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who is the hero of super khiladi 4 | Nenu Local - Wikipedia
Nenu Local (English: I 'm local) is a 2017 Indian Telugu romantic comedy film directed by Trinadha Rao Nakkina and produced by Dil Raju under his banner Sri Venkateswara Creations. The film 's story, screenplay and dialogues are written by Prasanna Kumar Bezawada. It features Nani and Keerthy Suresh in the lead roles. Music is composed by Devi Sri Prasad. The trailer of the film was launched on 14 January 2017. The film was released on 3 February 2017 with mostly positive reviews and went on to become a blockbuster at the box office. It also collected over 1 million dollars at the U.S. box office. The film was dubbed into Hindi as Super Khiladi 4 by Goldmines Telefilms Pvt. Ltd. and had a theatrical release on 17 November 2017. Dubbing artist Sanket Mhatre dubbed for Nani 's voice and dubbing artist Chetanya Adib dubbed for Naveen Chandra 's voice in the Hindi dubbed version. The film was remade in Bengali as Total Dadagiri with Yash Dasgupta.
The story revolves around Babu (Played by Nani). Babu struggles to clear his final exam for completing his Engineering Degree until the exam supervisor (Sachin Khedkar) helps him to copy and clear his course ultimately. After that, incidentally Babu meets Keerthy (Played by Keerthy Suresh) and just falls in love, at the first sight. After few encounters with Keerthy, Babu finally impresses her specially after he helps her best friend to marry her boyfriend. The story is all set to have a happy ending when Siddharth Verma makes an entry and claims that only he could marry Keerthy. Babu gets to know that Siddharth was the same person who vowed to get a job for marrying Keerthy, and these all happenings were four years ago. Keerthy gets more confused when her father wants her to marry Siddharth. But, tactfully, Keerthy tells Babu to convince her father about his love for her. Only then she could marry Babu. Days pass gradually, but, Babu gets no ' special moment ' to convince Keerthy 's father who despises Babu for his carefree attitude. However, on the day of Keerthy 's wedding, the man whose daughter 's marriage got abandoned due to Babu, comes to the ceremony and asks for Keerthy 's would be husband. Keerthy 's father calls Siddharth whereas Keerthy 's mother calls Babu. Even in front of impending death, Babu tells the irritated man about his story and quite convinced him that the man 's daughter could never be happy after marriage because her future husband only loved Keerthy 's best friend. Keerthy 's father however thinks Babu 's speech to be just a drama and taunts him.an embittered Babu shoots himself with the irritated man 's gun, and gets severely injured. Keerthy 's father gets convinced about Babu 's love for his daughter. The film ends with Babu and Keerthy getting married happily.
Devi Sri Prasad scored the soundtrack, which was released on 14 January 2017. www.123telugu.com quoted saying that "The music of Nenu Local is one of the best works of DSP in the recent times. The youthful exuberance that he brings on to his album is infectious as all the songs are full of energy and fun ''.
The film grossed ₹ 26 crore at the worldwide box office in its opening weekend. By the end of its run, it was declared a blockbuster, becoming Nani 's biggest solo commercial success to date, beating his previous record set by Bhale Bhale Magadivoy. The movie subsequently became Nani 's 3rd movie to gross $1 million in the USA after Eega and Bhale Bhale Magadivoy.
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who does arya see in season 5 episode 9 | The Dance of Dragons - wikipedia
"The Dance of Dragons '' is the ninth and penultimate episode of the fifth season of HBO 's fantasy television series Game of Thrones, and the 49th overall. The episode was written by the series ' creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss based on material primarily found on George R.R. Martin 's novel A Dance with Dragons, from which the title of the episode is derived from. It was directed by David Nutter, who also directed the season finale.
In the episode, Jon Snow retreats from Hardhome to the Wall defeated, accompanied by the surviving wildlings, much to the chagrin of some of the Night 's Watch. In the North, Stannis Baratheon reluctantly allows Melisandre to sacrifice his daughter Shireen after Ramsay Bolton sabotages his resources, resulting to his army 's damaged morale. In Braavos, Arya Stark detours from her mission given by Jaqen H'ghar to reconnoiter Meryn Trant instead. In Dorne, Jaime Lannister secures Myrcella Baratheon 's release from Doran Martell 's court against an indignant Ellaria Sand. In Meereen, the Sons of the Harpy attack the stadium of Daznak 's Pit in an attempt to assassinate Daenerys Targaryen, who is rescued by Jorah Mormont and her firstborn dragon, Drogon. Leaving Tyrion Lannister and her retainers behind with awe, Daenerys rides the dragon for the first time and flees the city.
"The Dance of Dragons '' received a positive response from critics, who lauded its conclusion on Daznak 's Pit but was polarized by the characterization of Stannis Baratheon. In the United States, it received a viewership of 7.14 million in its initial broadcast. It won two Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects, and was submitted by actress Emilia Clarke (who portrayed Daenerys Targaryen) for her nomination for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Arya, still in the disguise of an oyster vendor, continues the mission given to her by Jaqen to poison and kill the Thin Man. However, as she is on the way to her target, she sees Mace Tyrell and Meryn Trant arrive in the harbor to negotiate payment terms with the Iron Bank. Arya, recognising Trant, ignores her mission and follows Mace and Trant into the city. She eventually tracks Trant to a brothel, where she learns that he is sexually attracted to pubescent girls. Upon returning to Jaqen, Arya lies to him by telling him the Thin Man was not hungry and did not buy her oysters, and asks to try again the next day. Jaqen allows this, though it is unclear whether he believes Arya or not.
Jon and Tormund return to Castle Black, accompanied by the surviving Night 's Watch and wildlings from Hardhome. Alliser, despite his disagreements with Jon, orders the gate to be opened to let them pass. Jon believes that his mission was a failure, though Samwell points out that he still saved thousands of wildlings that would have been killed by the White Walkers. Jon is also aware that many of his Night 's Watch brothers are unhappy with wildlings being let past the Wall, and Alliser warns him that his compassion will get them all killed.
Jaime is brought before Doran Martell to explain his actions. Jaime reveals that he was sent to rescue Myrcella due to a threatening message sent to them from Dorne. Doran quickly realizes that Ellaria was behind the threat, and apologizes. In order to avoid an escalation of hostilities, Doran negotiates a deal with Jaime. In return for Jaime 's freedom and Myrcella 's return to King 's Landing, the Lannisters must allow Trystane to accompany them as Oberyn 's replacement on the Small Council. Trystane also allows Bronn to go free under the condition that he allow Areo Hotah to strike him in the face in revenge for being struck by Bronn earlier.
After the meeting, Doran privately confronts Ellaria and presents her with an ultimatum: pledge loyalty to him or be executed. Ellaria tearfully pledges her loyalty in front of the Sand Snakes, and Doran warns her that this is the last chance he will ever give her. Ellaria then meets with Jaime and makes amends with him, conceding that it is neither his nor Myrcella 's fault that Oberyn was killed.
Ramsay and his group of 20 men infiltrate Stannis ' camp and sabotage the supplies by burning them. With his supplies gone, Stannis realizes that his army will not survive the winter. Davos recommends they retreat back to Castle Black, but Stannis refuses to retreat, and points out that they lack the supplies to make it back regardless. He orders Davos to return to Castle Black to request more supplies and reinforcements in return for Stannis fully manning the Wall with troops when he takes the Iron Throne. When Davos leaves, Stannis reluctantly allows Melisandre to burn Shireen at the stake as a sacrifice, believing that the "king 's blood '' in her veins will please the Lord of Light, who will then change their fortunes. As Shireen screams for her parents, Selyse, initially supportive of Stannis 's decision, has a change of heart and attempts to stop the ceremony, but is restrained while her child is burned alive in front of Stannis 's horrified troops.
Daenerys, accompanied by Tyrion, Missandei, Daario and Hizdahr, oversees the beginning of the fighting season in Daznak 's Pit. During the beginning of the second battle, one of the fighters reveals himself to be Jorah. After successfully defeating the other combatants, Jorah suddenly picks up a spear and throws it towards the royal stage, killing an assassin sneaking up on Daenerys. Immediately, the Sons of the Harpy emerge from the crowd and begin killing many guards and spectators, including Hizdahr. Daenerys and her retinue attempt to escape, but the Sons of the Harpy seal the exits, leaving the survivors surrounded and trapped in the center of the fighting ring. Daenerys seemingly accepts her fate, when she hears Drogon roaring nearby. Drogon suddenly appears, setting ablaze and killing many Sons of the Harpy, causing some to flee. While a group of the Sons attack Drogon by throwing spears at it, Daenerys climbs on to Drogon 's back, ordering the dragon to fly. The Unsullied drive the Sons of the Harpy away, while Drogon takes to the sky with Daenerys, with her allies left awe - struck as they watch her fly away.
This episode was written for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the series ' creators. It contains content from George Martin 's novel A Dance with Dragons, chapter "The Sacrifice '', "The Watcher '', and "Daenerys IX ''. It also contains material from the preview chapter "Mercy '' from the forthcoming The Winds of Winter. Like other episodes this season, "The Dance of Dragons '' contains original content not found in Martin 's novels, but it is in this case notable for containing content that had not yet appeared in the novels: Executive Producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss confirmed that George R.R. Martin told them that Shireen would be burned to death as a sacrifice in an unpublished future novel. Benioff said: "When George first told us about this, it was one of those moments where I remember looking at Dan, it was just, like, god it 's so, so horrible, and it 's so good in a story sense, because it all comes together. '' Weiss says he believes the decision to kill Shireen in this way is, "entirely (narratively) justified, '' questioning why "we 're all highly selective about which characters deserve our empathy. Stannis has been burning people alive for seemingly trivial reasons since season 2. ''
"The Dance of Dragons '' was directed by David Nutter, he also directed the subsequent episode, "Mother 's Mercy ''.
"The Dance of Dragons '' was watched by an estimated 7.14 million American viewers during its first airing. With Live + 7 DVR viewing factored in, the episode had an overall rating of 9.92 million viewers, and a 5.2 in the 18 -- 49 demographic. In the United Kingdom, the episode was viewed by 2.473 million viewers, making it the highest - rated broadcast that week. It also received 0.141 million timeshift viewers.
"The Dance of Dragons '' received highly positive reviews, with many critics praising the episode 's conclusion in Daznak 's Pit. The showrunners ' decision to have Stannis sacrifice Shireen, however, polarized critics, with some praising it as strong character development and others feeling it betrayed Stannis 's character. The episode received a rating of 88 % on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes from 33 reviews with an average rating of 8.9 out of 10 and the critics consensus reading "Underscored by an especially heartwrenching moment and a spectacular display of power, The Dance of Dragons successfully delivers the shock and awe audiences have come to expect from the series ' penultimate episodes. ''
Matt Fowler of IGN heavily praised the episode, awarding it 9.3 / 10, an "amazing '' score. He especially praised the episode 's final act, stating "And just the spectacle of Dany climbing on top of Drogon, with care, and then soaring up and off into the sky was remarkable. It 's funny that a huge moment for her as a Targaryen and the possible future leader of Westeros came right during one of her most bloody and spectacular failures as a Queen. '' He summarized his review by saying "GoT delivered another exciting (and unsettling) episode as Stannis made a big decision & Daenerys attended a tournament '' and labelled Stannis ' decision a strong point of the episode. Charlotte Runcie of The Daily Telegraph also reviewed the episode favorably: "Hurling Hollywood - level budgets behind a multi-season TV show paid rich rewards this week, from the enormous Gladiator - style sweep of the crowded coliseum arena to thrillingly choreographed fights to the death before a huge, baying audience. '' Runcie was also impressed with the Shireen sacrifice scene, calling it "one of the most upsetting scenes '' in season 5.
Writing for The A.V. Club, both writers responded positively to the episode. Writing for people who have not read the novels, Brandon Nowalk awarded the episode an A -, praising Stannis ' sacrifice of Shireen. He said "Stannis burning his daughter Shireen at the stake is the hardest Game of Thrones has hit since the Red Wedding, only this violence is completely drained of excitement. It 's not a shock moment, and there 's no gross - out gore as in Oberyn 's death. Instead it 's a long, cold death march. What 's most impressive is the pacing, which is not the season 's strongest suit. '' He also praised the episode 's conclusion in Meereen by saying "The close - up of Dany taking Missandei 's hand is so vivid I 'm practically getting misty now '', and further stated "The CGI could use some polish, but nothing short of Shireen can turn my smile upside down. '' Writing for people who have read the novels, Myles McNutt awarded the episode a B+, praising the Meereen story by saying "It 's a powerful image, rendered as effectively as it could be given the budgetary limitations of the series. Watching Dany soar about the stadium on Drogon is an iconic image, but it 's not one that any other characters could really experience, which is meaningful in and of itself. ''
Erik Kain of Forbes was more critical of the sacrifice scene. While he praised the episode overall as "thrilling and tragic and intense, '' he called the sacrifice scene "a horrible, no - good, very bad, infuriating way to ruin Stannis as a character '' and "a monstrosity of a writing decision. '' He also said the scene was "one of the most disturbing, baffling, and unnecessary departures from the books '' that the show has so far presented, though he noted that the sacrifice scene had actually been George R.R. Martin 's idea and that (with two installments of The Song of Ice and Fire still unpublished) it was unclear exactly how much Shireen 's death in the show would deviate from her story arc in the books.
Finding a middle ground, Alyssa Rosenberg of The Washington Post agreed that the sacrifice scene was disturbing, but she found that David Nutter "did a beautiful job '' directing it and believed that the scene wondrously developed Stannis as a character who is so fixated on "his own chosenness '' that he will do anything to fulfill his claim to the throne. She also noted that the scene departed from the books so far, but would possibly be reconciled in one of the future installments.
Due to her nomination, Emilia Clarke submitted this episode for consideration for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards.
At the 67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, the episode won Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
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when did sweden change to right hand drive | Dagen H - Wikipedia
Dagen H (H day), today usually called "Högertrafikomläggningen '' ("The right - hand traffic diversion ''), was the day, 3 September 1967, on which traffic in Sweden switched from driving on the left - hand side of the road to the right. The "H '' stands for "Högertrafik '', the Swedish word for "right traffic ''. It was by far the largest logistical event in Sweden 's history.
There were various major arguments for the change:
However, the change was widely unpopular; in a 1955 referendum, 83 percent voted to keep driving on the left. Nevertheless, on May 10, 1963, the Swedish Parliament (Riksdagen) approved the Prime Minister Tage Erlander 's government proposal of an introduction of right hand traffic in 1967, as the number of cars on the road had tripled from 500 000 to 1.5 million, and was expected to reach 2.8 million by 1975. A body known as Statens Högertrafikkommission (HTK) ("the state right - hand traffic commission '') was established to oversee the changeover. It also began implementing a four - year education program, with the advice of psychologists.
The campaign included displaying the Dagen H logo on various commemorative items, including milk cartons and underwear. Swedish television held a contest for songs about the change; the winning entry was "Håll dig till höger, Svensson '' (' Keep to the right, Svensson ') written by Expressen journalist by Peter Himmelstrand and performed by The Telstars.
As Dagen H neared, every intersection was equipped with an extra set of poles and traffic signals wrapped in black plastic. Workers roamed the streets early in the morning on Dagen H to remove the plastic. Similarly, a parallel set of lines were painted on the roads with white paint, then covered with black tape. Before Dagen H, Swedish roads had used yellow lines.
On Dagen H, Sunday, 3 September, all non-essential traffic was banned from the roads from 01: 00 to 06: 00. Any vehicles on the roads during that time had to follow special rules. All vehicles had to come to a complete stop at 04: 50, then carefully change to the right - hand side of the road and stop again before being allowed to proceed at 05: 00. In Stockholm and Malmö, however, the ban was longer -- from 10: 00 on Saturday until 15: 00 on Sunday -- to allow work crews to reconfigure intersections. Certain other towns also saw an extended ban, from 15: 00 on Saturday until 15: 00 on Sunday.
One - way streets presented unique problems. Bus stops had to be constructed on the other side of the street. Intersections had to be reshaped to allow traffic to merge.
In order to avoid blinding the oncoming drivers, all Swedish vehicles had to have their original left - hand - traffic headlamps replaced with right - hand units. One of the reasons the Riksdag pushed ahead with Dagen H despite public unpopularity was that most vehicles in Sweden at the time used inexpensive, standardized round headlamps, but the trend towards more expensive model - specific headlamps had begun in Continental Europe and was expected to spread through most other parts of the world. Further delay in changing over from left - to right - hand traffic would have greatly increased the cost burden to vehicle owners.
The relatively smooth changeover saw a reduction in the number of accidents. On the day of the change, only 157 minor accidents were reported, of which only 32 involved personal injuries, with only a handful serious. On the Monday following Dagen H, there were 125 reported traffic accidents, compared to a range of 130 to 198 for previous Mondays, none of them fatal. Experts suggested that changing to driving on the right reduced accidents while overtaking, as people already drove left - hand drive vehicles, thereby having a better view of the road ahead; additionally, the change made a marked surge in perceived risk that exceeded the target level and thus was followed by very cautious behaviour that caused a major decrease in road fatalities. Indeed, fatal car - to - car and car - to - pedestrian accidents dropped sharply as a result, and the number of motor insurance claims went down by 40 %.
These initial improvements did not last, however. The number of motor insurance claims returned to ' normal ' over the next six weeks and, by 1969, the accident rates were back to the levels seen before the change.
Trams in central Stockholm, in Helsingborg and most lines in Malmö were withdrawn and replaced by buses, and over one thousand new buses were purchased with doors on the right - hand side. Some 8,000 older buses were retrofitted to provide doors on both sides, while Gothenburg and Malmö exported their right - hand drive (RHD) buses to Pakistan and Kenya. The modification of buses, paid by the state, was the largest cost of the change. In Gothenburg and Norrköping, and in two Stockholm suburbs, tram networks continued to operate.
Although all road traffic in Sweden became right handed, metro and railway systems did not switch to new rules and continue to drive on the left, with the exception of tram systems. Additionally, many of them were abandoned as a result of Dagen H; only the trams in Norrköping and Gothenburg and three suburban lines in the Stockholm area (Nockebybanan and Lidingöbanan) survived. Gothenburg had high cost for rebuilding trams, while Stockholm had cost only for bus purchasing, since the remaining lines had bidirectional trams with doors on both sides. In any event, most trams in Stockholm had been replaced by the metro, a decision made long before the Dagen H decision.
Fellow Nordic country Iceland changed to driving on the right in May 1968.
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leaders of the civil rights movement in northern ireland in the 1960s | Northern Ireland civil rights movement - wikipedia
The Northern Ireland civil rights movement dates to the early 1960s, when a number of initiatives emerged which challenged inequality and discrimination in Northern Ireland. The Campaign for Social Justice (CSJ) was founded by Conn McCluskey and his wife, Patricia. Conn was a doctor, and Patricia was a social worker who had worked in Glasgow for a period, and who had a background in housing activism. Both were involved in the Homeless Citizens League, an organisation founded after Catholic women occupied disused social housing. The HCL evolved into the CSJ, focusing on lobbying, research and publicising discrimination. The campaign for Derry University was another mid-1960s campaign.
The most important organisation established during this period was the Northern Irish Civil Rights Association (NICRA), established in 1967 to protest discrimination. NICRA 's objectives were:
Anthony Coughlan and Roy Johnston were involved in the Wolfe Tone Societies (WTS), an independent adjunct to the Republican movement, Through the WTS, they advocated a campaign for civil rights in Northern Ireland. When NICRA was formed on 29 January 1967, it was predominantly made up of individuals outside the Republican movement. A thirteen - person steering committee was elected, including representatives from trade unions, the Belfast WTS, the Republican Clubs, the Belfast Trades Council, the Republican Labour Party, the Ulster Liberal Party, the Northern Ireland Labour Party, the Ardoyne Tenants Association and the Young Unionists. The board included two members of the Wolfe Tone Societies and one member of the IRA (Liam McMillen, Belfast Officer Commanding at the time); Betty Sinclair (Communist Party) was the chair.
During its first two years NICRA wrote letters, petitioned and lobbied; it was "a period of general ineffectuality ''. In the summer of 1968 NICRA "somewhat hesitantly '' agreed to hold its first protest march from Coalisland to Dungannon, on 24 August. The march was publicised as a "civil rights march '', and the organisers emphasised its non-sectarian dimension. Bernadette Devlin (who became a civil - rights activist) described a festival atmosphere which turned "uglier '' when the police stopped the march from entering Dungannon, where a counter-demonstration had been called by the Paisleyites. The NICRA organisers announced that they would not breach the police cordon. However, as Devlin recalls, they began to "lose their hold on the marchers ''. According to Devlin, many of the initial organisers soon left after efforts to wind down the movement failed; those who remained "sat down in big circles all over the road and sang rebel songs till midnight ''.
The second civil - rights march was proposed by activists on the Derry Housing Action Committee (DHAC). DHAC, founded in early 1968. It campaigned against discrimination in housing and the shortage of social housing in Derry, one of Northern Ireland 's most depressed towns. A sample of DHAC tactics is revealed in the case of John Wilson, related by Fionbarra O'Dochartaigh (a leading member of the DHAC) in his book Ulster 's White Negros. Wilson (a Catholic) lived with his family in a caravan, but was told he was unlikely to obtain social housing. On 22 June 1968 DHAC put his caravan in the middle of a main road, blocking traffic for 24 hours; the following weekend, it blocked traffic for 48 hours. After this, it planned to block the city centre when the Wilsons were provided housing. Eamonn McCann, another key member of the DHAC, described this as an important victory: "It had been made very publicly clear that outrageous tactics worked, that blocking roads worked better than an MP 's intervention... ''
NICRA accepted the Derry activists ' march, planned for 5 October 1968 in Derry. However, the march was banned by Minister for Home Affairs William Craig and NICRA wanted to withdraw. The march route included the city centre, a bastion of Protestantism and out - of - bounds for Catholic public events. The DHAC said they would go ahead, forcing NICRA to agree or be seen to capitulate.
Derry is a dead city: about one in five of the men is unemployed and the whole feeling is depressed. But it was electric that day. You could see it on people 's faces - excitement, or alarm, or anger. Derry was alive.
The march was characterised by non-sectarian civil - rights demands, including an end to gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and the right to vote. The Royal Ulster Constabulary attempted to violently disperse the crowd. When the RUC attacked, Betty Sinclair asked the crowd to disperse. However, chaos erupted as the protesters found themselves trapped between two lines of the RUC. The police drove the protesters across the river into the Catholic area of the Bogside: "By this time the original confrontation between marchers and the police had given way to a general battle between the police and young residents of the Bogside, most of whom had taken no part in the march ''.
The birthdate of the civil - rights movement is considered to be 5 October; images of police brutality were broadcast worldwide, and much of Northern Ireland 's population was horrified. In Derry, the period following 5 October was one in which established political forces and prominent individuals in Catholic areas tried to harness and control the movement 's energy.
After the 5 October march the DHAC radicals scheduled another march on the same route for the following week. At this point, Derry moderates emerged and announced a meeting attended by "local professionals, business people, trade unionists and clergy '' from the Catholic community. This led to the formation of the Derry Citizens Action Committee (DCAC), which effectively (if temporarily) assumed leadership of the movement. The DHAC, afraid of losing influence, joined the DCAC (except for Eamonn McCann, who denounced them as "middle class, middle aged and middle of the road ''). The DCAC fought for civil rights with non-violent civil disobedience and direct action, now with a mainstream leadership careful to provide leadership at each action to prevent confrontations with the police. DCAC continued its push for non-sectarian demands. Its first action, a mass sit - down in Derry 's Guildhall Square (home of the Derry Corporation), focused on housing and the following demands:
The DCAC organised a series of actions, many of which defied Craig 's ban on protests and demonstrated "its ability to mount a peaceful protest and maintain discipline over its followers ''. The movement was growing, and many of its demands seemed achievable. However, "the committee 's rank - and - file supporters were becoming increasingly militant ''. All demonstrations in Derry were banned on 18 November, which was an initial peak in civil - rights activity (much of which was independent of the DCAC). That day, protesters who had been arrested at the 5 October march were being prosecuted. After their trial they were carried down to Guildhall Square by a large crowd of supporters, where they were attacked by the police. Thirty minutes later, about 400 dock workers left work in protest against the attacks and marched through the city centre. The DCAC had earlier cancelled a planned strike of shirt - factory workers, "but at about 3pm one thousand workers, mostly young women from some half dozen factories, left work and marched up Strand Road, through Guildhall Square... to the Diamond ''.
Days later, Prime Minister Terrance O'Neill began to concede to the movement 's demands. On 22 November O'Neill announced the dissolution of Derry Corporation, the end of the company director 's vote, and a points system to end housing discrimination. O'Neill made a television address appealing to the civil - rights movement to "give him time '' to introduce reforms. Consequently, the DCAC called a truce and announced that it would not organise any more marches for one month.
In Belfast the situation was different, since students at Queen 's University (QUB) were at the centre of events. Bernadette Devlin, leader of the People 's Democracy (PD) and a foremost figure in the civil - rights movement, described her return to QUB after the Derry march:
I went up to Belfast thinking I had changed, and I found that everyone had. The atmosphere at Queen 's was jolttingly different. The silence barrier was down. Derry was being talked about in the lecture rooms, in the tutorial rooms, in the snackbar at dinner, in the cloakrooms, in the showers, in the bar... People were talking and thinking about the society they were living in - not as an intellectual exercise, but enthusiastically and emotionally and as if it mattered.
On 9 October, Devlin and others organized a protest march to Belfast City Hall against police brutality: "2,000 people turned up spontaneously. All the complacent attitudes were gone ''. After this protest, the students returned to campus and held a meeting at which the PD was formed with six demands: one man, one vote; a fair drawing of electoral boundaries; freedom of speech and assembly; repeal of the Special Powers Act; and a fair allocation of jobs and social housing. "One man, one vote '' would become a central demand of the movement. The PD would become a leading force within the movement between late 1968 and the first part of 1969; it was committed to street politics and staunchly anti-sectarian.
The PD was organised through a democratic mass assembly. Michael Farrell, the most influential figure in the PD, has said that they were influenced by the radical democratic practices of the Sorbonne Assembly. The PD elected a "Faceless Committee '' to execute decisions made by the assembly. While there was no formal membership, Devlin remembers up to 700 people attending their mass assemblies. PD actions in late 1968 included protests, open - air meetings, sit - downs and the occupation of the Northern Ireland Parliament on 24 October.
In January 1969, the PD organised a "Long March '' from Belfast to Derry modelled on the civil - rights march to Montgomery, Alabama. This was during the "truce '', which NICRA and DCAC were maintaining. The march was criticised as "reckless '', with the DCAC and NICRA opposing it. The purpose of the march was described by one activist as "pushing a structure... towards a point where its internal proceedings would cause a snapping and breaking to begin '', while Devlin described it as an attempt to "pull the carpet off the floor to show the dirt that was underneath ''.
The march was attacked repeatedly along the way, but as it developed it drew more supporters and participants. By marching through "Protestant territory '' (where it was repeatedly blocked and threatened), the Long March exposed Northern Irish sectarianism and the unwillingness of police to defend the right to protest.
As they neared Derry, at Burntollet Bridge, the marchers were ambushed by loyalists and members of the RUC. Eighty - seven activists were hospitalised. When the marchers reached Derry, the city exploded in riots. Following a night of rioting, RUC men entered the Bogside (a Catholic ghetto), wrecked a number of houses and attacked several people. This led to a new development: Bogside residents, with the consent of the DCAC, set up "vigilante '' groups to defend the area. Barricades were put up and manned by the locals for five days. It also created a context in which older Republican veterans could emerge as prominent figures within the movement; for example, Sean Keenan (later important to the Derry Provisional IRA) was involved in pushing for defensive patrols and barricades.
The first half of 1969 continued to be characterised by protests and direct action. The PD had joined NICRA en masse and succeeded in radicalising the organisation, with a number of PD members gaining seats on the executive board. NICRA organised marches and demonstrations throughout Northern Ireland, and the DCAC called off its truce and began organising marches again. The government introduced more - repressive legislation (specifically banning civil - disobedience tactics such as sit - ins), which gave the movement something else to resist. In April there were more serious riots in Derry, and the barricades went up again for a brief period. Meanwhile, direct action around concrete issues continued; according to Devlin, in the first half of 1969 the activists around Eamonn McCann "housed more families (via squatting) than all the respectable housing bodies in Derry put together ''.
In mid-1969 Prime Minister Terence O'Neill resigned and was replaced by James Chichester - Clark, who announced the introduction of "one man, one vote ''; the civil - rights movement had achieved its key demand. However, additional demands concerned police violence and state repression. Two of the most prominent issues were the Special Powers Act, which gave nearly - indiscriminate power to the state (including internment without trial) and the B - Specials, a part - time auxiliary police force seen as sectarian and made up exclusively of Protestants.
The next development during this period was the "Battle of the Bogside '', in which confrontation with the police would reach a peak in Derry 's most militant Catholic ghetto. The first half of 1969 was an intense period of political conflict, of which Derry was the epicentre. On 12 August an Apprentice Boys of Derry parade was scheduled to take place in Derry; it would pass near the Bogside area, spawning fears it would erupt into a sectarian bloodbath. Activists in Derry made provisions to limit this possibility by building barricades along the route and providing stewards. Activist Eamonn McCann worried about sectarian conflict usurping the civil - rights emphasis of the movement. In a leaflet he circulated shortly before the event, McCann notes that despite the civil - rights movement 's non-sectarian intentions:
In Derry we have finished up participating in the "Defence Association '' locking ourselves inside the Catholic area. Probably it is necessary. One must make some attempt to avoid a Catholic versus Protestant fight. And in the situation in which we find ourselves there seems to be no other way of doing it... But that does n't mean that we like it ".
The Defence Association cited by McCann was the Derry Citizens ' Defence Association, set up before 12 August and largely promoted by Republicans. During the next few months the DCDA became the dominant organisation in Derry, displacing the DCAC.
On 12 August, confrontation erupted. Some have argued that the Bogsiders were provoked by loyalists, while others suggest that Catholic youths stoned the Apprentice Boys. Riots soon began, and the RUC clubbed the Bogsiders. The barricades went up but the RUC were determined to take them down, despite the probability of a huge confrontation. After an initial retreat, the Bogsiders began to force the RUC back. The DCDA had prepared well; the barricades were effective, and rocks and petrol bombs had been prepared. What followed was a 50 - hour confrontation, in which the entire population of the Bogside was mobilised: women and children made and distributed petrol bombs while others, stationed on tower block roofs, kept the police at bay with them. Exhausted, the RUC withdrew but the government called in the B - Specials to take over the fight. As they prepared to enter, Westminster decided to send in British army troops. The troops moved in between the barricades and the RUC, preventing any further conflict without interfering with the barricades.
During the three - day Battle of the Bogside, the civil - rights movement became a localised insurrection against the state. When the RUC retreated and the British army respected the barricades, there was a sense of victory. Bernadette Devlin (who took part) recalled:
We reached then a turning point in Irish history, and we reached it because of the determination of one group of people in a Catholic slum area in Derry. In fifty hours we brought a government to its knees, and we gave back to a downtrodden people their pride and the strength of their convictions. ''
During the following month, "Free Derry '' (as it became known) "was surrounded by barricades... and was administered by the DCDA, in constant negotiation with the local British army commanders. In the process, the DCDA displaced the political authority of the local MP, John Hume, and of all the political parties ''.
The DCDA had forty - four members (including nine older Republicans) who would later become members of the Provisional Irish Republican Army; younger, radical - leftist Republicans; Northern Irish Labour Party activists; the Young Socialist Alliance; tenants ' associations and moderate activists who followed John Hume. The Bogsiders declared that the barricades would come down under the following conditions: the abolition of Stormont; abolition of the B - Specials; abolition of the Special Powers Act and the disarming of the RUC.
In early August 1969, RUC and loyalist forces attacked Catholic areas in west Belfast; barricades were erected, behind which "Free Belfast '' was born. As in Derry, the Belfast experiment was organised internally by a Citizens Defence Committee. The demands launched from the barricades echoed those of Derry: disband the B - Specials; disarm the RUC and amnesty for internees. Free Belfast shared many characteristics of its Derry counterpart, although Republicans had a stronger influence. The establishment of "free '' areas in Belfast and Derry was, in many ways, the final phase of the civil - rights movement. The intervention of British troops and the related increase in state repression were key factors.
The concluding events of the civil - rights movement were complex. The relationship between the British army and the Catholic population deteriorated quickly, and confrontations became more frequent. Civil disobedience and street politics became increasingly unstable. Many activists were imprisoned based on false testimony, and the army announced it would shoot rioters. Loyalist forces became increasingly active, planting a number of bombs in 1969 and blaming them on the IRA. The situation was becoming militarised; in this context, the IRA could assume a leading role.
Near the end of 1969 there was change within the IRA itself. Many older "traditionalists '' had again become active, advocating military action to defend Catholic areas (a strategy resisted by the left - leaning leadership, who favoured social and political agitation over military action). At the end of 1969 the IRA divided, and the Provisional IRA emerged. In early 1970 it undertook its first actions (including the armed defence of St. Mathew 's church in the Short Strand, which loyalists were attempting to burn). Between 1970 and 1972 the Provisional IRA became more active in rioting and targeting British soldiers. In 1971, internment without trial was introduced. In response NICRA (which, due to the emergence of the Provisional IRA and the PD 's drift towards socialist - party politics, was the main organisation advocating civil rights) organised a campaign of non-payment of rates and rent, in which an estimated 30,000 households participated. Despite such attempts to continue civil disobedience, the civil - rights movement floundered during 1971 and 1972. In January 1972 British soldiers attacked a peaceful demonstration, killing 13 civilians in what became known as "Bloody Sunday ''. NICRA organised a protest in response, in which over 100,000 people took part. This was, however, to be the organisation 's last significant march; Bloody Sunday had "immobilised NICRA from returning to the streets ''. As clashes escalated, London suspended the Northern Ireland parliament. This marked the end of the civil - rights movement and street politics. The Provisional IRA emerged as the dominant force within the movement, and Irish nationalism became the foremost political position for those seeking radical social change.
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how long do silk worm moths live for | Bombyx mori - wikipedia
The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar or imago of the domestic silkmoth, Bombyx mori (Latin: "silkworm of the mulberry tree ''). It is an economically important insect, being a primary producer of silk. A silkworm 's preferred food is white mulberry leaves, though they may eat other mulberry species and even osage orange. Domestic silkmoths are closely dependent on humans for reproduction, as a result of millennia of selective breeding. Wild silkmoths are different from their domestic cousins as they have not been selectively bred; they are not as commercially viable in the production of silk.
Sericulture, the practice of breeding silkworms for the production of raw silk, has been under way for at least 5,000 years in China, from where it spread to India, Korea, Japan, and the West. The silkworm was domesticated from the wild silkmoth Bombyx mandarina, which has a range from northern India to northern China, Korea, Japan, and the far eastern regions of Russia. The domesticated silkworm derives from Chinese rather than Japanese or Korean stock.
Silkworms were unlikely to have been domestically bred before the Neolithic age. Before then, the tools to manufacture quantities of silk thread had not been developed. The domesticated B. mori and the wild B. mandarina can still breed and sometimes produce hybrids.
Domestic silkmoths are very different from most members in the genus Bombyx; not only have they lost the ability to fly, but their color pigments are also lost.
Mulberry silkworms can be categorized into three different but connected groups or types. The major groups of silkworms fall under the univoltine ("uni - '' = one, "voltine '' = brood frequency) and bivoltine categories. The univoltine breed is generally linked with the geographical area within greater Europe. The eggs of this type hibernate during winter due to the cold climate, and cross-fertilize only by spring, generating silk only once annually. The second type is called bivoltine and is normally found in China, Japan, and Korea. The breeding process of this type takes place twice annually, a feat made possible through the slightly warmer climates and the resulting two life cycles. The polyvoltine type of mulberry silkworm can only be found in the tropics. The eggs are laid by female moths and hatch within nine to 12 days, so the resulting type can have up to eight separate life cycles throughout the year.
Eggs take about 14 days to hatch into larvae, which eat continuously. They have a preference for white mulberry, having an attraction to the mulberry odorant cis - jasmone. They are not monophagous since they can eat other species of Morus, as well as some other Moraceae, mostly Osage orange. They are covered with tiny black hairs. When the color of their heads turns darker, it indicates they are about to molt. After molting, the instar phase of the silkworms emerge white, naked, and with little horns on their backs.
After they have molted four times, their bodies become slightly yellow and the skin becomes tighter. The larvae then prepare to enter the pupal phase of their lifecycle, and enclose themselves in a cocoon made up of raw silk produced by the salivary glands. The final molt from larva to pupa takes place within the cocoon, which provides a vital layer of protection during the vulnerable, almost motionless pupal state. Many other Lepidoptera produce cocoons, but only a few -- the Bombycidae, in particular the genus Bombyx, and the Saturniidae, in particular the genus Antheraea -- have been exploited for fabric production.
If the animal is allowed to survive after spinning its cocoon and through the pupal phase of its lifecycle, it releases proteolytic enzymes to make a hole in the cocoon so it can emerge as an adult moth. These enzymes are destructive to the silk and can cause the silk fibers to break down from over a mile in length to segments of random length, which seriously reduces the value of the silk threads, but not silk cocoons used as "stuffing '' available in China and elsewhere for doonas, jackets etc. To prevent this, silkworm cocoons are boiled. The heat kills the silkworms and the water makes the cocoons easier to unravel. Often, the silkworm itself is eaten.
As the process of harvesting the silk from the cocoon kills the larva, sericulture has been criticized by animal welfare and rights activists. Mahatma Gandhi was critical of silk production based on the Ahimsa philosophy "not to hurt any living thing ''. This led to Gandhi 's promotion of cotton spinning machines, an example of which can be seen at the Gandhi Institute. He also promoted Ahimsa silk, wild silk made from the cocoons of wild and semiwild silkmoths.
The moth -- the adult phase of the lifecycle -- is not capable of functional flight, in contrast to the wild B. mandarina and other Bombyx species, whose males fly to meet females and for evasion from predators. Some may emerge with the ability to lift off and stay airborne, but sustained flight can not be achieved. This is because their bodies are too big and heavy for their small wings. However, some silkmoths can still fly. Silkmoths have a wingspan of 3 -- 5 cm (1.2 -- 2.0 in) and a white, hairy body. Females are about two to three times bulkier than males (for they are carrying many eggs), but are similarly colored. Adult Bombycidae have reduced mouth parts and do not feed, though a human caretaker can feed them.
The cocoon is made of a thread of raw silk from 300 to about 900 m (1,000 to 3,000 ft) long. The fibers are very fine and lustrous, about 10 μm (0.0004 in) in diameter. About 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons are required to make a pound of silk (0.4 kg). At least 70 million pounds of raw silk are produced each year, requiring nearly 10 billion cocoons.
Due to its small size and ease of culture, the silkworm has become a model organism in the study of lepidopteran and arthropod biology. Fundamental findings on pheromones, hormones, brain structures, and physiology have been made with the silkworm. One example of this was the molecular identification of the first known pheromone, bombykol, which required extracts from 500,000 individuals, due to the very small quantities of pheromone produced by any individual worm.
Currently, research is focusing on genetics of silkworms and the possibility of genetic engineering. Many hundreds of strains are maintained, and over 400 Mendelian mutations have been described. Another source suggests 1,000 inbred domesticated strains are kept worldwide. One useful development for the silk industry is silkworms that can feed on food other than mulberry leaves, including an artificial diet. Research on the genome also raises the possibility of genetically engineering silkworms to produce proteins, including pharmacological drugs, in the place of silk proteins. Bombyx mori females are also one of the few organisms with homologous chromosomes held together only by the synaptonemal complex (and not crossovers) during meiosis.
Kraig Biocraft Laboratories has used research from the Universities of Wyoming and Notre Dame in a collaborative effort to create a silkworm that is genetically altered to produce spider silk. In September 2010, the effort was announced as successful.
Researchers at Tufts developed scaffolds made of spongy silk that feel and look similar to human tissue. They are implanted during reconstructive surgery to support or restructure damaged ligaments, tendons, and other tissue. They also created implants made of silk and drug compounds which can be implanted under the skin for steady and gradual time release of medications.
Researchers at the MIT Media Lab experimented with silkworms to see what they would weave when left on surfaces with different curvatures. They found that on particularly straight webs of lines, the worms would connect neighboring lines with silk, weaving directly onto the given shape. Using this knowledge they built a silk pavilion with 6,500 silkworms over a number of days.
Silkworms have been used in antibiotics discovery as they have several advantageous traits compared to other invertebrate models. Antibiotics such as lysocin E, a non-ribosomal peptide synthesized by Lysobacter sp. RH2180 - 5 and GPI0363 are among the notable antibiotics discovered using silkworms.
The domesticated form, compared to the wild form, has increased cocoon size, body size, growth rate, and efficiency of its digestion. It has gained tolerance to human presence and handling, and also to living in crowded conditions. The domesticated moth can not fly, so it needs human assistance in finding a mate, and it lacks fear of potential predators. The native color pigments are also lost, so the domesticated moths are leucistic since camouflage is n't useful when they only live in captivity. These changes have made the domesticated strains entirely dependent upon humans for survival. The eggs are kept in incubators to aid in their hatching.
Silkworms were first domesticated in China over 5,000 years ago. Since then, the silk production capacity of the species has increased nearly tenfold. The silkworm is one of the few organisms wherein the principles of genetics and breeding were applied to harvest maximum output. It is second only to maize in exploiting the principles of heterosis and cross breeding.
Silkworm breeding is aimed at the overall improvement of silkworm from a commercial point of view. The major objectives are improving fecundity (the egg - laying capacity of a breed), the health of larvae, quantity of cocoon and silk production, and disease resistance. Healthy larvae lead to a healthy cocoon crop. Health is dependent on factors such as better pupation rate, fewer dead larvae in the mountage, shorter larval duration (shorter larval duration lessens the chance of infection) and bluish - tinged fifth - instar larvae (which are healthier than the reddish - brown ones). Quantity of cocoon and silk produced are directly related to the pupation rate and larval weight. Healthier larvae have greater pupation rates and cocoon weights. Quality of cocoon and silk depends on a number of factors including genetics.
In the US, teachers may sometimes introduce the insect life cycle to their students by raising silkworms in the classroom as a science project. Students have a chance to observe complete life cycles of insect from egg stage to larvae, pupa, moth.
The silkworm has been raised as a hobby in countries such as China, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Iran. Children often pass on the eggs, creating a non-commercial population. The experience provides children with the opportunity to witness the life cycle of silkworms. The practice of raising silkworms by children as pets has, in non-silk farming South Africa, led to the development of extremely hardy landraces of silkworms, because they are invariably subjected to hardships not encountered by commercially farmed members of the species. However, these worms, not being selectively bred as such, are possibly inferior in silk production and may exhibit other undesirable traits.
The full genome of the silkworm was published in 2008 by the International Silkworm Genome Consortium. Draft sequences were published in 2004.
The genome of the silkworm is mid-range with a genome size around 432 megabase pairs.
High genetic variability has been found in domestic lines of silkworms, though this is less than that among wild silkmoths (about 83 percent of wild genetic variation). This suggests a single event of domestication, and that it happened over a short period of time, with a large number of wild worms having been collected for domestication. Major questions, however, remain unanswered: "Whether this event was in a single location or in a short period of time in several locations can not be deciphered from the data ''. Research also has yet to identify the area in China where domestication arose.
Silkworm pupae are eaten in some cultures.
In China, a legend indicates the discovery of the silkworm 's silk was by an ancient empress Lei Zu, the wife of the Yellow Emperor and the daughter of XiLing - Shi. She was drinking tea under a tree when a silk cocoon fell into her tea. As she picked it out and started to wrap the silk thread around her finger, she slowly felt a warm sensation. When the silk ran out, she saw a small larva. In an instant, she realized this caterpillar larva was the source of the silk. She taught this to the people and it became widespread. Many more legends about the silkworm are told.
The Chinese guarded their knowledge of silk, but, according to one story, a Chinese princess given in marriage to a Khotan prince brought to the oasis the secret of silk manufacture, "hiding silkworms in her hair as part of her dowry '', probably in the first half of the first century AD. About AD 550, Christian monks are said to have smuggled silkworms, in a hollow stick, out of China and sold the secret to the Byzantine Empire.
In traditional Chinese medicine, silkworm is the source of the "stiff silkworm '', which is made from dried fourth - or fifth - instar larvae which have died of "white muscardine disease '', the Beauveria bassiana fungal infection mentioned above. It is believed to dispel flatulence, dissolve phlegm, and relieve spasms.
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if i work for the local council am i a civil servant | Civil service - wikipedia
The civil service is independent of government and composed mainly of career bureaucrats hired on professional merit rather than appointed or elected, whose institutional tenure typically survives transitions of political leadership. A civil servant or public servant is a person employed in the public sector employed for a government department or agency. The extent of civil servants of a state as part of the "civil service '' varies from country to country. In the United Kingdom, for instance, only Crown (national government) employees are referred to as civil servants whereas county or city employees are not.
Many consider the study of service to be a part of the field of public administration. Workers in "non-departmental public bodies '' (sometimes called "Quangos '') may also be classed as civil servants for the purpose of statistics and possibly for their terms and conditions. Collectively a state 's civil servants form its civil service or public service.
An international civil servant or international staff member is a civilian employee who is employed by an intergovernmental organization. These international civil servants do not resort under any national legislation (from which they have immunity of jurisdiction) but are governed by internal staff regulations. All disputes related to international civil service are brought before special tribunals created by these international organizations such as, for instance, the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO.
Specific referral can be made to the International Civil Service Commission (ICSC) of the United Nations, an independent expert body established by the United Nations General Assembly. Its mandate is to regulate and coordinate the conditions of service of staff in the United Nations common system, while promoting and maintaining high standards in the international civil service.
The origin of the modern meritocratic civil service can be traced back to Imperial examination founded in Imperial China. The Imperial exam based on merit was designed to select the best administrative officials for the state 's bureaucracy. This system had a huge influence on both society and culture in Imperial China and was directly responsible for the creation of a class of scholar - bureaucrats irrespective of their family pedigree.
Originally appointments to the bureaucracy were based on the patronage of aristocrats; During Han dynasty, Emperor Wu of Han established the xiaolian system of recommendation by superiors for appointments to office. In the areas of administration, especially the military, appointments were based solely on merit. This was an early form of the imperial examinations, transitioning from inheritance and patronage to merit, in which local officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics. After the fall of the Han dynasty, the Chinese bureaucracy regressed into a semi-merit system known as the nine - rank system.
This system was reversed during the short - lived Sui dynasty (581 -- 618), which initiated a civil service bureaucracy recruited through written examinations and recommendation. The first civil service examination system was established by Emperor Wen of Sui. Emperor Yang of Sui established a new category of recommended candidates for the mandarinate in AD 605. The following Tang dynasty (618 -- 907) adopted the same measures for drafting officials, and decreasingly relied on aristocratic recommendations and more and more on promotion based on the results of written examinations. The structure of the examination system was extensively expanded during the reign of Wu Zetian The system reached its apogee during the Song dynasty.
In theory, the Chinese civil service system provided one of the major outlets for social mobility in Chinese society, although in practice, due to the time - consuming nature of the study, the examination was generally only taken by sons of the landed gentry. The examination tested the candidate 's memorization of the Nine Classics of Confucianism and his ability to compose poetry using fixed and traditional forms and calligraphy. In the late 19th century the system came under increasing internal dissatisfaction, and it was criticized as not reflecting the candidate 's ability to govern well, and for giving precedence to style over content and originality of thought. The system was finally abolished by the Qing government in 1905 as part of the New Policies reform package.
The Chinese system was often admired by European commentators from the 16th century onward.
In the 18th century, in response to economic changes and the growth of the British Empire, the bureaucracy of institutions such as the Office of Works and the Navy Board greatly expanded. Each had its own system, but in general, staff were appointed through patronage or outright purchase. By the 19th century, it became increasingly clear that these arrangements were falling short. "The origins of the British civil service are better known. During the eighteenth century a number of Englishmen wrote in praise of the Chinese examination system, some of them going so far as to urge the adoption for England of something similar. The first concrete step in this direction was taken by the British East India Company in 1806. '' In that year, the Honourable East India Company established a college, the East India Company College, near London to train and examine administrators of the Company 's territories in India. "The proposal for establishing this college came, significantly, from members of the East India Company 's trading post in Canton, China. '' Examinations for the Indian "civil service '' -- a term coined by the Company -- were introduced in 1829.
British efforts at reform were influenced by the imperial examinations system and meritocratic system of China. Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain 's consul in Guangzhou, China argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China, published in 1847, that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only, '' and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.
In 1853 the Chancellor of the Exchequer William Gladstone, commissioned Sir Stafford Northcote and Charles Trevelyan to look into the operation and organisation of the Civil Service. Influenced by the Chinese imperial examinations, the Northcote -- Trevelyan Report of 1854 made four principal recommendations: that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, that candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, that recruits should be graded into a hierarchy and that promotion should be through achievement, rather than "preferment, patronage or purchase ''. It also recommended a clear division between staff responsible for routine ("mechanical '') work, and those engaged in policy formulation and implementation in an "administrative '' class.
The report was well - timed, because bureaucratic chaos during the Crimean War was causing a clamour for the change. The report 's conclusions were immediately implemented, and a permanent, unified and politically neutral civil service was introduced as Her Majesty 's Civil Service. A Civil Service Commission was also set up in 1855 to oversee open recruitment and end patronage, and most of the other Northcote -- Trevelyan recommendations were implemented over some years.
The same model, the Imperial Civil Service, was implemented in British India from 1858, after the demise of the East India Company 's rule in India through the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which came close to toppling British rule in the country.
The Northcote -- Trevelyan model remained essentially stable for a hundred years. This was a tribute to its success in removing corruption, delivering public services (even under the stress of two world wars), and responding effectively to political change. It also had a great international influence and was adapted by members of the Commonwealth. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act established a modern civil service in the United States, and by the turn of the 20th century almost all Western governments had implemented similar reforms.
Civil servants in Brazil (Portuguese: servidores públicos) are those working in the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the federal, state, or municipal government and the government of Brasília, including congressmen, senators, mayors, ministers, the president of the republic, and workers in government - owned corporations.
Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations (Portuguese: concurso público). It usually consists of a written test; some posts may require physical tests (such as policemen), or oral tests (such as professors, judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The rank according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies.
Entrance examinations are conducted by several institutions with a government mandate, such as CESPE (which belongs to the University of Brasília) and the Cesgranrio Foundation (which is part of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro).
The labor laws and social insurance for civil servants are different from private workers; even between government branches (like different states or cities), the law and insurance differ.
The posts usually are ranked by titles, the most common are technician for high school literates and analyst for undergraduates. There 's also higher post ranks like auditor, fiscal, chief of police, prosecutor, judge, attorney, etc.
The law does not allow servants to upgrade or downgrade posts internally; they need to be selected in separate external entrance examinations.
In Canada, the civil service at the federal level is known as the Public Service of Canada, with each of the ten provincial governments as well as the three territorial governments also having their own separate civil services. The federal civil service consists of all employees of the crown except for ministers ' exempt staff, members of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and members of the Canadian Armed Forces as they are not civil servants. There are approximately 257,000 federal civil servants (2015), and more than 350,000 employees at the provincial and territorial levels.
One of the oldest examples of a civil service based on meritocracy is the Imperial bureaucracy of China, which can be traced as far back as the Qin dynasty (221 -- 207 BC). However, the civil service examinations were practiced on a much smaller scale in comparison to the stronger, centralized bureaucracy of the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279). In response to the regional military rule of jiedushi and the loss of civil authority during the late Tang period and Five Dynasties (907 -- 960), the Song emperors were eager to implement a system where civil officials would owe their social prestige to the central court and gain their salaries strictly from the central government. This ideal was not fully achieved since many scholar officials were affluent landowners and were engaged in many anonymous business affairs in an age of economic revolution in China. Nonetheless, gaining a degree through three levels of examination -- prefectural exams, provincial exams, and the prestigious palace exams -- was a far more desirable goal in society than becoming a merchant. This was because the mercantile class was traditionally regarded with some disdain by the scholar - official class.
This class of state bureaucrats in the Song period were far less aristocratic than their Tang predecessors. The examinations were carefully structured in order to ensure that people of lesser means than what was available to candidates born into wealthy, landowning families were given a greater chance to pass the exams and obtain an official degree. This included the employment of a bureau of copyists who would rewrite all of the candidates ' exams in order to mask their handwriting and thus prevent favoritism by graders of the exams who might otherwise recognize a candidate 's handwriting. The advent of widespread printing in the Song period allowed many more examination candidates access to the Confucian texts whose mastery was required for passing the exams.
Hong Kong and Macau have separate civil service systems:
The civil service in France (fonction publique) is often incorrectly considered to include all government employees including employees of public corporations, such as SNCF.
Public sector employment is classified into three services; State service, Local service and Hospital service. According to government statistics there were 5.5 million public sector employees in 2011.
The Public Service in Germany (Öffentlicher Dienst) employed 4.6 million persons as of 2011. Public servants are organized into three categories: blue - collar workers (Arbeiter), salaried employees, (Angestellte), and civil servants (Beamte). All three groups are employed by public bodies (Körperschaften des öffentlichen Rechts), such as counties (Kreise), states, the federal government, etc. In addition to employees directly employed by the state another 1.6 million persons are employed by state owned enterprises
Arbeiter in public service work mostly in low - skilled jobs such as construction, waste collection or manual office work. In some cases, training is not obligatory.
Angestellte work in technical, vocational, and office work in a very large range of occupational fields. In most cases, they have received training aside from their government agency prior to employment - for example, they learned to program computers before a government agency hired them to do that.
Beamte has been a title for government employees for several centuries in German states, but became a standardized group in 1794. Soldiers other than conscripted soldiers are not Beamte but have similar rights. Judges are not Beamte but have similar rights too. Public attorneys are all Beamte, while most (but not all) professors are Beamte. The group of Beamte have the most secure employment, and the amount they are paid is set by national pay regulations (Besoldungsordnungen). Beamte are prohibited from striking.
Arbeiter and Angestelle work with individual contracts, while Beamte are appointed, employed, and removed by the Public Sector Service and Loyalty law (öffentlich - rechtliches Dienst - und Treueverhältnis).
Beamte are divided into four levels:
Gehobener Dienst and Höherer Dienst both require a university education or equivalent, at the very least a bachelor 's or master 's degree, respectively.
Controversies about the institution of the Civil Service in Greece are widespread. Typically, they concern the allegedly large numbers of public employees, the lack of adequate meritocracy in their employment, the strong ties that significant portions of public employees maintain with political parties and the clientelism that this relationship incubates, internal inequalities of wages among public employees, and inequalities of the high income of public employees relevant to that of private sector workers. The Civil Service payscale is also controversial given the conditions before the financial crisis that made being a civil servant a dream - job.
In India, the Civil Service is defined as "appointive positions by the Government in connection with the affairs of the Union and includes a civilian in a Defence Service, except positions in the Indian Armed Forces. '' The members of civil service serve at the pleasure of the President of India and Article 311 of the constitution protects them from politically motivated or vindictive action.
The Civil Services of India can be classified into three types -- the All India Services, the Central Civil Services (Group A and B) and State / Provincial Civil Services. The recruits are university graduates (or above) selected through a rigorous system of examinations, called the Civil Services Examination (CSE) and its technical counterpart known as the Engineering Services Examination (ESE) both conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). The entry into the State Civil Services is through a competitive examination conducted by every state public service commission.
Senior positions in civil service are listed and named in the Order of Precedence of India.
The civil service of Ireland includes the employees of the Department of State (excluded are government ministers and a small number of paid political advisors) as well as a small number of core state agencies such as the Office of the Revenue Commissioners, the Office of Public Works, and the Public Appointments Service. The organisation of the Irish Civil Service is very similar to the traditional organization of the British Home Civil Service, and indeed the grading system in the Irish Civil Service is nearly identical to the traditional grading system of its British counterpart. In Ireland, public sector employees such as teachers or members of the country 's police force, An Garda Síochána are not considered to be civil servants, but are rather described as "public servants '' (and form the public service of the Republic of Ireland).
In Pakistan the FPSC (Federal Public Service Commission) conducts a competitive examination for the Central Superior Services of Pakistan and other civil - service posts; Pakistan inherited this system from the British Raj - era Indian Civil Service.
Pakistan has federal civil servants serving in federal government offices, with staff selected through the Federal Public Service Commission. Similarly, Pakistani provinces select their own public servants through provincial Public Service Commissions. The federal services have some quota against provincial posts. while provincial services have some quota in federal services.
The civil service in Spain (función pública) is usually considered to include all the employees at the different levels of the Spanish public administration: central government, autonomous communities, as well as municipalities. There are three main categories of Spanish public positions: temporary political posts ("personal funcionario eventual ''), which require a simple procedure for hiring and dismissal and is associated to top level executives and advisors, statutory permanent posts ("funcionarios de carrera ''), which require a formal procedure for access that usually involves a competition among candidates and whose tenants are subject to a special statutory relationship of work with their employers, and non statutory permanent posts ("personal laboral ''), which also require a formal procedure for entry similar to the procedure required for the "funcionarios de carrera '', but whose tenants are subject to normal working conditions and laws. Competitions differ notably among the state, the 17 autonomous communities and the city councils, and the "funcionarios de carrera '' and "personal laboral '' examinations vary in difficulty from one location to another.
As of 2013, there were 2.6 million public employees in Spain, of which 571,000 were civil servants and 2 million were non-civil servants.
In December 2011, the government of Rajoy announced that civil servants have to serve a minimum 37.5 working hours per week regardless of their place or kind of service.
The ROC constitution specifies that public servant can not be employed without examination. The employment is usually lifelong (that is, until age about retirement).
The civil service in the United Kingdom only includes Crown (i.e. central government) employees, not parliamentary employees or local government employees. Public sector employees such as those in education and the NHS are not considered to be civil servants. Police officers and staff are also not civil servants. Total employment in the public sector in the UK was 6.04 million in 2012 according to the UK 's Office for National Statistics.
Civil servants in the devolved government in Northern Ireland are not part of the Home Civil Service, but constitute the separate Northern Ireland Civil Service. Some employees of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office are members of HM Diplomatic Service, which is associated with but separate from the Civil Service.
In the United States, the federal civil service was established in 1871. The Federal Civil Service is defined as "all appointive positions in the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the Government of the United States, except positions in the uniformed services. '' (5 U.S.C. § 2101). In the early 19th century, government jobs were held at the pleasure of the president -- a person could be fired at any time. The spoils system meant that jobs were used to support the political parties. This was changed in slow stages by the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 and subsequent laws. By 1909, almost two thirds of the U.S. federal work force was appointed based on merit, that is, qualifications measured by tests. Certain senior civil service positions, including some heads of diplomatic missions and executive agencies are filled by political appointees. Under the Hatch Act of 1939, civil servants are not allowed to engage in political activities while performing their duties.
The U.S. civil service includes the competitive service and the excepted service. The majority of civil service appointments in the U.S. are made under the competitive service, but the Foreign Service, the FBI, and other National Security positions are made under the excepted service. (U.S. Code Title V)
U.S. state and local government entities often have competitive civil service systems that are modeled on the national system, in varying degrees.
As of January 2007, the federal government, excluding the Postal Service, employed about 1.8 million civilian workers. The federal government is the nation 's single largest employer, although it employs only about 12 % of all government employees, compared to 24 % at the state level and 63 % at the local level. Although most federal agencies are based in the Washington D.C. region, only about 16 % (or about 284,000) of the federal government workforce is employed in this region.
As of 2014, there are currently 15 federal executive branch agencies and hundreds of subagencies.
The European Civil Service administers the institutions of the European Union, of which the largest employer is the European Commission.
Civil servants are recruited directly into the institutions after being selected by competitions set by EPSO, the official selection office. They are allocated to departments, known as Directorates - General (DGs), each covering one or more related policy areas.
Autocratic systems of government (such as monarchies) can favour appointments to administrative positions on the basis of nepotism, patronage and favoritism, with close relationships between political and administrative figures. Early Roman emperors, for example, set their household slaves and freedmen much of the task of administering the Empire, sidelining the elected officials who continued the traditions of the Roman Republic. But the political appointment of bureaucrats can run the risk of tolerating inefficiency and corruption, with officials feeling secure in the protection of their political masters and possibly immune from prosecution for bribe - taking. Song - dynasty China (960 -- 1279) standardised competitive examinations as a basis for civil - service recruitment and promotion, and in the 19th century administrations in France and Britain followed suit. Agitation against the spoils system in the United States of America resulted in increasing the independence of the civil service -- seen as an important principle in modern times. In Germany, the Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums of April 1933 re-affirmed the principle of an independent civil service by insisting on training (along with political and racial credentials).
Some governmental structures include a civil service commission (or equivalent) whose functions include maintaining the work and rights of civil servants at arm 's length from potential politicisation or political interference. Compare the governance - administrative integration of Stalin 's Orgburo.
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who plays rodney in only fools and horses | Nicholas Lyndhurst - wikipedia
Nicholas Simon Lyndhurst (born 20 April 1961) is an English actor. He played Rodney Trotter in Only Fools and Horses, Gary Sparrow in Goodnight Sweetheart, Dan Griffin in the BBC drama New Tricks and Adam Parkinson in Carla Lane 's series Butterflies. Lyndhurst also starred as Ashley Philips in The Two of Us, as Fletch 's son Raymond in Going Straight, the sequel to the classic British sitcom Porridge, Jimmy Venables in After You 've Gone, and Freddie ' The Frog ' Robdal in the Only Fools and Horses prequel Rock & Chips.
