Wu 's brother, the Duke of Zhou, acting as regent. The Zhou rulers at this time invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty. The Zhou initially established their capital in the west near modern Xi'an, near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the Yangtze River valley. This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.
In the 8th century BC, power became decentralized during the Spring and Autumn period, named after the influential Spring and Autumn Annals. In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, such as the Quanrong, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to Luoyang. This marks the second large phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou. In each of the hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only. Local leaders for instance started using royal titles for themselves. The Hundred Schools of Thought of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The Spring and Autumn period is marked by a falling apart of the central Zhou power. China now consisted of hundreds of states, some only as large as a village with a fort.
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of the 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the Warring States period. Though there remained a nominal Zhou king until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead and held little power. As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning, were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of commandery and prefecture. This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of Sheng and Xian (province and county). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng, the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong and Guangxi in 214 BC enabled him to proclaim himself the First Emperor (Qin Shi Huangdi).
Japan first appeared in written records in AD 57 with the following mention in China 's Book of the Later Han: "Across the ocean from Luoyang are the people of Wa. Formed from more than one hundred tribes, they come and pay tribute frequently. '' According to the Kojiki, Emperor Jimmu, in 660 BC, unified the many peoples of the Japanese archipelago and established order. The Book of Wei, written in the 3rd century, noted the country was the unification of some 30 small tribes or states and ruled by a shaman queen named Himiko of Yamataikoku.
During the Han dynasty and Wei dynasty, Chinese travelers to Kyūshū recorded its inhabitants and claimed that they were the descendants of the Grand Count (Tàibó) of the Wu. The inhabitants also show traits of the pre-sinicized Wu people with tattooing, teeth - pulling and baby - carrying. The Book of Wei records the physical descriptions which are similar to ones on Haniwa statues, such men with braided hair, tattooing and women wearing large, single - piece clothing.
According to the Samguk Yusa and other Korean medieval - era Folklore collection, Gojoseon was the first Korean kingdom. Gojoseon was founded in 2333 BC by the legendary ruler Dangun, said to be descended from the Lord of Heaven. Then, Korea was governed for Jizi and the 40th generation descendant. According to Records of the Grand Historian, Korea was founded by Wiman from China in 197 BC. In 105 BC, Han dynasty China ruined Korea and ruled for about 400 years.
The Three Kingdoms (Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla) conquered other successor states of Gojoseon and came to dominate the peninsula and much of Manchuria. The three kingdoms competed with each other both economically and militarily; Goguryeo and Baekje were the more powerful states for much of the three kingdoms era. At times more powerful than the neighboring Sui dynasty, Goguryeo was a regional power that defeated massive Chinese invasions multiple times. As one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Silla gradually extended across Korea and eventually became the first state since Gojoseon to cover most of Korean peninsula in 676. In 698, former Goguryeo general Dae Jo - yeong founded Balhae as the successor to Goguryeo.
Unified Silla itself fell apart in the late 9th century, giving way to the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period (892 -- 936), which ended with the establishment of the Goryeo Dynasty. After the fall of Balhae in 926 to the Khitan, much of its people were absorbed into Goryeo Dynasty.
Around 3000 BC, the 15 different Lạc Việt ethnic tribes lived together in many areas with other inhabitants. Due to increasing needs to control floods, fights against invaders, and culture and trade exchanges, these tribes living near each other tended to gather together and integrate into a larger mixed group. Among these Lac Viet tribes was the Van Lang, which was the most powerful tribe. The leader of this tribe later joined all the tribes together to found the Hồng Bàng Dynasty in 2897 BC. He became the first in a line of earliest Vietnamese kings, collectively known as the Hùng kings (Hùng Vương). The Hùng kings called the country, which was then located on the Red River delta in present - day northern Vietnam, Văn Lang. The people of Văn Lang were referred to as the Lạc Việt. The next generations followed in their father 's footsteps and kept this appellation. Based on historical documents, researchers correlatively delineated the location of Văn Lang Nation to the present day regions of North and north of Central Vietnam, as well as the south of present - day Kwangsi (China).
The Đông Sơn culture was a prehistoric Bronze Age culture that was centered at the Red River Valley of northern Vietnam. Its influence flourished to other parts of Southeast Asia, including the Indo - Malayan Archipelago from about 2000 BC to 200 AD. The theory based on the assumption that bronze casting in eastern Asia originated in northern China; however, this idea has been discredited by archaeological discoveries in north - eastern Thailand in the 1970s. In the words of one scholar, "Bronze casting began in Southeast Asia and was later borrowed by the Chinese, not vice versa as the Chinese scholars have always claimed. Evidence of early kingdoms of Vietnam other than the Đông Sơn culture in Northern Vietnam was found in Cổ Loa, the ancient city situated within present - day Hà Nội.
North - western Mongolia was Turkic while south - western Mongolia had come under Indo - European (Tocharian and Scythian) influence. In antiquity, the eastern portions of both Inner and Outer Mongolia were inhabited by Mongolic peoples descended from the Donghu people, including the Xianbei, Wuhuan, Rouran, Tuoba, Murong, Shiwei, Kumo Xi and Khitan. These were Tengriist horse - riding pastoralist kingdoms that had close contact with the Chinese. The Donghu are first mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of the state of Yan in 699 -- 632 BC. The Mongolic - speaking Xianbei (208 BC - 234 AD) originally formed a part of the Donghu confederation, but existed even before that time, as evidenced by a mention in the Guoyu "晉 語 八 '' section which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042 -- 1021 BC) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject - lords at Qiyang (岐 阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu (楚), since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). As a nomadic confederation composed of the Xianbei and Wuhuan, the Donghu were prosperous in the 4th century BC, forcing surrounding tribes to pay tribute and constantly harassing the State of Zhao (325 BC, during the early years of the reign of Wuling) and the State of Yan (in 304 BC General Qin Kai was given as a hostage to the Donghu).
In 208 BC Xiongnu emperor Modu Chanyu, in his first major military campaign, defeated the formerly superior Donghu, who split into the Xianbei and Wuhuan. The Xianbei fled east all the way to Liaodong. In 49 AD the Xianbei ruler Bianhe attacked the Xiongnu and killed 2000 people after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. In 54 AD the Xianbei rulers Yuchoupen and Mantu presented themselves to the Han emperor and received the titles of wang and gou. Until 93 AD the Xianbei were quietly protecting the Chinese border from Wuhuan and Xiongnu attacks and received ample rewards. From 93 AD the Xianbei began to occupy the lands of the Xiongnu. 100,000 Xiongnu families changed their name to Xianbei. In 97 AD Feijuxian in Liaodong was attacked by the Xianbei, and the governor Qi Sen was dismissed for inaction. Other Xianbei rulers who were active before the rise of the Xianbei emperor Tanshihuai (141 -- 181) were Yanzhiyang, Lianxu and Cizhiqian. The Xianbei gave rise to different Mongolic branches, for example the Rouran (330 -- 555), Khitan (388 -- 1218) and Shiwei (444 -- present day). The Khitans developed the Khitan scripts in 920 -- 925 AD. The Rouran king Shelun was the first major leader of the steppes to adopt (in 402 AD) the title of Khagan (可 汗) or Qiudoufa Khan (丘 豆 伐 可 汗) (which was originally a title used by Xianbei nobles).
The Mongols of Genghis Khan were the Menggu sub-tribe of the Shiwei Xianbei. The first surviving Mongolian text is the Stele of Yisüngge (ru), a report on sports in Mongolian script on stone, that is most often dated at the verge of 1224 and 1225. Other early sources are written in Mongolian, Phagspa (decrets), Chinese (the Secret history), Arabic (dictionaries) and a few other western scripts.
The Huns left practically no written records. There is no record of what happened between the time they left Mongolian Plateau and arrived in Europe 150 years later. The last mention of the northern Xiongnu was their defeat by the Chinese in 151 at the lake of Barkol, after which they fled to the western steppe at Kangju (centered on the city of Turkistan in Kazakhstan). Chinese records between the 3rd and 4th centuries suggest that a small tribe called Yueban, remnants of northern Xiongnu, was distributed about the steppe of Kazakhstan.
In pre-Columbian times, several large, centralized ancient civilizations developed in the Western Hemisphere, both in Mesoamerica and western South America.
The Central Andes in South America has the largest ancient civilization register, spanning 4,500 years from Norte chico to the latest civilization, the Inca Empire.
Mesoamerican ancient civilizations included the Olmecs and Mayans. Between 2000 and 300 BC, complex cultures began to form and many matured into advanced Mesoamerican civilizations such as the: Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purépecha, "Toltec '' and Aztec, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years before the first contact with Europeans. These civilizations ' progress included pyramid - temples, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and theology.
The Zapotec emerged around 1500 years BC. They left behind the great city Monte Alban. Their writing system had been thought to have influenced the Olmecs but, with recent evidence, the Olmec may have been the first civilization in the area to develop a true writing system independently. At the present time, there is some debate as to whether or not Olmec symbols, dated to 650 BC, are actually a form of writing preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BC.
Olmec symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date to 650 BC and 900 BC respectively, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing. The Olmec symbols found in 2006, dating to 900 BC, are known as the Cascajal Block.
The earliest Mayan inscriptions found which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC in San Bartolo, Guatemala.
The history of the Etruscans can be traced relatively accurately, based on the examination of burial sites, artifacts, and writing. Etruscans culture that is identifiably and certainly Etruscan developed in Italy in earnest by 800 BC approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the 7th century to a culture that was influenced by Greek traders and Greek neighbors in Magna Graecia, the Hellenic civilization of southern Italy.
From the descendants of the Villanovan people in Etruria in central Italy, a separate Etruscan culture emerged in the beginning of the 7th century BC, evidenced by around 7,000 inscriptions in an alphabet similar to that of Euboean Greek, in the non-Indo - European Etruscan language. The burial tombs, some of which had been fabulously decorated, promotes the idea of an aristocratic city - state, with centralized power structures maintaining order and constructing public works, such as irrigation networks, roads, and town defenses.
Ancient Greece is the period in Greek history lasting for close to a millennium, until the rise of Christianity. It is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of Western Civilization. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe.
The earliest known human settlements in Greece were on the island of Crete, more than 9,000 years ago, though there is evidence of tool use on the island going back over 100,000 years. The earliest evidence of a civilisation in ancient Greece is that of the Minoans on Crete, dating as far back as 3600 BC. On the mainland, the Mycenaean civilisation rose to prominence around 1600 BC, superseded the Minoan civilisation on Crete, and lasted until about 1100 BC, leading to a period known as the Greek Dark Ages.
The Archaic Period in Greece is generally considered to have lasted from around the eighth century BC to the invasion by Xerxes in 480 BC. This period saw the expansion of the Greek world around the Mediterranean, with the founding of Greek city - states as far afield as Sicily in the West and the Black sea in the East. Politically, the Archaic period in Greece saw the collapse of the power of the old aristocracies, with democratic reforms in Athens and the development of Sparta 's unique constitution. The end of the Archaic period also saw the rise of Athens, which would come to be a dominant power in the Classical period, after the reforms of Solon and the tyranny of Pisistratus.
The Classical Greek world was dominated throughout the fifth century BC by the major powers of Athens and Sparta. Through the Delian League, Athens was able to convert Pan-hellenist sentiment and fear of the Persian threat into a powerful empire, and this, along with the conflict between Sparta and Athens culminating in the Peloponnesian war, was the major political development of the first part of the Classical period.
The period in Greek history from the death of Alexander the Great until the rise of the Roman empire and its conquest of Egypt in 30 BC is known as the Hellenistic period. The name derives from the Greek word Hellenistes ("the Greek speaking ones ''), and describes the spread of Greek culture into the non-Greek world following the conquests of Alexander and the rise of his successors.
Following the Battle of Corinth in 146 BC, Greece came under Roman rule, ruled from the province of Macedonia. In 27 BC, Augustus organised the Greek peninsula into the province of Achaea. Greece remained under Roman control until the break up of the Roman empire, in which it remained part of the Eastern Empire. Much of Greece remained under Byzantine control until the end of the Byzantine empire.
Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew out of the city - state of Rome, originating as a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula in the 9th century BC. In its twelve centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an oligarchic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire.
Roman civilization is often grouped into "classical antiquity '' with ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, and language in the Western world, and its history continues to have a major influence on the world today. The Roman civilization came to dominate Europe and the Mediterranean region through conquest and assimilation.
Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas. A number of Roman founded cities had monumental structures. Many contained fountains with fresh drinking - water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts, theatres, gymnasiums, bath complexes sometime with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and occasionally functional sewers.
However, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire. The western half of the empire, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the 5th century; the Eastern Roman Empire, governed from Constantinople, is referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, the traditional date for the "fall of Rome '' and subsequent onset of the Middle Ages.
The Roman Empire underwent considerable social, cultural and organizational change starting with reign of Diocletian, who began the custom of splitting the Empire into Eastern and Western halves ruled by multiple emperors. Beginning with Constantine the Great the Empire was Christianized, and a new capital founded at Constantinople. Migrations of Germanic tribes disrupted Roman rule from the late 4th century onwards, culminating in the eventual collapse of the Empire in the West in 476, replaced by the so - called barbarian kingdoms. The resultant cultural fusion of Greco - Roman, Germanic and Christian traditions formed the cultural foundations of Europe.
Migration of Germanic peoples to Britain from what is now northern Germany and southern Scandinavia is attested from the 5th century (e.g. Undley bracteate). Based on Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, the intruding population is traditionally divided into Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, but their composition was likely less clear - cut and may also have included ancient Frisians and Franks. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle contains text that may be the first recorded indications of the movement of these Germanic Tribes to Britain. The Angles and Saxons and Jutes were noted to be a confederation in the Greek Geographia written by Ptolemy in around AD 150.
Anglo - Saxon is the term usually used to describe the peoples living in the south and east of Great Britain from the early 5th century AD. Benedictine monk Bede identified them as the descendants of three Germanic tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, from the Jutland peninsula and Lower Saxony (German: Niedersachsen, Germany). The Angles may have come from Angeln, and Bede wrote their nation came to Britain, leaving their land empty. They spoke closely related Germanic dialects. The Anglo - Saxons knew themselves as the "Englisc, '' from which the word "English '' derives.
The Celts were a diverse group of tribal societies in Iron Age Europe. Proto - Celtic culture formed in the Early Iron Age in Central Europe (Hallstatt period, named for the site in present - day Austria). By the later Iron Age (La Tène period), Celts had expanded over wide range of lands: as far west as Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula, as far east as Galatia (central Anatolia), and as far north as Scotland. By the early centuries AD, following the expansion of the Roman Empire and the Great Migrations of Germanic peoples, Celtic culture had become restricted to the British Isles (Insular Celtic), with the Continental Celtic languages extinct by the mid-1st millennium AD.
Viking refers to a member of the Norse (Scandinavian) peoples, famous as explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates, who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe beginning in the late 8th. These Norsemen used their famed longships to travel. The Viking Age forms a major part of Scandinavian history, with a minor, yet significant part in European history.
New philosophies and religions arose in both east and west, particularly about the 6th century BC. Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with some of the earliest major ones being Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism in India, and Zoroastrianism in Persia. The Abrahamic religions trace their origin to Judaism, around 1800 BC.
The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: Sramana tradition and Vedic tradition. Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. Jainism and Buddhism are continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic world view of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo - Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being 's position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe.
In the east, three schools of thought were to dominate Chinese thinking until the modern day. These were Taoism, Legalism and Confucianism. The Confucian tradition, which would attain dominance, looked for political morality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Confucianism would later spread into the Korean peninsula and Goguryeo and toward Japan.
In the west, the Greek philosophical tradition, represented by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, was diffused throughout Europe and the Middle East in the 4th century BC by the conquests of Alexander III of Macedon, more commonly known as Alexander the Great. After the Bronze and Iron Age religions formed, the rise and spread of Christianity through the Roman world marked the end of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy.
In the history of technology and ancient science during the growth of the ancient civilizations, ancient technological advances were produced in engineering. These advances stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.
The characteristics of Ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology including ships and lighthouses.
The history of science and technology in India dates back to ancient times. The Indus Valley civilization yields evidence of hydrography, metrology and sewage collection and disposal being practiced by its inhabitants. Among the fields of science and technology pursued in India were metallurgy, astronomy, mathematics and Ayurveda. Some ancient inventions include plastic surgery, cataract surgery, Hindu - Arabic numeral system and Wootz steel.
The history of science and technology in China show significant advances in science, technology, mathematics, and astronomy. The first recorded observations of comets and supernovae were made in China. Traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and herbal medicine were also practiced.
Ancient Greek technology developed at an unprecedented speed during the 5th century BC, continuing up to and including the Roman period, and beyond. Inventions that are credited to the ancient Greeks such as the gear, screw, bronze casting techniques, water clock, water organ, torsion catapult and the use of steam to operate some experimental machines and toys. Many of these inventions occurred late in the Greek period, often inspired by the need to improve weapons and tactics in war. Roman technology is the engineering practice which supported Roman civilization and made the expansion of Roman commerce and Roman military possible over nearly a thousand years. The Roman Empire had the most advanced set of technology of their time, some of which may have been lost during the turbulent eras of Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Roman technological feats of many different areas, like civil engineering, construction materials, transport technology, and some inventions such as the mechanical reaper went unmatched until the 19th century.
Qanats which likely emerged on the Iranian plateau and possibly also in the Arabian peninsula sometime in the early 1st millennium BC spread from there slowly west - and eastward.
The history of ancient navigation began in earnest when men took to the sea in planked boats and ships propelled by sails hung on masts, like the Ancient Egyptian Khufu ship from the mid-3rd millennium BC. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Necho II sent out an expedition of Phoenicians, which in three years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa to the mouth of the Nile. Many current historians tend to believe Herodotus on this point, even though Herodotus himself was in disbelief that the Phoenicians had accomplished the act.
Hannu was an ancient Egyptian explorer (around 2750 BC) and the first explorer of whom there is any knowledge. He made the first recorded exploring expedition, writing his account of his exploration in stone. Hannu travelled along the Red Sea to Punt, and sailed to what is now part of eastern Ethiopia and Somalia. He returned to Egypt with great treasures, including precious myrrh, metal and wood.
Ancient warfare is war as conducted from the beginnings of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. In Europe, the end of antiquity is often equated with the fall of Rome in 476. In China, it can also be seen as ending in the 5th century, with the growing role of mounted warriors needed to counter the ever - growing threat from the north.
The difference between prehistoric warfare and ancient warfare is less one of technology than of organization. The development of the first city - states, and then empires, allowed warfare to change dramatically. Beginning in Mesopotamia, states produced sufficient agricultural surplus that full - time ruling elites and military commanders could emerge. While the bulk of military forces were still farmers, the society could support having them campaigning rather than working the land for a portion of each year. Thus, organized armies developed for the first time.
These new armies could help states grow in size and became increasingly centralized, and the first empire, that of the Sumerians, formed in Mesopotamia. Early ancient armies continued to primarily use bows and spears, the same weapons that had been developed in prehistoric times for hunting. Early armies in Egypt and China followed a similar pattern of using massed infantry armed with bows and spears.
Ancient music is music that developed in literate cultures, replacing prehistoric music. Ancient music refers to the various musical systems that were developed across various geographical regions such as Persia, India, China, Greece, Rome, Egypt and Mesopotamia (see music of Mesopotamia, music of ancient Greece, music of ancient Rome, music of Iran). Ancient music is designated by the characterization of the basic audible tones and scales. It may have been transmitted through oral or written systems. Arts of the ancient world refers to the many types of art that were in the cultures of ancient societies, such as those of ancient China, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, Mesopotamia and Rome.
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who discovered the cape of good hope in 1488 | Cape of Good Hope - Wikipedia
The Cape of Good Hope (Afrikaans: Kaap die Goeie Hoop (ˌkɑːp di ˌχujə ˈɦʊəp), Dutch: Kaap de Goede Hoop (ˌkaːb də ˌɣudə ˈɦoːp) (listen), Portuguese: Cabo da Boa Esperança (ˈkaβu ðɐ ˈβoɐ ʃpɨˈɾɐ̃sɐ)) is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa.
A common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa. This misconception was based on the misbelief that the Cape was the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. Contemporary geographic knowledge instead states the southernmost point of Africa is Cape Agulhas about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east - southeast. The currents of the two oceans meet at the point where the warm - water Agulhas current meets the cold water Benguela current and turns back on itself. That oceanic meeting point fluctuates between Cape Agulhas and Cape Point (about 1.2 kilometres (0.75 mi) east of the Cape of Good Hope).
When following the western side of the African coastline from the equator, however, the Cape of Good Hope marks the point where a ship begins to travel more eastward than southward. Thus, the first modern rounding of the cape in 1488 by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was a milestone in the attempts by the Portuguese to establish direct trade relations with the Far East (although Herodotus mentioned a claim that the Phoenicians had done so far earlier). Dias called the cape Cabo das Tormentas ("Cape of Storms ''; Dutch: Stormkaap), which was the original name of the "Cape of Good Hope ''.
As one of the great capes of the South Atlantic Ocean, the Cape of Good Hope has long been of special significance to sailors, many of whom refer to it simply as "the Cape ''. It is a waypoint on the Cape Route and the clipper route followed by clipper ships to the Far East and Australia, and still followed by several offshore yacht races.
The term Cape of Good Hope is also used in three other ways:
Eudoxus of Cyzicus (/ ˈjuːdəksəs /; Greek: Εὔδοξος, Eúdoxos; fl. c. 130 BC) was a Greek navigator for Ptolemy VIII, king of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, who found the wreck of a ship in the Indian Ocean that appeared to have come from Gades (today 's Cádiz in Spain), rounding the Cape.
When Eudoxus was returning from his second voyage to India the wind forced him south of the Gulf of Aden and down the coast of Africa for some distance. Somewhere along the coast of East Africa, he found the remains of the ship. Due to its appearance and the story told by the natives, Eudoxus concluded that the ship was from Gades and had sailed anti-clockwise around Africa, passing the Cape and entering the Indian Ocean. This inspired him to repeat the voyage and attempt a circumnavigation of the continent. Organising the expedition on his own account he set sail from Gades and began to work down the African coast. The difficulties were too great, however, and he was obliged to return to Europe.
After this failure he again set out to circumnavigate Africa. His eventual fate is unknown. Although some, such as Pliny, claimed that Eudoxus did achieve his goal, the most probable conclusion is that he perished on the journey.
In the 1450 Fra Mauro map, the Indian Ocean is depicted as connected to the Atlantic. Fra Mauro puts the following inscription by the southern tip of Africa, which he names the "Cape of Diab '', describing the exploration by a ship from the East around 1420:
"Around 1420 a ship, or junk, from India crossed the Sea of India towards the Island of Men and the Island of Women, off Cape Diab, between the Green Islands and the shadows. It sailed for 40 days in a south - westerly direction without ever finding anything other than wind and water. According to these people themselves, the ship went some 2,000 miles ahead until - once favourable conditions came to an end - it turned round and sailed back to Cape Diab in 70 days ''.
"The ships called junks (lit. "Zonchi '') that navigate these seas carry four masts or more, some of which can be raised or lowered, and have 40 to 60 cabins for the merchants and only one tiller. They can navigate without a compass, because they have an astrologer, who stands on the side and, with an astrolabe in hand, gives orders to the navigator ". (Text from the Fra Mauro map, 09 - P25.)
Fra Mauro explained that he obtained the information from "a trustworthy source '', who traveled with the expedition, possibly the Venetian explorer Niccolò da Conti who happened to be in Calicut, India at the time the expedition left:
"What is more, I have spoken with a person worthy of trust, who says that he sailed in an Indian ship caught in the fury of a tempest for 40 days out in the Sea of India, beyond the Cape of Soffala and the Green Islands towards west - southwest; and according to the astrologers who act as their guides, they had advanced almost 2,000 miles. Thus one can believe and confirm what is said by both these and those, and that they had therefore sailed 4,000 miles ''.
Fra Mauro also comments that the account of the expedition, together with the relation by Strabo of the travels of Eudoxus of Cyzicus from Arabia to Gibraltar through the southern Ocean in Antiquity, led him to believe that the Indian Ocean was not a closed sea and that Africa could be circumnavigated by her southern end (Text from Fra Mauro map, 11, G2). This knowledge, together with the map depiction of the African continent, probably encouraged the Portuguese to intensify their effort to round the tip of Africa.
In the Early Modern Era, the first European to reach the cape was the Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias on 12 March 1488, who named it the "Cape of Storms '' (Cabo das Tormentas). It was later renamed by John II of Portugal as "Cape of Good Hope '' (Cabo da Boa Esperança) because of the great optimism engendered by the opening of a sea route to India and the East.
The Khoikhoi people lived in the cape area when the Dutch first settled there in 1652. The Khoikhoi had arrived in this area about fifteen hundred years before. The Dutch called them Hottentots, a term that has now come to be regarded as pejorative.