Nicholas Simon Lyndhurst was born on 20 April 1961 in Emsworth, Hampshire, where he also grew up. He was a child student at Corona Theatre School.
He appeared in a succession of television adverts and children 's films in the late 1970s. Lyndhurst first gained national recognition at the age of seventeen in the sitcom Butterflies written by Carla Lane, in which he played Adam Parkinson. He then played Raymond Fletcher, the teenage son of Norman Stanley Fletcher played by Ronnie Barker in Going Straight, followed by ' Dobson ' in the BBC TV series To Serve Them All My Days.
He achieved national stardom in the series Only Fools and Horses in which he played Rodney Trotter, the younger brother of the main character Derek "Del Boy '' Trotter. Only Fools and Horses started as a small comedy in 1981 and rapidly grew in popularity until it reached its peak in 1996 with its Christmas Day show in the UK. Lyndhurst appeared in the show from the very start, right up to its final airing at Christmas 2003. Only Fools and Horses reached No. 1 British sitcom ever in the BBC poll in 2004.
In 1986 he had a minor part in the film Gunbus / SkyBandits. The film went straight to video and was never seen in British cinemas. During the 1990s, Lyndhurst also appeared in ITV 's The Two of Us with Janet Dibley and The Piglet Files, as well as in a number of stage performances.
Between 1993 and 1999, he played the complex lead character of Gary Sparrow in the fantasy sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart. At around the same time, he was the face and voice on the TV and radio commercials for the telecommunications chain People 's Phone. In 1997, he was offered the lead role of Gary in The Full Monty, but declined.
Between 1997 and 1999, Lyndhurst was the public face of the stationery chain store WH Smith, starring in their adverts as all four members of one family. He won a BAFTA for his acting in the adverts. In 1999, he played the villainous Uriah Heep opposite Harry Potter actor Daniel Radcliffe and Dame Maggie Smith in David Copperfield.
In 2006, he appeared as Cruella de Vil 's chauffeur, Reg Farnsworth, at the Children 's Party at the Palace.
In 2007, Lyndhurst returned to the BBC with his first new sitcom in fourteen years, After You 've Gone, in which he plays a divorced dad moving back into the marital home to look after his daughter (Dani Harmer) and son (Ryan Sampson) together with his mother - in - law, played by Celia Imrie, after his ex-wife goes to work as a recovery nurse on a third world disaster relief mission.
Lyndhurst played Freddie Robdal, the 1960s gangster father of Rodney Trotter, in Rock & Chips, the prequel to Only Fools and Horses. The show centres around Del Boy, Robdal and Joan Trotter in early 1960s Peckham. It was first broadcast on 24 January 2010, with another special transmitted on 29 December 2010, and the final episode at Easter 2011. Lyndhurst 's stage performances have been relatively few, but he received good critical notices for his performance as Norman in Sir Ronald Harwood 's The Dresser, directed by Peter Hall, and for his Trinculo in The Tempest.
In 2013, he joined the cast as a regular of Series 10 of New Tricks.
In 2014, Lyndhurst revived his Only Fools and Horses character Rodney Trotter in a return Sport Relief Special which aired on 21 March 2014.
In 2016, Lyndhurst revived his Goodnight Sweetheart character Gary Sparrow in a one - off special episode, which aired on 2 September 2016.
He lives in West Sussex with his wife Lucy, a former ballet dancer (married in Chichester, West Sussex, 1999). They have a son, Archie. Lyndhurst 's hobbies include underwater diving, beekeeping and piloting his own aeroplanes. Lyndhurst is the grandson of Francis Lyndhurst, a theatrical scenery painter and film director, who set up an early film studio at Shoreham Fort, Shoreham - by - Sea.
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dna replication occurs in which phase of the cell cycle | Cell cycle - wikipedia
The cell cycle or cell - division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells. In bacteria, which lack a cell nucleus, the cell cycle is divided into the B, C, and D periods. The B period extends from the end of cell division to the beginning of DNA replication. DNA replication occurs during the C period. The D period refers to the stage between the end of DNA replication and the splitting of the bacterial cell into two daughter cells. In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA. During the mitotic phase, the chromosomes separate. During the final stage, cytokinesis, the chromosomes and cytoplasm separate into two new daughter cells. To ensure the proper division of the cell, there are control mechanisms known as cell cycle checkpoints.
The cell - division cycle is a vital process by which a single - celled fertilized egg develops into a mature organism, as well as the process by which hair, skin, blood cells, and some internal organs are renewed. After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell divisions.
The cell cycle consists of four distinct phases: G phase, S phase (synthesis), G phase (collectively known as interphase) and M phase (mitosis or meiosis). M phase is itself composed of two tightly coupled processes: karyokinesis, in which the cell 's chromosomes are divided, and cytokinesis, in which the cell 's cytoplasm divides forming two daughter cells. Activation of each phase is dependent on the proper progression and completion of the previous one. Cells that have temporarily or reversibly stopped dividing are said to have entered a state of quiescence called G phase.
After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle. Although the various stages of interphase are not usually morphologically distinguishable, each phase of the cell cycle has a distinct set of specialized biochemical processes that prepare the cell for initiation of cell division.
G is a resting phase where the cell has left the cycle and has stopped dividing. The cell cycle starts with this phase. The word "post-mitotic '' is sometimes used to refer to both quiescent and senescent cells. Non-proliferative (non-dividing) cells in multicellular eukaryotes generally enter the quiescent G state from G and may remain quiescent for long periods of time, possibly indefinitely (as is often the case for neurons). This is very common for cells that are fully differentiated. Cellular senescence occurs in response to DNA damage and external stress and usually constitutes an arrest in G. Some cells enter the G phase semi-permanently and are considered post-mitotic, e.g., some liver, kidney, and stomach cells. Many cells do not enter G and continue to divide throughout an organism 's life, e.g., epithelial cells.
Cellular senescence is also a state that occurs in response to DNA damage or degradation that would make a cell 's progeny nonviable; it is often a biochemical alternative to the self - destruction of such a damaged cell by apoptosis.
Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during interphase. Interphase is a series of changes that takes place in a newly formed cell and its nucleus, before it becomes capable of division again. It is also called preparatory phase or intermitosis. Previously it was called resting stage because there is no apparent activity related to cell division. Typically interphase lasts for at least 91 % of the total time required for the cell cycle.
Interphase proceeds in three stages, G, S, and G, followed by the cycle of mitosis and cytokinesis. The cell 's nuclear DNA contents are duplicated during S phase but may continue till G in case of heterochromatin.
The first phase within interphase, from the end of the previous M phase until the beginning of DNA synthesis, is called G (G indicating gap). It is also called the growth phase. During this phase, the biosynthetic activities of the cell, which are considerably slowed down during M phase, resume at a high rate. The duration of G is highly variable, even among different cells of the same species. In this phase, the cell increases its supply of proteins, increases the number of organelles (such as mitochondria, ribosomes), and grows in size. In G phase, a cell has three options. (1) To continue cell cycle and enter S phase (2) Stop cell cycle and enter G phase for undergoing differentiation. (3) Get arrested in G phase hence it may enter G phase or re-enter cell cycle. The deciding factor is availability of nutrients and storage of energy rich compounds at the deciding point called check point (Restriction point). This check point is called the restriction point or START and is regulated by G / S cyclins, which cause transition from G to S phase. Passage through the G check point commits the cell to division.
The ensuing S phase starts when DNA synthesis commences; when it is complete, all of the chromosomes have been replicated, i.e., each chromosome has two (sister) chromatids. Thus, during this phase, the amount of DNA in the cell has effectively doubled, though the ploidy of the cell remains the same. Rates of RNA transcription and protein synthesis are very low during this phase. An exception to this is histone production, most of which occurs during the S phase.
G2 phase occurs after DNA replication and is a period of protein synthesis and rapid cell growth to prepare the cell for mitosis. During this phase microtubules begin to reorganize to form a spindle.
The relatively brief M phase consists of nuclear division (karyokinesis). It is a relatively short period of the cell cycle. M phase is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These phases are sequentially known as:
Mitosis is the process by which a eukaryotic cell separates the chromosomes in its cell nucleus into two identical sets in two nuclei. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell.
Mitosis occurs exclusively in eukaryotic cells, but occurs in different ways in different species. For example, animals undergo an "open '' mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before the chromosomes separate, while fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed '' mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell nucleus. Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.
Mitosis is immediately followed by cytokinesis, which divides the nuclei, cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 10 % of the cell cycle.
Because cytokinesis usually occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis '' is often used interchangeably with "M phase ''. However, there are many cells where mitosis and cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei in a process called endoreplication. This occurs most notably among the fungi and slime moulds, but is found in various groups. Even in animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or cause mutations that may lead to cancer.
The process of mitosis is complex and highly regulated. The sequence of events is divided into phases, corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. During the process of mitosis the pairs of chromosomes condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two identical daughter cells.
Regulation of the cell cycle involves processes crucial to the survival of a cell, including the detection and repair of genetic damage as well as the prevention of uncontrolled cell division. The molecular events that control the cell cycle are ordered and directional; that is, each process occurs in a sequential fashion and it is impossible to "reverse '' the cycle.
Two key classes of regulatory molecules, cyclins and cyclin - dependent kinases (CDKs), determine a cell 's progress through the cell cycle. Leland H. Hartwell, R. Timothy Hunt, and Paul M. Nurse won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of these central molecules. Many of the genes encoding cyclins and CDKs are conserved among all eukaryotes, but in general more complex organisms have more elaborate cell cycle control systems that incorporate more individual components. Many of the relevant genes were first identified by studying yeast, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae; genetic nomenclature in yeast dubs many of these genes cdc (for "cell division cycle '') followed by an identifying number, e.g. cdc25 or cdc20.
Cyclins form the regulatory subunits and CDKs the catalytic subunits of an activated heterodimer; cyclins have no catalytic activity and CDKs are inactive in the absence of a partner cyclin. When activated by a bound cyclin, CDKs perform a common biochemical reaction called phosphorylation that activates or inactivates target proteins to orchestrate coordinated entry into the next phase of the cell cycle. Different cyclin - CDK combinations determine the downstream proteins targeted. CDKs are constitutively expressed in cells whereas cyclins are synthesised at specific stages of the cell cycle, in response to various molecular signals.
Upon receiving a pro-mitotic extracellular signal, G cyclin - CDK complexes become active to prepare the cell for S phase, promoting the expression of transcription factors that in turn promote the expression of S cyclins and of enzymes required for DNA replication. The G cyclin - CDK complexes also promote the degradation of molecules that function as S phase inhibitors by targeting them for ubiquitination. Once a protein has been ubiquitinated, it is targeted for proteolytic degradation by the proteasome. However, results from a recent study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level argue that the role of G1 cyclin - CDK activities, in particular cyclin D - CDK4 / 6, is to tune the timing rather than the commitment of cell cycle entry.
Active S cyclin - CDK complexes phosphorylate proteins that make up the pre-replication complexes assembled during G phase on DNA replication origins. The phosphorylation serves two purposes: to activate each already - assembled pre-replication complex, and to prevent new complexes from forming. This ensures that every portion of the cell 's genome will be replicated once and only once. The reason for prevention of gaps in replication is fairly clear, because daughter cells that are missing all or part of crucial genes will die. However, for reasons related to gene copy number effects, possession of extra copies of certain genes is also deleterious to the daughter cells.
Mitotic cyclin - CDK complexes, which are synthesized but inactivated during S and G phases, promote the initiation of mitosis by stimulating downstream proteins involved in chromosome condensation and mitotic spindle assembly. A critical complex activated during this process is a ubiquitin ligase known as the anaphase - promoting complex (APC), which promotes degradation of structural proteins associated with the chromosomal kinetochore. APC also targets the mitotic cyclins for degradation, ensuring that telophase and cytokinesis can proceed.
Cyclin D is the first cyclin produced in the cell cycle, in response to extracellular signals (e.g. growth factors). Cyclin D binds to existing CDK4, forming the active cyclin D - CDK4 complex. Cyclin D - CDK4 complex in turn phosphorylates the retinoblastoma susceptibility protein (Rb). The hyperphosphorylated Rb dissociates from the E2F / DP1 / Rb complex (which was bound to the E2F responsive genes, effectively "blocking '' them from transcription), activating E2F. Activation of E2F results in transcription of various genes like cyclin E, cyclin A, DNA polymerase, thymidine kinase, etc. Cyclin E thus produced binds to CDK2, forming the cyclin E-CDK2 complex, which pushes the cell from G to S phase (G / S, which initiates the G / M transition). Cyclin B - cdk1 complex activation causes breakdown of nuclear envelope and initiation of prophase, and subsequently, its deactivation causes the cell to exit mitosis. A quantitative study of E2F transcriptional dynamics at the single - cell level by using engineered fluorescent reporter cells provided a quantitative framework for understanding the control logic of cell cycle entry, challenging the canonical textbook model. Genes that regulate the amplitude of E2F accumulation, such as Myc, determine the commitment in cell cycle and S phase entry. G1 cyclin - CDK activities are not the driver of cell cycle entry. Instead, they primarily tune the timing of E2F increase, thereby modulating the pace of cell cycle progression.
Two families of genes, the cip / kip (CDK interacting protein / Kinase inhibitory protein) family and the INK4a / ARF (Inhibitor of Kinase 4 / Alternative Reading Frame) family, prevent the progression of the cell cycle. Because these genes are instrumental in prevention of tumor formation, they are known as tumor suppressors.
The cip / kip family includes the genes p21, p27 and p57. They halt cell cycle in G phase, by binding to, and inactivating, cyclin - CDK complexes. p21 is activated by p53 (which, in turn, is triggered by DNA damage e.g. due to radiation). p27 is activated by Transforming Growth Factor of β (TGF β), a growth inhibitor.
The INK4a / ARF family includes p16, which binds to CDK4 and arrests the cell cycle in G phase, and p14 which prevents p53 degradation.
Synthetic inhibitors of Cdc25 could also be useful for the arrest of cell cycle and therefore be useful as antineoplastic and anticancer agents.
Current evidence suggests that a semi-autonomous transcriptional network acts in concert with the CDK - cyclin machinery to regulate the cell cycle. Several gene expression studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have identified 800 -- 1200 genes that change expression over the course of the cell cycle. They are transcribed at high levels at specific points in the cell cycle, and remain at lower levels throughout the rest of the cycle. While the set of identified genes differs between studies due to the computational methods and criteria used to identify them, each study indicates that a large portion of yeast genes are temporally regulated.
Many periodically expressed genes are driven by transcription factors that are also periodically expressed. One screen of single - gene knockouts identified 48 transcription factors (about 20 % of all non-essential transcription factors) that show cell cycle progression defects. Genome - wide studies using high throughput technologies have identified the transcription factors that bind to the promoters of yeast genes, and correlating these findings with temporal expression patterns have allowed the identification of transcription factors that drive phase - specific gene expression. The expression profiles of these transcription factors are driven by the transcription factors that peak in the prior phase, and computational models have shown that a CDK - autonomous network of these transcription factors is sufficient to produce steady - state oscillations in gene expression).
Experimental evidence also suggests that gene expression can oscillate with the period seen in dividing wild - type cells independently of the CDK machinery. Orlando et al. used microarrays to measure the expression of a set of 1,271 genes that they identified as periodic in both wild type cells and cells lacking all S - phase and mitotic cyclins (clb1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). Of the 1,271 genes assayed, 882 continued to be expressed in the cyclin - deficient cells at the same time as in the wild type cells, despite the fact that the cyclin - deficient cells arrest at the border between G and S phase. However, 833 of the genes assayed changed behavior between the wild type and mutant cells, indicating that these genes are likely directly or indirectly regulated by the CDK - cyclin machinery. Some genes that continued to be expressed on time in the mutant cells were also expressed at different levels in the mutant and wild type cells. These findings suggest that while the transcriptional network may oscillate independently of the CDK - cyclin oscillator, they are coupled in a manner that requires both to ensure the proper timing of cell cycle events. Other work indicates that phosphorylation, a post-translational modification, of cell cycle transcription factors by Cdk1 may alter the localization or activity of the transcription factors in order to tightly control timing of target genes.
While oscillatory transcription plays a key role in the progression of the yeast cell cycle, the CDK - cyclin machinery operates independently in the early embryonic cell cycle. Before the midblastula transition, zygotic transcription does not occur and all needed proteins, such as the B - type cyclins, are translated from maternally loaded mRNA.
Analyses of synchronized cultures of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under conditions that prevent DNA replication initiation without delaying cell cycle progression showed that origin licensing decreases the expression of genes with origins near their 3 ' ends, revealing that downstream origins can regulate the expression of upstream genes. This confirms previous predictions from mathematical modeling of a global causal coordination between DNA replication origin activity and mRNA expression, and shows that mathematical modeling of DNA microarray data can be used to correctly predict previously unknown biological modes of regulation.
Cell cycle checkpoints are used by the cell to monitor and regulate the progress of the cell cycle. Checkpoints prevent cell cycle progression at specific points, allowing verification of necessary phase processes and repair of DNA damage. The cell can not proceed to the next phase until checkpoint requirements have been met. Checkpoints typically consist of a network of regulatory proteins that monitor and dictate the progression of the cell through the different stages of the cell cycle.
There are several checkpoints to ensure that damaged or incomplete DNA is not passed on to daughter cells. Three main checkpoints exist: the G / S checkpoint, the G / M checkpoint and the metaphase (mitotic) checkpoint.
G / S transition is a rate - limiting step in the cell cycle and is also known as restriction point. This is where the cell checks whether it has enough raw materials to fully replicate its DNA (nucleotide bases, DNA synthase, chromatin, etc.). An unhealthy or malnourished cell will get stuck at this checkpoint.
The G / M checkpoint is where the cell ensures that it has enough cytoplasm and phospholipids for two daughter cells. But sometimes more importantly, it checks to see if it is the right time to replicate. There are some situations where many cells need to all replicate simultaneously (for example, a growing embryo should have a symmetric cell distribution until it reaches the mid-blastula transition). This is done by controlling the G / M checkpoint.
The metaphase checkpoint is a fairly minor checkpoint, in that once a cell is in metaphase, it has committed to undergoing mitosis. However that 's not to say it is n't important. In this checkpoint, the cell checks to ensure that the spindle has formed and that all of the chromosomes are aligned at the spindle equator before anaphase begins.
While these are the three "main '' checkpoints, not all cells have to pass through each of these checkpoints in this order to replicate. Many types of cancer are caused by mutations that allow the cells to speed through the various checkpoints or even skip them altogether. Going from S to M to S phase almost consecutively. Because these cells have lost their checkpoints, any DNA mutations that may have occurred are disregarded and passed on to the daughter cells. This is one reason why cancer cells have a tendency to exponentially accrue mutations. Aside from cancer cells, many fully differentiated cell types no longer replicate so they leave the cell cycle and stay in G until their death. Thus removing the need for cellular checkpoints. An alternative model of the cell cycle response to DNA damage has also been proposed, known as the postreplication checkpoint.
Checkpoint regulation plays an important role in an organism 's development. In sexual reproduction, when egg fertilization occurs, when the sperm binds to the egg, it releases signalling factors that notify the egg that it has been fertilized. Among other things, this induces the now fertilized oocyte to return from its previously dormant, G, state back into the cell cycle and on to mitotic replication and division.
p53 plays an important role in triggering the control mechanisms at both G / S and G / M checkpoints. In addition to p53, checkpoint regulators are being heavily researched for their roles in cancer growth and proliferation.
Pioneering work by Atsushi Miyawaki and coworkers developed the fluorescent ubiquitination - based cell cycle indicator (FUCCI), which enables fluorescence imaging of the cell cycle. Originally, a green fluorescent protein, mAG, was fused to hGem (1 / 110) and an orange fluorescent protein (mKO) was fused to hCdt1 (30 / 120). Note, these fusions are fragments that contain a nuclear localization signal and ubiquitination sites for degradation, but are not functional proteins. The green fluorescent protein is made during the S, G, or M phase and degraded during the G or G phase, while the orange fluorescent protein is made during the G or G phase and destroyed during the S, G, or M phase. A far - red and near - infrared FUCCI was developed using a cyanobacteria - derived fluorescent protein (smURFP) and a bacteriophytochrome - derived fluorescent protein (movie found at this link).
A disregulation of the cell cycle components may lead to tumor formation. As mentioned above, when some genes like the cell cycle inhibitors, RB, p53 etc. mutate, they may cause the cell to multiply uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Although the duration of cell cycle in tumor cells is equal to or longer than that of normal cell cycle, the proportion of cells that are in active cell division (versus quiescent cells in G phase) in tumors is much higher than that in normal tissue. Thus there is a net increase in cell number as the number of cells that die by apoptosis or senescence remains the same.
The cells which are actively undergoing cell cycle are targeted in cancer therapy as the DNA is relatively exposed during cell division and hence susceptible to damage by drugs or radiation. This fact is made use of in cancer treatment; by a process known as debulking, a significant mass of the tumor is removed which pushes a significant number of the remaining tumor cells from G to G phase (due to increased availability of nutrients, oxygen, growth factors etc.). Radiation or chemotherapy following the debulking procedure kills these cells which have newly entered the cell cycle.
The fastest cycling mammalian cells in culture, crypt cells in the intestinal epithelium, have a cycle time as short as 9 to 10 hours. Stem cells in resting mouse skin may have a cycle time of more than 200 hours. Most of this difference is due to the varying length of G, the most variable phase of the cycle. M and S do not vary much.
In general, cells are most radiosensitive in late M and G phases and most resistant in late S phase.
For cells with a longer cell cycle time and a significantly long G phase, there is a second peak of resistance late in G.
The pattern of resistance and sensitivity correlates with the level of sulfhydryl compounds in the cell. Sulfhydryls are natural substances that protect cells from radiation damage and tend to be at their highest levels in S and at their lowest near mitosis.
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who played sally fields husband in brothers and sisters | Brothers & Sisters (2006 TV series) - wikipedia
Brothers & Sisters is an American television drama series that centers on the Walker family and their lives in Los Angeles and Pasadena, California. It aired for five seasons on ABC from September 24, 2006, to May 8, 2011. It aired, for its entire run, in a Sunday night timeslot after Desperate Housewives.
The series seems to be loosely based on the British television series The Brothers that was produced by the BBC between 1972 and 1976 and shown in the UK and several other European countries.
Brothers & Sisters features an ensemble cast led by Sally Field as Nora Walker, with Rachel Griffiths as Sarah, Calista Flockhart as Kitty, Balthazar Getty as Tommy, Matthew Rhys as Kevin and Dave Annable as Justin Walker, her grown children. Patricia Wettig co-starred as Holly Harper, with Emily VanCamp later joining the cast as Rebecca Harper, as well as Ron Rifkin as Saul Holden. Field won both a Primetime Emmy Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for her performances throughout the series, as well as Griffiths receiving nominations for two Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards for her portrayal.
The series revolves around the lives and problems of the wealthy Walker family in the wake of the death of family patriarch William Walker (Tom Skerritt), the founder of the family business Ojai Foods. The family consists of wife and mother Nora Walker (Sally Field) who must deal with revelations about her husband 's infidelity, and her children Sarah (Rachel Griffiths) and Tommy (Balthazar Getty), both married executives at Ojai Foods, Kitty (Calista Flockhart), a conservative activist, Kevin (Matthew Rhys), a Gay lawyer, and youngest sibling Justin (Dave Annable), who has recently returned from the Afghan War with a substance abuse problem. They were joined by Nora 's brother Saul (Ron Rifkin) and Holly Harper (Patricia Wettig), William 's mistress. Plotlines typically revolved around the romantic relationships of the family, their business fortunes, especially with regard to the control of Ojai Foods, and the relationship between the siblings. Most conflicts were resolved with a renewed call for family unity and a lot of wine.
The show 's narrative launched with the death of William Walker at Kitty 's birthday party. His death causes a number of secrets from his life to be revealed -- secrets that impact the remainder of his family and which include the introduction of William 's mistress Holly Harper and her daughter Rebecca.
Other main storylines throughout the series include the personal, political (usually through Robert and Kitty 's and later Kevin 's careers) and professional lives of Nora and all the brothers and sisters; their relationships with each other; interaction with Rebecca and her mother (William 's mistress) Holly; and the running of the family business Ojai Foods -- which is mostly looked after by Saul, Sarah and Tommy along with Holly and Rebecca from season 3 onwards. After the family sells Ojai Foods, Scotty and Saul open a restaurant and Nora begins working at a radio station which Sarah decides to buy.
Most of the season focuses on The Walkers dealing with the loss of William Walker and the secrets uncovered by his death, most notably the discovery of Holly Harper, a woman he had an affair with, and her daughter Rebecca. The season also introduces the audience to the lives of the Walker siblings who must deal with their jobs, turbulent love lives and each other.
The second season focused mainly on the romantic lives of the Walker siblings. As Kitty and Robert start planning their wedding, Kevin runs into Scotty (his lover from the first season) and they become a couple. Sarah must now deal with her divorce and being a single parent while Tommy and Julia go through serious issues after struggling with the loss of one of their twins. Nora begins a new romance with one of Robert 's staff and, along with Rebecca, tries to help Justin regain his life after being injured in the war.
After the discovery that she is not, in fact, a Walker, Rebecca must deal with her new place in the family and her new relationship with Justin which could be in trouble with the appearance of Ryan -- William 's actual secret child. Kitty and Robert face problems in their marriage as they try to adopt a baby while Kevin and Scotty settle into married life. Nora decides she wants a career of her own after spending most of her life in the back seat and finds a new romance. With Holly becoming a major presence at Ojai. Saul and Sarah decide to quit leading to a new business venture for the eldest Walker sibling, while Tommy turns to drastic measures to take back the family business.
The show was renewed for a fourth season on April 23, 2009. It premiered on September 27, 2009 on ABC.
This season sees Kevin and Scotty decide to start a family while Kitty finds her family may be torn apart when she receives unexpected news that she has lymphoma, cancer of the lymph nodes. Sarah finds love with Luc, a man she met in France who traveled to America to be with her, but the dream does n't seem to last in her real life. Justin is finding it hard to balance his engagement to Rebecca with his medical school studies, while Rebecca has troubles of her own. After not having their wedding Rebecca comes to find out she is now pregnant with Justin 's baby but Rebecca ends up having a miscarriage which causes some more strain on their relationship. While her children go through difficult times Nora must try her hardest to get them through their troubles and Ryan causes trouble for the Walkers and Ojai by teaming up with a man from William 's past. Will Holly 's obsession with the secrets of Ojai ruin her relationship with David? The season ends with a horrific car crash that leaves Holly severely injured and the fate of Senator Robert McCallister unsure.
Brothers & Sisters was renewed for a fifth season on March 5, 2010. It premiered on September 26, 2010 on ABC. The events of the fifth season begin one year after the season 4 finale.
The season starts with Kitty holding on to Robert who has been in a coma since the accident when she is faced with the decision of whether or no to turn off his life support. Sarah considers selling the new land and water found in Ojai to start a new chapter with Luc. Kevin, who has become a low - paid pro-bono lawyer, and Scotty begin the adoption process after their surrogate, Michelle, appears to lose their baby. Saul bumps into an old flame, Jonathan, who now campaigns for a HIV+ charity, and reveals that it was Jonathan who infected Saul. Justin and Rebecca struggle to reconnect after his year abroad leaving her feeling abandoned and questioning her future. Meanwhile, Holly has developed long term memory loss after the accident and is struggling to remember her life and loved ones.
Finally, Nora has become distant from her family whilst she searches for a new career and purpose when a unique job opportunity presents itself at a local radio station. Later in the season, Nora 's first love, Nick Brody, returns with a revelation that could change the Walker family forever.
The series is from producer Ken Olin (star of thirtysomething and producer of Alias) and Jon Robin Baitz, one of Broadway 's most prominent playwrights (The Substance of Fire). Noted producer Greg Berlanti was also an executive producer and "show - runner '' during season one. Berlanti continues to serve on the series as executive producer. Mark B. Perry (The Wonder Years and One Tree Hill) served as the showrunner for twelve episodes before departing the show in the aftermath of the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike. Perry was replaced by Monica Owusu - Breen and Alison Schapker who served as showrunners until they were replaced by David Marshall Grant shortly into season 4.
After the series pilot was shot, and the show was picked up by ABC, the series underwent some moderate changes. Most notably, three of the roles were recast:
The more minor role of Cooper, Sarah and Joe 's younger child, was also recast after the pilot episode.
Robert McCallister was the name of a character on a previous Greg Berlanti production, Jack & Bobby, about a boy who grew up to be the President of the United States. As with the Robert McCallister on Brothers & Sisters, the character on Jack & Bobby was a Republican who had a wife named Courtney and a son named Jack.
Brothers & Sisters is produced by Berlanti Television, After Portsmouth, and Touchstone Television (Fall 2006 -- Spring 2007), which is now ABC Studios (Fall 2007 -- 2011).
On May 13, 2011, ABC announced the series of Brothers & Sisters had been canceled after five seasons.
Brothers & Sisters aired on SOAPnet weekdays and also aired local syndication on weekends only until 2012.
Brothers & Sisters was filmed in the Greater Los Angeles area including: Los Angeles, Santa Monica, South Pasadena, Pasadena, and other locations.
Brothers & Sisters 's first season received mixed to positive reviews from critics but positive reviews from fans. However, the reviews became warm and earned acclaim even from critics.
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of Brothers & Sisters on ABC:
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when did the new pirates movie come out | Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales - wikipedia
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales (released overseas as Pirates of the Caribbean: Salazar 's Revenge) is a 2017 American swashbuckler fantasy film. It is the fifth installment in the Pirates of the Caribbean film series and the sequel to On Stranger Tides (2011). The film is directed by Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg from a script by Jeff Nathanson, with Jerry Bruckheimer serving again as producer. Johnny Depp, Kevin McNally and Geoffrey Rush reprise their roles as Jack Sparrow, Joshamee Gibbs and Hector Barbossa, respectively, while Javier Bardem, Brenton Thwaites and Kaya Scodelario join the cast as Armando Salazar, Henry Turner and Carina Smyth. The film also features the returns of Orlando Bloom and Keira Knightley as Will Turner and Elizabeth Swann, following their absence from the previous film.
The filmmakers cited the series ' first installment, The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003), as inspiration for the script and tone of the film. Pre-production for the film started shortly before On Stranger Tides was released in early 2011, with Terry Rossio writing a script for the film. In early 2013, Jeff Nathanson was hired to write a new script, with Depp being involved in Nathanson 's writing process. Initially planned for a 2015 release, the film was delayed to 2016 and then to 2017, due to script and budget issues. Principal photography started in Australia in February 2015, after the Australian government offered Disney $20 million in tax incentives, and ended in July 2015.
Dead Men Tell No Tales was released in conventional, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D and IMAX 3D formats on May 26, 2017, ten years and one day after release of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End (2007). The film received criticism for its complicated and convoluted plot, though the performances, visuals and shorter running time were praised; some critics considered the film an improvement over its predecessor, while others felt the franchise had run its course. The film has made $794 million worldwide, the second - lowest gross of the series but the eighth highest of 2017.
Two years following the post-credits scene of At World 's End, 12 - year old Henry Turner boards the Flying Dutchman to inform his father, Will Turner, that the mythical Trident of Poseidon is able to break his curse and free him from his ship, and of his intent to seek Jack Sparrow 's help to find it. Will does not believe the Trident exists and orders Henry to leave his ship and never come back.
Nine years later (and five after the events On Stranger Tides), Henry works on a British Royal Navy warship. While chasing a pirate ship, Henry realizes they are sailing into the Devil 's Triangle. The captain dismisses his concerns and has Henry locked up for attempting mutiny. Upon entering the Triangle, they come across a shipwreck, and are attacked by Captain Salazar and his undead crew, who slaughter everyone on board except Henry. Salazar sees a wanted poster of Jack and allows Henry to live so he can deliver a message to Jack, warning him that he will escape before leaving.
In Saint Martin, a young woman named Carina Smyth has been sentenced to death for witchcraft because of her knowledge of astronomy and horology. She escapes her cell and briefly runs into Jack, who is fleeing with his crew with a vault from a bank they have just robbed. Jack and his crew evade the British Army, but realize the vault they stole is empty; the entire contents, save for a single coin, had fallen out during the chase. Jack 's crew angrily abandon him for letting them down. Even Gibbs, whom had stuck beside Jack for so many years, leaves, having lost faith in the captain. Carina later meets Henry, who is awaiting execution for his actions aboard the ship, and says she knows of a way to find the Trident. Carina helps him escape, but is caught by the British Army.
Disheartened after losing his crew, Jack goes to a local tavern and gives away his compass to pay for his drink. By forsaking the compass, however, he unwittingly unleashes Salazar and his crew from the Devil 's Triangle. Shortly after, Jack is caught by the British Army. As he and Carina are about to be executed, Henry helps them escape with help from Jack 's crew, and together they sail away on Jack 's ship, the Dying Gull. Carina reveals the stars are the map that will lead them to the Trident, and reluctantly decides to team up with Henry and Jack in order to achieve their goals. While searching for Jack, Salazar and his crew roam the seas and destroy ships in Captain Barbossa 's fleet. Barbossa meets with Salazar and offers to help find Jack in exchange for sparing his fleet. Salazar explains to Barbossa that he and his crew once sailed the seas hunting and killing pirates, and had nearly cleansed the seas of piracy before they ran into a young Jack Sparrow, who tricked them into sailing into the Devil 's Triangle, where Salazar and his crew were cursed to remain undead.
When Salazar 's ship finds the Dying Gull, Jack, Henry and Carina escape on a rowboat while the crew remains on board to cause a distraction. Salazar and his crew chase Jack, but upon arriving at a small island, Jack realizes Salazar 's ghost crew can not step on land. Barbossa arrives at the island and allies with Jack, restoring the Black Pearl, which had been trapped in a bottle in Jack 's possession, to its original size. With Jack 's compass, which he obtained from the sea - witch Shansa, Barbossa takes command of the ship and lets Carina navigate them to the island. During the trip, Jack and Barbossa realize that Carina is Barbossa 's long - lost daughter. Barbossa tells Jack that he left her at an orphanage with his diary to make sure she lived a better life, never imagining that he would see her again.
The Pearl narrowly escapes a British Navy warship, which is destroyed by Salazar 's ship. Jack and Salazar 's crews clash. Meanwhile, Jack and Carina manage to activate the island 's magic, which parts the ocean to reveal a hidden path along the ocean floor. Salazar captures Henry and possesses his body to pursue them. Jack and Carina locate the trident, but Salazar intervenes, fighting Jack and seizing the Trident. Henry, now free of Salazar, realizes that destroying the Trident will break all curses upon the sea and shatters it, returning Salazar and his crew to life. As the divided sea slowly caves in, the Pearl attempts to rescue Jack, Henry, Carina, and Barbossa, lowering the ship 's anchor into the narrowing trench to pull them to safety, but -- still intent on killing Jack -- Salazar grabs the anchor as well. Carina notices a tattoo on Barbossa 's arm, matching the cover of her diary, and realizes that he is her father. After proclaiming his love for her, Barbossa sacrifices himself to take down Salazar and his crew and save Carina and the others. Following Barbossa 's death, Carina changes her last name to Barbossa.
Some time later, Henry is joined by Carina, as they watch his father finally set foot on land again, no longer bound to the Flying Dutchman. As Henry and Carina kiss, Will is reunited with his wife Elizabeth. Watching from the deck of the Pearl, Jack sails away with his crew, opening up his mystical compass to reveal their next adventure.
In a post-credits scene, Will and Elizabeth are asleep when their bedroom is entered by the silhouette of an apparently resurrected Davy Jones. Just as Jones raises his clawed arm to strike at the couple, Will awakens and assumes this to be a nightmare, oblivious to the presence of barnacles on the floor amid a small puddle of seawater, hinting that Jones has been resurrected from the dead.
Additionally, Keira Knightley reprises her role in the film series as Elizabeth Swann, Will Turner 's wife, and Henry 's mother. Adam Brown, Danny Kirrane, and Delroy Atkinson appear as members of Jack 's crew. In the prison scene, Paul McCartney appears briefly as Jack 's paternal uncle, Uncle Jack. Alexander Scheer plays a young Captain Edward Teague in a flashback sequence, while Keith Richards ' likeness (as Jack 's father) was also used. A silhouette of Davy Jones, one of the series ' former villains, was seen in the post-credits scene, but no actor was credited for this appearance. Pablo and Chiquita reprised their role as Jack the Monkey.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides in 2011, the cast and crew of the fourth film were told to set aside time in the near future, as Walt Disney Pictures intended to shoot a fifth and sixth film back - to - back (like the first two sequels). However, it was later stated that only a fifth film was in the works. On January 11, 2013, Jeff Nathanson signed on to write the script for the film. Rob Marshall, the director of the last film, was believed for return to direct, but he declined after he chose to direct Into the Woods (2014) and The Thin Man (both projects for Disney and starring Johnny Depp). After Marshall passed on the project, many directors were rumored to direct the film, like Tim Burton, Sam Raimi, Shawn Levy, Chris Weitz, Alfonso Cuarón and Gore Verbinski (who directed the first three films). On May 9, 2013, it was reported that Fredrik Bond, Rupert Sanders, and the Norwegian film duo Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg were considered to direct the fifth film. Finally, on May 29, 2013, Rønning and Sandberg were selected to direct. This decision was based both on their Academy Award - nominated high sea film Kon - Tiki, as well as their ability to work with a limited budget. Geoffrey Rush argued that the pair brought "a kind of Euro sensibility to traditional Hollywood franchise thinking ''. While Orlando Bloom believed that they 'd "recaptured the simplicity and charm '', calling the film "fantastic, really entertaining ''. On August 22, 2013, Rønning and Sandberg revealed that the title of the fifth film would be Dead Men Tell No Tales. They also confirmed that they were working on the film, speaking highly of Jeff Nathanson 's "funny and touching '' script and that they are inspired by the first film, The Curse of the Black Pearl, stating that the original is "scary, it 's funny, and most of all it 's a comedy, but with great heart, and that structure and the dynamics between the characters was something I really wanted to try and reinvent ''. On the pair 's decision to direct the film, Rønning believed that "it was all there in this script already, and for me, it was just a matter of adding scenes that carry the tradition of Gore Verbinski, bring the emotional core and big action set pieces '', with Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton also being in the director 's mind when crafting the tone of the film. The pair also wanted to include two things new to the series: "it needs to have heart; I really believe this to be the most emotional Pirates yet '', argued Rønning, as well as exploring the roots of Jack Sparrow. Kaya Scodelario felt that the film "will have much more of the feel of the first film, the producers want to take it back to the beginning again. They wanted it to have this epic journey, and for it to make sense, and for it to tie things up, and also lead to new storylines. ''
However, after Disney 's The Lone Ranger lost the studio $190 million in 2013 -- a film also starring Depp in a similarly eccentric role -- Disney questioned the bankability of Depp and thus the franchise, so the film was reconsidered and not actually green - lit as of early 2014. Another problem, along with the lack of success Depp experienced outside of the Pirates franchise were script problems, as Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn stated: "We have n't seen a screenplay yet that I 've been able to sign off on. There are a lot of variables that affect the final outcome once it leaves the studio lot, so we are very careful. '' Due to these problems, the film 's production was delayed, and it moved from a 2015 release aspired by Disney in 2013 to a likely release in 2016. Producer Jerry Bruckheimer revealed that script as well as budget issues were behind the delay, and that Jeff Nathanson was at work on a second attempt based on a well - received outline, stating: "It 's all a factor. We want a script that everyone 's signed off on and a budget that everyone 's signed off on. '' After the script was accepted and the film was finally officially green - lit by Disney in July 2014, the release date moved to July 7, 2017.
Many of the crew members for the film were new to the franchise, replacing members that had served on the previous four films. Apart from directors Rønning and Sandberg and writer Nathanson, a new director of photography, Paul Cameron replaced Dariusz Wolski, production designer Nigel Phelps, visual effects supervisor Gary Brozenich, special effects supervisor Dan Oliver, supervising stunt coordinator R.A. Rondell, stunt coordinators Thomas Robinson Harper and Kyle Gardiner, makeup and hair designer Peter Swords King, executive producers Joe Caracciolo Jr. and Brigham Taylor replacing Mike Stenson, film editors Joel Cox, Gary D. Roach and Roger Barton and composer Geoff Zanelli taking over from composer of the primary themes for the series, Hans Zimmer. Costume designer Penny Rose returned after providing the costumes for all four previous films, along with executive producer Chad Oman.
Speaking to IGN while promoting The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, Orlando Bloom indicated that the film might serve as a soft reboot for the franchise, saying: "Basically, they want to reboot the whole franchise, I think, and do something with me and the relationship with my son. ''
By 2011, shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, Terry Rossio was writing a script for a fifth film without his partner Ted Elliott. Rossio 's draft was ultimately rejected. "My version of Dead Men Tell No Tales was set aside because it featured a female villain, '' recalled Rossio, "and Johnny Depp was worried that would be redundant to Dark Shadows, which also featured a female villain. '' In January 2013, Disney hired Jeff Nathanson to work on a script. That September, producer Bruckheimer said, "We have an outline everyone loves but the script is not done, '' explaining that the release would be postponed beyond summer 2015.
On April 13, 2014, Depp said Bruckheimer and Disney had invited him in to collaborate with the writer Jeff Nathanson, noting:
Everyone involved wants the script to be right and perfect. So we have gone on to do other things (in the meantime). We are still going to do the film together. I enjoy them immensely. They are super talented. They have a great sense of humor. I think they have a really fun approach to what we are going to do with the next Pirates. Very happily and proudly, I have welcomed taking part in the story and working directly with the screenwriter (Jeff Nathanson) -- he and I. It 's working out really well that way. So I have high hopes for that Pirates 5 because if that 's really the last one, which it probably is, I feel that we owe it to the audience who went and saw the films so many times. We 'll do it right and end it on a high note.
Speaking at the On Stranger Tides press launch in Cannes, Depp said he would play the role for as long as it is popular with the public. In August 2012 news surfaced that Johnny Depp signed on officially for the fifth film, earning A $ 90 million to reprise his role. As with the fourth film, Depp was also involved in scripting and planning Dead Men Tell No Tales. Geoffrey Rush had commented on returning as Hector Barbossa in the fifth installment, saying "If they keep shapeshifting this character, absolutely '' as well as implying he may return as the villain. He also said that Barbossa 's megalomania "could explode in horrific ways ''. In December 2014, Rush confirmed his return for the fifth installment, where Barbossa and Jack were "at the heart of it and there 's a whole new set of story lines ''. In late 2011, about four years after choosing not to return for the fourth installment, Orlando Bloom stated that he would like to return for the fifth film if he was offered. On May 11, 2011, Naomie Harris expressed her desire to return as Tia Dalma if they called her. Several weeks after Disney officially green - lit the film, Bloom stated that there were "discussions '' about his return to the franchise in September 2014. Bloom further commented in December 2014, that while he was not sure whether he would return, there were talks. He also indicated that Disney could do a soft reboot with the franchise and focus on Will Turner and his son. After months of speculation and after filming wrapped up, Bloom 's participation was confirmed at Disney D23 on August 15, 2015.
On December 2, 2013, it was reported that Christoph Waltz was in talks to appear as the film 's main antagonist, but he finally declined. Australian actor Brenton Thwaites entered talks for the role of Henry in late November 2014, after Disney chose him over Taron Egerton, George MacKay, Mitchell Hope, Ansel Elgort and Sam Keeley. In mid-January 2015, he stated that he was to travel to Australia for the film in February, disclosing that his role was indeed that of Will Turner _́ s son, struggling to break a curse to meet his father. The shortlist of actresses for the female lead consisted of Gabriella Wilde, Kaya Scodelario, Alexandra Dowling, Jenna Thiam and Lucy Boynton. On January 24, Jerry Bruckheimer announced via Twitter that Scodelario had won the role. In July, her character was revealed to be called Carina. In earlier drafts of the script the name Carina Smyth appeared as Barbossa 's daughter and was a love interest of Sparrow 's and was an astronomer accused of being a witch. Scodelario confirmed that the character was an astronomer and that "she 's a totally different character '' to Keira Knightley 's Elizabeth Swann, and also confirmed that Smyth will be Henry 's love interest instead of Jack 's. By October 2014, Javier Bardem, husband of Penélope Cruz (who portrayed Angelica in the fourth installment), was in early talks to appear as the antagonist of the film. His role was eventually confirmed to be that of Armando Salazar, who in early scripts was referred as Captain John Brand. However, during an interview with Collider in 2012, Penélope Cruz stated that she would most likely not reprise her role as Angelica Teach. Kevin McNally confirmed his return as Joshamee Gibbs via Twitter in late January. Shortly after on location pre-production opened in Australia, Disney issued a casting call to local agents for actors from all age - and experience levels to apply for roles and as extras in the upcoming film, with casting also open in the US. Adam Brown, Delroy Atkinson, Danny Kirrane were revealed as cast members shortly before filming. Martin Klebba confirmed his return as Marty via Twitter days before filming began. On February 17, 2015, Stephen Graham revealed that he will reprise his role as Scrum. On September 24, 2015, a YouTube video was uploaded stating that Giles New and Angus Barnett would reprise their roles as Murtogg and Mullroy. Director Joachim Rønning 's two children appear in the film as extras. Also, Keith Richards expressed interest in reprising his role as Captain Teague. Additionally, Greg Ellis expressed interest in reprising his role as Theodore Groves, despite his character 's apparent death in the previous film, saying the possibility that Groves survived. Apart from this declaration, reports that a deceased Navy officer will star in the film, had sparked many rumors regarding the possibility of the return of James Norrington (portrayed again by Jack Davenport), who died in the third film.
Both Lee Arenberg and Mackenzie Crook commented on the possibility of returning as Pintel and Ragetti. Arenberg confirmed in several interviews that, despite wanting to return to the fourth film, he hoped to reprise his role as Pintel. In an interview on November 7, 2014, Crook confirmed that he had received a call of availability from Disney for the film, although stated that he was uncertain about whether he wanted to reprise his role. Crook declined to reprise his role ultimately, in order to focus on his television series Detectorists. He said he felt "pangs of nostalgia '' when the cast and crew filmed the film without him. Furthermore, shortly before filming started, Arenberg announced on Twitter that he would not reprise his role as well, despite having been interested in doing so. In early 2017, there were rumors that Keira Knightley was back to the franchise for a cameo scene despite Knightley saying in 2011 that she was n't coming back to any future films. On April 18, 2017, the international trailer was released, confirming Knightley 's participation.
On January 15, 2014, directors Joachim Rønning and Espen Sandberg confirmed that shooting would take place in Puerto Rico and New Orleans and Bruckheimer had previously mentioned that there might be a sequence in Louisiana. However, a spokesman for the Australian Arts Minister George Brandis confirmed that the fifth installment was set to shoot exclusively in Australia after the government agreed to repurpose $20 million of tax incentives originally intended for the remake of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, thus edging out Mexico and South Africa as filming locations. According to Australian film industry sources, on location pre-production started in late September 2014 and its cost is around $250 million. This was officially confirmed by Disney and the Queensland Arts Minister on October 2, 2014, stating that filming will take place exclusively in Queensland, Australia, being the largest production to ever shoot in the country. Village Roadshow Studios and Port Douglas were officially confirmed as filming locations. On January 1, 2015, The Rainbow Gypsy, a 15 - year - old replica of an 1897 Scottish bawley, sailed into the Gold Coast to start the extensive refit, which will include a new bowsprit and reconfigured decks and cabins in order to become the Dying Gull, a single - masted ghost ship. Its captain and owner Kit Woodward will be a rigger on the film.
Filming commenced on February 17, 2015. Ship scenes were filmed in front of a giant outdoor greenscreen in Helensvale, while a film set in the form of a village was built in Maudsland. Filming moved to Doug Jennings Park on The Spit from March 30 to June 15, 2015 for water bound scenes. However, due to extreme sea sickness among the cast and crew due to "big swells '' at The Spit, filming moved to Raby Bay for calmer waters. Scenes were shot at Lennox Head on June 1. Locals made up more than 75 percent of the 850 - plus crew then working on the film. After much speculation about whether Orlando Bloom would return, Bloom arrived at the Gold Coast in late May to reprise his role as Will Turner. Scenes featuring a skeleton of a sperm whale that had been constructed were shot at Hastings Point from June 21 to 23.
A number of issues and controversies set back the film during its production. The biosecurity laws in Australia posed problems regarding the capuchin monkeys that portray Hector Barbossa 's pet monkey Jack, as the animals are regarded as a category 1 pest and require strict requirements and a 30 - day quarantine. Further controversy surrounding the use of the monkeys erupted from animal rights activist groups, who urged the Federal Environment Minister Greg Hunt to reject the application to fly two capuchin monkeys from California to Australia, arguing that the trip would "harm the monkeys ' health, that movie performances are unnatural for wild creatures and that the appearance of monkeys in films encourages the illegal wildlife trade ''. One of the monkeys caused further disruption when it wandered off set at Movie World and bit a make up artist on another production on the ear. Crew and cast members were forced to cover the camera lenses on all mobile phones with duct tape to prevent the film from being pirated before its release. To prevent fans from interfering with the production, secret filming locations used the production name of "Herschel '' to hide the fact it was the fifth Pirates of the Caribbean film. Following the attempt of an armed man trying to bypass security, the already tight security was increased.
On March 10, 2015, Depp was injured off set and had to be flown back to the United States for surgery. Due to his absence, filming stalled completely and 200 crew members were forced to stand down for two weeks as they had done all they had been able to without Depp. Filming was set to resume "on or about April 20 '' and Depp returned to set on April 21. In June, Kaya Scodelario was injured on set along with a stuntman.
Most of the cast and crew had finished on the July 8, 2015, and a wrap party was held on July 11. Filming then moved to the Whitsundays for the final shots to be filmed. On July 21, 2015, Joachim Rønning announced via Instagram that filming has wrapped after a 95 - day shoot. After nearly a year in post production, reshoots and additional photography was conducted in Vancouver, Canada from March 24 to April 13, 2016 under the production title "Herschel Additional Photography ''.
The entire film was filmed in IMAX for an expanded 1.9: 1 aspect ratio, giving IMAX screenings of the film 26 % more picture on the screen.
For the first time in the series since Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (which he co-wrote with Klaus Badelt), Hans Zimmer is not composing the music for the film. Instead, one of his protégés, Geoff Zanelli, who worked on all previous four installments in the franchise, is the main composer for the film. Zanelli said of taking over from Zimmer as composer for the series, "What Hans did for the Pirates movies redefined the sound of the entire genre, it has been very fulfilling to work alongside him and (producer) Jerry (Bruckheimer) on the past four films. Dead Men Tell No Tales enlarges the Pirates universe with many new, unique elements, and I 'm building a distinctive sound for this film that springboards off of many years of collaborating in the Pirates world. '' The film 's soundtrack was released on May 26, 2017.
Work on the film concluded on April 19, 2017.
Dead Men Tell No Tales had its world premiere at the Shanghai Disney Resort on May 11, 2017. In several countries, the film was released as Pirates of the Caribbean: Salazar 's Revenge, including English - speaking countries. It was released at cinemas in Italy and Norway on May 24. The film was released in the United States, Canada, and China on May 26. It is the first Hollywood feature to be released in the United States for the new panorama - like ScreenX format; it will play in two locations in the U.S. -- CGV Buena Park and CGV Cinemas -- both in Los Angeles, California. Additionally, it will play in 81 screens at select theaters in Korea, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Turkey and Indonesia. The film will also play in 4D on 373 4DX screens worldwide. It is Disney 's third wide release of the year following Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2.
A robust marketing effort helped promote Dead Men Tell No Tales. The film was first showcased at the Disney D23 Expo 2015 where Depp appeared in costume as Jack Sparrow and the film 's logo was revealed with Orlando Bloom confirmed to be starring in the film. Elizabeth Rudnick has been self - confirmed to novelize the film, as well as describing the film as bringing back "sensibility '' plus bringing back Jack Sparrow in "all of his swaggering glory ''. Another book is set to be released by Disney, a tie - in prequel expanding the backstory of the character of Carina Smyth, titled Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales -- The Brightest Star in the North. The film was also showcased at the Walt Disney Content Showcase in Africa in 2016 where concept art, story details and on set images were previewed. The first teaser trailer was released on October 2, 2016, during Fear the Walking Dead and showcased Armando Salazar hunting for Jack Sparrow who does n't appear in the trailer except only his image on a wanted poster. On January 27, 2017, Disney uploaded an eight - second motion poster to their official Instagram account for the release of a TV spot of the film during Super Bowl LI. Disney then released a 30 - second television teaser at Super Bowl LI, with an extended version released online set to Johnny Cash 's "Ai n't No Grave ''. The trailer was considered to be the "big '' trailer of the event and was the most viewed trailer of all the films advertised at the halftime show. A new teaser poster was also released with the trailer. Both teasers received a highly positive reaction from audiences. The official trailer was released on March 2, 2017. Another trailer was released on March 25, 2017. The first 30 - second TV spot was released on March 31, 2017. On April 21, at Disney Parks and on the four Disney cruise ships, Disney previewed a sneak peek of the film. With the release of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 on April 28, 2017 in the UK, Disney premiered a 5 - minute extended sequence of the film in front of the Marvel film.
Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales is scheduled to be released on digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on September 19, 2017, and on Blu - ray, Ultra HD Blu - ray and DVD on October 3, 2017.
In May 2017, the film was allegedly stolen by a group of piracy hackers, who demanded a large sum of money from Disney in order for them not to distribute the unreleased film. The company refused to do so and worked with the FBI in order to get the identity of the group. Also Disney CEO, Bob Iger reported that hackers did n't steal their movie.
As of September 17, 2017, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales has grossed $172.5 million in the United States and Canada and $621.5 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $794 million, against a production budget of $230 million.
The film had a worldwide opening of $271.4 million from 55 markets, with $24 million coming from 1,088 IMAX screens. The film 's six - day opening gross pushed the franchise gross past the $4 billion mark. Despite being the lowest grossing film of the series domestically by nearly $70 million, the film became the highest - grossing entry of the Pirates franchise internationally when going by modern foreign - exchange rates, passing On Stranger Tides, which grossed $593.4 million at current rates. Despite weak domestic totals, Deadline.com noted the film should turn a net profit of around $280 million after factoring together all expenses and revenues.
In April 2017, early projections had the film grossing $115 million over its four - day Memorial Day opening weekend. In early May, projections were adjusted to $90 -- 100 million, which was again lowered down to $80 -- 85 million, with a chance of hitting $100 million, by the week of its release. It was released in 4,276 theaters, of which over 3,100 were 3D, including 400 IMAX locations, over 500 Premium Large Format locations, 170 D - Box locations, 10 4D auditoriums and three venues featuring the ScreenX three - screen format. It opened Friday, May 26, 2017, and earned $23.4 million on its opening day, including $5.5 million it made from Thursday night previews. Its opening day was the lowest of the franchise. In total, it grossed $63 million over three days, and $78.5 million over four (Friday - Monday), finishing first at the box office ahead of Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and fellow newcomer Baywatch. On a three - day basis, the film did 31 % less than On Stranger Tides did over its first three days in 2011, after adjusting for inflation, and on a four - day - basis, it 's down 34 % from At World 's End and overall is the second smallest debut of the franchise after the first film. Despite the film registering the highest test score in the series ' history, the opening came in well below initial expectations, which was attributed to various reasons, such as Johnny Depp 's diminishing returns and his depreciating public image amid his personal problems, the wave of negative reviews from critics (mainly on Rotten Tomatoes), franchise fatigue and the problem of Memorial Day weekend failing to attract considerable moviegoers in the past years. However, although the film 's opening was below predictions, it was n't considered a fatal failure and was better than Disney had for its last few Memorial Day releases (Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, Tomorrowland and Alice Through the Looking Glass). Studio executives said they were pleased with the movie 's opening, both domestically and abroad. Its opening further helped Disney push past $1 billion domestically to record the second - fastest time a studio has reached the mark domestically, second only to Disney 's own record from 2016 when the studio surpassed $1 billion in early May.
After droppingby 73 % on its second Friday, the worst Friday - to - Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 65 % in its second weekend, also the worst of the series, grossing $22.1 million. As a result, it finished in third place, after newcomers Wonder Woman ($103.3 million) and Captain Underpants: The First Epic Movie ($23.9 million). It made $10.7 million in its third weekend, $9 million in its fourth and $5.2 million in its fifth, respectively finishing 4th, 6th and 7th at the box office.
Internationally, where it is marketed as Salazar 's Revenge in many countries, the film was released day - and - date with its North American debut in 54 markets (91 % of its total marketplace, except Japan, where it debuted on July 1). Preliminary reports had the film opening to $150 -- 175 million, but possibly overperforming depending on major markets, most notably China. While its Chinese run benefited from the Dragon Boat Festival -- a lucrative moviegoing period -- from May 28 -- 30 as well as from International Children 's Day (June 1), the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing had a deteriorating effect on certain European markets, and eased moviegoing admissions across the continent over the film 's opening weekend. From Wednesday to Friday, it registered an opening of $208.8 million. Around $14 million of that came from IMAX screenings, the second biggest international IMAX opening in May only after Captain America: Civil War. Similar to its domestic plunge, it earned $73.8 million in its second weekend, thus, falling in second place behind Wonder Woman.
It recorded the biggest opening day of the year in several markets including Germany ($3.6 million), Austria, France ($2.3 million), Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Thailand ($400,000), Indonesia, Malaysia and the Netherlands ($900,000, also the second biggest Disney bow, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens), while Russia opened with $4 million, the fifth - biggest ever. In terms of opening, Russia posted the biggest opening of all - time with $18.4 million ($18.6 million including previews) while South Korea ($11.5 million), France ($9.1 million), Germany ($8.3 million), Mexico ($6.9 million), the UK ($6.1 million), Brazil ($5.6 million), Italy ($5.5 million), Australia ($4.4 million), Spain ($4.4 million), Indonesia ($4 million), Taiwan ($3.6 million), India ($3 million) and Argentina ($3 million) recorded the top openings..
In China, where the film had its global premiere, it earned $21.3 million on its opening day, the fourth biggest Disney opening day in the country. It had an 87 % marketshare and had already surpassed the entire earnings of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End. Earning a total of $67.9 million, it registered the third highest three - day for any Disney title, only behind Captain America: Civil War and Avengers: Age of Ultron and a much higher opening than the U.S. The film did extremely well in IMAX, earning $9 million from 401 screens from Friday to early Monday bookings. The robust opening has been attributed to the Dragon Boat Festival, as well as Depp 's star power, the ubiquity of the franchise, the impact of the Shanghai Disneyland Park, which opened last year and good word of mouth -- it has a score of 7.5 / 10 on reviews aggregator Douban, and 8.7 / 10 on top mobile ticketing platform Weying.
The final market for the film to be released in was Japan (1 July), where it opened at Number 1, achieving the highest grossing opening for a Western film of the year, earning $9.25 million over the July 1 - 2 weekend. It remained at the number 1 spot at the box office for three weeks.
The biggest earning markets so far are China ($172.3 million), followed by Japan ($55 million), Russia and the CIS ($40.7 million), where is the second highest grossing film ever, behind only Avatar, Germany ($31 million), France ($28.7 million) and U.K. ($25.1 million). The film is the highest grossing of the series internationally by modern - foreign exchange rates.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 30 % based on 222 reviews, with an average rating of 4.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales proves that neither a change in directors nor an undead Javier Bardem is enough to drain this sinking franchise 's murky bilge. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score 39 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx criticized the convoluted plot and overabundance of characters, writing: "Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man Tell No Tales is practically incoherent. I 've been trying to wrap my head around the ' plot, ' but it 's been futile. I 've asked literally eight other people who saw this movie to answer a couple specific questions and no one has been able to do it. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers called the film "bloated, boring, repetitive and draining '' and gave it one star out of four, saying, "Abandon ship, audiences. Paying cash money to see Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales is the equivalent of walking the plank. '' Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that the film returns "to the basic formula of the first three Pirates films directed by Gore Verbinski, in which Johnny Depp 's louche and campy Jack Sparrow played second banana to an insipid love story... the two romantic leads (...) succeed only in making the shortest movie in the series seem just as long as the rest. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times said of the film, "Its pleasures are so meager, its delight in its own inventions so forced and false, that it becomes almost the perfect opposite of entertainment. '' Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post remarked that the film was "loud, overstimulating and hard to take in all in one sitting '', comparing it to a "vacation that you 'll need a vacation from. '' Mick LaSalle of San Francisco Chronicle found the film to be "a jumble of half - baked impulses '', with the film 's directors "trying to pump air and passion into a stinking corpse of a franchise. ''
Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, saying: "Dead Men works well enough as a stand - alone, swashbuckling comedic spectacle, thanks to the terrific performances, some ingenious practical effects, impressive CGI and a steady diet of PG - 13 dialogue peppered with not particularly sophisticated but (I have to admit) fairly funny sexual innuendo. '' Pete Hammond of Deadline.com praised the film, calling it "the most entertaining installment, '' giving credit to Directors Rønning and Sandberg for creating a "rollicking good time ''. He praised the visual effects, particularly Salazar and his crew, arguing that it should be in line to receive an Academy Award for Visual Effects. He also gave high praise to Bardem for being able to create such a "fully dimensional villain '' under the layers of make - up and CGI, as well as Depp for keeping the film and franchise going. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a ' B ', praising the fun nature of the film as well as its visuals, calling it "gorgeously detailed swashbuckling nonsense, '' but wished that the script had taken more risks instead of following the formula used in previous films. Ashley Esqueda of CNET gave the film a positive review, arguing it brought the franchise back to what made its first two installments so fun, and praised Depp 's performance as "delightful as ever. '' Brian Truitt of USA Today gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, saying "What was once a past - its - prime franchise seems to have found new life. '' Mark Hughes of Forbes opined "Dead Men Tell No Tales is n't as good as the first three films, but it 's better than the fourth film '', adding "it has mostly good performances, and a couple of great ones. It has fantastic visual effects, lots of humor that works, a lighthearted feel and sense of fun, and many terrific action set pieces to make your eyeballs pop out. ''
The film was nominated for six Teen Choice Awards: Sci - Fi / Fantasy Movie, Sci - Fi / Fantasy Actor, Sci - fi / Fantasy Actress, Sci - Fi Fantasy villain and Sci - Fi Fantasy Liplock.