Dutch colonial administrator Jan van Riebeeck established a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company some 50 km north of the cape in Table Bay on 6 April 1652 and this eventually developed into Cape Town. Supplies of fresh food were vital on the long journey around Africa and Cape Town became known as "The Tavern of the Seas ''.
On 31 December 1687 a community of Huguenots (French Protestants) arrived at the Cape of Good Hope from the Netherlands. They had escaped from France and fled to the Netherlands to flee religious persecution in France. One example was Pierre Joubert who came from La Motte - d'Aigues. The Dutch East India Company needed skilled farmers at the Cape of Good Hope and the Dutch Government saw opportunities to settle Huguenots at the Cape and sent them there. The Cape colony gradually grew over the next 150 years or so until it stretched for hundreds of kilometres to the north and north - east.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Dutch Republic was occupied by the French in 1795. Thus the Cape Colony became a French vassal and enemy of the British. Therefore, the United Kingdom invaded and occupied the Cape Colony that same year. The British relinquished control of the territory in 1803 but returned and reoccupied the Colony on 19 January 1806 following the Battle of Blaauwberg. The Dutch ceded the territory to the British in the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814 The Cape was then administered as the Cape Colony and it remained a British colony until it was incorporated into the independent Union of South Africa in 1910 (now known as the Republic of South Africa).
The Portuguese government erected two navigational beacons, Dias Cross and Gama Cross, to commemorate Vasco da Gama and Bartolomeu Dias as explorers who as mentioned were the first explorers to reach the cape. When lined up, the crosses point to Whittle Rock (34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889), a large, permanently submerged shipping hazard in False Bay. Two other beacons in Simon 's Town provide the intersection.
The Cape of Good Hope is at the southern tip of the Cape Peninsula, about 2.3 kilometres (1.4 mi) west and a little south of Cape Point on the south - east corner. Cape Town is about 50 kilometres to the north of the Cape, in Table Bay at the north end of the peninsula. The peninsula forms the western boundary of False Bay. Geologically, the rocks found at the two capes, and indeed over much of the peninsula, are part of the Cape Supergroup, and are formed of the same type of sandstones as Table Mountain itself. Both the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Point offer spectacular scenery; the whole of the southernmost portion of the Cape Peninsula is a wild, rugged, scenic and generally unspoiled national park.
The term the Cape has also been used in a wider sense, to indicate the area of the European colony centred on Cape Town, and the later South African province. Since 1994, it has been broken up into three smaller provinces: the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and Northern Cape; parts of the province were also absorbed into the North West.
With its diverse habitat, ranging from rocky mountain tops to beaches and open sea, the Cape of Good Hope is home to at least 250 species of birds including one of the two mainland colonies of African penguins.
"Bush birds '' tend to be rather scarce because of the coarse, scrubby nature of fynbos vegetation. When flowering, however, proteas and ericas attract sunbirds, sugarbirds, and other species in search of nectar. For most of the year, there are more small birds in coastal thicket than in fynbos.
The Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park is home to several species of antelope. Bontebok and eland are easily seen, and red hartebeest can be seen in the grazing lawns in Smitswinkel Flats. Grey rhebok are less commonly seen and are scarce, but may be observed along the beach hills at Olifantsbos. Most visitors are unlikely to ever see either Cape grysbok or klipspringer.
The Cape of Good Hope section is home to four Cape mountain zebra. They might be seen by the attentive or lucky visitor, usually in Smitswinkel Flats.
There are a wealth of small animals such as lizards, snakes, tortoises and insects. Small mammals include rock hyrax, four - striped grass mouse, water mongoose, Cape clawless otter and fallow deer.
The area offers excellent vantage points for whale watching. The southern right whale is the species most likely to be seen in False Bay between June and November. Other species are the humpback whale and Bryde 's whale. Seals, dusky dolphins and killer whales have also been seen.
The strategic position of the Cape of Good Hope between two major ocean currents, ensures a rich diversity of marine life. There is a difference between the sea life west of Cape Point and that to the east due to the markedly differing sea temperatures.
The South African Marine Living Resources Act is strictly enforced throughout the Table Mountain National Park, and especially in marine protected areas. Disturbance or removal of any marine organisms is strictly prohibited between Schusters Bay and Hoek van Bobbejaan, but is allowed in other areas during season and with relevant permits.
Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) are the mammals most intimately associated with the Cape of Good Hope. Baboons inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the park are a major tourist attraction. There are 11 troops consisting of about 375 individuals throughout the entire Cape Peninsula. Six of these 11 troops either live entirely within the Cape of Good Hope section of the park, or use the section as part of their range. The Cape Point, Kanonkop, Klein Olifantsbos, and Buffels Bay troops live entirely inside the Cape of Good Hope section of the Park. The Groot Olifantsbos and Plateau Road troops range into the park.
Chacma baboons are widely distributed across southern Africa and are classified as '' least concern '' in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. However, the South African Parks Department states in its publication Mountains in the Sea that the baboon population on the Cape is "critically endangered. '' This is due to habitat loss, genetic isolation, and conflicts with humans. Cape baboons have been eliminated from the majority of their range across the Cape Peninsula, and the Cape of Good Hope section of Table Mountain National Park provides a sanctuary for the troops that live within its boundaries. It provides relative safety from nearby towns, where people have killed many baboons after the baboons raid their houses looking for food. Baboons are also frequently injured or killed outside of the park by cars and by electrocution on power lines. Inside the park, some management policies such as allowing barbecues and picnics in the baboon home ranges cause detriment to the troops, as they become embroiled in conflicts with guests to the park.
The Cape of Good Hope is an integral part of the Cape Floristic Kingdom, the smallest but richest of the world 's six floral kingdoms. This comprises a treasure trove of 1100 species of indigenous plants, of which a number are endemic (occur naturally nowhere else on earth). The main type of fynbos ("fine bush '') vegetation at the Cape of Good Hope is Peninsula Sandstone Fynbos, an endangered vegetation type that is endemic to the Cape Peninsula. Coastal Hangklip Sand Fynbos grows on low - lying alkaline sands and, right by the sea, small patches of Cape Flats Dune Strandveld can be found.
Characteristic fynbos plants include proteas, ericas (heath), and restios (reeds). Some of the most striking and well - known members belong to the Proteacae family, of which up to 24 species occur. These include king protea, sugarbush, tree pincushion and golden cone bush (Leucadendron laureolum).
Many popular horticultural plants like pelargoniums, freesias, daisies, lilies and irises also have their origins in fynbos.
Coordinates: 34 ° 21 ′ 24.63 '' S 18 ° 28 ′ 26.36 '' E / 34.3568417 ° S 18.4739889 ° E / - 34.3568417; 18.4739889 (Cape of Good Hope)
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how many members were in her group vanity 6 | Vanity 6 - wikipedia
Vanity 6 was an American female vocal trio assembled by American musician Prince in mid -- 1981.
In 1981, Prince, himself a rising musical star, suggested that his three female friends -- his girlfriend Susan Moonsie, Boston native Brenda Bennett, and Jamie Shoop form a girl group that would be called "The Hookers ''. Prince 's vision was that the three women would perform in lingerie and sing sensual songs with lyrics about sex and fantasy. Prince had been wanting to mentor a girl singer or group since the late -- 1970s when he saw the film A Star is Born with Barbra Streisand and Kris Kristofferson.
The original trio recorded a few demos before Prince met the then named Denise Matthews, a model and Canadian B movie actress, in January 1980. Matthews was Rick James ' date at the American Music Awards when Prince persuaded her to join his girl group. Prince was so taken by her charisma that he decided she would be the perfect frontwoman for his "Hookers '' project. Matthews was eventually re-christened Vanity. Prince had originally suggested that she use the stage name "Vagina, '' but instead they agreed upon "Vanity. '' Other versions of the story suggest that it was Prince himself who coined the name "Vanity, '' as he said that looking at her was like looking in a mirror at the female version of himself. Around this time, Prince and Vanity began a romantic relationship. With Vanity 's arrival, Shoop was dropped from the group.
With the new trio finalized, Prince renamed the group Vanity 6. He provided the group, now dressed in lingerie and high heels, with provocative songs (although within the album credits, group members were sometimes given sole writing credits). Their first single, "He 's So Dull '', was a minor hit in Australia and the Netherlands, and appeared in the film National Lampoon 's Vacation. The second single, "Nasty Girl '', was a hit on both the U.S. R&B chart, peaking at number 7, and U.S. Dance chart (where it hit number one), and it also made an appearance on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. "Nasty Girl '' was a top 10 hit in the Netherlands, and a top 20 hit in the Flanders region of Belgium. The song was featured in the film Beverly Hills Cop, although it was not included on the soundtrack. "Nasty Girl '' was also featured in the 1983 sex - comedy Private School. During the group 's existence, members sometimes provided backing vocals on Prince 's albums.
The third single, "Drive Me Wild '', was another minor hit. Music videos were shot for all three singles. Their self - titled album, Vanity 6 (which would turn out to be their only release) was eventually certified gold. The group opened up on the 1999 Tour, between 1982 and 1983, which also featured The Time and Prince, as the headliner. The fact that The Time played behind a curtain during the Vanity 6 performance, caused a rift between the bands and friction within those friendships.
To the other group members ' dismay, Prince chose Vanity to pose with him for a Richard Avedon photograph used on the cover of an issue of Rolling Stone magazine. The issue also contained a two - page Avedon photo of Vanity 6. In 1983, Vanity recorded a demo for a new song, "Sex Shooter '', and started reading for her lead role in Purple Rain opposite Prince. Prior to the shooting of the movie, later in 1983, Vanity abruptly decided to leave the Prince camp and relinquish her role in the film. Many reasons were given for her sudden departure, including money, the end of their romantic relationship, and, most importantly, Vanity having been offered a lucrative solo deal from Motown Records.
Vanity was replaced in Purple Rain by Patricia Kotero, who would adopt the stage name Apollonia. She also inherited the lead role in Vanity 6, which was renamed Apollonia 6, alongside Bennett and Moonsie. The new trio recorded what would be their only album, Apollonia 6 in 1984.
In 1994, former front woman Vanity overdosed on crack cocaine and suffered from near - fatal renal failure. Upon recovering, she renounced her stage name and music and became a born again Christian. Vanity died on February 15, 2016 -- aged 57 -- from sclerosing encapsulating peritonitis, a complex form of a kidney disease.
A number of songs were in fact intended for the Vanity 6 follow up album, but due to Vanity 's departure, these songs ended up performed by others.
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who are the members of the security council | List of members of the United Nations Security Council - wikipedia
Membership of the United Nations Security Council is held by the five permanent members and ten elected, non-permanent members. Prior to 1966, there were six elected members, while the permanent members have in essence not changed since the creation of the United Nations in 1945, apart from the representation of China. Elected members hold their place on the Council for a two - year term, and half of these places are contested each year. To ensure geographical continuity, a certain number of members is allocated for each of the five UN regional groupings.
* During the 2016 Security Council elections, Italy and the Netherlands agreed to split a two - year term, in which Italy would serve from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2017 and the Netherlands would subsequently serve from 1 January 2018 to 31 December 2018.
In addition, one of the non-permanent members of the council is an Arab country, alternately from the African or Asia - Pacific groups. This rule was added to the system in 1967 for it to be applied beginning with 1968.
Each year the UN General Assembly elects five new members for a two - year term; these elections always begin in October of the year, and continue until the two - thirds majority for the number of countries for each region has been reached. Re-election is allowed, but the term must not be consecutive.
* The representative of Arab nations alternates between these two elected spaces.
From 1946 to 1965, the security council included six non-permanent members. The regional grouping at that time was:
There were some exceptions to this grouping: Liberia took the place of a Western European country in 1961; the Ivory Coast substituted a member of the Commonwealth in 1964 -- 1965; and the Eastern Europe group included Asian countries from 1956.
As part of a proposed expansion of the Security Council, Brazil, Germany, India and Japan, collectively the Group of 4 or G4 nations, are seeking permanent representation on this body. Italy opposed the expansion of the Security Council through the establishment of the group Uniting for Consensus.
This list contains the 130 United Nations member states so far elected to the United Nations Security Council, including the five permanent members, all listed by number of years each country has so far spent on the UNSC. Of all the members, 6 have so far ceased to exist, leaving the list with 124 modern nations. These, combined with the 69 modern nations that have never been elected to the UNSC to date (see Non-members, below), make up the entirety of the 193 current members of the UN.
Years on the Security Council, as of 2018, including current year where relevant:
The following countries have made known their applications for future United Nations Security Council membership:
Serbia as a member of the Eastern European Group has also expressed their wish to apply for United Nations Security Council membership in the future, but did not specify any term.
As of July 2011, there are currently 193 members of the United Nations and five permanent members of the Security Council. The other ten seats are assigned amongst the remaining 188 members. As a result, many members have never been on the Security Council. The following list is a summary of all countries, currently 68 modern nations and three historical ones, that have never been a member of the United Nations Security Council. The three historical UN members listed are Tanganyika, Zanzibar, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
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what happens at the end of all the bright places | All the Bright Places - wikipedia
All the Bright Places is a 2015 young adult novel by Jennifer Niven. The work was first published on January 6, 2015 through Knopf Publishing Group and is Niven 's first young adult work. A film adaptation starring Elle Fanning is currently in pre-production and will release in 2018 or 2019.
Theodore Finch and Violet Markey are two teenagers who want to escape from their small Indiana town. Violet is a popular girl while Finch is the not so popular but a hot boy. The only thing that would have ever brought the two together is that they both climbed the bell tower at school at the same time, planning to jump off the ledge. Finch is surprised that Violet is up there, because she 's a popular school cheerleader. But Violet has been dealing with the death of her sister, Eleanor, for which she feels responsible. Eleanor died in a car accident, and Violet has n't been in a car since. She quit the student council, then cheerleading, and now cares about absolutely nothing. On the ledge, Finch talks Violet down, and Violet returns the favor.
As for Finch, he is depressed and experiences near - constant thoughts of suicide. Morbidly, he writes out fun facts about other people 's suicides in his journal. He initiates a partnership between himself and Violet for a school project in which they will explore their home state of Indiana together. Later at home, Finch thinks about Violet, looking her up on Facebook, reading about her sister 's accident (which he had forgotten) and chatting online with her. Finch 's family does not understand his depression, so he feels isolated.
For their project, Finch and Violet travel around their state to see important or unusual sites. They see homemade roller coasters, the highest hill in Indiana, and more. The important thing does n't seem to be the sites themselves, but what the wandering begins to mean for both of them -- especially Violet. The two begin a romantic relationship and fall in love. Eventually, Finch becomes a kind of mentor and counselor for Violet. He helps her begin to talk about her sister 's death, which her parents have not managed to do. He inspires her to travel in a car again and begin writing again, things she had avoided for nine months. As a result, Violet begins to heal.
Finch, however, is getting worse. He suffers from an undiagnosed bipolar disorder and therefore deals with very high highs and very low lows. His behavior demonstrates the characteristic manic periods of impulsive excitability as well as the lethargic, pointless mindset during the depressive periods. He is also beaten by his father and bullied at school. The one shining spot in his life is his blossoming relationship with Violet.
One afternoon, they have sex at the Blue Hole, a large lake on private property, during another "wandering '' moment. They accidentally stay out until the next morning. Violet 's parents are angry, forbidding their daughter from seeing Finch again.
This begins a downward spiral for Finch, who ends up getting expelled from school. Although he still sees Violet on occasion, Finch is easily able to hide his worsening depression from her. Violet does n't realize the seriousness of the situation and wonders if Finch is losing interest in her.
One particularly bad night, Finch decides to end his life. He takes a handful of sleeping pills, but almost immediately regrets it. He goes to the emergency room and gets his stomach pumped. After that, he tries to get help through a suicide support group in a nearby town. There, he runs into Amanda, another girl he knows from school. She is concerned about Finch 's suicide attempt and tells Violet about it. Violet is obviously worried and tries to help. Finch explodes, and the two get in a big fight.
Finch runs away from home, and only Violet seems to be looking for him. He sends her mysterious texts while he visits the remainder of the locations for their unfinished project, but Violet does n't understand them until much later.
A month after he has disappeared, Finch sends an email to every single person he knows, saying goodbye. Violet, in a panic, figures out that he has drowned himself at the Blue Hole. She goes there and discovers she is right, and she becomes distraught. Later, she manages to decode the texts Finch had sent her, and at the last location they were supposed to visit together, Finch wrote a song for her. This helps the healing process, and convinces Violet that Finch 's suicide was not her fault. The book closes with Violet going swimming by herself in the Blue Hole, where she went swimming with Finch, bringing her a sense of peace.
The New York Times favorably compared All the Bright Places to Rainbow Rowell 's Eleanor & Park and John Green 's The Fault in Our Stars in that "Violet and Finch are the archetypal offering in contemporary young adult fiction: a pair of damaged, heart - tugging teenagers who are at once outcasts and isolated, trapped by the dissonant alchemy of their combined fates. '' Entertainment Weekly and The Guardian both gave ultimately favorable reviews for the work, with The Guardian writing "Niven 's first foray into Young Adult fiction lacks narrative tension but has plenty of emotional heft ''.
The novel won the 2015 Goodreads Choice Award for Young Adult fiction.
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the outermost layer of the epidermis is stratum basale and the innermost layer is stratum corneum | Epidermis - wikipedia
The epidermis is the outermost of the three layers that make up the skin, the inner layers being the dermis and hypodermis. The epidermis layer provides a barrier to infection from environmental pathogens and regulates the amount of water released from the body into the atmosphere through transepidermal water loss. The epidermis is composed of multiple layers of flattened cells that overlie a base layer (stratum basale) composed of columnar cells arranged perpendicularly.
The rows of cells develop from stem cells in the basal layer. Cellular mechanisms for regulating water and sodium levels (ENaCs) are found in all layers of the epidermis.
The word epidermis is derived through Latin from Ancient Greek epidermis, itself from Ancient Greek epi, meaning ' over, upon ' and from Ancient Greek dermis, meaning ' skin '. Something related to or part of the epidermis is termed epidermal.
The human epidermis is a familiar example of epithelium, particularly a stratified squamous epithelium
The epidermis primarily consists of keratinocytes (proliferating basal and differentiated suprabasal), which comprise 90 % of its cells, but also contains melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, and inflammatory cells. Epidermal thickenings called Rete ridges (or rete pegs) extend downward between dermal papillae. Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an arteriole and a venule. The epidermis itself has no blood supply and is nourished almost exclusively by diffused oxygen from the surrounding air.
Epidermal cells are tightly interconnected to serve as a tight barrier against the exterior environment. The junctions between the epidermal cells are of the adherens junction type, formed by transmembrane proteins called cadherins. Inside the cell, the cadherins are linked to actin filaments. In immunofluorescence microscopy, the actin filament network appears as a thick border surrounding the cells, although the actin filaments are actually located inside the cell and run parallel to the cell membrane. Because of the proximity of the neighboring cells and tightness of the junctions, the actin immunofluorescence appears as a border between cells.
The epidermis is composed of 4 or 5 layers, depending on the region of skin being considered. Those layers in descending order are:
The Malpighian layer (stratum malpighi) is both the stratum basale and stratum spinosum.
The epidermis is separated from the dermis, its underlying tissue, by a basement membrane.
As a stratified squamous epithelium, the epidermis is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale. Differentiating cell delaminate from the basement membrane and are displaced outwards through the epidermal layers, undergoing multiple stages of differentiation until, in the stratum corneum, losing their nucleus and fusing to squamous sheets, which are eventually shed from the surface (desquamation). Differentiated keratinocytes secrete keratin proteins, which contribute to the formation of an extracellular matrix that is an integral part of the skin barrier function. In normal skin, the rate of keratinocyte production equals the rate of loss, taking about two weeks for a cell to journey from the stratum basale to the top of the stratum granulosum, and an additional four weeks to cross the stratum corneum. The entire epidermis is replaced by new cell growth over a period of about 48 days.
Keratinocyte differentiation throughout the epidermis is in part mediated by a calcium gradient, increasing from the stratum basale until the outer stratum granulosum, where it reaches its maximum, and decreasing in the stratum corneum. Calcium concentration in the stratum corneum is very low in part because those relatively dry cells are not able to dissolve the ions. This calcium gradient parallels keratinocyte differentiation and as such is considered a key regulator in the formation of the epidermal layers.
Elevation of extracellular calcium concentrations induces an increase in intracellular free calcium concentrations. Part of that intracellular increase comes from calcium released from intracellular stores and another part comes from transmembrane calcium influx, through both calcium - sensitive chloride channels and voltage - independent cation channels permeable to calcium. Moreover, it has been suggested that an extracellular calcium - sensing receptor (CaSR) also contributes to the rise in intracellular calcium concentration.
Epidermal organogenesis, the formation of the epidermis, begins in the cells covering the embryo after neurulation, the formation of the central nervous system. In most vertebrates, this original one - layered structure quickly transforms into a two - layered tissue; a temporary outer layer, the periderm, which is disposed once the inner basal layer or stratum germinativum has formed.
This inner layer is a germinal epithelium that gives rise to all epidermal cells. It divides to form the outer spinous layer (stratum spinosum). The cells of these two layers, together called the Malpighian layer (s) after Marcello Malpighi, divide to form the superficial granular layer (Stratum granulosum) of the epidermis.
The cells in the stratum granulosum do not divide, but instead form skin cells called keratinocytes from the granules of keratin. These skin cells finally become the cornified layer (stratum corneum), the outermost epidermal layer, where the cells become flattened sacks with their nuclei located at one end of the cell. After birth these outermost cells are replaced by new cells from the stratum granulosum and throughout life they are shed at a rate of 0.001 - 0.003 ounces of skin flakes every hour, or 0.024 - 0.072 ounces per day.
Epidermal development is a product of several growth factors, two of which are:
The epidermis serves as a barrier to protect the body against microbial pathogens, oxidant stress (UV light), and chemical compounds, and provides mechanical resistance to minor injury. Most of this barrier role is played by the stratum corneum.
The ability of the skin to hold water is primarily due to the stratum corneum and is critical for maintaining healthy skin. Lipids arranged through a gradient and in an organized manner between the cells of the stratum corneum form a barrier to transepidermal water loss.
The amount and distribution of melanin pigment in the epidermis is the main reason for variation in skin color in Homo sapiens. Melanin is found in the small melanosomes, particles formed in melanocytes from where they are transferred to the surrounding keratinocytes. The size, number, and arrangement of the melanosomes vary between racial groups, but while the number of melanocytes can vary between different body regions, their numbers remain the same in individual body regions in all human beings. In white and Asian skin the melanosomes are packed in "aggregates '', but in black skin they are larger and distributed more evenly. The number of melanosomes in the keratinocytes increases with UV radiation exposure, while their distribution remain largely unaffected.
Laboratory culture of keratinocytes to form a 3D structure (artificial skin) recapitulating most of the properties of the epidermis is routinely used as a tool for drug development and testing.
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how much storage does the samsung galaxy s6 have | Samsung Galaxy S6 - Wikipedia
S6 and S6 Edge: Android 5.0. 2 "Lollipop '' S6 Edge+: Android 5.1. 1 "Lollipop ''
Samsung Galaxy S6, Samsung Galaxy S6 Edge, and Samsung Galaxy S6 Edge+ are Android smartphones manufactured and marketed by Samsung Electronics. The S6 line serves as a successor to the Galaxy S5. The S6 and S6 Edge smartphones were officially unveiled in the first "Samsung Unpacked 2015 '' event at Mobile World Congress on 1 March 2015, while the bigger S6 Edge+ was officially unveiled together with the Samsung Galaxy Note 5 in the second "Samsung Unpacked 2015 '' event at New York on 13 August 2015. Alongside the S6, Samsung also unveiled the S6 Edge (and later on the bigger S6 Edge+), a variant whose screen is wrapped along the sides of the device; the curvature is usable for several additional features. The Galaxy S6 and S6 Edge were released on 10 April 2015 in 20 countries while the S6 Edge+ was released on 21 August 2015 in 20 countries.
Although the overall design of the Galaxy S6 still features some similarities to prior models, the construction of the device itself was revamped, with a metal unibody frame and glass backing instead of plastic. The devices also introduced an improved camera, a streamlined user interface, support for both major wireless charging standards, and support for a mobile payments platform that allows the device to emulate the magnetic strip from a credit card. The S6 features other hardware improvements as well, including a 1440p display, a new in - house system - on - chip that utilizes a 14 nm FinFET manufacturing process, and an improved fingerprint scanner.
The Galaxy S6, S6 Edge and S6 Edge+ received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised the devices ' upgraded build quality over prior models, along with improvements to their displays, performance, camera, and other changes. However, Samsung 's decision to remove the ability to expand their storage or remove the battery was panned as being potentially alienating to power users, and the S6 Edge was also panned for not making enough use of its curved display to justify its increased cost over the standard Samsung Galaxy S6 which resulted in the release of the bigger S6 Edge+ later on.
Rumours surrounding the Galaxy S5 's successor began to surface in January 2015, it was reported that Samsung would be using an in - house Exynos system - on - chip rather than the Qualcomm Snapdragon 810 on the S6 due to concerns surrounding overheating. Later that month, Qualcomm affirmed in an earnings report that its products would not be included in "(a) large customer 's flagship device ''. Fellow competitor LG Electronics disputed the allegations surrounding the 810; although demo units of the 810 - equipped LG G Flex 2 at Consumer Electronics Show experienced signs of possible overheating, the company emphasized that they were pre-release models.
In early - February 2015, Bloomberg News reported that the S6 was to have a metal body, and was to be produced in a normal version, and a version with a screen curved along the left and right sides of the device, similarly to the Galaxy Note Edge. The S6 's design was officially teased in a promotional webpage released by T - Mobile US on 22 February 2015, which showed a curved body and carried the tagline "Six Appeal ''.
Samsung officially unveiled the Galaxy S6 and S6 Edge during the first Samsung Unpacked 2015 event at Mobile World Congress on 1 March 2015, for a release on 10 April 2015 in 20 countries. In Japan, the S6 and S6 Edge are marketed solely under the Galaxy brand, with most references to Samsung removed; sales of Samsung phones have been impacted by historical relations between Japan and South Korea, and a Samsung spokesperson stated that the Galaxy brand was "well - established '' in the country.
The Galaxy S6 models are designed to address criticisms and feedback received from prior models, and target the majority of users; during its unveiling, Samsung stated that it had placed a particular focus on design, its camera, and wireless charging. As part of these goals, a number of features and capabilities seen on the Galaxy S5 were removed, such as its waterproofing and USB 3.0 port. The S6 's new design approach is the culmination of a shift in practices that began with 2014 's Galaxy Alpha, which was the first Galaxy smartphone to feature metal as part of its construction. A new reflective coating was designed in - house to give the devices ' backings a "jewel - like '' appearance.
The device 's software was also simplified; a Samsung representative stated that 40 % of the features in TouchWiz were removed or streamlined in comparison to the S5. Additionally, the Galaxy S6 's battery is no longer user - replaceable; Samsung had been a major holdout from the trend against removable batteries, but argued that due to the S6 's fast AC charging and its support of both major wireless charging standards, it no longer needs to provide the ability for users to remove and replace the battery.
The Galaxy S6 line retains similarities in design to previous models, but now uses a unibody frame made of aluminium alloy 6013 with a glass backing, a curved bezel with chamfered sides to improve grip, and the speaker grille was moved to the bottom. The devices are available in "White Pearl '', "Black Sapphire '', and "Gold Platinum '' color finishes; additional "Blue Topaz '' and "Emerald Green '' finishes are exclusive to the S6 and S6 Edge respectively. The S6 carries some regressions in its design over the S5; it is no longer waterproof, does not contain a MicroSD card slot, and reverts to a USB 2.0 port from USB 3.0. Both also use non-removable batteries; Galaxy S6 includes a 2550 mAh battery, while the S6 Edge includes a 2600 mAh battery. The Galaxy S6 line supports both the Qi and Power Matters Alliance wireless charging standards.
The Galaxy S6 line is powered by a 64 - bit Exynos 7 Octa 7420 system - on - chip, consisting of four 2.1 GHz Cortex - A57 cores, and four 1.5 GHz Cortex - A53 cores, and 3 GB of LPDDR4 RAM for the S6 and S6 Edge while 4 GB of LPDDR4 for the S6 Edge+. The processor is Samsung 's first to use a 14 nm FinFET manufacturing process, which the company stated would improve its energy efficiency. It is available with 32, 64, or 128 GB of non-expandable storage, implementing Universal Flash Storage 2.0 standards. The S6 and S6 Edge features a 5.1 - inch 1440p Super AMOLED display; similarly to the Galaxy Note Edge while the S6 Edge+ features a 5.7 - inch 1440p Super AMOLED display, the S6 Edge and S6 Edge + 's display is slightly curved around the two lengthwise edges of the device, although not as aggressively as the Note Edge.
For its rear - facing camera, Galaxy S6 uses the same image sensor with optical image stabilization as the Galaxy Note 4, albeit with af / 1.9 aperture, object tracking autofocus, real - time HDR, and using the infrared of the heart rate sensor for calibrating white balance. Samsung claimed that the camera upgrades would allow it to have better low - light performance. The front - facing camera was also upgraded to 5 megapixels with a similar aperture. The fingerprint scanner in the home button now uses a touch - based scanning mechanism rather than swipe - based; double - tapping the Home button activates the camera app.
The S6 and S6 Edge were initially released running Android 5.0. 2 "Lollipop '' while the S6 Edge+ was initially released running Android 5.1. 1 "Lollipop '' with Samsung 's TouchWiz software suite. TouchWiz has been streamlined on the S6 with a refreshed design and fewer bundled applications. Several Microsoft apps are bundled with the S6: OneDrive, OneNote and Skype. On the S6 Edge and S6 Edge+, users can designate up to five contacts for quick access by swiping from one of the edges of the screen. The five contacts are also color - coded; when the device is face down, the curved sides will also glow in the contact 's color to signify phone calls. The Night Clock feature from the Galaxy Note Edge was carried over to the S6 Edge and S6 Edge+. The heart rate sensor can also be used as a button for dismissing calls and sending the caller a canned text message reply. The Sprint, Verizon, AT&T and T - Mobile versions remove some features available on the unbranded and unlocked version, like Smart Manager, Simple Sharing (only AT&T) and Download Booster (only Sprint and AT&T).
The S6, S6 Edge, and S6 Edge+ are the first devices to include Samsung Pay, a mobile payments service developed from the intellectual property of LoopPay, a crowdfunded startup company that Samsung acquired in February 2015. Samsung Pay incorporates technology by LoopPay known as "Magnetic Secure Transmission '' (MST); it transmits card data to the pay terminal 's swipe slot using an electromagnetic field, causing the terminal to register it as if it were a normally swiped card. LoopPay 's developers noted that its system would not share the limitations of other mobile payment platforms, and would work with "nearly 90 % '' of all point - of - sale units in the United States. The service will also support NFC - based mobile payments alongside MST. Credit card information is stored in a secure token and payments must be authenticated using a fingerprint scan. Samsung Pay was not immediately available upon the release of the S6, but enabled in the middle of 2015.
Samsung began to release Android 6.0. 1 "Marshmallow '' for the S6 in February 2016. It enables new features such as "Google Now on Tap '', which allows users to perform searches within the context of information currently being displayed on - screen, and "Doze '', which optimizes battery usage when the device is not being physically handled. On S6 Edge models, the Edge Display feature supports wider panels with a larger amount of functionality similar to those found on the S7 Edge.
On March 2017 Samsung began to release Android 7.0. "Nougat '' to the European, American, Canadian and Indian Variants After the update the UI (User Interface) was redesigned and it is similar to Galaxy S7 except Video Enhancer, Screen Resolution Adjuster, Performance Mode and the ability to take photos while recording video.
The Galaxy S6 received a generally positive reaction from early reviewers, noting its higher quality design over previous Samsung devices, along with refinements to its camera, the high quality of its display, and the significantly smaller amount of "bloat '' in the device 's software. Anandtech believed that the S6 's new fingerprint reader was comparable in quality to Apple 's Touch ID system. The Verge concluded that the S6 and S6 Edge were "the first time I 've felt like Samsung might finally be grappling with the idea of what a smartphone ought to be on an ontological level. '' Some critics raised concerns over the S6 's regressions in functionality over the Galaxy S5, particularly the lack of removable battery or SD card, arguing that it could alienate power users who were attracted to the Galaxy series due to their inclusion.
Wired felt while its dual - sided curved screen was better - designed than that of the Galaxy Note Edge, the S6 Edge 's use of the curved display was a "dramatic step backwards '' due to the limited number of edge - specific features available in comparison to the Galaxy Note Edge. As such, Samsung was criticized for providing no true justification for purchasing the S6 Edge over the non-curved S6, explaining that "it does n't do anything beyond the base model, but it 'll be worth the money to some people because of how it looks and the air of exclusivity it communicates. '' The Verge was similarly critical, arguing that the additional features were "very forgettable ''. In regards to performance, The Verge felt that the S6 was the "fastest Android phone I 've ever used '', and that the company "solved any slowdowns you might experience in Android with brute force. ''
Some users reported issues with the flash on some S6 devices, remaining dimly lit even if the camera is not in use or the device is turned off. Samsung was made aware of the problem, which affects the S6 and S6 Edge, but has not specified when it will be fixed.
iFixit upon review of the phone noted it is difficult to repair, as it is using strong adhesive in its rear glass and the battery.
In November 2015, Google 's Project Zero unit publicized eleven "high - impact '' security vulnerabilities that it had discovered in Samsung 's distribution of Android on the S6. Some of these had already been patched as of their publication.
In its first month of sales, 6 million Galaxy S6 and S6 Edge units were sold to consumers, exceeding the amount of Galaxy S5 units sold within a similar timeframe, but failing to break the record of 10 million set by the Galaxy S4. Still, facing competition by other vendors that have led to declining market share, a lower net profit, and foreseeing a "difficult business environment '' for the second half of the year, Samsung announced during its second quarter earnings report in July 2015 that it would be "adjusting '' the price of the S6 and S6 Edge. The company stated that sales of the two devices had a "marginal '' effect on its profits. The S6 Edge+ shared almost a similar fate albeit lagging behind the Note 5.
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tere liye serial title song female singer name | Tere Liye (TV series) - Wikipedia
Tere Liye (Hindi: तेरे लिए) (English: For You) was a highly popular Indian television drama series that was broadcast on STAR Plus from 14 June 2010, to 2 April 2011. It had fierce competition with Uttaran which was broadcast at the same time on rival channel. It is ranked eighth of all time on Star Plus. Currently, it is broadcast on Kohinoor TV in Pakistan.
This series is centred around two young lovers, Taani Banerjee and Anurag Ganguly.
Teenagers Taani and Anurag studied in the same school and have been buddies since childhood. Their respective fathers have also been best friends. Bimlendu has cancer and is worried about his daughter 's future after his death. To reassure him, Shekhar has his son married to her in a private ceremony, promising a public announcement when they grow older. Uncomfortable at first, they slowly start falling for each other. But after the death of Taani 's father due to a misunderstanding created by Shekhar 's cheating son - in - law, Ritesh, the couple is separated for eight years.
Taani is still in love with Anurag whereas Anurag now loves his mentor 's daughter, Nupur. He feels guilty about Taani and finds her his friend Sushant. Both their engagements are scheduled for the same day, but owing to fate, Sushant leaves Taani, dubious of her and Anurag, and Nupur leaves Anurag for a modelling assignment abroad. To save their families, they get engaged and decide to carry on the charade.
Meanwhile, Taani finds out about Ritesh 's intentions but Ananya does not believe her and throws her out. Anurag defends her and walks out to establish himself independent of Shekhar 's name. Taani helps him get several opportunities and Anurag gradually realises he loves her. Noticing this, Ananya makes Anurag believe Taani loves Subodh, and he banishes her. Saddened, Taani thinks Anurag still loves Nupur and goes to convince her to return. Anurag gets to know about Taani helping him to find work and bringing back Nupur, and vows to woo her again. When he succeeds, Nupur suddenly returns and threatens suicide before Anurag accepts her in urgency, though he still loves Taani. Finally, in a family function, Anurag declares his love for Taani and proposes to her. They get married.
Also, Anurag 's younger brother, Robindo reveals he loves their friend, Mauli, who is in love with Taposh Banerjee, and manages to make her agree for marriage before she finds out about his illegitimate child and gets married to Taposh, leaving Robbi heartbroken. Robindo then marries Jonaki, Mauli 's sister, as payback, and later, also frames Taposh for a gas leak accident before surrendering due to his love for Mauli.
It then turns out Ritesh has been cheating on Ananya with an illicit worker named Gulabo. Taani and Anurag reveal this to Ananya who is shattered and meets a fatal accident. She hands over her two children to Taani. When Ritesh falsely accuses Anurag of Gulabo 's murder and blackmails Taani into marrying him, Anurag interrupts and finally gets him arrested.
Following this, Anurag and Taani have a successful married life, before Ananya 's daughter dies in an accident and Taani succumbs to depression. Anurag plans to take Taani to the US but is almost killed by Ritesh on the way. The family thinks he is dead, but a pregnant Taani refuses to believe so.
After he recovers, Anurag comes back only to see Sushant taking care of a pregnant Taani. He misinterprets the situation and leaves to retire to a mental asylum. Taani finds him out after years and he returns home, to be with her again. He also finds out he has a daughter with Taani, and the two finally unite.
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who earned the number 1 seed and earned home court advantage throughout the nba playoffs | 2017 NBA Playoffs - wikipedia
The 2017 NBA Playoffs was the postseason tournament of the National Basketball Association 's 2016 -- 17 season, which began in October 2016. The playoffs began on April 15, 2017. The tournament concluded with the Western Conference champion Golden State Warriors defeating the Eastern Conference champion Cleveland Cavaliers 4 games to 1 in the NBA Finals. Kevin Durant was named the NBA Finals MVP.
The Warriors ' NBA championship run also sets an unprecedented record for the fewest games ever played to win an NBA championship, which is 17, one more than the minimum number of 16.
The Golden State Warriors started the playoffs with a record of 12 - 0. The first two finals games were blowouts by Golden State, Game 3 was closer, but the Warriors still came out victors, going up 3 - 0 bringing them to 15 - 0 in the playoffs, the best ever start in NBA playoff history. The Cleveland Cavaliers countered beating the Warriors 137 - 116 in Game 4, with 86 points in the first half, setting an NBA Finals record. On June 12, the Warriors bounced back and won game 5 at home 129 - 120, clinching the organization 's fifth championship. Golden State 's 16 - 1 record is an NBA playoff record. The title was all - star forward Kevin Durant 's first. Durant, who scored over 30 points in each of five games (the first player to do so since Shaquille O'Neal in 2000 with Los Angeles), was the recipient of the 2017 Bill Russell NBA Finals MVP award.
Within each conference, the eight teams with the most wins qualify for the playoffs. The seedings are based on each team 's record.
Each conference 's bracket is fixed; there is no reseeding. All rounds are best - of - seven series; the team that has four wins advances to the next round. As stated above, all rounds, including the NBA Finals, are in a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format. Home court advantage in any round does not necessarily belong to the higher - seeded team, but instead to the team with the better regular season record. If two teams with the same record meet in a round, standard tiebreaker rules are used. The rule for determining home court advantage in the NBA Finals is winning percentage, then head to head record, followed by record vs. opposite conference.
On February 25, 2017, The Golden State Warriors became the first team to clinch a 2017 playoff spot, and the earliest in NBA history, besting their own record from last year by two days. The Cleveland Cavaliers became the first Eastern Conference team to clinch a playoff spot on March 19, 2017.
Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team 's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Teams with home court advantage are shown in Italics.
* Division winner Bold Series winner Italic Team with home - court advantage
This was the fifth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning the first four meetings.
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Pacers winning the first meeting.
This was the first meeting in the playoffs between the Raptors and Bucks.
This was the sixth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Wizards / Bullets winning three of the first five meetings.
This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning two of the first three meetings.
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with Cleveland winning the first meeting in 2016.
This was the seventh playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Celtics winning four of the first six meetings.
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams, with Golden State winning the first meeting in 2016.
This was the fifth playoff meeting between these two teams, with San Antonio winning three of the four meetings.
This was the eighth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Thunder / SuperSonics winning six of the first seven meetings.
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Jazz winning the previous two meetings.
This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Warriors winning two of the first three meetings.
This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with the Rockets winning the first three meetings.
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams, with each team winning one series.
This was the third meeting in the NBA Finals between the Warriors and Cavaliers with each team winning one series.
ESPN, TNT, ABC, and NBA TV broadcast the playoffs nationally in the United States. In the first round, regional sports networks affiliated with the teams can also broadcast the games, except for games televised on ABC. Throughout the first two rounds, TNT televised games Saturday through Thursday, ESPN televised games Friday and Saturday, and ABC televised selected games on Saturday and Sunday, usually in the afternoon. NBA TV has aired select weekday games in the first round. TNT is currently televising the Eastern Conference Finals. Game 1 of the Western Conference Finals was televised on ABC, while Games 2 through 4 were televised on ESPN. ABC will have exclusive television rights to the NBA Finals for the 15th consecutive year.
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what does g stand for in super g skiing | Super-G - wikipedia
Super giant slalom, or super-G, is a racing discipline of alpine skiing. Along with the faster downhill, it is regarded as a "speed '' event, in contrast to the technical events giant slalom and slalom. It debuted as an official World Cup event during the 1983 season and was added to the official schedule of the World Championships in 1987 and the Winter Olympics in 1988.
Much like downhill, the other of the two "speed '' events in alpine skiing, a super-G course consists of widely set gates that racers must pass through. The course is set so that skiers must turn more than in downhill, though the speeds are still much higher than in giant slalom (hence the name). Each athlete only has one run to clock the best time. In the Olympics, super-G courses are usually set on the same slopes as the downhill, but with a lower starting point.
Super-G was run as a World Cup test event during the 1982 season, with two men 's races and a women 's race that did not count in the season standings. Approved by the International Ski Federation (FIS) that summer, it was first officially run at the World Cup level in December 1982 at Val - d'Isère, France; the winner was Peter Müller of Switzerland. The first official women 's super-G was run a month later in early January 1983, with consecutive events at Verbier, Switzerland. The first winner was Irene Epple of West Germany, and Cindy Nelson of the United States won the next day on a different course. These were the only two races for women in super-G during the 1983 season; the men had three. The event was not universally embraced during its early years, which included a boycott by two - time defending overall champion Phil Mahre in December 1982.
For the first three seasons, super-G results were added into the giant slalom discipline for the season standings; it gained separate status for a crystal globe for the 1986 season with five events for both men and women; the first champions were Markus Wasmeier and Marina Kiehl, both of West Germany.
It was added to the World Championships in 1987, held at Crans - Montana, Switzerland. Swiss skiers Pirmin Zurbriggen and Maria Walliser won gold medals to become the first world champions in the event. Super-G made its Olympic debut in 1988 in Calgary, where Franck Piccard of France and Sigrid Wolf of Austria took gold at Nakiska.
Hermann Maier of Austria (nicknamed ' The Hermannator ') is widely regarded as the greatest male super-G racer, with 24 World Cup victories and five World Cup titles (1998 -- 2001, 2004). He won the world championship in 1999 and an Olympic gold medal in 1998, three days after a crash in the downhill. Maier 's proficiency in super-G was attributed to his thorough course inspection and his aggressive course tactics; he opted for the most direct and dangerous line down the hill. A serious motorcycle accident in August 2001 nearly resulted in an amputation of his lower right leg and sidelined him for the 2002 season, including the 2002 Olympics. After his return to the World Cup circuit in January 2003, Maier won eight more World Cup super-G events and his fifth season title in 2004.
Aksel Lund Svindal of Norway is second on the list with 15 wins in World Cup super-G races, Pirmin Zurbriggen third with his 10 wins. Svindal won Olympic gold in 2010 and his fifth season title in 2014, while Zurbriggen won four consecutive season titles (1987 -- 90) and the first world championship in 1987. Another notable specialist was Kjetil André Aamodt of Norway, a triple gold medalist in Olympic super-G races, winning in 1992, 2002 and 2006. Aamodt won five World Cup races and two world championship medals (silver and bronze) in the discipline. Marc Girardelli of Luxembourg, a five - time overall World Cup champion, won nine World Cup super-G events. He won season titles in every discipline except super-G, where he was a runner - up three times. Girardelli was the silver medalist in the super-G at the 1987 World Championships and the 1992 Olympics.
On the women 's side, Lindsey Vonn of the U.S. leads with 27 World Cup victories in super-G and has won five season titles (2009 -- 2012, 2015). Katja Seizinger of Germany won five season titles in the 1990s, with 16 World Cup wins in the discipline. While neither won gold in the super-G in the Olympics (both won a bronze), they both won a world title, Vonn in 2009 and Seizinger in 1993. Renate Götschl of Austria won 17 World Cup events in super-G, three season titles (four as runner - up), and two medals (silver and bronze) in the world championships.
The vertical drop for a Super-G course must be between 350 -- 650 m (1,150 -- 2,130 ft) for men, 350 -- 600 m (1,150 -- 1,970 ft) for women, and 250 -- 450 m (820 -- 1,480 ft) for children. In the Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships, and FIS World Cups, minimums are raised to 400 m (1,300 ft) for both men and women. Courses are normally at least 30 m (98 ft) in width, but sections with lower widths are permissible if the line and terrain before and after allow it. Higher widths can also be required if deemed necessary. Gates must be between 6 m (20 ft) and 8 m (26 ft) in width for open gates, and between 8 m (26 ft) and 12 m (39 ft) in width for vertical gates. The distance between turning poles of successive gates must be at least 25 m (82 ft). The number of direction changes must be at least 7 % of the course drop in meters (6 % for Olympic Winter Games, FIS World Ski Championships and FIS World Cups).
In an attempt to increase safety, the 2004 season saw the FIS impose minimum ski lengths for the super-G for the first time; to 205 cm (80.7 in) for men, 200 cm (78.7 in) for women. The minimum turning radius was increased to 45 m (148 ft) for the 2014 season.
The following table contains the men 's Super-G (from 2007 Super combined) World Cup podiums since the first edition in 1986.
Men
Women
WOG - Winter Olympic Games, WCH - FIS World Ski Championships
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who is being addressed in the white man's burden | The White Man 's Burden - wikipedia
"The White Man 's Burden: The United States and the Philippine Islands '' (1899), by Rudyard Kipling, is a poem about the Philippine -- American War (1899 -- 1902), in which he invites the United States to assume colonial control of that country.
Originally, Kipling wrote the poem for the Diamond Jubilee celebration of Queen Victoria 's reign (1837 -- 1901), but it was exchanged for the poem "Recessional '', also by Kipling. Later, he rewrote "The White Man 's Burden '' to address and encourage the American colonization of the Philippine Islands, a Pacific Ocean archipelago conquered from Imperial Spain, in the three - month Spanish -- American War (1898).
In the poem, Kipling exhorts the reader and the listener to embark upon the enterprise of empire, yet gives somber warning about the costs involved; nonetheless, American imperialists understood the phrase The white man 's burden to justify imperialism as a noble enterprise of civilization, conceptually related to the American philosophy of Manifest Destiny.
The title and themes of "The White Man 's Burden '' ostensibly make the poem about Eurocentric racism and about the belief of the Western world that industrialization is the way to civilise the Third World.
Take up the White Man 's burden -- Send forth the best ye breed -- Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives ' need; To wait in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild -- Your new - caught, sullen peoples, Half - devil and half - child. Take up the White Man 's burden -- In patience to abide, To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain To seek another 's profit, And work another 's gain. Take up the White Man 's burden -- The savage wars of peace -- Fill full the mouth of Famine And bid the sickness cease; And when your goal is nearest The end for others sought, Watch sloth and heathen Folly Bring all your hopes to nought. Take up the White Man 's burden -- No tawdry rule of kings, But toil of serf and sweeper -- The tale of common things. The ports ye shall not enter, The roads ye shall not tread, Go make them with your living, And mark them with your dead. Take up the White Man 's burden -- And reap his old reward: The blame of those ye better, The hate of those ye guard -- The cry of hosts ye humour (Ah, slowly!) toward the light: -- "Why brought he us from bondage, Our loved Egyptian night? '' Take up the White Man 's burden -- Ye dare not stoop to less -- Nor call too loud on Freedom To cloak your weariness; By all ye cry or whisper, By all ye leave or do, The silent, sullen peoples Shall weigh your gods and you. Take up the White Man 's burden -- Have done with childish days -- The lightly profferred laurel, The easy, ungrudged praise. Comes now, to search your manhood Through all the thankless years Cold, edged with dear - bought wisdom, The judgment of your peers!
"The White Man 's Burden '' was first published in The New York Sun on 10 February 1899.
Three days earlier, on 7 February 1899, to the Senate floor, Senator Benjamin Tillman had read aloud three stanzas of "The White Man 's Burden '' in argument against ratification of the Treaty of Paris, and that the U.S should renounce claim of authority over the Philippine Islands. To that effect, Senator Tillman asked:
Why are we bent on forcing upon them a civilization not suited to them, and which only means, in their view, degradation and a loss of self - respect, which is worse than the loss of life itself?
Four days later, on 11 February 1899, the U.S. Congress ratified the "Treaty of Peace between the United States of America and the Kingdom of Spain '' (Treaty of Paris, 1898), which established American jurisdiction upon the archipelago of the Philippine Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, near the Asian mainland.