Shortly before the release of On Stranger Tides, it was reported that Disney was planning to shoot the fifth and the sixth films back - to - back, although it was later revealed that only the fifth film was in development. On March 4, 2017, director Joachim Rønning stated that Dead Men was only the beginning of the final adventure, implying that it would not be the last film of the franchise and that a sixth film could be realized. The post-credit scene of Dead Men shows Will Turner, Elizabeth Swann, and Davy Jones, implying that Will and Elizabeth will be main characters again and Davy Jones would be the main antagonist in a sixth film. In September 2017, producer Jerry Bruckheimer indicated that another Pirates sequel is still possible if Dead Men Tell No Tales does well in its home release.
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discuss the reforms or changes that introduced by the code of criminal procedure 1973 | Code of criminal Procedure (India) - Wikipedia
The Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) is the main legislation on procedure for administration of substantive criminal law in India. It was enacted in 1973 and came into force on 1 April 1974. It provides the machinery for the investigation of crime, apprehension of suspected criminals, collection of evidence, determination of guilt or innocence of the accused person and the determination of punishment of the guilty. Additionally, it also deals with public nuisance, prevention of offences and maintenance of wife, child and parents.
At present, the Act contains 484 Sections, 2 Schedules and 56 Forms. The Sections are divided into 37 Chapters.
In medieval India, subsequent to the conquest by the Muslims, the Mohammedan Criminal Law came into prevalence. The British rulers passed the Regulating Act of 1773 under which a Supreme Court was established in Calcutta and later on at Madras and in Bombay. The Supreme Court was to apply British procedural law while deciding the cases of the Crown 's subjects. After the Rebellion of 1857, the crown took over the administration in India. The Criminal Procedure Code, 1861 was passed by the British parliament. The 1861 code continued after independence and was amended in 1969. It was finally replaced in 1972.
Cognizable offences are those offences for which a police officer may arrest without court mandated warrant in accordance with the first schedule of the code. For non-cognizable cases the police officer may arrest only after being duly authorized by a warrant. Non-cognizable offences are, generally, relatively less serious offences than cognizable ones. Cognizable Offences reported under section 154 Cr. P.C while Non-Cognizable Offences reported under section 155 Cr. P.C. For Non-Cognizable Offences the Magistrate empowered to take cognizance under section 190 Cr. P.C. Under section 156 (3) Cr. P.C the Magistrate is competent to direct the police to register the case, investigate the same and submit the challan / report for cancellation. (2003 P. Cr. L.J. 1282)
Under Section 204 of the code, a Magistrate taking cognizance of an offence is to issue summons for the attendance of the accused if the case is a summons case. If the case appears to be a warrant case, he may issue a warrant or summons, as he sees fit. Section 2 (w) of the Code defines summons - case as, a case relating to an Offence, and not being a warrant - case. Section 2 (x) of the Code defines warrant - case as, a case relating to an Offence punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term exceeding two years.
The Criminal Procedure Code is applicable in the whole of India except in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Parliament 's power to legislate in respect of Jammu & Kashmir is curtailed by Article 370 of the Constitution of India.
Provided that the provisions of this Code, other than those relating to Chapters VIII, X and XI thereof, shall not apply -
(a) to the State of Nagaland, (b) to the tribal areas,
However the concerned State Government may, by notification apply any or all of these provisions in these areas. Moreover, the Supreme Court of India has also ruled that even in these areas, the authorities are to be governed by the substance of these rules
There is no definition of the term "bail '' under the code though the terms "bailable '' and "non-bailable '' have been defined. It has however been defined by the Black 's Law Lexicon as security for the appearance of the accused person on giving which he is released pending trial or investigation
The First Schedule to the Code, classifies the offences defined in the Indian Penal Code. Besides specifying whether an offence is Bailable or Non-Bailable it also specifies if it is Cognizable or Non-Cognizable, which Court has the jurisdiction to try the said offence, the minimum and maximum amount of punishment that can or shall be awarded for the said offence.
The Supreme Court of India can and has from time to time made certain bailable offences, non-bailable or vice-a - versa by special directions, to curb increasing menace of certain crimes in the society. The State Government has the power to make certain offences bailable or non-bailable in their respective States.
Section 260 Clause 2 of the Code lists certain offences which may be summarily tried by any Chief Judicial Magistrate, any Metropolitan Magistrate or any Judicial Magistrate First Class. A First Class Magistrate must first be authorised by the respective High Court to that effect before he may try cases summarily under this Section.
The offences that may be tried summarily under this Section are:
Apart from the above, a Second Class Magistrate may, if so empowered by the High Court, summarily try an offence punishable with fine or with imprisonment not exceeding six months or the abettment or attempt to commit such an offence. As per section 262 (2) no sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three months shall be passed in the case of any conviction under this chapter 21.
A summary trial tried by a magistrate without being empowered to do so is void. The procedure for a summoncase is to be followed, subject to special provisions made in this behalf. The maximum sentence that may be awarded by way of a summary trial is three months with or without fine.
The Magistrate may give up the summary trial in favour of the regular trial if he finds it undesirable to try the case summarily. The judgement is to be delivered in abridged form.
Judgment is the final reasoned decision of the Court as to the guilt or innocence of the accused. Where the accused is found guilty, the judgment must also contain an order requiring the accused to undergo punishment or treatment.
Every court must deliver the judgement in the language of that court as determined by the State Government. It must contain the points that lead to the determination of guilt or innocence. It usually commences with facts and must indicate careful analysis of evidence. It must also specify the offence under the penal code or such other specific law as well as the punishment sentenced. If acquitted the offence of which the accused is so acquitted must be specified along with a direction that the accused be set at liberty.
According to Section 355 of the Code, a Metropolitan Magistrate may deliver judgments in abridged form and should contain:
The functions of a civil court may be performed by a criminal court by virtue of Section 357, 358 and 359. This has been done to provide just, speedy and less expensive redress to the victim. The court is empowered to levy a fine from the offender. Such fine may, wholly or in part, be used for the purpose of compensating the victim as per the amendment of 2009. A new section 357A has been inserted which talks of victim compensation scheme. Further in the year 2013 two new sections namely section 357B and section 357C were inserted to make compensation to the victim (as defined under section 2 (wa)) in addition to fine imposed under section 364A or 376D of the IPC as well as treatment of victim respectively.
Having regards to the age, character and antecedents of the offender, and the circumstances in which the offence was committed, if the Court convicting the accused considers it expedient to release the offender, it may do so either on probation of good conduct or after due admonishment. This provision is contained in Section 360 of the Code.
Thus the court may direct that the offender be released on his entering into a bond, with or without surities. The offender is further required to keep peace and be of good behaviour as well as appear thereafter before the court when called upon during such period as the court may decide. This period should not exceed three years. The following conditions have to be satisfied:
Alternatively, the offender may be released after due admonition, if the following conditions are satisfied:
No Magistrate of Second Class may release an offender under in such manner without being empowered to do so. He may transfer the case to a Magistrate for consideration.
Section 361 narrows down the discretion of the Court to sentence an offender without taking into consideration the provisions of Section 360 and similar provisions contained in the Probation of Offenders Act or any other law for treatment, training and rehabilitation of youthful offenders. It requires that when such provisions are applicable, the Court must record in writing, the reason for not allowing the benefit of the same to the offender.
Section 30 provides the Court of a Magistrate with the power to award imprisonment for additional terms over the substantive period awarded.
The Code and the Constitution of India together provide for multiple ranges of appellate remedy. A person convicted by the High Court exercising original criminal jurisdiction may appeal before the Supreme Court. Where the High Court has, on appeal reversed an order of acquittal and sentenced him to death and imprisonment for a term of ten years or more, the accused may appeal to the Supreme Court. The Constitution provides that an appeal shall lie to the Supreme Court against the direction of Supreme Court if the High Court certifies that the case involves substantial questions of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution.
Judgements and orders arising from petty cases are not appealable unless the sentences are combined with other sentences. There can not be an appeal when the accused pleads guilty and is convicted on such plea by the High Court. If the conviction from a plea of guilt is by a Sessions Court, Metropolitan Magistrate or a Magistrate of First or Second Class, only the legality of the sentence may be brought into question in an appeal.
The Code has been amended several times.
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blink 182 i'm lost without you lyrics meaning | I 'm Lost Without You - wikipedia
"I 'm Lost Without You '' is a song by American rock band Blink - 182 from the band 's fifth studio album, Blink - 182 (2003). The song, written by guitarist Tom DeLonge, bassist Mark Hoppus and drummer Travis Barker, lyrically relates to lost love. The track was worked on for over six months and features an extended outro that contains two dueling drum tracks mixed into each respective stereo channel.
The song was worked on for over six months, with each incarnation becoming bigger in sound and stranger in tone. In the initial draft of the song, what became the chorus was instead the verse and the song lacked a true chorus. There were "over 50 or so '' tracks incorporated into the recording, and the song employs a recording technique that dates back to the 1960s, in which DeLonge sang into a rotating speaker to produce an "underwater '' effect. The feedback in the middle of the song was created by tweaking and turning the guitar around "like an acrobat on drugs. ''
The song is composed in the key of A major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 92 beats per minute. DeLonge 's vocal range spans from E to D.
When sequenced as a part of the album, the song segues directly from the previous track, "Here 's Your Letter '', which relates to isolation, dislocation, loneliness and miscommunication. The song opens with the combination of an industrial loop with piano, which reminded Barker of the music of Pink Floyd or Failure. The narrative involves a lover pleading to his female companion to stay, and the song centrals around this refrain: "Are you afraid of being alone? / ' Cause I am / I 'm lost without you. '' "Slow, deliberate, lumbering beats '' mix with the guitars, which are tampered with a "space - age '' feel. The song, which recalls the music of the 1980s, "undulates and builds round a mid-paced and somewhat wistful feel. '' Journalist Joe Shooman connects the song thematically to "I Miss You '', in that both are downbeat in tone and relate to lost love. The piano returns for a "quiet middle - eight '' before the narrative ends, and the song carries on for several more minutes without an extended drum solo that serves as the outro. The dueling drums -- one mixed in the right channel and the other in the left -- was something the band had always discussed, but had never implemented into a song. The first drum track was played to a click track, whereas the other one consisted of Barker "playing until I could n't stop playing. '' The result is the longest song the band ever recorded, clocking in at 6: 20.
According to DeLonge, "the only way that you can really appreciate (the song) is if you have headphones and you dim the lights in your house and really sat there and listened to it. ''
Allmusic singled out "I 'm Lost Without You '' as one of the "weirder, atmospheric pieces '' on Blink - 182, one that successfully molds "adventurous '' songwriting with musical experimentation. The A.V. Club, however, referred to it as a "syrupy minor - key ballad. ''
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where did the term don't tread on me originate | Gadsden flag - Wikipedia
The Gadsden flag is a historical American flag with a yellow field depicting a rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Positioned below the rattlesnake are the words "DONT TREAD ON ME. '' The flag is named after American general and politician Christopher Gadsden (1724 -- 1805), who designed it in 1775 during the American Revolution. It was used by the Continental Marines as an early motto flag, along with the Moultrie flag.
The timber rattlesnake can be found in the area of the original Thirteen Colonies. Its use as a symbol of the American colonies can be traced back to the publications of Benjamin Franklin. In 1751, he made the first reference to the rattlesnake in a satirical commentary published in his Pennsylvania Gazette. It had been the policy of Great Britain to send convicted criminals to the Americas, so Franklin suggested that they thank the British by sending rattlesnakes to England.
In 1754, during the French and Indian War, Franklin published his famous woodcut of a snake cut into eight sections. It represented the colonies, with New England joined together as the head and South Carolina as the tail, following their order along the coast. Under the snake was the message "Join, or Die ''. This was the first political cartoon published in an American newspaper.
As the American colonies came to identify more with their own communities and the concept of liberty, rather than as vassals of the British empire, icons that were unique to the Americas became increasingly popular. The rattlesnake, like the bald eagle and American Indian, came to symbolize American ideals and society.
As the American Revolution grew, the snake began to see more use as a symbol of the colonies. In 1774, Paul Revere added Franklin 's iconic cartoon to the nameplate of Isaiah Thomas ' paper, the Massachusetts Spy, depicted there as fighting a British dragon. In December 1775, Benjamin Franklin published an essay in the Pennsylvania Journal under the pseudonym American Guesser in which he suggested that the rattlesnake was a good symbol for the American spirit:
The rattlesnake symbol was first officially adopted by the Continental Congress in 1778 when it approved the design for the official Seal of the War Office (at that time and for many years thereafter, the War Office was a term associated with the Headquarters of the Army). At the top center of the Seal is a rattlesnake holding a banner which says: "This We 'll Defend ''. According to the US Army 's Institute of Heraldry, "' This We 'll Defend, ' on a scroll held by the rattlesnake is a symbol depicted on some American colonial flags and signifies the Army 's constant readiness to defend and preserve the United States. ' This design of the War Office Seal was carried forward -- with some minor modifications -- into the subsequent designs for the War Department 's Seal, and the Department of the Army 's Seal, Emblem and Flag. As such, the rattlesnake symbol has been in continuous official use by the US Army for over 236 years.
In fall 1775, the Continental Navy was established by General George Washington in his role as Commander in Chief of all Continental Forces, before Esek Hopkins was named Commodore of the Navy. The Navy began with seven ships, often called "Washington Cruisers '', that flew the "Liberty Tree Flag '', depicting a green pine tree with the motto "Appeal to Heaven ''. This is according to the October 20, 1775 letter of Washington 's aide Colonel Joseph Reed, which is stored in the Library of Congress.
Those first ships were used to intercept incoming British ships carrying war supplies to the British troops in the colonies both to deprive the British of the supplies and to supply to the Continental Army. One ship captured by Captain John Manley had 30,000 pairs of shoes on it. However, the admiralty agent demanded his 2 ⁄ per cent commission before he would release the cargo for Washington 's army, so many soldiers marched barefoot in the snow. To aid in this, the Second Continental Congress authorized the mustering of five companies of Marines to accompany the Navy on their first mission. The first Marines enlisted in the city of Philadelphia, and they carried drums painted yellow, depicting a coiled rattlesnake with thirteen rattles, and the motto "Do n't Tread on Me. '' This is the first recorded mention of the future Gadsden flag 's symbolism.
At the Congress, Continental Colonel Christopher Gadsden represented his home state of South Carolina. He was one of seven members of the Marine Committee who were outfitting the first naval mission.
Before the departure of that first mission in December 1775, the newly appointed commander - in - chief of the Navy, Commodore Esek Hopkins, received the yellow rattlesnake flag from Gadsden to serve as the distinctive personal standard of his flagship. It was displayed at the mainmast. Hopkins had previously led The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence, before being appointed to lead the Navy. The 1775 flag of the Providence Train of Artillery 's featured a coiled timber rattlesnake and the motto "Do Not Tread on Me '' along with an anchor, cannons and the motto "In God We Hope '' on a gold background. The flag presented to Hopkins as Commander of the Continental Navy is a simplified version of that design.
Gadsden also presented a copy of this flag to the Congress of South Carolina in Charleston, South Carolina. This was recorded in the South Carolina congressional journals on February 9, 1776:
Many variations of the Gadsden flag exist:
The Culpeper Minutemen flag has a coiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag. It has a white field, rather than yellow, and the additional motto "Liberty or Death '' and the name "The Culpeper Minute Men ''. It is the flag of Virginia volunteers from the Culpeper area.
The John Proctor 's Regiment flag of 1st Battalion Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, had a coiled rattlesnake shown on its flag.
The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence already used a coiled rattlesnake on a field of gold with the motto "Do Not Tread On Me '' on its flag. Before Esek Hopkins was named the first Commodore of the American Navy by the Continental Congress he served as a Brigadier General of the Rhode Island Militia Artillery, and would have been familiar with the design of the flag.
All four of the American - designed "Rattlesnake Flags '' show a coiled rattlesnake. The only other rattlesnake flag, the First Navy Jack, was "designed by '' the English artist Thomas Hart as background art.
The traditional version of the First Navy Jack has an uncoiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag, on a field of 13 horizontal red and white stripes. Flag experts (vexillologists) speculate that the English artist Thomas Hart either did not know about the practice of rattlesnakes to coil in defense, or did, and intended to insult the fledgling American Navy as a weak and vulnerable creature as a rattlesnake is when not coiled and ready to strike, slithering on the ground, trying to escape, with its motto "(Please) Do n't Tread on Me! '' However, others suggest the snake pictured on the flag was being provoked, and is striking. Hence the warning, "Do n't tread on me (or I will strike) ''.
Considered one of the first flags of the United States, the flag was later replaced by the current Stars and Stripes (or Old Glory) flag. Since the Revolution, the flag has seen resurgences as a symbol of American patriotism, disagreement with government, or support for civil liberties.
The First Navy Jack, which was not directly related to the Gadsden flag, has been in use by the United States Navy since its beginnings. Unlike the Liberty Tree Flag with the letter by Colonel Joseph Reed that describes it, there is no document that describes the Snake on Stripes flag, only an image by English artist Thomas Hart in the background of a portrait of Commodore Esek Hopkins. In that same painting is a round "tree flag ''. The triangular Liberty Tree flag is derived from the only surviving tree flag from the Revolution, found in an old trunk in 1993 on Long Island, the 5th Regt. Connecticut Militia. The Snake on Stripes flag was included in a book of flags by Admiral Preble, but later Preble determined the flag not valid, so he removed it from his text. However, the book publisher used the old color plates, so the image was continued in the new edition and subsequently picked up by other publications and Webster 's Dictionary.
In preparation for the 1976 bicentennial year, staff officers in the Secretary of the Navy 's office sought a powerful image for the Navy 's Bicentennial. One Navy officer saw the Snake on Stripes Flag in Webster 's Dictionary, so the staff officers ordered a large number to give away as Navy promotional items and then turned to the Naval Historical Center to "get the history ''. They were told that the flag had probably never flown during the Revolution, based on Admiral Preble 's later discoveries, but a decision was made to use the Snake on Stripes Flag, or the "Fake Snake Flag '', anyway. Beginning in 1975, commissioned Navy ships flew this Jack in place of the Naval Jack (officially known as the Union Jack, not to be confused with the United Kingdom 's flag) at the bow. In 1977, the Secretary of the Navy directed that the ship in active status with the longest total period of active service shall display the First Navy Jack until decommissioned or transferred to inactive service, at which time the flag shall be passed to the next ship in line with appropriate honors. The display of this jack by the oldest ship in the fleet is intended as a form of recognition to promote pride of service, enhance morale, and contribute to the tradition of naval service. USS Enterprise (CVN 65) became the oldest active ship in the United States Navy upon the decommissioning of USS Kitty Hawk (CV 63) on May 12, 2009. Enterprise is only the third aircraft carrier ever to hold the honor of flying the First Navy Jack.
Since the first Patriot Day on September 11, 2002, which commemorates the lives lost in the September 11 attacks, the rattlesnake from the flag is also shown on the US Army 's Drill Sergeant Identification Badge. After the Snake on Stripes Flag became the Navy 's symbol for the Global War on Terrorism, flag history professionals (vexillologists) have done extensive research papers that further question the claim that the flag ever flew during the American Revolution, yet it continues to fly at the bow of American warships today.
For historical reasons, the Gadsden flag is still popularly flown in Charleston, South Carolina, the city where Christopher Gadsden first presented the flag and where it was commonly used during the revolution, along with the blue and white crescent flag of pre-Civil War South Carolina.
The Gadsden flag has become a popular specialty license plate in several states.
As of 2018, the following states offer the option of obtaining a Gadsden flag specialty license plate: Alabama, Arizona, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
Beginning in 2009 at Tea Party rallies, the Gadsden Flag has been adopted as a symbol of the American Tea Party movement. It was also displayed by members of Congress at Tea Party movement rallies. Some lawmakers have called it a "political symbol '' because of this association.
In March 2013, a resident of New Rochelle, New York, put up a Gadsden flag at the city 's vacant armory building. The city ordered its removal, fearing that the flag would be seen as political. The next month, a veterans group, the United Veterans Memorial & Patriotic Association, filed suit against the city.
Athletic apparel company Nike uses the image of a rattlesnake coiled around a soccer ball for an ongoing, patriotic "Do n't Tread on Me '' campaign in support of the United States men 's national soccer team. The phrase has become a rallying cry for American soccer fans and the Gadsden flag can occasionally be seen at national team games. A representation of the rattlesnake is contained on the inside of their uniforms, over the heart, with the initials "D.T.O.M. '', which were used in the 2010 World Cup.
In Hideo Kojima 's video game Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty a variation of the flag can be seen on one of the connecting bridges of the "Big Shell '' facility, in a reference to both the original meaning and usage of the flag.
In the apocalyptic 2006 CBS TV drama Jericho, the flag makes several appearances, most notably in the series finale as Jericho 's acting mayor takes down the flag of the "Allied States of America '', which had been flying at the town hall following a federal coup. He replaces the red, white, and blue flag of the central government with a Gadsden Flag which the previous mayor had kept framed in his office. The scene depicts a once - collaborationist character as finally having summoned the courage to be in open defiance against a supreme government.
The heavy metal band Metallica recorded a song called "Do n't Tread on Me '' on their self - titled fifth studio album, released in 1991. The album cover features a dark grey picture of a coiled rattlesnake like the one found on the Gadsden Flag. The song 's lyrics refer to political phrases from the American Revolutionary War.
"Do n't Tread On Me '' is a song from hard rock supergroup Damn Yankees on their 1992 studio album Do n't Tread.
In addition, in the hit series The West Wing, Sam Seaborn 's office displays the flag hanging above his cabinet.
NASCAR driver Carl Edwards displayed the Gadsden Flag next to his facsimile signature on his race car.
In WWE, the tag team Real Americans, composed by Jack Swagger, Cesaro and the manager Zeb Colter, used the Gadsden Flag and the preamble "We the People ''.
In the 1979 novel Alongside Night, an organization called the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre, seeking a Second American Revolution, welcomes visitors to one of its undergrounds: "The room 's only decoration was a modified Gadsden flag draped on the wall adjoining the bar and medical areas (opposite the door), a golden field with ' LAISSEZ - FAIRE! ' in an upper left corner, a coiled rattlesnake facing left with its tongue out, and in the lower right, ' DONT TREAD ON ME! ' '' The Gadsden flag without the addition of "LAISSEZ - FAIRE! '' is carried over into the 2014 Alongside Night movie adaptation in which the Gadsden flag is used by the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre as well as the traditional anarchist black flag.
A verse from the 1970 song Uncle John 's Band by the Grateful Dead contains the words "Their wall are built of cannonballs, their motto is ' Do n't tread on me ' ''.
Media related to Gadsden flag at Wikimedia Commons
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what type of government does england have today | England - wikipedia
-- in Europe (green & dark grey) -- in the United Kingdom (green)
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south. The country covers five - eighths of the island of Great Britain (which lies in the North Atlantic) in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law -- the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world -- developed in England, and the country 's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th - century England, transforming its society into the world 's first industrialised nation.
England 's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north (for example, the mountainous Lake District, and the Pennines) and in the southwest (for example, Dartmoor and the Cotswolds). The capital is London, which has the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. England 's population of over 53 million comprises 84 % of the population of the United Kingdom, largely concentrated around London, the South East, and conurbations in the Midlands, the North West, the North East, and Yorkshire, which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century.
The Kingdom of England -- which after 1535 included Wales -- ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The name "England '' is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means "land of the Angles ''. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages. The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area (present - day German state of Schleswig - Holstein) of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as "Engla londe '', is in the late ninth century translation into Old English of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. The term was then used in a different sense to the modern one, meaning "the land inhabited by the English '', and it included English people in what is now south - east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria. The Anglo - Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England, meaning the English kingdom, but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went "out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland '', thus using it in the more ancient sense. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its modern spelling was first used in 1538.
The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st - century work by Tacitus, Germania, in which the Latin word Anglii is used. The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others, such as the Saxons, came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known, but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons to distinguish them from continental Saxons (Eald - Seaxe) of Old Saxony between Weser and Eider rivers in Northern Germany. In Scottish Gaelic, another language which developed on the island of Great Britain, the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England (Sasunn); similarly, the Welsh name for the English language is "Saesneg ''.
An alternative name for England is Albion. The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo: "Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands called Britannia; these are Albion and Ierne ''. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, i.e. it was written later in the Graeco - Roman period or afterwards. The word Albion (Ἀλβίων) or insula Albionum has two possible origins. It either derives from a cognate of the Latin albus meaning white, a reference to the white cliffs of Dover (the only part of Britain visible from the European mainland) or from the phrase the "island of the Albiones '' in the now lost Massaliote Periplus, that is attested through Avienus ' Ora Maritima to which the former presumably served as a source. Albion is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend.
The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto - human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago. Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years. After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths, bison and woolly rhinoceros remained. Roughly 11,000 years ago, when the ice sheets began to recede, humans repopulated the area; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia. As the seas rose, it was separated from Ireland 10,000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later.
The Beaker culture arrived around 2,500 BC, introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay, as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores. It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed. By heating together tin and copper, which were in abundance in the area, the Beaker culture people made bronze, and later iron from iron ores. The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs, advancing agriculture (for instance, with Celtic fields), as well as the production of more effective weapons.
During the Iron Age, Celtic culture, deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, arrived from Central Europe. Brythonic was the spoken language during this time. Society was tribal; according to Ptolemy 's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area. Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate. Like other regions on the edge of the Empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans. Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC; although largely unsuccessful, he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes.
The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius, subsequently conquering much of Britain, and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province. The best - known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus. Later, an uprising led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, ended with Boudica 's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street. This era saw a Greco - Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law, Roman architecture, aqueducts, sewers, many agricultural items and silk. In the 3rd century, Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum (now York), where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor.
There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced; it was no later than the 4th century, probably much earlier. According to Bede, missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD, to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials, which were disturbing the church. There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea, while others claim through Lucius of Britain. By 410, during the Decline of the Roman Empire, Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units, to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars. Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished: Patrick (5th - century Ireland) and in the 6th century Brendan (Clonfert), Comgall (Bangor), David (Wales), Aiden (Lindisfarne) and Columba (Iona). This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities, polity, practices and theology. Local "congregations '' were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains, as peers, rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman - dominated church.
Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan, seafaring warriors from north - western continental Europe, chiefly the Saxons, Angles, Jutes and Frisians who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle, initially in the eastern part of the country. Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons ' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon, but subsequently resumed, over-running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century. Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce, giving rise to its description as a Dark Age. The nature and progression of the Anglo - Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement. Roman - dominated Christianity had in general disappeared from the conquered territories, but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards. Disputes between the Roman - and Celtic - dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby (664), which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter, but more significantly, about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority, theology, and practice (Lehane).
During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories, but by the 7th century, when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available, these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria, Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex. Over the following centuries this process of political consolidation continued. The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia, which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence. In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex. Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England, overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia and East Anglia. Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom, and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw. This brought about the political unification of England, first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953. A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016, turning it into the centre of a short - lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway. However the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042.
A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066, accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy. The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries. This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French - speaking aristocracy, whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language.
Subsequently, the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II, adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine. They reigned for three centuries, some noted monarchs being Richard I, Edward I, Edward III and Henry V. The period saw changes in trade and legislation, including the signing of the Magna Carta, an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign 's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen. Catholic monasticism flourished, providing philosophers, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage. The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope.
During the 14th century, the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years ' War. The Black Death epidemic hit England; starting in 1348, it eventually killed up to half of England 's inhabitants. From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family -- the Yorkists and Lancastrians -- known as the Wars of the Roses. Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors, a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries, gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed.
During the Tudor period, the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers, who reintroduced artistic, educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity. England began to develop naval skills, and exploration to the West intensified.
Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church, over issues relating to his divorce, under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England. In contrast with much of European Protestantism, the roots of the split were more political than theological. He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535 -- 1542 acts. There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry 's daughters, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again, forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism.
Competing with Spain, the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke. The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony, after it was found abandoned on the return of the late - arriving supply ship. With the East India Company, England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East. In 1588, during the Elizabethan period, an English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada. The political structure of the island changed in 1603, when the King of Scots, James VI, a kingdom which was a longtime rival to English interests, inherited the throne of England as James I -- creating a personal union. He styled himself King of Great Britain, although this had no basis in English law. Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611. It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare 's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years, until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century.
Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I, known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively. This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms, involving Scotland and Ireland. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653; a period of personal rule followed. After Cromwell 's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector, Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660, in a move called the Restoration. After the Glorious Revolution of 1688, it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together, though Parliament would have the real power. This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689. Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King, also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament. Also since that time, no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting, which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch 's messenger, symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch. With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged.
In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren. In Parliament two factions had emerged -- the Tories and Whigs. Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II, some of them, along with the Whigs, during the Revolution of 1688 invited Dutch prince William of Orange to defeat James and ultimately to become William III of England. Some English people, especially in the north, were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons. After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed, the two countries joined in political union, to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. To accommodate the union, institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate.
Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain, output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering, while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire. Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution, a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England, resulting in industrialised agriculture, manufacture, engineering and mining, as well as new and pioneering road, rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development. The opening of Northwest England 's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain. In 1825 the world 's first permanent steam locomotive - hauled passenger railway -- the Stockton and Darlington Railway -- opened to the public.
During the Industrial Revolution, many workers moved from England 's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories, for instance at Birmingham and Manchester, dubbed "Workshop of the World '' and "Warehouse City '' respectively. England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III. During the Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon planned to invade from the south - east. However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington. The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people, shared with the Scots and Welsh.
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era, and trade within the British Empire -- as well as the standing of the British military and navy -- was prestigious. Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage. Power shifts in east - central Europe led to World War I; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies. Two decades later, in World War II, the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies. At the end of the Phoney War, Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister. Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air - raids during the Blitz. Following the war, the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation, and there was a speeding up of technological innovations; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle 's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel. Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring, and by the creation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948. The UK 's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need, being paid for from general taxation. Combined, these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid-20th century.
Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England, mostly from other parts of the British Isles, but also from the Commonwealth, particularly the Indian subcontinent. Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry. As part of the United Kingdom, the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union. Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom. Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English - specific identity and patriotism. There is no devolved English government, but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub-regional basis was rejected by referendum.
As part of the United Kingdom, the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system. There has not been a government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union, joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England. Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom, although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments. In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster, there are 532 Members of Parliament (MPs) for constituencies in England, out of the 650 total.
In the United Kingdom general election, 2017, the Conservative Party won 317 seats (the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative), more than any other party, though not enough to achieve an overall majority. The Conservative party, headed by the prime minister Theresa May, won 55 more seats than the Labour Party, led by Jeremy Corbyn. The Scottish National Party (Scotland only) won 35 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons.
As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union, there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament. The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs: 22 UK Independence Party (UKIP), 17 Conservatives, 17 Labour, 3 Greens, and one Liberal Democrat.
Since devolution, in which other countries of the United Kingdom -- Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland -- each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues, there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England. Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved, but following the proposal 's rejection by the North East in a referendum, this has not been carried out.
One major issue is the West Lothian question, in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England, while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment, prescriptions, residential care for the elderly and free top - up university fees, has led to a steady rise in English nationalism. Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament, while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs.
The English law legal system, developed over the centuries, is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States (except Louisiana). Despite now being part of the United Kingdom, the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued, under the Treaty of Union, as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland. The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent -- stare decisis -- to the facts before them.
The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice for civil cases, and the Crown Court for criminal cases. The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales. It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes, taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords. A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, which must follow its directions.
Crime increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell by 42 % in the period 1995 -- 2006. The prison population doubled over the same period, giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100,000. Her Majesty 's Prison Service, reporting to the Ministry of Justice, manages most prisons, housing over 85,000 convicts.
The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government. The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England: North East, North West, Yorkshire and the Humber, East Midlands, West Midlands, East, South East, South West, and London. These were created in 1994 as Government Offices, used by the UK government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally, but there are no elected bodies at this level, except in London, and in 2011 the regional government offices were abolished. The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis.
After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight. London accepted in 1998: the London Assembly was created two years later. However, when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums, 2004 in the North East, further referendums were cancelled. The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010, and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of Local authority leaders ' boards.
Below the regional level, all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties. These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages, with some established as recently as 1974. Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally. Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly, England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government and may consist of a single district or be divided into several.
There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas, which do not have county councils. In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions, the metropolitan boroughs. Elsewhere, 27 non-metropolitan "shire '' counties have a county council and are divided into districts, each with a district council. They are typically, though not always, found in more rural areas. The remaining non-metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties; they are known as unitary authorities. Greater London has a different system for local government, with 32 London boroughs, plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation. At the most localised level, much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils; in Greater London only one, Queen 's Park exists as of 2014 after they were abolished in 1965 until legislation allowed their recreation in 2007.
Geographically England includes the central and southern two - thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly. It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom -- to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain. It is separated from France by a 21 - mile (34 km) sea gap, though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone. England also has shores on the Irish Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean.
The ports of London, Liverpool, and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames, Mersey and Tyne respectively. At 220 miles (350 km), the Severn is the longest river flowing through England. It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore (a tidal bore), which can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height. However, the longest river entirely in England is the Thames, which is 215 miles (346 km) in length. There are many lakes in England; the largest is Windermere, within the aptly named Lake District.
In geological terms, the Pennines, known as the "backbone of England '', are the oldest range of mountains in the country, originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago. Their geological composition includes, among others, sandstone and limestone, and also coal. There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas, indented by fertile valleys of the region 's rivers. They contain three national parks, the Yorkshire Dales, Northumberland, and the Peak District. The highest point in England, at 978 metres (3,209 ft), is Scafell Pike in Cumbria. Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills.
The English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines, consisting of green rolling hills, including the Cotswold Hills, Chiltern Hills, North and South Downs -- where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover. The granite Southwest Peninsula in the West Country includes upland moorland, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor, and enjoys a mild climate; both are national parks.
England has a temperate maritime climate: it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 ° C (32 ° F) in winter and not much higher than 32 ° C (90 ° F) in summer. The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable. The coldest months are January and February, the latter particularly on the English coast, while July is normally the warmest month. Months with mild to warm weather are May, June, September and October. Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year.
Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream. Rainfall is higher in the west, and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country. Since weather records began, the highest temperature recorded was 38.5 ° C (101.3 ° F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent, while the lowest was − 26.1 ° C (− 15.0 ° F) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond, Shropshire.
The Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world. It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself. Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands. There are 50 settlements which have been designated city status in England, while the wider United Kingdom has 66.
While many cities in England are quite large, such as Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Bradford, Nottingham, population size is not a prerequisite for city status. Traditionally the status was given to towns with diocesan cathedrals, so there are smaller cities like Wells, Ely, Ripon, Truro and Chichester. According to the Office for National Statistics, the ten largest, continuous built - up urban areas are:
England 's economy is one of the largest in the world, with an average GDP per capita of £ 22,907. Usually regarded as a mixed market economy, it has adopted many free market principles, yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure. The official currency in England is the pound sterling, whose ISO 4217 code is GBP. Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe -- as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20 % on taxable income up to £ 31,865 above the personal tax - free allowance (normally £ 10,000), and 40 % on any additional earnings above that amount.
The economy of England is the largest part of the UK 's economy, which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world. England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry, and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London, home to the London Stock Exchange, the United Kingdom 's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe, is England 's financial centre -- 100 of Europe 's 500 largest corporations are based in London. London is the largest financial centre in Europe, and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world.
The Bank of England, founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson, is the United Kingdom 's central bank. Originally established as private banker to the government of England, since 1946 it has been a state - owned institution. The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, although not in other parts of the United Kingdom. The government has devolved responsibility to the bank 's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates.
England is highly industrialised, but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries, and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy. Tourism has become a significant industry, attracting millions of visitors to England each year. The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals, cars (although many English marques are now foreign - owned, such as Land Rover, Lotus, Jaguar and Bentley), crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm, aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages.
Most of the UK 's £ 30 billion aerospace industry is primarily based in England. The global market opportunity for UK aerospace manufacturers over the next two decades is estimated at £ 3.5 trillion. GKN Aerospace -- an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch.
BAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter -- the world 's largest single defence project -- for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. It also manufactures the Hawk, the world 's most successful jet training aircraft.
Rolls - Royce PLC is the world 's second - largest aero - engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft, and it has more 30,000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors. With a workforce of over 12,000 people, Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls - Royce employees in the UK. Rolls - Royce also produces low - emission power systems for ships; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry.
Much of the UK 's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium, based in Stevenage and Portsmouth. The company builds the buses -- the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built -- for most of the European Space Agency 's spacecraft, as well as commercial satellites. The world leader in compact satellite systems, Surrey Satellites, is also part of Astrium. Reaction Engines Limited, the company planning to build Skylon, a single - stage - to - orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine, a combined - cycle, air - breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham.
Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised, producing 60 % of food needs with only 2 % of the labour force. Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock, the other to arable crops.
Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin, Robert Hooke, James Prescott Joule, John Dalton, Joseph Priestley, Lord Rayleigh, J.J. Thomson, James Chadwick, Charles Babbage, George Boole, Alan Turing, Tim Berners - Lee, Paul Dirac, Stephen Hawking, Peter Higgs, Roger Penrose, John Horton Conway, Thomas Bayes, Arthur Cayley, G.H. Hardy, Oliver Heaviside, Andrew Wiles, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Christopher Wren and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins, the first secretary of the Royal Society, in 1668.
As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern - day engineering. Thomas Newcomen 's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution. The Father of Railways, George Stephenson, built the first public inter-city railway line in the world, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine, and invention of modern coinage, Matthew Boulton (business partner of James Watt) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history. The physician Edward Jenner 's smallpox vaccine is said to have "saved more lives... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history. ''
Inventions and discoveries of the English include: the jet engine, the first industrial spinning machine, the first computer and the first modern computer, the World Wide Web along with HTML, the first successful human blood transfusion, the motorised vacuum cleaner, the lawn mower, the seat belt, the hovercraft, the electric motor, steam engines, and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory. Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics, and calculus, and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity. Other inventions include the iron plate railway, the thermosiphon, tarmac, the rubber band, the mousetrap, "cat 's eye '' road marker, joint development of the light bulb, steam locomotives, the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering.
The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England. There are many motorways in England, and many other trunk roads, such as the A1 Great North Road, which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle (much of this section is motorway) and onward to the Scottish border. The longest motorway in England is the M6, from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo - Scottish border, a distance of 232 miles (373 km). Other major routes include: the M1 from London to Leeds, the M25 which encircles London, the M60 which encircles Manchester, the M4 from London to South Wales, the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire, and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West.
Bus transport across the country is widespread; major companies include National Express, Arriva and Go - Ahead Group. The red double - decker buses in London have become a symbol of England. There is a rapid transit network in two English cities: the London Underground; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle, Gateshead and Sunderland. There are several tram networks, such as the Blackpool tramway, Manchester Metrolink, Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro, and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London.
Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world: passenger railways originated in England in 1825. Much of Britain 's 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of rail network lies in England, covering the country fairly extensively, although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century. There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge. These lines are mostly standard gauge (single, double or quadruple track) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines. There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link, the Channel Tunnel, which was completed in 1994.
England has extensive domestic and international aviation links. The largest airport is London Heathrow, which is the world 's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers. Other large airports include Manchester Airport, London Stansted Airport, Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport. By sea there is ferry transport, both local and international, including to Ireland, the Netherlands and Belgium. There are around 4,400 miles (7,100 km) of navigable waterways in England, half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust, however water transport is very limited. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary, one of the United Kingdom 's three major ports.
The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report, prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments, and it provides most of its services free at the point of use, although there are charges for some people for eye tests, dental care, prescriptions and aspects of personal care.
The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health, who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS -- £ 98.6 billion was spent in 2008 -- 2009. In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions. The average life expectancy of people in England is 77.5 years for males and 81.7 years for females, the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom.
With over 53 million inhabitants, England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom, accounting for 84 % of the combined total. England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. With a density of 407 people per square kilometre, it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta.
The English people are a British people. Some genetic evidence suggests that 75 -- 95 % descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula, as well as a 5 % contribution from Angles and Saxons, and a significant Scandinavian (Viking) element. However, other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half. Over time, various cultures have been influential: Prehistoric, Brythonic, Roman, Anglo - Saxon, Viking (North Germanic), Gaelic cultures, as well as a large influence from Normans. There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire; especially the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Since the late 1990s, many English people have migrated to Spain.
In 1086, when the Domesday Book was compiled, England had a population of two million. About 10 % lived in urban areas. By 1801, the population was 8.3 million, and by 1901 30.5 million. Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England, it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom. There has been significant Irish migration. The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87.50 %, including Germans and Poles.
Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s: in particular, 6 % of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent, mostly India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. 2.90 % of the population are black, from Africa and the Caribbean, especially former British colonies. There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese. In 2007, 22 % of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families, and in 2011 that figure was 26.5 %. About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration. Debate over immigration is politically prominent; according to a 2009 Home Office poll, 80 % of people want to cap it. The ONS has projected that the population will grow by nine million between 2014 and 2039.
England contains one indigenous national minority, the Cornish people, recognised by the UK government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in 2014.
As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98 % of the population. It is an Indo - European language in the Anglo - Frisian branch of the Germanic family. After the Norman conquest, the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy.
By the 15th century, English was back in fashion among all classes, though much changed; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the English Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins. Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility, when it comes to incorporating words from different languages. Thanks in large part to the British Empire, the English language is the world 's unofficial lingua franca.
English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity, and includes language schooling, tourism spending, and publishing. There is no legislation mandating an official language for England, but English is the only language used for official business. Despite the country 's relatively small size, there are many distinct regional accents, and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country.
As well as English, England has two other indigenous languages, Cornish and Welsh. Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived, and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is spoken by 0.1 % of people in Cornwall, and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools.
When the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, many Welsh - speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border. Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century. Welsh was spoken by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later.
State schools teach students a second language, usually French, German or Spanish. Due to immigration, it was reported in 2007 that around 800,000 school students spoke a foreign language at home, the most common being Punjabi and Urdu. However, following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics, figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English.
In the 2011 census, 59.4 % of the population of England specified their religion as Christian, 24.7 % answered that they had no religion, 5 % specified that they were Muslim, while 3.7 % of the population belongs to other religions and 7.2 % did not give an answer. Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England, as it has been since the Early Middle Ages, although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times. This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine. The established church of England is the Church of England, which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain. The church regards itself as both Catholic and Protestant.
There are High Church and Low Church traditions, and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo - Catholics, following the Tractarian movement. The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church, which has around 26 million baptised members (of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers). It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head. Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance, such as Westminster Abbey, York Minster, Durham Cathedral, and Salisbury Cathedral.
The 2nd - largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church. Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation, the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4.5 million members (most of whom are English). There has been one Pope from England to date, Adrian IV; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church.
A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley. It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and amongst tin miners in Cornwall. There are other non-conformist minorities, such as Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists, Unitarians and The Salvation Army.
The patron saint of England is Saint George; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England, as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination. There are many other English and associated saints; some of the best - known are: Cuthbert, Edmund, Alban, Wilfrid, Aidan, Edward the Confessor, John Fisher, Thomas More, Petroc, Piran, Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket. There are non-Christian religions practised. Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070. They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion, only to be allowed back in 1656.
Especially since the 1950s, religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers, due to immigration. Islam is the most common of these, now accounting for around 5 % of the population in England. Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number, adding up to 2.8 % combined, introduced from India and South East Asia.
A small minority of the population practise ancient Pagan religions. Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions, Druidry, and Heathenry. According to the 2011 UK Census, there are roughly 53,172 people who identify as Pagan in England, and 3,448 in Wales, including 11,026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales.
The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19, including education. State - run and state - funded schools are attended by approximately 93 % of English schoolchildren. Of these, a minority are faith schools (primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools). Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school. Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school, and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16. After finishing compulsory education, students take GCSE examinations. Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years. Further education colleges (particularly sixth form colleges) often form part of a secondary school site. A-level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students, and often form the basis of an application to university.
Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive, in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools, to which entrance is subject to passing the eleven - plus exam. Around 7.2 % of English schoolchildren attend private schools, which are funded by private sources. Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education, and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate.
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards, where they study for an academic degree. There are over 90 universities in England, all but one of which are public institutions. The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England. Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs. The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor 's degree, which usually takes three years to complete. Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree, which usually takes one year, or towards a doctorate, which takes three or more years.
England 's universities include some of the highest - ranked universities in the world; University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, University of Oxford, University College London and King 's College London are all ranked in the global top 30 in the 2018 QS World University Rankings. The London School of Economics has been described as the world 's leading social science institution for both teaching and research. The London Business School is considered one of the world 's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times. Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes: first class (1st), upper second class (2: 1), lower second class (2: 2), third (3rd), and unclassified.
The King 's School, Canterbury and King 's School, Rochester are the oldest schools in the English - speaking world. Many of England 's most well - known schools, such as Winchester College, Eton, St Paul 's School, Harrow School and Rugby School are fee - paying institutions.
Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period, amongst the best - known are Stonehenge, Devil 's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts. It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best - known example is Hadrian 's Wall stretching right across northern England. Another well - preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.
Early Medieval architecture 's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing. Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno -- Saxon monasticism, to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster - strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular headed openings. After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion. Some of the best - known medieval castles are the Tower of London, Warwick Castle, Durham Castle and Windsor Castle.
Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished -- the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral, Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples. Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches. Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th - century Tudor style; the four - centred arch, now known as the Tudor arch, was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically. In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity, synthesised with Christianity appeared -- the English Baroque style, architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed.
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style, evoking a simple Palladian form; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period, a Gothic Revival was launched -- in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial, though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places.
English folklore developed over many centuries. Some of the characters and stories are present across England, but most belong to specific regions. Common folkloric beings include pixies, giants, elves, bogeymen, trolls, goblins and dwarves. While many legends and folk - customs are thought to be ancient, for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith, others date from after the Norman invasion; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being, perhaps, the best known.
During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore -- the Arthurian myth. These were derived from Anglo - Norman, Welsh and French sources, featuring King Arthur, Camelot, Excalibur, Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot. These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain). Another early figure from British tradition, King Cole, may have been based on a real figure from Sub-Roman Britain. Many of the tales and pseudo-histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain, a collection of shared British folklore.
Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry, Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch. On 5 November people make bonfires, set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes. The chivalrous bandit, such as Dick Turpin, is a recurring character, while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate. There are various national and regional folk activities, participated in to this day, such as Morris dancing, Maypole dancing, Rapper sword in the North East, Long Sword dance in Yorkshire, Mummers Plays, bottle - kicking in Leicestershire, and cheese - rolling at Cooper 's Hill. There is no official national costume, but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys, the Royal Guard, the Morris costume and Beefeaters.
Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period, English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation, though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace. The cuisine of England has, however, recently undergone a revival, which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant 's best restaurant in the world charts. An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II.
Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast, featuring a roasted joint (usually beef, lamb, chicken or pork) served with assorted vegetables, Yorkshire pudding, and gravy. Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast (generally consisting of bacon, sausages, grilled tomatoes, fried bread, black pudding, baked beans, mushrooms, and eggs). Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie, steak and ale pie, cottage pie, pork pie (the latter usually eaten cold) and the Cornish Pasty.
Sausages are commonly eaten, either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole. Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew in the northwest. Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar, Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton. Many Anglo - Indian hybrid dishes, curries, have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti. Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies; spotted dick -- all generally served with custard; and, more recently, sticky toffee pudding. Sweet pastries include scones (either plain or containing dried fruit) served with jam and / or cream, dried fruit loaves, Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits. Common drinks include tea, whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza, whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines, ciders and English beers, such as bitter, mild, stout, and brown ale.
The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces, most prominent in North Yorkshire, Northumberland and Cumbria, but also feature further south, for example at Creswell Crags. With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century, various forms of art utilising statues, busts, glasswork and mosaics were the norm. There are numerous surviving artefacts, such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough. During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories, manuscript painting, gold and enamel jewellery, demonstrating a love of intricate, interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009. Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles, such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter. Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury, examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter.
The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court, portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art, was boosted by German Hans Holbein, natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this. Under the Stuarts, Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish, examples from the period include -- Anthony van Dyck, Peter Lely, Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson. The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy, a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed -- Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of England 's most treasured artists.
The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition, while the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood with their vivid and detailed style revived the Early Renaissance style -- Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders. Prominent amongst 20th - century artists was Henry Moore, regarded as the voice of British sculpture, and of British modernism in general. Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud, whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist.
Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin. The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo - Saxon Chronicle, along with Christian writings such as Judith, Cædmon 's Hymn and hagiographies. Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo - Norman literature.
Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales, along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote Revelations of Divine Love, was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, and A Midsummer Night 's Dream, remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.
Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract. Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best - known poet of the Commonwealth, while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration.
Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism. The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.
In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G.K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G.D.H. Cole are somewhat related. Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H.G. Wells and Lewis Carroll. Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D.H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C.S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J.R.R. Tolkien, and J.K. Rowling.
The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an important artefact, as are John Playford 's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley 's Roxburghe Ballads collections. Some of the best - known songs are Greensleeves, Pastime with Good Company, Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, Roses are red, Jack and Jill, London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty. Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas '', "The First Noel '' and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen ''.
Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd, followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period. German - born George Frideric Handel became a British subject and spent most of his composing life in London, creating some of the most well - known works of classical music, The Messiah, Water Music, and Music for the Royal Fireworks. One of his four Coronation Anthems, Zadok the Priest, composed for the coronation of George II, has been performed at every subsequent British coronation, traditionally during the sovereign 's anointing. There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar, Benjamin Britten, Frederick Delius, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams and others. Present - day composers from England include Michael Nyman, best known for The Piano, and Andrew Lloyd Webber, whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide.
In the field of popular music, many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best - selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the world. Many musical genres have origins in (or strong associations with) England, such as British invasion, progressive rock, hard rock, Mod, glam rock, heavy metal, Britpop, indie rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, garage, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep.
Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular, such as Glastonbury, V Festival, and the Reading and Leeds Festivals. The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. The Proms -- a season of orchestral classical concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London -- is a major cultural event in the English calendar, and takes place yearly. The Royal Ballet is one of the world 's foremost classical ballet companies, its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th - century dance, prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton.
England (and the UK as a whole) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema, producing some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time, including Alfred Hitchcock, Charlie Chaplin, David Lean, Laurence Olivier, Vivien Leigh, John Gielgud, Peter Sellers, Julie Andrews, Michael Caine, Gary Oldman, Helen Mirren, Kate Winslet and Daniel Day - Lewis. Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed filmmakers. Hitchcock 's first thriller, The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog (1926), helped shape the thriller genre in film, while his 1929 film, Blackmail, is often regarded as the first British sound feature film.
Major film studios in England include Pinewood, Elstree and Shepperton. Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England, including two of the highest - grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond). Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world. Famous for recording many motion picture film scores, the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935.
The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python 's Life of Brian (1979), a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public. English producers are also active in international co-productions and English actors, directors and crew feature regularly in American films. The UK film council ranked David Yates, Christopher Nolan, Mike Newell, Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001. Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes, Guy Ritchie and Steve McQueen. Current actors include Tom Hardy, Daniel Craig, Benedict Cumberbatch and Emma Watson. Acclaimed for his motion capture work, Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011. The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film. Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people, stories or events. The ' English Cycle ' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland, The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh.
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role. 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. Some of the best - known of these are: Hadrian 's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, Studley Royal Park and various others.
There are many museums in England, but perhaps the most notable is London 's British Museum. Its collection of more than seven million objects is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world 's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books. The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize.
England has a strong sporting heritage, and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world. Sports originating in England include association football, cricket, rugby union, rugby league, tennis, boxing, badminton, squash, rounders, hockey, snooker, billiards, darts, table tennis, bowls, netball, thoroughbred horseracing, greyhound racing and fox hunting. It has helped the development of golf, sailing and Formula One.
Football is the most popular of these sports. The England national football team, whose home venue is Wembley Stadium, played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872. Referred to as the "home of football '' by FIFA, England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4 -- 2 in the final, with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat - trick. With a British television audience peak of 32.30 million viewers, the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK.
At club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world 's oldest club. The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley. The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively. In the modern day the Premier League is the world 's most - watched football league, most lucrative, and amongst the elite.
As is the case throughout the UK, football in England is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters, which includes a tradition of football chants, such as, "You 're Not Singing Any More '' (or its variant "We Can See You Sneaking Out! ''), sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent (or left early). The European Cup (now UEFA Champions League) has been won by Liverpool, Manchester United, Nottingham Forest, Aston Villa and Chelsea, while Arsenal, and Leeds United have reached the final. Other English clubs have enjoyed success, Tottenham Hotspur, Ipswich Town, Chelsea, and Liverpool have won the UEFA Cup, renamed UEFA Europa League.
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald. The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team. One of the game 's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia, contested since 1882. The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7.4 million as it was available on terrestrial television. England has hosted four Cricket World Cups (1975, 1979, 1983, 1999) and will host the 2019 edition, but never won the tournament, reaching the final 3 times. However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009, winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final. In the domestic competition, the County Championship, Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times. Lord 's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the "Mecca of Cricket ''.
William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games. In 1994, then President of the IOC, Juan Antonio Samaranch, laid a wreath on Brooke 's grave, and said, "I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes, who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games ''. London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times, in 1908, 1948, and 2012. England competes in the Commonwealth Games, held every four years. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England.
Rugby union originated in Rugby School, Warwickshire in the early 19th century. The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup, with Jonny Wilkinson scoring the winning drop goal in the last minute of extra time against Australia. England was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and also hosted the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The top level of club participation is the English Premiership. Leicester Tigers, London Wasps, Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe - wide Heineken Cup.
Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895. Since 2008, the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, which won three World Cups but is now retired. Club sides play in Super League, the present - day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship. Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire, Yorkshire and Cumbria. All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England. Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors, Hull F.C. St. Helens, Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously.
Golf has been prominent in England; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland, the home of Golf. There are both professional tours for men and women, in two main tours: the PGA and the European Tour. England has produced grand slam winners: Cyril Walker, Tony Jacklin, Nick Faldo, and Justin Rose in the men 's and Laura Davies, Alison Nicholas, and Karen Stupples in the women 's. The world 's oldest golf tournament, and golf 's first major, is The Open Championship, played both in England and Scotland. The biennial golf competition, the Ryder Cup, is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy. Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever, having won the most points (25) of any player on either the European or US teams.
Tennis was created in Birmingham, England in the late 19th century, and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world, and widely considered the most prestigious. Wimbledon is a tournament that has a major place in the British cultural calendar. Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936. He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles and helped lead the Great Britain team to four Davis Cup wins. English women who have won Wimbledon include: Ann Haydon Jones in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977.
In boxing, under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies. World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons, Ted "Kid '' Lewis, Randolph Turpin, Nigel Benn, Chris Eubank, Frank Bruno, Lennox Lewis, Ricky Hatton, Naseem Hamed, Amir Khan, Carl Froch, and David Haye. In women 's boxing, Nicola Adams became the world 's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Originating in 17th and 18th - century England, the thoroughbred is a horse breed best known for its use in horse racing. The National Hunt horse race the Grand National, is held annually at Aintree Racecourse in early April. It is the most watched horse race in the UK, attracting casual observers, and three - time winner Red Rum is the most successful racehorse in the event 's history. Red Rum is also the best - known racehorse in the country.
The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship. Since then, England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport, including; John Surtees, Stirling Moss, Graham Hill (only driver to have won the Triple Crown), Nigel Mansell (only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time), Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button. It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars, and many of today 's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation. McLaren Automotive, Williams F1, Team Lotus, Honda, Brawn GP, Benetton, Renault, and Red Bull Racing are all, or have been, located in the south of England. England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing, the premier championship of motorcycle road racing, and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle: Mike Hailwood, John Surtees, Phil Read, Geoff Duke, and Barry Sheene.
Darts is a widely popular sport in England; a professional competitive sport, darts is a traditional pub game. The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation, one of its member organisations is the BDO, which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship, the other being the Professional Darts Corporation (PDC), which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London. Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time, having won 187 professional tournaments, and a record 16 World Championships. Trina Gulliver is the ten - time Women 's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation. Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker, and England has produced several world champions, including Steve Davis and Ronnie O'Sullivan.
The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats, including the match race, a regatta, and the America 's Cup. England has produced some of the world 's greatest sailors, including, Francis Chichester, Herbert Hasler, John Ridgway, Robin Knox - Johnston, Ellen MacArthur, Mike Golding, Paul Goodison, and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie.
The St George 's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century. Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa. The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards, so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean. A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with Saint George, along with countries and cities, which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. Since 1606 the St George 's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag, a Pan-British flag designed by King James I.
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts, both official and unofficial, including the Tudor rose, the nation 's floral emblem, and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England. The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace. It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians -- cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation. It is also known as the Rose of England. The oak tree is a symbol of England, representing strength and endurance. The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father 's execution: he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile.
The Royal Arms of England, a national coat of arms featuring three lions, originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198. It is blazoned as gules, three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy. England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen. However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: Jerusalem, Land of Hope and Glory (used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games), and I Vow to Thee, My Country. England 's National Day is 23 April which is St George 's Day: St George is the patron saint of England.
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who sings the theme from alaska the last frontier | Jewel (singer) - wikipedia
Jewel Kilcher (born May 23, 1974), known mononymously as Jewel, is an American singer - songwriter, guitarist, producer, actress, author, and poet. She has received four Grammy Award nominations and, as of 2008, has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Kilcher was raised in Homer, Alaska, where she grew up singing and yodeling as a duo with her father, a local musician. At age fifteen, she received a partial scholarship at the Interlochen Arts Academy in Michigan, where she studied operatic voice.
After graduating, Kilcher began writing and performing at clubs and coffeehouses in San Diego, California. Based on local media attention, she was offered a recording contract with Atlantic Records, who released her debut album, Pieces of You, in 1995; it went on to become one of the best - selling debut albums of all time, going 12 - times platinum. The debut single from the album, "Who Will Save Your Soul '', peaked at number eleven on the Billboard Hot 100; two others, "You Were Meant for Me '' and "Foolish Games '', reached number two on the Hot 100, and were listed on Billboard 's 1997 year - end singles chart, as well as Billboard 's 1998 year - end singles chart.
Her subsequent album, Spirit, was released in 1998, followed by This Way (2001). In 2003, she released 0304, which marked a departure from her previous folk - oriented records, figuring electronic arrangements and elements of dance - pop. In 2008, she released Perfectly Clear, her first country album; it debuted atop Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart and featured three singles, "Stronger Woman '', "I Do '', and "' Til It Feels Like Cheating ''. Jewel released her first independent album, Lullaby, in 2009.
Jewel has also had endeavors in writing and acting; in 1998 she released a collection of poetry, and the following year appeared in a supporting role in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil (1999) which earned her critical acclaim.
Jewel was born May 23, 1974 in Payson, Utah, the second child of Attila Kuno "Atz '' Kilcher and Lenedra Jewel Kilcher (née Carroll). At the time of her birth, her parents had been living in Utah with her elder brother, Shane; her father was attending Brigham Young University. She is a first cousin once removed of actress Q'orianka Kilcher. Her father, originally from Alaska, was a Mormon, though the family stopped attending The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints after her parents ' divorce when she was eight years old. Her paternal grandfather, Yule Kilcher, was a delegate to the Alaska Constitutional convention and a state senator of German descent who settled in Alaska after emigrating from Switzerland. He was also the first recorded person to cross the Harding Icefield.
Shortly after her birth, the family relocated to Anchorage, Alaska, settling on the Kilcher family 's 770 - acre (310 ha) homestead. There, her younger brother, Atz Jr., was born. She also has a half - brother, Nikos, who was primarily raised in Oregon by his mother, with whom her father had a brief relationship; she would later become close to him in adulthood. After her parents ' divorce in 1981, Kilcher lived with her father in Homer, Alaska. The house she grew up in lacked indoor plumbing and had only a simple outhouse. The Kilcher family is featured on the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier, which chronicles their day - to - day struggles living in the Alaskan wilderness. Recalling her upbringing, she said:
We lived far from town. We had to walk 2 miles (3.2 km) just to get to the saddle barn I was raised in... No running water, no heat -- we had a coal stove and an outhouse and we mainly lived off of what we could kill or can. We picked berries and made jam. We caught fish to freeze and had gardens and cattle to live on. I rode horses every day in the summer beneath the Alaskan midnight sun. I loved it there.