Kipling included his poem in his 1903 collection The Five Nations.
The imperialist interpretation of "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899) proposes that the white man has a moral obligation to rule the non-white peoples of the Earth, whilst encouraging their economic, cultural, and social progress through colonialism.
In the later 20th century, in the context of decolonisation and the Developing World, the phrase "the white man 's burden '' was emblematic of the "well - intentioned '' aspects of Western colonialism and "Eurocentrism ''. The poem 's imperialist interpretation also includes the milder, philanthropic colonialism of the missionaries:
The implication, of course, was that the Empire existed not for the benefit -- economic or strategic or otherwise -- of Britain, itself, but in order that primitive peoples, incapable of self - government, could, with British guidance, eventually become civilized (and Christianized).
The poem positively represents colonialism as the moral burden of the white race, which is divinely destined to civilise the brutish and barbarous parts of the world; to wit, the Filipino people are "new - caught, sullen peoples, half - devil and half - child ''. Although imperialist beliefs were common currency in the culture of that time, there were opponents to Kipling 's poetic representation of imperial conquest and colonisation, notably Mark Twain (To the Person Sitting in Darkness, 1901) and William James; for them, "The White Man 's Burden '' was plain of manner, meaning, and intent.
Kipling offered the poem to Theodore Roosevelt, then governor of New York state (1899 -- 1900), to help him politically persuade anti-imperialist Americans to accept the annexation of the Philippine Islands to the United States. Kipling 's literary work extolling the virtues of British colonialism in India was popular in the U.S.; thus, in September 1898, Kipling could tell Governor Roosevelt:
Now, go in and put all the weight of your influence into hanging on, permanently, to the whole Philippines. America has gone and stuck a pick - axe into the foundations of a rotten house, and she is morally bound to build the house over, again, from the foundations, or have it fall about her ears.
In the event, the Norton Anthology of English Literature thematically aligns the poem "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899) with Kipling 's beliefs that the British Empire (1583 -- 1945) was the Englishman 's "Divine Burden to reign God 's Empire on Earth. '' Like much of his work, The White Man 's Burden (1899) is a poetic celebration of imperialism, which Rudyard Kipling believed eventually would benefit the colonised peoples.
In the late 19th century, the philanthropic racism that Rudyard Kipling presented and defended in the poem of The White Man 's Burden (1899) provoked contemporary parodies and critical works, such as "The Brown Man 's Burden '' (1899) by Henry Labouchère, a British politician and "The Black Man 's Burden: A Response to Kipling '' (April 1899) by H.T. Johnson, a clergyman, and Take up the Black Man 's Burden by J. Dallas Bowser. Moreover, a Black Man 's Burden Association was organised to demonstrate to the public how the colonial mistreatment of brown people in the Philippines Islands was an extension of the Jim Crow laws (1863 -- 1965) of the legal mistreatment of black Americans at home, in the U.S.
Because Kipling meant the poem to push for the U.S. to annex the Philippines, the subsequent colonial war compelled more people to join the Anti-Imperialist League to oppose colonial annexation and warfare. In response to "The White Man 's Burden '', in the New York World newspaper, another poet asked "How may We Put it Down? '':
We 've taken up the white man 's burden Of ebony and brown; Now will you tell us, Rudyard How we may put it down?
Ernest Crosby wrote a poem, "The Real White Man 's Burden '' (1902). Another anti-imperialist response came in 1899 from Dr. Howard S. Taylor, writer of a parody, "The Poor Man 's Burden '', that focused on the domestic effect of imperialism on the working class.
In the Congo Free State (1885 -- 1908), the British journalist, E.D. Morel, reported the brutality of Belgian imperialism in "The Black Man 's Burden '' (1903). In The Black Man 's Burden: The White Man in Africa, from the Fifteenth Century to World War I (1920), Morel presents a critique of the relation between the White Man 's Burden and the Black Man 's Burden.
In poem "The Black Man 's Burden (A Reply to Rudyard Kipling) '' (1920), Hubert Harrison counters the points of colonial - civilization that Kipling extols in "The White Man 's Burden '' (1899), which result in the moral degradation of colonist and colonized.
T.S. Eliot included the poem in his 1941 collection A Choice of Kipling 's Verse.
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who owns the rights to the catcher in the rye | The Catcher in the Rye - wikipedia
The Catcher in the Rye is a 1951 novel by J.D. Salinger. A classic novel originally published for adults, it has since become popular with adolescent readers for its themes of teenage angst and alienation. It has been translated into almost all of the world 's major languages. Around 1 million copies are sold each year with total sales of more than 65 million books. The novel 's protagonist Holden Caulfield has become an icon for teenage rebellion. The novel also deals with complex issues of innocence, identity, belonging, loss, and connection.
The novel was included on Time 's 2005 list of the 100 best English - language novels written since 1923 and it was named by Modern Library and its readers as one of the 100 best English - language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, it was listed at # 15 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Holden Caulfield, a teenager from New York City, is living in an unspecified institution in southern California near Hollywood in 1951. Caulfield intends to live with his brother D.B, an author who Holden resents for becoming a screenwriter, after his release in one month. As he waits, Holden recalls the events of the previous Christmas.
Holden begins his story at Pencey Preparatory Academy, an exclusive boarding school in Agerstown, Pennsylvania, on the Saturday afternoon of the traditional football game with a rival school. Holden has been expelled from Pencey due to poor work and is n't to return after Christmas break, which begins the following Wednesday. He plans to return home on that day so that he will not be present when his parents receive notice of his expulsion. After forfeiting a fencing match in New York by forgetting the equipment aboard the subway, he is invited to the home of his history teacher, Mr. Spencer. Spencer is a well - meaning but long - winded middle - aged man. Spencer greets him and offers him advice, but embarrasses Holden by further criticizing Holden 's work in his subject in a rude manner.
Holden returns to his dorm wearing the new red hunting cap he bought in New York. His dorm neighbor Robert Ackley is one of the few students also missing the game. Ackley, unpopular among his peers, disturbs Holden with his impolite questioning and mannerisms. Holden, who feels sorry for Ackley, tolerates his presence. Later, Holden agrees to write an English composition for his roommate, Ward Stradlater, who is leaving for a date. However, Holden is distressed to learn that Stradlater 's date is an old friend, Jane Gallagher, whom Holden had a crush on and feels protective of. That night, Holden goes to a Cary Grant comedy with his best friend Mal Brossman and Ackley. While Ackley and Mal enjoy the film, Holden becomes uneasy with it. When Stradlater returns hours later, he fails to appreciate the deeply personal composition Holden wrote for him about the baseball glove of Holden 's late brother Allie, and refuses to reveal whether he slept with Jane. Enraged, Holden punches him, and Stradlater easily wins the ensuing fight. When Holden continues insulting him after the fight, Stradlater knocks him unconscious and nearly kills him. After leaving for Ackley 's room, Holden is disappointed when he treats him rudely. Fed up with the so - called "phonies '' at Pencey Prep, Holden impulsively decides to leave Pencey early, sells his typewriter to earn money, and catches a train to Penn Station in New York. Holden intends stay away from his home in a hotel until Wednesday, when his parents would have received news of his expulsion. Aboard the train, Holden meets the mother of a wealthy, obnoxious Pencey student named Ernest Morrow, and lies to her about himself and her son.
In a taxicab, Holden inquires with the driver about whether the ducks in the Central Park lagoon migrate during winter, a subject he brings up often, but the man barely responds. Holden checks into the dilapidated Edmont Hotel. He spends an evening dancing with three tourist women from Seattle in the hotel lounge and enjoys dancing with one, though is disappointed that he is unable to hold a conversation with them. Following an unpromising visit to Ernie 's Nightclub in Greenwich Village, Holden becomes preoccupied with his internal angst and agrees to have a prostitute named Sunny visit his room. His attitude toward the girl changes the minute she enters the room; she seems about the same age as he. Holden becomes uncomfortable with the situation, and when he tells her all he wants to do is talk, she becomes annoyed and leaves. Even though he still paid her the right amount for her time, she returns with her pimp Maurice and demands more money. Holden insults Maurice, and after Sunny takes the money from Holden 's wallet, Maurice punches him in the stomach and leaves with Sunny. Afterwards, Holden imagines that he has been shot by Maurice, and pictures murdering him with an automatic weapon.
The next morning, Holden, becoming increasingly depressed and in need of personal connection, calls Sally Hayes, a familiar date. Although Holden claims that she is "the queen of all phonies '', they agree to meet that afternoon to attend a play at the Biltmore Theater. Holden shops for a special record, "Little Shirley Beans '', for his 10 - year - old sister Phoebe. He spots a small boy singing "If a body catch a body coming through the rye '', which lifts his mood. Although Holden 's date initially goes well, it soon sours after Sally introduces her friend George. After the play, Holden and Sally go ice skating at Rockefeller Center, where Holden suddenly begins ranting against society and frightens Sally. He impulsively invites Sally to run away with him that night to live in the wilderness of New England, but she is uninterested in his hastily generated plan and declines. The conversation turns sour, and the two angrily part ways.
Holden decides to meet his old acquaintance, a Columbia student named Carl Luce, for drinks at the Wicker Bar in the Seton Hotel, but alienates him with his fixation on sex. After Luce leaves, Holden gets drunk, awkwardly flirts with several adults, and calls an icy Sally. Exhausted and out of money, Holden wanders to Central Park to investigate the ducks, breaking Phoebe 's record on the way. Nostalgically recalling his experience in elementary school and the unchanging dioramas in the Museum of Natural History that he enjoyed visiting as a child, Holden heads home to see Phoebe. He sneaks into his parents ' apartment while they are out, and wakes up Phoebe -- the only person with whom he seems to be able to communicate his true feelings. Although Phoebe is happy to see Holden, she quickly deduces that he has been expelled, and chastises him for his aimlessness and his apparent hatred for everything. When asked if he cares about anything, Holden shares a selfless fantasy he has been thinking about (based on a mishearing of Robert Burns 's Comin ' Through the Rye): he pictures himself as the sole guardian of thousands of children playing in a huge rye field on the edge of a cliff. His job is to catch the children if, in their abandon, they come close to falling off the brink; to be, in effect, the "catcher in the rye ''. Because of this misinterpretation, Holden believes that to be the "catcher in the rye '' means to save children from losing their innocence.
When his mother returns home, Holden slips out and visits his former and much - admired English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who now lives as a New York University professor in Sutton Place. Mr. Antolini offers advice on life along with a place to sleep for the night. Holden is upset when he wakes up in the night to find Mr. Antolini patting his head, which he interprets as a homosexual advance. Confused and uncertain, he leaves as dawn is breaking and spends most of Monday morning wandering the city.
Losing hope of finding belonging or companionship in the city, Holden impulsively decides that he will head out West and live as a recluse. When he explains this plan to Phoebe on Monday at lunchtime, she wants to go with him, even though she was looking forward to acting in a play that Friday. Holden refuses to let her come with him, which upsets Phoebe, so Holden decides not to leave after all. He tries to cheer her up by taking her to the Central Park Zoo, and as he watches her ride the zoo 's carousel, he is filled with happiness and joy at the sight of Phoebe riding in the rain.
In a short epilogue, Holden briefly alludes to "getting sick '' and living in an institution in California near his brother D.B., and mentions he will be attending another school in September. Holden says that he does n't want to tell anything more because, surprisingly, he has found himself missing his former classmates. He warns the reader that telling others about their own experiences will lead them to miss the people who shared them.
Various older stories by Salinger contain characters similar to those in The Catcher in the Rye. While at Columbia University, Salinger wrote a short story called "The Young Folks '' in Whit Burnett 's class; one character from this story has been described as a "thinly penciled prototype of Sally Hayes ''. In November 1941, he sold the story "Slight Rebellion off Madison '', which featured Holden Caulfield, to The New Yorker, but it was n't published until December 21, 1946 due to World War II. The story "I 'm Crazy '', which was published in the December 22, 1945, issue of Collier 's, contained material that was later used in The Catcher in the Rye. In 1946, The New Yorker accepted a 90 - page manuscript about Holden Caulfield for publication, but Salinger later withdrew it.
The Catcher in the Rye is narrated in a subjective style from the point of view of Holden Caulfield, following his exact thought processes. There is flow in the seemingly disjointed ideas and episodes; for example, as Holden sits in a chair in his dorm, minor events, such as picking up a book or looking at a table, unfold into discussions about experiences.
Critical reviews affirm that the novel accurately reflected the teenage colloquial speech of the time. Words and phrases that appear frequently include:
Bruce Brooks held that Holden 's attitude remains unchanged at story 's end, implying no maturation, thus differentiating the novel from young adult fiction. In contrast, Louis Menand thought that teachers assign the novel because of the optimistic ending, to teach adolescent readers that "alienation is just a phase. '' While Brooks maintained that Holden acts his age, Menand claimed that Holden thinks as an adult, given his ability to accurately perceive people and their motives. Others highlight the dilemma of Holden 's state, in between adolescence and adulthood. Holden is quick to become emotional. "I felt sorry as hell for... '' is a phrase he often uses. It is often said that Holden changes at the end, when he watches Phoebe on the carousel, and he talks about the golden ring and how it 's good for kids to try and grab it.
Peter Beidler, in his A Reader 's Companion to J.D. Salinger 's "The Catcher in the Rye '', identifies the movie that the prostitute "Sunny '' refers to. In chapter 13 she says that in the movie a boy falls off a boat. The movie is Captains Courageous (1937), starring Spencer Tracy. Sunny says that Holden looks like the boy who fell off the boat. Beidler shows (page 28) a still of the boy, played by child - actor Freddie Bartholomew.
Each Caulfield child has literary talent. D.B. writes screenplays in Hollywood; Holden also reveres D.B. for his writing skill (Holden 's own best subject), but he also despises Hollywood industry - based movies, considering them the ultimate in "phony '' as the writer has no space for his own imagination, and describes D.B. 's move to Hollywood to write for films as "prostituting himself ''; Allie wrote poetry on his baseball glove; and Phoebe is a diarist. This "catcher in the rye '' is an analogy for Holden, who admires in children attributes that he struggles to find in adults, like innocence, kindness, spontaneity, and generosity. Falling off the cliff could be a progression into the adult world that surrounds him and that he strongly criticizes. Later, Phoebe and Holden exchange roles as the "catcher '' and the "fallen ''; he gives her his hunting hat, the catcher 's symbol, and becomes the fallen as Phoebe becomes the catcher.
In their biography of Salinger, David Shields and Shane Salerno argue that: "The Catcher in the Rye can best be understood as a disguised war novel. '' Salinger witnessed the horrors of World War II, but rather than writing a combat novel, Salinger, according to Shields and Salerno, "took the trauma of war and embedded it within what looked to the naked eye like a coming - of - age novel. ''
The Catcher in the Rye has been listed as one of the best novels of the twentieth century. Shortly after its publication, writing for The New York Times, Nash K. Burger called it "an unusually brilliant novel, '' while James Stern wrote an admiring review of the book in a voice imitating Holden 's. George H.W. Bush called it a "marvelous book, '' listing it among the books that have inspired him. In June 2009, the BBC 's Finlo Rohrer wrote that, 58 years since publication, the book is still regarded "as the defining work on what it is like to be a teenager. Holden is at various times disaffected, disgruntled, alienated, isolated, directionless, and sarcastic. '' Adam Gopnik considers it one of the "three perfect books '' in American literature, along with Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, and believes that "no book has ever captured a city better than Catcher in the Rye captured New York in the fifties. '' Jeff Pruchnic wrote an appraisal of The Catcher in the Rye after the death of J.D. Salinger. In this article, Pruchnic focuses on how the novel continues to be received incredibly well, even after it has aged many generations. Pruchnic describes Holden as a "teenage protagonist frozen midcentury but destined to be discovered by those of a similar age in every generation to come ''. Bill Gates said that The Catcher in the Rye is one of his favorite books ever.
However, not all reception has been positive; the book has had its share of critics. Rohrer writes, "Many of these readers are disappointed that the novel fails to meet the expectations generated by the mystique it is shrouded in. J.D. Salinger has done his part to enhance this mystique. That is to say, he has done nothing. '' Rohrer assessed the reasons behind both the popularity and criticism of the book, saying that it "captures existential teenage angst '' and has a "complex central character '' and "accessible conversational style ''; while at the same time some readers may dislike the "use of 1940s New York vernacular '' and other things.
In 1960, a teacher in Tulsa, Oklahoma was fired for assigning the novel in class; however, he was later reinstated. Between 1961 and 1982, The Catcher in the Rye was the most censored book in high schools and libraries in the United States. The book was banned in the Issaquah, Washington, high schools in 1978 as being part of an "overall communist plot ''. In 1981, it was both the most censored book and the second most taught book in public schools in the United States. According to the American Library Association, The Catcher in the Rye was the 10th most frequently challenged book from 1990 to 1999. It was one of the ten most challenged books of 2005, and although it had been off the list for three years, it reappeared in the list of most challenged books of 2009.
The challenges generally begin with Holden 's frequent use of vulgar language, with other reasons including sexual references, blasphemy, undermining of family values and moral codes, encouragement of rebellion, and promotion of drinking, smoking, lying, and promiscuity. Often the challengers have been unfamiliar with the plot itself. Shelley Keller - Gage, a high school teacher who faced objections after assigning the novel in her class, noted that "the challengers are being just like Holden... They are trying to be catchers in the rye ''. A Streisand effect has been that this incident caused people to put themselves on the waiting list to borrow the novel, when there were none before.
Several shootings have been associated with Salinger 's novel, including Robert John Bardo 's murder of Rebecca Schaeffer and John Hinckley, Jr. 's assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan. Additionally, after fatally shooting John Lennon, Mark David Chapman was arrested with a copy of the book that he had purchased that same day, inside of which he had written: "To Holden Caulfield, From Holden Caulfield, This is my statement ''.
Early in his career, Salinger expressed a willingness to have his work adapted for the screen. In 1949, a critically panned film version of his short story "Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut '' was released; renamed My Foolish Heart, the film took great liberties with Salinger 's plot and is widely considered to be among the reasons that Salinger refused to allow any subsequent film adaptations of his work. The enduring popularity of The Catcher in the Rye, however, has resulted in repeated attempts to secure the novel 's screen rights.
When The Catcher in the Rye was first released, many offers were made to adapt it for the screen, including one from Samuel Goldwyn, producer of My Foolish Heart. In a letter written in the early 1950s, Salinger spoke of mounting a play in which he would play the role of Holden Caulfield opposite Margaret O'Brien, and, if he could n't play the part himself, to "forget about it. '' Almost 50 years later, the writer Joyce Maynard definitively concluded, "The only person who might ever have played Holden Caulfield would have been J.D. Salinger. ''
Salinger told Maynard in the 1970s that Jerry Lewis "tried for years to get his hands on the part of Holden, '' despite Lewis not having read the novel until he was in his thirties. Celebrities ranging from Marlon Brando and Jack Nicholson to Tobey Maguire and Leonardo DiCaprio have since tried to make a film adaptation. In an interview with Premiere, John Cusack commented that his one regret about turning 21 was that he had become too old to play Holden Caulfield. Writer - director Billy Wilder recounted his abortive attempts to snare the novel 's rights:
Of course I read The Catcher in the Rye... Wonderful book. I loved it. I pursued it. I wanted to make a picture out of it. And then one day a young man came to the office of Leland Hayward, my agent, in New York, and said, ' Please tell Mr. Leland Hayward to lay off. He 's very, very insensitive. ' And he walked out. That was the entire speech. I never saw him. That was J.D. Salinger and that was Catcher in the Rye.
In 1961, Salinger denied Elia Kazan permission to direct a stage adaptation of Catcher for Broadway. More recently, Salinger 's agents received bids for the Catcher film rights from Harvey Weinstein and Steven Spielberg, neither of which was even passed on to Salinger for consideration.
In 2003, the BBC television program The Big Read featured The Catcher in the Rye, interspersing discussions of the novel with "a series of short films that featured an actor playing J.D. Salinger 's adolescent antihero, Holden Caulfield. '' The show defended its unlicensed adaptation of the novel by claiming to be a "literary review '', and no major charges were filed.
After Salinger 's death in 2010, Phyllis Westberg, who was Salinger 's agent at Harold Ober Associates, stated that nothing has changed in terms of licensing film, television, or stage rights of his works. A letter written by Salinger in 1957 revealed that he was open to an adaptation of The Catcher in the Rye released after his death. He wrote: "Firstly, it is possible that one day the rights will be sold. Since there 's an ever - looming possibility that I wo n't die rich, I toy very seriously with the idea of leaving the unsold rights to my wife and daughter as a kind of insurance policy. It pleasures me no end, though, I might quickly add, to know that I wo n't have to see the results of the transaction. '' Salinger also wrote that he believed his novel was not suitable for film treatment, and that translating Holden Caulfield 's first - person narrative into voice - over and dialogue would be contrived.
In 2009, a year before his death, Salinger successfully sued to stop the U.S. publication of a novel that presents Holden Caulfield as an old man. The novel 's author, Fredrik Colting, commented: "call me an ignorant Swede, but the last thing I thought possible in the U.S. was that you banned books ''. The issue is complicated by the nature of Colting 's book, 60 Years Later: Coming Through the Rye, which has been compared to fan fiction. Although commonly not authorized by writers, no legal action is usually taken against fan fiction, since it is rarely published commercially and thus involves no profit. Colting, however, has published his book commercially, therefore interfering with copyright law and is not protected.
The Catcher in the Rye has had significant cultural influence, and works inspired by the novel have been said to form their own genre. Sarah Graham assessed works influenced by The Catcher in the Rye to include the novels Less Than Zero by Bret Easton Ellis, The Perks of Being a Wallflower by Stephen Chbosky, A Complicated Kindness by Miriam Toews, The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Ordinary People by Judith Guest, and the film Igby Goes Down by Burr Steers.
Fantasy writer Harry Turtledove has written a pastiche - parody "Catcher in the Rhine '', based on his daughter 's mishearing of Salinger 's title. In this short story, an unnamed narrator, who is clearly meant to be Holden Caulfield but is unnamed to avoid copyright problems, goes on vacation to Germany and meets characters from the Niebelunglied. This was first published in The Chick is in the Mail, edited by Esther Friesner, Baen 2000 and reprinted in the omnibus Chicks Ahoy! (2010). It was reprinted in Atlantis and Other Places also in 2010.
In "Catcher In The Wry '' former major league baseball player, Bob Uecker, recounts anecdotes of his years behind the plate and on the road, recalling the antics of his famous teammates, including Hank Aaron, Bob Gibson, Richie Allen, and Warren Spahn.
The July 1985 issue of National Lampoon included a parody of the novel, ostensibly written by Holden Caulfield 's son, entitled ' The Son of the Catcher, who Lives in Rye '.
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dragon ball super season 5 dub release date | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and new threats to the Future Earth known as Goku Black and a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, Goku, Vegeta, Gohan, Krillin, Android 17, Android 18, Piccolo, Tien, Master Roshi, and a temporarily revived Frieza participate in a universal tournament held by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament then Universe Seven will be erased by Grand Zenō and Future Grand Zenō.
Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. The first opening theme song for episodes 1 to 76 is "Chōzetsu Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. The second opening theme song for episodes 77 to 131 is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor ''. Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. The first ending theme song for episodes 1 to 12 is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme song for episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme song for episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme song for episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme song for episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. The eleventh ending theme song for episodes 122 to 131 is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel.
The first series set was released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.
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youtube i hate you so much right now | Caught out There - wikipedia
"Caught out There '' is a song by American recording artist Kelis from her debut album, Kaleidoscope. Written and produced by the Neptunes, the song was released as the album 's lead single to peak at number fifty - four on the Billboard Hot 100. "Caught out There '' fared better outside the United States, peaking within the top ten of the charts in Canada, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
The song was used on MuchMusic 's Shortest Weddings special. In 2009 the signature yell "I hate you so much right now '' was used in the British children 's television sitcom Hotel Trubble. The aforementioned signature yell was used in the Daria episode "Partner 's Complaint '', first aired February 25, 2000. It was also used in BBC3 's Most Annoying People 2010, under Tony Blair (11 on the list). In 2011 the yell was used in a Calvin Klein ad for CK One. In 2010, the line "look, I found her red coat '' was sampled extensively in the James Blake song "CMYK ''. Neptunes producer Pharrell Williams said in an interview that the instrumental track was originally meant for rapper Busta Rhymes who declined it.
In the song, sung in first person, rather than a direct second - person confrontation, she finds out her man has been unfaithful to her and after explaining that "I break '' (she dumps him for his infidelity), she sings, first about all the things she has done for the man (verse one), laments about how unfair the infidelity is (verse two) and finally blows a fuse, complete with gun cock (verse three). At the end of each verse, she sings, "Because you 're caught out there, '' urban slang for being caught with your pants down or to be busted for cheating. At the beginning of the chorus, she switches from a light - soul - jazz singing voice of the verses to belting out her frustration: "I hate you so much right now! '' Kelis would refer to this song in "Bossy ''.
In the single 's music video, directed by Hype Williams, Kelis, in her technicolor spiral afro, blond, gold, orange, red, and fuchsia hair, starts in a confessional style, before opening to the chorus where she rips up the living room. Afterwards, Kelis and a group of fed - up women boycott and picket men. Finally, as she sings, "Got something for y'all, '' a gun cock is heard and the video finishes by alluding to her exacting revenge for her former lover 's infidelity.
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who is the groom in i write sins | I Write Sins Not Tragedies - wikipedia
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is a song by American rock band Panic! at the Disco, and is the second single from their debut studio album, A Fever You Ca n't Sweat Out (2005). It was released on April 27, 2006 on both CD and 7 '' vinyl. The pizzicato cello motif that the song is built upon was played by session musician Heather Stebbins. The song reached No. 7 on the United States Billboard Hot 100. This was the band 's only top forty hit until the release of "Hallelujah '' in 2015. While the song failed to hit the top 10 on the Alternative Songs chart peaking at No. 12 which was lower than their prior single, "The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' which peaked at No. 5, the song 's success on the Hot 100 and Mainstream Top 40 (at No. 2) charts was what made the song one of the biggest modern rock hits of 2006 and is still one of the band 's most played songs on alternative radio stations to this day.
In the UK, the song was released on February 27, 2006 as a limited edition single with a free sticker. Because the sticker was included with the CD single, the song was not eligible for the UK Singles Chart. Official Charts Company rules state that stickers are not allowed in single releases. Later, in September 2006, due to the popularity of the track and following further single releases there of "Lying Is the Most Fun a Girl Can Have Without Taking Her Clothes Off '' and "But It 's Better If You Do '', going top 40 there, the single was re-released on October 30, 2006. Despite receiving significant radio airplay upon its re-release, the single only reached No. 25 in the UK Singles Chart.
Many U.S. radio stations, in response to the language found in the song, wanted an edited version. The lyrics "The poor groom 's bride is a whore '' and "Have n't you people ever heard of closing a goddamn door? '' were changed by replacing "whore '' with a "shhh '' sound and removing "god '' in "goddamn ''. Some stations -- generally modern rock stations -- still play the original version.
The song was covered by Fall Out Boy, fellow Decaydance band, for their live album, * * * *: Live in Phoenix. (Fall Out Boy commonly uses the song 's chorus as a lead - in to "This Ai n't a Scene, It 's an Arms Race '' in concert.)
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' was ranked No. 3 in Billboard 's Best 2000 's Video poll.
The title of the song refers to Douglas Coupland 's novel Shampoo Planet, wherein the main character, Tyler Johnson, says: "I am writing a list of tragic character flaws on my dollar bills with a felt pen. I am thinking of the people in my universe and distilling for each of these people the one flaw in their character that will be their downfall -- the flaw that will be their undoing. What I write are not sins; I write tragedies. ''
"I Write Sins Not Tragedies '' is Panic! at the Disco 's first single to have a music video. ("The Only Difference Between Martyrdom and Suicide Is Press Coverage '' was the first single, but no video was filmed.) The video for the song takes place at a strange, circus - themed wedding played by the Lucent Dossier Vaudeville Cirque.
The video starts as the bride, played by Jessie Preston, and groom, Daniel Isaac McGuffey, are about to be married. Her family dresses and behaves formally, but are revealed later to have fallen asleep and have eyes painted on their eyelids. His family are lower - class entertainers and carnival folk, and interrupt the wedding. The ringmaster, played by vocalist Brendon Urie, acts as narrator and disrupts the events. After an argument between the two families, the bride runs out and is followed by one of her guests. The ringmaster drags the groom outside by his tie, where his fiancée is kissing the guest who followed her out of the church. The groom straightens up, looking shocked, and Urie and the groom bow to the camera. The ringmaster is revealed to be the groom 's alter ego.
The music video, by director Shane Drake and producer Brandon Bonfiglio, won the award for Video of the Year during the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. This marked the first occasion since the 1989 VMAs that the winner of Video of the Year did not win anything else. The video was also ranked No. 7 on VH1 's list of the Top 100 Videos of 2006.
The video was shot in December 2005. According to vocalist Brendon Urie, he and guitarist Ryan Ross suffered from the flu while filming the video clip. In August 2011, the video won Best VMA Winning Video of All Time, in a worldwide poll on MTV 's website.
UK 7 '' poster bag (February 2006)
UK CD single (February 2006)
WMI CD single (May 2006)
UK CD single (October 2006)
UK 7 '' gatefold sleeve (October 2006)
UK 7 '' picture disc (October 2006)
Enhanced CD single (October 2006)
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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rodgers and hart i didn't know what time it was | I Did n't Know What Time it was - wikipedia
"I Did n't Know What Time It Was '' is a popular song. The music was written by Richard Rodgers and the lyrics by Lorenz Hart for the musical Too Many Girls (1939). Early hit versions were recorded by Benny Goodman and Artie Shaw. The Crampton Sisters 1964 revival for the DCP label was a Hot 100 entry.
The song was introduced by Richard Kollmar and Marcy Westcott in the musical Too Many Girls. It was performed by Trudy Erwin -- dubbing for Lucille Ball in the 1940 film version produced by RKO -- and interpolated into the score of the 1957 film Pal Joey, where it was sung by Frank Sinatra.
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book review of the suitable boy by vikram seth | A Suitable Boy - wikipedia
A Suitable Boy is a novel by Vikram Seth, published in 1993. At 1,349 pages (1,488 pages softcover) and 591,552 words, the book is one of the longest novels ever published in a single volume in the English language. A sequel, to be called A Suitable Girl, was due for publication in 2017.
A Suitable Boy is set in a newly post-independence, post-partition India. The novel follows the story of four families over a period of 18 months, and centres on Mrs. Rupa Mehra 's efforts to arrange the marriage of her younger daughter, Lata, to a "suitable boy ''. Lata is a 19 - year - old university student who refuses to be influenced by her domineering mother or opinionated brother, Arun. Her story revolves around the choice she is forced to make between her suitors Kabir, Haresh, and Amit.
It begins in the fictional town of Brahmpur, located on the Ganges between Banares and Patna. Brahmpur, along with Calcutta, Delhi, Kanpur and other Indian cities, forms a colourful backdrop for the emerging stories.
Seth has stated that the biggest influence on writing A Suitable Boy was the five - volume 18th century Chinese novel The Story of the Stone by Cao Xueqin.
The 1349 - page novel alternately offers satirical and earnest examinations of national political issues in the period leading up to the first post-Independence national election of 1952, including Hindu -- Muslim strife, the status of lower caste peoples such as the jatav, land reforms and the eclipse of the feudal princes and landlords, academic affairs, abolition of the Zamindari system, family relations and a range of further issues of importance to the characters.
The novel is divided into 19 parts with, generally, each part focusing on a different subplot. Each part is described in rhyming couplet form on the contents page.
The four main families in the novel are:
Four family trees are provided in the beginning of the novel to help readers keep track of the complicated interwoven family networks.
Some other prominent characters, not mentioned above, include:
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where is the major cardiovascular center in the cns | Cardiovascular centre - wikipedia
The cardiovascular centre is a part of the human brain responsible for the regulation of the rate at which the heart beats through the nervous and endocrine systems. It is found in the medulla oblongata. Normally, the heart beats without nervous control, but in some situations (e.g., exercise, body trauma), the cardiovascular centre is responsible for altering the rate at which the heart beats. It also mediates respiratory sinus arrhythmia.
When a change of blood pH is detected by central chemoreceptors or by peripheral chemoreceptors in aortic bodies and in carotid bodies, or a change of blood pressure is detected by baroreceptors in the aortic sinuses or carotid sinuses, the cardiovascular centre affects changes to the heart rate by sending a nerve impulse to the cardiac pacemaker (or SA node) via sympathetic fibres (to cause faster and stronger cardiac muscle contraction) and the vagus nerve (to cause slower and less strong cardiac muscle contraction). The cardiovascular centre also increases the stroke volume of the heart (that is, the amount of blood it pumps). These two changes help to regulate the cardiac output, so that a sufficient amount of blood reaches tissue.
Hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine can affect the cardiovascular centre and cause it to increase the rate of impulses sent to the sinoatrial node, or pacemaker, resulting in faster and stronger cardiac muscle contraction and thus increasing the heart rate.
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i love rock and roll song in movie | I Love Rock ' n ' Roll - wikipedia
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is a rock song written in 1975 by Alan Merrill of the Arrows, who recorded the first released version. The song was later made famous by Joan Jett & the Blackhearts in 1982. Alan Merrill still plays the song live in Europe, Japan and most often in his home town New York City.
The song was originally recorded and released by the Arrows in 1975 on Rak Records, with lead vocals, guitar, music & lyrics written by Alan Merrill and produced by Mickie Most. In an interview with Songfacts, Merrill said he wrote it as "a knee - jerk response to the Rolling Stones ' ' It 's Only Rock ' n Roll (But I Like It) '. '' This version was first released as a B - side, but was soon re-recorded and flipped to A-side status on a subsequent pressing of the record. The Arrows performed the song in 1975 on the Muriel Young - produced show 45, after which Young offered the Arrows a weekly UK television series, Arrows, which was broadcast on ITV starting in March 1976.
Joan Jett saw the Arrows perform "I Love Rock ' n Roll '' on their weekly UK television series Arrows when she was touring England with the Runaways in 1976. She first recorded the song in 1979 with two of the Sex Pistols: Steve Jones and Paul Cook. This first version was released on vinyl in 1979 on Vertigo records as a B - side to "You Do n't Own Me ''. In 1981, Jett re-recorded the song, this time with her band, the Blackhearts. This recording became a U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number - one single for seven weeks. Billboard ranked it at the No. 3 song for 1982. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, representing two million units shipped to stores with Jett 's I Love Rock ' n Roll album reaching number two on the Billboard 200. Joan Jett 's version was ranked No. 89 in the list 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of Rolling Stone and has also been inducted into the Grammys Hall of Fame in 2016.
"I Love Rock ' n Roll '' 's black - and - white music video received heavy play from the just - launched MTV network. In it, Jett and the Blackhearts travel to a small, dingy bar and proceed to excite the drunken crowd by performing the song and yelling out its chorus. A snippet of Jett 's 1981 hit "Bad Reputation '' can be heard at the beginning of the video. The video was originally in color, but it was converted to black and white because Jett hated the look of her red leather jumpsuit in color.
In 1993 Joan Jett & the Blackhearts made another music video for the song as part of the Wayne 's World 2 soundtrack. In the video appear several scenes from the movie with Mike Myers and Dana Carvey mixed with footage of Jett and her band in concert. It was again released as a single by Warner / Reprise with "Activity Grrrl '' as the B - side.
Jett 's version has received many accolades, including:
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is the fourth European single released by pop singer Britney Spears from the album Britney on 27 May 2002. The song was used in her 2002 movie Crossroads. Spears 's character, Lucy, performs it in a karaoke bar. Spears said of the song, "They asked me to sing karaoke in the movie Crossroads and I 've actually sung I Love Rock ' n ' Roll in a lot of clubs that I 've been to. '' Spears has publicly admitted the original song to be one of her favorites. Spears listened to the original Arrows Mickie Most - produced version just before she recorded the song, according to Jive A&R representative Steve Lunt. The scratches performed on this song were performed by Corey Chase, at Hit Factory Miami. When promoting the single 's release she mistakenly attributed the hit version of the song to Pat Benatar instead of Joan Jett.
Spears ' cover was met with mostly favorable reviews. NME 's Ted Kessler wrote that Britney "still works best when making a good pop cheese and dance sandwich: there 's the ace Rodney Jerkins - produced version of Joan Jett 's ' I Love Rock'n'Roll ', which does exactly what is says on the tin. '' Rolling Stone 's Barry Walters wrote that "producer Rodney Jerkins ' hip - hop blaspheming of Joan Jett 's "I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' does n't go as far as it should (is a Limp Bizkit remix in its future?), but it certainly beats what her earlier studio architects did to those Sonny and Cher ("The Beat Goes On '' on... Baby One More Time) and Stones ("(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction '' on Oops!... I Did It Again) songs. '' Another positive reception came from PopMatters 's editor Nikki Tranter, who enjoyed that the song is "different from the average run - of - the - mill pop offering, '' and praised that "she does strange justice to the tune, vamping up her vocals and turning out something, that while silly and camp, is actually a fun listen. '' In contrast, David Browne wrote for Entertainment Weekly that "her remake is neither imaginative (it simply xeroxes Joan Jett 's arrangement) nor all that believable. ''
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' charted moderately upon release, reaching the top twenty in most regions. The song was moderately successful in the UK, where it peaked at number thirteen (which, at the time, was her lowest peak for a single released there, until "Radar '' only managed to reach number forty - six in 2009, and then "I Wanna Go, which peaked at one - hundred and eleven). The single sold a total of 65,000 copies. It was also certified Gold in Australia.
Directed by Chris Applebaum, the music video for "I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' shows Spears with her own band, a stack of speakers, and flashing lights. It was shot at The Inn, a bar in Long Beach, New York. The video was ranked at No. 2 on the 100 Best Videos of 2002 at MTV Latin America 's countdown. The Director 's Cut version of the video was later leaked; it included previously unseen scenes from the video.
The song was performed live during Spears 's Dream Within a Dream Tour (2001 -- 02). In 2016, it was added to the revamped set list of her Las Vegas residency show, Britney: Piece of Me (2016 -- 17), marking the first time Spears performed the song in 14 years. During the performance, Britney Spears rides a mechanical electric guitar, which simulates a mechanical bull, as it rotates on stage. The same prop electric guitar was previously used during her Femme Fatale Tour (2011) for a segment in which she covered the song "Burning Up '' by Madonna. In the 2016 Billboard Music Awards, the song was performed as part of a medley, using the same guitar proposed
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
The Alex Gaudino & Jason Rooney cover version was released in 2008.
"I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '' is an often - covered song, and has been notably recorded by such artists as:
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how many different types of asteroids are there | Asteroid spectral types - wikipedia
An asteroid spectral type is assigned to asteroids based on their emission spectrum, color, and sometimes albedo. These types are thought to correspond to an asteroid 's surface composition. For small bodies that are not internally differentiated, the surface and internal compositions are presumably similar, while large bodies such as Ceres and Vesta are known to have internal structure. Over the years, there has been a number of surveys that resulted in a set of different taxonomic systems such as the Tholen, SMASS and Bus -- DeMeo classification.
The present - day classification was initiated by Clark R. Chapman, David Morrison, and Ben Zellner in 1973 with three categories: C for dark carbonaceous objects, S for stony (silicaceous) objects, and U for those that did not fit into either C or S. This classification has since been expanded and clarified.
A number of classification schemes are currently in existence, and while they strive to retain some mutual consistency, quite a few asteroids are sorted into different classes depending on the particular scheme. This is due to the use of different criteria for each approach. The two most widely used classifications are described below:
absorption feature longward of 0.75 μm.
The Small Solar System Objects Spectroscopic Survey (S OS or S3OS2, also known as the Lazzaro classification) observed 820 asteroids, using the former ESO 1.52 - metre telescope at La Silla Observatory during 1996 -- 2001. This survey applied both the Tholen and Bus -- Binzel (SMASS) taxonomy to the observed objects, many of which had previously not been classified. For the Tholen - like classification, the survey introduced a new "Caa - type '', which shows a broad absorption band associated indicating an aqueous alteration of the body 's surface. The Caa class corresponds to Tholen 's C - type and to the SMASS ' hydrated Ch - type (including some Cgh -, Cg -, and C - types), and was assigned to 106 bodies or 13 % of the surveyed objects. In addition, S3OS2 uses the K - class for both classification schemes, a type which does not exist in the original Tholen taxonomy.
The Bus - DeMeo classification is an asteroid taxonomic system designed by DeMeo Bus and Stephen M. Slivan in 2009. It is based on reflectance spectrum characteristics for 371 asteroids measured over the wavelength 0.45 -- 2.45 micrometers. This system of 24 classes introduces a new "Sv '' - type and is based upon a principal component analysis, in accordance with the SMASS taxonomy, which itself is based upon the Tholen classification.
The most widely used taxonomy for over a decade has been that of David J. Tholen, first proposed in 1984. This classification was developed from broad band spectra (between 0.31 μm and 1.06 μm) obtained during the Eight - Color Asteroid Survey (ECAS) in the 1980s, in combination with albedo measurements. The original formulation was based on 978 asteroids.
The Tholen scheme includes 14 types with the majority of asteroids falling into one of three broad categories, and several smaller types. They are, with their largest exemplars:
and the small classes:
For inconsistent spectral data, the Tholen classification scheme uses the letter "I '', which is not a formal spectral type. An example is the Themistian asteroid 515 Athalia, which had a spectrum of a stony, and an albedo of a carbonaceous asteroid at the time of classification.
When the underlying numerical color analysis was ambiguous, objects were assigned two or three types rather than just one (e.g. "CG '' or "SCT ''), whereby the sequence of types reflects the order of increasing numerical standard deviation, with the best fitting spectral type mentioned first. In case a qualifying flag for an unusual spectrum is used (see below), the Tholen taxonomy may then encompass up to four letters (e.g. "SCTU '').
The Tholen taxonomy uses the following notations, appended to the spectral type:
For example, the Mars - crosser 1747 Wright has an AU: class, which means that it is an A-type asteroid, though with an unusual and noisy spectrum.
This is a more recent taxonomy introduced by Schelte J. Bus and Richard P. Binzel in 2002, based on the Small Main - Belt Asteroid Spectroscopic Survey (SMASS) of 1,447 asteroids. This survey produced spectra of a far higher resolution than ECAS, and was able to resolve a variety of narrow spectral features. However, a somewhat smaller range of wavelengths (0.44 μm to 0.92 μm) was observed. Also, albedos were not considered. Attempting to keep to the Tholen taxonomy as much as possible given the differing data, asteroids were sorted into the 26 types given below. The majority of bodies fall again into the three broad C, S, and X categories, with a few unusual bodies categorized into several smaller types:
A significant number of small asteroids were found to fall in the Q, R, and V types, which were represented by only a single body in the Tholen scheme. In the Bus and Binzel SMASS scheme only a single type was assigned to any particular asteroid.
In a photometric system, the brightness of an object can be measured through a set of different, wavelength - specific filters (passbands). In the UBV photometric system, three different filters are used:
In an observation, the brightness of an object is measured twice through a different filter. The resulting difference in magnitude is called the color index. The U -- B or B -- V color indices are the most common ones. In addition, the V -- R, V -- I and R -- I indices, where the photometric letters stand for visible (V), red (R) and infrared (I), are also used. A photometric sequence such as V -- R -- B -- I can be obtained from observations within a few minutes.
These classification schemes are expected to be refined and / or replaced as further research progresses. However, for now the spectral classification based on the two above coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys from the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful).
Some groupings of asteroids have been correlated with meteorite types:
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the current geologic time scale of the earth is divided into hadean eon and archaean eon | Archean - wikipedia
The Archean Eon (/ ɑːr ˈkiːən /, also spelled Archaean) is a geologic eon, 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago (4 to 2.5 billion years), that followed the Hadean Eon and preceded the Proterozoic Eon. During the Archean, the Earth 's crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents.
Archean (or Archaean) comes from the ancient Greek Αρχή (Arkhē), meaning "beginning, origin ''. Its earliest use is from 1872, when it meant "of the earliest geological age. '' In earlier literature the Hadean Eon was included as part of the Archean.
Instead of being based on stratigraphy, the beginning and end of the Archean Eon are defined chronometrically. The eon 's lower boundary or starting point of 4 Gya (4 billion years ago) is officially recognized by the International Commission on Stratigraphy.
The Archean is one of the four principal eons of Earth history. When the Archean began, the Earth 's heat flow was nearly three times as high as it is today, and it was still twice the current level at the transition from the Archean to the Proterozoic (2,500 million years ago). The extra heat was the result of a mix of remnant heat from planetary accretion, from the formation of the Earth 's core, and produced by radioactive elements.
Most surviving Archean rocks are metamorphic or igneous. Volcanic activity was considerably higher than today, with numerous lava eruptions, including unusual types such as komatiite. Granitic rocks predominate throughout the crystalline remnants of the surviving Archean crust. Examples include great melt sheets and voluminous plutonic masses of granite, diorite, layered intrusions, anorthosites and monzonites known as sanukitoids.
The Earth of the early Archean may have supported a tectonic regime unlike that of the present. Some scientists argue that, because the Earth was much hotter, tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much faster rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed. Others argue that the oceanic lithosphere was too buoyant to subduct, and that the rarity of Archean rocks is a function of erosion by subsequent tectonic events. The question of whether plate tectonic activity existed in the Archean is an active area of modern research.
There are two schools of thought concerning the amount of continental crust that was present in the Archean. One school maintains that no large continents existed until late in the Archean: small protocontinents were common, prevented from coalescing into larger units by the high rate of geologic activity. The other school follows that of Richard Armstrong, who argued that the continents grew to their present volume in the first 500 million years of Earth history and have maintained a near - constant ever since: throughout most of Earth history, recycling of continental material crust back to the mantle in subduction or collision zones balances crustal growth.
Opinion is also divided about the mechanism of continental crustal growth. Those scientists who doubt that plate tectonics operated in the Archean argue that the felsic protocontinents formed at hotspots rather than subduction zones. Through a process called "sagduction '', which refers to partial melting in downward - directed diapirs, a variety of mafic magmas produce intermediate and felsic rocks. Others accept that granite formation in island arcs and convergent margins was part of the plate tectonic process, which has operated since at least the start of the Archean.
The lack of rocks older than 3800 Ma (million years ago) might be explained by the efficiency of the processes that either cycled those rocks back into the mantle or removed any isotopic record of their age. All rocks in the continental crust are subject to metamorphism, partial melting and tectonic erosion during multiple orogenic events, and the chance of survival at the surface decreases with increasing age. In addition, a period of intense meteorite bombardment at 4.0 -- 3.8 Ga may have pulverized all rocks at the Earth 's surface. The similar age of the oldest surviving rocks and the Late Heavy Bombardment may not be coincidental.
The Archean atmosphere is thought to have nearly lacked free oxygen. Astronomers think that the Sun had about 70 -- 75 percent of the present luminosity, yet temperatures on Earth appear to have been near modern levels after only 500 Ma of Earth 's formation (the faint young Sun paradox). The presence of liquid water is evidenced by certain highly deformed gneisses produced by metamorphism of sedimentary protoliths. The moderate temperatures may reflect the presence of greater amounts of greenhouse gases than later in the Earth 's history. Alternatively, Earth 's albedo may have been lower at the time, due to less land area and cloud cover.
By the end of the Archaean c. 2500 Ma, plate tectonic activity may have been similar to that of the modern Earth. There are well - preserved sedimentary basins, and evidence of volcanic arcs, intracontinental rifts, continent - continent collisions and widespread globe - spanning orogenic events suggesting the assembly and destruction of one and perhaps several supercontinents. Liquid water was prevalent, and deep oceanic basins are known to have existed attested by the presence of banded iron formations, chert beds, chemical sediments and pillow basalts.
Although a few mineral grains are known to be Hadean, the oldest rock formations exposed on the surface of the Earth are Archean or slightly older. Archean rocks are found in Greenland, Siberia, the Canadian Shield, Montana and Wyoming (exposed parts of the Wyoming Craton), the Baltic Shield, Scotland, India, Brazil, western Australia, and southern Africa. Although the first continents formed during this eon, rock of this age makes up only 7 % of the present world 's cratons; even allowing for erosion and destruction of past formations, evidence suggests that continental crust equivalent to only 5 -- 40 % of the amount formed during the Archean.
In contrast to Proterozoic Eon rocks, Archean Eon rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep - water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments, and banded iron formations. Carbonate rocks are rare, indicating that the oceans were more acidic due to dissolved carbon dioxide than during the Proterozoic. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating units of metamorphosed mafic igneous and sedimentary rocks. The metamorphosed igneous rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the metamorphosed sediments represent deep - sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island arcs and deposited in a forearc basin. Greenstone belts, being both types of metamorphosed rock, represent sutures between the protocontinents.
The processes that gave rise to life on Earth are not completely understood, but there is substantial evidence that life came into existence either near the end of the Hadean Eon or early in the Archean Eon. Biogenic carbon has been detected in zircons dated to 4.1 billion years ago, but this evidence is preliminary and needs validation. More solid indirect evidence of life comes from banded iron formations in greenstones that date to 3.7 billion years. The formation of banded iron deposits is thought to require oxygen, and the only known source of molecular oxygen in the Archean Eon was photosynthesis, which implies life. The earliest identifiable fossils consist of stromatolites -- accretionary structures formed in shallow water by micro-organisms -- dated to 3.5 billion years ago.