Kilcher and her father sometimes earned a living by performing music in roadhouses and taverns as a father - daughter duo; they also often sang at hotels in Anchorage, including the Hotel Captain Cook and the Hilton Anchorage. It was during this time that Kilcher learned yodel from her father. She would later credit the time she spent in bars as integral to her formative years: "I saw women who would compromise themselves for compliments, for flattery; or men who would run away from themselves by drinking until they ultimately killed themselves. ''
At age fifteen, while working at a dance studio in Anchorage, she was referred by the studio instructor to Interlochen Arts Academy in Interlochen, Michigan, where she applied and received a partial scholarship to study operatic voice. Local businesses in her hometown of Homer donated items for auction to help allocate additional funds, and raised a total of $11,000 to pay the remainder of her first year 's tuition. She subsequently relocated to Michigan to attend Interlochen, where she received classical training, and also learned to play guitar. She began writing songs on guitar at age sixteen. While in school, she would often perform live in coffeehouses. After graduating, she relocated to San Diego, California, where she worked in a coffee shop and as a phone operator at a computer warehouse.
For a time, Kilcher lived in her car while traveling around the country doing street performances and small gigs, mainly in Southern California. She gained recognition by singing at The Inner Change Cafe and Java Joe 's in San Diego; she would later make her debut record at Java Joe 's when it was in Poway, where she had worked as a barista. Her friend Steve Poltz 's band, The Rugburns, played the same venues. She later collaborated with Poltz on some of her songs, including "You Were Meant for Me ''. (He also appeared in the song 's second, better - known video.) The Rugburns opened for Jewel on her Tiny Lights tour in 1997. Poltz appeared in Jewel 's band on the Spirit World Tour 1999 playing guitar.
Kilcher was discovered by Inga Vainshtein in August 1993 when John Hogan, lead singer from the local San Diego band Rust, whom Vainshtein was managing, called to tell her about a girl surfer who sang at a local coffee shop on Thursdays. Vainshtein drove to The Inner Change with a representative from Atlantic Records, and after the show they called Danny Goldberg, the head of Atlantic Record 's West Coast operations, and asked him to pay for her demo, since at the time she was living in a van and lacked the means to record any of her own music. Vainshtein, who at the time was working as a film executive at Paramount, eventually became her manager and was instrumental in creating a major bidding war that led to her deal with Atlantic Records. She continued to manage Jewel until the end of the first album cycle. Her debut album Pieces of You was released the eponym of Jewel, in 1995 when she was 21 years old. Recorded in a studio on singer Neil Young 's ranch, it included Young 's backing band, The Stray Gators, who played on his Harvest and Harvest Moon albums. Part of the album was recorded live at The Inner Change Cafe in San Diego, where she had risen to local fame. The album stayed on the Billboard 200 for two years, reaching number four at its peak. The album spawned the Top 10 hits "You Were Meant for Me '', "Who Will Save Your Soul '', and "Foolish Games ''. The album eventually sold over 12 million copies in the United States alone.
In the late 1990s, Mike Connell created an electronic mailing list for fans, known as "Everyday Angels ''. Although Jewel herself does not subscribe to this mailing list, she maintained communication with her EA fans. On July 18 and 19, 1996, she gave a two - day concert known as "JewelStock '' at the Bearsville Theatre. Jewel allowed the concert to be taped, and fans circulated the concert without profit.
Jewel was chosen to sing the American national anthem at the opening of the Super Bowl XXXII in January 1998 in San Diego. She was introduced as "San Diego 's own Jewel! '' but criticized for lip syncing the anthem to a digitally - recorded track of her own voice. This was especially noticeable due to her missing her cue and not mouthing the first words. Super Bowl producers have since admitted that they attempt to have all performers pre-record their vocals. She performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' again in the 2003 NBA Finals in one of the New Jersey Nets ' home games.
From her second album, Spirit, the song "Hands '' hit No. 6 on the Hot 100. Other singles followed, including a new version of "Jupiter (Swallow the Moon) '', "What 's Simple Is True '' (the theme song to her upcoming movie), and the charity single "Life Uncommon ''.
A year later, in November 1999, Jewel released Joy: A Holiday Collection. The album sold over a million copies and peaked at No. 32 on the Billboard 200. She released a cover of "Joy to the World '' from the album as a single.
In November 2001 the album This Way was released. The album peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1.5 million copies in the U.S. A song from the album "Standing Still '' hit the Top 30. Other singles released were "Break Me '', "This Way '', and "Serve the Ego '', the latter giving Jewel her first number one club hit.
In 2003 Jewel released the album 0304. Following the limited success of "Serve the Ego '', Jewel moved to a more pop - oriented sound with the release of the single "Intuition ''. The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart and No. 20 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On May 2, 2006, Jewel released her sixth album Goodbye Alice in Wonderland. The album received mixed reviews, but still managed to debut at No. 8 on the Billboard Albums Chart and sold 82,000 copies in its first week. The lead single "Again and Again '' had success on Adult Top 40 Radio, peaking at No. 16. The second single "Good Day '' was released to radio in late June and peaked at No. 30 on the Adult Pop Songs charts. A video for "Stephenville, TX '', her next single, was seen on Yahoo! Launch. After a photo shoot at her Texas ranch, Jewel spontaneously decided to have photographer Kurt Markus shoot the music video for the song "Goodbye Alice in Wonderland ''. According to an Atlantic Records press release, "The homegrown clip beautifully reflects both the song 's organic, intimate sound and its powerfully autobiographical story. ''
CMT music critic Timothy Duggan praised the album: "This album showcases Jewel 's unique talent as a lyricist, alongside a definite growth in her musicianship. It is what Pieces of You might have been had Jewel had the musical knowledge then that she has now. A very satisfying work, all in all. '' Rolling Stone, however, called the album "overdone and undercooked '' with a rating of 2 stars out of 5.
Jewel released a video for "Quest for Love '', the lead single from the movie Arthur and the Invisibles, recorded in 2006; the song is only available on the soundtrack for the film, which was released in January 2007. In early February 2007 Jewel recorded a duet with Jason Michael Carroll, "No Good in Goodbye '', that was featured on Carroll 's debut CD, Waitin ' in the Country. She also made a promotional appearance on the T in Boston for the Verizon Yellow Pages, playing songs on a moving subway car and then doing an hour - long acoustic concert in South Station.
In a 2007 interview with The Boston Globe, Jewel stated that she was no longer affiliated with a record label, confirming rumors that Atlantic Records had failed to renew her contract after the lackluster sales of her then - latest album. She also hinted that she would like to do a country album next. She worked with John Rich of Big & Rich fame, who said that she was "probably one of the greatest American singer - songwriters we have had. '' He also said that "every label in Nashville '' was talking to her at the time.
In November 2007 Jewel was signed to Valory Records, a newly formed division of the independent Big Machine Records label. Her first country album, Perfectly Clear, was released on June 3, 2008, selling 48,000 units in its first week. It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Album Chart and No. 8 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. In its second week on the charts, the album dropped to No. 25 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the Country Albums chart, with estimated second week sales of 75,000 units.
Its lead single, "Stronger Woman '', was released to country radio on January 17, 2008, and entered the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts. On the April 26, 2008 country charts it peaked at No. 13. The next single, "I Do '', was released to radio on June 23, 2008. The video for the single featured her cowboy then - husband, Ty Murray. This song peaked at No. 28. Following it was "' Til It Feels Like Cheating '', which peaked at No. 57. Perfectly Clear was released in Australia in late May 2009. It was then released across Europe by Humphead Records in June 2009.
In early 2009 it was announced that Jewel would release a new studio album titled Lullaby, a collection of lullabies which she described as "not just for children, but also adults ''. Its lead single, "Somewhere Over The Rainbow '', was released on iTunes on March 17, 2009. The album was released on May 5, 2009. "Somewhere Over The Rainbow '' was No. 1 on The Top Children 's Songs the week of release. Like 2011 's The Merry Goes ' Round, it is sold under the Fisher Price brand which Jewel described as "a great partnership ''.
She also recorded the "Make It Last '' with R&B singer Tyrese in conjunction with the release of his comic book Mayhem!. It was intended to be used for the soundtrack to Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen but did not appear on the final track listing.
In January 2010 Jewel released "Stay Here Forever '' from the soundtrack to the film Valentine 's Day. It also served as the lead - off single to Jewel 's ninth studio album Sweet and Wild released on June 8, 2010. The single debuted at No. 48 on the Hot Country Songs chart and reached No. 34 in May 2010. "Satisfied '' was released as the album 's second single on May 17, 2010, reaching its highest peak of No. 57. On October 10, 2010, Jewel released the third single from Sweet and Wild, "Ten ''. It made its debut on the Hot Country Songs Chart at No. 55 on the week of October 15, 2010, and peaked at No. 51 two weeks later.
Jewel 's second children 's album, The Merry Goes ' Round, was released in August 2011. Like 2009 's Lullaby, it is sold under the Fisher - Price brand.
On October 16, 2012, Jewel announced via Twitter a Greatest Hits album would be released in 2013. The album features new duets from Kelly Clarkson and the Pistol Annies. Jewel and Clarkson recorded a fresh rendition of Jewel 's song "Foolish Games '' while Jewel and the Pistol Annies recut "You Were Meant for Me ''. The Greatest Hits album was released February 5, 2013.
On August 6, 2013, Jewel announced the release of her second Christmas album, titled Let It Snow: A Holiday Collection, scheduled for release on November 12, 2013. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Jewel was quoted as saying "I wanted this record to have a resemblance to the first album. It 's a continuation of mood and spirit of that record, with the mood and feel of the album artwork with an image and tone that evokes that spirit. ''
In February 2014, Jewel began work on her next album and confirmed that it will not be released by a major record label, and that she will be producing it herself. It will reportedly have a sound similar to Pieces of You. On June 28, Jewel revealed in a Q&A on Facebook that the new album will be released in the second week of September. It will have a folk sound and was recorded with a live band. On July 21, Jewel confirmed the title as Picking Up the Pieces. Picking Up the Pieces was released on September 11, 2015.
In 2015, Jewel appeared on Blues Traveler 's album Blow Up the Moon, co-writing the song "Hearts Still Awake. ''
In July 2016, Jewel appeared on ABC 's Greatest Hits performing "You Were Meant For Me '' with Tori Kelly.
On November 4, 2017, Jewel sang "Where The Turf Meets the Surf '' before the running of the Breeders ' Cup Classic at Del Mar racetrack.
Owning a wide variety of Taylor Guitars, Jewel uses a Taylor 912 - C most often. Acoustic Guitar writer Jeffery Pepper Rodgers called the guitar her "steady companion ''.
All of her guitars are strung with D'Addario products. To strum, she employs a unique self - created fingerpicking technique or a hard pick.
Jewel made her acting debut in 1999 playing the character Sue Lee Shelley in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil, opposite Tobey Maguire. The film received mixed - positive reviews, though critic Roger Ebert praised her performance, writing: "Jewel deserves praise for, quite simply, performing her character in a convincing and unmannered way. She is an actress here, not a pop star trying out a new hobby. ''
She later had a cameo as herself in Walk Hard (2007). In June 2012, Jewel was cast in the lead role as June Carter Cash in the Lifetime original movie Ring of Fire. In 2017, she appeared in two television mystery films on the Hallmark Channel: Framed for Murder: A Fixer Upper Mystery, and Concrete Evidence: A Fixer Upper Mystery, both in which she plays the character Shannon Hughes, a contractor and investigator.
Jewel has also had ventures into writing; she published a book of poetry titled A Night Without Armor in 1998. Although it sold over 1 million copies and was a New York Times best seller, it received mixed reviews. During an MTV interview in 1998, Kurt Loder pointed out the incorrect usage in her book of poetry of the word "casualty '' (intended as something to the effect of "of a casual nature '') to which Jewel responded, "You 're a smartass for pointing that out. Next topic. '' In the fall of ' 98, the poet Beau Sia composed a book - length response to "A Night Without Armor '' entitled "A Night Without Armor II: the Revenge. '' The reviewer Edna Gundersen, writing in USA Today, noted, "Hers is flowery and sensitive. His is wry and absurd. ''
She went on to write an autobiography titled Chasing Down the Dawn in 2000, a collection of diary entries and musings detailing her life growing up in Alaska, her struggle to learn her craft and life on the road. She was scheduled to release a third book called Love Poems, which was supposed to be an extremely intimate portrayal of her relationship with her then - boyfriend, Ty Murray. It was canceled several months before release because Jewel was worried about Murray 's mother 's reaction to her intimate confessions. On September 15, 2015, Jewel released a new memoir entitled Never Broken: Songs Are Only Half the Story.
Jewel formed a nonprofit organization called Higher Ground for Humanity with her mother, Lenedra J. Carroll, and her older brother, Shane Kilcher. The organization 's focus is education, sustainable improvements, and building alliances with like - minded organizations. Jewel donates a portion of her income to the organization and often holds events to benefit the organization. The organization tends to parallel Jewel 's career since she provides the majority of the organization 's funding. As of 2005, the activities of the organization were reduced. One early grantee was the Global Youth Action Network, which has become one of the largest youth movements around the United Nations.
In September 2006, as part of Lifetime 's "Stop Breast Cancer for Life '' campaign, Jewel delivered more than 12 million petition signatures to Capitol Hill, urging Congress to pass the bipartisan Breast Cancer Patient Protection Act of 2005 (S 910 / HR1849). The bill would ban the practice of "drive - through '' mastectomies, when women are discharged from the hospital just hours after their surgeries.
Jewel served as the honorary chairperson of the 2006 Help the Homeless Walk in Washington, D.C.
In November 2008, Jewel began work on a project with several dozen singer - songwriters to write and auction their lyrics with donations benefiting her "Project Clean Water '' charity. Many singers and songwriters besides herself have donated their written lyrics including Patrick Davis, Alabama 's Randy Owen, John Mellencamp, Jason Mraz, Gretchen Wilson, and Marv Green. The majority of the lyrics were written on paper and signed by the songwriter, with the exception of Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl ''. Many of the artists in addition to writing and signing lyrics, drew pictures to illustrate their lyrics. The auction ran from December 1, 2008, to December 18, 2008, promoted by CMT and Virgin Music. Some of the lyrics that were up for auction included hits such as "So Small '', "Foolish Games '', "I 'm Yours '', "I Kissed a Girl '', "St. Elmo 's Fire (Man in Motion) '', "Live Like You Were Dying '', "I Do n't Need a Man '', "Superman (It 's Not Easy) '' and "Redneck Woman ''. The highest bought lyrics being Jewel 's signature song "You Were Meant For Me '' sold for US $1,505, and "Who Will Save Your Soul '' and "Hands '', raising more than $1,005 each. Jewel promised that all items sold by December 18 would be delivered by Christmas. After the majority of the auctions ended on December 18 two new lyrics by Craig Wiseman and Ernie Ashworth were put up for auction ending in January 2009.
In May 2013 Jewel served as ambassador for the ReThink: Why Housing Matters initiative. She was included in the initiative 's public service announcement (PSA) which asked Americans to rethink their views on public housing and consider how it benefits people in their own communities.
Jewel was in a relationship with actor Sean Penn in 1995 after he spotted her performing on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. He invited her to compose a song for his film The Crossing Guard and followed her on tour.
Jewel married pro rodeo cowboy Ty Murray on August 7, 2008, in the Bahamas after 10 years together. Their son, Kase Townes Murray, was born on July 11, 2011. On July 2, 2014, after nearly 6 years of marriage, Jewel announced on her website that she and Murray were divorcing.
Jewel is the daughter of Atz Kilcher, who stars in the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier. All three of her brothers live in Alaska. Her cousin is actress Q'orianka Kilcher who is best known for her role as Pocahontas opposite Colin Farrell and Christian Bale in director Terrence Malick 's Academy Award - nominated motion picture The New World (2005).
Jewel has been estranged from her mother and former business manager Nedra since 2003; the singer has accused her mother of stealing millions of dollars from her.
Jewel identifies as a feminist and has said, "I do n't think I started off young as a feminist. I read a lot of books in Alaska, I was pretty isolated where I grew up, and I think that I never thought I was any different than a man; I was raised in a place where pioneer women were very strong still. They 'd shoe horses and build their own homes and were very self - sufficient. It was n't really until I 've gotten older that I really became a fan of women. And a fan of what women are capable of balancing and achieving, by just being them. ''
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is all cheese in the united states pasteurized | United States raw milk debate - wikipedia
The United States raw milk debate concerns issues of food safety and claimed health benefits of raw (un-pasteurized, un-homogenized) milk, and whether authorities responsible for regulating food safety should prohibit sale of raw milk for consumption.
Raw milk makes up a small proportion of US general population milk consumption. However, some claim the demand for raw milk has "considerably increased in recent years ''. Raw milk advocates claim a variety of health benefits attributable to untreated dairy products; government officials and scientific researchers stress that there are substantial food safety risks associated with raw milk, and that claims of health benefits provided by raw milk are unsupported by scientific evidence.
Unprocessed milk consists of globules of milk fat suspended in a watery base containing dissolved proteins, sugars, vitamins, and minerals. If the globules are large enough, as with unprocessed milk from cows, the fat globules float upwards until they form a distinct cream layer at the top. Some animals, such as goats, produce smaller fat globules that remain mixed unless mechanically separated by centrifugation.
Homogenization is a process that reduces the size of fat globules by forcing pressurized, hot milk through small holes, causing turbulence that breaks up the larger fat globules so that they remain suspended rather than separating in a cream layer at the top. The purpose of homogenization is to make milk more convenient to process, store and consume, eliminating the need to shake or stir the milk container to remix the separated cream layer and increasing the shelf - life of the product.
Those opposed to homogenization argue that decreasing the size of fat globules may have unhealthy effects, including allowing steroid and protein hormones to bypass normal digestion and increase their levels in the body. Concerns that uptake of the protein xanthine oxidase is increased by homogenization, leading to hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), were raised in the 1970s. Subsequent research "failed to substantiate, and in many cases has refuted '' a plausible effect of xanthine oxidase from homogenized milk on cardiovascular disease.
Scientific studies are somewhat limited but do not currently support claims that milk homogenization affects the development of atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, milk allergy and milk intolerance, Type I diabetes or Type II diabetes.
Pasteurization is a sanitation process in which milk is heated briefly to a temperature high enough to kill pathogens, followed by rapid cooling. While different times and temperatures may be used by different processors, pasteurization is most commonly achieved with heating to 161 degrees Fahrenheit (71.7 degrees Celsius) for 15 seconds. Milk is tested following pasteurization to confirm that bacteria have been killed to an acceptable level. Pasteurization kills pathogenic bacteria which occasionally may be present in milk, including those causing tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis), listeriosis (Listeria monocytogenes), Q fever (Coxiella burnetii), brucellosis (Brucella), campylobacteriosis (Campylobacter), salmonellosis (Salmonella), and several other foodborne illnesses (e.g., Escherichia coli O157: H7). Pasteurization may not kill some resistant bacteria, which can eventually cause souring and spoilage of fresh milk. UHT pasteurization (Ultra High Temperature) is a more extreme form of pasteurization heating milk to a temperature high enough to kill spoilage organisms also.
Pasteurization is widely accepted to improve the safety of milk products by reducing the exposure to pathogens. Opponents of pasteurization argue that unpasteurized milk has benefits associated with superior taste, nutritional qualities and certain health benefits over pasteurized milk. While pasteurization of milk kills off bacterial pathogens, other bacteria species with possible health benefits are also destroyed. Pasteurization of cow 's milk destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life,. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed. A 2009 systematic review of the food safety of unpasteurized milk concluded that science - based data to substantiate claims of health benefits "are lacking or do not exist '' and the risks associated with disease outbreaks as a result of raw milk consumption are "considerably higher ''.
Pasteurization was first used in the United States in the 1890s after the discovery of germ theory to control the hazards of highly contagious bacterial diseases, including bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis, that could be easily transmitted to humans through the drinking of raw milk. Initially after the scientific discovery of bacteria, no product testing was available to determine if a farmer 's milk was safe or infected, so all milk had to be treated as potentially contagious. After the first test was developed, some farmers actively worked to prevent their infected animals from being killed and removed from food production, or would falsify the test results so that their animals would appear to be free of infection.
In the United States, milk pasteurization became "widespread '' in the 1920s and it was considered "one of the major breakthroughs in public health ''. In 1924, "Grade A Pasteurization '' became recommended federal policy, but interstate commerce of unpasteurized dairy products was only limited via federal legislation in 1987.
In 2009, 29 U.S. states allowed sales of raw milk in some form. In other parts of the world, raw milk can often be bought directly from the farmer. Arizona, Utah, California and Washington allow raw milk sales in retail stores with appropriate warning labeling. As of May 2010, Massachusetts only allows direct sales from farm to consumer, resulting in "buying clubs '' where consumers pool transportation resources to obtain raw milk more conveniently. In April 2013, the State of North Dakota passed a law that authorizes the use of herd shares.
In late 2007, the debate received media attention in California, where limits on the bacterial counts legally allowed in commercial raw milk came up for legislative review. Reuters named the raw milk debate as first on a list of the top eight health issues of 2008. The FDA has also offered financial assistance to state departments of health to help reduce raw milk consumption.
Pasteurization is credited with dramatically reducing pathogens found in milk. This improves the shelf - life and safety of the processed milk. Advocates of drinking raw milk claim various health benefits they attribute to raw milk that are lost in the pasteurization process, and claim that raw milk can be produced as hygienically as pasteurized milk. Raw milk advocates may go as far as to claim that untreated milk is a "miracle cure '' for illnesses such as asthma or gastrointestinal disorders. A 2006 systematic review of infections associated with raw milk contends that pasteurized milk is substantially safer than raw milk, and comparably nutritious to raw milk, therefore there is no scientific reason for choosing raw milk products. Similarly, a recent review authored by the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain and experts from Belgian universities and institutions concluded that "raw milk poses a realistic health threat due to a possible contamination with human pathogens. It is therefore strongly recommended that milk should be heated before consumption. With the exception of an altered organoleptic (flavor) profile, heating (in particularly ultra high temperature and similar treatments) will not substantially change the nutritional value of raw milk or other benefits associated with raw milk consumption. ''
Pasteurization opponents say that raw milk contains bacteria beneficial to the human digestive system, but pasteurization is not selective and affects all bacteria whether beneficial or infectious. These bacteria include species considered to be probiotics, such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, useful for the culturing of yogurt and cheese. Fermented milk products with levels of L. acidophilus significantly higher than those found in raw milk have been associated with decreased incidence of pediatric diarrhea, decreased levels of toxic amines in the blood of dialysis patients with small bowel bacterial overgrowth, aided lactose digestion in lactose - intolerant subjects, and a reduction in coronary heart disease risks. However, food scientists and FDA officials maintain that such "good bacteria '' can be found in pasteurized products, including yogurt, and argue that the destruction of pathogens far outweighs any proposed benefit to keeping the beneficial microbes alive.
According to a 2009 review, milkborne disease outbreaks made up approximately 25 % of all food and water contamination disease outbreaks in 1938; pasteurization is largely credited for a dramatic decrease in milkborne disease outbreaks, which made up less than 1 % of food and water contamination disease outbreaks by 2005.
According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, more than 300 people in the United States got sick from drinking raw milk or eating cheese made from raw milk in 2001, and nearly 200 became ill from these products in 2002. "Drinking raw milk or eating raw milk products is like playing Russian roulette with your health, '' says John Sheehan, director of the Food and Drug Administration 's Division of Dairy and Egg Safety. "We see a number of cases of food - borne illness every year related to the consumption of raw milk. ''
In 2006, the California Department of Food and Agriculture temporarily quarantined milk and cream from Organic Pastures, California 's largest raw milk producer, after four children were stricken with E. coli O157: H7 bacterial illness. The department determined that the common link in all four cases "was consumption of raw milk or raw colostrum from Organic Pastures in the week prior to symptom onset. ''
Milk collected or stored in unsanitary conditions may harbor a host of disease - causing organisms (pathogens), such as tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis), the bacteria Campylobacter (Campylobacteriosis), Escherichia E. coli O157: H7), Listeria (Listeriosis), Salmonella (Salmonellosis), Yersinia (Yersinia enterocolitica), and Brucella (Brucellosis). Pasteurization consistently removes all of these pathogens, though they can be reintroduced if the product is handled carelessly. Thus dairy farms that pasteurize their milk can have unsanitary facilities without the attendant outbreaks of disease that would occur if a raw milk dairy kept its herds in similar unsanitary conditions.
People with weakened immune systems, such as elderly, children, and those with certain diseases or conditions, are most at risk for severe infections from pathogens that can contaminate raw milk. In pregnant women, Listeria monocytogenes - caused illness can result in miscarriage, fetal death, or illness or death of a newborn infant, and Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection has been linked to hemolytic uremic syndrome, a condition that can cause kidney failure and death. Other groups, such as the Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition and American Academy of Pediatrics, also warn that raw milk is dangerous, especially for children.
The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) cite numerous cases of serious or fatal infections caused by raw milk, with E. coli O157: H7 being the most important because it can cause hemolytic - uremic syndrome, a life - threatening condition. In a CDC report, numerous cases were traced to raw milk from a cow - share program in Cowlitz County, Washington. After five children were hospitalized, a court order was issued to bring the farm into compliance. In 2007, Kansas State University published a list of outbreaks associated with consuming raw milk or dairy products and an article about the investigation of raw milk outbreaks.
The Weston A. Price Foundation has been active in promoting raw milk with its "Real Milk '' campaign. The organization claims that of 15 milkborne disease outbreaks cited by the FDA, not a single one demonstrated that pasteurization would have fixed the problem, that 93 % lacked either a valid statistical correlation with raw milk or a positive sample, and half lacked both; they further claimed that, even with the FDA 's numbers, raw milk was no more dangerous than deli meats. In response, the director of the FDA 's division of plant - and dairy - food safety, John Sheehan, called the organization 's claims on the health benefits and safety of raw milk "false, devoid of scientific support, and misleading to consumers ''.
In 2008, scientists discovered that raw milk contains more species of bacteria than previously thought, and identified Chryseobacterium oranimense as well as C. haifense and C. bovis, but the amount found in raw milk has not been proven harmful.
While causation has not been determined, researchers in 2015 found that 59 % of people with breast cancer had bovine leukemia virus (BLV) in their breast cancer samples, compared to the virus being found in only 29 % of tissue samples of people who had never had breast cancer. BLV is common, spread by blood and milk in cows, and has been found in 100 % of bulk milk tanks in dairy operations with over 500 cows. Consuming unpasteurized milk or under cooked meats could be pathways for human exposure to BLV.
In November 2017, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended medical treatment for anyone who had, within the previous six months, consumed raw milk products from Udder Milk, a New Jersey - based cooperative. An antibiotic resistant strain of Brucella abortus, which can cause the disease Brucellosis, was detected in at least one person who drank raw milk from the co-op.
Advocates of drinking raw milk claim raw milk contains desirable substances, such as enzymes, that can not survive the heating process and may be destroyed during pasteurization; specifically, immunoglobulins and the enzymes lipase and phosphatase, which are inactivated by heat, are believed to be beneficial. In contrast, food scientists and FDA officials assert that most "beneficial '' enzymes survive pasteurization; that those few enzymes that are present in raw milk and denatured in pasteurized milk are ultimately degraded in the low pH environment of the stomach anyway; and that the enzymes present in milk are not used by humans to metabolize nutrients.
Pasteurization does lead to decreased levels of several vitamins, but only approximately 0 -- 10 %. Research shows only very slight differences in the nutritional values of pasteurized and unpasteurized milk. Raw milk contains very little vitamin D, which is added to processed milk.
Three studies have found a statistically significant inverse relationship between consumption of raw milk and asthma and allergies. However, all of these studies have been performed in children living on farms and living a farming lifestyle, rather than comparing urban children living typical urban lifestyles and with typical urban exposures who do or do not consume raw milk, so it is likely that other aspects of the overall urban vs. farming environment lifestyle play a role in these effects; for this reason, the overall phenomenon is termed the "farm effect. '' In the largest of these studies, exposure to cows and straw as well as raw milk were associated with lower rates of asthma, and exposure to animal feed storage rooms and manure with lower rates of atopic dermatitis. A recent scientific review concluded that "most studies alluding to a possible protective effect of raw milk consumption do not contain any objective confirmation on the raw milk status or a direct comparison with heat - treated milk. Moreover, it seems that the observed increased resistance seems to be rather related to the exposure to a farm environment or to animals than to raw milk consumption. ''
Many raw milk consumers cite a preference for the taste of raw milk products.
The Raw Milk Cheesemakers Association hold that cheese produced from raw milk have distinctive complexity and depth of flavor absent from pasteurized - milk cheeses.
The FDA considers hard, aged cheese, such as parmesan and cheddar, made from raw milk to be generally safe for consumption; soft cheese made from raw milk is considered unsafe. These types of cheese are currently legally sold if aged for 60 days or more. Over this period, the salt and acid characteristics of aging cheese generally eliminate the growth of pathogenic bacteria.
Raw milk advocates cite libertarian and personal choice arguments against government interference concerning the sale of raw milk. Some advocates feel resentment towards the government 's efforts in limiting the distribution and consumption of raw milk, seeing their actions as a personal choice that is not harmful to anyone else. Raw milk activism can be associated with alternative medicine and anti-regulatory activism.
The methods of determining Grade A milk quality are well - established and outlined in the FDA Grade A Pasteurized Milk Ordinance. These grades are typically related to a measurement known as the somatic cell count (SCC) and the bacteria plate count. Generally a lower somatic cell count indicates better animal health, while the bacteria plate count indicates improved equipment sanitation.
Somatic cells originate only from inside the animal 's udder, while bacteria are usually from external contamination, such as insufficient cleaning of the milk transport equipment or insufficient external cleansing of the cow 's udder and teats prior to milking. Milking equipment can also be accidentally knocked or kicked off an animal onto the floor, and contaminants on the barn floor can be sucked into the milk line by the system vacuum. A filter sock or filter disk in the pipeline prevents large particulate contaminants from entering the milk bulk tank, but can not remove bacterial contamination once it has occurred.
For example, as defined by the state of Indiana 's administrative code, Grade A milk shall meet the following standards:
Milk not meeting these standards shall be designated as undergrade. Undergrade milk may not be sold for human consumption or processing into products for human consumption.
As established, these measurements are taken daily from the milk bulk tank and not from individual cows. This is because testing of individual animals at each milking would be expensive, but it also means that milk from a sick cow is diluted and averaged down by the healthy animals. Greater bulk tanks at very great commercial farms are accommodating of more sick animals in the herd, without the sick animals affecting the overall milk quality rating.
As discussed in the paper Guidelines for Using the DHI Somatic Cell Count Program
Bacteria in milk can come from sources other than the animal. Over time the milking pipeline and equipment can become coated with residues such as milkstone which are not removed by standard detergents and require periodic flushing of equipment with high strength corrosives. Automatic washing equipment for the bulk tank may not effectively clean all interior surfaces, and does not clean the exterior of the bulk tank at all.
Some buyers award producers for having the lowest SCC but this does not also lead to an increased payment for the milk quality, so there is no incentive to strive for anything more than meeting the basic grade A SCC rating.
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passive wireless discovery through wardriving is in itself an illegal activity | Wardriving - wikipedia
Wardriving is the act of searching for Wi - Fi wireless networks by a person usually in a moving vehicle, using a laptop or smartphone. Software for wardriving is freely available on the Internet.
Warbiking or warcycling is similar to wardriving, but is done from a moving bicycle or motorcycle. This practice is sometimes facilitated by mounting a Wi - Fi enabled device on the vehicle. Warwalking, or warjogging, is similar to wardriving, but is done on foot rather than from a moving vehicle. Warrailing, or wartraining, is similar to wardriving, but is done on trains, tram, buses or by any other means of public transport. Wardroning is accomplished with a drone.
War driving originated from wardialing, a method popularized by a character played by Matthew Broderick in the film WarGames, and named after that film. War dialing consists of dialing every phone number in a specific sequence in search of modems.
Warbiking or warcycling is similar to wardriving, but is done from a moving bicycle or motorcycle. This practice is sometimes facilitated by mounting a Wi - Fi enabled device on the vehicle.
Warwalking, or warjogging, is similar to wardriving, but is done on foot rather than from a moving vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are slower speed of travel (but leading to discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and the absence of a convenient computing environment. Consequently, handheld devices such as pocket computers, which can perform such tasks while users are walking or standing, have dominated this practice. Technology advances and developments in the early 2000s expanded the extent of this practice. Advances include computers with integrated Wi - Fi, rather than CompactFlash (CF) or PC Card (PCMCIA) add - in cards in computers such as Dell Axim, Compaq iPAQ and Toshiba pocket computers starting in 2002. More recently, the active Nintendo DS and Sony PSP enthusiast communities gained Wi - Fi abilities on these devices. Further, many newer smartphones integrate Wi - Fi and Global Positioning System (GPS).
Warrailing, or Wartraining, is similar to wardriving, but is done on a train or tram rather than from a slower more controllable vehicle. The disadvantages of this method are higher speed of travel (resulting in less discovery of more infrequently discovered networks) and often limited to major roads with a higher traffic.
Warkitting is a combination of wardriving and rootkitting. In a warkitting attack, a hacker replaces the firmware of an attacked router. This allows them to control all traffic for the victim, and could even permit them to disable TLS by replacing HTML content as it is being downloaded. Warkitting was identified by Tsow, Jakobsson, Yang, and Wetzel in 2006. Their discovery indicated that 10 % of the wireless routers were susceptible to WAPjacking (malicious configuring of the firmware settings, but making no modification on the firmware itself) and 4.4 % of wireless routers were vulnerable to WAPkitting (subverting the router firmware). Their analysis showed that the volume of credential theft possible through Warkitting exceeded the estimates of credential theft due to phishing.
Wardrivers use a Wifi - equipped device together with a GPS device to record the location of wireless networks. The results can then be uploaded to websites like WiGLE, openBmap or Geomena where the data is processed to form maps of the network neighborhood. There are also clients available for smartphones running Android that can upload data directly. For better range and sensitivity, antennas are built or bought, and vary from omnidirectional to highly directional.
The maps of known network IDs can then be used as a geolocation system -- an alternative to GPS -- by triangulating the current position from the signal strengths of known network IDs. Examples include Place Lab by Intel, Skyhook, Navizon by Cyril Houri, SeekerLocate from Seeker Wireless, openBmap and Geomena. Navizon and openBmap combines information from Wi - Fi and cell phone tower maps contributed by users from Wi - Fi - equipped cell phones. In addition to location finding, this provides navigation information, and allows for the tracking of the position of friends, and geotagging.
In December 2004, a class of 100 undergraduates worked to map the city of Seattle, Washington over several weeks. They found 5,225 access points; 44 % were secured with WEP encryption, 52 % were open, and 3 % were pay - for - access. They noticed trends in the frequency and security of the networks depending on location. Many of the open networks were clearly intended to be used by the general public, with network names like "Open to share, no porn please '' or "Free access, be nice. '' The information was collected into high - resolution maps, which were published online. Previous efforts had mapped cities such as Dublin.
Some portray wardriving as a questionable practice (typically from its association with piggybacking), though, from a technical viewpoint, everything is working as designed: many access points broadcast identifying data accessible to anyone with a suitable receiver. It could be compared to making a map of a neighborhood 's house numbers and mail box labels.
While some may claim that wardriving is illegal, there are no laws that specifically prohibit or allow wardriving, though many localities have laws forbidding unauthorized access of computer networks and protecting personal privacy. Google created a privacy storm in some countries after it eventually admitted systematically but surreptitiously gathering WiFi data while capturing video footage and mapping data for its Street View service. It has since been using Android - based mobile devices to gather this data.
Passive, listen - only wardriving (with programs like Kismet or KisMAC) does not communicate at all with the networks, merely logging broadcast addresses. This can be likened to listening to a radio station that happens to be broadcasting in the area or with other forms of DXing.
With other types of software, such as NetStumbler, the wardriver actively sends probe messages, and the access point responds per design. The legality of active wardriving is less certain, since the wardriver temporarily becomes "associated '' with the network, even though no data is transferred. Most access points, when using default "out of the box '' security settings, are intended to provide wireless access to all who request it. The war driver 's liability may be reduced by setting the computer to a static IP, instead of using DHCP, preventing the network from granting the computer an IP address or logging the connection.
In the United States, the case that is usually referenced in determining whether a network has been "accessed '' is State v. Allen. In this case, Allen had been wardialing in an attempt to get free long distance calling through Southwestern Bell 's computer systems. When presented with a password protection screen, however, he did not attempt to bypass it. The court ruled that although he had "contacted '' or "approached '' the computer system, this did not constitute "access '' of the company 's network.
There are also homebrew wardriving applications for handheld game consoles that support Wi - Fi, such as sniff jazzbox / wardive for the Nintendo DS / Android, Road Dog for the Sony PSP, WiFi - Where for the iPhone, G - MoN, Wardrive, Wigle Wifi for Android, and WlanPollution for Symbian NokiaS60 devices. There also exists a mode within Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops for the Sony PSP (wherein the player is able to find new comrades by searching for wireless access points) which can be used to wardrive. Treasure World for the DS is a commercial game in which gameplay wholly revolves around wardriving.
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combined flow of shilabati and dwarakeswar is known as | Rupnarayan river - Wikipedia
The Rupnarayan River is a river in India. It begins as the Dhaleswari (Dhalkisor) in the Chhota Nagpur plateau foothills northeast of the town of Purulia. It then follows a tortuous southeasterly course past the town of Bankura, where it is known as the Dwarakeswar river. Near the town of Ghatal it is joined by the Shilabati river, where it takes the name Rupnarayan. Finally, it joins the Hoogli River. It is famous for the Hilsa fish that live in it and are used in Bengali cuisine. It is also notable for the West Bengal Power Development Corporation Limited (WBPDCL) thermal power plant built along its bank at Kolaghat in West Bengal. The river also passes through Bagnan in Howrah district.
Rupnarayan River forms the eastern boundary of district Purba Medinipur with district Howrah.
List of rivers of India
Coordinates: 22 ° 13 ′ N 88 ° 03 ′ E / 22.217 ° N 88.050 ° E / 22.217; 88.050
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how likely is it that you would recommend this company to a friend or colleague | Net Promoter - wikipedia
Net Promoter or Net Promoter Score (NPS) is a management tool that can be used to gauge the loyalty of a firm 's customer relationships. It serves as an alternative to traditional customer satisfaction research and claims to be correlated with revenue growth. NPS has been widely adopted with more than two thirds of Fortune 1000 companies using the metric.
Net Promoter Score is a customer loyalty metric developed by (and a registered trademark of) Fred Reichheld, Bain & Company, and Satmetrix. It was introduced by Reichheld in his 2003 Harvard Business Review article "One Number You Need to Grow ''. NPS can be as low as − 100 (everybody is a detractor) or as high as + 100 (everybody is a promoter). An NPS that is positive (i.e., higher than zero) is felt to be good, and an NPS of + 50 is excellent.
Net Promoter Score (NPS) measures the loyalty that exists between a provider and a consumer. The provider can be a company, employer or any other entity. The provider is the entity that is asking the questions on the NPS survey. The consumer is the customer, employee, or respondent to an NPS survey.
The Net Promoter Score is calculated based on responses to a single question: How likely is it that you would recommend our company / product / service to a friend or colleague? The scoring for this answer is most often based on a 0 to 10 scale.
Those who respond with a score of 9 to 10 are called Promoters, and are considered likely to exhibit value - creating behaviors, such as buying more, remaining customers for longer, and making more positive referrals to other potential customers. Those who respond with a score of 0 to 6 are labeled Detractors, and they are believed to be less likely to exhibit the value - creating behaviors. Responses of 7 and 8 are labeled Passives, and their behavior falls between Promoters and Detractors. The Net Promoter Score is calculated by subtracting the percentage of customers who are Detractors from the percentage of customers who are Promoters. For purposes of calculating a Net Promoter Score, Passives count toward the total number of respondents, thus decreasing the percentage of detractors and promoters and pushing the net score toward 0.
Companies are encouraged to follow the likely - to - recommend question with an open - ended request for elaboration, soliciting the reasons for a customer 's rating of that company or product. These reasons can then be provided to front - line employees and management teams for follow - up action. Local office branch managers at Charles Schwab Corporation, for example, call back customers to engage them in a discussion about the feedback they provided through the NPS survey process, solve problems, and learn more so they can coach account representatives.
Reichheld and Markey say the rating and answers to the "Why? '' question provide all that is needed to identify reference customers and improvement opportunities. While this may be the case, the lack of any easy way to automatically analyze the verbatim answers without human bias is problematic. The response of many companies to the problem has been to add additional questions with rating scales.
Additional questions can be included to assist with understanding the perception of various products, services, and lines of business. These additional questions help a company rate the relative importance of these other parts of the business in the overall score. This is especially helpful in targeting resources to address issues that most impact the NPS. Companies using the Net Promoter System often rely on software as a service vendors that offer a full suite of metrics, reporting, and analytics.
The primary purpose of the Net Promoter Score methodology is to evaluate customer loyalty to a brand or company. The ability to measure customer loyalty is a more effective methodology to determine the likelihood that the customer will buy again, talk up the company and resist market pressure to defect to a competitor. Measuring loyalty can be done in several ways, and researchers have asserted that there are better predictors of actual recommendations than asking "likelihood to recommend. '' Since the purpose of Net Promoter is not to predict actual recommendations alone, but to predict the full suite of financially advantageous behaviors, proponents of the methodology do not find this troublesome.
Net Promoter System also requires a process to close the loop. Closing the loop is a process by which the provider actively intervenes to learn more from customers who have provided feedback, and also to change a negative perception, often converting a Detractor into a Promoter. In order to do this, the survey respondent can not be anonymous (something that can have a negative impact in the willingness to take the survey or to give low grades). The Net Promoter survey will identify customers who need some follow - up, including Detractors, and should automatically alert the provider to contact the consumer and manage the followup and actions from that point.
Proponents of the Net Promoter approach claim the score can be used to motivate an organization to become more focused on improving products and services for consumers. They further claim that a company 's Net Promoter Score correlates with revenue growth. The Net Promoter approach has been adopted by several companies, including Australia Post, Siemens, E. ON, Philips, GE, Apple Retail, American Express, and Intuit. It has also emerged as a way to measure loyalty for online applications, as well as social game products.
A customer is able to leave comments in the surveys sent to them. This is what allows a company to use the VOC (Voice of Customer) to ensure that company is meeting the expectations.
Some proponents of the Net Promoter Score also suggest that the same methodology can be used to measure, evaluate and manage employee loyalty. They claim that collecting the feedback from employees in a manner similar to Net Promoter customer feedback can provide companies a way to maintain focus on their culture. What is sometimes called the "employee Net Promoter Score '' or eNPS has been compared to other employee satisfaction metrics and some companies have claimed that it correlates well with those other metrics.
For some kinds of industries, notably software and services, it has been shown that Detractors tend to remain with a company and Passives leave. This appears to be the case where switching barriers are relatively high.
In the face of criticisms of the Net Promoter Score, the proponents of the Net Promoter approach claim that the statistical analyses presented prove only that the "recommend '' question is similar in predictive power to other metrics, but fail to address the practical benefits of the approach, which are at the heart of the argument Reichheld put forth. Proponents of the approach also counter that analyses based on third - party data are inferior to analyses conducted by companies on their own customer sets, and that the practical benefits of the approach (short survey, simple concept to communicate, ability to follow up with customers) outweigh any statistical inferiority of the approach. Interestingly, they also allow that a survey using any other question can be used within the Net Promoter System, as long as it meets the criteria of sorting customers reliably into promoters, passives and detractors.
While the Net Promoter Score has gained popularity among business executives, it has also attracted controversy from academic and market research circles.
The lack of a proven causal connection is a feature of all use of statistical correlation and regression techniques. They suggest where to look for causal connections but do not provide them on their own.
Research by Keiningham, Cooil, Andreassen and Aksoy disputes that the Net Promoter metric is the best predictor of company growth. Furthermore, Hayes (2008) claimed there was no scientific evidence that the "likelihood to recommend '' question is a better predictor of business growth than other customer - loyalty questions (e.g., overall satisfaction, likelihood to purchase again). Specifically, Hayes stated that the "likelihood to recommend '' question does not measure anything different from other conventional loyalty - related questions. The customer metrics included in this study perform equally well in predicting current company performance. ''
Daniel Schneider, Matt Berent, et al. found that out of four scales tested, the 11 - point scale advocated by Reichheld had the lowest predictive validity.
"A single item question is much less reliable and more volatile than a composite index. '' "Furthermore, combining CFMs (customer feedback metrics), along with simultaneously investigating multiple dimensions of the customer relationship, improves predictions even further. ''
"Recommend intention alone will not suffice as a single predictor of customers ' future loyalty behaviors. Use of multiple indicators instead of a single predictor model performs significantly better in predicting customer recommendations and retention. '' "... given the present state of evidence, it can not be recommended to use the NPI as a predictor of growth nor financial performance. ''
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did mr ed ever talk to anyone else | Mister Ed - wikipedia
Mister Ed is an American television sitcom produced by Filmways which originally aired in syndication from January 5 to July 2, 1961, and then on CBS from October 1, 1961, to February 6, 1966. The show 's title character -- a talking horse -- originally appeared in short stories by Walter R. Brooks.
Mister Ed is one of the few series to debut in syndication and be picked up by a major network for prime time. All 143 episodes were filmed in black - and - white.
The Mister Ed show concept was derived from a series of short stories by children 's author Walter R. Brooks, which began with The Talking Horse in the September 18, 1937, issue of Liberty magazine. Brooks is otherwise best known for the Freddy the Pig series of children 's novels, which likewise featured talking animals that interact with humans. Sonia Chernus, secretary to director Arthur Lubin, introduced Lubin to the Brooks stories and is credited with developing the concept for television.
The show 's concept resembles that of the Francis the Talking Mule movies in which an equine title character talks, but only to one person, thus causing a variety of opportunities and frustrations. The first six Francis films (1950 -- 55) were also directed by Lubin.
Lubin wanted to make a Francis TV series but had been unable to secure the rights. However someone told him about Brooks ' series of stories. He optioned these for TV.
Comedian George Burns financed the original pilot for Mister Ed which was shot at his McCadden Studio in Hollywood at a cost of $70,000. Scott McKay played Wilbur. Jack Benny was also involved behind the scenes. Unable to sell the show to a network, Lubin decided to sell the show into syndication first. He managed to get single sponsor identification for the program on over 100 stations. The show was recast with Alan Young in the lead. Production began in November 1960, although Lubin did not direct early episodes because he was working in Europe on a film. The first 26 episodes were well received enough for the show to be picked up by CBS.
The show in effect had two leads operating as a comedy team. The title role of Mister Ed, a talking palomino, was played by "Amelia '', a Grevy 's Zebra and voiced by former Western film actor Allan Lane. The role of Ed 's owner, a genial but somewhat klutzy architect named Wilbur Post, was played by Alan Young. Many of the program 's gags follow from Mister Ed 's tendency to talk only to Wilbur, his skills as a troublemaker, and his precociously human - like behaviour that far exceeds anything those around Wilbur expect of a horse. A running gag is other characters hearing Wilbur talking to Ed and asking to whom he is talking. Another running gag centers on Wilbur being accident - prone and inadvertently causing harm to himself and others. According to Lubin, Young was chosen for the lead role because he "just seemed like the sort of guy a horse would talk to ''.
The other main character throughout the series is Wilbur 's generally tolerant young wife, Carol (Connie Hines). The Posts also have two sets of neighbors, to whom Ed delights in making Wilbur appear as eccentric as possible. They included the Addisons, Roger (Larry Keating) and his wife Kay (Edna Skinner), who both appeared from the pilot episode until Keating 's death in 1963; thereafter, Skinner continued appearing as Kay, without mention of Roger 's absence, until the neighbors were recast. During this period, Kay 's brother Paul Fenton (Jack Albertson), who had made occasional appearances before, appears. Following the Addisons, the Posts ' new neighbors were Col. Gordon Kirkwood, USAF (Ret.), Wilbur 's former commanding officer (Leon Ames), and his wife Winnie (Florence MacMichael). They appeared on the series from 1963 to 1965. In the final season, the Kirkwoods were phased out, while Carol 's grumpy and uptight father, Mr. Higgins (Barry Kelley), who appeared occasionally throughout the entire series, apparently moved in with Wilbur and Carol during the final episodes. Wilbur and his father - in - law did not get along at all because Mr. Higgins loathed Wilbur, whose quirky eccentricity and klutzy, half - hearted attempts to be friendly always clashed with Mr. Higgins 's emotionless and uptight personality. Carol 's father never stopped trying to persuade her to divorce Wilbur, whom he often and openly referred to as a "kook '' because of Wilbur 's clumsiness. Alan Young performed double duty during the final season of the series, also directing nearly all episodes.
Ed 's ability to talk was never explained, or ever contemplated much on the show. In the first episode, when Wilbur expresses an inability to understand the situation, Ed offers the show 's only remark on the subject: "Do n't try. It 's bigger than both of us! ''
The Posts resided at 17230 Valley Spring Road in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles.
Several celebrity guest stars appeared as themselves during the course of the series:
Other known performers appeared in character roles:
The original, unaired pilot for the series was titled "Wilbur Pope and Mister Ed '' and featured an unrelated instrumental big - band theme (with footage of Studebaker Lark automobiles being driven underneath the opening credits). In the pilot, which used a script that was nearly identical to that which would be used on the series premiere, used a totally different cast. Scott McKay played the title part of Wilbur Pope (surname later changed to "Post '' prior to the series making it to air) and Sandra White played the role of Wilbur 's wife.
The first horse that played Mister Ed for the first, unaired pilot episode was a chestnut gelding. The horse proved to be unruly and difficult to work with and was replaced with the horse named Bamboo Harvester (1949 -- 1970), a crossbred gelding of American Saddlebred, Arabian and grade ancestry. A second pilot episode was filmed and Bamboo Harvester remained with the series until its cancellation.
Mister Ed 's producers left the talents that performed the title role uncredited. The show 's credits listed Mister Ed as being played only by "Himself ''.
The voice actor for Ed 's spoken lines was Allan "Rocky '' Lane, a former B - movie cowboy star. Sheldon Allman provided Ed 's singing voice in episodes; his solo line ("I am Mister Ed '') at the close of the show 's theme song was provided by its composer, Jay Livingston. Allan Lane was alluded to by the producers only as "an actor who prefers to remain nameless. '' After the show became a hit, Lane campaigned the producers for credit but never received it.
The horse Bamboo Harvester portrayed Ed throughout the run. Ed 's stablemate, a quarterhorse named Pumpkin, also served as Bamboo Harvester 's stunt double for the show. This horse later appeared again in the television series Green Acres.
Bamboo Harvester 's trainer was Les Hilton. To create the impression that Ed was having a conversation, Hilton initially used a thread technique he had employed for Lubin 's earlier Mule films; in time, though, this became unnecessary. As actor Alan Young recounted: "It was initially done by putting a piece of nylon thread in his mouth. But Ed actually learned to move his lips on cue when the trainer touched his hoof. In fact, he soon learned to do it when I stopped talking during a scene! Ed was very smart. ''
Reports circulated during and after the show 's run that the talking effect was achieved by crew members applying peanut butter to the horse 's gums. Alan Young said in later interviews that he invented the story. "Al Simon and Arthur Lubin, the producers, suggested we keep the method (of making the horse appear to talk) a secret because they thought kids would be disappointed if they found out the technical details of how it was done, so I made up the peanut butter story, and everyone bought it. ''
Young added that Bamboo Harvester saw trainer Les Hilton as the disciplinarian father figure. When scolded by Hilton for missing a cue, the horse would move to Young for comfort, treating the actor as a mother figure. Hilton told Young this was a positive development.
There are conflicting stories involving of the death of Bamboo Harvester, the horse that played Mister Ed.
Alan Young said he had frequently visited Harvester in retirement. He states that Bamboo Harvester died from an inadvertent tranquilizer administered while he was in a stable on Sparks Street in Burbank, California, where he lived with his trainer Lester Hilton. Young says Hilton was out of town visiting relatives, and a temporary caregiver might have seen Bamboo Harvester rolling on the ground, struggling to get up. Young said Harvester was a heavy horse, and he was not always strong enough to get back on his feet without struggling. The theory is, the caregiver thought the horse was in distress, administered a tranquilizer, and, for unknown reasons, the horse died within hours. The remains were cremated and scattered by Hilton in the Los Angeles area at a spot known only to him.
Another story claims that by 1968 Bamboo Harvester suffering old age ailments and was euthanized in 1970, with no publicity, and buried at Snodgrass Farm in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.
A third story claims that after Mr. Ed Bamboo Harvester 's health was failing, that he suffered from arthritis and kidney problems, and had to be euthanized at the age of 19.
A different horse who died in Oklahoma in February 1979 was widely thought to be Bamboo Harvester, but this horse was, in fact, a horse that posed for the still pictures of Mister Ed used by the production company for the show 's press kits. This horse was unofficially known as "Mister Ed '', which led to his being reported as such (including sardonic comments on Saturday Night Live 's Weekend Update) following his own death.
The theme song, titled "Mister Ed '', was written by the songwriting team of Jay Livingston and Ray Evans and sung by Livingston himself. The first seven episodes used only instrumental music to open the show; thereafter the version with lyrics was used. Livingston agreed to sing the song himself until a professional singer could be found; the producers liked the songwriter 's vocals and kept them on the broadcast. During most of the show 's run the ending theme song used only instrumental music. In some episodes, however, the theme song is sung during the closing credits.
The theme song received renewed publicity twenty years after the show went off the air when Jim Brown, a preacher from South Point, Ohio, claimed in May 1986 that it contained "satanic messages '' if heard in reverse. Brown and his colleague Greg Hudson claimed that the phrases "Someone sung this song for Satan '' and "the source is Satan '' would be audible. At their behest teenagers burned over 300 records and cassettes of secular music with alleged satanic messages. The teens did not burn a copy of Television 's Greatest Hits, but Brown asserted that "Satan can be an influence whether they (the songwriters) know it or not. We do n't think they did it on purpose and we 're not getting down on Mister Ed. ''
The series was sponsored from 1961 to 1963 by Studebaker - Packard Corporation and Studebaker Corporation. At first, sponsorship came from Studebaker 's dealer association, with corporate sponsorship coming from South Bend once the series had been picked up by CBS. Studebakers were featured prominently in the show during this period. The Posts are shown owning a 1962 Lark convertible, and the company used publicity shots featuring the Posts and Mister Ed with their product (various cast members also appeared in "integrated commercials '' for Lark at the end of the program). When another Lark convertible served as the official pace car at the 1962 Indianapolis 500, Connie Hines attended the race as part of the promotion.
Studebaker 's sales dropped dramatically in 1961 and, despite their exposure via sponsoring this program, never recovered. Studebaker ended U.S. motor vehicle production on December 20, 1963. Later, Studebaker 's sponsorship and vehicle - supply agreement ended, and The Ford Motor Company provided the vehicles seen on - camera starting at the beginning of 1965. (Studebaker vehicle production ended in March 1966.)
MGM Home Entertainment released two Best - of collections of Mister Ed on DVD in Region 1. Volume 1 (released January 13, 2004) contains 21 episodes and Volume 2 (released March 8, 2005) contains 20 episodes. Due to poor sales, further volumes were not released.
MGM also released a single - disc release entitled Mister Ed 's Barnyard Favorites on July 26, 2005 which contains the first eight episodes featured on Volume One.
Shout! Factory announced in June 2009 that they had acquired the rights to release Mister Ed on DVD, and subsequently released the six seasons on DVD in Region 1 in the U.S. Notably, Seasons 4 and 5 are not available outside of the continental U.S. The sixth and final season was released on May 12, 2015.
Syndicated versions of eight episodes were utilized for Season One DVD release. All other DVD releases contain unedited, full - length versions.
One episode (the second - season episode "Ed the Beneficiary '') has lapsed into the public domain. Also in the public domain is a 19 - minute production of the United States Department of the Treasury, done in the style of a Mister Ed episode with the show 's full cast (but without a laugh track), promoting Savings Bonds, and the original unaired pilot, which was published without a copyright notice.
On December 9, 2014, Shout! Factory released Mister Ed - Complete Series on DVD in Region 1. The 22 - disc set contains all 143 episodes of the series as well as bonus features.
- Shout! Factory Exclusives title, sold exclusively through Shout 's online store
In 2004, a remake was planned for the Fox network, with Sherman Hemsley as the voice of Mister Ed, David Alan Basche as Wilbur, and Sherilyn Fenn as Carol.
In 2012, Waterman Entertainment announced they were developing a new feature film based on Mister Ed.
A race horse named after the character in the television show took part in the 1994 Grand National steeplechase at Aintree, England but did not complete the course.
In 2007, it was reported that a housing developer intended to create a community near Tahlequah, Oklahoma, built around the supposed final resting place of Mister Ed (who died in 1970). It was intended to be themed to the style of the show and its period.
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when did the center of the roman empire moved from rome to constantinople | Constantinople - wikipedia
Κωνσταντινούπολις or Κωνσταντινούπολη (in Greek)
6 km (2.3 sq mi) enclosed within Constantinian Walls
Capital of the Byzantine Empire 330 - 1204 AD; 1261 - 1453 AD
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis or Κωνσταντινούπολη Konstantinoúpoli; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطینية , translit. Ḳosṭanṭīnīye) was the capital city of the Roman / Byzantine (330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453), and also of the brief Latin (1204 -- 1261), and the later Ottoman (1453 -- 1923) empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330 AD.
From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe and it was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times as the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and as the guardian of Christendom 's holiest relics such as the Crown of Thorns and the True Cross. After the final loss of its provinces in the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, and the city eventually fell to the Ottomans after a month - long siege in 1453.
Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, the defences of Constantinople proved invulnerable for nearly nine hundred years before the city was taken in 1204 by the Crusader armies of the Fourth Crusade, and after it was liberated in 1261 by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, a second and final time in 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, and surrounded the city on both land and sea fronts. Later, in the 5th century, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius under the child emperor Theodosius II undertook the construction of the Theodosian Walls, which consisted of a double wall lying about 2 km (1.2 miles) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front. This formidable complex of defences was one of the most sophisticated of Antiquity. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched the ' seven hills ' of Rome. Because it was located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara the land area that needed defensive walls was reduced, and this helped it to present an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of the prosperity that was engendered by its being the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).
The city was also famed for its architectural masterpieces, such as the Greek Orthodox cathedral of Hagia Sophia, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Galata Tower, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and the opulent aristocratic palaces lining the arcaded avenues and squares. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained numerous artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had over 100,000 volumes of ancient texts.
Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. Although the city partially recovered in the early years after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, the advent of the Ottomans and the subsequent loss of the Imperial territories until it became an enclave inside the fledgling Ottoman Empire rendered the city severely depopulated when it fell to the Ottoman Turks, whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was Lygos, a settlement of likely Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th century BC. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The origins of the name of Byzantion, more commonly known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thraco - Illyrian origin. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.
The city was briefly renamed Augusta Antonina in the early 3rd century by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193 -- 211), having razed the city to the ground in 196 AD for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and rebuilt, in honour of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla. The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium / Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235.
Byzantium took on the name of Konstantinoupolis ("city of Constantine '', Constantinople) after its re-foundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium in 330 AD and designated his new capital officially as Nova Roma (Νέα Ῥώμη) ' New Rome '. During this time, the city was also called ' Second Rome ', ' Eastern Rome ', and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames.
As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th -- 13th centuries and a centre of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as Basileuousa (Queen of Cities) and Megalopolis (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just Polis (η πόλη) ' the City ' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.
In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill ' big ' and garðr ' city '), and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al - kubra (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as Takht - e Rum (Throne of the Romans).
In East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople was referred to as Tsargrad (Царьград) or Carigrad, ' City of the Caesar (Emperor) ', from the Slavonic words tsar (' Caesar ' or ' King ') and grad (' city '). This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Vasileos Polis), ' the city of the emperor (king) '.
The modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin (εἰς τὴν πόλιν), meaning "into the city '' or "to the city ''. This name was used in Turkish alongside Kostantiniyye, the more formal adaptation of the original Constantinople, during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, as part of the 1920s Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. In time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages.
The name "Constantinople '' is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as "His Most Divine All - Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch. '' In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis / Konstantinoúpoli (Κωνσταντινούπολη / Κωνσταντινούπολις) or simply just "the City '' (Η Πόλη / Η Πόλις).
Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (272 -- 337 AD) in 324 on the site of an already - existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city - state of Megara. This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of Lygos, referred to in Pliny 's Natural Histories, Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement, except that it was abandoned by the time the Megarian colonists settled the site anew. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, (14) across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The city maintained independence as a city - state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait. Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c. 150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.
Byzantium was never a major influential city - state like that of Athens, Corinth, and Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for its strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic - European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger 's claimancy. It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed "a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia ''. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall.
Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire.
Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330. Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis. Yet, at first, Constantine 's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city. In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.
Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate - house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot - races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.