The Hadean atmosphere was dominated by carbon dioxide and nitrogen (in much the same ratio as in the present day atmospheres of Venus and Mars) but with some NO, CO, P O, SO and native sulfur. These gases could have accumulated in the atmosphere because volcanic eruptions were between 10 and 100 times more prolific in the Hadean than today. Thus, the Hadean Ocean was a reservoir of the inorganic elements that may have been the earliest catalysts of organic reactions and, ultimately, of enzymes. The presence of an ocean, first dating from the late Hadean, would suggest the start of life in the following Archean Eon rather than in the Hadean Eon depended on the presence of an ocean.
Water bodies on dry land, the atmosphere, beaches, sea ice, the sea surface micro-layer, marine sediments, oceanic crusts and hydrothermal systems all contributing to the Hadean micro-environment, would have a drastic impact on the origin of life in the Archaean. The atmosphere has had the most pivotal role since the Miller and Urey experiments in 1953. Their experiments demonstrated the production of biologically important organic compounds (including amino acids) induced by passing electric charge through a mixture of gases which were at the time considered to be the components of Earth 's early, reducing atmosphere (H O, CH, H and NH).
The Hadean atmosphere could also have hosted particulate matter with catalytic surfaces. On the modern Earth, natural dust particles are largely derived from continental erosion. Dehydration of amino acids during atmospheric transport has been suggested as a mechanism for activation and polymerization. Additionally, amphiphiles (organic molecules with both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties) including stearic and oleic acids have been shown to form exterior films on marine aerosols that could have served as proto - membranes in prebiotic chemistry.
Another important role of the modern atmosphere is to protect life in surface environments from solar UV radiation. In the Hadean, the Sun 's output in the extreme UV range was stronger and the Earth lacked a protective ozone layer. Hence, UV radiation at the surface was much more intense. It is possible that a hydrocarbon haze might have acted as a UV shield but was transparent to visible light. But in the absence of a UV shield, solar UV radiation could have had both positive and negative impacts on prebiotic chemical reactions in the lower atmosphere and in surface exposed settings, by either activating or destroying prebiotic molecules.
Life in the Archaean may have been either very developed as to what we might have expected, or might be a little less so. The production of life has to do with the geological structures present at the time that it was being formed including the relative abundances of each of the elements in the surroundings. This conclusion comes from the Archaean landscape, which at that time consisted of volcanic and tectonic plate activities that formed the greenstone belts found today on the mainland of Greenland. One such example is that of MORB, a primitive Archaean volcanic sediment found in the greenstone belt, which led to the emissions of CO and O due to the volcanic eruptions at the time.
Prerequisites for the origin of life -- such as energy, catalysis, the synthesis of organic carbon compounds, and their concentration -- can all be seen in both the Late Hadean, as well as Early Archean environments, at different levels and different places on the landscape. This leads to a multi-regional origin of life hypothesis. The microbial life that might have been formed at the time would have been so small that it would have been very easy for it to travel long distances on the Early Earth. These prerequisites allow the last universal common ancestor of life to have its origin placed in this timeframe.
The earliest evidence for life on Earth are graphite of biogenic origin found in 3.7 - billion - year - old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 - billion - year - old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Pyrite found in 3.47 - billon - year - old baryte, in the Warrawoona Group of Western Australia, shows sulfur fractionation of as much as 21.1 %, because sulfate - reducing bacteria metabolize sulfur - 32 more readily than sulfur - 34. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life '' were found in 4.1 - billion - year - old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth... then it could be common in the universe. ''
Fossils of cyanobacterial mats (stromatolites, which were instrumental in creating free oxygen in the atmosphere) are found throughout the Archean, becoming especially common late in the eon, while a few probable bacterial fossils are known from chert beds. In addition to the domain Bacteria (once known as Eubacteria), microfossils of the domain Archaea have also been identified.
The Archaean Eon fossils might have formed as agglutination bubbles in rock that include, but are not limited to, stromatolites. Stromatolites are solid structures created by single - celled microbes called cyanobacteria. They are both micro as well as macro examples of life from the Archaean Eon.
It is difficult to determine whether a rock may be just that, or a stromatolite. They are found in Zimbabwe, Australia, Canada and South Africa.
Earth was very hostile to life before 4.2 -- 4.3 Ga and the conclusion is that before the Archean Eon, life as we know it would have been challenged by these environmental conditions. It can, however, be said that the origins of life could have occurred earlier, while the conditions necessary to sustain life could only have been possible in the Archean Eon.
Life was probably present throughout the Archean, but may have been limited to simple single - celled organisms (lacking nuclei), called Prokaryota (formerly known as Monera). There are no known eukaryotic fossils from the earliest Archean, though they might have evolved during the Archean without leaving any. No fossil evidence has been discovered for ultramicroscopic intracellular replicators such as viruses.
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mea culpa mea culpa mea maxima culpa translation | Mea culpa - wikipedia
Mea culpa is a Latin phrase that means "through my fault '' and is an acknowledgement of having done wrong.
Grammatically, meā culpā is in the ablative case, with an instrumental meaning.
The phrase comes from a prayer of confession of sinfulness, known as the Confiteor, used in the Roman Rite at the beginning of Mass or when receiving the sacrament of Penance.
The expression is used also as an admission of having made a mistake that should have been avoided, and may be accompanied by beating the breast as in its use in a religious context.
In the present form of the Confiteor as used in the celebration of Mass, mea culpa is said three times, the third time with the addition of the adjective maxima ("very great '', usually translated as "most grievous ''), and is accompanied by the gesture of beating the breast.
Confíteor Deo omnipoténti et vobis, fratres, quia peccávi nimis cogitatióne, verbo, ópere et omissióne: mea culpa, mea culpa, mea máxima culpa. Ideo precor beátam Maríam semper vírginem, omnes angelos et sanctos, et vos, fratres, oráre pro me ad Dóminum Deum nostrum.
I confess to almighty God and to you, my brothers and sisters, that I have greatly sinned, in my thoughts and in my words, in what I have done and in what I have failed to do, through my fault, through my fault, through my most grievous fault; therefore I ask blessed Mary ever - Virgin, all the Angels and Saints, and you, my brothers and sisters, to pray for me to the Lord our God.
According to Adrian Fortescue, the inclusion in the Confiteor of the phrase mea culpa can be traced back only to the 16th century.
However, the Latin phrase mea culpa was used, even in an English context, earlier than that. Geoffrey Chaucer 's 14th - century Troilus and Criseyde uses it in a way that shows it was already a traditional religious phrase: "Now, mea culpa, lord! I me repente. ''
Although the Confiteor was not then part of the Mass, it was used in administering the sacrament of Penance. In some forms it already included the phrase mea culpa. Thus the 9th - century Paenitentiale Vallicellanum II had a thrice - repeated mea culpa (without maxima) in its elaborate form of the Confiteor.
In about 1220, the rite of public penance in Siena for those who had committed murder required the penitent to throw himself on the ground three times, saying: Mea culpa; peccavi; Domine miserere mei ("Through my fault. I have sinned. Lord, have mercy on me '').
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how many different types of pennies are there | Penny (United States coin) - wikipedia
The United States one - cent coin, often called a penny, is a unit of currency equaling one - hundredth of a United States dollar. The cent 's symbol is ¢. Its obverse has featured the profile of President Abraham Lincoln since 1909, the centennial of his birth. From 1959 (the sesquicentennial of Lincoln 's birth) to 2008, the reverse featured the Lincoln Memorial. Four different reverse designs in 2009 honored Lincoln 's 200th birthday and a new, "permanent '' reverse -- the Union Shield -- was introduced in 2010. The coin is 0.75 inches (19.05 mm) in diameter and 0.0598 inches (1.52 mm) in thickness. Its weight has varied, depending upon the composition of metals used in its production (see further below).
The U.S. Mint 's official name for the coin is "cent '' and the U.S. Treasury 's official name is "one cent piece ''. The colloquial term penny derives from the British coin of the same name, the pre-decimal version of which had a similar place in the British system. In American English, pennies is the plural form. (The plural form pence -- standard in British English -- is not used in reference to American coins.)
Although the coin 's abolition has been proposed because it is now worth very little, there are currently no firm plans to eliminate the penny. As of 2015, based on the U.S. Mint Annual Report released for 2014, it costs the U.S. Mint 1.67 cents (down from 2.41 cents in 2011 and 1.83 cents in 2013) to make one cent because of the cost of materials, production, and distribution. This figure includes the Mint 's fixed components for distribution and fabrication, as well as Mint overhead allocated to the penny. Fixed costs and overhead would have to be absorbed by other circulating coins without the penny. The loss from producing the one cent coin in the United States for the year of 2013 was $55,000,000. This was a slight decrease from 2012, the year before, which had a production loss of $58,000,000.
In honor of Lincoln 's 200th anniversary, special 2009 cents were minted for collectors in the same composition as the 1909 coins.
The isotope composition of early coins spanning the period 1828 to 1843 reflects that of copper from Cornish ores from England, while coins after 1850 that reflects that of Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan ores, a finding consistent with historical records.
In 1943, at the peak of World War II, zinc - coated steel cents were made for a short time because of war demands for copper. A few copper cents from 1943 were produced from the 1942 planchets remaining in the bins. Similarly, some 1944 steel cents have been confirmed. From 1944 through 1946, salvaged ammunition shells made their way into the minting process, and it was not uncommon to see coins featuring streaks of brass or having a considerably darker finish than other issues.
During the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to the point where the cent contained almost one cent 's worth of copper. This led the Mint to test alternative metals, including aluminum and bronze - clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and over 1.5 million of these pennies were struck and ready for public release before ultimately being rejected. The proposed aluminum pennies were rejected for two reasons: vending machine owners complained the coins would cause mechanical problems; and pediatricians and pediatric radiologists pointed out that the radiodensity of the metal inside the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts was close to that of soft tissue, and the coins would therefore be difficult to detect in X-ray imaging. One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution.
The cent 's composition was changed in 1982 because the value of the copper in the coin started to rise above one cent. Some 1982 pennies used the 97.5 % zinc composition, while others used the 95 % copper composition. With the exception of 2009 bicentennial cents minted specifically for collectors, United States cents minted after 1982 have been zinc with copper plating. In Fiscal Year 2013, the average one - cent piece minted cost the U.S. Mint 1.83 cents, down from 2.41 cents apiece in FY 2011.
The bronze and copper cents can be distinguished from the newer zinc cents by dropping the coins on a solid surface. The predominantly copper coins produce a higher - pitched ringing sound, while the zinc coins make a lower - pitched "clunk ''. In addition, a full 50 - cent roll of pre-1982 / 3 coins weighs 5.4 oz compared to a post-1982 -- 83 roll which weighs 4.4 oz.
Mintage figures for the Lincoln cent can be found at Lincoln cent mintage figures.
The coin has gone through several designs over its two - hundred - year time frame. Until 1857 it was about the size of the current U.S. dollar coins (Susan B. Anthony through present dollars).
The following types of cents have been produced:
Large cents:
Small cents:
Throughout its history, the Lincoln cent has featured several typefaces for the date, but most of the digits have been old - style numerals, except with the 4 and 8 neither ascending nor descending. The only significant divergence is that the small 3 was non-descending (the same size as a 0, 1, or 2) in the early history, before switching to a descending, large 3 for just one year in 1934 and then permanently (as of 2014) in 1943. Similarly, the digit 5 was small and non-descending up to 1945, then from 1950 and on, it became a large descending 5. From 1959 until 2008, the Lincoln Memorial was shown on the reverse of the United States cent. Because the Lincoln Memorial was shown in sufficient detail to discern the statue of Lincoln on the reverse of cent, Abraham Lincoln was at that time the only person to be depicted on both the obverse and reverse of the same United States coin. In 1999, the New Jersey state quarter was released, which depicts George Washington on both sides, crossing the Delaware River on the reverse side and in profile on the obverse. (The state quarter for South Dakota, released in 2006, also features Washington on both sides: the typical profile on the obverse, and Washington within Mount Rushmore on the reverse.) Some of the 2009 reverse design series no longer showed Abraham Lincoln, and the 2010 Lincoln Union Shield has removed the president from the coin reverse for the foreseeable future.
An additional design detail that is not readily visible to the naked eye is found on the obverse side of the 1918 onward United States cent. The letters "VDB '' stamped on the bottom sleeve of Abraham Lincoln represent the initials of Victor David Brenner, the primary designer of the Wheat cent.
The Lincoln cent is the current one - cent coin of the U.S. It was adopted in 1909 (which would have been Lincoln 's 100th birthday), replacing the Indian Head cent. Its reverse was changed in 1959 from a wheat - stalks design to a design which includes the Lincoln Memorial (to commemorate Lincoln 's sesquicentennial) and was replaced again in 2009 with four new designs to commemorate Lincoln 's bicentennial. There are more one - cent coins produced than any other denomination, which makes the Lincoln cent a familiar item. In its lifespan, this coin has weathered both world wars, one of which temporarily changed its composition as part of the war effort. The obverse is the longest design used for any circulating American currency.
When the Lincoln one - cent coin made its initial appearance in 1909, it marked a radical departure from the accepted styling of United States coinage, as it was the first regular coin to bear a portrait other than the mythical Liberty which appeared on most pre-1909 regular coins. Previously, a strong feeling had prevailed against using portraits on coins in the United States, but public sentiment stemming from the 100th anniversary celebration of Abraham Lincoln 's birth proved stronger than the long - standing tradition.
A variety of privately minted tokens bearing Lincoln 's image circulated as one - cent pieces during Lincoln 's presidency; legitimate coinage had become scarce during the Civil War. These early tokens undoubtedly influenced the denomination, appearance, size, and composition of Lincoln cents.
Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th U.S. President, thought American coins were so common and uninspiring that he attempted to get the motto "In God We Trust '' removed as offending religion. Roosevelt had the opportunity to pose for a young Lithuanian - born Jew, Victor David Brenner, who, since arriving nineteen years earlier in the United States had become one of the nation 's premier medalists. Roosevelt had learned of Brenner 's talents in a settlement house on New York City 's Lower East Side and was immediately impressed with a bas - relief that Brenner had made of Lincoln, based on a Mathew Brady photograph. Roosevelt, who considered Lincoln the savior of the Union and the greatest Republican President, and who also considered himself Lincoln 's political heir, ordered the new Lincoln cent to be based on Brenner 's work and to be released just in time to commemorate Lincoln 's 100th birthday in 1909. The likeness of President Lincoln on the obverse of the coin is an adaptation of a plaque Brenner created several years earlier which had come to the attention of President Roosevelt in New York.
In addition to the prescribed elements on U.S. coins -- LIBERTY and the date -- the motto In God We Trust appeared for the first time on a coin of this denomination. The United States Congress passed the Act of March 3, 1865, authorizing the use of this motto on U.S. coins, during Lincoln 's tenure in office.
Even though no legislation was required for the new design, approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change. Franklin MacVeagh gave his approval on July 14, 1909, and not quite three weeks later, on August 2, the new coin was released to the public.
In 1918, after the controversy over Brenner 's name and initials on the reverse had died down, his initials were placed on the obverse with no further controversy. They are to be found in minute form on the rim of the bust, just under the shoulder of Lincoln.
In 1969, the design was revised to make Lincoln look more like Brenner 's original sculptures.
A study of three potential reverses resulted in the approval of a very simple design bearing two wheatheads in memorial style. Between these, in the center of the coin, are the denomination and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, while curving around the upper border is the national motto, E Pluribus Unum, Latin for "From Many, One. ''
The original model bore Brenner 's name on the reverse, curving along the rim below UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Before the coins were issued, however, the initials "VDB '' were substituted because officials at the United States Mint felt the name was too prominent. After the coin was released, many protested that even the initials were conspicuous and detracted from the design. Because the coin was in great demand, and because to make a change would have required halting production, the decision was made to eliminate the initials entirely.
Thus in 1909 the U.S. had six different cents: the 1909 and 1909 - S Indian Head cents, and four Lincoln coins: 1909 VDB, 1909 - S VDB, 1909 and 1909 - S. In all cases the Philadelphia mintages far exceeded the San Francisco issues. While the smallest mintage is the ' 09 - S Indian, the ' 09 - S VDB is the key Lincoln date, and hence is most valuable. Its mintage of 484,000 is only 1.7 % of the plain V.D.B.
On February 12, 1959, a revised reverse design was introduced as part of the 150th anniversary of Lincoln 's birth. No formal competition was held. Frank Gasparro, then Assistant Engraver at the Philadelphia Mint, prepared the winning entry, selected from a group of 23 models that the engraving staff at the Mint had been asked to present for consideration. Again, only the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury was necessary to make the change because the design had been in use for more than the required 25 years. The imposing marble Lincoln Memorial provides the central motif, with the legends E Pluribus Unum and UNITED STATES OF AMERICA completing the design, together with the denomination. The initials "FG '' appear on the right, near the shrubbery.
The Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005 required that the cent 's reverse be redesigned in 2009. This resulted in the mintage of four different coins showing scenes from Abraham Lincoln 's life in honor of the bicentennial of his birth.
These four designs, unveiled September 22, 2008 at a ceremony held at the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., are:
Special 2009 cents struck for sale in sets to collectors had the metallic copper content of cents minted in 1909 (95 % copper, 5 % tin and zinc). Those struck for circulation retained the normal composition of a zinc core coated with copper.
The 2005 act that authorized the redesign for the Bicentennial stated that another redesigned reverse for the Lincoln cent will be minted which "shall bear an image emblematic of President Lincoln 's preservation of the United States of America as a single and united country ''. Eighteen designs were proposed for the reverse of the 2010 cent. On April 16, 2009 the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) met and selected a design that showed 13 wheat sheaves bound together with a ring symbolizing American unity as one nation. Later this design was withdrawn because it was similar to coinage issued in Germany in the 1920s. The Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee later met and chose a design showing a Union shield with ONE CENT superimposed in a scroll; E Pluribus Unum was also depicted in the upper portion of the shield. In June 2009 the CFA met again and chose a design featuring a modern rendition of the American flag. As a part of the release ceremony for the last of the 2009 cents on November 12, the design for the 2010 cent was announced. The design chosen was the one that was chosen earlier by the CCAC. According to the Mint, the 13 stripes on the shield "represent the states joined in one compact union to support the Federal government, represented by the horizontal bar above. '' The Mint also noted that a shield was commonly used in paintings in the Capitol hallways painted by Constantino Brumidi, an artist in the Capitol active during the Lincoln Presidency. The obverse of the cent was also changed to a modern rendition of Brenner 's design. The new Union Shield design replaces the Lincoln memorial in use since 1959. The coin was designed by artist Lyndall Bass and sculpted by U.S. Mint sculptor - engraver Joseph Menna. In January 2010, the coins were released early in Puerto Rico; this was caused by a shortage of 2009 - dated pennies on the island. The new design was released at a ceremony at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library in Springfield, Illinois on February 11, 2010.
To commemorate the Fire at the SS Morro Castle, local coin dealer Louis Werner made copper caps depicting the Morro Castle surrounded by the legend "The Morro Castle Fire '' These would then be encased over one side of a Lincoln cent. According to "Mrs. Astor 's Horse '' by Stanley Walker:
Concessionaires inside the hall carried on a lively business. A man at a stamping machine put copper caps on pennies with the head of Lincoln on one side and the inscription ff Morro Castle Fire, September, 1934, Asbury Park '' on the other. Postcard sellers in the hall disposed of 150,000 pictures of the burning ship during the first few days after the disaster. As soon as they came off the press, heart - rending poems and ballads about the fire were hawked about.
Later, to commemorate the trial of Bruno Richard Hauptmann, Werner made another design depicting the Hunterdon County Courthouse, where the trial was held, and surrounded by the legend "HAUPTMANN TRIAL, Flemington, NJ. '' Another part of the text in "Mrs. Astor 's Horse '' states:
A man with a metal press did a fair sort of business. He set up for business on the porch of the hotel. He had constructed a die depicting the Hunterdon County courthouse, surrounded by the legend, Hauptmann Trial, Flemington, N.J. On the stand beside the press lay several hundred bright new pennies and several fine strips of copper. By running the copper strips through the press, together with the pennies, he turned out Lincoln heads backed by the courthouse and the legend. The pieces sold for five cents each, three for a dime.
Also, from 1935 to 1938, during the Christmas season, Werner made a design depicting Santa Claus. By donating 10 cents, shoppers in Manhattan would receive these. Additionally, if they donated an extra 5 cents, their cent would come in a greeting card holder. Other capped cents by Werner include commemoratives for Admiral Richard E. Byrd 's expedition to the South Pole and Joe Louis. There was also a design featuring the Lord 's prayer.
Bronze, 1909 -- 1942. Initially the alloy of the Lincoln cent followed that established for this denomination with the Indian Head design in 1864, 95 % copper and 2.5 % tin and 2.5 % zinc.
Wartime zinc - plated steel, 1943. The composition of the Lincoln cent was changed in 1943.
Production of the war - time cent was provided for in an Act of Congress approved on December 18, 1942, which also set as the expiration date of the authority December 31, 1946. Low - grade carbon steel formed the base of these coins, to which a zinc coating 0.0005 - inch (0.013 mm) thick was deposited on each side electrolytically as a rust preventive. This coating was applied to the steel before the blanks were made, leaving the rims of these coins extremely susceptible to rust. The same size was maintained, but the weight was reduced from the standard 48 grains (3.1 g) to 42 grains (2.7 g), by using a lighter alloy. Production commenced on February 27, 1943, and by December 31 of that year, the three Mint facilities had produced 1,093,838,670 of the one - cent coins. The copper released for the war effort was enough to meet the combined needs of two cruisers, two destroyers, 1,243 Flying Fortresses, 120 field guns and 120 howitzers, or enough for 1,250,000 shells for large field guns.
Wartime brass, 1944 -- 1946. Numerous complaints about the gray color of the 1943 cents, especially that they could be mistaken for dimes, led to a change in composition of the wartime cent. On January 1, 1944, the Mint was able to adopt a modified alloy, the supply being derived from expended shell casings which, when melted, furnished a composition similar to the original, but with a much smaller trace of tin. The original weight of 48 grains (3.1 g) was also restored.
Bronze, 1947 -- 1962. Shell casings were no longer used after 1946 and the original copper - tin - zinc "bronze '' composition was again used.
Brass, 1962 -- 1982. The composition of the coin was changed again slightly in 1962. Mint officials felt that deletion of the tin content would have no adverse effect on the wearing qualities of the coin, whereas the manufacturing advantages to be gained with the alloy stabilized at 95 % copper and 5 % zinc would be of much benefit. Congressional authority for this modification is contained in an Act of Congress approved on September 5, 1962.
Experimental aluminum cents, 1974. During the early 1970s, the price of copper rose to a point where the cent almost contained one cent 's worth of copper. This led the Mint to test alternate metals, including aluminum and bronze - clad steel. Aluminum was chosen, and in 1973, a total of 1,579,324 such coins were struck (dated 1974) and ready for public release. A few were distributed to members of the U.S. Congress, but aluminum was ultimately rejected for a variety of reasons. About a dozen aluminum cents are believed to still be in the hands of collectors, although they are now considered illegal to own. One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. Another is in the hands of the family of a deceased U.S. Capitol police officer, known as the Toven Specimen, and was certified as authentic in 2005.
Copper - plated zinc, 1982 -- present. In mid-1982, the coin 's composition was changed again, this time to copper - plated zinc. The last mostly - copper cents (95 % copper metal composition) were produced by the Denver Mint on October 22, 1982. The copper - plated zinc cent coins are still being produced today. They are composed of an inner core alloy of 99.2 % zinc and 0.8 % copper with an outer plating of pure copper, for an overall composition of 97.5 % zinc and 2.5 % copper, and are minted on blanks produced for the Mint by an outside manufacturer (Jarden Zinc Products). Except for the new lighter total coin weight of 2.5 grams each, these newer coins are identical in diameter and thickness, and nearly in appearance, to the mostly copper (95 %) cents issued before mid-1982, which weighed 3.11 grams each. A few pennies were struck by error in brass dated 1983 and are extremely rare.
When the Lincoln Cent was introduced in 1909, it was discovered that the coining dies and their curved fields were unable to be polished to proof coining condition by existing Mint equipment. To produce Proof coinage for collectors, the U.S. Mint adopted the French technique of the Matte Proof, which was thought to highlight the design, while leaving the details of the coin as the designer intended. This was done by a sandblasting of the dies prior to use. When struck by the high pressure hydraulic press of the Philadelphia Mint Medal Room, the result was a semi-rough surface, a gentle luster and strongly defined wide square rims. These coins were produced in very small numbers, and the dies quickly developed small marks, known as diagnostics. These marks are used today by Third Party Graders and Collectors to authenticate the coin. Sold for mere pennies over face during the years of production, they were not popular with collectors. When new, the coins were wrapped in a tarnish - proof tissue, which over time proved to be anything but. Since many of these coins sat for decades unsold, vivid colors and toning developed. It is not unusual to see vivid blues, greens, lavender, coppery orange, deep reds and purple hues on these coins. Eagerly collected by numismatists today, they are among the most valuable Lincoln cents. Unencapsulated coins are easily identified by wide, square outer rims, quite unlike the rounded edges of business strikes.
Through mint errors, a number of rare and valuable Lincoln Cents have been produced. Some random errors, such as an off - center strike, slightly increase the value of the coin, and are sought after by niche collectors. However some errors were systemic, and produced a number of coins with exactly the same problem in the same year. These have become recognized varieties that are often extremely valuable and sought after by mainstream collectors.
The first Doubled Die error occurred during the production of the 1909 VDB. Not identified until the 1970s, it shows the RTY in Liberty and the 190 of the date slightly doubled. This coin is extremely rare in high grades.
In 1922, no one - cent coins were produced by the Philadelphia Mint. However, three of the four pairs of Denver Mint worn and overly polished dies then produced the Weak D and No D varieties, making them appear as if they had been produced in Philadelphia. These varieties are known as the 1922 plain cents or 1922 no "D '' cents. Collectors must be wary of removed mint marks.
There are a few 1943 cents that were produced in bronze, as opposed to the steel / zinc composition used that year. There are 10 to 12 known to exist. Likewise, a few 1944 cents were produced in steel / zinc.
In 1955, a hubbing error caused some cents to get struck with an obverse die which showed doubling in all of the obverse devices, producing a prominent doubling of the date, and to a less noticeable degree, the rest of the obverse. This is known as the 1955 doubled die cent. A similar die error occurred in 1969 on dies used at the San Francisco Mint. While the 1955 doubled die cent is well - known and widely collected, the 1969 - S doubled die is far rarer, with an uncirculated specimen selling for as much as $126,500 in a 2008 Heritage auction. The same mechanism produced 1972, 1983, 1984, and 1995 Doubled die cents. Doubled Dies are known for practically every date in the Lincoln cent series, but most are minor, and less impressive compared to the 1955 and the other Doubled Die varieties mentioned here.
In 1990, 3,055 proof cents were struck at the San Francisco Mint without the "S '' mint mark, making them appear as if they had been struck at the Philadelphia Mint. However, as no proof cents were struck in Philadelphia that year, they are easily distinguishable as errors, and highly valuable.
The reverse of some Lincoln cents minted in 1992 at the Philadelphia and Denver mints and some of those minted in 1998 and 1999 at the San Francisco mint feature a smaller - than - normal gap between the first two letters of AMERICA. These coins, known as the Close AM variety are valued at $20,000 and $5,000 for the 1992 specimens in gem uncirculated condition and $3,000 and $1,000 for the San Francisco specimens in gem proof condition.
The reverse of some Lincoln cents minted in 1998, 1999, and 2000 in Philadelphia feature a larger - than - normal gap between the first two letters of AMERICA. These coins, known as the Wide AM variety are valued at $10, $500, and $5, respectively, in gem uncirculated condition. These reverse die errors are technically "mule '' errors, as the reverse error dies were the same as normal proof coins of the same date.
Zinc, a major component of mid-1982 - and - later U.S. cents, is toxic in large quantities. Swallowing such a coin, which is 97.5 % zinc, can cause damage to the stomach lining because of the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach. Coins are the most commonly ingested foreign body in children but generally are allowed to pass spontaneously unless the patient is symptomatic. Zinc toxicity, mostly in the form of the ingestion of U.S. pennies minted after 1982, is commonly fatal in dogs where it causes a severe hemolytic anemia. It is also highly toxic in pet parrots and can often be fatal.
It has been suggested that the cent should be eliminated as a unit of currency for several reasons including that many Americans do not actually spend them, but rather only receive them in change at stores and proceed to return them to a bank for higher denomination currencies, or cash them in at coin counting kiosks. Most modern vending machines do not accept pennies, further diminishing their utility, and the production cost (figured in U.S. Dollars) now exceeds the face value of the coin, caused by increasing inflation. In 2001 and 2006, for example, United States Representative Jim Kolbe (R) of Arizona introduced bills which would have stopped production of pennies (in 2001, the Legal Tender Modernization Act, and in 2006, the Currency Overhaul for an Industrious Nation (COIN) Act).
In anticipation of the business of melting down U.S. pennies and U.S. nickels for profit, the U.S. Mint, which is a part of the US Department of the Treasury, implemented new regulations on December 14, 2006, which criminalize the melting of pennies and nickels and place limits on export of the coins. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 USD and / or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.
The U.S. Mint reported that in fiscal year 2010 the unit cost of producing and shipping one - cent coins was 1.79 cents, which is more than the face value of the coin. After reaching a peak cost of 2.41 cents in 2011 due to the significant rise in global metal demand and prices, recently the cost has declined to 1.83 cents for 2013. In the 2014 fiscal year, the cost to produce a penny declined even further to 1.70 cents.
When copper reached a record high in February 2011, the melt value of a 95 % copper penny was more than three times its face value. As of January 21, 2014, a pre-1982 penny contained 2.20325 cents ' worth of copper and zinc, making it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals for profit. In comparison, post-1982 copper - plated zinc cents have a metallurgical value of only 0.55152 cents.
The Secretary of the Treasury has authority to alter the percentage of copper and zinc in the one - cent coin if needed due to cost fluctuations.
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what is a us 11.5 in uk sizes | Shoe size - wikipedia
A shoe size is an indication of the fitting size of a shoe for a person.
There are a number of different shoe - size systems used worldwide. While all of them use a number to indicate the length of the shoe, they differ in exactly what they measure, what unit of measurement they use, and where the size 0 (or 1) is positioned. Some systems also indicate the shoe width, sometimes also as a number, but in many cases by one or more letters. Some regions use different shoe - size systems for different types of shoes (e.g. men 's, women 's, children 's, sport, and safety shoes). This article sets out several complexities in the definition of shoe sizes. In practice, shoes should be tried on for size and fit before they are purchased.
The length of a foot is commonly defined as (a) the distance between two parallel lines that are perpendicular to the foot and (b) in contact with the most prominent toe and the most prominent part of the heel. Foot length is measured with the subject standing barefoot and the weight of the body equally distributed between both feet.
The sizes of the left and right feet are often slightly different. In this case, both feet are measured, and purchasers of mass - produced shoes are advised to purchase a shoe size based on the larger foot, as most retailers do not sell pairs of shoes in non-matching sizes.
Each size of shoe is considered suitable for a small interval of foot lengths. The inner cavity of a shoe must typically be 15 -- 20 mm longer than the foot, but this varies between different types of shoes.
A shoe - size system can refer to three characteristic lengths:
All these measures differ substantially from one another for the same shoe.
Sizing systems also differ in what units of measurement they use. This also results in different increments between shoe sizes, because usually only "full '' or "half '' sizes are made.
The following length units are commonly used today to define shoe - size systems:
The sizing systems also place size 0 (or 1) at different locations:
Some systems also include the width of a foot, but do so in a variety of ways:
The width for which these sizes are suitable can vary significantly between manufacturers. The A -- E width indicators used by most American, Canadian, and some British shoe manufacturers are typically based on the width of the foot, and common step sizes are ⁄ inch (4.8 mm).
The International Standard is ISO 9407: 1991, "Shoe sizes -- Mondopoint system of sizing and marking '', which recommends a shoe - size system known as Mondopoint.
It is based on the mean foot length and width for which the shoe is suitable, measured in millimetres. A shoe size of 280 / 110 indicates a mean foot length of 280 millimetres (11.0 in) and width of 110 millimetres (4.3 in).
Because Mondopoint also takes the foot width into account, it allows for better fitting than most other systems. It is, therefore, used by NATO and other military services. Mondopoint is also used for ski boots.
Shoe size in the United Kingdom and Ireland is based on the length of the last used to make the shoes, measured in barleycorn (⁄ inch) starting from the smallest size deemed practical, which is called size zero. It is not formally standardised. Note that the last is typically longer than the foot heel to toe length by about 1 / 2 to 2⁄3 inch (13 to 17 mm).
A child 's size zero is equivalent to 4 inches (a hand = 12 barleycorns = 10.16 cm), and the sizes go up to size 13 ⁄ (8 ⁄ in, 25 ⁄ barleycorns or 21.59 cm). Thus, the calculation for a children 's shoe size in the UK is:
equivalent to
An adult size one is then the next size up (8 ⁄ in or 22.01 cm) and each size up continues the progression in barleycorns. The calculation for an adult shoe size in the UK is thus:
equivalent to
Note: some manufacturers choose to use a constant other than 25, so sizes do vary in either direction e.g. A shoe marked as a European size 40 may also be marked as a UK: 6 by Jimmy Choo, Nike; a 6 ⁄ by Adidas, Clarks, Dr Martens, Fred Perry, Karrimor, Monsoon, New Balance, Reebok, and Slazenger; a 7 by Converse, Gap, Pavers, and Timberland; and a 7 ⁄ by Crocs. Some retailers mark a larger size on women 's European compatible which can cause confusion with the UK unisex sizes. A size 8 should be a European 42 in both male and female shoes, but this is often marked as a 9 for women.
For men and children 's footwear the UK system is followed. Women 's footwear has a slightly different sizing that is unique. It is in between the UK and US 's sizings.
In North America, there are different systems that are used concurrently. The size indications are usually similar but not exactly equivalent especially with athletic shoes at extreme sizes. The most common is the customary, described in more detail below, which for men 's shoes is one barleycorn shorter than the UK equivalent. (so a men 's 13 in the US or Canada is the same size as a men 's 12 in the UK)
The traditional system is similar to English sizes but start counting at one rather than zero, so equivalent sizes are one greater. So the calculation for a male shoe size in the USA or Canada is:
Women 's sizes are almost always determined with the "common '' scale, in which women 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 1.5 (for example, a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 12). In other words:
In the less popular scale, known as the "standard '' or "FIA '' (Footwear Industries of America) scale, women 's sizes are men 's sizes plus 1 (so a men 's 10.5 is a women 's 11.5).
Children 's sizes are equal to men 's sizes plus 12 ⁄. Children 's sizes do not differ by gender even though adults ' do.
Children 's shoe stores in the United States and Canada use a sizing scheme which ends at 13, after which the adult range starts at 1:
Alternatively, a scale running from K4 to K13 and then 1 to 7 is in use. K4 to K9 are toddler sizes, K10 to 3 are pre-school and 1 to 7 are grade school sizes.
A slightly different sizing method is based on the Brannock Device, a measuring instrument invented by Charles F. Brannock in 1925 and now found in many shoe stores. The formula used by the Brannock device assumes a foot length 2⁄3 inch (1.7 cm) less than the length of the last; thus, men 's size 1 is equivalent to a foot 's length of 7 2⁄3 inches. Women 's sizes are one size up.
The method also measures the length of the distance of the heel and the widest point of the foot. For that purpose, the device has another, shorter scale at the side of the foot. If this scale indicates a larger size, it is taken in place of the foot 's length.
For children 's sizes, additional wiggle room is added to allow for growth.
The device also measures the width of the foot and assigns it designations of AAA, AA, A, B, C, D, E, EE, or EEE. The widths are 3 / 16 in apart and differ by shoe length.
Some shoe stores use optical devices to precisely measure the length and width of both feet and recommend the appropriate shoe model and size. (1)
The Continental European system is used in Portugal, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and most other continental European countries. It is also used in Middle Eastern countries (such as Iran), Brazil -- which uses the same method but subtracts 2 from the final result -- and, commonly, Hong Kong.
In this system, the shoe size is the length of the last, expressed in Paris points, for both sexes and for adults and children alike. Because a Paris point is 2⁄3 of a centimetre, the formula is as follows:
To compute the size based on actual foot length, one must first add a length of about 1.5 to 2 cm. For instance, for a shoe having an internal length 1.5 cm longer than the foot:
This gives the relationships:
European size = 1.27 × UK size + 31.75
UK size = European size / 1.27 - 25 = 0.7874 × European size - 25
The Asian system is based on metric measurements and standardised as JIS S 5037: 1998, CNS 4800, S 1093, or KS M 6681. Foot length and girth are taken into account.
The foot length is indicated in centimetres; an increment of 5 mm is used. This system was also used in the GDR.
The length is followed by designators for girth (A, B, C, D, E, EE, EEE, EEEE, F, G), which is taken from a table indexed to girth and length. There are different tables for men 's, women 's, and children 's (less than 12 years of age) shoes. The tables also include the width as supplemental indications. Not all designators are used for all genders and in all countries. For example, the largest girth for women in China is EEEE, whereas in Japan, it is F.
Shoes are sized either according to the foot length they are intended to fit, in cm, or alternatively to another variation of the barleycorn system, with sizes calculated approximately as:
Historically the USSR used the European (Paris point) system but an alternative metric system (State Standard 3927 -- 64) was devised, with shoe sizes increasing in 1⁄2 rather than the 2⁄3 cm intervals found in the European scheme. This system has been refined by later standards:
Where used this system is sometimes described as a Pointe (ballet shoe) or Stych size:
Please note that the following tables indicate theoretical sizes calculated from the standards and information given above. Differences between various shoe size tables, makers ' tables or other tables found on the Web are usually due to the following factors:
Further, some tables available on the Web simply contain errors. For example, the wiggle room or different zero point is not taken into account, or tables based on different U.S. systems (traditional and athletic) are simply combined although they are incompatible.
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who played john candys wife in the great outdoors | The Great Outdoors (film) - wikipedia
The Great Outdoors is a 1988 American comedy film directed by Howard Deutch, and written and produced by John Hughes. It stars Dan Aykroyd, John Candy, Stephanie Faracy and Annette Bening in her film debut.
The film follows two families spending time on vacation in Wisconsin.
Chicagoan Chester "Chet '' Ripley, his wife, Connie, and their two sons, Buckley "Buck '' and Ben, are on vacation at a lake resort in Pechoggin, Wisconsin during the summer. All is going as planned until Connie 's sister, Kate, Kate 's investment broker husband, Roman Craig, and their twin daughters, Mara and Cara, crash the vacation.
Ghost stories at the family BBQ include one of a man - eating grizzly bear that Chet met face - to - face when he was younger. Chet says that while he and Connie were honeymooning at the same lake, he was attacked by a giant grizzly bear. When he fired at it with a shotgun, the buckshot shaved the hair off the top of the bear 's head and from that day on, it was known as the "Bald - Headed Bear '' of Clare County.
After Roman pulls Chet around the lake on an impromptu water ski ride with his rented speedboat, tensions between the families erupt. Chet is ready to pack up and go home, even as his teenage son Buck tries to romance a local girl, Cammie. The budding romance goes well until Chet is challenged to eat the Old 96'er (a 96 - ounce steak) at a family dinner which causes Buck to break the date. Buck tries to apologize to Cammie for being late, but Cammie refuses to speak to him.
Connie and Kate bond at a local bar when the conversation drifts to Kate 's challenges of being wealthy. Later, just at the peak of tension between families, it emerges that Roman has made a bad investment and is broke. He has not told Kate and was planning to hit up Chet for the cash.
Later, during a thunderstorm, the twins wander off and fall into a mine shaft. Chet and Roman find them, but the claustrophobic Roman is reluctant to descend into the tiny mine shaft. After some encouragement from Chet, Roman summons up all his courage, while Chet goes in search of a rope to pull them out. Upon realizing that the mine is stocked with old dynamite, Roman takes his daughters and climbs out of the shaft on his own.
When Chet returns with the rope, he is horrified to discover the "Bald - Headed Bear '' lurking in the mine. It chases him back to his house, smashes through the door, and rampages through the house. Wally, the cabin owner, bursts in with a loaded shotgun while Roman tries to hold off the animal with a fire poker and an oar. Chet takes the gun and shoots the bear, blowing the fur off its backside. Roaring, the bear runs out of the house.
The next morning, the two families part on good terms. Unbeknownst to Chet, Connie has invited Roman 's family to stay with them until they can get back on their feet. Cammie and Buck make up and end their summer romance, as Buck and his family head back to Chicago.
The film was shot on location in Bass Lake, California, a small resort town near Yosemite National Park over three weeks in October 1987.
Ducey 's Bass Lake Lodge, a rustic 1940s resort in Bass Lake, was featured as Wally and Juanita 's Perk 's Pine Lodge. The Loon 's Nest vacation cabin, built as a set, was designed to match the style of Ducey 's existing cabins.
The Great Outdoors earned a mixed response from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 40 % based on 15 reviews.
Janet Maslin of The New York Times reported that the film did not have enough collective energy to light a campfire in her review. Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times called the film as "a crass, blah comedy about summer vacation perils '' and said he was surprised the film got made at all. He described the credits sequence where Aykroyd dances to Wilson Pickett 's "Land of a 1,000 Dances '' as the only genuine fun and energy in the entire film. "Imagine that it 's raining cats and dogs and you 're locked in a north woods cabin for weeks with the people you like least, and you 'll pretty much have a feel for what it 's like to sit through this movie, '' said Hal Hinson of The Washington Post.
The film grossed $6,121,115 in its opening weekend and ended up with a North American domestic box office gross of $41,455,230, and a worldwide gross of $43,455,230.
On April 27, 2017, Universal Pictures has Kevin Hart starring in a reboot of the film with Michael De Luca producing.
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the 12 gifts in the movie the ultimate gift | The Ultimate Gift - Wikipedia
The Ultimate Gift is a 2006 American drama film directed by Michael O. Sajbel from a screenplay written by Cheryl McKay, which is in turn based on the best selling novel by Jim Stovall. It stars Drew Fuller, Bill Cobbs, Abigail Breslin, Brian Dennehy, and James Garner, and was released on March 9, 2007 in the United States and Canada. The film 's DVD sales were quite high in relation to its theatrical receipts and it continues to be a success in DVD sales and on television. A sequel titled The Ultimate Life was released in 2013.
When his rich grandfather, Howard "Red '' Stevens (James Garner), dies, Jason (Drew Fuller) does not expect to inherit anything from his multi-billion - dollar estate. He strongly resents his grandfather because his father had died while working for him. There is an inheritance, in fact, but it comes with a condition: Jason must complete 12 separate assignments within a year in order to get it. Each assignment is centered around a "gift ''. Gifts of work, money, friends and learning are among the dozen that Jason must perform before he is eligible for the mysterious "Ultimate Gift '' his grandfather 's will has for him. Red 's attorney and friend, Mr. Hamilton (Bill Cobbs), and his secretary, Miss Hastings (Lee Meriwether), attempt to guide Jason along the path his grandfather wishes him to travel.
On his return after completing the first task, everything he values is suddenly taken away from him -- luxury apartment, his restored muscle car, and all his money -- and he is left homeless. His trendy girlfriend, Caitlin (Mircea Monroe), ditches him when his credit card is rejected at a fancy restaurant. After his mother (Donna Cherry) tells him she can not help him, as part of the agreement, he miserably wanders the city alone. While sleeping in a park, he encounters a woman, Alexia (Ali Hillis), and her outspoken daughter, Emily (Abigail Breslin). Jason befriends the two, and then asks them to go to the attorney 's office and confirm themselves as his "true friends '' in order to pass his assignment, but afterwards Jason walks away and ignores Emily 's request to see him again. However, Jason accidentally discovers that Emily is suffering from leukemia, and sees a chance to develop a strong bond with someone.
From that point, he tries his best to help Emily have a great life while it lasts, and Emily encourages a romance between Jason and her mother. Another of his tasks requires him to travel to Ecuador and study in a library his father and grandfather built to help the people there. This brings him to address his resentment over the death of his father there, and he makes a trip into the mountains with a local guide to see where it happened. Jason learns from his guide that the story he had always believed about his father 's death was a lie, fabricated by his grandfather out of guilt and shame for trying to push Jason 's father into the oil business. Jason and the guide are captured there and taken hostage by militants for several weeks, until Jason manages to ensure their escape. He returns to America and discovers that Emily 's condition has deteriorated, so he arranges for Gus the ranch - hand to host a belated Christmas celebration at his home for them.
Upon completing his twelve tasks, Jason is given a sum of $100 - million to do with whatever he pleases, and all of his property is returned to him. His former girlfriend, knowing that he has regained his wealth, makes an attempt to win him back but he declines her offer. With his inheritance, Jason chooses to build a hospital, called Emily 's Home, for patients with terminal illnesses, but before the building begins, Emily dies. After the groundbreaking for Emily 's Home, Jason is recalled to the law firm for one more meeting and told he has exceeded the expectations of his dead grandfather, and he is given the final gift of over $2 - billion, rewarding Jason not only for his completing the tasks, but for using the $100 - million to help others. That night, Jason is seen sitting on a bench in the park, when Alexia joins him. He thanks her for the help that she and her daughter gave him. Then they kiss, as a butterfly, representing Emily, flies around them.
The film was financed with $14 million from the Stanford Financial Group, wealth management firm based in Houston. Stanford showed the film to prospective clients at private screenings and according to an executive of the firm, they were able to track a number of multimillion - dollar relationships that resulted because of the film.
Because of the philanthropic message of the film, charities in a handful of communities sponsored advance screenings of The Ultimate Gift to coincide with National Philanthropy Day 2006. Among such regional screenings was one in Richmond, Virginia, organized in partnership by The Community Foundation Serving Richmond and Central Virginia Bon Secours Health Care Foundation, Richmond Jewish Foundation and the Association of Fundraising Professionals. Professor Paul Schervish of Boston College was among those in attendance for the event. Another pre-screening took place on February 22, 2007, in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, under the auspices of the United Way of Southeast Missouri. In addition, organizations such as Bernhardt Wealth Management of McLean, Virginia have held private screenings for their clients. Bernhardt Wealth Management hosted such a screening on February 24.
The Ultimate Gift was given mixed reviews from film critics. "Though The Ultimate Gift avoids religious speechifying, it 's dramatically inert with flat direction '' says Rotten Tomatoes. The Ultimate Gift has a 32 % overall approval (59 reviews with a 5.1 / 10 average critic rating). On Metacritic, the film has a user score of 8.9 out of 10 based on 25 reviews, and a critic metascore of 49 out of 100.
The New York Times ' reviewer said, "Reeking of self - righteousness and moral reprimand, (the movie) is a hairball of good - for - you filmmaking... (T) he movie 's messages are methodically hammered home. '' Christianity Today felt the film warranted 3.5 out of 4 stars and called it "lovingly crafted... but never manages to build up much mystery, suspense, tension, or narrative steam. '' Joe Leydon of Variety magazine was favorably impressed and noted that "discussions of faith and God are fleeting, almost subliminal -- without stinting on the celebration of wholesome family values. '' William Arnold of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer wrote: "Its sincerity, optimism and air of open - minded tolerance go down well, and it makes a nice change - of - pace. '' He lauded its "tight and often compelling '' screenplay, sparkling dialogue and "first - rate '' production values.
The Ultimate Gift opened quietly with receipts of $1.2 million on its first weekend. As a result, many theaters dropped the film, causing a drastic slide in screens and ticket sales. As of May 6, the movie had grossed a total of just over $3.4 million.
DVD sales were $9.55 million in the first two months following its release.
Mark McKenzie wrote the film 's incidental music. At the film 's climax, "Something Changed '' is highlighted, a song composed by Contemporary Christian Music - singer Sara Groves. Other songs include "Gotta Serve Somebody '' by Bob Dylan, "The Thrill is Gone '' by B.B. King, and "Crazy '' by Patsy Cline.
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who has the most passing tds in nfl history | List of National football League career Passing touchdowns Leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League (NFL) quarterbacks by total career regular season passing touchdowns. This list includes all quarterbacks who have thrown for at least 200 career touchdowns.
Through Week 8 of 2018 season in progress.
Through Week 8 of 2018 season.
Bold indicates player active.
Fourteen players are recognized as having held outright or tied the record as the NFL 's career passing touchdowns leader. The longest record holder was Fran Tarkenton who held the record for 20 years.
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when did showbiz pizza go out of business | ShowBiz Pizza Place - wikipedia
ShowBiz Pizza Place was a restaurant pizza chain and family entertainment center founded in 1980 by Robert L. Brock and Creative Engineering. The brand emerged following a separation between Brock and Pizza Time Theatre, owners of the Chuck E. Cheese 's franchise. ShowBiz Pizza restaurants entertained guests through a large selection of arcade games, coin - operated rides, and animatronic stage shows as a way to provide a complete package of food and entertainment.