From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese (Greek: Μέση (Οδός) lit. "Middle (Street) ''), lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law - court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate - house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.
The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual. From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337 - 8, 347 -- 51, 358 -- 61, 368 -- 69. Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361. The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100 - mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome. The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.
After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days ' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413 -- 414 Theodosius II built the 18 - metre (60 - foot) - tall triple - wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425.
Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved.
After the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople.
The emperor Justinian I (527 -- 565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in 70 AD and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St. Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.
Chariot - racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue.
Throughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse - racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide - sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night - time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika '' riots (from the battle - cry of "Victory! '' of those involved).
Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed Constantine 's basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city 's principal church, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee! '' Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.
Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles built by Constantine with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equal - armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the Emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city 's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within 100 feet (30 m) of the sea front, in order to protect the view.
During Justinian I 's reign, the city 's population reached about 500,000 people. However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541 -- 542 AD. It killed perhaps 40 % of the city 's inhabitants.
In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west. Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realised that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.
While the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the status quo in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests. However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718. The Theodosian Walls kept the city impregnable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek Fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help. He was called Saviour of Europe.
In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.
Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.
In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kiev by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince 's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.
In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty. It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide. However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces. Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo - Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.
The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city 's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary ''. Following the death of her son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches.
In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire 's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople.
Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081 -- 1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery. In 1090 -- 91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army. In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account. John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.
With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city - states, may have helped the growth of the economy. It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century. Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos 's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000 -- 80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people. In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews. In 1182, all Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.
In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three - dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization):
On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios (Turkish: Odun Kapısı) on the Golden Horn. Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204, the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west.
In February, the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days.
Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history ''.
"For nine centuries, '' he goes on, "the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians... seized treasures and carried them off to adorn... their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine - cellars... Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar - vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch 's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes... continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles... When... order was restored,... citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.
For the next half - century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings. Alice - Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile. "As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated, '' Talbot concludes.
The Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. It is to these that E.H. Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors. However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling. Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under - funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that "it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches. '' Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage. "Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, "were a Herakles attributed to the fourth - century B.C. sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen. ''
The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins "to buy them off '' (exonesamenos), he prevented the destruction of several churches. According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous. He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.
The Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire. Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north - west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people. The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital. In 1347, the Black Death spread to Constantinople. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people.
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by 22 - year - old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven - week siege that had begun on 6 April 1453.
The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the marbles and ' be satisfied with the booty and captives; as for all the buildings, they belonged to him '. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque, solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople.
Mehmed 's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city 's defenses and population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September. From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called "Sürgün '' in Turkish (Greek: σουργούνιδες). Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants. However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.
Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek - speaking empire for over a thousand years. At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular, Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom: A Russian 14th - century traveler, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, "As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it. ''
It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass - destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city 's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years.
Armenians, Syrians, Slavs and Georgians were part of the Byzantine social hierarchy.
The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18 - meter - tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60 - kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.
Constantinople 's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the Old and New Book of Tang, which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man. The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Muawiyah I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement.
The Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St Mark 's Basilica in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th - century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used.
Constantine 's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome. This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam.
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where is epithelial tissue found in the skin | Epithelium - wikipedia
Epithelium (epi - + thele + - ium) is one of the four basic types of animal tissue, along with connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body.
There are three principal shapes of epithelial cell: squamous, columnar, and cuboidal. These can be arranged in a single layer of cells as simple epithelium, either squamous, columnar, cuboidal, pseudo-stratified columnar or in layers of two or more cells deep as stratified (layered), either squamous, columnar or cuboidal. All glands are made up of epithelial cells. Functions of epithelial cells include secretion, selective absorption, protection, transcellular transport, and sensing.
Epithelial layers contain no blood vessels, so they must receive nourishment via diffusion of substances from the underlying connective tissue, through the basement membrane. Cell junctions are well - employed in epithelial tissues.
In general, epithelial tissues are classified by the number of their layers and by the shape and function of the cells.
The three principal shapes associated with epithelial cells are -- squamous, cuboidal and columnar.
By layer, epithelium is classed as either simple epithelium, only one cell thick (unilayered) or stratified epithelium as stratified squamous epithelium, stratified cuboidal epithelium, and stratified columnar epithelium that are two or more cells thick (multi-layered), and both types of layering can be made up of any of the cell shapes. However, when taller simple columnar epithelial cells are viewed in cross section showing several nuclei appearing at different heights, they can be confused with stratified epithelia. This kind of epithelium is therefore described as pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
Transitional epithelium has cells that can change from squamous to cuboidal, depending on the amount of tension on the epithelium.
Simple epithelium is a single layer of cells with every cell in direct contact with the basement membrane that separates it from the underlying connective tissue. In general, it is found where absorption and filtration occur. The thinness of the epithelial barrier facilitates these processes.
In general, simple epithelial tissues are classified by the shape of their cells. The four major classes of simple epithelium are: (1) simple squamous; (2) simple cuboidal; (3) simple columnar; (4) pseudostratified.
Stratified epithelium differs from simple epithelium in that it is multilayered. It is therefore found where body linings have to withstand mechanical or chemical insult such that layers can be abraded and lost without exposing subepithelial layers. Cells flatten as the layers become more apical, though in their most basal layers the cells can be squamous, cuboidal or columnar.
Stratified epithelia (of columnar, cuboidal or squamous type) can have the following specializations:
The basic cell types are squamous, cuboidal, and columnar classed by their shape.
Cells of epithelial tissue are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet. They have almost no intercellular spaces. All epithelia is usually separated from underlying tissues by an extracellular fibrous basement membrane. The lining of the mouth, lung alveoli and kidney tubules all are made of epithelial tissue. The lining of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of a specialised form of epithelium called endothelium.
Epithelium lines both the outside (skin) and the inside cavities and lumina of bodies. The outermost layer of human skin is composed of dead stratified squamous, keratinized epithelial cells.
Tissues that line the inside of the mouth, the oesophagus, the vagina, and part of the rectum are composed of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Other surfaces that separate body cavities from the outside environment are lined by simple squamous, columnar, or pseudostratified epithelial cells. Other epithelial cells line the insides of the lungs, the gastrointestinal tract, the reproductive and urinary tracts, and make up the exocrine and endocrine glands. The outer surface of the cornea is covered with fast - growing, easily regenerated epithelial cells. A specialised form of epithelium -- endothelium forms the inner lining of blood vessels and the heart, and is known as vascular endothelium, and lining lymphatic vessels as lymphatic endothelium. Another type, mesothelium, forms the walls of the pericardium, pleurae, and peritoneum.
In arthropods, the integument, or external "skin '', consists of a single layer of epithelial ectoderm from which arises the cuticle, an outer covering of chitin the rigidity of which varies as per its chemical composition.
Epithelial tissue rests on a basement membrane, which acts as a scaffolding on which epithelium can grow and regenerate after injuries. Epithelial tissue has a nerve supply, but no blood supply and must be nourished by substances diffusing from the blood vessels in the underlying tissue. The basement membrane acts as a selectively permeable membrane that determines which substances will be able to enter the epithelium.
Cell junctions are especially abundant in epithelial tissues. They consist of protein complexes and provide contact between neighbouring cells, between a cell and the extracellular matrix, or they build up the paracellular barrier of epithelia and control the paracellular transport.
Cell junctions are the contact points between plasma membrane and tissue cells. There are mainly 5 different types of cell junctions: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions. Tight junctions are a pair of trans - membrane protein fused on outer plasma membrane. Adherens junctions are a plaque (protein layer on the inside plasma membrane) which attaches both cells ' microfilaments. Desmosomes attach to the microfilaments of cytoskeleton made up of keratin protein. Hemidesmosomes resemble desmosomes on a section. They are made up of the integrin (a transmembrane protein) instead of cadherin. They attach the epithelial cell to the basement membrane. Gap junctions connect the cytoplasm of two cells and are made up of proteins called connexins (six of which come together to make a connexion).
Epithelial tissues are derived from all of the embryological germ layers:
However, it is important to note that pathologists do not consider endothelium and mesothelium (both derived from mesoderm) to be true epithelium. This is because such tissues present very different pathology. For that reason, pathologists label cancers in endothelium and mesothelium sarcomas, whereas true epithelial cancers are called carcinomas. Also, the filaments that support these mesoderm - derived tissues are very distinct. Outside of the field of pathology, it is, in general, accepted that the epithelium arises from all three germ layers.
Epithelial tissues have as their primary functions:
Glandular tissue is the type of epithelium that forms the glands from the infolding of epithelium and subsequent growth in the underlying connective tissue. There are two major classifications of glands: endocrine glands and exocrine glands:
"Some epithelial cells are ciliated, especially in respiratory epithelium, and they commonly exist as a sheet of polarised cells forming a tube or tubule with cilia projecting into the lumen. '' Primary cilia on epithelial cells provide chemosensation, thermoception, and mechanosensation of the extracellular environment by playing "a sensory role mediating specific signalling cues, including soluble factors in the external cell environment, a secretory role in which a soluble protein is released to have an effect downstream of the fluid flow, and mediation of fluid flow if the cilia are motile. ''
The slide shows at (1) an epithelial cell infected by Chlamydia pneumonia; their inclusion bodies shown at (3); an uninfected cell shown at (2) and (4) showing the difference between an infected cell nucleus and an uninfected cell nucleus.
Epithelium grown in culture can be identified by examining its morphological characteristics. Epithelial cells tend to cluster together, and have a "characteristic tight pavement - like appearance ''. But this is not always the case, such as when the cells are derived from a tumor. In these cases, it is often necessary to use certain biochemical markers to make a positive identification. The intermediate filament proteins in the cytokeratin group are almost exclusively found in epithelial cells, and so are often used for this purpose.
Carcinomas develop in epithelial tissues. Sarcomas develop in connective tissue.
When epithelial cells or tissues are damaged from cystic fibrosis, sweat glands are also damaged, causing a frosty coating of the skin.
The word epithelium (/ ˌɛpɪˈθiːliəm /) uses the Greek roots ἐπί (epi), "on '' or "upon '', and θηλή (thēlē), "nipple ''. Epithelium is so called because the name was originally used to describe the translucent covering of small "nipples '' of tissue on the lip. The word has both mass and count senses; the plural form is epithelia.
Squamous Epithelium 100x
Human cheek cells (Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium) 500x
Histology of female urethra showing transitional epithelium
Histology of sweat gland showing stratified cuboidal epithelium
1 Histology at KUMC epithel - epith02 Simple squamous epithelium of the glomerulus (kidney) 2 Diagrams of simple squamous epithelium 3 Histology at KUMC epithel - epith12 Stratified squamous epithelium of the vagina 4 Histology at KUMC epithel - epith14 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thin skin) 5 Histology at KUMC epithel - epith15 Stratified squamous epithelium of the skin (thick skin) 6 Stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus
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when did jem and the holograms come out | Jem (TV series) - wikipedia
Jem, also known as Jem and the Holograms, is an American animated television series that ran from 1985 to 1988 in U.S. first - run syndication and from 1986 to 1995 in U.K. first - run ITV Network (CITV (CITV, TV - AM and GMTV)), UK Gold and The Children 's Channel. The series is about music company owner Jerrica Benton, her singer alter - ego Jem, her band the Holograms, and their adventures, this show was broadcast in late ' 80s syndicated to local stations in the United States, and in the UK on TV - am 's Wide Awake Club.
The series was a joint collaboration by Hasbro, Sunbow Productions and Marvel Productions, the same team responsible for G.I. Joe and Transformers. The creator of the series, Christy Marx, had also been a staff writer for the aforementioned programs. The animation for most of the episodes was provided by Japanese animation studio Toei Doga (Toei Animation).
The series revolves around Jem, the mysterious lead singer of the rock group "Jem and the Holograms ''. Her real name is Jerrica Benton, and under this name she is the owner and manager of Starlight Music. Jerrica adopts this persona with the help of a holographic computer, known as Synergy, which was built by Jerrica 's father to be "the ultimate audio - visual entertainment synthesizer '' and is bequeathed to her after his death. Jerrica is able to command Synergy to project "the Jem hologram '' over herself by means of the remote micro-projectors in her earrings, thus disguising her features and clothing, enabling her to assume the Jem persona. While disguised as Jem, Jerrica is able to move freely without restrictions and on several occasions other people have been in direct physical contact with her without disrupting the holographic projection. Jem, through the use of her earrings, is also able to project holograms around her and uses this ability throughout the series to avoid danger and provide special effects for the performances of her group.
Jem 's group, "the Holograms '', consists of Kimber Benton, Jerrica 's younger sister, keyboardist, and main songwriter for the band; Aja Leith, guitarist; and Shana Elmsford, who plays the synth drums. Aja and Shana are also childhood friends and adopted foster sisters of Jerrica and Kimber, having lived with the Benton family since they were young. Shana briefly leaves the group to pursue a career in fashion, at which point a new character, Carmen "Raya '' Alonso, is introduced as her replacement. The Holograms are aware of Jem 's secret identity and the existence of Synergy when the series begins, while Raya is made aware unintentionally shortly before joining the group. Upon her return to the Holograms, Shana becomes the band 's bassist.
The Holograms have two rival bands: "The Misfits '' and "The Stingers ''. The Misfits are composed of petulant rich girl Pizzazz (real name Phyllis Gabor) and her cohorts: no - nonsense guitarist Roxy (Roxanne Pelligrini) and kind - hearted, sensitive keytar player Stormer (Mary Phillips). They are joined later by the manipulative British saxophonist Jetta (Sheila Burns).
The Stingers debut on the third season when they hit town and shake things up for both groups becoming co-owners of "Stinger Sound '' with Eric Raymond. Originally from Germany, the Stingers are composed of egotistical lead singer Riot (Rory Llewelyn), guitarist / con artist Rapture (Phoebe Ashe), and keyboardist Minx (Ingrid Kruger). (The real names of Minx and Rapture are not disclosed in any of the installments.)
Episodes of the series frequently revolve around Jerrica 's efforts to keep her two identities separate, protect Synergy from those who might exploit the holographic technology, and support the twelve foster children known as the "Starlight Girls '' who live with her and the Holograms. The Misfits frequently attempt to upstage Jem and the Holograms ' endeavors, often nearly resulting in physical harm to members of the group. This rivalry is encouraged and manipulated by their manager and central villain in the series, Eric Raymond, former half - owner of Starlight Music who runs Misfits Music (later Stinger Sound).
During the series, Eric Raymond constantly plots to become owner of Starlight Music and get revenge on Jem and the Holograms for having cost him control of the company. Jerrica also deals with a complex and emotionally draining faux love triangle involving her alter identity, Jem, and Rio Pacheco, longtime boyfriend of Jerrica. Rio romantically pursues both women, not knowing they are one and the same. Later in the series, Jem is also romantically sought after by Riot, who becomes infatuated with her -- adding further complications to her relationships.
In the final episode of the series, the Misfits and Jem declare a truce when Ba Nee, one of the most troubled foster girls in Starlight House, is claimed by her long - lost father. Her father is found by Jem and the Holograms with the help of Riot 's father. Riot 's relationship with his father is mended with the help of Jem.
Hasbro hired advertising agency Griffin - Bacal Advertising, the founders of Sunbow Productions, to create the 65 - episode animation series. Griffin - Bacal (Sunbow), as well as Marvel Productions, had previously created the successful G.I. Joe series for Hasbro. G.I. Joe writer Christy Marx was hired to create the series based on the line of dolls and the original concept, which consisted of the two girl bands, Synergy, the boyfriend Rio, and the Rockin ' Roadster. Marx created the full character biographies and relationships, including the love triangle aspect between Rio and Jerrica Benton / Jem, Starlight Music and Starlight House, the Starlight Girls, the villain Eric Raymond and various secondary characters. Later, Marx was asked to develop new characters as they were introduced.
Marx wrote 23 of the 65 episodes. Other writers for the series included Cary Bates, Greg Weisman, Paul Dini, Buzz Dixon, Ellen Guon, Steve Mitchell, Michael Reaves, David Wise, Marv Wolfman, Mary Skrenes, Beth Bornstein, Roger Slifer, Richard Merwin, Sandy Fries, Cheri Wilkerson, Misty Stewart - Taggart, George Arthur Bloom, Jina Bacarr, Barbara Petty, Chris Pelzer, Michael Charles Hill, Eric Early, Clare Noto, Carla Conway and Evelyn A.R. Gabai.
The Executive Producers were Joe Bacal, Jay Bacal, Tom Griffin and Margaret Loesch. The story editor was Roger Slifer and Christy Marx featuring industry veteran Wally Burr as the series ' voice director. The series ' directors and supervising animators included many veterans of the DePatie - Freleng cartoon studio including Gerry Chiniquy, John Gibbs, Norm McCabe, Warren Batchelder and Tom Ray.
Samantha Newark provided the speaking voices of Jem and Jerrica. Despite having toured as a child singer in Africa, she did not do the singing for Jem. The voiceover cast never auditioned for the music side of the series and vice versa. The music for Jem was all cast and recorded in New York and Atlanta and the voiceover actors were cast and recorded in Burbank, California. They matched the speaking voices of the cast to the singing voices. Britta Phillips, who had never before worked professionally as a singer, was cast as the singing voice of Jem after obtaining an audition through her father who worked on jingles in New York. The initial take from the audition was used as the first opening theme song, "Truly Outrageous ''. The remaining Holograms speaking voices were provided by Cathianne Blore (Kimber Benton / Aja Leith), Cindy McGee (Shana Elmsford), and Linda Dangcil (Carmen ' Raya ' Alonso).
The Misfits 's speaking voices were provided by Patricia Alice Albrecht (Phyllis "Pizzazz '' Gabor), Samantha Paris / Bobbie Block (Roxanne "Roxy '' Pellegrini), Susan Blu (Mary "Stormer '' Phillips), and Louise Dorsey (Sheila "Jetta '' Burns), the daughter of Engelbert Humperdinck. Ellen Bernfeld provided the singing voice of Pizzazz.
The Stingers 's speaking voices were provided by Townsend Coleman (Rory "Riot '' Llewelyn), Ellen Gerstell (Phoebe "Rapture '' Ashe), and Kath Soucie (Ingrid "Minx '' Kurger). Gordon Grody, a vocal coach who later worked with Lady Gaga, provided the singing voice for Riot.
Other notable cast members included Charlie Adler, who had already had a lengthy voice - over career, as the central villain Eric Raymond. He also provided the voices of both of Eric 's major henchmen Zipper and Techrat. The late Vicki Sue Robinson, famous for the 1970s discothèque - oriented hit "Turn the Beat Around '', who provided the singing voices of both Rapture and Minx, and Ari Gold, pop singer and songwriter, who provided the singing voice for Ba Nee.
The inclusion of music videos in Jem was a result of the success and popularity of MTV at the time which began airing four years prior. The placement of the songs throughout each episode was done to complement the story and the use of music videos in the show was considered "radical '' for the time. The show contains a total of 187 music videos with 151 unique songs.
The series ' format called for three fully produced songs for the featured music videos in each episode. Anne Bryant composed the music. Lyrics for the show 's featured songs were written by Barry Harman. The theme song "JEM -- Truly, Truly, Truly Outrageous '' was the opening and closing theme for the show until late 1987, when Bryant 's second theme, "JEM GIRLS '' became the series ' opening theme for the majority of episodes and "JEM -- Truly, Truly, Truly Outrageous '' was kept as the show 's permanent closing theme. Music videos featured an "in - your - face '' style that was directed at the viewer or the more traditional style. The music videos paralleled the style of rock videos found on MTV at the time featuring fast editing, a quick pace, and special effects.
Ellen Bernfeld, performing as Pizzazz, Britta Phillips, performing as Jem, and Gordon Grody, performing as Riot, the lead singer of the Stingers, along with Diva Gray, Florence Warner and Angela Capelli were the voices of the pop, funk and punk electronica productions, supported by Britta Phillips 's father, pianist Peter Phillips, and by guitarist Steve Bill, bassist Tom Barney and set drummer and electronic drum programmer Tom Oldakowski. Anne Bryant, who chose the singers and musicians, created a pure young pop sound for Jem and the Holograms supported by acoustic instruments. The sound for The Misfits was crafted as strictly electronic other than the addition of guitars and an occasional sax solo when the character of Jetta was introduced into the Misfits. This was done to create an identifiable punk electronica style in stark contrast to their rival singing groups. In season three, Bryant introduced the slower, smooth, sexy / funky groove for the third group that entered the show, the Stingers.
No official Jem soundtrack was ever released; however, many of the songs from the first season were released on cassette with dolls or play - sets.
Love Is Here -- (included in the Video Madness playset of the same name)
Show Me the Way -- (included in the Video Madness playset of the same name)
It 's Workin ' Out -- (included in the Video Madness playset of the same name)
Welcome to the Jungle -- (included in the Video Madness playset of the same name)
Kimber -- (included with the Kimber doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Kimber Second Edition -- (included with the Kimber Second Edition doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Aja -- (included with the Aja doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Aja Second Edition -- (included with the Aja Second Edition doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Shana -- (included with the Shana doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Shana Second Edition -- (included with the Shana Second Edition doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Raya -- (included with the Raya doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Pizzazz -- (included with the Pizzazz doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Roxy -- (included with the Roxy doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Stormer -- (included with the Stormer doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Jetta -- (included with the Jetta doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Clash -- (included with the Clash doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Rio -- (included with the Rio doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Synergy -- (included with the Synergy doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Video -- (included with the Video doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Danse -- (included with the Danse doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Flash ' n Sizzle Jem / Jerrica -- (included with Flash ' N Sizzle Jem / Jerrica doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Glitter ' n Gold Jem / Jerrica -- (included with Glitter ' N Gold Jem / Jerrica doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Glitter ' n Gold Rio -- (included with Glitter ' N Gold Rio doll)
(instrumental versions of songs on side B)
Glitter ' n Gold -- (Second year mail - in offer)
Jem and Friends Dream Tour -- (mail - in offer for Glitter ' N Gold Jem / Jerrica or Glitter ' N Gold Rio dolls)
Jem was the # 1 Nielsen rated syndicated cartoon series in November 1986 and in 1987 it was the third most watched children 's program in syndication with 2.5 million viewers weekly. Jem has aired in multiple countries including Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, West Germany, Netherlands, United States, Italy and France. The show was nominated for the Young Artist Award twice, once in 1986 for "Exceptional Young Actresses in Animation: Series, Specials, or Film Features '' for Samantha Newark 's performance, then in 1988 for "Best Animation Series ''.
The long - standing popularity of Mattel 's Barbie franchise led to a competition between Hasbro 's Jem product line and Barbie and the Rockers, a similar product line by Mattel. This resulted in reduced sales for both products. Hasbro discontinued the Jem toyline at the end of 1987 after it failed to meet sales expectations, but despite this, the series continued production and aired until 1988. Jem was partially released on DVD in multiple countries, with a complete set available for the first time in 2011. The same year, Jem began airing on The Hub in the United States, causing a significant increase in the ratings for the channel. It also aired on Teletoon Retro in Canada.
Jem (TV series) -- Jem, also known as Jem and the Holograms, is an American animated television series... 6 to 7am, in 1986 to 1992, 1993 to 1994, TV - AM, GMTV was revamped, including a new set that mimicked.
Christy Marx has long expressed a desire to make a modern - day revival of the animated series, but stated in a 2004 interview that there are a great deal of complications concerning the rights to the Jem properties.
I would like to see that happen. I do n't want to go into a lot of detail, but the whole rights situation for Jem is very, very complicated. Believe me, if there were a simple straightforward way to do it, it would be done. But there are some very big complications that are in the way at the moment.
After almost 20 years, since last airing in the United States in 1993 on the USA Network (in re-runs), Jem returned to syndication. On May 31, 2011, the show was added on The Hub, but it was removed from the lineup on May 27, 2012. On October 20, 2013, Hub Network brought Jem back for morning lineups. The series was also aired on Discovery Family from October 13, 2014 to November 15, 2015.
On July 25, 2011, Teletoon Retro, a Canadian channel dedicated to cartoons, announced that Jem would be part of its fall 2011 lineup. On April 5, 2012, Hasbro announced that Jem, along with several other Hasbro franchises, will be available on Netflix.
On September 8, 2011, Hasbro issued a press release announcing its attendance at the 2011 New York Comic Con convention, which ran from October 13 to October 16. The press release stated that Hasbro would be showing new and upcoming products from its toy lines at its booth, including Jem and the Holograms.
On June 27, 2012, Integrity Toys, Inc. announced their plans to release a brand - new series of collectible fashion dolls based on the TV series. The special edition Hollywood Jem doll became available at the Hasbro Toy Shop booth during Comic - Con International in San Diego at an approximate retail price of $135. The Jem doll sold out on day two of the convention.
On October 5, 2012, the four (then - upcoming) dolls in the new Integrity Toys limited edition collectible line were presented with pictures: Classic Jem, Jerrica Benton, Synergy and Rio Pacheco. The suggested retail price is US $119 and they began shipping in late November 2012; pre-orders were accepted via Integrity Toys ' network of authorized dealers. As of October 2016, Integrity Toys has produced over forty different dolls based on the classic show.
2011 saw Hasbro release a one - off comic book titled Unit: E as an exclusive at the New York Comic - Con; this was created by "HasLab '' as a potential multi-brand crossover platform. The plot depicted Synergy, now an alien artificial intelligence, assisting the descendant of Acroyear and a Biotron from Micronauts in searching for heroes to help him combat Baron Karza; she shows them characters from G.I. Joe, Transformers, Battleship Galaxies, Stretch Armstrong, Action Man, M.A.S.K. and Candy Land, amongst others; Jerrica herself is shown as not having taken up the Jem identity yet, but will eventually compose the "Music of the Spheres '' (presumably with Synergy 's aid). The comic, however, was never followed - up.
The Jem comic book was released by IDW in March 2015: written by Kelly Thompson, art by Sophie Campbell and colors by M. Victoria Robado. The comic book offers a modern reimagining of the series with new character designs and different situations, such as the Holograms and the Misfits being unsigned bands at the start with Eric Raymond being hired as the Misfits ' manager during the second story arc. In addition, Kimber and Stormer begin a romantic relationship. As of Issue # 16, which is Campbell 's final issue as regular artist, The Stingers have been introduced to the series, with Raya being featured as a fourth member of the band. The title 's current status within the new IDW Hasbro Universe (consisting of several new or relaunched titles, using the IDW Transformers comics as the backbone for a cohesive universe) has been somewhat erratic; IDW writers have generally indicated that, while characters from Jem will not show up in crossovers (including the Revolution mini-series that launched the universe), they do exist and will receive occasional references. The series ended on June 14th, 2017 with issue # 26, but a six - issue miniseries -- Jem & The Holograms: Infinite # 1 and Jem & The Holograms: Misfits Infinite # 1 was released later in the month.
After the success of G.I. Joe and Transformers films, Hasbro began considering a live - action film adaptation or a new incarnation of the animated series with Universal Studios, with which Hasbro had signed a six - film contract in 2010.
On March 20, 2014, a live - action motion picture adaptation of Jem and the Holograms was announced, to be directed by Jon M. Chu. Filming on the production began in April 2014. On April 24, it was announced that Aubrey Peeples had been cast as Jem, with Stefanie Scott as Kimber, Hayley Kiyoko as Aja, and Aurora Perrineau as Shana. On April 30, 2014, actor Ryan Guzman was cast as Rio. On May 20, Juliette Lewis and Molly Ringwald joined the film. The film was theatrically released on October 23, 2015.
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who was the first human patient to be treated with penicillin | Albert Alexander - wikipedia
Albert Alexander may refer to:
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release date of the mummy of tom cruise | The Mummy (2017 film) - wikipedia
The Mummy is a 2017 American action - adventure film directed by Alex Kurtzman and written by David Koepp, Christopher McQuarrie and Dylan Kussman, with a story by Kurtzman, Jon Spaihts and Jenny Lumet. It is a reboot of The Mummy franchise and the first installment in the Universal 's Dark Universe. The film stars Tom Cruise, Annabelle Wallis, Sofia Boutella, Jake Johnson, Courtney B. Vance and Russell Crowe.
The Mummy premiered at the State Theatre in Sydney, Australia on May 22, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on June 9, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received negative reviews from critics and grossed over $407 million worldwide. It was labeled a box office disappointment given its high production and marketing costs, with projected losses of around $95 million.
In 1127 A.D., several English crusader knights bury an Egyptian ruby within the tomb of one of their number. In present - day London, a construction crew discovers the tomb and a mysterious man is authorized to investigate the site.
In a flashback to the New Kingdom era, Princess Ahmanet is first in line to succeed her father Menehptre until his second wife gives birth to a son. Determined to claim the throne for herself, Ahmanet summons Set, who agrees to help her if she uses a dagger to transfer his spirit into a corporeal form. After killing her family, Ahmanet attempts to sacrifice her lover to Set but is captured by her father 's priests and condemned to be mummified alive for eternity. Her sarcophagus is buried in Mesopotamia and submerged in a pool of mercury so that her monstrous form will not escape.
In present - day Iraq, Sergeant Nick Morton and Corporal Chris Vail, while on Long Range Reconnaissance for the U.S. Army, discover the tomb of Ahmanet after calling in an airstrike on an insurgent stronghold. Jennifer Halsey, an archaeologist who had a one - night stand with Nick, arrives and investigates the tomb, correctly concluding that it is a prison. After extracting Ahmanet 's sarcophagus from a pool of mercury, Nick 's superior, Colonel Greenway, places the sarcophagus on a transport plane headed to England. During the flight, Vail becomes possessed by Ahmanet 's power after being bitten by a camel spider while inside the tomb. After attempting to open the sarcophagus, he stabs Greenway and tries to attack the group, forcing Nick to kill him. A huge murder of crows then assault the plane, causing it to crash and kill everyone on board except for Jennifer, who is parachuted off the plane by Nick.
Nick awakens a day later in a morgue in Oxford, and learns from Vail 's ghost that he has been cursed by Ahmanet, who seeks to use him as a replacement vessel for Set. Ahmanet 's mummy escapes from the sarcophagus and begins feeding on rescue workers to regenerate her decomposed body. Turning the workers into zombie minions, she lures Nick and Jennifer into a trap, forcing the two to fight off the minions as they unsuccessfully try to escape. Ahmanet also recovers the blade of the Dagger of Set from a reliquary in a nearby church. At the last second, unknown soldiers appear and subdue Ahmanet. Their leader, Dr. Henry Jekyll, explains that Jennifer is an agent of Prodigium, a secret society dedicated to hunting supernatural threats. He confirms that Nick was cursed when he unlocked Ahmanet 's tomb and reveals his intention to complete her ritual and allow Set to possess Nick in order to destroy Set and end his evil forever.
Meanwhile, Ahmanet summons a spider to possess a Prodigium technician and frees herself from captivity, wreaking havoc, death, and destruction in the process. Jekyll is also seen to be succumbing to his own dark impulses and transforms into Edward Hyde, his murderous and psychotic alternate personality while Ahmanet wreaks havoc outside unknownst to them. And when Nick rebuffs Hyde 's offer of an alliance between them, Hyde attacks him. Nick manages to stop him with the serum Jekyll uses to suppress his evil side. He and Jennifer then escape from Prodigium while Ahmanet steals back the dagger, summons an army of deceased English crusaders to serve her, and creates a massive sandstorm that ravages London. The undead knights slaughter the Prodigium soldiers in the tomb, allowing Ahmanet to recover the ruby and set it in the dagger 's pommel, granting her all she needs to free Set.
Guided by Vail, Nick and Jennifer flee into the London Underground tunnels, but are attacked by Ahmanet 's minions. Ahmanet captures Jennifer and drowns her, hoping to break her hold over Nick. Nick puts up a fight, but gives up and lets himself embrace Ahmanet, using it as a ruse to steal the dagger and tries to destroy the ruby. However, he sees the lifeless Jennifer and bets on stabbing himself. His body is possessed by Set, who proceeds to join Ahmanet to uphold his end of the bargain until he sees Jennifer 's dead body, at which point Nick regains control and uses Set 's powers to overpower and suck the life out of Ahmanet, turning her back into a shriveled mummy. Nick harnesses Set 's powers to resurrect Jennifer, saying goodbye before becoming overwhelmed by Set 's power and disappearing. Soon, Jennifer regroups with Dr. Jekyll and they discuss if Nick, now fused with Set, will be good or evil. Ahmanet 's corpse is lowered into a locked pool of mercury within the Prodigium base for safekeeping. Later on in the desert, Nick resurrects Vail, and the two set out on an adventure to find a cure.
Universal Pictures first announced plans for a modern reboot of The Mummy franchise in 2012. The project went through multiple directors, with Len Wiseman leaving the project in 2013, and a second director, Andrés Muschietti, in 2014.
Tom Cruise began talks about playing the lead in November 2015, with Sofia Boutella beginning talks that December. Kurtzman cast Boutella after seeing and being impressed by her largely mute performance in Kingsman: The Secret Service. Kurtzman noted that "if you look at her eyes, and this is what I got from watching Kingsman, there 's a whole performance going on here. And in not saying anything but conveying that much to me, I thought oh my god, no matter how much prosthetics we put on her, no matter how much CG we put on her face, if I see this, she 's going to convey something very emotional to me. '' Other casting news was announced between March and May, with Russell Crowe joining during the latter month. Shortly after the film opened, Variety reported that Cruise had excessive control over the film and firm control of nearly every aspect of production and post-production, including re-writing the script and editing to his specifications, telling Kurtzman how to direct on set, and enlarging his role while downplaying Boutella 's. Universal contractually guaranteed Cruise control of most aspects of the project, from script approval to post-production decisions.
Principal photography on the film began on April 3, 2016, in Oxford, United Kingdom, and also took place in Surrey. Filming on the movie wrapped on July 17, 2016, in London. Production then moved to Namibia for two weeks, with principal photography on the film being completed on August 13, 2016.
Composer Brian Tyler started work on the music for the movie early, writing about a half hour of music before filming even began. Working on the film for a year and half, Tyler recorded with an 84 - piece orchestra and 32 - voice choir at London 's Abbey Road. He ultimately wrote and recorded over two hours of music, which, given the length of the film (107 minutes), resulted in a soundtrack album longer than the film itself.
Initially scheduled for a 2016 release, the film was released in the United States and Canada on June 9, 2017, with international roll out beginning the same day. The film was screened in various formats, such as 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D.
On December 20, 2016, IMAX released a trailer with the wrong audio track attached; this unintentionally prompted the creation of memes and video montages featuring the mistakenly included audio track, which was missing most of the sound effects and instead featured Tom Cruise 's grunts and screams. IMAX reacted by taking down the trailer and issuing DMCA takedown notices in an attempt to stop it from spreading.
Following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing on May 22, Universal cancelled the film 's U.K. premiere, which had been scheduled to take place in London on June 1.
The Mummy grossed $80.1 million in the United States and Canada and $327.7 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $407.8 million, against a combined production and advertising budget of around $345 million. The film had a worldwide opening of $172.4 million, the biggest global debut of Tom Cruise 's career.
In North America, the film was released alongside It Comes at Night and Megan Leavey, and was originally projected to gross $35 -- 40 million from 4,034 theaters in its opening weekend. However after making $12 million on its first day (including $2.66 million from Thursday night previews), weekend projections were lowered to $30 million. It ended up debuting to $31.7 million, marking the lowest of the Mummy franchise and finishing second at the box office behind Wonder Woman ($58.2 million in its second week). Deadline.com attributed the film 's underperformance to poor critic and audience reactions, as well as "blockbuster fatigue. '' In its second weekend the film made $14.5 million (dropping 54.2 %), finishing 4th at the box office. The same week, Deadline reported that the film is expected to lose Universal around $95 million in an estimated 375 million worldwide gross. It was pulled from 827 theaters in its third week and made $5.8 million, dropping another 60 % and finishing 6th at the box office.
Outside North America, the film opened in 63 overseas territories, with China, the UK, Mexico, Germany, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil and Russia receiving the film the same day as in North America, and was projected to debut to $125 -- 135 million. It opened on June 6, 2017 in South Korea and grossed $6.6 million on its first day, the biggest - ever debut for both Tom Cruise and Universal in the country. It ended up having a foreign debut of $140.7 million, the biggest of Cruise 's career. In its opening weekend the film made $52.4 million in China, $7.4 million in Russia, $4.9 million in Mexico and $4.2 million in the United Kingdom. As of July 9, 2017, The film other big markets are China ($91.5 million), South Korea ($26.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($15.9 million) and Brazil ($13.2 million).
The Mummy received generally negative reviews from critics, with criticism aimed at its incoherent narrative, inconsistent tone, sub-par acting, and shoehorned plot points setting up the Dark Universe. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 16 % based on 246 reviews, with an average rating of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Lacking the campy fun of the franchise 's most recent entries and failing to deliver many monster - movie thrills, The Mummy suggests a speedy unraveling for the Dark Universe. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 44 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B − '' on an A+ to F scale.
Vince Mancini of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, writing: "If you like incomprehensible collections of things that vaguely resemble other things you might 've enjoyed in the past, The Mummy is the movie for you. '' IndieWire 's David Ehrlich gave the film a D -, calling it the worst film of Cruise 's career and criticizing its lack of originality, saying: "It 's one thing to excavate the iconography of old Hollywood, it 's another to exploit it. This is n't filmmaking, it 's tomb - raiding. ''
Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote: "The problem at its heart is that the reality of what the movie is -- a Tom Cruise vehicle -- is at war with the material. The actor, at 54, is still playing that old Cruise trope, the selfish cocky semi-scoundrel who has to grow up... The trouble is that Cruise, at least in a high - powered potboiler like this one, is so devoted to maintaining his image as a clear and wholesome hero that his flirtation with the dark side is almost entirely theoretical. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film one star out of four, saying: "How meh is The Mummy? Let me count the ways. For all the huffing and puffing and digital desperation from overworked computers, this reboot lands onscreen with a resounding thud. ''
Glen Kenny of RogerEbert.com gave the film 1.5 / 4 stars, writing: I found something almost admirable about the film 's cheek. It 's amazingly relentless in its naked borrowing from other, better horror and sci - fi movies that I was able to keep occupied making a checklist of the movies referenced. Entertainment Weekly 's Chis Nashawaty wrote that the film "feels derivative and unnecessary and like it was written by committee. ''
In BBC World News Culture, Nicholas Barber calls the film "a mish - mash of wildly varying tones and plot strands, from its convoluted beginning to its shameless non-end. Tom Cruise 's new film barely qualifies as a film at all. None of it makes sense. The film delivers all the chases, explosions, zombies and ghosts you could ask for, and there are a few amusing lines and creepy moments, but, between the headache - inducing flashbacks and hallucinations, the narrative would be easier to follow if it were written in hieroglyphics. ''
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian wrote that the film "has some nice moments but is basically a mess. The plot sags like an aeon - old decaying limb, a jumble of ideas and scenes from what look like different screenplay drafts. '' Empire film magazine was more positive, with Dan Jolin awarding the film three stars. "It 's running and jumping grin - flashing business as usual for Cruise, once more on safe character territory as an Ethan Hunt-esque action protagonist who couples up with a much younger woman, while another woman chases after him, '' he wrote. "And if the next installment - teasing conclusion is anything to go by, Cruise seemed to have enough fun making this that he may just return for more. ''
On May 22, 2017, Universal Pictures announced that its series of films reviving the studio 's long - running Universal Monsters film series would be known as Dark Universe, and that Bill Condon will direct the second installment, Bride of Frankenstein, to be released on February 14, 2019. In November 2016, Kurtzman stated that the studio has ideas for various rebooted versions of "their monsters '', and that he helped the studios ' production team with creating updated designs for each of the characters. Each of these individual monsters were stated to be the focus of stand - alone installments first, before any crossovers would occur, with Kurtzman stating: "There might be reasons for this character and that character to come together, because the story tells us that 's what the story wants. The story is what drives the choice. And if down the line, there 's a big reason to bring them together, then great. But I promise, we 're not starting there. '' In March 2017, producer Chris Morgan revealed that the studio is in the process of deciding the chronological order of each of the films, and when they will be released. The 2014 film Dracula Untold, starring Luke Evans as the titular character, was originally considered to be the first film in the series; however, since the film 's release, the connection to Dark Universe was downplayed, and The Mummy was re-positioned as the first film in the series.
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how many times has roger federer won the rogers cup | Roger Federer - wikipedia
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Roger Federer (German pronunciation: (ˈrɔdʒər ˈfeːdərər); born 8 August 1981) is a Swiss professional tennis player who is currently ranked world No. 2 in men 's singles tennis by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP). Federer has won 19 Grand Slam singles titles, the most in history for a male tennis player and has held the world No. 1 spot in the ATP rankings for a record total of 302 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks. After turning professional in 1998, he was continuously ranked in the top ten from October 2002 to November 2016.
In majors, he has won a record eight Wimbledon titles, five Australian Open titles, a record five consecutive US Open titles and one French Open title. He is among eight men to have captured a career Grand Slam and has reached a record 29 men 's singles Grand Slam finals, including ten in a row from the 2005 Wimbledon Championships to the 2007 US Open. Given these achievements, many players and analysts consider Federer the greatest tennis player of all time.
Among Federer 's other ATP tournament records include winning six ATP World Tour Finals, 19 ATP Tour 500 tournaments (tied with Rafael Nadal) and playing in the finals at all nine ATP Masters 1000 tournaments (tied with Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic). He has also won an Olympic gold medal in doubles with his compatriot Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Summer Olympic Games and an Olympic silver medal in singles at the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Representing Switzerland, Federer was a part of the 2001 winning Hopman Cup team and the 2014 winning Davis Cup team.
Federer has been named Swiss Sports Personality of the Year a record six times. In 2007, he won the ESPY Award for Best International Athlete and he has won the Best Male Tennis Player award a record seven times. He was named ATP Player of the Year five times, was named ITF World Champion five time, and won the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years. He was named three times the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year. In 2017, ESPN ranked him fourth in its most famous athletes list, first among tennis players.
Federer was born in Basel, Switzerland. His father, Robert Federer, is Swiss - German, from Berneck, in the Canton of St. Gallen; and his mother, Lynette Federer (née Durand), from Kempton Park, Gauteng. Federer 's mother is descended from Dutch and French Huguenots. Federer has one sibling, his older sister Diana, who is the mother of a set of twins. Since his mother is South African, he holds both Swiss and South African citizenship. He grew up in nearby Birsfelden, Riehen, and then Münchenstein, close to the French and German borders and speaks Swiss German, Standard German, English and French fluently, as well as functional Italian and Swedish, Swiss German being his native language. Federer served as a ball boy at his hometown Basel tournament, the Swiss Indoors, in 1992 and 1993.
Like all male Swiss citizens, Federer was subject to compulsory military service in the Swiss Armed Forces. However, in 2003 he was ruled "unsuitable '' and was subsequently not required to fulfill his military obligation. Instead, he served in the civil protection force and was required to pay 3 % of his taxable income as an alternative. He grew up supporting F.C. Basel and the Swiss National Football Team. Federer also credits his hand - eye coordination to the wide range of sports he played as a child, including badminton and basketball.
Federer is married to former Women 's Tennis Association player Mirka Federer. He met her while both were competing for Switzerland in the 2000 Sydney Olympics. Miroslava Vavrinec retired from the tour in 2002 because of a foot injury 7 years before she married Federer. They were married at Wenkenhof Villa in Riehen near Basel on 11 April 2009, surrounded by a small group of close friends and family. In July 2009, Mirka gave birth to identical twin girls, Myla Rose and Charlene Riva. The Federers had another pair of identical twins in 2014, this time boys whom they named Leo and Lennart (known as Lenny).
In 2003, he established the Roger Federer Foundation to help disadvantaged children and to promote their access to education and sports. Since May 2004, citing his close ties with South Africa, including that being where his mother was raised, he began supporting the South Africa - Swiss charity IMBEWU which helps children better connect to sports and social and health awareness. Later, In 2005, Federer visited South Africa to meet the children that had benefited from his support. In 2005, he auctioned his racquet from his US Open championship to aid victims of Hurricane Katrina. At the 2005 Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, Federer arranged an exhibition involving several top players from the ATP and WTA tour called Rally for Relief. The proceeds went to the victims of the tsunami caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. In December 2006 he visited Tamil Nadu, one of the areas in India most affected by the tsunami. He was appointed a Goodwill Ambassador by UNICEF in April 2006 and has appeared in UNICEF public messages to raise public awareness of AIDS.
In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Federer arranged a collaboration with fellow top tennis players for a special charity event during the 2010 Australian Open called ' Hit for Haiti ', in which proceeds went to Haiti earthquake victims. He participated in a follow - up charity exhibition during the 2010 Indian Wells Masters which raised $1 million. The Nadal vs Federer "Match for Africa '' in 2010 in Zurich and Madrid raised more than $4 million for the Roger Federer Foundation and Fundación Rafa Nadal. In January 2011, Federer took part in an exhibition, Rally for Relief, to raise money for the victims of the Queensland floods. In 2014, the "Match for Africa 2 '' between Federer and Stan Wawrinka, again in Zurich, raised £ 850,000 for education projects in southern Africa.
Federer 's main accomplishments as a junior player came at Wimbledon in 1998, where he won both the boys ' singles final over Irakli Labadze, and in doubles teamed with Olivier Rochus, defeating the team of Michaël Llodra and Andy Ram. In addition, Federer lost the US Open Junior final in 1998 to David Nalbandian. He won four ITF junior singles tournaments in his career, including the prestigious Orange Bowl, where he defeated Guillermo Coria in the final. He ended 1998 with the # 1 junior world ranking, is awarded ITF junior World Champion, and he entered his first tournament as a professional during 1998 in Gstaad, where he lost to Lucas Arnold Ker in the first round.
Federer entered the top 100 ranking for the first time on 20 September 1999 and started at the 1999 Marseille Open defeating the reigning champion of the 1998 French Open, Spaniard Carlos Moya. His first final came at the Marseille Open in 2000, where he lost to fellow Swiss Marc Rosset. Federer won the 2001 Hopman Cup representing Switzerland, along with Martina Hingis. The duo defeated the American pair of Monica Seles and Jan - Michael Gambill in the finals. Federer 's first singles win was at the 2001 Milan Indoor tournament, where he defeated Julien Boutter in the final. Although he won his first title already in 1999 on the Challenger tour, winning the doubles event in Segovia, Spain with Dutchman Sander Groen, the final was played on Federer 's 18th birthday. In 2001, Federer made his first Grand Slam quarterfinal at the French Open, losing to former world # 2 and eventual finalist Alex Corretja. His run to the French quarterfinals launched him into the top 15 for the first time in his career.
His international breakthrough came at the 2001 Wimbledon Championships where a 19 year old Federer faced the four - time defending champion and all - time Grand Slam leader Pete Sampras. The teenage Swiss stunned the seven time Wimbledon champion and # 1 seed in a dramatic five set epic to reach the quarterfinals. In the quarters he faced Englishman Tim Henman, eventually losing in an overtime fourth set tiebreaker. Federer 's breakthrough at Wimbledon signaled the record breaking dominance he would display at the All England Club over the next two decades.
The first final he reached at the prestigious Masters level came at the 2002 Miami Masters event, where he lost to former and future world # 1 Andre Agassi on hard court. Federer won his first Master Series event at the 2002 Hamburg Masters on clay, over Marat Safin; the victory put him in top 10 for the first time. Federer made 10 singles finals between 1998 and 2002, of which he won four and lost six. He also made six finals in doubles. Of note are Federer and partner Max Mirnyi 's defeat in the final of the Indian Wells Masters in 2002, and their victory in the same year in the final of the Rotterdam 500 series event. Federer had won the latter a year earlier with partner Jonas Björkman. He finished 2001 with an ATP ranking of # 13, and 2002 was the first year he was ranked within the top 10, finishing at # 6.
In 2003, Federer won his first Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, beating Andy Roddick in the semifinals and Mark Philippoussis in the final. In August he had a chance to take over the # 1 ranking for the first time from Andre Agassi if he made it to the Montreal final. However, he fell in the semifinals to Roddick, in a final set tiebreaker leaving him a tantalizing 120 points behind Agassi. This, coupled with early losses to David Nalbandian at Cincinnati and the US Open, denied Federer the chance to become # 1 for the duration of the season.
Federer won his first and only doubles Masters Series 1000 event in Miami with Max Mirnyi and made it to one singles Masters Series 1000 event in Rome on clay, which he lost. Federer made it to nine finals on the ATP Tour and won seven of them, including the 500 series events at Dubai and Vienna. Lastly, Federer won the year - end championships over Andre Agassi, finishing the year as world # 2, narrowly behind Andy Roddick by only 160 points.
During 2004, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles for the first time in his career and became the first person to do so since Mats Wilander in 1988. His first major hard - court title came at the Australian Open over Marat Safin, thereby becoming the world # 1 for the first time. He then won his second Wimbledon crown over Andy Roddick. Federer defeated the 2001 US Open champion, Lleyton Hewitt, at the US Open for his first title there.
Federer won three ATP Masters Series 1000 events, one was on clay in Hamburg, and the other two were on hard surfaces at Indian Wells and in Canada. Federer took the ATP 500 series event at Dubai and wrapped up the year by winning the year - end championships for the second time. He also won his first tournament on home soil by capturing the Swiss Open in Gstaad. His 11 singles titles were the most of any player in two decades, and his record of 74 -- 6 was the best since Ivan Lendl in 1986. He reached the year - end world No. 1 ranking for the first time.
In 2005, Federer failed to reach the finals of the first two Grand Slam tournaments, losing the Australian Open semifinal to eventual champion Safin after holding match points, and the French Open semifinal to eventual champion Rafael Nadal. However, Federer quickly reestablished his dominance on grass, winning the Wimbledon Championships over Andy Roddick. At the US Open, Federer defeated Andre Agassi in the latter 's last major final.
Federer also took four ATP Masters Series 1000 wins: Indian Wells, Miami and Cincinnati on hard court, and Hamburg on clay. The win in Miami was particularly noteworthy as it was the first final contested between Federer and Rafael Nadal in what would become one of the greatest rivalries in tennis history. Federer recovered from two sets and a break down to take the final in five sets. Furthermore, Federer won two ATP 500 series events at Rotterdam and Dubai. Federer lost the year - end championships to David Nalbandian in five sets while playing through a foot injury that sidelined him for almost the rest of the season after September. He maintained his position as world # 1 for the entire season.
The season was statistically one of the most dominant in the Open Era. He won 11 singles titles, which tied his 2004 season as the most in over two decades, his 81 match victories were the most since Pete Sampras in 1993, and his record of 81 -- 4 (95.2 %) remains the second - best winning percentage in the Open Era behind only John McEnroe in 1984.
The 2006 season was statistically the best season of Federer 's career, as well as one of the greatest seasons of any player in tennis history. In November 2011, Stephen Tignor, chief editorial writer for Tennis.com, ranked Federer 's 2006 season as the second - greatest season of all time during the Open Era, behind only Rod Laver 's Grand Slam year of 1969.
Federer won 12 singles titles (the most of any player since John McEnroe in 1984) and had a match record of 92 -- 5 (the most wins since Ivan Lendl in 1982). Federer reached the finals in an astounding 16 of the 17 tournaments he entered during the season.
In 2006, Federer won three Grand Slam singles titles and reached the final of the other, with the only loss coming against Nadal in the French Open. This was Federer and Nadal 's first meeting in a Grand Slam final. He was the first man to reach all four finals in a calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969. Federer defeated Nadal in the Wimbledon Championships final. In the Australian Open, Federer defeated Marcos Baghdatis, and at the US Open, Federer defeated Roddick (2003 champion). In addition, Federer made it to six ATP Masters Series 1000 finals, winning four on hard surfaces and losing two on clay to Nadal. Federer, however, consistently pushed Nadal to the limit on clay throughout the season taking him to fourth - set tiebreakers in Monte - Carlo and Paris, and a thrilling match in Rome that went to a deciding fifth - set tiebreaker.
Federer won one ATP 500 series event in Tokyo and captured the year - end championships for the third time in his career, again finishing the year as world # 1. Federer only lost to two players during 2006, to Nadal four times in finals, and to 19 - year - old Andy Murray in the second round of the 2006 Cincinnati Masters, in what would be Federer 's only defeat before reaching the final of a tournament that year. Federer finished the season on a 29 - match winning streak, as well as winning 48 of his last 49 matches after the French Open.
A personal highlight for Federer came near the end of the season when he won his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, Switzerland.
In 2007, Federer reached all four Grand Slam singles finals, winning three of them again. He won the Australian Open without dropping a set, beating Fernando González in the final. This made him the first man in the 21st century to accomplish the feat, as Björn Borg at the 1980 French Open was the last to win a Grand Slam tournament without the loss of a set. Federer had entered the year on a huge winning streak and after capturing his fourth Dubai crown Federer 's winning streak stood at 41 matches, the longest of his career and only five shy of the record. Federer entered Indian Wells as the three - time defending champion, but his streak would end in controversy. He was defeated by an Argentine, Guillermo Cañas, who had failed a drug test for illegal doping.
This surprising first - round defeat marked the first time since August 2006 he suffered defeat, a period spanning over seven months.
During the clay season, Federer 's victory in the Hamburg Masters final was particularly impressive, as it snapped Rafael Nadal 's 81 - match winning streak on clay, an Open - Era record. Federer turned the match around from a set down to sweep 12 of the final 14 games, including a final set bagel. At the French Open, some anticipated that Federer could become the first man in almost 40 years to hold all four majors simultaneously, having just resoundingly defeated young rival Nadal on clay entering the tournament. However, in a repeat of the previous year Federer played a tough four - set final against Nadal, but was undone by going 1 / 17 on break - point chances.
At Wimbledon, Federer entered the tournament not only as the four - time defending champion, but also riding a 48 - match winning streak on grass. Once again, he defeated Rafael Nadal for a second consecutive year in the final, this time in a thrilling five - set encounter that many analysts hailed as the greatest Wimbledon final since 1980. Victory at Wimbledon equaled him with Björn Borg for the record of five consecutive championships at the All England Club.
Federer reached the final in Montreal before playing a young and relatively unknown Serbian named Novak Djokovic. Djokovic proved his potential by stunning the world # 1 in a final - set tiebreaker upset. Federer rebounded in Cincinnati to capture his fifth title of the year. Federer entered the US Open as the three - time defending champion and faced Djokovic in the final. This time, Federer prevailed in a close straight - set match. Victory in New York moved him ahead of Laver and Borg for third on the all - time list of major championship victories. Throughout the tournament, the American press labelled him Darth Federer for his all - black attire (which included tuxedo - striped shorts) and the tournament played The Imperial March from Star Wars when he was announced onto the court for each of his matches. He would close out the year with victories in Basel and the Year End Championships in Shanghai.
He finished the season as the year - end world # 1 for the fourth year in a row, demonstrating his dominance, and during these four years he won 11 Grand Slam singles titles. After his phenomenal triple Grand Slam season yet again, Federer became the only player in history to win three Majors in a year for three years (2004, 2006, 2007). It was the third consecutive season that Federer would hold the world # 1 ranking for all 52 weeks of the year.
Federer 's success in 2008 was severely hampered by a lingering bout of mononucleosis, which he suffered from during the first half of the year. At the end of the year, he would suffer a back injury that would prove to be recurring throughout his career.
In 2008, Federer captured one Grand Slam, a singles title at the US Open over Briton Andy Murray. Federer was defeated by Nadal in two Grand Slam finals, at the French Open, and at Wimbledon, when he was going for six straight wins to break Björn Borg 's record. At the Australian Open, Federer lost in the semifinals to eventual winner Djokovic, which ended his record of 10 consecutive finals. Later in the year, it was found Federer had been suffering from mononucleosis at the start of the year, particularly during the Australian Open. He lost twice in Masters Series 1000 finals on clay to Nadal, at Monte Carlo and Hamburg. However, Federer captured three titles in 250 - level events at Estoril, Halle, and Basel.
At the Olympic Games, Federer and Stan Wawrinka won the gold medal in doubles, after beating the Bryan brothers American team in the semifinals and the Swedish duo of Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson in the final However, Federer could only reach the quarterfinals in the singles draw, knocked out by then world # 8 James Blake. He ended the year as world # 2.
Federer entered the 2009 season with 13 Grand Slams, only one behind Pete Sampras ' all - time record. The season began with a loss to Nadal in the finals of the Australian Open in a hotly contested five - set match. Federer struggled following the defeat in Melbourne and entered the clay season without a title.
Federer 's season turned around in the final masters event of the clay season when he defeated Nadal on clay for only the second time to capture the Madrid Masters. Federer entered the French Open with few predicting him to win the elusive Parisian title having lost to Nadal in the final weekend for the past four seasons. After Nadal 's unexpected defeat to Robin Söderling, Federer suddenly became the overwhelming favorite. It would not be easy as in his next match as he was forced to come from two sets and break point down in the third set to defeat Tommy Haas in five sets. He was also forced to fight back from a two - sets - to - one deficit against a young Juan Martín del Potro to win a five setter in the semifinals. In the final, he faced Söderling, and with a straight sets victory, he finally captured the Coupe des Mousquetaires and career Grand Slam. This victory tied him with Pete Sampras for the most Grand Slam singles titles.
Federer immediately turned his sights to the grass courts of Wimbledon, where he breezed his way to the final. In the championship match he faced long - time rival Andy Roddick in what would be their eighth and eventually final meeting at a Grand Slam. Roddick pushed Federer into a record - setting fifth set, which the Swiss claimed 16 -- 14 to win his 15th men 's singles Grand Slam singles title, breaking the all - time record of Pete Sampras.
Federer continued his summer run by winning his third title on the lightning - fast courts of the Cincinnati Masters, defeating Novak Djokovic in the final. At the US Open he defeated Söderling in the quarters and Djokovic, for the third consecutive year, in the semifinals. On the penultimate point of the Djokovic match he hit what many consider to be the greatest shot of his career, a tweener winner, to setup match points. Federer played del Potro in the final and led two sets to one before ultimately losing a fourth set tiebreaker and subsequently the match.
The 2009 season was perhaps the most historically relevant of Federer 's career as he completed a career Grand Slam by winning his first French Open title and won a men 's record fifteenth Grand Slam singles title at Wimbledon, surpassing Pete Sampras 's mark of fourteen. The 2009 Wimbledon final was also historic for being the longest Grand Slam final in terms of games played with Federer prevailing 16 -- 14 in the fifth set. Upon breaking the Grand Slam tournament record, Federer was hailed by some analysts and many tennis greats as the greatest player in tennis history. Federer finished the season as the year end World No. 1 for the fifth time in his career.
The year started with a win at the Australian Open, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and extended the Grand Slam singles record to sixteen titles, matching Andre Agassi 's record of four Australian Open titles. Since Wimbledon 2005 Federer had made the finals of 18 out of 19 Grand Slam tournaments, an extraordinary period of sustained excellence unparalleled in the Open Era. This tournament, however, would mark the end of his utter dominance at the majors.
At the French Open, Federer won his 700th tour match and 150th tour match on clay. However, he failed to reach a Grand Slam semifinal for the first time since the 2004 French Open, losing to Söderling in the last 8 and relinquishing his # 1 ranking, having been just one week away from equalling Pete Sampras 's record of 286 weeks as world # 1. In a huge upset at Wimbledon, Federer lost in the last 8 again to Tomáš Berdych and fell to # 3 in the rankings for the first time in 6 years and 8 months.
Towards the middle of July, Federer hired Pete Sampras ' old coach Paul Annacone on a trial basis to put his tennis game and career back on track. At the 2010 US Open, Federer reached the semifinals, where he lost a heart - breaking five - set match to Novak Djokovic after holding two match points. Federer made it to four Masters 1000 finals, prevailing at the Cincinnati Masters against Mardy Fish.
Federer finished the year in strong form, winning indoor titles at the Stockholm Open, Swiss Indoors, and the ATP World Tour Finals in London, which brought his tally to 66 career titles. Federer won the year - end championships in London by beating rival Rafael Nadal for his fifth title at the event. He showed much of his old form, beating all contenders except Nadal in straight sets. It remains the only tournament in his career where Federer defeated all fellow members of the Big Four. Since Wimbledon 2010, Federer had a win - loss record of 34 -- 4. Federer finished in the top two for the eighth consecutive season.
The 2011 season, although great by most players ' standards, was a lean year for Federer. He was defeated in straight sets in the semifinals of the 2011 Australian Open by eventual champion Novak Djokovic, marking the first time since July 2003 that he did not hold any of the four major titles. In the French Open semifinals, Federer ended Djokovic 's undefeated streak of 43 consecutive wins with a four - set victory. However, Federer then lost in the final to Rafael Nadal. At Wimbledon, Federer advanced to his 29th consecutive Grand Slam quarterfinal, but lost to Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. It marked the first time in his career that he had lost a Grand Slam tournament match after winning the first two sets.
At the US Open, Federer lost a much - anticipated semifinal match to Novak Djokovic, after squandering two match points in the fifth set, which repeated his previous year 's result against Djokovic and added a second loss from two sets up in Grand Slam tournament play to his record. With that loss, it meant that Federer did not win at least one of the four majors in 2011, the first time since 2002. Later that month in September 2011, in a South African poll, Federer was voted the second most trusted and respected person in the world, next to Nelson Mandela.