Both companies became competitors and found early success, partly due to the rise in popularity of arcade games during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The type of animatronics used in the ShowBiz pizza chain -- which featured an overall - clad, hillbilly bear named Billy Bob as one of its central characters -- distinguished it from its rival which offered many of the same services. Following Pizza Time Theatre 's bankruptcy filing in 1984, however, ShowBiz bought the struggling franchise and formed ShowBiz Pizza Time Inc., a combination of the former companies ' names. All ShowBiz locations were eventually rebranded Chuck E. Cheese by 1992.
Atari co-founder Nolan Bushnell, responsible for bringing the first widely recognized video game Pong to the mainstream, headed a project in the mid-1970s for Atari to launch the first arcade - oriented, family restaurant featuring computer - controlled animatronics. At a time when arcades were popular in bowling alleys and bars, Bushnell sought to increase arcade exposure to a younger audience. In 1977, Atari opened the first Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatre in San Jose, CA. The concept became an immediate success, and after leaving Atari in 1978, Bushnell purchased the Pizza Time restaurant forming a new company under the title Pizza Time Theatre Inc.
As Bushnell heavily marketed the Pizza Time franchise hoping to expand into new markets, the concept began attracting high - profile clients such as Robert L. Brock, best known for his extensive portfolio of Holiday Inn hotels. In 1979, Brock signed a multimillion - dollar franchising agreement with the Pizza Time Theatre Inc., and expected to open as many as 280 Chuck E. Cheese 's locations across 16 states in the United States. Shortly thereafter, Brock became concerned about protecting his investment, noticing companies such as Creative Engineering, Inc. (CEI) on the horizon designing more advanced animatronics. He grew concerned that future competitors would emerge with better technology. Bushnell previously reassured Brock at the signing of the franchising agreement that the company 's technology would continue to evolve. However, prior to the grand opening of his first location, Brock decided he wanted to void the agreement with Pizza Time, and instead, form a partnership with CEI.
The first ShowBiz Pizza Place opened in Kansas City, Missouri, on March 3, 1980. At the time, Brock was quite successful as one of the largest franchisers in the Holiday Inn hotel system. The Brock Hotel Corporation owned 80 percent of ShowBiz Pizza, while the other 20 percent was owned by CEI, the company responsible for the production of the chain 's animatronics show, The Rock - afire Explosion. By September 1981, the company had 48 company - owned outlets and 42 franchises. The company moved its headquarters in 1982 to Irving, Texas.
In 1984, Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatre declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy, and its assets were purchased by ShowBiz. As a result of the merger, the newly formed company was named ShowBiz Pizza Time, Inc. -- a combination of the former names. However, both restaurants continued operating as separate entities.
Richard M. Frank joined the company as president in 1985. Based on customer research, Frank instituted a number of changes to appeal to younger children and parents. Specific measures included increased lighting, a redesigned food menu, table service, self - serve fountain drinks, a revamped ride selection, and distinct toddler areas. However, relations between ShowBiz and Creative Engineering began to deteriorate. Aaron Fechter, founder of CEI and creator of The Rock - afire Explosion, would later claim in 2008 that the fallout was due to a demand by Showbiz to own CEI 's licensing and copyrights to the animatronics show. Fechter says he refused, since Showbiz did n't offer monetary compensation for the rights. Despite the refusal, CEI 's creative control was jeopardized, as ShowBiz had the ability to program the characters and replicate their voices, allowing them to make changes to the skits. ShowBiz later returned the recording rights to Fechter following CEI 's Liberty Show production (in commemoration of the Statue of Liberty 's 100th anniversary), but they did not return the programming rights.
In 1989, ShowBiz Pizza Time became a public company with its stock market launch. The following year, it severed all ties with Creative Engineering and began restructuring the restaurant chains under "concept unification ''. The change consisted of removing the Rock afire Explosion show from their restaurants and converting it into a new show called "Chuck E. Cheese & Munch 's Make Believe Band '', featuring the Chuck E. Cheese 's Pizza Time Theatre characters. In addition, the ShowBiz locations were renamed Chuck E. Cheese 's, marking an end to the ShowBiz Pizza brand. By 1992, the conversion was complete, and ShowBiz Pizza Time became known as CEC Entertainment, Inc., in 1998 moving its stock from NASDAQ to NYSE. In February 2014, the company was purchased by Apollo Global Management for $1.3 billion.
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where was the beach scene in the patriot filmed | The Patriot (2000 film) - wikipedia
The Patriot is a 2000 American epic historical fiction war film directed by Roland Emmerich, written by Robert Rodat, and starring Mel Gibson, Chris Cooper, Heath Ledger, and Jason Isaacs. The film mainly takes place in rural Berkeley County, South Carolina, and depicts the story of an American Colonist, nominally loyal to the British Crown, who is swept into the American Revolutionary War when his family is threatened. Benjamin Martin is a composite figure the scriptwriter claims is based on four factual figures from the American Revolutionary War: Andrew Pickens, Francis Marion, Daniel Morgan, and Thomas Sumter.
The film takes place during the events of the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War but attracted controversy over its fictional portrayal of historical British figures and atrocities. Professor Mark Glancy, teacher of film history at Queen Mary, University of London has said: "It 's horrendously inaccurate and attributes crimes committed by the Nazis in the 1940s to the British in the 1770s. '' While it is clear that the actions of then - Colonel Banastre Tarleton were certainly despicable, they were nowhere near the atrocities in the film, especially with the infamous "Burning church '' scene, of which there is no historical or written record. Australian film critic David Edwards asserts that "this fictional story is set around actual events, but it is not a history of what America was, or even an image of what it has become -- it 's a dream of what it should be... The Patriot is a grand epic full of action and emotion... But it 's also surprisingly insightful in its evaluation of the American ideal -- if not the reality. '' While, as critic Roger Ebert states, "None of it has much to do with the historical reality of the Revolutionary War ''.
During the American Revolution in 1776, Benjamin Martin, a veteran of the French and Indian War and a widower with seven children, is called to Charleston to vote in the South Carolina General Assembly on a levy supporting the Continental Army. Fearing war against Great Britain, Benjamin abstains; the vote is nonetheless passed and, against his father 's wishes, Benjamin 's eldest son Gabriel joins the Continentals.
Two years later Charleston falls to the British and a wounded Gabriel returns home carrying dispatches. The Martins care for both British and American wounded from a nearby battle, before British Dragoons, led by the ruthless Colonel William Tavington, arrive, arrest Gabriel, and take captive the African American free men and women who work Benjamin 's land. When Benjamin 's second son Thomas tries to free Gabriel, he is shot and killed by Tavington, who then orders the Martins ' house burned, and wounded Americans executed. After the British leave, Benjamin gives his next two eldest sons rifles, and they ambush the British unit escorting a tied Gabriel. Benjamin skillfully, yet brutally, kills many soldiers with his tomahawk. A British survivor tells Tavington of the attack, earning Benjamin the moniker of the "Ghost ''. Gabriel decides to rejoin the Continentals and Benjamin soon follows, leaving the younger children in the care of Benjamin 's sister - in - law, Charlotte. On their way to the Continental Army 's camp, they witness the southern Continental Army under General Horatio Gates engaging the British Army. Benjamin recognizes the foolishness of the action; sure enough, the Continentals are decisively routed.
Benjamin meets his former commanding officer, Colonel Harry Burwell, who makes him colonel of the local colonial militia due to his combat experience and also places Gabriel under Benjamin 's command. Benjamin is tasked with keeping Lord Cornwallis 's regiments pinned south through guerrilla warfare. French Major Jean Villeneuve helps train the militia and promises more French aid.
Gabriel asks why Villeneuve and others often mention Benjamin 's role in something called "Fort Wilderness. '' Benjamin, having been hesitant to answer the question up to now, finally tells his son the story. Benjamin had been fighting in the British Army in the French and Indian War when he and several other soldiers discovered a French atrocity at a fort that Benjamin and his comrades had been trying to reinforce. In a bloodthirsty rage, Benjamin and his comrades caught up with the French at Fort Wilderness, where Benjamin and his unit literally cut the defending French soldiers apart slowly. Benjamin reveals that he has been haunted by guilt ever since.
Benjamin 's militia harass British supply lines, even capturing some of Cornwallis ' personal effects and his two Great Danes, and burn half the bridges and ferries leading to Charleston. Lord Cornwallis blames Tavington for creating this reaction with his brutal tactics. However, irritated at the lack of progress, and insulted by Benjamin 's clever ploy to free some of the captured militia, Cornwallis reluctantly allows Tavington to stop Benjamin by any means necessary.
With the reluctant aid of the Loyalist Captain Wilkins, Tavington learns the identities of some militia members and proceeds to attack their families and burn their homes. Benjamin 's family flees Charlotte 's plantation as it is burned to live in a Gullah settlement with former black slaves. There, Gabriel marries his betrothed Anne. Tavington 's brigade rides into the town that supplies the militia. He assembles all the townspeople, including Anne, into the church promising freedom in exchange for the whereabouts of the rebels. However, after the location is given the doors are barricaded, trapping the people as Tavington orders the church burned, killing them all in a cold - blooded act of mass - murder. After discovering the tragedy, Gabriel and several others race to attack Tavington 's encampment. In the ensuing fight, Tavington mortally wounds Gabriel before fleeing. Benjamin arrives soon after, only to have another of his sons die in his arms.
Benjamin mourns and wavers in his commitment to continue fighting, but is resolved when reminded of his son 's dedication to the cause by finding an American flag he repaired personally. Martin 's militia, along with a larger Continental Army regiment, confronts Cornwallis ' regiment in a decisive battle at the Battle of Cowpens. The British appear to have the upper hand until Benjamin rallies the troops forward against their lines and Tavington rushes to personally target him. The two duel and Tavington gains the upper hand, delivering several wounds to Benjamin. A beaten Benjamin slumps to his knees, and Tavington prepares to deliver the coup de grâce. At the last second, however, Benjamin dodges the attack and stabs Tavington to death, avenging his sons ' deaths. The battle is a Continental victory and Cornwallis is forced to retreat.
After many eventual retreats, Cornwallis is besieged at Yorktown, Virginia where he surrenders to the surrounding Continental Army and the long - awaited French naval force. After the conflict ends, Benjamin returns with his family and discovers his militia men rebuilding his homestead in their new nation.
Screenwriter Robert Rodat wrote seventeen drafts of the script before there was an acceptable one. In an early version, Anne is pregnant with Gabriel 's child when she dies in the burning church. Rodat wrote the script with Gibson in mind for Benjamin Martin, and gave the Martin character six children to signal this preference to studio executives. After the birth of Gibson 's seventh child, the script was changed so that Martin had seven children. Like the character William Wallace, which Gibson portrayed in Braveheart five years earlier, Martin is a man seeking to live his life in peace until revenge drives him to lead a cause against a national enemy after the life of an innocent family member is taken.
Joshua Jackson, Elijah Wood, Jake Gyllenhaal and Brad Renfro were considered to play Gabriel Martin. The producers and director narrowed their choices for this role to Ryan Phillippe and Heath Ledger, with the latter chosen because the director thought he possessed "exuberant youth ''.
The film 's German director Emmerich said "these were characters I could relate to, and they were engaged in a conflict that had a significant outcome -- the creation of the first modern democratic government. ''
The film was shot entirely on location in South Carolina, including Charleston, Rock Hill -- for many of the battle scenes, and Lowrys -- for the farm of Benjamin Martin, as well as nearby Fort Lawn. Other scenes were filmed at Mansfield Plantation, an antebellum rice plantation in Georgetown, Middleton Place in Charleston, South Carolina, at the Cistern Yard on the campus of College of Charleston, and Hightower Hall and Homestead House at Brattonsville, South Carolina, along with the grounds of the Brattonsville Plantation in McConnells, South Carolina. Producer Mark Gordon said the production team "tried their best to be as authentic as possible '' because "the backdrop was serious history, '' giving attention to details in period dress. Producer Dean Devlin and the film 's costume designers examined actual Revolutionary War uniforms at the Smithsonian Institution prior to shooting.
The musical score for The Patriot was composed by John Williams and was nominated for an Academy Award. David Arnold, who composed the scores to Emmerich 's Stargate, Independence Day, and Godzilla, created a demo for The Patriot that was ultimately rejected. As a result, Arnold never returned to compose for any of Emmerich 's subsequent films and was replaced by Harald Kloser and Thomas Wanker.
The Patriot received mildly favorable reviews from critics. The film scored a "Fresh '' rating of 61 % rating among all critics on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 134 reviews and with an average rating of 6.1 / 10, which notes that it "can be entertaining to watch, but it relies too much on formula and melodrama. '' The Patriot is one of two Emmerich films to ever be given a "fresh '' rating from that website (the other is Independence Day). Rotten Tomatoes also notes that, "While his hero is conscience - stricken about killing, Emmerich sure enjoys serving it up in generous helpings. '' On Metacritic, the film earned a rating of 63 out of 100, based on reviews from 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The New York Times critic Elvis Mitchell gave the film a generally negative review, although he praised its casting and called Mel Gibson "an astonishing actor '', particularly for his "on - screen comfort and expansiveness ''. He said the film is a "gruesome hybrid, a mix of sentimentality and brutality ''. Jamie Malanowski, also writing in The New York Times, said The Patriot "will prove to many a satisfying way to spend a summer evening. It 's got big battles and wrenching hand - to - hand combat, a courageous but conflicted hero and a dastardly and totally guilt - free villain, thrills, tenderness, sorrow, rage and a little bit of kissing ''. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Original Score, Best Cinematography, and Best Sound.
A highly positive review was purportedly written by a critic named David Manning, who was credited to The Ridgefield Press, a small Connecticut weekly news publication. During an investigation into Manning 's quotes, Newsweek reporter John Horn discovered that the newspaper had never heard of him. The story emerged at around the same time as an announcement that Sony had used employees posing as moviegoers in television commercials to praise the film. These occurrences, in tandem, raised questions and controversy about ethics in movie marketing practices.
On June 10, 2001, the episode of Le Show, host Harry Shearer conducted an in - studio interview with Manning, whose "review '' of the film was positive. The voice of Manning was provided by a computer voice synthesizer.
On August 3, 2005, Sony made an out - of - court settlement and agreed to refund $5 each to dissatisfied customers who saw this and four other films in American theatres, as a result of Manning 's reviews.
The Patriot opened in 3,061 venues at # 2 with $22,413,710 domestically in its opening weekend, falling slightly short of expectations (predictions had the film opening # 1 with roughly $25 million ahead). The film opened behind Warner Bros The Perfect Storm, which opened at # 1 with $41,325,042. The film closed on October 16, 2000 with $113,330,342 domestically, which barely recouped its budget of $110 million. It was successful overseas grossing $101,964,000 with a grand total of $215,294,342.
The Patriot was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Sound Mixing (Kevin O'Connell, Greg P. Russell and Lee Orloff), Best Cinematography, and Best Original Score. It also received several guild awards, including the American Society of Cinematographers award to Caleb Deschanel for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography and the Hollywood Makeup Artist and Hair Stylist Guild Award for Best Period Makeup and Best Period Hair Styling.
During development, Emmerich and his team consulted with experts at the Smithsonian Institution on set, props, and costumes; advisor Rex Ellis even recommended the Gullah village as an appropriate place for Martin 's family to hide. In addition, screenwriter Robert Rodat read through many journals and letters of colonists as part of his preparation for writing the screen play.
Producer Mark Gordon said that in making the film, "while we were telling a fictional story, the backdrop was serious history ''. Some of the resulting characters and events thus were composites of real characters and events that were designed to serve the fictional narrative without losing the historical flavor. Rodat said of Gibson 's character: "Benjamin Martin is a composite character made up of Thomas Sumter, Daniel Morgan, Andrew Pickens, and Francis Marion, and a few bits and pieces from a number of other characters. '' Rodat also indicated that the fictional Colonel William Tavington is "loosely based on Colonel Banastre Tarleton, who was particularly known for his brutal acts ''.
While some events, such as Tarleton 's pursuit of Francis Marion and his fellow irregular soldiers who escaped by disappearing into the swamps of South Carolina, were loosely based on history, and others were adapted, such as the final battle in the film which combined elements of the Battles of Cowpens and Battle of Guilford Court House, most of the plot events in the film are pure fiction.
The film was harshly criticized in the British press in part because of its connection to Francis Marion, a militia leader in South Carolina known as the "Swamp Fox ''. After the release of The Patriot, the British newspaper The Guardian denounced Marion as "a serial rapist who hunted Red Indians for fun. Historian Christopher Hibbert said of Marion:
"The truth is that people like Marion committed atrocities as bad, if not worse, than those perpetrated by the British. ''
The Patriot does not depict the American character Benjamin Martin as innocent of atrocities; a key plot point revolves around the character 's guilt over acts he engaged in, such as torturing, killing, and mutilating prisoners during the French and Indian War, while not mentioning his crimes against fellow colonists during the Revolutionary War. In Hibbert 's book Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution Through British Eyes, written before The Patriot was released, Hibbert included no criticism of Marion. Conservative radio host Michael Graham rejected Hibbert 's criticism of Marion in a commentary published in National Review:
"Was Francis Marion a slave owner? Was he a determined and dangerous warrior? Did he commit acts in an 18th century war that we would consider atrocious in the current world of peace and political correctness? As another great American film hero might say: ' You 're damn right. ' "That 's what made him a hero, 200 years ago and today. ''
Graham also refers to what he describes as "the unchallenged work of South Carolina 's premier historian '' Dr. Walter Edgar, who claimed in his 1998 South Carolina: A History that Marion 's partisans were "a ragged band of both black and white volunteers ''.
Amy Crawford, in Smithsonian magazine, stated that modern historians such as William Gilmore Simms and Hugh Rankin have written accurate biographies of Marion, including Simms ' The Life of Francis Marion. The introduction to the 2007 edition of Simms ' book was written by Sean Busick, a professor of American history at Athens State University in Alabama, who wrote:
"Marion deserves to be remembered as one of the heroes of the War for Independence... Francis Marion was a man of his times: he owned slaves, and he fought in a brutal campaign against the Cherokee Indians... Marion 's experience in the French and Indian War prepared him for more admirable service. ''
During pre-production, the producers debated on whether Martin would own slaves, ultimately deciding not to make him a slave owner. This decision received criticism from Spike Lee, who in a letter to The Hollywood Reporter accused the film 's portrayal of slavery as being "a complete whitewashing of history ''. Lee wrote that after he and his wife went to see the film, "we both came out of the theatre fuming. For three hours The Patriot dodged around, skirted about or completely ignored slavery. '' Gibson himself remarked: "I think I would have made him a slave holder. Not to seems kind of a cop - out. ''
After release, several British voices criticized the film for its depiction of the film 's villain Tavington and defended the historical character of Banastre Tarleton. Ben Fenton, commenting in the Daily Telegraph, wrote:
"There is no evidence that Tarleton, called ' Bloody Ban ' or ' The Butcher ' in rebel pamphlets, ever broke the rules of war and certainly did not ever shoot a child in cold blood. ''
Although Tarleton gained the reputation among Americans as a butcher for his involvement in the Waxhaw massacre in South Carolina, he was a hero in Liverpool, England. Liverpool City Council, led by Mayor Edwin Clein, called for a public apology for what they viewed as the film 's "character assassination '' of Tarleton. What happened during the Battle of The Waxhaws, known to the Americans as the Buford Massacre or as the Waxhaw massacre, is the subject of debate. According to an American field surgeon named Robert Brownfield who witnessed the events, the Continental Army Col. Buford raised a white flag of surrender, "expecting the usual treatment sanctioned by civilized warfare ''. While Buford was calling for quarter, Tarleton 's horse was struck by a musket ball and fell. This gave the Loyalist cavalrymen the impression that the Continentals had shot at their commander while asking for mercy. Enraged, the Loyalist troops charged at the Virginians. According to Brownfield, the Loyalists attacked, carrying out "indiscriminate carnage never surpassed by the most ruthless atrocities of the most barbarous savages ''.
In Tarleton 's own account, he stated that his horse had been shot from under him during the initial charge in which he was knocked out for several minutes and that his men, thinking him dead, engaged in "a vindictive asperity not easily restrained ''.
Tarleton 's role in the Revolutionary War in the Carolinas is examined by Ben Rubin who shows that historically, while the actual events of the Battle of the Waxhaws were presented differently according to which side was recounting them, the story of Tarleton 's atrocities at Waxhaws and on other occasions became a rallying cry, particularly at the Battle of King 's Mountain. The tales of Tarleton 's atrocities were a part of standard U.S. accounts of the war and were described by Washington Irving and by Christopher Ward in his 1952 history, The War of the Revolution, where Tarleton is described as "cold - hearted, vindictive, and utterly ruthless. He wrote his name in letters of blood all across the history of the war in the South. '' Not until Anthony Scotti 's 2002 book, Brutal Virtue: The Myth and Reality of Banastre Tarleton, were Tarleton 's actions fully reexamined. Scotti challenged the factual accounts of atrocities and stressed the "propaganda value that such stories held for the Americas both during and after the war ''. Scotti 's book, however, did not come out until two years after The Patriot. Screenwriters consulting American works to build the character Tavington based on Tarleton would have commonly found descriptions of him as barbaric and accounts of his name being used for recruiting and motivation during the Revolutionary War itself.
Whereas Tavington is depicted as aristocratic but penniless, Tarleton came from a wealthy Liverpool merchant family. Tarleton did not die in battle or from impalement, as Tavington did in the film. Tarleton died on January 16, 1833, in Leintwardine, Herefordshire, England, at the age of 78, nearly 50 years after the war ended. He outlived Col. Francis Marion who died in 1795, by 38 years. Before his death, Tarleton had achieved the military rank of General, equal to that held by the overall British Commanders during the American Revolution, and became a baronet and a member of the British Parliament.
The Patriot was criticized for misrepresenting atrocities during the Revolutionary War, including the killing of prisoners of war and wounded soldiers and burning a church filled with townsfolk. While atrocities occurred during the war, the most striking of the film 's depictions of British atrocities -- the burning of a church full of unarmed colonial civilians -- had virtually no factual basis nor parallel in the American or European 18th century wars, with the exception of the Massacre at Lucs - sur - Boulogne in 1794. The New York Post film critic Jonathan Foreman was one of several focusing on this distortion in the film and wrote the following in an article at Salon.com:
"The most disturbing thing about The Patriot is not just that German director Roland Emmerich (director of Independence Day) and his screenwriter Robert Rodat (who was criticized for excluding the roles played by British, Canadian (Juno Beach) and other Allied troops in the Normandy landings from his script for Saving Private Ryan) depicted British troops as committing savage atrocities, but that those atrocities bear such a close resemblance to war crimes carried out by German troops -- particularly the SS in World War II. It 's hard not to wonder if the filmmakers have some kind of subconscious agenda... They have made a film that will have the effect of inoculating audiences against the unique historical horror of Oradour -- and implicitly rehabilitating the Nazis while making the British seem as evil as history 's worst monsters... So it 's no wonder that the British press sees this film as a kind of blood libel against the British people. ''
The Washington Post film critic Stephen Hunter, a historian of the era, said: "Any image of the American Revolution which represents you Brits as Nazis and us as gentle folk is almost certainly wrong. It was a very bitter war, a total war, and that is something that I am afraid has been lost to history... (T) he presence of the Loyalists (colonists who did not want to join the fight for independence from Britain) meant that the War of Independence was a conflict of complex loyalties. '' The historian Richard F. Snow, editor of American Heritage magazine, said of the church - burning scene: "Of course it never happened -- if it had do you think Americans would have forgotten it? It could have kept us out of World War I. ''
Slate columnist Michael Lind criticized the identification of the leading character 's actions with patriotism. Specifically, Lind stated that "this movie is deeply subversive patriotism. Indeed, patriotism is a concept that neither the screenwriter... nor the director... seems to understand ''. He further wrote that "the message of The Patriot is that country is an abstraction, family is everything. It should have been called The Family Man ''.
In contrast, historian Ben Rubin argues that because the American Revolution was a conflict that as often pitted neighbor against neighbor -- Whigs (advocates of Revolution) against Tories (loyalists to Britain) -- as it pitted nascent Americans against the British, many people stayed neutral until goaded into taking a stand in reaction to perceived atrocities. From this perspective, Benjamin Martin 's joining of the militia becomes, according to commentator Jon Roland, a deep patriotism that "shows them being called up, not as an act of an official, but by private persons aware of a common threat... (reacting to a) militia duty to defend one another ''.
In the film, Gibson 's character asks, "Why should I trade one tyrant three thousand miles away for three thousand tyrants one mile away? '' "They Call me a brainless Tory, '' said (Doctor) Reverend Mather Byles while watching three thousand Sons of Liberty parading the streets of Boston, "but tell me my young friend, which is better, to be ruled by one tyrant three thousand miles away or three thousand tyrants not a mile away ''.
The Patriot was released on DVD on October 24, 2000, a Blu - Ray release followed on July 3, 2007. The Patriot was later released on 4K UHD Blu - Ray on May 22, 2018.
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