Federer finished the season on a high note by yet again dominating the indoor season, winning his last three tournaments of the year at the Swiss Indoors, Paris Masters, and ATP World Tour Finals. He ended a 10 - month title drought by winning the Swiss Indoors for the fifth time, defeating Kei Nishikori. Federer followed this up with his first Paris Masters title, where he became the first player to reach all nine Masters 1000 finals. In the final of the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals, Federer defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga for the third consecutive Sunday and, in doing so, claimed a record sixth ATP World Tour Finals title, finishing the year as world # 3.
The 2012 season was a return to excellence for Federer. He had his most match wins since 2006 and his highest winning percentage and number of titles won since 2007.
Federer reached the semifinal of the 2012 Australian Open, setting up a 27th career meeting with Nadal, a match he lost in four tight sets. He then won the Rotterdam Open for the first time since 2005, defeating Juan Martín del Potro. Federer played in the 2012 Dubai Tennis Championships, where he defeated Andy Murray in the final and won the championship title for the fifth time in his career. Federer then moved on to the Indian Wells Masters, where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, and John Isner in the final. Federer won the title for a record fourth time, and, in doing so, equalled Rafael Nadal 's record of 19 ATP Masters 1000 titles.
Federer went on to compete at the Madrid Masters on the new blue clay surface, where he beat Tomáš Berdych in the final, thus regaining the world # 2 ranking from Rafael Nadal. In the French Open, Federer made the semifinals before losing to Djokovic.
At Wimbledon, Federer survived a five - set match in the third round against Julien Benneteau on his way to the semifinals. In his semifinal match - up against world # 1 Novak Djokovic, Federer earned a record eighth Wimbledon final appearance after dispatching Djokovic in four sets. Federer defeated Andy Murray in four sets in the 2012 Wimbledon final, regaining the world # 1 ranking in the process. "It 's amazing. It equals me with Pete Sampras, who 's my hero. It just feels amazing '', Federer said of winning his seventh Wimbledon championship, tying Sampras ' Open Era record. By defeating top - ranked Djokovic in the semifinals and winning in the finals, Federer returned to the top spot in the world rankings and, in doing so, broke Sampras ' record of 286 weeks atop the list.
Four weeks after the Wimbledon final, Federer again faced Murray on the Wimbledon centre court, this time for the final of the 2012 Summer Olympics. This came after an epic 4 - hour 26 - minute semifinal against Juan Martín del Potro of Argentina that Federer won 19 -- 17 in the third and final set. He lost to Murray in straight sets in the final, winning a silver medal for his country.
Federer won in Cincinnati, beating Novak Djokovic soundly in the final. In the US Open, five - time champ Federer was defeated by Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinals. In the Shanghai Rolex Masters, defeating Stan Wawrinka in the third round, Federer confirmed his 300th week at # 1. Federer made it to the finals of the ATP World Tour Finals, where he lost to Novak Djokovic in two sets.
Federer struggled with back injuries sustained in March and again in July and saw his ranking drop from # 2 to # 6. The 2013 season was the first since 1999 in which Federer failed to reach a final in the first four months of the year.
Federer 's first and only title of 2013 came at the Gerry Weber Open (def. Mikhail Youzhny), where he also played doubles with good friend Tommy Haas. With the victory in Halle, he tied John McEnroe for the third-most number of ATP titles won by a male player in the Open Era. Federer, however, was unable to maintain his form into Wimbledon, suffering his worst Grand Slam tournament defeat since 2003 in the second round against Sergiy Stakhovsky. Not only did the loss end Federer 's record streak of 36 consecutive quarterfinals at Grand Slam tournaments, it meant he would drop out of the top 4 for first time since July 2003, exactly 10 years after he won his first Wimbledon title.
During the summer, he experimented with various different racquets and played the German Open with a blacked - out 98 - inch Wilson racquet, instead of his regular Pro Staff 6.1 90 BLX racquet with the smaller 90 - inch hitting area. He returned to his regular racquet for the second half of the season. After Wimbledon, Federer continued to be upset early in tournaments in Hamburg and Gstaad because of a serious back injury through October, when he announced that he was parting ways with Paul Annacone, his coach for the last three years. Federer made the final in Basel, succumbing to Juan Martín del Potro in three sets, and indicated it was a mistake to have played certain tournaments while suffering from a back injury.
On 27 December 2013, Federer announced that Stefan Edberg was joining his team as co-coach with Severin Lüthi.
Federer began the season by changing rackets for the first time in his career, from his longtime frame of 90 square inches to one measured at 97 square inches. He had long been at a comparative disadvantage in equipment as almost the entire tour, including his top rivals Nadal and Djokovic, used more powerful frames of between 95 and 100 square inches. At the Australian Open, Federer defeated Jo - Wilfried Tsonga and Andy Murray to reach his 11th consecutive semifinal in Melbourne, before losing to Rafael Nadal in straight sets.
At the Dubai Tennis Championships, he defeated Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, and then defeated Tomáš Berdych in the final to win his sixth Dubai crown and his first title since Halle in 2013. Federer made the final at the Indian Wells Masters, but lost to Novak Djokovic in a final - set tiebreaker. At the Davis Cup quarterfinals, Federer won both of his singles rubbers against Kazakhstan, the second of which was the first live deciding rubber of his Davis Cup career. Federer then took a wild card into the Monte - Carlo Masters defeating Novak Djokovic on his way to the finals, but lost to compatriot Stan Wawrinka in a tight final.
In June, Federer announced that after the end of his third term, he would resign as President of the ATP Players Council, a position he had held since 2008. At the Halle Open, Federer reached both the singles and the doubles finals and won his seventh Halle singles title, beating Alejandro Falla in the final. At Wimbledon, Federer reached a record ninth final, but he was defeated by Djokovic in an epic five - set match.
Federer made the final of the Canadian Open but was defeated by Jo - Wilfried Tsonga. Federer defeated Spain 's David Ferrer in three sets to capture his sixth Cincinnati crown and 22nd ATP World Tour Masters 1000 title, his first in Cincinnati since 2012. He then reached the semifinals at the US Open but lost in straight sets to eventual champion Marin Čilić. At the Davis Cup semifinals, Federer won both his singles matches against Italy in straight sets and led Switzerland to the final for the first time since 1992.
Federer then played in the Shanghai Masters. He beat Novak Djokovic in the semifinals, ending the Serb 's 28 - match unbeaten run on Chinese soil. He battled Frenchman Gilles Simon in his second Shanghai final, defeating him in two tiebreak sets and collected the 23rd Masters 1000 title of his career. The victory saw Federer return to world # 2 for the first time since May 2013. Federer then played the Swiss Indoors in October, where he won a record sixth title and his 82nd ATP men 's singles title overall. Federer also reached the finals of the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals to face Djokovic again, but withdrew from the final because of another back injury from his semifinal match against Stan Wawrinka.
Despite his injury, Federer finished the season on a high by defeating Richard Gasquet to clinch the Davis Cup for Switzerland for the first time in its history. The final was held at the Stade Pierre - Mauroy in Lille, France attracting over 27,000 spectators per match; this broke attendance record for the highest ever officially - sanctioned competition tennis match.
Federer started his season at the Brisbane International. He defeated Milos Raonic in the final, thereby becoming only the third man in the Open Era to have 1000 or more wins, joining Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl, as well as the first man in the Open Era to win at least one title in each of 15 consecutive years. In Dubai, Federer successfully defended his title with a straight - set victory over Novak Djokovic in the final, marking his seventh title at the tournament and, after Wimbledon and Halle, was the third time he had won seven or more titles in a tournament. Additionally, Federer became the fourth person since 1991 to surpass 9,000 career aces. In March, he reached the final of the Indian Wells, but lost in three sets to defending champion Djokovic.
Federer won his third title of the season at the inaugural Istanbul Open clay - court tournament, ending a title drought on red clay since the 2009 French Open. Federer made it to the final of the Italian Open in May, but was unable to win his first title there, losing to Djokovic in the final.
As the new expanded grass season began, Federer won his record eighth Gerry Weber Open and become only the third man in the Open Era to win a title eight times. Federer entered Wimbledon as the second seed. He played a flawless match to defeat Andy Murray in straight sets in the semifinals and advance to his 10th Wimbledon final in a repeat against Novak Djokovic. Federer lost the match in four sets.
He defeated Andy Murray and Novak Djokovic in straight sets to win the Cincinnati Masters for the seventh time. This marked the first time that Federer had beaten the top 2 players in the world at the same tournament. At the US Open, he advanced to his first final there since 2009 without dropping a set, including a win over Stan Wawrinka in the semifinals. In the final, he was once again defeated by top seed Djokovic in four sets. At the Swiss Indoors tournament in Basel, Federer won his sixth singles title of the year, and his 88th ATP title, defeating his old rival Rafael Nadal in the final. It was the seventh time he had captured his hometown tournament.
In December, Federer announced that he would enter the 2016 ATP World Tour season with a new - look coaching team, having additionally announced that Stefan Edberg would not be travelling with him next year. While countryman Severin Lüthi remained Federer 's head coach, joining the team in 2016 was Croatian former world # 3 player Ivan Ljubicic. The Swiss tennis player revealed that Edberg originally signed on to the coaching team for one season only in 2014, but agreed to stay on in 2015.
Federer started his season in the Brisbane International as the defending champion, despite having a virus when the tournament started. However, in a rematch of the previous year 's final, he lost in the final to Milos Raonic in straight sets. Federer then participated at the 2016 Australian Open and rebounded from his third round defeat by Andreas Seppi in 2015 by reaching the semifinals but lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in four sets. The day after his loss to Djokovic, Federer sustained a knee injury and in early February, he underwent arthroscopic surgery to repair a torn meniscus in his knee and missed the tournaments in Rotterdam, Dubai and Indian Wells in February and March. He was scheduled to return to action in Miami. Due to a stomach virus he had to withdraw from Miami thus prolonging his time on the sidelines.
Federer made his comeback at the Monte - Carlo Masters, losing in the quarterfinals to Jo - Wilfried Tsonga in three sets. In Madrid, he suffered a back injury during practice and withdrew shortly after arriving. He then participated in the Internazionali BNL d'Italia where he lost in the third round to Dominic Thiem. His withdrawal from the French Open broke a record run of 65 consecutive participations in the main draw of Grand Slam tournaments, stretching back to the 2000 Australian Open.
Still suffering from recurring knee pain during the grass season he lost in the semifinals of Stuttgart and Halle. On 6 July, he came back from two sets down to defeat Marin Čilić in five sets in the 2016 Wimbledon quarterfinals, equalling Jimmy Connors ' all - time records of eleven Wimbledon semifinals and 84 match wins. He suffered his first defeat in a Wimbledon semifinal two days later in a five - set loss to Raonic, re-injuring his knee in the fifth set.
On 26 July, Federer announced that he would miss the 2016 Summer Olympics and the remainder of the 2016 season to fully recover from his knee injury.
Federer 's 2017 season marked a return to excellence for him. He had the most number of grand slams since 2009, most career titles since 2007, and highest win percentage since 2006. Statistically, this season was his career best since 2007.
Federer played in the Hopman Cup and Australian Open in January 2017. At the Australian Open, he beat top - 10 players Tomáš Berdych and Kei Nishikori to reach the quarterfinals, where he beat Mischa Zverev, making Federer the oldest man to compete in a grand slam semi-final since Jimmy Connors in 1991. In the semi-finals, he defeated Stanislas Wawrinka in five sets, making him the oldest player to compete in a Grand Slam final since Ken Rosewall in 1974. Coming back from a break down in the fifth set, Federer defeated Rafael Nadal to win the Australian Open, which also marked Federer 's 100th match at the Australian Open; it was the first time Federer had won a match against Nadal in a Grand Slam event since the 2007 Wimbledon final, and also marked Federer 's first ever Grand Slam victory over Nadal outside the grass courts of Wimbledon. His victory against Nadal moved Federer to number ten in the ATP rankings, and made him the oldest player to win a major since Bill Tilden won Wimbledon in 1930.
In March, the Swiss won his 25th Masters title at Indian Wells, defeating Wawrinka in the final and gaining another victory over Nadal in the 4th round. This was also Federer 's 90th career title and he climbed to # 6 in the ATP rankings. Federer collected his 26th Masters title by defeating Nadal in the final of the Miami Masters in straight sets and climbed to # 4 in the ATP rankings. This marked the third time Federer had won in Indian Wells and Miami back - to - back, colloquially referred to as the Sunshine Double (2005, 2006 and 2017).
Due to concerns about his longevity, Federer decided that he would skip the entire clay - court season. He returned to the tour at the beginning of the grass - court season in Stuttgart, where he suffered a shock defeat to Tommy Haas in the second round despite holding match points, the lowest - ranked player (No. 302) to beat him since No. 407 Bjoern Phau in 1999. He rebounded the following week by winning a record - extending ninth title at the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, doing so without the loss of a set. In the 2017 Wimbledon Championships, Federer made it to the final without dropping a set, defeating Milos Raonic in the quarterfinals and Tomáš Berdych in the semifinals. In the final, Federer defeated Marin Cilic in straight sets to win a record - breaking eighth Wimbledon title and his record - extending 19th overall major title, to become the oldest male player to win Wimbledon in the Open era. The Swiss became the second man in the Open era to win Wimbledon without dropping a set after Björn Borg in 1976. It marked the second time in his career that he had won a grand slam tournament without losing a set, matching his performance at the 2007 Australian Open. Federer moved up to become world number 3 in the ATP Rankings after the event and qualified for the ATP Finals for a record 15th time.
At the opening of the summer hard court swing Federer was defeated in the final of the Montreal Masters by Alexander Zverev after injuring his back during the match. Due to the injury, he opted to withdraw from the Cincinnati Masters to be fit for the US Open. This injury effectively cost him the # 1 ranking as he would have attained it by reaching the Cincinnati final, a tournament he has won seven times. Despite his withdrawal from Cincinnati, Federer had little time to recover for the US Open, and the back injury severely affected his practice sessions. Even from the start, he looked uncomfortable and it took him five sets to win each of the first two rounds against Frances Tiafoe and Mikhail Youzhny. His campaign at the US Open finally ended in the last 8, where he lost to Juan Martin del Potro in four sets. His game was hampered by unforced errors at crucial points in the match and even he admitted that he never felt he had a chance to win the tournament.
Federer 's next participation was in September in the inaugural Laver Cup, representing team Europe. Federer played his first singles match on day two, where he dispatched Sam Querrey in straight sets. Later on day two, he partnered with his rival Nadal in doubles, where they defeated the Team World duo of Sam Querrey and Jack Sock in the match tie breaker, which took place at one set all. This was the first time Federer and Nadal competed on the same side of a doubles match. On day three, Federer competed in the final match of the tournament, where he sealed victory for Team Europe by defeating Nick Kyrgios in the champion 's tiebreak (saving a match point). With three wins and seven points, Federer was the most accomplished player of the tournament.
At the Shanghai Masters, Federer captured his third Masters title of the season, defeating world No. 1 Rafael Nadal in the final. This was Federer 's fifth straight victory over Nadal in their rivalry and his 94th career title, drawing him level with 2nd - placed Ivan Lendl. During the indoors season, Federer participated in his hometown tournament, the Swiss Indoors in Basel, Switzerland. His victory over Juan Martin Del Potro in the final earned him a record eighth championship in Basel and led to him achieving his 95th career title, surpassing Ivan Lendl in number of career titles.
Federer made his Davis Cup for Switzerland debut in the World Group 1st Round against Italy in 1999 at 17 years of age. In his first match he defeated Davide Sanguinetti in four sets and recorded a second singles victory in a dead rubber two days later as Switzerland advanced to the World Group Quarterfinals. In the Quarterfinals Federer, who was still 17 years old, suffered his first Davis Cup loss when he was defeated by Belgian Christophe Van Garsse in five sets. The Swiss team would go on to lose the rubber 3 -- 2. A year later, Federer competed in his first Davis Cup doubles rubber where he teamed with countryman Lorenzo Manta to defeat Australians Wayne Arthurs and Sandon Stolle in four sets. Despite the doubles victory, Federer lost both singles rubbers to Mark Philippoussis and Lleyton Hewitt which saw Switzerland sent to the World Group Playoffs for the first time in Federer 's career. He would return for the playoffs in July 2000 and led Switzerland to a 5 -- 0 win over Belarus by recording wins in singles and doubles.
His first Davis Cup highlight came in 2003 as the newly crowned Wimbledon champion led his country to an historic semifinal run. After recording five wins in ties against the Netherlands and France, the Swiss team traveled to Melbourne to play the highly rated Australians. Federer once again defeated Wimbledon runner - up Mark Philippoussis in the second rubber but allowed the Australians to lead the tie 2 -- 1 going into Day 3 after dropping the doubles rubber in five sets. Federer then played Lleyton Hewitt in a sudden death situation for Switzerland and despite leading two sets to love, succumbed to a fast finishing Hewitt in five sets. Australia would go on to claim the Davis Cup title months later as Federer 's interest in Davis Cup began to wane and his focus shifted to his personal career. He would go on to skip many ties over the years but often competed in the World Group Playoffs each year in order for Switzerland to maintain their place in the top division.
The emergence of countryman Stanislas Wawrinka as a Grand Slam singles champion in 2014 renewed hope for Federer in his Davis Cup quest, and the pair both committed to playing each tie that year. Their commitment would pay off as wins over Serbia, Kazakhstan and Italy allowed the Swiss team to advance to the 2014 Davis Cup Final. Leading into the final, Federer was suffering from a back injury that threw serious doubt over Switzerland 's chance to claim the title, and a second rubber straight sets loss to Gaël Monfils seemingly spelled the worst for Switzerland. However, a rejuvenated Federer returned the next day to help claim the doubles rubber, which set up a fourth rubber singles tie between Federer and Richard Gasquet. Federer defeated Gasquet in straight sets and in doing so handed Switzerland its first (and only to date) Davis Cup title.
Federer holds many Davis Cup records for Switzerland that includes most total wins, most singles wins and most years played.
An 18 - year - old Federer made his Olympic debut at Sydney in 2000, where he entered the singles competition. He surprised many by reaching the semifinals but lost to Tommy Haas in the semifinals and then to Arnaud Di Pasquale in the bronze medal match, causing Federer to leave Sydney empty handed. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Federer was the clear favorite after claiming the world number one ranking earlier in the year and capturing the Australian Open and Wimbledon titles. However, he lost in the second round to 18 - year - old Tomáš Berdych. In doubles, he and compatriot Yves Allegro lost in the second round. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, Federer was again the top seed and favorite, but lost in the quarterfinals to James Blake. However, he found more success on the doubles court, capturing the gold medal in men 's doubles with compatriot Stan Wawrinka, defeating Simon Aspelin and Thomas Johansson of Sweden. At both the Athens and Beijing Olympic Games, Federer was the flagbearer for Switzerland in the opening ceremony. At London 2012, Federer won his first singles medal, losing to Andy Murray in the final to claim the silver. He and Wawrinka were unable to defend their gold medal in doubles, losing in the second round to Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram of Israel. Federer did not compete in the Rio Olympics after taking the rest of the season off after Wimbledon to recover from a knee injury.
Federer and Rafael Nadal have been playing each other since 2004, and their rivalry is a significant part of both men 's careers.
They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 until 17 August 2009, when Nadal fell to world # 3 (Andy Murray became the new # 2), and again since 11 September 2017. They are the only pair of men to have ever finished six consecutive calendar years at the top. Federer was ranked # 1 for a record 237 consecutive weeks beginning in February 2004. Nadal, who is five years younger, ascended to # 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks, before surpassing Federer in August 2008.
Nadal leads their head - to - head 23 -- 15. Federer has a winning record on grass (2 -- 1) and indoor hard courts (5 -- 1), while Nadal leads the outdoor hard courts (8 -- 6) and clay (13 -- 2). Because tournament seedings are based on rankings, 24 of their matches have been in tournament finals which have included an all - time record nine Grand Slam finals. From 2006 to 2008, they played in every French Open and Wimbledon final. They then met in the 2009 Australian Open final, the 2011 French Open final, and the 2017 Australian Open final. Nadal won six of the nine, losing the first two Wimbledon finals and the second Australian Open final. Four of these finals were five set - matches (2007 and 2008 Wimbledon, 2009 and 2017 Australian Open), with the 2008 Wimbledon final being lauded as the greatest match ever by many long - time tennis analysts. Of their 38 meetings, 13 have reached a deciding set. They have also played in 12 Masters Series finals, including their lone five - hour match at the 2006 Rome Masters which Nadal won in a fifth - set tie - break, having saved two match points.
Federer and Novak Djokovic have met 45 times with Federer trailing 22 -- 23 wins. They are tied 17 -- 17 on hard - courts and 4 -- 4 on clay while Federer trails 1 -- 2 on grass. The Federer -- Djokovic rivalry is the largest rivalry in men 's Grand Slam tournament history with a record 15 matches played against each other with Federer trailing 6 -- 9. Djokovic is the only player besides Nadal to defeat Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournaments (2010 US Open and 2011 Australian Open, also 2015 Wimbledon, US Open and 2016 Australian Open), and the only player besides Nadal and Murray who has double - figure career wins over Federer. Djokovic is one of two players (the other again being Nadal) on tour to have defeated Federer in straight sets at a Grand Slam event (2008 Australian Open, 2011 Australian Open, 2012 French Open) and the only player to do so three times. Of their 45 meetings, 15 have reached a deciding set.
Federer and Djokovic first played in a Grand Slam final at the 2007 US Open where the three - time reigning champion and world # 1 Federer emerged victorious in straight sets. Federer ended Djokovic 's perfect 41 -- 0 start to the 2011 season in the semifinals of the French Open, but Djokovic was able to avenge this loss at the 2011 US Open in five sets after saving two match points against Federer for the second straight year. In the semifinals of Wimbledon 2012, Federer beat defending champion and world # 1 Djokovic in four sets. The two met again during the finals of the 2014 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic emerging victorious after five sets. Federer also ended Djokovic 's 28 straight wins in China at 2014 Shanghai Open. Federer and Djokovic rematched in the 2015 Wimbledon Championships with Djokovic once again claiming victory in four sets. The pair met once more for the final major of the season, the 2015 US Open and once more Djokovic prevailed in four sets. Many experts have included the rivalry between Federer and Djokovic as one of the best rivalries in the Open Era.
Federer and Andy Murray have met 25 times with Federer leading 14 -- 11. Federer leads 12 -- 10 on hard courts, and 2 -- 1 on grass. They have never met on clay. The two have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level, the first three times in the finals, Federer winning all three of these matches; at the 2008 US Open and the 2010 Australian Open, both of which he won in straight sets, and at the 2012 Wimbledon Championships in which Murray took the opening set, but went on to lose in four sets. However, Murray won their encounter in the semifinals of the 2013 Australian Open, defeating the Swiss for the first time at a Grand slam tournament in five sets. At the 2014 Australian Open, Federer reversed that result, defeating Murray in four sets in the quarterfinals. The most recent meeting between the two in a Major was in the semifinals of the 2015 Wimbledon Championships, where a dominant Federer triumphed in straight sets.
They met in the final of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games, in which Murray defeated Federer in straight sets, denying the Swiss a career Golden Slam. Murray also leads 6 -- 3 in ATP 1000 tournaments, 2 -- 0 in finals. They have also met five times at the ATP World Tour Finals, with Murray winning in Shanghai in 2008, and Federer in London in 2009, 2010, 2012, and 2014. Murray is one of only three players to have recorded 10 or more victories over Federer (the other two being Nadal and Novak Djokovic).
One of Federer 's longstanding rivalries was with American Andy Roddick. Roddick lost his world # 1 ranking to Federer after Federer won his first Australian Open in 2004. Federer and Roddick met on 24 occasions, including four Grand Slam event finals (three at Wimbledon and one at the US Open -- all won by Federer). Federer 's record is overall 21 -- 3. Roddick himself said it was not much of a rivalry, being so one - sided.
In the 2009 Wimbledon final, Roddick lost to Federer in five sets. The match included a 30 - game fifth set (a Grand Slam final record) and lasted over four hours. In the final game of the deciding set, Roddick 's serve was broken for the first time in the match. With that victory, Federer broke Pete Sampras ' record of 14 Grand Slam singles titles, and Roddick apologised to Sampras (who was there) for not being able to stop Federer.
Lleyton Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions. Early in their careers, Hewitt dominated Federer, winning seven of their first nine meetings, including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semifinal which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland. However, from 2004 onward, Federer dominated the rivalry, winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18 -- 9 overall head - to - head record. This is Hewitt 's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996. They met in one Grand Slam tournament final, the 2004 US Open final, where Federer won his first US Open title in a lopsided encounter in which Federer scored a bagel on both sides of a second - set tiebreak. Federer met Hewitt at six of the Grand Slam tournaments in which he lifted the trophy, including all five of his triumphs between 2004 and 2005. Their last meeting was at the 2014 Brisbane International, where Hewitt triumphed over Federer in three sets for his first title since 2010, when he also beat Federer to the Halle title.
Hewitt and Federer teamed up in the men 's doubles at Wimbledon in 1999. They lost in third round to Jonas Björkman and Pat Rafter.
Federer and Andre Agassi played each other 11 times between 1998 and 2005 before Agassi 's retirement in 2006. Federer led the rivalry 8 -- 3. This was Federer 's most significant rivalry with an all - time great player of the previous generation. They first met in only the third tournament of Federer 's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer 's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17 - year - old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Masters in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round robin and the final. They played a memorable quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two days with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al - Arab. Their final match was at one of the most prestigious platforms in the sport, when they played in the finals of the 2005 US Open. Federer was victorious in four sets, claiming the 6th Grand Slam tournament of his career and denying Agassi his 9th.
Juan Martín del Potro and Roger Federer have played 24 times with Federer leading 18 -- 6. They have met seven times in Grand Slam tournaments with Federer leading 5 -- 2. Their two most famous Grand Slam tournament meetings came in 2009. The first was in the French Open semifinals, when Federer survived a five - set clash when he was on his way to the only French title of his career. The second was in the final of the US Open, where del Potro stunned five - time defending champion Federer in five sets, ending his 20 - match winning streak at Grand Slams. Another high - profile match was in the semifinals of the 2012 London Olympics, where Federer prevailed 19 -- 17 in the final set to secure the Olympic silver medal. They also met in the finals of the Swiss Indoors in 2012, 2013 and 2017, with del Potro prevailing on first two occasions, and Federer on last one of them in tight three - set matches. In the 2017 U.S. Open quarterfinals, in a rematch of the 2009 US Open final, Del Potro again stunned Federer in four sets to end his unbeaten streak in grand slams that year. With this win, Del Potro also denied the first Federer - Nadal match at US Open, as in 2009 where he crushed Nadal in straight sets in the semifinals. Federer, however avenged this loss at the Shanghai Masters semifinals, where he beat del Potro in three sets after coming from a set down.
Marat Safin and Federer played each other 12 times, with Federer leading 10 -- 2. Federer and Safin turned pro within one year of each other, with Safin turning pro in 1997 and Federer in 1998. Federer leads 4 -- 1 on hard courts, 3 -- 0 on grass, and 3 -- 0 on clay courts, while Safin leads 1 -- 0 on carpet. Notable meetings include Federer 's defeating Safin at the 2002 Hamburg Masters to win the first Masters 1000 title of his career, as well as Federer 's emerging victorious in the semifinals of the 2004 Tennis Masters Cup, after winning a tiebreak 20 -- 18 on his eighth match point. Federer also defeated Safin in the finals of the 2004 Australian Open to capture his first Australian Open and second Grand Slam tournament title. However, Safin defeated Federer in the 2005 Australian Open semifinals, having saved one match point in the fourth - set tiebreak, to end a 26 - match winning streak by Federer. They met each other five times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4 -- 1.
David Nalbandian was Federer 's biggest rival in his early career. The two played each other 19 times, with Federer leading 11 -- 8. Nalbandian dominated early on, winning their first five matches from 2002 -- 03. Federer reversed this trend at the 2003 Masters Cup, where he recorded his first victory, and would go on to win 11 of their last 14 meetings. Federer leads 6 -- 5 on hard courts, 1 -- 0 on grass, and 3 -- 1 on clay courts, while Nalbandian leads 2 -- 1 on carpet. Notable meetings include Nalbandian 's win in a fifth - set tiebreaker to win the 2005 Masters Cup, and Federer 's win in the 2006 French Open semifinals. They met each other six times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 4 -- 2.
Tomáš Berdych and Federer have played each other 25 times with Federer leading 19 -- 6. Federer leads 11 -- 5 on hard courts, 3 -- 1 on grass courts, 4 -- 0 on clay courts, and 1 -- 0 on carpet. Berdych won their first professional match, notably upsetting then world # 1 Federer at the 2004 Summer Olympics. Federer then went on to win their next eight meetings, before Berdych ended the losing streak in 2010. Between 2010 and 2013, Berdych won 5 of 8 meetings. Federer then switched to a larger racquet in 2014 to prevent being overpowered by players like Berdych and leads 8 -- 0 since. They have met nine times in Grand Slam tournaments, with Federer leading 7 -- 2, and Berdych is one of five players, along with Arnaud Clément, Álex Corretja, David Nalbandian, and Jo - Wilfried Tsonga, to defeat Federer multiple times in majors before the semifinal stage. Their most notable Grand Slam matches took place in the 2009 Australian Open, when Federer prevailed in five sets after dropping the first two sets, the 2010 Wimbledon Championships and the 2012 US Open, both of which Berdych won in four sets. Berdych went on to reach the only Grand Slam final of his career after the Wimbledon quarterfinal victory which was significant as it ended Federer 's run of seven consecutive finals at Wimbledon dating back to 2003.
Jo - Wilfried Tsonga and Federer have met 17 times with Federer leading 11 -- 6. Federer leads 5 -- 3 on outdoor hard courts and 4 -- 0 on indoor hard, while Tsonga leads 1 -- 0 on grass. They are 2 -- 2 on clay courts. The pair have met six times in Grand Slam tournaments, including their five - set matches in the quarterfinals of 2011 Wimbledon and 2013 Australian Open. They have also one Grand Slam semifinal meeting in the 2010 Australian Open, with Federer winning in straight sets. Federer and Tsonga have played in the 2011 ATP World Tour Finals final and the Swiss maestro won his record - sixth Year - End Championship, after a three - setter. The pair have also met in two ATP World Tour Masters 1000 finals. The first was in the 2011 BNP Paribas Masters, with Federer winning his first title in Bercy, and the second was in the 2014 Rogers Cup, with Tsonga winning his second Masters 1000 title.
Federer 's most notable matchup with a compatriot has been with Stan Wawrinka and they have played each other 23 times with Federer leading 20 -- 3. Federer leads 6 -- 1 in Grand Slam tournaments, 15 -- 0 on hard courts, 1 -- 0 on grass courts and 4 -- 3 on clay courts. The pair are 1 -- 1 in finals. Their first meeting in the final came at 2014 Monte - Carlo Rolex Masters where Wawrinka defeated Federer in three sets to win his first Masters 1000 title before Federer avenged his loss at 2017 BNP Paribas Open by beating him in the final. While the rivalry is one - sided in Federer 's favour, the two of them have contested some close matches. Wawrinka defeated Federer in straight sets during the 2015 French Open quarterfinals en route to winning his first French Open title, although Federer then won a straight - sets victory in the 2015 US Open semifinals. Other close matches include the 2012 Shanghai Masters and the 2013 Indian Wells Masters, both of which Federer won in three sets, the 2014 Wimbledon quarterfinal which Federer won in four sets, the 2014 ATP World Tour Final semifinal in which Federer won in three sets after saving four match points and the 2017 Australian Open semifinal which Federer won in five sets. Despite their on - court rivalry, they are friends off court and they have played doubles together on numerous occasions, most notably when they won the doubles Olympic Gold at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the 2014 Davis Cup.
Federer has been widely regarded as the greatest tennis player of all time. He dominated the game at his peak and has won more Grand Slam tournament titles (19) than any other men 's singles player. He is also the first men 's singles player to have reached ten consecutive Grand Slam tournament finals and a total of 29 Grand Slam finals. He has earned a men 's doubles gold medal, and a men 's single silver medal at the Olympics in 2008 and 2012, respectively. He spent the most amount of time in the Open Era at the top of the ATP Rankings (302 weeks). He also holds the record for the most titles (6) at the year - end tournament, where only the year - end eight highest - ranked players participate. Federer was ranked among the top eight players in the world continuously for 14 years and two weeks; from 14 October 2002 till 31 October 2016, when injuries forced him to skip much of the 2016 season.
Federer has won the ATPWorldTour.com Fans ' Favourite Award a record 14 times consecutively (2003 -- 16), won the ATP Player of the year five time (2004 -- 07, 2009), become ITF World Champion 5 times (2004 -- 07, 2009) and won the Stefan Edberg Sportsmanship Award (voted for by the players) a record 12 times (2004 -- 09, 2011 -- 16), both being awards indicative of respect and popularity. He also won the Arthur Ashe Humanitarian of the Year Award twice (2006, 2013) and Laureus World Sportsman of the Year for a record four consecutive years (2005 -- 08). Federer is at times known as Federer Express, shortened to Fed Express or FedEx, and Swiss Maestro, or just Maestro.
In 2016, he was ranked by ESPN as the greatest male or female tennis player ever. After his victory over Rafael Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open Final, John McEnroe concluded that "Federer (had) cemented himself as the greatest player of all time ''.
One of his most lasting legacies may turn out to be his creation of a new annual tournament called the Laver Cup which pits Europe against the rest of the world. Federer founded the tournament in honor of tennis legend Rod Laver and the inaugural edition was played in 2017.
Federer helped to lead a revival in tennis known by many as the Golden Age. This led to increased interest in the sport, which in turn led to higher revenues for many venues across tennis. During this period rising revenues led to exploding prize money; when Federer first won the Australian Open in 2004 he earned $985,000, compared to when he won in 2017 and the prize had increased to $2,774,000.
Upon winning the 2009 French Open and completing the career Grand Slam, Federer became the first individual male tennis player to grace the cover of Sports Illustrated since Andre Agassi in 1999. He was also the first non-American player to appear on the cover of the magazine since Stefan Edberg in 1992. Federer again made the cover of Sports Illustrated following his record breaking 8th Wimbledon title and second Grand Slam of 2017, becoming the first male tennis player to be featured on the cover since himself in 2009.
Federer 's versatility has been described by Jimmy Connors as: "In an era of specialists, you 're either a clay court specialist, a grass court specialist, or a hard court specialist... or you 're Roger Federer. ''
An elite athlete, Federer is an all - court, all - around player known for his speed, fluid style of play, and exceptional shot making. Federer mainly plays from the baseline but is also comfortable at the net, being one of the best volleyers in the game. He has a powerful, accurate smash and very effectively performs rare elements playing tennis, such as backhand smash and skyhook, half - volley and jump smash (slam dunk). David Foster Wallace compared the brute force of Federer 's forehand motion with that of "a great liquid whip '', while John McEnroe has referred to Federer 's forehand as "the greatest shot in our sport. '' Federer is also known for his efficient movement around the court and excellent footwork, which enables him to run around shots directed to his backhand and instead hit a powerful inside - out or inside - in forehand, one of his best shots.
Federer plays with a single - handed backhand, which gives him great variety. He employs the slice, occasionally using it to lure his opponent to the net and deliver a passing shot. Federer can also fire topspin winners and possesses a ' flick ' backhand with which he can generate pace with his wrist; this is usually used to pass the opponent at the net. His serve is difficult to read because he always uses a similar ball toss, regardless of what type of serve he is going to hit and where he aims to hit it, and turns his back to his opponents during his motion. He is often able to produce big serves on key points during a match. His first serve is typically around 200 km / h (125 mph); however, he is capable of serving at 220 km / h (137 mph). Federer is also accomplished at serve and volleying, and employed this tactic frequently in his early career.
Later in his career, Federer added the drop shot to his arsenal and can perform a well - disguised one off both wings. He sometimes uses a between - the - legs shot, which is colloquially referred to as a "tweener '' or "hotdog ''. His most notable use of the tweener was in the semifinals of the 2009 US Open against Novak Djokovic, bringing him triple match point. Federer is one of the top players who employs successfully the "squash shot '', when he gets pushed deep and wide on his forehand wing. Since Stefan Edberg joined his coaching team at the start of the 2014 season, Federer has played a more offensive game, attacking the net more often, and improved his volley shots. In the lead - up to the 2015 US Open, Federer successfully added a new unique shot to his arsenal called SABR (Sneak Attack by Roger), in which he charges his opponent while receiving the serve and hits a return on the run. With the switch to a bigger 97 inch racket from 90 inches, Federer has gained easy power while relinquishing some control on his shots. The bigger racket has enabled easier serving and better defense on both wings with less shanks. However this has diminished his forehand, slice backhand and dropshot. Since his comeback in 2017, Federer is noted for his improved backhand both down the line and cross court which was cited as the reason for his defeat of Nadal in the 2017 Australian Open Final and Indian Wells 4th Round.
Federer is also noted for his cool demeanour and emotional control on the court. In contrast to his early career, most of his professional game has been characterised by lack of outbursts or emotional frustration at errors, which gives him an advantage over less controlled opponents.
"I do n't get the anxiety during a match so much anymore. You know, to throw racquets, to toss balls out of the court, scream and stuff. I almost laugh (on the inside) about it a little bit today when an opponent does it. But that 's something for me that 's not a problem any more. '' ~ Roger Federer
Federer plays with the Wilson Prostaff RF97 Autograph, a 97 square inch tennis racquet with 21.5 mm beam, 360 g weight, 331 swing weight and 16x19 string pattern (all strung with overgrip). Since the 1998 Wimbledon Junior Championships Federer played with a Pro Staff 6.0 85 racquet. He switched to a bigger custom - built 90 tennis racquet since 2003, which is characterised by its smaller hitting area of 90 square inches, heavy strung weight of 364 grams, and thin beam of 17.5 millimetres. His grip size was 4 3 / 8 inches (sometimes referred to as L3). Federer strung his racquets at 21.5 kg mains / 20 kg crosses pre-stretched 20 percent, using Wilson Natural Gut 16 gauge for his main strings and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough 16L gauge (polyester) for his cross strings. When asked about string tensions, Federer stated "this depends on how warm the days are and with what kind of balls I play and against who I play. So you can see -- it depends on several factors and not just the surface; the feeling I have is most important. ''
Federer has a contract with Nike footwear and apparel. For the 2006 championships at Wimbledon, Nike designed a jacket emblazoned with a crest of three tennis racquets, symbolising the three Wimbledon Championships he had previously won, and which was updated the next year with four racquets after he won the Championship in 2006. At Wimbledon 2008, and again in 2009, Nike continued this trend by making him a personalised cardigan that also had his own logo, an R and an F joined together.
Federer is one of the highest - earning athletes in the world. He is listed at # 4 on the Forbes "World 's Highest Paid Athletes '' list. As of 2013, he remains the top earner in tennis with ten endorsement deals. He makes 40 to 50 million euros a year from prize money and endorsements from Nike and the Swiss companies Nationale Suisse, Credit Suisse, Rolex, Lindt, Sunrise, and Jura Elektroapparate. In 2010, his endorsement by Mercedes - Benz China was extended into a global partnership deal. His other sponsors include Gillette, Wilson, and Moët & Chandon. Previously, he was an ambassador for NetJets, Emmi AG, and Maurice Lacroix.
Note: Federer received fourth - round walkovers at the US Open (2004 and 2012) and the Wimbledon Championships (2007), and a second - round walkover at the Australian Open (2012); these are not counted as wins
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when's the last time liverpool won the premier league | Liverpool F.C. - Wikipedia
Liverpool Football Club (/ ˈlɪvərpuːl /) is a professional football club in Liverpool, England, that competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football. The club has won 5 European Cups, 3 UEFA Cups, 3 UEFA Super Cups, 18 League titles, 7 FA Cups, 8 League Cups, and 15 FA Community Shields.
Founded in 1892, the club joined the Football League the following year and has played at Anfield since its formation. Liverpool established itself as a major force in English and European football in the 1970s and 1980s when Bill Shankly and Bob Paisley led the club to 11 League titles and seven European trophies. Under the management of Rafael Benítez and captained by Steven Gerrard, Liverpool became European champions for the fifth time in 2005.
Liverpool was the ninth highest - earning football club in the world in 2016 -- 17, with an annual revenue of € 424.2 million, and the world 's eighth most valuable football club in 2017, valued at $1.492 billion. The club has long - standing rivalries with Manchester United and Everton.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two major tragedies: the Heysel Stadium disaster, where escaping fans were pressed against a collapsing wall at the 1985 European Cup Final in Brussels, with 39 people -- mostly Italians and Juventus fans -- dying, after which English clubs were given a five - year ban from European competition, and the Hillsborough disaster in 1989, where 96 Liverpool supporters died in a crush against perimeter fencing.
The team changed from red shirts and white shorts to an all - red home strip in 1964 which has been used ever since. The club 's anthem is "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''.
Liverpool F.C. was founded following a dispute between the Everton committee and John Houlding, club president and owner of the land at Anfield. After eight years at the stadium, Everton relocated to Goodison Park in 1892 and Houlding founded Liverpool F.C. to play at Anfield. Originally named "Everton F.C. and Athletic Grounds Ltd '' (Everton Athletic for short), the club became Liverpool F.C. in March 1892 and gained official recognition three months later, after The Football Association refused to recognise the club as Everton. The team won the Lancashire League in its début season, and joined the Football League Second Division at the start of the 1893 -- 94 season. After finishing in first place the club was promoted to the First Division, which it won in 1901 and again in 1906.
Liverpool reached its first FA Cup Final in 1914, losing 1 -- 0 to Burnley. It won consecutive League championships in 1922 and 1923, but did not win another trophy until the 1946 -- 47 season, when the club won the First Division for a fifth time under the control of ex-West Ham Utd centre half George Kay. Liverpool suffered its second Cup Final defeat in 1950, playing against Arsenal. The club was relegated to the Second Division in the 1953 -- 54 season. Soon after Liverpool lost 2 -- 1 to non-league Worcester City in the 1958 -- 59 FA Cup, Bill Shankly was appointed manager. Upon his arrival he released 24 players and converted a boot storage room at Anfield into a room where the coaches could discuss strategy; here, Shankly and other "Boot Room '' members Joe Fagan, Reuben Bennett, and Bob Paisley began reshaping the team.
The club was promoted back into the First Division in 1962 and won it in 1964, for the first time in 17 years. In 1965, the club won its first FA Cup. In 1966, the club won the First Division but lost to Borussia Dortmund in the European Cup Winners ' Cup final. Liverpool won both the League and the UEFA Cup during the 1972 -- 73 season, and the FA Cup again a year later. Shankly retired soon afterwards and was replaced by his assistant, Bob Paisley. In 1976, Paisley 's second season as manager, the club won another League and UEFA Cup double. The following season, the club retained the League title and won the European Cup for the first time, but it lost in the 1977 FA Cup Final. Liverpool retained the European Cup in 1978 and regained the First Division title in 1979. During Paisley 's nine seasons as manager Liverpool won 21 trophies, including three European Cups, a UEFA Cup, six League titles and three consecutive League Cups; the only domestic trophy he did not win was the FA Cup.
Paisley retired in 1983 and was replaced by his assistant, Joe Fagan. Liverpool won the League, League Cup and European Cup in Fagan 's first season, becoming the first English side to win three trophies in a season. Liverpool reached the European Cup final again in 1985, against Juventus at the Heysel Stadium. Before kick - off, Liverpool fans breached a fence which separated the two groups of supporters, and charged the Juventus fans. The resulting weight of people caused a retaining wall to collapse, killing 39 fans, mostly Italians. The incident became known as the Heysel Stadium disaster. The match was played in spite of protests by both managers, and Liverpool lost 1 -- 0 to Juventus. As a result of the tragedy, English clubs were banned from participating in European competition for five years; Liverpool received a ten - year ban, which was later reduced to six years. Fourteen Liverpool fans received convictions for involuntary manslaughter.
Fagan had announced his retirement just before the disaster and Kenny Dalglish was appointed as player - manager. During his tenure, the club won another three League Championships and two FA Cups, including a League and Cup "Double '' in the 1985 -- 86 season. Liverpool 's success was overshadowed by the Hillsborough disaster: in an FA Cup semi-final against Nottingham Forest on 15 April 1989, hundreds of Liverpool fans were crushed against perimeter fencing. Ninety - four fans died that day; the 95th victim died in hospital from his injuries four days later and the 96th died nearly four years later, without regaining consciousness. After the Hillsborough disaster there was a government review of stadium safety. The resulting Taylor Report paved the way for legislation that required top - division teams to have all - seater stadiums. The report ruled that the main reason for the disaster was overcrowding due to a failure of police control.
Liverpool was involved in the closest finish to a league season during the 1988 -- 89 season. Liverpool finished equal with Arsenal on both points and goal difference, but lost the title on total goals scored when Arsenal scored the final goal in the last minute of the season.
Dalglish cited the Hillsborough disaster and its repercussions as the reason for his resignation in 1991; he was replaced by former player Graeme Souness. Under his leadership Liverpool won the 1992 FA Cup Final, but their league performances slumped, with two consecutive sixth - place finishes, eventually resulting in his dismissal in January 1994. Souness was replaced by Roy Evans, and Liverpool went on to win the 1995 Football League Cup Final. While they made some title challenges under Evans, third - place finishes in 1996 and 1998 were the best they could manage, and so Gérard Houllier was appointed co-manager in the 1998 -- 99 season, and became the sole manager in November 1998 after Evans resigned. In 2001, Houllier 's second full season in charge, Liverpool won a "Treble '': the FA Cup, League Cup and UEFA Cup. Houllier underwent major heart surgery during the 2001 -- 02 season and Liverpool finished second in the League, behind Arsenal. They won a further League Cup in 2003, but failed to mount a title challenge in the two seasons that followed.
Houllier was replaced by Rafael Benítez at the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Despite finishing fifth in Benítez 's first season, Liverpool won the 2004 -- 05 UEFA Champions League, beating A.C. Milan 3 -- 2 in a penalty shootout after the match ended with a score of 3 -- 3. The following season, Liverpool finished third in the Premier League and won the 2006 FA Cup Final, beating West Ham United in a penalty shootout after the match finished 3 -- 3. American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks became the owners of the club during the 2006 -- 07 season, in a deal which valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The club reached the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan, as it had in 2005, but lost 2 -- 1. During the 2008 -- 09 season Liverpool achieved 86 points, its highest Premier League points total, and finished as runners up to Manchester United.
In the 2009 -- 10 season, Liverpool finished seventh in the Premier League and failed to qualify for the Champions League. Benítez subsequently left by mutual consent and was replaced by Fulham manager Roy Hodgson. At the start of the 2010 -- 11 season Liverpool was on the verge of bankruptcy and the club 's creditors asked the High Court to allow the sale of the club, overruling the wishes of Hicks and Gillett. John W. Henry, owner of the Boston Red Sox and of Fenway Sports Group, bid successfully for the club and took ownership in October 2010. Poor results during the start of that season led to Hodgson leaving the club by mutual consent and former player and manager Kenny Dalglish taking over. In the 2011 -- 12 season, Liverpool secured a record 8th League Cup success and reached the FA Cup final, but finished in eighth position, the worst league finish in 18 years; this led to the sacking of Dalglish. He was replaced by Brendan Rodgers, whose Liverpool team in the 2013 -- 14 season mounted an unexpected title charge to finish second behind champions Manchester City and subsequently return to the Champions League, scoring 101 goals in the process, the most since the 106 scored in the 1895 -- 96 season. Following a disappointing 2014 -- 15 season, where Liverpool finished sixth in the league, and a poor start to the following campaign, Rodgers was sacked in October 2015. He was replaced by Jürgen Klopp, who in his first season at Liverpool, took the club to the finals of both the Football League Cup and UEFA Europa League, finishing as runner - up in both competitions.
For much of Liverpool 's history its home colours have been all red, but when the club was founded its kit was more like the contemporary Everton kit. The blue and white quartered shirts were used until 1894, when the club adopted the city 's colour of red. The city 's symbol of the liver bird was adopted as the club 's badge in 1901, although it was not incorporated into the kit until 1955. Liverpool continued to wear red shirts and white shorts until 1964, when manager Bill Shankly decided to change to an all red strip. Liverpool played in all red for the first time against Anderlecht, as Ian St. John recalled in his autobiography:
He (Shankly) thought the colour scheme would carry psychological impact -- red for danger, red for power. He came into the dressing room one day and threw a pair of red shorts to Ronnie Yeats. "Get into those shorts and let 's see how you look '', he said. "Christ, Ronnie, you look awesome, terrifying. You look 7ft tall. '' "Why not go the whole hog, boss? '' I suggested. "Why not wear red socks? Let 's go out all in red. '' Shankly approved and an iconic kit was born.
The Liverpool away strip has more often than not been all yellow or white shirts and black shorts, but there have been several exceptions. An all grey kit was introduced in 1987, which was used until the 1991 -- 92 centenary season, when it was replaced by a combination of green shirts and white shorts. After various colour combinations in the 1990s, including gold and navy, bright yellow, black and grey, and ecru, the club alternated between yellow and white away kits until the 2008 -- 09 season, when it re-introduced the grey kit. A third kit is designed for European away matches, though it is also worn in domestic away matches on occasions when the current away kit clashes with a team 's home kit. Between 2012 -- 15, the kits were designed by Warrior Sports, who became the club 's kit providers at the start of the 2012 -- 13 season. In February 2015, Warrior 's parent company New Balance announced it would be entering the global football market, with teams sponsored by Warrior now being outfitted by New Balance. The only other branded shirts worn by the club were made by Umbro until 1985, when they were replaced by Adidas, who produced the kits until 1996 when Reebok took over. They produced the kits for ten years before Adidas made the kits from 2006 to 2012.
Liverpool was the first English professional club to have a sponsor 's logo on its shirts, after agreeing a deal with Hitachi in 1979. Since then the club has been sponsored by Crown Paints, Candy, Carlsberg and Standard Chartered Bank. The contract with Carlsberg, which was signed in 1992, was the longest - lasting agreement in English top - flight football. The association with Carlsberg ended at the start of the 2010 -- 11 season, when Standard Chartered Bank became the club 's sponsor.
The Liverpool badge is based on the city 's liver bird, which in the past had been placed inside a shield. In 1992, to commemorate the centennial of the club, a new badge was commissioned, including a representation of the Shankly Gates. The next year twin flames were added at either side, symbolic of the Hillsborough memorial outside Anfield, where an eternal flame burns in memory of those who died in the Hillsborough disaster. In 2012, Warrior Sports ' first Liverpool kit removed the shield and gates, returning the badge to what had adorned Liverpool shirts in the 1970s; the flames were moved to the back collar of the shirt, surrounding the number 96 for the number who died at Hillsborough.
Anfield was built in 1884 on land adjacent to Stanley Park. It was originally used by Everton before the club moved to Goodison Park after a dispute over rent with Anfield owner John Houlding. Left with an empty ground, Houlding founded Liverpool in 1892 and the club has played at Anfield ever since. The capacity of the stadium at the time was 20,000, although only 100 spectators attended Liverpool 's first match at Anfield.
The Kop was built in 1906 due to the high turnout for matches and was called the Oakfield Road Embankment initially. Its first game was on 1 September 1906 when the home side beat Stoke City 1 -- 0. In 1906 the banked stand at one end of the ground was formally renamed the Spion Kop after a hill in KwaZulu - Natal. The hill was the site of the Battle of Spion Kop in the Second Boer War, where over 300 men of the Lancashire Regiment died, many of them from Liverpool. At its peak, the stand could hold 28,000 spectators and was one of the largest single - tier stands in the world. Many stadia in England had stands named after Spion Kop, but Anfield 's was the largest of them at the time; it could hold more supporters than some entire football grounds.
Anfield could accommodate more than 60,000 supporters at its peak, and had a capacity of 55,000 until the 1990s. The Taylor Report and Premier League regulations obliged Liverpool to convert Anfield to an all - seater stadium in time for the 1993 -- 94 season, reducing the capacity to 45,276. The findings of the Taylor Report precipitated the redevelopment of the Kemlyn Road Stand, which was rebuilt in 1992, coinciding with the centenary of the club, and was known as the Centenary Stand until 2017 when it was renamed the Kenny Dalglish Stand. An extra tier was added to the Anfield Road end in 1998, which further increased the capacity of the ground but gave rise to problems when it was opened. A series of support poles and stanchions were inserted to give extra stability to the top tier of the stand after movement of the tier was reported at the start of the 1999 -- 2000 season.
Because of restrictions on expanding the capacity at Anfield, Liverpool announced plans to move to the proposed Stanley Park Stadium in May 2002. Planning permission was granted in July 2004, and in September 2006, Liverpool City Council agreed to grant Liverpool a 999 - year lease on the proposed site. Following the takeover of the club by George Gillett and Tom Hicks in February 2007, the proposed stadium was redesigned. The new design was approved by the Council in November 2007. The stadium was scheduled to open in August 2011 and would hold 60,000 spectators, with HKS, Inc. contracted to build the stadium. Construction was halted in August 2008, as Gillett and Hicks had difficulty in financing the £ 300 million needed for the development. In October 2012, BBC Sport reported that Fenway Sports Group, the new owners of Liverpool FC, had decided to redevelop their current home at Anfield stadium, rather than building a new stadium in Stanley Park. As part of the redevelopment the capacity of Anfield was to increase from 45,276 to approximately 60,000 and would cost approximately £ 150m. When construction was completed on the new Main stand the capacity of Anfield was increased to 54,074. This £ 100 million expansion added a third tier to the stand. This was all part of a £ 260 million project to improve the Anfield area. Jurgen Klopp the manager at the time described the stand as "impressive. ''
Liverpool is one of the best supported clubs in Europe. The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised Club of the LFC Official Supporters Clubs in at least 50 countries. Notable groups include Spirit of Shankly and Reclaim The Kop. The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours. Liverpool fans often refer to themselves as Kopites, a reference to the fans who once stood, and now sit, on the Kop at Anfield. In 2008 a group of fans decided to form a splinter club, A.F.C. Liverpool, to play matches for fans who had been priced out of watching Premier League football.
The song "You 'll Never Walk Alone '', originally from the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical Carousel and later recorded by Liverpool musicians Gerry & The Pacemakers, is the club 's anthem and has been sung by the Anfield crowd since the early 1960s. It has since gained popularity among fans of other clubs around the world. The song 's title adorns the top of the Shankly Gates, which were unveiled on 2 August 1982 in memory of former manager Bill Shankly. The "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' portion of the Shankly Gates is also reproduced on the club 's crest.
The club 's supporters have been involved in two stadium disasters. The first was the 1985 Heysel Stadium disaster, in which 39 Juventus supporters were killed. They were confined to a corner by Liverpool fans who had charged in their direction; the weight of the cornered fans caused a wall to collapse. UEFA laid the blame for the incident solely on the Liverpool supporters, and banned all English clubs from European competition for five years. Liverpool was banned for an additional year, preventing it from participating in the 1990 -- 91 European Cup, even though it won the League in 1990. Twenty - seven fans were arrested on suspicion of manslaughter and were extradited to Belgium in 1987 to face trial. In 1989, after a five - month trial in Belgium, 14 Liverpool fans were given three - year sentences for involuntary manslaughter; half of the terms were suspended.
The second disaster took place during an FA Cup semi-final between Liverpool and Nottingham Forest at Hillsborough Stadium, Sheffield, on 15 April 1989. Ninety - six Liverpool fans died as a consequence of overcrowding at the Leppings Lane end, in what became known as the Hillsborough disaster. In the following days The Sun newspaper published an article entitled "The Truth '', in which it claimed that Liverpool fans had robbed the dead and had urinated on and attacked the police. Subsequent investigations proved the allegations false, leading to a boycott of the newspaper by Liverpool fans across the city and elsewhere; many still refuse to buy The Sun more than 20 years later. Many support organisations were set up in the wake of the disaster, such as the Hillsborough Justice Campaign, which represents bereaved families, survivors and supporters in their efforts to secure justice.
Liverpool 's longest - established rivalry is with fellow Liverpool team Everton, against whom they contest the Merseyside derby. The rivalry stems from Liverpool 's formation and the dispute with Everton officials and the then owners of Anfield. The Merseyside derby is one of the few local derbies which do not enforce fan segregation, and hence has been known as the "friendly derby ''. Since the mid-1980s, the rivalry has intensified both on and off the field and, since the inception of the Premier League in 1992, the Merseyside derby has had more players sent off than any other Premier League game. It has been referred to as "the most ill - disciplined and explosive fixture in the Premier League ''.
Liverpool 's rivalry with Manchester United stems from the cities ' competition in the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century. The two clubs alternated as champions between 1964 and 1967, and Manchester United became the first English team to win the European Cup in 1968, followed by Liverpool 's four European Cup victories. Despite the 38 league titles and eight European Cups between them the two rivals have rarely been successful at the same time -- Liverpool 's run of titles in the 1970s and 1980s coincided with Manchester United 's 26 - year title drought, and United 's success in the Premier League - era has likewise coincided with Liverpool 's ongoing drought, and the two clubs have finished first and second in the league only five times. Nonetheless, former Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson said in 2002, "My greatest challenge was knocking Liverpool right off their fucking perch '', and the last player to be transferred between the two clubs was Phil Chisnall, who moved to Liverpool from Manchester United in 1964.
As the owner of Anfield and founder of Liverpool, John Houlding was the club 's first chairman, a position he held from its founding in 1892 until 1904. John McKenna took over as chairman after Houlding 's departure. McKenna subsequently became President of the Football League. The chairmanship changed hands many times before John Smith, whose father was a shareholder of the club, took up the role in 1973. He oversaw the most successful period in Liverpool 's history before stepping down in 1990. His successor was Noel White who became chairman in 1990. In August 1991 David Moores, whose family had owned the club for more than 50 years became chairman. His uncle John Moores was also a shareholder at Liverpool and was chairman of Everton from 1961 to 1973. Moores owned 51 percent of the club, and in 2004 expressed his willingness to consider a bid for his shares in Liverpool.
Moores eventually sold the club to American businessmen George Gillett and Tom Hicks on 6 February 2007. The deal valued the club and its outstanding debts at £ 218.9 million. The pair paid £ 5,000 per share, or £ 174.1 m for the total shareholding and £ 44.8 m to cover the club 's debts. Disagreements between Gillett and Hicks, and the fans ' lack of support for them, resulted in the pair looking to sell the club. Martin Broughton was appointed chairman of the club on 16 April 2010 to oversee its sale. In May 2010, accounts were released showing the holding company of the club to be £ 350m in debt (due to leveraged takeover) with losses of £ 55m, causing auditor KPMG to qualify its audit opinion. The group 's creditors, including the Royal Bank of Scotland, took Gillett and Hicks to court to force them to allow the board to proceed with the sale of the club, the major asset of the holding company. A High Court judge, Mr Justice Floyd, ruled in favour of the creditors and paved the way for the sale of the club to Fenway Sports Group (formerly New England Sports Ventures), although Gillett and Hicks still had the option to appeal. Liverpool was sold to Fenway Sports Group on 15 October 2010 for £ 300m.
Liverpool has been described as a global brand; a 2010 report valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 141m, an increase of £ 5m on the previous year. Liverpool was given a brand rating of AA (Very Strong). In April 2010 business magazine Forbes ranked Liverpool as the sixth most valuable football team in the world, behind Manchester United, Real Madrid, Arsenal, Barcelona and Bayern Munich; they valued the club at $822 m (£ 532m), excluding debt. Accountants Deloitte ranked Liverpool eighth in the Deloitte Football Money League, which ranks the world 's football clubs in terms of revenue. Liverpool 's income in the 2009 -- 10 season was € 225.3 m.
Because of its successful history, Liverpool is often featured when football is depicted in British culture and has appeared in a number of media firsts. The club appeared in the first edition of the BBC 's Match of the Day, which screened highlights of its match against Arsenal at Anfield on 22 August 1964. The first football match to be televised in colour was between Liverpool and West Ham United, broadcast live in March 1967. Liverpool fans featured in the Pink Floyd song "Fearless '', in which they sang excerpts from "You 'll Never Walk Alone ''. To mark the club 's appearance in the 1988 FA Cup Final, Liverpool released a song known as the "Anfield Rap '', featuring John Barnes and other members of the squad.
A documentary drama on the Hillsborough disaster, written by Jimmy McGovern, was screened in 1996. It featured Christopher Eccleston as Trevor Hicks, whose story is the focus of the script. Hicks, who lost two teenage daughters in the disaster, went on to campaign for safer stadiums and helped to form the Hillsborough Families Support Group. Liverpool featured in the film The 51st State (also known as Formula 51), in which ex-hitman Felix DeSouza (Robert Carlyle) is a keen supporter of the team and the last scene takes place at a match between Liverpool and Manchester United. The club was featured in a children 's television show called Scully; the plot revolved around a young boy, Francis Scully, who tried to gain a trial match with Liverpool. The show featured prominent Liverpool players of the time such as Kenny Dalglish.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Since the establishment of the club in 1892, 45 players have been club captain of Liverpool F.C. Andrew Hannah became the first captain of the club after Liverpool separated from Everton and formed its own club. Initially Alex Raisbeck, who was club captain from 1899 to 1909, was the longest serving captain before being overtaken by Steven Gerrard who served 12 seasons as Liverpool captain starting from the 2003 -- 04 season. The present captain is Jordan Henderson, who replaced Gerrard in the 2015 -- 16 season following Gerrard 's move to LA Galaxy.
Liverpool 's first trophy was the Lancashire League, which it won in the club 's first season. In 1901, the club won its first League title, while its first success in the FA Cup was in 1965. In terms of the number of trophies won, Liverpool 's most successful decade was the 1980s, when the club won six League titles, two FA Cups, four League Cups, five Charity Shields (one shared) and two European Cups.
The club has accumulated more top - flight wins and points than any other English team. Liverpool also has the highest average league finishing position (3.3) for the 50 - year period to 2015 and second - highest average league finishing position for the period 1900 -- 1999 after Arsenal, with an average league placing of 8.7. Liverpool has won the European Cup, UEFA 's premier club competition, five times, an English record and only surpassed by Real Madrid and A.C. Milan. Liverpool 's fifth European Cup win, in 2005, meant that the club was awarded the trophy permanently and was also awarded a multiple - winner badge. Liverpool also hold the English record of three wins in the UEFA Cup, UEFA 's secondary club competition.
Especially short competitions, such as the FA Community Shield and the UEFA Super Cup, are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble.
Footnotes
Citations
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a star of high surface temperature and low luminosity | Supergiant star - wikipedia
Supergiants are among the most massive and most luminous stars. Supergiant stars occupy the top region of the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram with absolute visual magnitudes between about − 3 and − 8. The temperature range of supergiant stars spans from about 3,500 K to over 20,000 K.
The title supergiant, as applied to a star, does not have a single concrete definition. The term giant star was first coined by Hertzsprung when it became apparent that the majority of stars fell into two distinct regions of the Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram. One region contained larger and more luminous stars of spectral types A to M and received the name giant. Subsequently, as they lacked any measurable parallax, it became apparent that some of these stars were significantly larger and more luminous than the bulk, and the term super-giant arose, quickly adopted as supergiant.
Supergiant stars can be identified on the basis of their spectra, with distinctive lines sensitive to high luminosity and low surface gravity. In 1897, Antonia C. Maury, had divided stars based on the widths of their spectral lines, with her class "c '' identifying stars with the narrowest lines. Although it was not known at the time, these were the most luminous stars. In 1943 Morgan and Keenan formalised the definition of spectral luminosity classes, with class I referring to supergiant stars. The same system of MK luminosity classes is still used today, with refinements based on the increased resolution of modern spectra. Supergiants occur in every spectral class from young blue class O supergiants to highly evolved red class M supergiants. Because they are enlarged compared to main - sequence and giant stars of the same spectral type, they have lower surface gravities, and changes can be observed in their line profiles. Supergiants are also evolved stars with higher levels of heavy elements than main - sequence stars. This is the basis of the MK luminosity system which assigns stars to luminosity classes purely from observing their spectra.
In addition to the line changes due to low surface gravity and fusion products, the most luminous stars have high mass - loss rates and resulting clouds of expelled circumstellar materials which can produce emission lines, P Cygni profiles, or forbidden lines. The MK system assigns stars to luminosity classes: Ib for supergiants; Ia for luminous supergiants; and 0 (zero) or Ia for hypergiants. In reality there is much more of a continuum than well defined bands for these classifications, and classifications such as Iab are used for intermediate luminosity supergiants. Supergiant spectra are frequently annotated to indicate spectral peculiarities, for example B2 Iae or F5 Ipec.
Supergiants can also be defined as a specific phase in the evolutionary history of certain stars. Stars with initial masses above 8 - 10 M quickly and smoothly initiate helium core fusion after they have exhausted their hydrogen, and continue fusing heavier elements after helium exhaustion until they develop an iron core, at which point the core collapses to produce a Type 2 supernova. Once these massive stars leave the main sequence, their atmospheres inflate, and they are described as supergiants. Stars initially under 10 M will never form an iron core and in evolutionary terms do not become supergiants, although they can reach luminosities thousands of times the sun 's. They can not fuse carbon and heavier elements after the helium is exhausted, so they eventually just lose their outer layers, leaving the core of a white dwarf. The phase where these stars have both hydrogen and helium burning shells is referred to as the asymptotic giant branch (AGB), as stars gradually become more and more luminous class M stars. Stars of 8 - 10 M may fuse sufficient carbon on the AGB to produce an oxygen - neon core and an electron - capture supernova, but astrophysicists categorise these as super-AGB stars rather than supergiants.
There are several categories of evolved stars which are not supergiants in evolutionary terms but may show supergiant spectral features or have luminosities comparable to supergiants.
Asymptotic - giant - branch (AGB) and post-AGB stars are highly evolved lower - mass red giants with luminosities that can be comparable to more massive red supergiants, but because of their low mass, being in a different stage of development (helium shell burning), and their lives ending in a different way (planetary nebula and white dwarf rather than supernova), astrophysicists prefer to keep them separate. The dividing line becomes blurred at around 7 -- 10 M (or as high as 12 M in some models) where stars start to undergo limited fusion of elements heavier than helium. Specialists studying these stars often refer to them as super AGB stars, since they have many properties in common with AGB such as thermal pulsing. Others describe them as low - mass supergiants since they start to burn elements heavier than helium and can explode as supernovae. Many post-AGB stars receive spectral types with supergiant luminosity classes. For example, RV Tauri has an Ia (bright supergiant) luminosity class despite being less massive than the sun. Some AGB stars also receive a supergiant luminosity class, most notably W Virginis variables such as W Virginis itself, stars that are executing a blue loop triggered by thermal pulsing. A very small number of Mira variables and other late AGB stars have supergiant luminosity classes, for example α Herculis.
Classical Cepheid variables typically have supergiant luminosity classes, although only the most luminous and massive will actually go on to develop an iron core. The majority of them are intermediate mass stars fusing helium in their cores and will eventually transition to the asymptotic giant branch. δ Cephei itself is an example with a luminosity of 2,000 L and a mass of 4.5 M.
Wolf -- Rayet stars are also high - mass luminous evolved stars, hotter than most supergiants and smaller, visually less bright but often more luminous because of their high temperatures. They have spectra dominated by helium and other heavier elements, usually showing little or no hydrogen, which is a clue to their nature as stars even more evolved than supergiants. Just as the AGB stars occur in almost the same region of the HR diagram as red supergiants, Wolf -- Rayet stars can occur in the same region of the HR diagram as the hottest blue supergiants and main - sequence stars.
The most massive and luminous main - sequence stars are almost indistinguishable from the supergiants they quickly evolve into. They have almost identical temperatures and very similar luminosities, and only the most detailed analyses can distinguish the spectral features that show they have evolved away from the narrow early O - type main - sequence to the nearby area of early O - type supergiants. Such early O - type supergiants share many features with WNLh Wolf -- Rayet stars and are sometimes designated as slash stars, intermediates between the two types.
Luminous blue variables (LBVs) stars occur in the same region of the HR diagram as blue supergiants but are generally classified separately. They are evolved, expanded, massive, and luminous stars, often hypergiants, but they have very specific spectral variability, which defies the assignment of a standard spectral type. LBVs observed only at a particular time or over a period of time when they are stable, may simply be designated as hot supergiants or as candidate LBVs due to their luminosity.
Hypergiants are frequently treated as a different category of star from supergiants, although in all important respects they are just a more luminous category of supergiant. They are evolved, expanded, massive and luminous stars like supergiants, but at the most massive and luminous extreme, and with particular additional properties of undergoing high mass - loss due to their extreme luminosities and instability. Generally only the more evolved supergiants show hypergiant properties, since their instability increases after high mass - loss and some increase in luminosity.
Some B (e) stars are supergiants although other B (e) stars are clearly not. Some researchers distinguish the B (e) objects as separate from supergiants, while researchers prefer to define massive evolved B (e) stars as a subgroup of supergiants. The latter has become more common with the understanding that the B (e) phenomenon arises separately in a number of distinct types of stars, including some that are clearly just a phase in the life of supergiants.
Supergiants have masses from 8 to 12 times the Sun (M) upwards, and luminosities from about 1,000 to over a million times the Sun (L). They vary greatly in radius, usually from 30 to 500, or even in excess of 1,000 solar radii (R). They are massive enough to begin helium - core burning gently before the core becomes degenerate, without a flash and without the strong dredge - ups that lower - mass stars experience. They go on to successively ignite heavier elements, usually all the way to iron. Also because of their high masses, they are destined to explode as supernovae.
The Stefan - Boltzmann law dictates that the relatively cool surfaces of red supergiants radiate much less energy per unit area than those of blue supergiants; thus, for a given luminosity, red supergiants are larger than their blue counterparts. Radiation pressure limits the largest cool supergiants to around 1,500 R and the most massive hot supergiants to around a million L (M around − 10). Stars near and occasionally beyond these limits become unstable, pulsate, and experience rapid mass loss.
The supergiant luminosity class is assigned on the basis of spectral features that are largely a measure of surface gravity, although such stars are also affected by other properties such as microturbulence. Supergiants typically have surface gravities of around log (g) 2.0 cgs and lower, although bright giants (luminosity class II) have statistically very similar surface gravities to normal Ib supergiants. Cool luminous supergiants have lower surface gravities, with the most luminous (and unstable) stars having log (g) around zero. Hotter supergiants, even the most luminous, have surface gravities around one, due to their higher masses and smaller radii.
There are supergiant stars at all of the main spectral classes and across the whole range of temperatures from mid-M class stars at around 3,500 K to the hottest O class stars over 40,000 K. Supergiants are generally not found cooler than mid-M class. This is expected theoretically since they would be catastrophically unstable; however, there are potential exceptions among extreme stars such as VX Sagittarii.
Although supergiants exist in every class from O to M, the majority are spectral type B, more than at all other spectral classes combined. A much smaller grouping consists of very low - luminosity G - type supergiants, intermediate mass stars burning helium in their cores before reaching the asymptotic giant branch. A distinct grouping is made up of high - luminosity supergiants at early B (B0 - 2) and very late O (O9. 5), more common even than main sequence stars of those spectral types.
The relative numbers of blue, yellow, and red supergiants is an indicator of the speed of stellar evolution and is used as a powerful test of models of the evolution of massive stars.
The supergiants lie more or less on a horizontal band occupying the entire upper portion of the HR diagram, but there are some variations at different spectral types. These variations are due partly to different methods for assigning luminosity classes at different spectral types, and partly to actual physical differences in the stars.
The bolometric luminosity of a star reflects its total output of electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. For very hot and very cool stars, the bolometric luminosity is dramatically higher than the visual luminosity, sometimes several magnitudes or a factor of five or more. This bolometric correction is approximately one magnitude for mid B, late K, and early M stars, increasing to three magnitudes (a factor of 15) for O and mid M stars.
All supergiants are larger and more luminous than main sequence stars of the same temperature. This means that hot supergiants lie on a relatively narrow band above bright main sequence stars. A B0 main sequence star has an absolute magnitude of about − 5, meaning that all B0 supergiants are significantly brighter than absolute magnitude − 5. Bolometric luminosities for even the faintest blue supergiants are tens of thousands of times the sun (L). The brightest can be over a million L and are often unstable such as α Cygni variables and luminous blue variables.
The very hottest supergiants with early O spectral types occur in an extremely narrow range of luminosities above the highly luminous early O main sequence and giant stars. They are not classified separately into normal (Ib) and luminous (Ia) supergiants, although they commonly have other spectral type modifiers such as "f '' for nitrogen and helium emission (e.g. O2 If for HD 93129A).
Yellow supergiants can be considerably fainter than absolute magnitude − 5, with some examples around − 2 (e.g. 14 Persei). With bolometric corrections around zero, they may only be a few hundred times the luminosity of the sun. These are not massive stars, though; instead, they are stars of intermediate mass that have particularly low surface gravities, often due to instability such as Cepheid pulsations. These intermediate mass stars ' being classified as supergiants during a relatively long - lasting phase of their evolution account for the large number of low luminosity yellow supergiants. The most luminous yellow stars, the yellow hypergiants, are amongst the visually brightest stars, with absolute magnitudes around − 9, although still less than a million L.
There is a strong upper limit to the luminosity of red supergiants at around half a million L. Stars that would be brighter than this shed their outer layers so rapidly that they remain hot supergiants after they leave the main sequence. The majority of red supergiants were 10 - 15 M main sequence stars and now have luminosities below 100,000 L, and there are very few bright supergiant (Ia) M class stars. The least luminous stars classified as red supergiants are some of the brightest AGB and post-AGB stars, highly expanded and unstable low mass stars such as the RV Tauri variables. The majority of AGB stars are given giant or bright giant luminosity classes, but particularly unstable stars such as W Virginis variables may be given a supergiant classification (e.g. W Virginis itself). The faintest red supergiants are around absolute magnitude − 3.
While most supergiants such as Alpha Cygni variables, semiregular variables, and irregular variables show some degree of photometric variability, certain types of variables amongst the supergiants are well defined. The instability strip crosses the region of supergiants, and specifically many yellow supergiants are Classical Cepheid variables. The same region of instability extends to include the even more luminous yellow hypergiants, an extremely rare and short - lived class of luminous supergiant. Many R Coronae Borealis variables, although not all, are yellow supergiants, but this variability is due to their unusual chemical composition rather than a physical instability.
Further types of variable stars such as RV Tauri variables and PV Telescopii variables are often described as supergiants. RV Tau stars are frequently assigned spectral types with a supergiant luminosity class on account of their low surface gravity, and they are amongst the most luminous of the AGB and post-AGB stars, having masses similar to the sun; likewise, the even rarer PV Tel variables are often classified as supergiants, but have lower luminosities than supergiants and peculiar B (e) spectra extremely deficient in hydrogen. Possibly they are also post-AGB objects or "born - again '' AGB stars.
The LBVs are variable with multiple semi-regular periods and less predictable eruptions and giant outbursts. They are usually supergiants or hypergiants, occasionally with Wolf - Rayet spectra -- extremely luminous, massive, evolved stars with expanded outer layers, but they are so distinctive and unusual that they are often treated as a separate category without being referred to as supergiants or given a supergiant spectral type. Often their spectral type will be given just as "LBV '' because they have peculiar and highly variable spectral features, with temperatures varying from about 8,000 K in outburst up to 20,000 K or more when "quiescent. ''
The abundance of various elements at the surface of supergiants is different from less luminous stars. Supergiants are evolved stars and may have undergone convection of fusion products to the surface.
Cool supergiants show enhanced helium and nitrogen at the surface due to convection of these fusion products to the surface during the main sequence of very massive stars, to dredge - ups during shell burning, and to the loss of the outer layers of the star. Helium is formed in the core and shell by fusion of hydrogen and nitrogen which accumulates relative to carbon and oxygen during CNO cycle fusion. At the same time, carbon and oxygen abundances are reduced. Red supergiants can be distinguished from luminous but less massive AGB stars by unusual chemicals at the surface, enhancement of carbon from deep third dredge - ups, as well as carbon - 13, lithium and s - process elements. Late - phase AGB stars can become highly oxygen - enriched, producing OH masers.
Hotter supergiants show differing levels of nitrogen enrichment. This may be due to different levels of mixing on the main sequence due to rotation or because some blue supergiants are newly evolved from the main sequence while others have previously been through a red supergiant phase. Post-red supergiant stars have a generally higher level of nitrogen relative to carbon due to convection of CNO - processed material to the surface and the complete loss of the outer layers. Surface enhancement of helium is also stronger in post-red supergiants, representing more than a third of the atmosphere.
O type main - sequence stars and the most massive of the B type blue - white stars become supergiants. Due to their extreme masses, they have short lifespans, between 30 million years and a few hundred thousand years. They are mainly observed in young galactic structures such as open clusters, the arms of spiral galaxies, and in irregular galaxies. They are less abundant in spiral galaxy bulges and are rarely observed in elliptical galaxies, or globular clusters, which are composed mainly of old stars.
Supergiants develop when massive main - sequence stars run out of hydrogen in their cores, at which point they start to expand, just like lower - mass stars. Unlike lower - mass stars, however, they begin to fuse helium in the core smoothly and not long after exhausting their hydrogen. This means that they do not increase their luminosity as dramatically as lower - mass stars, and they progress nearly horizontally across the HR diagram to become red supergiants. Also unlike lower - mass stars, red supergiants are massive enough to fuse elements heavier than helium, so they do not puff off their atmospheres as planetary nebulae after a period of hydrogen and helium shell burning; instead, they continue to burn heavier elements in their cores until they collapse. They can not lose enough mass to form a white dwarf, so they will leave behind a neutron star or black hole remnant, usually after a core collapse supernova explosion.
Stars more massive than about 40 M can not expand into a red supergiant. Because they burn too quickly and lose their outer layers too quickly, they reach the blue supergiant stage, or perhaps yellow hypergiant, before returning to become hotter stars. The most massive stars, above about 100 M, hardly move at all from their position as O main - sequence stars. These convect so efficiently that they mix hydrogen from the surface right down to the core. They continue to fuse hydrogen until it is almost entirely depleted throughout the star, then rapidly evolve through a series of stages of similarly hot and luminous stars: supergiants, slash stars, WNh -, WN -, and possibly WC - or WO - type stars. They are expected to explode as supernovae, but it is not clear how far they evolve before this happens. The existence of these supergiants still burning hydrogen in their cores may necessitate a slightly more complex definition of supergiant: a massive star with increased size and luminosity due to fusion products building up, but still with some hydrogen remaining.
The first stars in the universe are thought to have been considerably brighter and more massive than the stars in the modern universe. Part of the theorized population III of stars, their existence is necessary to explain observations of elements other than hydrogen and helium in quasars. Possibly larger and more luminous than any supergiant known today, their structure was quite different, with reduced convection and less mass loss. Their very short lives are likely to have ended in violent photodisintegration or pair instability supernovae.
Most type II supernova progenitors are thought to be red supergiants, while the less common type Ib / c supernovae are produced by hotter Wolf -- Rayet stars that have completely lost more of their hydrogen atmosphere. Almost by definition, supergiants are destined to end their lives violently. Stars large enough to start fusing elements heavier than helium do not seem to have any way to lose enough mass to avoid catastrophic core collapse, although some may collapse, almost without trace, into their own central black holes.
The simple "onion '' models showing red supergiants inevitably developing to an iron core and then exploding have been shown, however, to be too simplistic. The progenitor for the unusual type II Supernova 1987A was a blue supergiant, thought to have already passed through the red supergiant phase of its life, and this is now known to be far from an exceptional situation. Much research is now focused on how blue supergiants can explode as a supernova and when red supergiants can survive to become hotter supergiants again.
Supergiants are rare and short - lived stars, but their high luminosity means that there are many naked - eye examples, including some of the brightest stars in the sky. Rigel, the brightest star in the constellation Orion is a typical blue - white supergiant; Deneb is the brightest star in Cygnus, a white supergiant; Delta Cephei is the famous prototype Cepheid variable, a yellow supergiant; and Betelgeuse, Antares and UY Scuti are red supergiants. μ Cephei is one of the reddest stars visible to the naked eye and one of the largest in the galaxy. Rho Cassiopeiae, a variable, yellow hypergiant, is one of the most luminous naked - eye stars.
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when was the castle in versailles ky built | Martin castle - wikipedia
The Kentucky Castle, also known as Castle Post, Martin Castle and Versailles Castle, is a castle in Kentucky, located in Versailles, Kentucky, near Lexington, Kentucky, 201 Pisgah Pike near the Woodford County line, part of a 50 acres (20 ha) estate. It is visually situated off Lexington (Versailles) road. The Kentucky Castle overlooks the Elkhorn Creek watershed on the Woodford / Fayette county line. Construction began in 1969 by its original owners, and has since changed hands undergoing a major renovation in 2004. Today it operates as a bed and breakfast and special functions facility.As of 2017, new owners have focused on revitalization and remodels of the castle. The castle hosts special events, weddings, and has an operational farm - to - table restaurant inside.
Construction on the castle was started by Rex Martin and his wife Caroline Bogaert Martin in 1969, after they had returned from a trip to Germany and were inspired by the architecture and many famous buildings they had seen in Europe. The finished project was to have seven bedrooms, fifteen bathrooms, a fountain in the driveway, and a tennis court. In 1975, the Martins divorced and left the castle unfinished. Over the years, it became a popular oddity and roadside photo - op for tourists. In 1988 Rex Martin put it on the market, but died before it was sold. In 2003 the so - called "Martin Castle '' was sold for 1.8 million dollars to Thomas R. Post, a lawyer from Miami who graduated from University of Kentucky, and the name was changed to "The Castle Post ''. It had been for sale for many years at a price rumored to be more than 3 million dollars, and there had been talks that it would be turned into a medieval - themed restaurant or a museum.
On May 10, 2004, after months of renovations, tragedy struck when newly installed woodwork and wiring caught fire in the main building. Post, who was at his home in Miami at the time, had already spent months renovating it but vowed to rebuild. Approximately twice the castle 's original cost went towards the reconstruction project.
Reconstruction was completed in fall 2008. New additions include twelve luxury suites, a library, game room, music room, dining hall, ball room, swimming pool, formal garden, basketball court, bar, and tennis court. It is used as a tourist inn, fund raisers, weddings, special events, and corporate functions. It has sixteen bedrooms, four of which are in the outside turrets.
In November 2010, the property was listed for sale at $30,000,000. Post said he would continue to operate it as an inn while it was listed. It was sold in 2017.
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who was the victim in the field in fargo | J. Todd Anderson - wikipedia
J. Todd Anderson is a storyboard artist who has worked primarily with the Coen brothers, but also with an array of other filmmakers. He also, along with film archivist and friend George Willeman and WYSO D.J. Niki Dakota, produces Filmically Perfect. He made his directorial debut in 1998 with the film The Naked Man. A few years later, he served as Second Unit Director on the Coen brothers ' Intolerable Cruelty, which earned him membership in the Directors Guild of America.
Anderson received credit for appearing in Fargo as "Victim in Field ''. Instead of his name being used, he was credited with the symbol for the artist formerly known as Prince, which was turned on its side and a smiley face drawn in the circle. In addition, his name was used in the 2010 film True Grit as one of the many aliases for the outlaw Tom Chaney.
Anderson has stated that his role as storyboard artist is "less creative than interpretive ''. When working with Ethan and Joel Coen, the Coens go through the movie shot by shot, and Anderson works to "establish the scale, trap the angle, ID the character, get the action ''. Afterwards he sits and does a more polished drawing from the sketches drawn with the directors. After getting feedback from the filmmakers and adding several details, such as facial expressions, necessary props and arrows depicting actor and camera movement, the drawings are photocopied and given to everyone on the set. Thus, the storyboards Anderson creates are vital to the smooth process and good communication on the film set.
Anderson has contributed to and been credited for the storyboards of the following films:
Anderson has written the words and music for a pop opera entitled Nativity. It tells the story of the birth of Jesus through the eyes of angels. First performed in Dayton, Ohio in 1995, the show was not performed again until 2008. Anderson cites his influences on the piece being rock operas such as Tommy and Jesus Christ Superstar as well as gospel musicals.
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who were the twins at the end of wonder woman | Wonder Twins - wikipedia
The Wonder Twins (Zan and Jayna) are a fictional extraterrestrial twin brother and sister superhero duo who first appeared in Hanna - Barbera 's American animated television series Super Friends. They subsequently appeared in comics based on the animated series, and were later introduced into the main DC Comics Universe. They have since appeared in other media, including animated series such as Justice League Unlimited and Teen Titans Go!, and the live - action TV series Smallville.
The duo made their debut in The All - New Super Friends Hour and went on to appear in The World 's Greatest Super Friends, Super Friends, and Super Friends: The Legendary Super Powers Show. Zan (voiced by Michael Bell) and Jayna (voiced by Louise Williams) are siblings from the planet Exxor (also spelled Exor) who were being informally trained by the superheroes. Unlike their predecessors, Wendy Harris and Marvin White, this pair was able to participate in combat with abilities of their own.
Hanna Barbera animator Darrell McNeil recalls the twins were created by Norman Maurer, the Super Friends series developer / story editor. They were originally called Dick and Jane, and their sidekick was Mighty Monkey, before finally becoming Zan, Jayna, and Gleek. The names "Zan '' and "Jayna '' derived from the Edgar Rice Burroughs characters Tarzan and his romantic interest Jane. According to McNeil, "Originally Zan (Dick) had ' Plastic Man ' powers and Jayna (Jane) could transform into anything, not just animals, but they were scaled back to their present powers as it made the other Super Friends (even Superman) seem almost superfluous. '' Jayna 's distinctive hairdo was based on that of an animation checker at Hanna - Barbera, while the pointed ears were inspired by the character Spock from the Star Trek franchise. The twins ' personalities were heavily based on Donny and Marie Osmond, who were extremely popular at the time and had their own show on ABC as well.
The Wonder Twins were the most prominently featured characters in their first season on Super Friends. However, by the final seasons, the twins were largely marginalized in favor of well established DC Comics teenage superheroes like Firestorm, and were wholly eliminated in the final season in favor of Cyborg.
The characters were introduced to comics in issue # 7 of the Super Friends tie - in series (October 1977), by E. Nelson Bridwell and Ramona Fradon. The Super Friends comic book provided considerably more details of the Wonder Twins ' background and how they came to join the team than was provided in the television series.
In the 1990s, they were introduced into the main DC Universe in Extreme Justice # 9 (October 1995), by Ivan Velez, Jr. and Al Rio. The series rewrote and updated their origin story. Velez, an avowed die - hard fan of the Wonder Twins, intended to begin a revival of the characters, but was taken off the series after the first issue with the Wonder Twins. Though the twins remained with the series until its cancellation with # 18, they were used only sparingly after Velez 's departure.
Little background is provided for the Wonder Twins in the Super Friends cartoon, save that they are superheroes - in - training that are friends of the Super Friends and were born on November 6th.
According to the Super Friends comic book by E. Nelson Bridwell (writer) and Ramona Fradon (artist), Zan and Jayna are Exorian metas, genetic throwbacks to an ancient race of Exorian shapeshifters. Their parents died when they were still babies during a plague, and, because of their origin, no Exorians want to adopt them. They are adopted by the owner of a Space Circus who only wants to use them as sideshow freaks. Fortunately, the circus ' clown (or "laugh - maker '') is a kind man and raises them. He also gives them Gleek as a pet. Eventually, as teens, the pair escape the circus and hide on a planet where a space villain called Grax (an enemy of Superman) has established his headquarters. Spying on him, they learn that Grax is planning to destroy the Earth using hidden superbombs. The twins decide to travel to Earth and warn the Justice League, which is how they come to replace Wendy and Marvin (who were planning on retiring as heroes anyway) as their sidekicks. The heroes arrange for the kids to live with an old scientist named Professor Carter Nichols and they even take secret identities as Johan and Joanna Fleming. "Johan '' and "Johanna '' were supposedly transfer students from Esko, Sweden, disguised with blonde hair (Zan wore a wig, while Jayna uses her powers to transform into a human to change her hair color and ear shape), to allow them to attend Gotham City High School.
In 1996, the twins were introduced into post-Crisis DC continuity in the series Extreme Justice as escaped slaves of an alien overlord. Unable to speak English, they inadvertently attack some civilians and the Justice League. During their fight with the JLA, Zan becomes an ice golem, a water monster, and a demonic - looking whirlpool, while Jayna becomes a griffin, a werewolf, and a sea serpent. The pair are later emancipated by the Justice League and join Captain Atom 's team in issue # 16 (May 1996). That same year, they appeared in the crossover storyline Final Night and in the series Total Justice.
In a 2002 - 2003 storyline by Peter David and Todd Nauck in Young Justice, they help avenge the murder of Empress 's parents, wearing uniforms which resembled T - shirts and jeans. In late 2003, they appeared in the fourth issue of the Marvel - DC intercompany crossover miniseries JLA / Avengers, which was written by Kurt Busiek and illustrated by George Pérez.
In 2007, they appeared in Teen Titans ' # 70, and in 2011, they appeared in DCU: Legacies # 9, a story by Len Wein and Rob Leigh.
In "Smallville: Titans '' a 2013 story arc in the series Smallville season 11, Zan and Jayna are members of the team with Conner Kent / Superboy, Speedy, Blue Beetle and Miss Martian at Jay Garrick 's school for the "gifted. ''
In the 2013 comic Justice League 3000, the handlers of the new Justice League are named Teri and Terry, nicknamed The Wonder Twins and working for Cadmus.
The Wonder Twins powers are activated when they touch each other and speak the phrase, "Wonder Twin powers activate! '' Physical contact is required. If the two are out of reach of each other, they are unable to activate their powers. As they are about to transform, they would each announce their intended form. "Shape of... '', "Form of... ''
Zan can transform into water at any state (solid, liquid, gas) and add to his mass by incorporating water in his immediate area. In the case of becoming solid ice, he can also become any form he chooses, from a 5,000 foot humanoid ice giant to a cage for a criminal to complex machinery (such as a jet engine, as he did in the episode "Eruption ''). In the episode "Pressure Point, '' he changes into a gelatinous form. In the episode "Terror from the Phantom Zone, '' he was able to transform into liquid nitrogen. In addition, he can transform himself into atmospheric disturbances (usually very localized) involving water, such as a blizzard, a monsoon, waterspout or a typhoon, as he did in the episodes "The Water Beast, '' "The Beasts are Coming '' and "Stowaways. ''
Jayna can transform into any animal, whether real, mythological, indigenous to Earth or to some other planet, like Beast Boy. Since she must vocalize her choice of form to assume, she must know the common name. As revealed in "The Mummy of Nazca, '' naming the wrong animal will cause her to assume the wrong animal 's form. She has been known to take the form of anything from an ant to a whale.
In the Super Friends comic book, their powers were shown to be more extensive. By transforming into an animal of Kryptonian origin, for instance, Jayna could gain both the creature 's natural abilities and the super-powers that all Kryptonians possess under Earth - like conditions; she was even capable of overpowering Superman in the form of a Kryptonian animal. Similarly, Zan was able to transform into anything tangentially related to water or ice, including a frost giant.
In addition to their powers of transformation, the two share a telepathic link, enabling one to alert the other over a distance when in dire circumstances, as revealed in the episode "The Village of Lost Souls. ''
The Wonder Twins have a pet Space Monkey called Gleek who had a useful prehensile tail and who could act as a conduit for the twins to activate their powers should they be out of reach. Gleek also served as a courier when the twins needed to travel: Jayna would typically transform into a large eagle, and Zan would transform into water, "jumping '' into a bucket which Gleek would be holding while riding atop Jayna in her eagle form.
A rarely seen aspect of their powers is the ability to break mind control. On at least two occasions ("Pied Piper From Space '' and "Circus of Horrors ''), while the twins were under the influence of mind control, Gleek caused them to make contact and the activation of their powers freed them instantly from the mind control.
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who was called the priest and prophet of the resorgimento | Italian unification - wikipedia
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Italian unification (Italian: Unità d'Italia (uniˈta ddiˈtaːlja)), or the Risorgimento ((risordʒiˈmento), meaning "the Resurgence '' or "revival ''), was the political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. The process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy.
The term, which also designates the cultural, political and social movement that promoted unification, recalls the romantic, nationalist and patriotic ideals of an Italian renaissance through the conquest of a unified political identity that, by sinking its ancient roots during the Roman period, "suffered an abrupt halt (or loss) of its political unity in 476 AD after the collapse of the West Roman Empire. '' However, some of the terre irredente did not join the Kingdom of Italy until 1918 after Italy defeated Austria - Hungary in World War I. Some nationalists see the 4 November 1918 Armistice of Villa Giusti as the completion of unification.
Italy was unified by Rome in the third century BC. For 700 years, it was a kind of territorial extension of the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire, enjoying, for a long time, a privileged status and so it was not converted into a province.
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. Following conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. However, the emperor was an absentee German - speaking foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state; as a result, Italy gradually developed into a system of city - states.
This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation - states in the early modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (later Austria), Spain and France.
Harbingers of national unity appeared in the treaty of the Italic League, in 1454, and the 15th century foreign policy of Cosimo De Medici and Lorenzo De Medici. Leading Renaissance Italian writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli and Guicciardini expressed opposition to foreign domination. Petrarch stated that the "ancient valour in Italian hearts is not yet dead '' in Italia Mia. Machiavelli later quoted four verses from Italia Mia in The Prince, which looked forward to a political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the barbarians ''.
The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 formally ended with the rule of the Holy Roman Emperors in Italy. However, the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty, another branch of which provided the Emperors, continued to rule most of Italy down to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701 -- 14).
A sense of Italian national identity was reflected in Gian Rinaldo Carli 's Della Patria degli Italiani, written in 1764. It told how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. "' Then what are you? ' they asked. ' I am an Italian, ' he explained. ''
The Habsburg rule in Italy came to an end with the campaigns of the French Revolutionaries in 1792 -- 97, when a series of client republics were set up. In 1806, the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by the last emperor, Francis II, after its defeat by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. The Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars destroyed the old structures of feudalism in Italy and introduced modern ideas and efficient legal authority; it provided much of the intellectual force and social capital that fueled unification movements for decades after it collapsed in 1814. The French Republic spread republican principles, and the institutions of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the Bourbons and Habsburgs and other dynasties. The reaction against any outside control challenged Napoleon 's choice of rulers. As Napoleon 's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones (among them: Eugène de Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy and Joachim Murat, king of Naples) further feeding nationalistic sentiments. Beauharnais tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the new Kingdom of Italy, and on 30 March 1815, Murat issued the Rimini Proclamation, which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers.
After Napoleon fell, the Congress of Vienna (1814 -- 15) restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments. Italy was again controlled largely by the Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs, as they directly controlled the predominantly Italian - speaking northeastern part of Italy and were, together, the most powerful force against unification.
An important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril, serving as vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802 -- 1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death. Meanwhile, artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; Vittorio Alfieri, Francesco Lomonaco and Niccolò Tommaseo are generally considered three great literary precursors of Italian nationalism, but the most famous of proto - nationalist works was Alessandro Manzoni 's I promessi sposi (The Betrothed) widely read as a thinly - veiled allegorical critique of Austrian rule. Published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years the 1840 version of I Promessi Sposi used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.
Exiles dreamed of unification. Three ideals of unification appeared. Vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under leadership of the Pope in his 1842 book, Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians. Pope Pius IX at first appeared interested but he turned reactionary and led the battle against liberalism and nationalism.
Giuseppe Mazzini and Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic. That proved too extreme for most nationalists. The middle position was proposed by Cesare Balbo (1789 -- 1853) as a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont.
One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carboneria, a secret political discussion group formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century; the members were called Carbonari. After 1815, Freemasonry in Italy was repressed and discredited due to its French connections. A void was left that the Carboneria filled with a movement that closely resembled Freemasonry but with a commitment to Italian nationalism and no association with Napoleon and his government. The response came from middle class professionals and business men and some intellectuals. The Carboneria disowned Napoleon but nevertheless were inspired by the principles of the French Revolution regarding liberty, equality and fraternity. They developed their own rituals, and were strongly anticlerical. The Carboneria movement spread across Italy.
Conservative governments feared the Carboneria, imposing stiff penalties on men discovered to be members. Nevertheless, the movement survived and continued to be a source of political turmoil in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The Carbonari condemned Napoleon III (who, as a young man, had fought on the side of the Carbonari) to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858, when Felice Orsini, Giovanni Andrea Pieri, Carlo Di Rudio and Andrea Gomez launched three bombs at him. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time or other members of this organization. The chief purpose was to defeat tyranny and to establish constitutional government. Though contributing some service to the cause of Italian unity, historians such as Cornelia Shiver doubt that their achievements were proportional to their pretensions.
Many leading Carbonari revolutionaries wanted a republic, two of the most prominent being Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. Mazzini 's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified, and he formulated a program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. Following his release in 1831, he went to Marseille in France, where he organized a new political society called La Giovine Italia (Young Italy), whose motto was "Dio e Popolo '' (God and People), which sought the unification of Italy.
Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of Piedmont), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834 and was sentenced to death. He escaped to South America, though, spending fourteen years in exile, taking part in several wars, and learning the art of guerrilla warfare before his return to Italy in 1848.
Many of the key intellectual and political leaders operated from exile; most Risorgimento patriots lived and published their work abroad after successive failed revolutions. Exile became a central theme of the foundational legacy of the Risorgimento as the narrative of the Italian nation fighting for independence. The exiles were deeply immersed in European ideas, and often hammered away at what Europeans saw as Italian vices, especially effeminacy and indolence. These negative stereotypes emerged from Enlightenment notions of national character that stressed the influence of the environment and history on a people 's moral predisposition. Italian exiles both challenged and embraced the stereotypes and typically presented gendered interpretations of Italy 's political "degeneration ''. They called for a masculine response to feminine weaknesses as the basis of a national regeneration, and fashioned their image of the future Italian nation firmly in the standards of European nationalism.
In 1820, Spaniards successfully revolted over disputes about their Constitution, which influenced the development of a similar movement in Italy. Inspired by the Spaniards (who, in 1812, had created their constitution), a regiment in the army of the Kingdom of Two Sicilies, commanded by Guglielmo Pepe, a Carbonaro (member of the secret republican organisation), mutinied, conquering the peninsular part of Two Sicilies. The king, Ferdinand I, agreed to enact a new constitution. The revolutionaries, though, failed to court popular support and fell to Austrian troops of the Holy Alliance. Ferdinand abolished the constitution and began systematically persecuting known revolutionaries. Many supporters of revolution in Sicily, including the scholar Michele Amari, were forced into exile during the decades that followed.
The leader of the 1821 revolutionary movement in Piedmont was Santorre di Santarosa, who wanted to remove the Austrians and unify Italy under the House of Savoy. The Piedmont revolt started in Alessandria, where troops adopted the green, white, and red tricolore of the Cisalpine Republic. The king 's regent, prince Charles Albert, acting while the king Charles Felix was away, approved a new constitution to appease the revolutionaries, but when the king returned he disavowed the constitution and requested assistance from the Holy Alliance. Di Santarosa 's troops were defeated, and the would - be Piedmontese revolutionary fled to Paris.
In Milan, Silvio Pellico and Pietro Maroncelli organised several attempts to weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educational means. In October 1820, Pellico and Maroncelli were arrested on the charge of carbonarism and imprisoned.
Historian Denis Mack Smith argues that:
Few people in 1830, believed that an Italian nation might exist. There were eight states in the peninsula, each with distinct laws and traditions. No one had had the desire or the resources to revive Napoleon 's partial experiment in unification. The settlement of 1814 -- 15, had merely restored regional divisions, with the added disadvantage that the decisive victory of Austria over France temporarily hindered Italians in playing off their former oppressors against each other... Italians who, like Ugo Foscolo and Gabriele Rossetti, harboured patriotic sentiments, were driven into exile. The largest Italian state, the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with its 8 million inhabitants, seemed aloof and indifferent: Sicily and Naples had once formed part of Spain, and it had always been foreign to the rest of Italy. The common people in each region, and even the intellectual elite, spoke their mutually unintelligible dialects, and lacked the least vestiges of national consciousness. They wanted good government, not self - government, and had welcomed Napoleon and the French as more equitable and efficient than their native dynasties.
After 1830, revolutionary sentiment in favour of a unified Italy began to experience a resurgence, and a series of insurrections laid the groundwork for the creation of one nation along the Italian peninsula.
The Duke of Modena, Francis IV, was an ambitious noble, and he hoped to become king of Northern Italy by increasing his territory. In 1826, Francis made it clear that he would not act against those who subverted opposition toward the unification of Italy. Encouraged by the declaration, revolutionaries in the region began to organize.
During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, revolutionaries forced the king to abdicate and created the July Monarchy with encouragement from the new French king, Louis - Philippe. Louis - Philippe had promised revolutionaries such as Ciro Menotti that he would intervene if Austria tried to interfere in Italy with troops. Fearing he would lose his throne, Louis - Philippe did not, however, intervene in Menotti 's planned uprising. The Duke of Modena abandoned his Carbonari supporters, arrested Menotti and other conspirators in 1831, and once again conquered his duchy with help from the Austrian troops. Menotti was executed, and the idea of a revolution centered in Modena faded.
At the same time, other insurrections arose in the Papal Legations of Bologna, Forlì, Ravenna, Imola, Ferrara, Pesaro and Urbino. These successful revolutions, which adopted the tricolore in favour of the Papal flag, quickly spread to cover all the Papal Legations, and their newly installed local governments proclaimed the creation of a united Italian nation. The revolts in Modena and the Papal Legations inspired similar activity in the Duchy of Parma, where the tricolore flag was adopted. The Parmese duchess Marie Louise left the city during the political upheaval.
Insurrected provinces planned to unite as the Province Italiane unite (United Italian Provinces), which prompted Pope Gregory XVI to ask for Austrian help against the rebels. Austrian Chancellor Metternich warned Louis - Philippe that Austria had no intention of letting Italian matters be, and that French intervention would not be tolerated. Louis - Philippe withheld any military help and even arrested Italian patriots living in France.
In early 1831, the Austrian army began its march across the Italian peninsula, slowly crushing resistance in each province that had revolted. This military action suppressed much of the fledgling revolutionary movement, and resulted in the arrest of many radical leaders.
In 1844, two brothers from Venice, Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, members of the Giovine Italia, planned to make a raid on the Calabrian coast against the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in support of Italian Unification. They assembled a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives, and set sail on their venture on 12 June 1844. Four days later they landed near Crotone, intending to go to Cosenza, liberate the political prisoners and issue their proclamations. Tragically for the Bandiera brothers, they did not find the insurgent band they were told awaited them, so they moved towards La Sila. They were ultimately betrayed by one of their party, the Corsican Pietro Boccheciampe, and by some peasants who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of gendarmes and volunteers were sent against them, and after a short fight the whole band was taken prisoner and escorted to Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a previous rising were also under arrest. The Bandiera brothers and their nine companions were executed by firing squad; some accounts state they cried "Viva l'Italia! '' ("Long live Italy! '') as they fell. The moral effect was enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities was universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandiera brothers bore fruit in the subsequent revolutions.
On 5 January 1848, the revolutionary disturbances began with a civil disobedience strike in Lombardy, as citizens stopped smoking cigars and playing the lottery, which denied Austria the associated tax revenue. Shortly after this, revolts began on the island of Sicily and in Naples. In Sicily the revolt resulted in the proclamation of the Kingdom of Sicily with Ruggero Settimo as Chairman of the independent state until 1849 when the Bourbon army took back full control of the island on 15 May 1849 by force.
In February 1848, there were revolts in Tuscany that were relatively nonviolent, after which Grand Duke Leopold II granted the Tuscans a constitution. A breakaway republican provisional government formed in Tuscany during February shortly after this concession. On 21 February, Pope Pius IX granted a constitution to the Papal States, which was both unexpected and surprising considering the historical recalcitrance of the Papacy. On 23 February 1848, King Louis Philippe of France was forced to flee Paris, and a republic was proclaimed. By the time the revolution in Paris occurred, three states of Italy had constitutions -- four if one considers Sicily to be a separate state.
Meanwhile, in Lombardy, tensions increased until the Milanese and Venetians rose in revolt on 18 March 1848. The insurrection in Milan succeeded in expelling the Austrian garrison after five days of street fights -- 18 -- 22 March (Cinque giornate di Milano). An Austrian army under Marshal Josef Radetzky besieged Milan, but due to defection of many of his troops and the support of the Milanese for the revolt, they were forced to retreat.
Soon, Charles Albert, the King of Sardinia (who ruled Piedmont and Savoy), urged by the Venetians and Milanese to aid their cause, decided this was the moment to unify Italy and declared war on Austria (First Italian Independence War). After initial successes at Goito and Peschiera, he was decisively defeated by Radetzky at the Battle of Custoza on 24 July. An armistice was agreed to, and Radetzky regained control of all of Lombardy - Venetia save Venice itself, where the Republic of San Marco was proclaimed under Daniele Manin.
While Radetzky consolidated control of Lombardy - Venetia and Charles Albert licked his wounds, matters took a more serious turn in other parts of Italy. The monarchs who had reluctantly agreed to constitutions in March came into conflict with their constitutional ministers. At first, the republics had the upper hand, forcing the monarchs to flee their capitals, including Pope Pius IX.
Initially, Pius IX had been something of a reformer, but conflicts with the revolutionaries soured him on the idea of constitutional government. In November 1848, following the assassination of his Minister Pellegrino Rossi, Pius IX fled just before Giuseppe Garibaldi and other patriots arrived in Rome. In early 1849, elections were held for a Constituent Assembly, which proclaimed a Roman Republic on 9 February. On 2 February 1849, at a political rally held in the Apollo Theater, a young Roman priest, the Abbé Carlo Arduini, had made a speech in which he had declared that the temporal power of the popes was a "historical lie, a political imposture, and a religious immorality. '' In early March 1849, Giuseppe Mazzini arrived in Rome and was appointed Chief Minister. In the Constitution of the Roman Republic, religious freedom was guaranteed by article 7, the independence of the pope as head of the Catholic Church was guaranteed by article 8 of the Principi fondamentali, while the death penalty was abolished by article 5, and free public education was provided by article 8 of the Titolo I.
Before the powers could respond to the founding of the Roman Republic, Charles Albert, whose army had been trained by the exiled Polish general Albert Chrzanowski, renewed the war with Austria. He was quickly defeated by Radetzky at Novara on 23 March 1849. Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son, Victor Emmanuel II, and Piedmontese ambitions to unite Italy or conquer Lombardy were, for the moment, brought to an end. The war ended with a treaty signed on 9 August. A popular revolt broke out in Brescia on the same day as the defeat at Novara, but was suppressed by the Austrians ten days later.
There remained the Roman and Venetian Republics. In April, a French force under Charles Oudinot was sent to Rome. Apparently, the French first wished to mediate between the Pope and his subjects, but soon the French were determined to restore the Pope. After a two - month siege, Rome capitulated on 29 June 1849 and the Pope was restored. Garibaldi and Mazzini once again fled into exile -- in 1850 Garibaldi went to New York City. Meanwhile, the Austrians besieged Venice defended by a volunteer army led by Daniele Manin and Guglielmo Pepe, which were forced to surrender on 24 August. Pro-independence fighters were hanged en masse in Belfiore, while the Austrians moved to restore order in central Italy, restoring the princes who had been expelled and establishing their control over the Papal Legations. The revolutions were thus completely crushed.
Morale was of course badly weakened, but the dream of Risorgimento did not die. Instead, the Italian patriots learned some lessons that made them much more effective at the next opportunity in 1860. Military weakness was glaring, as the small Italian states were completely outmatched by France and Austria. France was a potential ally, and the patriots realized they had to focus all their attention on expelling Austria first, with a willingness to give the French whatever they wanted in return for essential military intervention. The French in fact received Savoy and Nice in 1860. Secondly, the patriots realized that the Pope was an enemy, and could never be the leader of a united Italy. Third they realized that republicanism was too weak a force. Unification had to be based on a strong monarchy, and in practice that meant reliance on Piedmont (the Kingdom of Sardinia) under King Victor Emmanuel II (1820 - 1878) of the House of Savoy. Count Cavour (1810 -- 1861) provided critical leadership. He was a modernizer interested in agrarian improvements, banks, railways and free trade. He opened a newspaper as soon as censorship allowed it: Il Risorgimento called for the independence of Italy, a league of Italian princes, and moderate reforms. He had the ear of the king and in 1852 became prime minister. He ran an efficient active government, promoting rapid economic modernization while upgrading the administration of the army and the financial and legal systems. He sought out support from patriots across Italy. In 1855, the kingdom became an ally of Britain and France in the Crimean war, which gave Cavour 's diplomacy legitimacy in the eyes of the great powers.
In 1857, Carlo Pisacane, an aristocrat from Naples who had embraced Mazzini 's ideas, decided to provoke a rising in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. His small force landed on the island of Ponza. It overpowered guards and liberated hundreds of prisoners. In sharp contrast to his hypothetical expectations, there was no local uprising and the invaders were quickly overpowered. Pisacane was killed by angry locals who suspected he was leading a gypsy band trying to steal their food.
The 2nd War of Italian Independence began in April 1859 when the Sardinian Prime Minister Count Cavour found an ally in Napoleon III. Napoleon III signed a secret alliance and Cavour provoked Austria with military maneuvers and eventually created the war in April 1859. Cavour called for volunteers to enlist in the Italian liberation. The Austrians planned to use their army to beat the Sardinians before the French could come to their aid. Austria had an army of 140,000 men, while the Sardinians had a mere 70,000. This proved less important than it first appeared, however, as Emperor Franz Josef had chosen his officers based on their aristocratic titles and lineage instead of their personal merit. This strategy was no doubt socially acceptable, but the emperor soon discovered blue blood was a remarkably poor guarantor of military victory. Instead of swiftly entering the capital of Sardinia, the Austrian army crawled, taking almost ten days to travel the 80 kilometres (50 mi). By this time, the French had reinforced the Sardinians, so the Austrians retreated. Napoleon III 's plans worked and at the battle of Solferino, France defeated Austria and forced negotiations. The settlement, by which Lombardy was annexed to Sardinia, left Austria in control of Venice. Sardinia eventually won the Second War of Italian Unification due to statesmanship instead of armies or popular election. The final arrangement was ironed out by "back - room '' deals instead of in the battlefield. This was because neither France, Austria, nor Sardinia wanted to risk another battle and could not handle further fighting. All of the sides were eventually unhappy with the final outcome of the 2nd War of Italian Unification and expected another conflict in the future.
Thus, by early 1860, only five states remained in Italy -- the Austrians in Venetia, the Papal States (now minus the Legations), the new expanded Kingdom of Piedmont - Sardinia, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and San Marino.
Francis II of the Two Sicilies, the son and successor of Ferdinand II (the infamous "King Bomba ''), had a well - organized army of 150,000 men. But his father 's tyranny had inspired many secret societies, and the kingdom 's Swiss mercenaries were unexpectedly recalled home under the terms of a new Swiss law that forbade Swiss citizens to serve as mercenaries. This left Francis with only his mostly - unreliable native troops. It was a critical opportunity for the unification movement. In April 1860, separate insurrections began in Messina and Palermo in Sicily, both of which had demonstrated a history of opposing Neapolitan rule. These rebellions were easily suppressed by loyal troops.
In the meantime, Giuseppe Garibaldi, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead use his forces in the Sicilian rebellions. On 6 May 1860, Garibaldi and his cadre of about a thousand Italian volunteers (called I Mille), steamed from Quarto near Genoa, and, after a stop in Talamone on 11 May, landed near Marsala on the west coast of Sicily.
Near Salemi, Garibaldi 's army attracted scattered bands of rebels, and the combined forces defeated the opposing army at Calatafimi on 13 May. Within three days, the invading force had swelled to 4,000 men. On 14 May Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily, in the name of Victor Emmanuel. After waging various successful but hard - fought battles, Garibaldi advanced upon the Sicilian capital of Palermo, announcing his arrival by beacon - fires kindled at night. On 27 May the force laid siege to the Porta Termini of Palermo, while a mass uprising of street and barricade fighting broke out within the city.
With Palermo deemed insurgent, Neapolitan general Ferdinando Lanza, arriving in Sicily with some 25,000 troops, furiously bombarded Palermo nearly to ruins. With the intervention of a British admiral, an armistice was declared, leading to the Neapolitan troops ' departure and surrender of the town to Garibaldi and his much smaller army. In Palermo was created the Dictatorship of Garibaldi.
This resounding success demonstrated the weakness of the Neapolitan government. Garibaldi 's fame spread and many Italians began to consider him a national hero. Doubt, confusion, and dismay overtook the Neapolitan court -- the king hastily summoned his ministry and offered to restore an earlier constitution, but these efforts failed to rebuild the peoples ' trust in Bourbon governance.
Six weeks after the surrender of Palermo, Garibaldi attacked Messina. Within a week, its citadel surrendered. Having conquered Sicily, Garibaldi proceeded to the mainland, crossing the Strait of Messina with the Neapolitan fleet at hand. The garrison at Reggio Calabria promptly surrendered. As he marched northward, the populace everywhere hailed him, and military resistance faded: on 18 and 21 August, the people of Basilicata and Apulia, two regions of the Kingdom of Naples, independently declared their annexation to the Kingdom of Italy. At the end of August, Garibaldi was at Cosenza, and, on 5 September, at Eboli, near Salerno. Meanwhile, Naples had declared a state of siege, and on 6 September the king gathered the 4,000 troops still faithful to him and retreated over the Volturno river. The next day, Garibaldi, with a few followers, entered by train into Naples, where the people openly welcomed him.
Though Garibaldi had easily taken the capital, the Neapolitan army had not joined the rebellion en masse, holding firm along the Volturno River. Garibaldi 's irregular bands of about 25,000 men could not drive away the king or take the fortresses of Capua and Gaeta without the help of the Sardinian army. The Sardinian army, however, could only arrive by traversing the Papal States, which extended across the entire center of the peninsula. Ignoring the political will of the Holy See, Garibaldi announced his intent to proclaim a "Kingdom of Italy '' from Rome, the capital city of Pope Pius IX. Seeing this as a threat to the domain of the Catholic Church, Pius threatened excommunication for those who supported such an effort. Afraid that Garibaldi would attack Rome, Catholics worldwide sent money and volunteers for the Papal Army, which was commanded by General Louis Lamoricière, a French exile.
The settling of the peninsular standoff now rested with Napoleon III. If he let Garibaldi have his way, Garibaldi would likely end the temporal sovereignty of the Pope and make Rome the capital of Italy. Napoleon, however, may have arranged with Cavour to let the king of Sardinia free to take possession of Naples, Umbria and the other provinces, provided that Rome and the "Patrimony of St. Peter '' were left intact.
It was in this situation that a Sardinian force of two army corps, under Fanti and Cialdini, marched to the frontier of the Papal States, its objective being not Rome but Naples. The Papal troops under Lamoricière advanced against Cialdini, but were quickly defeated and besieged in the fortress of Ancona, finally surrendering on 29 September. On 9 October, Victor Emmanuel arrived and took command. There was no longer a papal army to oppose him, and the march southward proceeded unopposed.
Garibaldi distrusted the pragmatic Cavour, particularly due to Cavour 's role in the French annexation of Nice, Garibaldi 's birthplace. Nevertheless, he accepted the command of Victor Emmanuel. When the king entered Sessa Aurunca at the head of his army, Garibaldi willingly handed over his dictatorial power. After greeting Victor Emmanuel in Teano with the title of King of Italy, Garibaldi entered Naples riding beside the king. Garibaldi then retired to the island of Caprera, while the remaining work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.
The progress of the Sardinian army compelled Francis II to give up his line along the river, and he eventually took refuge with his best troops in the fortress of Gaeta. His courage boosted by his resolute young wife, Duchess Marie Sophie of Bavaria, Francis mounted a stubborn defence that lasted three months. But European allies refused him aid, food and munitions became scarce, and disease set in, so the garrison was forced to surrender. Nonetheless, ragtag groups of Neapolitans loyal to Francis fought on against the Italian government for years to come.
The fall of Gaeta brought the unification movement to the brink of fruition -- only Rome and Venetia remained to be added. On 18 February 1861, Victor Emmanuel assembled the deputies of the first Italian Parliament in Turin. On 17 March 1861, the Parliament proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy, and on 27 March 1861 Rome was declared Capital of Italy, even though it was not actually in the new Kingdom.
Three months later Cavour, having seen his life 's work nearly complete, died. When he was given the last rites, Cavour purportedly said: "Italy is made. All is safe. ''
Mazzini was discontent with the perpetuation of monarchical government and continued to agitate for a republic. With the motto "Free from the Alps to the Adriatic '', the unification movement set its gaze on Rome and Venice. There were obstacles, however. A challenge against the Pope 's temporal dominion was viewed with great distrust by Catholics around the world, and there were French troops stationed in Rome. Victor Emmanuel was wary of the international repercussions of attacking the Papal States, and discouraged his subjects from participating in revolutionary ventures with such intentions.
Nonetheless, Garibaldi believed that the government would support him if he attacked Rome. Frustrated at inaction by the king, and bristling over perceived snubs, he came out of retirement to organize a new venture. In June 1862, he sailed from Genoa and landed again at Palermo, where he gathered volunteers for the campaign, under the slogan o Roma o Morte ("either Rome or Death ''). The garrison of Messina, loyal to the king 's instructions, barred their passage to the mainland. Garibaldi 's force, now numbering two thousand, turned south and set sail from Catania. Garibaldi declared that he would enter Rome as a victor or perish beneath its walls. He landed at Melito on 14 August and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains.
Far from supporting this endeavour, the Italian government was quite disapproving. General Cialdini dispatched a division of the regular army, under Colonel Pallavicino, against the volunteer bands. On 28 August the two forces met in the Aspromonte. One of the regulars fired a chance shot, and several volleys followed, but Garibaldi forbade his men to return fire on fellow subjects of the Kingdom of Italy. The volunteers suffered several casualties, and Garibaldi himself was wounded; many were taken prisoner. Garibaldi was taken by steamer to Varignano, where he was honorably imprisoned for a time, but finally released.
Meanwhile, Victor Emmanuel sought a safer means to the acquisition of the remaining Papal territory. He negotiated with the Emperor Napoleon for the removal of the French troops from Rome through a treaty. They agreed to the September Convention in September 1864, by which Napoleon agreed to withdraw the troops within two years. The Pope was to expand his own army during that time so as to be self - sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French troops departed from Rome, in spite of the efforts of the pope to retain them. By their withdrawal, Italy (excluding Venetia and Savoy) was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.
The seat of government was moved in 1865 from Turin, the old Sardinian capital, to Florence, where the first Italian parliament was summoned. This arrangement created such disturbances in Turin that the king was forced to leave that city hastily for his new capital.
In the Austro - Prussian War of 1866, Austria contested with Prussia the position of leadership among the German states. The Kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to capture Venetia from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia. Austria tried to persuade the Italian government to accept Venetia in exchange for non-intervention. However, on 8 April, Italy and Prussia signed an agreement that supported Italy 's acquisition of Venetia, and on 20 June Italy declared war on Austria. Within the context of Italian unification, the Austro - Prussian war is called Third Independence War, after the First (1848) and the Second (1859).
Victor Emmanuel hastened to lead an army across the Mincio to the invasion of Venetia, while Garibaldi was to invade the Tyrol with his Hunters of the Alps. The enterprise ended in disaster. The Italian army encountered the Austrians at Custoza on 24 June and suffered a defeat. On 20 July the Regia Marina was defeated in the battle of Lissa. Italy 's fortunes were not all so dismal, though. The following day, Garibaldi 's volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca, and moved toward Trento.
Meanwhile, Prussian Minister President Otto von Bismarck saw that his own ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with Austria on 27 July. Italy officially laid down its arms on 12 August. Garibaldi was recalled from his successful march and resigned with a brief telegram reading only "Obbedisco '' ("I obey '').
In spite of Italy 's poor showing, Prussia 's success on the northern front obliged Austria to cede Venetia. Under the terms of a peace treaty signed in Vienna on 12 October, Emperor Franz Joseph had already agreed to cede Venetia to Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention in the Austro - Prussian War, and thus Napoleon ceded Venetia to Italy on 19 October, in exchange for the earlier Italian acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice.
In the peace treaty of Vienna, it was written that the annexation of Venetia would have become effective only after a referendum -- taken on 21 and 22 October -- to let the Venetian people express their will about being annexed or not to the Kingdom of Italy. Historians suggest that the referendum in Venetia was held under military pressure, as a mere 0.01 % of voters (69 out of more than 642,000 ballots) voted against the annexation. However it should be admitted that the re-establishment of a Republic of Venice orphan of Istria and Dalmatia had little chances to develop.
Austrian forces put up some opposition to the invading Italians, to little effect. Victor Emmanuel entered Venice and Venetian land, and performed an act of homage in the Piazza San Marco.
The national party, with Garibaldi at its head, still aimed at the possession of Rome, as the historic capital of the peninsula. In 1867 Garibaldi made a second attempt to capture Rome, but the papal army, strengthened with a new French auxiliary force, defeated his poorly armed volunteers at Mentana. Subsequently, a French garrison remained in Civitavecchia until August 1870, when it was recalled following the outbreak of the Franco - Prussian War.
Before the defeat at Mentana, Enrico Cairoli, his brother Giovanni and 70 companions had made a daring attempt to take Rome. The group had embarked in Terni and floated down the Tiber. Their arrival in Rome was to coincide with an uprising inside the city. On 22 October 1867, the revolutionaries inside Rome seized control of the Capitoline Hill and of Piazza Colonna. Unfortunately for the Cairolis and their companions, by the time they arrived at Villa Glori, on the northern outskirts of Rome, the uprising had already been suppressed. During the night of 22 October 1867, the group was surrounded by Papal Zouaves, and Giovanni was severely wounded. Enrico was mortally wounded and bled to death in Giovanni 's arms.
With the Cairoli dead, command was assumed by Giovanni Tabacchi who had retreated with the remaining volunteers into the villa, where they continued to fire at the papal soldiers. These also retreated in the evening to Rome. The survivors retreated to the positions of Garibaldi on the Italian border.
At the summit of Villa Glori, near the spot where Enrico died, there is a plain white column dedicated to the Cairoli brothers and their 70 companions. About 100 meters to the left from the top of the Spanish Steps, there is a bronze monument of Giovanni holding the dying Enrico in his arm. A plaque lists the names of their companions. Giovanni never recovered from his wounds and from the tragic events of 1867. According to an eyewitness, when Giovanni died on 11 September 1869:
In the last moments, he had a vision of Garibaldi and seemed to greet him with enthusiasm. I heard (so says a friend who was present) him say three times: "The union of the French to the papal political supporters was the terrible fact! '' he was thinking about Mentana. Many times he called Enrico, that he might help him! then he said: "but we will certainly win; we will go to Rome! ''
In July 1870, the Franco - Prussian War began. In early August, the French Emperor Napoleon III recalled his garrison from Rome, thus no longer providing protection to the Papal State. Widespread public demonstrations illustrated the demand that the Italian government take Rome. The Italian government took no direct action until the collapse of the Second French Empire at the Battle of Sedan. King Victor Emmanuel II sent Count Gustavo Ponza di San Martino to Pius IX with a personal letter offering a face - saving proposal that would have allowed the peaceful entry of the Italian Army into Rome, under the guise of offering protection to the pope. The Papacy, however, exhibited something less than enthusiasm for the plan:
The Pope 's reception of San Martino (10 September 1870) was unfriendly. Pius IX allowed violent outbursts to escape him. Throwing the King 's letter upon the table he exclaimed, "Fine loyalty! You are all a set of vipers, of whited sepulchres, and wanting in faith. '' He was perhaps alluding to other letters received from the King. After, growing calmer, he exclaimed: "I am no prophet, nor son of a prophet, but I tell you, you will never enter Rome! '' San Martino was so mortified that he left the next day.
The Italian Army, commanded by General Raffaele Cadorna, crossed the papal frontier on 11 September and advanced slowly toward Rome, hoping that a peaceful entry could be negotiated. The Italian Army reached the Aurelian Walls on 19 September and placed Rome under a state of siege. Although now convinced of his unavoidable defeat, Pius IX remained intransigent to the bitter end and forced his troops to put up a token resistance. On 20 September, after a cannonade of three hours had breached the Aurelian Walls at Porta Pia, the Bersaglieri entered Rome and marched down Via Pia, which was subsequently renamed Via XX Settembre. 49 Italian soldiers and four officers, and 19 papal troops died. Rome and Latium were annexed to the Kingdom of Italy after a plebiscite held on 2 October. The results of this plebiscite were accepted by decree of 9 October.
Initially the Italian government had offered to let the pope keep the Leonine City, but the Pope rejected the offer because acceptance would have been an implied endorsement of the legitimacy of the Italian kingdom 's rule over his former domain. Pius IX declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, although he was not actually restrained from coming and going. Rather, being deposed and stripped of much of his former power also removed a measure of personal protection -- if he had walked the streets of Rome he might have been in danger from political opponents who had formerly kept their views private. Officially, the capital was not moved from Florence to Rome until July 1871.
Historian Raffaele de Cesare made the following observations about Italian unification:
The Roman question was the stone tied to Napoleon 's feet -- that dragged him into the abyss. He never forgot, even in August 1870, a month before Sedan, that he was a sovereign of a Catholic country, that he had been made Emperor, and was supported by the votes of the Conservatives and the influence of the clergy; and that it was his supreme duty not to abandon the Pontiff.
For twenty years Napoleon III had been the true sovereign of Rome, where he had many friends and relations.... Without him the temporal power would never have been reconstituted, nor, being reconstituted, would have endured.
Unification was achieved entirely in terms of Piedmont 's interests. Martin Clark says, "It was Piedmontization all around. '' Cavour died unexpectedly in June 1861, at 50, and most of the many promises that he made to regional authorities to induce them to join the new kingdom of Italy were ignored. The new Kingdom of Italy was structured by renaming the old Kingdom of Sardinia and annexing all the new provinces into its structures. The first king was Victor Emmanuel II, who kept his old title.
National and regional officials were all appointed by Piedmont. A few regional leaders succeeded to high positions in the new national government, but the top bureaucratic and military officials were mostly Piedmontese. The national capital was briefly moved to Florence and finally to Rome, one of the cases of Piedmont losing out.
However, Piedmontese tax rates and regulations, diplomats and officials were imposed on all of Italy. The new constitution was Piedmont 's old constitution, which was generally liberal and was welcomed by liberal elements. However its anticlerical provisions were resented in the pro-clerical regions around Venice and Rome and in Sicily and south of Naples. Cavour had promised there would be regional and municipal, local governments, but all the promises were broken in 1861.
The first decade of the kingdom saw savage civil wars in Sicily and in the Naples region. Hearder claimed that failed efforts to protest unification involved "a mixture of spontaneous peasant movement and a Bourbon - clerical reaction directed by the old authorities. ''
The pope lost Rome in 1870 and ordered the Catholic Church not to co-operate with the new government, a decision fully reversed only in 1929. Most of those for Risorgimento had wanted strong provinces, but they got a strong central state instead. The inevitable long - run results were a severe weakness of national unity, and a politicized system based on mutually - hostile regions hostiless. Such factors remain in the 21st century.
From the spring of 1860 to the summer of 1861, a major challenge that the Piedmontese parliament faced on national unification was how they should govern and control the southern regions of the country that were frequently represented and described by northern Italian correspondents as "corrupt, '' "barbaric '' and "uncivilized ''. In response to the depictions of southern Italy, the Piedmontese parliament had to decide whether it should investigate the southern regions to understand the social and political situations there better or it should establish jurisdiction and order by using mostly force.
The dominance of letters sent from the Northern Italian correspondents that deemed Southern Italy to be "so far from the ideas of progress and civilization '' ultimately induced the Piedmontese parliament to choose the latter course of action, which effectively illustrated the intimate connection between representation and rule. In essence, the Northern Italians ' "representation of the south as a land of barbarism (variously qualified as indecent, lacking in "public conscience, '' ignorant, superstitious, etc.) '' provided the Piedmontese with the justification to rule the southern regions on the pretext of implementing a superior, more civilized, "Piedmontese morality ''.
Italian unification is still a topic of debate. According to Massimo d'Azeglio, centuries of foreign domination created remarkable differences in Italian society, and the role of the newly formed government was to face these differences and to create a unified Italian society. Still today the most famous quote of Massimo d'Azeglio is, "L'Italia è fatta. Restano da fare gli italiani '' (Italy has been made. Now it remains to make Italians).
The economist and politician Francesco Saverio Nitti criticized the newly created state for not taking in to consideration the substantial economic differences between Northern Italy, a free market economy, and Southern Italy, a state protectionism economy, when integrating the two. When the Kingdom of Italy extended the free market economy to the rest of the country, the South 's economy collapsed under the weight of the North 's. Nitti contended that this change should have been much more gradual in order to allow the birth of an adequate entrepreneurial class able to make strong investments and initiatives in the south. These mistakes, he felt, were the cause of the economic and social problems which came to be known as the Southern Question (Questione Meridionale).
The politician, historian, and writer Gaetano Salvemini commented that even though Italian Unification had been a strong opportunity for both a moral and economic rebirth of Italy 's Mezzogiorno (Southern Italy), due to lack of understanding and action on the part of politicians, corruption and organized crime flourished in the South. The Marxist theorist Antonio Gramsci criticized Italian Unification for the limited presence of the masses in politics, as well as the lack of modern land reform in Italy.
Revisionism of Risorgimento produced a clear radicalization of Italy in the mid-twentieth century, following the fall of the Savoy monarchy and fascism during World War II. Reviews of the historical facts concerning Italian unification 's successes and failures continue to be undertaken by domestic and foreign academic authors, including Denis Mack Smith, Christopher Duggan, and Lucy Riall. Recent work emphasizes the central importance of nationalism.
The process of unification of the Italian people in a national state was not completed in the nineteenth century. Many Italians remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy and this situation created the Italian irredentism.
Italia irredenta (Unredeemed Italy) was an Italian nationalist opinion movement that emerged after Italian unification. It advocated irredentism among the Italian people as well as other nationalities who were willing to become Italian and as a movement; it is also known as "Italian irredentism ''. Not a formal organization, it was just an opinion movement that claimed that Italy had to reach its "natural borders ''. Similar patriotic and nationalistic ideas were common in Europe in the 19th century.
During the post-unification era, some Italians were dissatisfied with the current state of the Italian Kingdom since they wanted the kingdom to include Trieste, Istria, and other adjacent territories, as well. This Italian irredentism succeeded in World War I with the annexation of Trieste and Trento, with the respective territories of Venezia Giulia and Trentino.
The Kingdom of Italy had declared neutrality at the beginning of the war, officially because the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria - Hungary was a defensive one, requiring its members to come under attack first. Many Italians were still hostile to Austria 's continuing occupation of ethnically Italian areas, and Italy chose not to enter. Austria - Hungary requested Italian neutrality, while the Triple Entente (which included Great Britain, France and Russia) requested its intervention. With the London Pact, signed in April 1915, Italy agreed to declare war against the Central Powers, in exchange for the irredent territories of Friuli, Trentino, and Dalmatia (see Italia irredenta).
Italian irredentism obtained an important result after the First World War, when Italy gained Trieste, Gorizia, Istria, and the city of Zara. During the Second World War, after the Axis attack on Yugoslavia, Italy created the "Governatorato di Dalmazia '' (from 1941 to September 1943), so the Kingdom of Italy annexed temporarily even Split (Italian Spalato), Kotor (Cattaro), and most of coastal Dalmatia. From 1942 to 1943, even Corsica and Nice (Italian Nizza) were temporarily annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, nearly fulfilling in those years the ambitions of Italian irredentism.
For its avowed purpose the movement had the "emancipation '' of all Italian lands still subject to foreign rule after Italian unification. The Irredentists took language as the test of the alleged Italian nationality of the countries they proposed to emancipate, which were Trentino, Trieste, Dalmatia, Istria, Gorizia, Ticino, Nice (Nizza), Corsica, and Malta. Austria - Hungary promoted Croat interests in Dalmatia and Istria to weaken Italian claims in the western Balkans before the First World War.
After WWII the irredentism movement faded away in Italian politics. Only a few thousand Italians remain in Istria and Dalmatia as a consequence of the Italian defeat in WWII and the slaughter of thousands of Italians as reprisals for fascist atrocities, and the subsequent departure of approximately 400,000 people in what became known as the Istrian exodus. 350,000 refugees were ethnic Italians (76 % of which born in the territories surrendered), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro - Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship.
Italy celebrates the Anniversary of Risorgimento every fifty years, on 17 March (date of proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy). The anniversary occurred in 1911 (50th), 1961 (100th) and 2011 (150th) with several celebrations throughout the country.
Celebration in Florence
Palazzo Vecchio, Florence
A castle near Modena
Mole Antonelliana during the anniversary, Turin
Rieti
Banner in Milan
Fiat Mirafiori Motor Village, Turin
Ferrari Formula One car with the logo of the 150th anniversary of Risorgimento
In art, this period was characterised by the Neoclassicism that draws inspiration from the "classical '' art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome. The main Italian sculptor was Antonio Canova who became famous for his marble sculptures that delicately rendered nude flesh. The mourning Italia turrita on the tomb to Vittorio Alfieri is one of the main works of Risorgimento by Canova.
Francesco Hayez was another remarkable artist of this period whose works often contain allegories about Italian unification. His most known painting The Kiss aims to portray the spirit of the Risorgimento: the man wears red, white and green, representing the Italian patriots fighting for independence from the Austro - Hungarian empire while the girl 's pale blue dress signifies France, which in 1859 (the year of the painting 's creation) made an alliance with the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia enabling the latter to unify the many states of the Italian peninsula into the new kingdom of Italy. Hayez 's three paintings on the Sicilian Vespers are an implicit protest against the foreign domination of Italy.
Andrea Appiani, Domenico Induno and Gerolamo Induno are also known for their patriotic canvases. Risorgimento was also represented by works not necessarily linked to Neoclassicism as in the case of Giovanni Fattori who was one of the leaders of the group known as the Macchiaioli that soon became a leading Italian plein - airists, painting landscapes, rural scenes, and scenes of military life during the Italian unification.
In literature, lots of works were dedicated to Risorgimento since the beginning. The most known writer of Risorgimento is Alessandro Manzoni whose works are a symbol of the Italian unification, both for its patriotic message and because of his efforts in the development of the modern, unified Italian language; he is famous for the novel The Betrothed (orig. Italian: I Promessi Sposi) (1827), generally ranked among the masterpieces of world literature.
Vittorio Alfieri, was the founder of a new school in the Italian drama, expressed in several occasions his suffering about the foreign domination 's tyranny.
Ugo Foscolo describes in his works the passion and love for the fatherland and the glorious history of the Italian people; these two concepts are respectively well expressed in two masterpieces, The Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis and Dei Sepolcri.
Vincenzo Monti, known for the Italian translation of the Iliad, described in his works both enthusiasms and disappointments of Risorgimento until his death.
Giovanni Berchet wrote a poetry characterised by a high moral, popular and social content; he also contributed to Il Conciliatore, a progressive bi-weekly scientific and literary journal, influential in the early Risorgimento that was published in Milan from September 1818 until October 1819 when it was closed by the Austrian censors; its writers included also Ludovico di Breme, Giuseppe Nicolini and Silvio Pellico.
Giacomo Leopardi was one of the most important poets of Risorgimento thanks to works such as Canzone all'Italia and Risorgimento.
Niccolò Tommaseo, the editor of the Italian Language Dictionary in eight volumes, was a precursor of the Italian irredentism and his works are a rare examples of a metropolitan culture above nationalism; he supported the liberal revolution headed by Daniele Manin against the Austrian Empire and he will always support the unification of Italy.
Francesco de Sanctis was one of the most important scholars of Italian language and literature in the 19th century; he supported the Revolution of 1848 in Naples and for this reason he was imprisoned for three years; his reputation as a lecturer on Dante in Turin brought him the appointment of professor at ETH Zürich in 1856; he returned to Naples as Minister of Public Education after the unification of Italy.
The writer and patriot Luigi Settembrini published anonymously the Protest of the People of the Two Sicilies, a scathing indictment of the Bourbon government and was imprisoned and exiled several times by the Bourbons because of his support to Risorgimento; after the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the University of Naples.
Ippolito Nievo is another main representant of Risorgimento with his novel Confessioni d'un italiano; he fought with Giuseppe Garibaldi 's Expedition of the Thousand.
Risorgimento was also depicted in several famous novels: The Leopard written by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, Heart by Edmondo De Amicis and Piccolo mondo antico by Antonio Fogazzaro.
Risorgimento won the support of many leading Italian opera composers. Their librettos often saw a delicate balance between European romantic narratives and dramatic themes evoking nationalistic sentiments. Ideas expressed in operas stimulated the political mobilisation in Italy and among the cultured classes of Europe who appreciated Italian opera. Furthermore, Mazzini and many other nationalists found inspiration in musical discourses.
In his L'italiana in Algeri (The Italian Girl in Algiers), Gioachino Rossini expressed his support to the unification of Italy; the patriotic line Pensa alla patria, e intrepido il tuo dover adempi: vedi per tutta Italia rinascere gli esempi d'ardir e di valor / "Think about the fatherland and intrepid do your duty: see for all Italy the birth of the examples of courage and value '' was censored in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Vincenzo Bellini was a secret member of the Carbonari and in his masterpiece I puritani (The Puritans), the last part of Act 2 is an allegory to Italian unification. Another Bellini opera, Norma, was at the center of an unexpected standing ovation during its performance in Milan in 1859: while the chorus was performing Guerra, guerra! Le galliche selve (War, war! The Gallic forests) in Act 2, the Italians began to greet the chorus with loud applause and to yell the word "War! '' several times towards the Austrian officers at the opera house.
The relationship between Gaetano Donizetti and the Risorgimento is still controversial. Even though Giuseppe Mazzini tried to use some of Donizetti 's works for promoting the Italian cause, Donizetti had always preferred not to get involved in politics.
Historians vigorously debate how political were the operas of Giuseppe Verdi (1813 - 1901). In particular, the chorus of the Hebrew slaves (known as "Va, pensiero '') from the third act of the opera Nabucco was intended to be an anthem for Italian patriots, who were seeking to unify their country and free it from foreign control in the years up to 1861 (the chorus 's theme of exiles singing about their homeland, and its lines like O mia patria, si bella e perduta / "O my country, so lovely and so lost '' was thought to have resonated with many Italians). Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva VERDI '' was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia (Viva Victor Emmanuel King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II.
Franco Della Peruta argues in favour of close links between the operas and the Risorgimento, emphasizing Verdi 's patriotic intent and links to the values of the Risorgimento. Verdi started as a republican, became a strong supporter of Cavour and entered the Italian parliament on Cavour 's suggestion. His politics caused him to be frequently in trouble with the Austrian censors. Verdi 's main works of 1842 - 49 were especially relevant to the struggle for independence, including Nabucco (1842), I Lombardi alla prima crociata (1843), Ernani (1844), Attila (1846), Macbeth (1847), and La battaglia di Legnano (1848). However, starting in the 1850s, his operas showed few patriotic themes because of the heavy censorship of the absolutist regimes in power.
Verdi later became disillusioned by politics, but he was personally active part in the political world of events of the Risorgimento and was elected to the first Italian parliament in 1861. Likewise Marco Pizzo argues that after 1815 music became a political tool, and many songwriters expressed ideals of freedom and equality. Pizzo says Verdi was part of this movement, for his operas were inspired by the love of country, the struggle for Italian independence, and speak to the sacrifice of patriots and exiles. On the other side of the debate, Mary Ann Smart argues that music critics at the time seldom mentioned any political themes. Likewise Roger Parker argues that the political dimension of Verdi 's operas was exaggerated by nationalistic historians looking for a hero in the late 19th century.
Giuseppe Verdi 's Nabucco and the Risorgimento are the subject of a 2011 opera, Risorgimento! by Italian composer Lorenzo Ferrero, written to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Italian unification.
The Leopard is a film from 1963, based on the novel by Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa, and directed by Luchino Visconti. It features Burt Lancaster as the eponymous character, the Prince of Salina. The film depicts his reaction to the Risorgimento, and his vain attempts to retain his social standing.
There are other movies set in this period:
Italy in 1494
Italy in 1796
Italy in 1810
Italy in 1859: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia (Austrian Empire), light green Duchy of Parma, green Duchy of Modena, dark green Grand Duchy of Tuscany, red Papal States, yellow Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Italy in 1860: orange Kingdom of Sardinia, blue Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia (Austrian Empire), pink United Provinces of Central Italy, red Papal States, yellow Kingdom of Two Sicilies.
Italy in 1861: orange Kingdom of Italy, blue Kingdom of Lombardy -- Venetia (Austrian Empire), red Papal States.
Kingdom of Italy in 1870
Kingdom of Italy in 1919
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what was the form of national government called during the revolutionary war answers.com | Whig Party (United states) - wikipedia
The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four United States Presidents belonged to the party while in office. It emerged in the 1830s as the leading opponent of Jacksonians, pulling together former members of the National Republican (one of the successors of the Democratic - Republican Party) and the Anti-Masonic Party. It had links to the upscale traditions of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s. It originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson (in office 1829 -- 1837) and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the United States Congress over the presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking and economic protectionism to stimulate manufacturing. It appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal. Party founders chose the "Whig '' name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party. Historian Frank Towers has specified a deep ideological divide:
Democrats stood for the ' sovereignty of the people ' as expressed in popular demonstrations, constitutional conventions, and majority rule as a general principle of governing, whereas Whigs advocated the rule of law, written and unchanging constitutions, and protections for minority interests against majority tyranny.
The Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844 and General Zachary Taylor of Kentucky in 1848. Another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey, was the Whig Party 's last presidential nominee in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president and both died in office. John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrison 's death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became President after Taylor 's death in 1850, was the last Whig President.
The party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. With deep fissures in the party on this question, the anti-slavery faction prevented the nomination for a full term of its own incumbent President Fillmore in the 1852 presidential election -- instead, the party nominated General Scott. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics (as Abraham Lincoln did temporarily) or changed parties. The Northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, by which time the Whig Party had become virtually defunct. Some former Whigs became Democrats. The Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a major role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction.
The name "Whig '' derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution. It indicated hostility to the British Sovereign and despite the identical name it did not directly derive from the British Whig Party (see etymology).
The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as "a dangerous man on horseback '' with a "reactionary opposition '' to the forces of social, economic and moral modernization. The Democratic - Republicans who formed the Whig Party, led by Kentucky Senator Henry Clay, drew on a Jeffersonian tradition of compromise, balance in government and territorial expansion combined with national unity and support for a Federal transportation network and domestic manufacturing. Casting their enemy as "King Andrew '', they sought to identify themselves as modern - day opponents of governmental overreaching.
Despite the apparent unity of Jefferson 's Democratic - Republicans from 1800 to 1824, the American people ultimately preferred partisan opposition to popular political agreement. As Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party. He defended national rather than sectional interests. Clay 's plan for distributing the proceeds from the sale of lands among the states in the public domain was intended to serve the nation by providing the states with funds for building roads and canals, which would stimulate growth and knit the sections together. However, his Jacksonian opponents distrusted the federal government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements and they again frustrated Clay 's plan. Jacksonians promoted opposition to the National Bank and internal improvements and support of egalitarian democracy, state power and hard money.
The Tariff of Abominations of 1828 had outraged Southern feelings -- the South 's leaders held that the high duties on foreign imports gave an advantage to the North (where the factories were located). Clay 's own high tariff schedule of 1832 further disturbed them as did his stubborn defense of high duties as necessary to his American System. However, Clay moved to pass the Compromise of 1833, which met Southern complaints by a gradual reduction of the rates on imports to a maximum of twenty percent. Controlling the Senate for a while, Whigs passed a censure motion denouncing Jackson 's arrogant assumption of executive power in the face of the true will of the people as represented by Congress.
The Whig Party began to take shape in 1833. Clay had run as a National Republican against Jackson in 1832, but carried only 49 electoral votes against Jackson 's 219 and the National Republicans became discredited as a major political force. The Whig Party emerged in the aftermath of the 1832 election, the Nullification Crisis and debates regarding the Second Bank of the United States, which Jackson denounced as a monopoly and from which he abruptly removed all government deposits. People who helped to form the new party included supporters of Clay, supporters of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster, former National Republicans, former Anti-Masons, former disaffected Jacksonians (led by John C. Calhoun), who viewed Jackson 's actions as impinging on the prerogatives of Congress and the states; and small remnants of Federalist Party, people whose last political activity was with them a decade before. The "Whig '' name emphasized the party 's opposition to Jackson 's perceived executive tyranny and the name helped the Whigs shed the elitist image of the National Republican Party.
Clay was the clear leader of the Whig Party nationwide and in Washington, but he was vulnerable to Jacksonian allegations that he associated with the upper class at a time when white males without property had the right to vote and wanted someone more like themselves. The Whigs nominated a war hero in 1840 and emphasized that William Henry Harrison had given up the high life to live in a log cabin on the frontier -- Harrison won.
In the 1836 elections, the party was not yet sufficiently organized or unified to run one nationwide candidate -- instead, William Henry Harrison was its candidate in the Northern and border states, Hugh Lawson White ran in the South, Daniel Webster ran in his home state of Massachusetts and in South Carolina the Whig 's presidential candidate was Willie P. Mangum. Whigs hoped that four candidates would amass enough Electoral College votes among them to deny a majority to Martin Van Buren. That would move the election to the House of Representatives, allowing the ascendant Whigs to select their most popular man as president.
Van Buren won 170 ballots in the Electoral College, with only 148 ballots needed to win, but the Whig strategy came very close to succeeding. In Pennsylvania, which had 30 ballots in the Electoral College, Harrison got 87,235 votes to Van Buren 's 91,457. A change of just a few thousand votes in that state would have reduced Van Buren 's ballot count to only 140, eight short of winning.
In late 1839, the Whigs held their first national convention and nominated William Henry Harrison as their presidential candidate. In March 1840, Harrison pledged to serve only one term as President if elected, a pledge that reflected popular support for a constitutional limit to presidential terms among many in the Whig Party. Harrison went on to victory in 1840, defeating Van Buren 's re-election bid largely as a result of the Panic of 1837 and subsequent depression. Harrison served only 31 days and became the first President to die in office. He was succeeded by John Tyler, a Virginian and states ' rights absolutist. Tyler vetoed the Whig economic legislation and was expelled from the Whig party in September 1841.
The Whigs ' internal disunity and the nation 's increasing prosperity made the party 's activist economic program seem less necessary and led to a disastrous showing in the 1842 Congressional election.
The central issue in the 1840s was expansion, with proponents of "manifest destiny '' arguing for aggressive westward expansion, even at the risk of war with Mexico (over the annexation of Texas) and Britain (over control of Oregon). Daniel Walker Howe argues: "Nevertheless American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity ''. That is, most Democrats strongly supported manifest destiny and most Whigs strongly opposed it. John Mack Faragher 's analysis of the political polarization between the parties is the following:
By 1844, the Whigs began their recovery by nominating Henry Clay, who lost the presidential race to Democrat James K. Polk in a closely contested race, with Polk 's policy of Western expansion (particularly the annexation of Texas) and free trade triumphing over Clay 's protectionism and caution over the Texas question. The Whigs, both Northern and Southern, strongly opposed expansion into Texas, which they (including Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln) saw as an unprincipled land grab.
In 1848, the Whigs, seeing no hope of success by nominating Clay, nominated General Zachary Taylor, a hero of the Mexican -- American War. They stopped criticizing the war and adopted only a very vague platform. Taylor defeated Democratic candidate Lewis Cass and the anti-slavery Free Soil Party, who had nominated former President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren 's candidacy split the Democratic vote in New York, throwing that state to the Whigs. However, at the same time the Free Soilers probably cost the Whigs several Midwestern states.
Taylor was firmly opposed to the proposed Compromise of 1850 (an initiative of Clay) and was committed to the admission of California as a free state. He proclaimed that he would take military action to prevent the secession of southern states. On July 9, 1850, Taylor died and Vice President Millard Fillmore, a long - time Whig, became President. Fillmore helped push the Compromise through Congress in the hopes of ending the controversies over slavery and its five separate bills became law in September 1850.
After 1850, the Whigs were unable to deal with the slavery issue. Their Southern leaders nearly all owned slaves. The northeastern Whigs, led by Daniel Webster, represented businessmen who loved national unity and a national market, but cared little about slavery one way or another. However, many Whig voters in the North thought that slavery was incompatible with a free labor, free market economy and supported the Wilmot Proviso, which did not pass Congress, but would have stopped the expansion of slavery. No one found a compromise that would keep the party united. Furthermore, the burgeoning economy made full - time careers in business or law much more attractive than politics for ambitious young Whigs, thus the Whig Party leader in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, simply abandoned politics after 1849, instead attending to his law business.
When new issues of nativism, prohibition and anti-slavery burst on the scene in the mid-1850s, few looked to the quickly disintegrating Whig Party for answers. In the North, most ex Whigs joined the new Republican Party and in the South, they flocked to a new short - lived American Party.
The election of 1852 marked the beginning of the end for the Whigs. The deaths of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster that year severely weakened the party. The Compromise of 1850 had fractured the Whigs along pro - and anti-slavery lines, with the anti-slavery faction having enough power to deny Fillmore the party 's nomination in 1852. The Whig Party 's 1852 convention in New York City saw the historic meeting between Alvan E. Bovay and the New - York Daily Tribune 's Horace Greeley, a meeting that led to correspondence between the men as the early Republican Party meetings in 1854 began to take place.
Attempting to repeat their earlier successes, the Whigs nominated popular General Winfield Scott, who lost decisively to the Democrats ' Franklin Pierce. The Democrats won the election by a large margin: Pierce won 27 of the 31 states, including Scott 's home state of New Jersey. Whig Representative Lewis D. Campbell of Ohio was particularly distraught by the defeat, exclaiming: "We are slain. The party is dead -- dead -- dead! ''. Increasingly, politicians realized that the party was dead.
In 1854, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, which opened the new territories to slavery, was passed. Southern Whigs generally supported the Act while Northern Whigs remained strongly opposed. Most remaining Northern Whigs, like Lincoln, joined the new Republican Party and strongly attacked the Act, appealing to widespread Northern outrage over the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Other Whigs joined the Know Nothing Party, attracted by its nativist crusades against so - called "corrupt '' Irish and German immigrants. In the South, the Whig Party vanished -- but as Thomas Alexander has shown, Whiggism as a modernizing policy orientation persisted for decades. Historians estimate that in the South in 1856 former Whig Fillmore retained 86 percent of the 1852 Whig voters when he ran as the American Party candidate. He won only 13 % of the Northern vote, though that was just enough to tip Pennsylvania out of the Republican column. The future in the North, most observers thought at the time, was Republican. Scant prospects for the shrunken old party seemed extant and after 1856 virtually no Whig organization remained at the regional level. Twenty - six states sent 150 delegates to the last national convention in September 1856. The convention met for only two days and on the second day (and only ballot) quickly nominated Fillmore for President, who had already been nominated for President by the Know Nothing Party. Andrew Jackson Donelson was nominated for Vice President. Some Whigs and others adopted the mantle of the Opposition Party for several years and enjoyed some individual electoral successes.
In 1860, many former Whigs who had not joined the Republicans regrouped as the Constitutional Union Party, which nominated only a national ticket. It had considerable strength in the border states, which feared the onset of civil war. Its presidential candidate, John Bell, finished third in the electoral college.
During the Lincoln Administration (1861 -- 1865), ex Whigs dominated the Republican Party and enacted much of their American System. Later, their Southern colleagues dominated the white response to Reconstruction. In the long run, the United States adopted Whiggish economic policies coupled with a Democratic strong presidency.
During the latter part of the American Civil War and during the Reconstruction Era, many former Whigs tried to regroup in the South, calling themselves "conservatives '' and hoping to reconnect with the ex Whigs in the North. These were merged into the Democratic Party in the South, but they continued to promote modernization policies such as large - scale railroad construction and the founding of public schools.
In today 's discourse in American politics, the Whig Party is often cited as an example of a political party that lost its followers and its reason for being as by the expression "going the way of the Whigs '', a term referred to by Donald Critchlow in his book, The Conservative Ascendancy: How the GOP Right Made Political History. Critchlow points out that the application of the term by Republicans in the Republican Party of 1974 may have been a misnomer -- the old Whig party enjoyed more political support before its demise than the Republican Party in the aftermath of Nixon 's resignation.
The Whigs suffered greatly from factionalism throughout their existence as well as weak party loyalty that stood in contrast to the strong party discipline that was the hallmark of a tight Democratic Party organization. One strength of the Whigs was a superb network of newspapers -- their leading editor was Horace Greeley of the powerful New - York Daily Tribune.
In the 1840s, Whigs won 49 percent of gubernatorial elections, with strong bases in the manufacturing Northeast and in the border states. The trend over time was for the Democratic vote to grow faster and for the Whigs to lose more and more marginal states and districts. After the close 1844 contest, the Democratic advantage widened and the Whigs could win the White House only if the Democrats split. This was partly because of the increased political importance of the Western states, which generally voted for Democrats; and Irish Catholic and German immigrants, who voted heavily for the Democrats.
The Whigs appealed to voters in every socio - economic category, but proved especially attractive to the professional and business classes: doctors, lawyers, merchants, ministers, bankers, storekeepers, factory owners, commercially oriented farmers and large - scale planters. In general, commercial and manufacturing towns and cities voted Whig, save for strongly Democratic precincts in Irish Catholic and German immigrant communities -- the Democrats often sharpened their appeal to the poor by ridiculing the Whigs ' aristocratic pretensions. Protestant religious revivals also injected a moralistic element into the Whig ranks.
The Whigs celebrated Clay 's vision of the American System that promoted rapid economic and industrial growth in the United States. Whigs demanded government support for a more modern, market - oriented economy, in which skill, expertise and bank credit would count for more than physical strength or land ownership. Whigs sought to promote faster industrialization through high tariffs, a business - oriented money supply based on a national bank and a vigorous program of government funded "internal improvements '' (what we now call infrastructure projects), especially expansion of the road and canal systems. To modernize the inner United States, the Whigs helped create public schools, private colleges, charities and cultural institutions. Many were pietistic Protestant reformers who called for public schools to teach moral values and proposed prohibition to end the liquor problem.
The Democrats harkened to the Jeffersonian ideal of an egalitarian agricultural society, believing that traditional farm life bred republican simplicity while modernization and urbanization threatened to create a politically powerful caste of rich aristocratic men who threatened to subvert republicanism. In general the Democrats enacted their policies at the national level while the Whigs succeeded in passing modernization projects in most states.
Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation 's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Horace Mann (1796 -- 1859) won widespread approval from modernizers, especially among fellow Whigs, for building public schools. Indeed, most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for normal schools to train professional teachers.
The Whig Party was never a homogeneous party and was essentially divided into two main factions: the anti-slavery Conscience Whigs, based in Northern states; and the pro-South Cotton Whigs, also based in the industrial North who wanted to maintain good business terms with the southern planters. While the "Consciences '' were noted for their moral opposition to slavery, their Cottons counterpart 's close association with the New England textile industry led them to de-emphasize the slavery issue. Notable Consciences included Charles Sumner, Henry Wilson and Charles Francis Adams while the Cottons were led by such figures as Edward Everett, Robert C. Winthrop and Abbott Lawrence.
The Consciences split from the Whig party in 1848, when the national party nominated the slave - owning General Zachary Taylor for President and played a role in the creation of the new Free Soil Party, which nominated Adams for Vice President on a ticket with anti-slavery former Democratic President Martin Van Buren.
Following the failure of the Free Soil Party in the election that year, most Conscience Whigs returned to the Whig fold and more followed after the Compromise of 1850 temporarily neutralized the issue of slavery. During the mid-1850s, several Conscience leaders played an important role later in the foundation of the Republican Party.
In Liberia, the True Whig Party -- named in direct emulation of the American Whig party, was founded in 1869 and it dominated politics in that country from 1878 until 1980.
Occasionally, small groups in the United States form parties that take the Whig name, but they seldom last long or elect anyone. In 2006, the Florida Whig Party was formed and fielded one candidate for Congress in the elections of 2010 and it disbanded in 2012.
In 2008, a group of veterans formed the Modern Whig Party. It occasionally claimed a local officeholder supported this party.
The Quincy Herald - Whig, a daily newspaper published as of 2014 in western Illinois, is a direct descendant of a 19th century Whig Party news sheet, the Quincy Whig.
See also Stephen Simpson, editor of the Philadelphia Whig, a 19th century newspaper devoted to the Whig cause.
Additionally, John Quincy Adams, elected President as a Democratic - Republican, later became a National Republican, then an Anti-Masonic and then a Whig after he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1831.
Presidents Abraham Lincoln, Rutherford B. Hayes, Chester A. Arthur and Benjamin Harrison were Whigs before switching to the Republican Party, from which they were elected to office.
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8 out of 10 cats does countdown series 11 episode 5 | List of 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes for the Channel 4 satirical panel show 8 Out of 10 Cats Does Countdown. The first episode was broadcast on 2 January 2012. All episodes are approximately 45 minutes long, and usually features team captains Sean Lock and Jon Richardson.
Series: Mashup 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
References External links
The coloured backgrounds denote the result of each of the shows:
Ratings sourced from BARB.
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which segment is an altitude for triangle abc | Altitude (triangle) - wikipedia
In geometry, an altitude of a triangle is a line segment through a vertex and perpendicular to (i.e., forming a right angle with) a line containing the base (the side opposite the vertex). This line containing the opposite side is called the extended base of the altitude. The intersection of the extended base and the altitude is called the foot of the altitude. The length of the altitude, often simply called "the altitude '', is the distance between the extended base and the vertex. The process of drawing the altitude from the vertex to the foot is known as dropping the altitude at that vertex. It is a special case of orthogonal projection.
Altitudes can be used in the computation of the area of a triangle: one half of the product of an altitude 's length and its base 's length equals the triangle 's area. Thus, the longest altitude is perpendicular to the shortest side of the triangle. The altitudes are also related to the sides of the triangle through the trigonometric functions.
In an isosceles triangle (a triangle with two congruent sides), the altitude having the incongruent side as its base will have the midpoint of that side as its foot. Also the altitude having the incongruent side as its base will be the angle bisector of the vertex angle.
It is common to mark the altitude with the letter h (as in height), often subscripted with the name of the side the altitude is drawn to.
In a right triangle, the altitude drawn to the hypotenuse c divides the hypotenuse into two segments of lengths p and q. If we denote the length of the altitude by h, we then have the relation
For acute and right triangles the feet of the altitudes all fall on the triangle 's sides (not extended). In an obtuse triangle (one with an obtuse angle), the foot of the altitude to the obtuse - angled vertex falls in the interior of the opposite side, but the feet of the altitudes to the acute - angled vertices fall on the opposite extended side, exterior to the triangle. This is illustrated in the adjacent diagram: in this obtuse triangle, an altitude dropped perpendicularly from the top vertex, which has an acute angle, intersects the extended horizontal side outside the triangle.
The three (possibly extended) altitudes intersect in a single point, called the orthocenter of the triangle, usually denoted by H. The orthocenter lies inside the triangle if and only if the triangle is acute (i.e. does not have an angle greater than or equal to a right angle). If one angle is a right angle, the orthocenter coincides with the vertex at the right angle.
Let A, B, C denote the vertices and also the angles of the triangle, and let a = BC, b = CA, c = AB be the side lengths. The orthocenter has trilinear coordinates
sec A: sec B: sec C = cos A − sin B sin C: cos B − sin C sin A: cos C − sin A sin B, (\ displaystyle \ sec A: \ sec B: \ sec C = \ cos A - \ sin B \ sin C: \ cos B - \ sin C \ sin A: \ cos C - \ sin A \ sin B,)
and barycentric coordinates
Since barycentric coordinates are all positive for a point in a triangle 's interior but at least one is negative for a point in the exterior, and two of the barycentric coordinates are zero for a vertex point, the barycentric coordinates given for the orthocenter show that the orthocenter is in an acute triangle 's interior, on the right - angled vertex of a right triangle, and exterior to an obtuse triangle.
In the complex plane, let the points A, B and C represent the numbers z A (\ displaystyle z_ (A)), z B (\ displaystyle z_ (B)) and, respectively, z C (\ displaystyle z_ (C)) and assume that the circumcenter of triangle ABC is located at the origin of the plane. Then, the complex number
is represented by the point H, namely the orthocenter of triangle ABC. From this, the following characterizations of the orthocenter H by means of free vectors can be established straightforwardly:
The first of the previous vector identities is also known as the problem of Sylvester, proposed by James Joseph Sylvester.
Let D, E, and F denote the feet of the altitudes from A, B, and C respectively. Then:
Denote the circumradius of the triangle by R. Then
In addition, denoting r as the radius of the triangle 's incircle, r, r, and r as the radii of its excircles, and R again as the radius of its circumcircle, the following relations hold regarding the distances of the orthocenter from the vertices:
If any altitude, for example, AD, is extended to intersect the circumcircle at P, so that AP is a chord of the circumcircle, then the foot D bisects segment HP:
The directrices of all parabolas that are externally tangent to one side of a triangle and tangent to the extensions of the other sides pass through the orthocenter.
A circumconic passing through the orthocenter of a triangle is a rectangular hyperbola.
The orthocenter H, the centroid G, the circumcenter O, and the center N of the nine - point circle all lie on a single line, known as the Euler line. The center of the nine - point circle lies at the midpoint of the Euler line, between the orthocenter and the circumcenter, and the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter is half of that between the centroid and the orthocenter:
The orthocenter is closer to the incenter I than it is to the centroid, and the orthocenter is farther than the incenter is from the centroid:
In terms of the sides a, b, c, inradius r and circumradius R,
If the triangle ABC is oblique (does not contain a right - angle), the pedal triangle of the orthocenter of the original triangle is called the orthic triangle or altitude triangle. That is, the feet of the altitudes of an oblique triangle form the orthic triangle, DEF. Also, the incenter (the center of the inscribed circle) of the orthic triangle DEF is the orthocenter of the original triangle ABC.
Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the orthic triangle are given by
The extended sides of the orthic triangle meet the opposite extended sides of its reference triangle at three collinear points.
In any acute triangle, the inscribed triangle with the smallest perimeter is the orthic triangle. This is the solution to Fagnano 's problem, posed in 1775. The sides of the orthic triangle are parallel to the tangents to the circumcircle at the original triangle 's vertices.
The orthic triangle of an acute triangle gives a triangular light route.
The tangent lines of the nine - point circle at the midpoints of the sides of ABC are parallel to the sides of the orthic triangle, forming a triangle similar to the orthic triangle.
The orthic triangle is closely related to the tangential triangle, constructed as follows: let L be the line tangent to the circumcircle of triangle ABC at vertex A, and define L and L analogously. Let A '' = L ∩ L, B '' = L ∩ L, C '' = L ∩ L. The tangential triangle is A "B '' C ", whose sides are the tangents to triangle ABC 's circumcircle at its vertices; it is homothetic to the orthic triangle. The circumcenter of the tangential triangle, and the center of similitude of the orthic and tangential triangles, are on the Euler line.
Trilinear coordinates for the vertices of the tangential triangle are given by
For more information on the orthic triangle, see here.
For any triangle with sides a, b, c and semiperimeter s = (a + b + c) / 2, the altitude from side a is given by
This follows from combining Heron 's formula for the area of a triangle in terms of the sides with the area formula (1 / 2) × base × height, where the base is taken as side a and the height is the altitude from A.
Consider an arbitrary triangle with sides a, b, c and with corresponding altitudes h, h, and h. The altitudes and the incircle radius r are related by
Denoting the altitude from one side of a triangle as h, the other two sides as b and c, and the triangle 's circumradius (radius of the triangle 's circumscribed circle) as R, the altitude is given by
If p, p, and p are the perpendicular distances from any point P to the sides, and h, h, and h are the altitudes to the respective sides, then
Denoting the altitudes of any triangle from sides a, b, and c respectively as h a (\ displaystyle h_ (a)), h b (\ displaystyle h_ (b)), and h c (\ displaystyle h_ (c)), and denoting the semi-sum of the reciprocals of the altitudes as H = (h a − 1 + h b − 1 + h c − 1) / 2 (\ displaystyle H = (h_ (a) ^ (- 1) + h_ (b) ^ (- 1) + h_ (c) ^ (- 1)) / 2) we have
If E is any point on an altitude AD of any triangle ABC, then
For any point P within an equilateral triangle, the sum of the perpendiculars to the three sides is equal to the altitude of the triangle. This is Viviani 's theorem.
In a right triangle the three altitudes h, h, and h (the first two of which equal the leg lengths b and a respectively) are related according to
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who plays dave navarro's wife in sons of anarchy | Dave Navarro - wikipedia
David Michael Navarro (born June 7, 1967) is an American guitarist, singer, songwriter, presenter and actor.
Navarro is best known as a member of the alternative rock band Jane 's Addiction (four studio albums) and as a former member of the Red Hot Chili Peppers (one album). He also released one solo album Trust No One (2001). Navarro has also been a member of the Jane 's Addiction spin - off bands, Deconstruction and The Panic Channel. Allmusic 's Greg Prato described him as "one of alternative rock 's first true guitar heroes '', with an eclectic playing style that merges heavy metal, psychedelia, and modern rock.
Outside music, Navarro is known as the host and one of the judges on Ink Master, an American tattoo competition reality show now in its eleventh season on Paramount Network.
Navarro was born in Santa Monica, California on June 7, 1967, the son of James Raul Navarro and Constance Colleen Hopkins. His paternal grandparents were Mexican immigrants. His grandfather Gabriel Navarro was close friends with Mexican silent film actor Ramón Novarro, who allegedly adopted his artistic surname. He attended Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks, California, where he was a member of the marching band with future Jane 's Addiction bandmate Stephen Perkins.
Navarro 's mother was murdered by her ex-boyfriend, John Riccardi, in March 1983. Riccardi was arrested in 1991, thanks to a viewer tip after Riccardi was featured on the television series America 's Most Wanted. During his appearance on America 's Most Wanted in 2004, Navarro stated that he was supposed to visit and stay with his mother on the night of her murder but at the last minute went to stay with his father. In 2015, Navarro released the documentary Mourning Son, which details his mother 's murder and his spiral into drug addiction, as well as the pain he has had to overcome in the years since her death.
Navarro has been married three times: celebrity makeup artist Tania Goddard - Saylor (June 1990 -- 1992, divorced), Rhian Gittins (October 15, 1994 -- October 20, 1994, annulled), and model and actress, Carmen Electra (November 22, 2003 -- February 20, 2007, divorced).
On his Instructional Guitar DVD Navarro tells how he started playing guitar at the age of seven after hearing a Jimi Hendrix song at a skate park.
Navarro joined the band Jane 's Addiction in 1986 as the lead guitarist after he was recommended to vocalist Perry Farrell by drummer Stephen Perkins, who was a childhood friend of Navarro 's. The band became successful and was popular in the alternative - rock music scene. Over the next five years, Jane 's Addiction released three albums, Jane 's Addiction (1987), Nothing 's Shocking (1988) and Ritual de lo Habitual (1990). Personal tensions, however, led to their breakup in 1991. The Lollapalooza festival was created by Farrell as a farewell tour for Jane 's Addiction.
After the departure of Guns N ' Roses ' original rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin in August 1991, Navarro was the first choice of lead singer Axl Rose to replace Stradlin; despite four attempts to have him come in and play with Slash, he never showed up. However, he later went on to play on the 1999 Guns N ' Roses song "Oh My God '', which was featured on the End of Days soundtrack. In 1993, Navarro formed Deconstruction with Jane 's Addiction 's Eric Avery on vocals and bass and Michael Murphy on drums. The band put out one self - titled album in 1994. Rick Rubin was involved in the production and Butthole Surfers singer Gibby Haynes makes a guest appearance. They did not tour due to Avery 's exhaustion after Jane 's Addiction.
Navarro joined Red Hot Chili Peppers in September 1993. His first large - scale performance with the band was at Woodstock ' 94. The only album on which Navarro played with Red Hot Chili Peppers, One Hot Minute, was released in 1995. The band later recorded and released a cover of the Ohio Players ' song "Love Rollercoaster '' for the Beavis and Butthead Do America soundtrack, which was released as a single. The band also contributed the John Lennon song "I Found Out '' to the Working Class Hero: A Tribute to John Lennon album, as well as the One Hot Minute outtake "Melancholy Mechanics '' to the Twister soundtrack.
In 1995, Navarro played guitar for Alanis Morissette 's track "You Oughta Know '' on one of the 1990s most successful albums, Jagged Little Pill.
Despite mixed reviews, One Hot Minute sold over eight million copies worldwide and produced three hit singles. Navarro toured with Jane 's Addiction for their 1997 Relapse tour with Flea on bass. After two years of touring on and off with Red Hot Chili Peppers, and his subsequent heroin relapse, Navarro was fired in 1998 over "creative differences. ''
Navarro also remixed Janet Jackson 's "What 'll I Do '' for her Janet Remixed album in this time.
The album, Trust No One, marked his solo debut in the summer of 2001 for Capitol Records. The band assembled for the accompanying US tour consisted of Navarro, guitarist Dave Kushner, bassist Miiko Watanabe and drummer Angel Roché, Jr... In 2002, Jane 's Addiction reformed with bass player Chris Chaney, and started work on a new album. The band entered the studio with veteran rock producer Bob Ezrin, resulting in the album Strays and the Lollapalooza 2003 tour in support of the album. In 2002, Michael Jackson performed at the Apollo Theater, and Navarro played guitar for his hit song "Black or White ''. During this time Navarro also made a cameo in Mariah Carey 's "Bringin ' on the Heartbreak '' music video.
Navarro began working with Camp Freddy during this time. In 2003, he and his fiancée, Carmen Electra, agreed to have their wedding preparations filmed for an MTV show titled Til Death Do Us Part; Camp Freddy played at the reception. The show was a great success and was released on DVD in the fall of 2005. Navarro 's book, Do n't Try This at Home, was released on October 5, 2004 with Regan books, and quickly became a Los Angeles Times bestseller.
Navarro appeared in two tournaments on Celebrity Poker Showdown in 2004. In the third tournament of the series, he won his qualifying game and appeared in the championship round. In the fourth series, he appeared only in a qualifying round.
Navarro co-hosted with Brooke Burke, two seasons of the Mark Burnett television series: Rock Star: INXS and Rock Star: Supernova. Dave and his band, The Panic Channel, released their album One, in August 2006. They toured with Rock Star Supernova (the band formed from the series) in January / February 2007. During this time, Navarro has his own internet radio station. He soon broadened his creativity with an internet talk show called: Dave Navarro 's SPREAD TV, which was broadcast on Maniatv.com and is currently available for download on iTunes. The show highlighted avant - garde subjects, artistry, and the human condition. Videos from the series are also available on Navarro 's YouTube channel.
In 2007, Navarro also teamed with Teravision to direct his first adult movie, Broken starring Sasha Grey, in the first of a planned series of celebrity - directed adult movies. This effort won "Best High End All - Sex Release '' at the 2008 AVN Awards. Navarro has also made appearances in Season 1 and Season 2 of Z Rock with Brooklyn - based band ZO2 on IFC. In 2008, he recorded additional riffs for the version of "Black Cat '' performed on Janet Jackson 's Rock Witchu Tour, appearing on screens during the rendition.
Jane 's Addiction reunited once more in 2008 with all of the original members. The notoriously tumultuous band 's reunion was widely credited by NME magazine for choosing Jane 's Addiction as the recipient of their "Godlike Genius Award for Services to Music ''. Soon after performing together for the first time in 17 years at the NME Award ceremony in Los Angeles, the band was contacted by Trent Reznor. Trent began working with Jane 's Addiction in his studio; they recorded and released two songs ("Chip Away '' and "Whores '') online on the NINJA 2009 Tour Sampler. Both songs were previously released on their self - titled 1987 Live album. This time together in the studio led directly to the pairing of Nine Inch Nails and Jane 's Addiction for a worldwide tour in 2009. The tour was branded the NIN / JA tour by fans.
During August 2009, Navarro toured southern California as part of the Billy Corgan - led band Spirits in the Sky.
In 2010, he posed naked for PETA 's anti-fur campaign, "Ink Not Mink ''. He stripped down again for the group 's anti animal - testing campaign in 2013.
In 2011, Navarro appeared as the ' Director ' of a Rock and Roll Fantasy Camp, playing a complicated passage for a ' camper ' to emulate, in a commercial for Citibank.
Navarro featured on the track "Girls / Fast Cars '' on the album The Wombats Proudly Present: This Modern Glitch. by indie rock band The Wombats.
The Red Hot Chili Peppers were named 2012 inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Despite being in the band for five years and playing on one album, Navarro was not inducted. When the announcement was made of the induction, Navarro said he was happy for the band but later said he had no plans to attend the ceremony, which was held in April 2012. Anthony Kiedis was asked why Navarro was not included in the induction and he responded by saying "He 's in this other band, which may in fact be inducted itself one day, called Jane 's Addiction. I think that 's the band closest to his heart, and that most represents his contribution to the world in terms of music. So maybe it makes more sense for him to be inducted one day as a member of Jane 's Addiction. '' According to the Hall of Fame and the Chili Peppers ' lawyer, it is the Hall of Fame 's decision on which members are inducted. They eventually selected original members, current members and those who have appeared on multiple albums. Ex-Peppers guitarist, Jack Sherman disagreed and felt that both he and Navarro were being treated unfairly by the band and they, in fact, did have a say in who was inducted. Chad Smith was the only band member to acknowledge both Navarro and Sherman (along with other former members) during his induction speech.
Navarro recently appeared in four episodes of the FX drama Sons of Anarchy and appeared as a guest on an episode of Talking Dead. In February 2013 he had a guest role in Law and Order: SVU, playing a sound engineer.
During the first few years of Jane 's Addiction, Dave played a black Gibson Les Paul. Around the time of the band 's major label debut Nothing 's Shocking in 1988, he played Ibanez RG series guitars, including one custom painted with the album cover art. He is seen in the film "Gift '' and the "Stop '' video playing a blue Ibanez RG, which suggests it was used in the recording of the album Ritual de lo Habitual. During the 1990 Ritual tour, he primarily played a custom - shaped single cutaway gold Ibanez.
Dave began using PRS Guitars on the Lollapalooza tour in 1991. His signature model PRS (White with Gold Hardware) is now his primary stage guitar. He has several models in his regular stage and studio rig, and was only the third PRS artist to have both a Maryland - made and SE version of their Signature Model.
He used a Parker Fly Deluxe for the Chili Peppers days during the live versions of "My Friends ''. He used it for its clean tones and its piezoelectric pickup that sounds similar to an acoustic guitar.
During this era, Dave used a Fender Stratocaster for the brighter blues and funk tones required for the Red Hot Chili Peppers catalog. He has several Stratocasters in his possession. He also had a Modulus Stratocaster - like guitar made for him.
Dave has also been seen playing Kramer Van Halen Signature Guitars, Fender Telecasters, Takamine Acoustic 12 strings, and even a Squier Hello Kitty Stratocaster given to him by Carmen.
Since late 2008, Dave has been seen both live and in studio using a custom white Ibanez RG, with a humbucker / single / single pickup layout, gold hardware, and a vintage style tremolo, essentially an Ibanez version of his PRS Guitars Signature Model. Dave previously used a vintage Marshall JCM800, but now plays through two Marshall JCM900 amplifiers which are dubbed Tangerine and Peach. For large gigs he will also use a Marshall Mode 4 for clean tones. In the studio he is also commonly known to use a Vox AC30 for cleans and a Bogner Uberschall for dirty tones.
For effects, Dave prefers BOSS. He uses a BOSS Octave Pedal, two BOSS DD3 Digital Delays, a BOSS Turbo distortion for extra volume during soloing, a Dunlop Cry Baby Wah Pedal and several others.
Epiphone Guitars (a subsidiary of Gibson) released its Dave Navarro Artist Acoustic in July 2010. According to an interview with Navarro on Gibson.com, the new guitar is based upon the classic Gibson (and Epiphone) "Hummingbird '' design, and has already been played by the guitarist in the studio while recording with Jane 's Addiction. Named "Jane '', the new guitar is black in color (as opposed to Navarro 's usual white guitars), and sports a dead tree and crows on the pickguard, rather than the traditional Hummingbird and foliage images.
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when does the new series of vikings start in england | Vikings (TV series) - Wikipedia
Vikings is a historical drama television series written and created by Michael Hirst for the History channel. Filmed in Ireland, it premiered on March 3, 2013 in Canada.
Vikings is inspired by the sagas of Viking Ragnar Lothbrok, one of the best - known legendary Norse heroes and notorious as the scourge of England and France. The show portrays Ragnar as a farmer who rises to fame by successful raids into England, and eventually becomes a Scandinavian king, with the support of his family and fellow warriors: his brother Rollo, his son Björn Ironside, and his wives -- the shieldmaiden Lagertha and the princess Aslaug.
On March 17, 2016, History renewed Vikings for a fifth season of 20 episodes, which is set to premiere on November 29, 2017. On September 12, 2017, ahead of its fifth - season premiere, the series was renewed for a sixth season, which will consist of 20 episodes.
The series is inspired by the tales of the raiding, trading, and exploring Norsemen of early medieval Scandinavia. It follows the exploits of the legendary Viking chieftain Ragnar Lothbrok and his crew and family, as notably laid down in the 13th - century sagas Ragnars saga Loðbrókar and Ragnarssona þáttr, as well as in Saxo Grammaticus 's 12th - century work Gesta Danorum. Norse legendary sagas were partially fictional tales based on Norse oral tradition, written down about 200 to 400 years after the events they describe. Further inspiration is taken from historical sources of the period, such as records of the Viking raid on Lindisfarne depicted in the second episode, or Ahmad ibn Fadlan 's 10th - century account of the Volga Vikings. The series is set at the beginning of the Viking Age, marked by the Lindisfarne raid in 793.
An Irish - Canadian co-production, Vikings was developed and produced by Octagon Films and Take 5 Productions. Michael Hirst, Morgan O'Sullivan, John Weber, Sherry Marsh, Alan Gasmer, James Flynn and Sheila Hockin are credited as executive producers. The first season 's budget was reported as US $ 40 million.
The series began filming in July 2012 at Ashford Studios, a newly built facility in Ireland, chosen as a location for its tax advantages. On August 16, 2012, longship scenes were filmed at Luggala, as well as on the Poulaphouca Reservoir in the Wicklow Mountains. 70 percent of the first season was filmed outdoors. Some additional background shots were done in western Norway.
Johan Renck, Ciarán Donnelly and Ken Girotti each directed three episodes. The production team included cinematographer John Bartley, costume designer Joan Bergin, production designer Tom Conroy, composer Trevor Morris and Irish choir Crux Vocal Ensemble, directed by Paul McGough.
On April 5, 2013, History renewed Vikings for a ten - episode second season.
Two new series regulars were announced on June 11, 2013. Alexander Ludwig, portraying the teenage Björn, and Linus Roache, playing King Ecbert of Wessex. Season two undergoes a jump in time, aging the young Björn (Nathan O'Toole) into an older swordsman portrayed by Ludwig. The older Björn has not seen his father, Ragnar, for "a long period of time ''. Lagertha remarries to a powerful jarl, a stepfather who provides harsh guidance to Björn.
Edvin Endre, son of Swedish actress Lena Endre, and Anna Åström signed up for roles in season two. Endre had the role of Erlendur, one of King Horik 's sons.
Jeff Woolnough and Kari Skogland joined Ken Girotti and Ciaran Donnelly as directors of season two.
Michael Hirst announced plans for season four before season three had begun airing. Season four began production around the Dublin area in April 2015.
Finnish actors Peter Franzén and Jasper Pääkkönen, as well as Canadian actress Dianne Doan joined the cast of season four. Franzén played Norwegian King Harald Finehair, a potential rival to Ragnar. Pääkkönen was cast as Halfdan the Black, Finehair 's brother. Doan portrays Yidu, a Chinese character who has a major role in the first half of the fourth season.
At the same time that the series was renewed for a fifth season, it was announced that Irish actor Jonathan Rhys Meyers would be joining the cast, as Heahmund, a "warrior bishop ''. Vikings creator Michael Hirst, explained: "I was looking at the history books, and I came across these warrior bishops. The antecedents of the Knights Templar: these are people who were absolutely religious, yet they put on armor and they fought. Do n't let their priestly status fool you, either. ' They were crazy! They believed totally in Christianity and the message, and yet, on the battlefield, they were totally berserk. ' ''
Former WWE star Adam Copeland, (a.k.a. Edge), was cast in a recurring role for season five, as Ketill Flatnose, a violent and bold warrior. He is chosen by Floki to lead an expedition to Iceland to set up a colony. Irish actor Darren Cahill will play the role of Aethelred in the upcoming season. Nigerian actor Stanley Amuzie told local media he had landed a small role in the upcoming season. Season five will also include Irish actor, musician and real - life police detective, Kieran O'Reilly, who will play the role of "White Hair ''.
Norwegian music group Wardruna provided much of the background music to the series. Founder Einar Kvitrafn Selvik also appeared as an actor.
In April 2017 it was announced that Danish actor Erik Madsen will join the cast for season five, as King Hemmig. He spent several months of 2016 on the set of The Last Kingdom, portraying a Viking.
Russian actor Danila Kozlovsky joins the series for season six, as Oleg of Novgorod, the 10th century Varangian (east European Vikings) ruler of the Rus ' people. Coincidentally, Kozlovsky headlined the big - budget 2016 Russian feature Viking, playing one of Oleg 's successors, Vladimir the Great, Prince of Novgorod.
Vikings premiered on March 3, 2013 in Canada and the United States. Vikings was renewed for a fourth season in March 2015 with an extended order of 20 episodes, which premiered on February 18, 2016. On March 17, 2016, History renewed Vikings for a fifth season of 20 episodes, which is set to premiere on November 29, 2017. On September 12, 2017, ahead of its fifth - season premiere, the series was renewed for a sixth season of 20 episodes.
In the UK, Vikings premiered on May 24, 2013 where it was exclusively available on the streaming video - on - demand service LoveFilm. The second season premiered on March 24, 2015. The third season began airing on February 20, 2015 on Amazon Video.
In Australia, the series premiered on August 8, 2013 on SBS One. It was later moved to FX, which debuted the second season on February 4, 2015. Season three of Vikings began broadcasting in Australia on SBS One on March 19, 2015. Season four of Vikings began broadcasting in Australia on SBS One on February 24, 2016.
The first episode received favourable reviews, with an average rating of 71 % according to Metacritic. Alan Sepinwall of HitFix praised the casting, notably of Fimmel as Ragnar, and observed that Vikings "is n't complicated. It... relies on the inherent appeal of the era and these characters to drive the story. '' Nancy DeWolf Smith of The Wall Street Journal noted the "natural and authentic '' setting and costumes, and appreciated that Vikings was (unlike, e.g., Spartacus) not a celebration of sex and violence, but "a study of character, stamina, power and... of social, emotional and even intellectual awakening ''. Hank Stuever, writing for the Washington Post, said that the "compelling and robust new drama series... delivers all the expected gore and blood spatter '', but that it successfully adapted the skills of cable television drama, with the care taken in acting, writing and sense of scope reminiscent of Rome, Sons of Anarchy and Game of Thrones. He also suggested that the way the series emphasized "a core pride and nobility in this tribe of thugs '' reflected "just another iteration of Tony Soprano ''. Neil Genzlinger, in The New York Times, praised the "arresting '' cinematography and the actors ' performances, notably Fimmel 's, and favorably contrasted Vikings to Game of Thrones and Spartacus for the absence of gratuitous nudity.
In TIME, James Poniewozik noted that the relatively simple generational conflict underlying Vikings "does n't nearly have the narrative ambition of a Game of Thrones or the political subtleties of a Rome '', nor these series ' skill with dialogue, but that it held up pretty well compared to the "tabloid history '' of The Tudors and The Borgias. He concluded that "Vikings ' larger story arc is really more about historical forces '' than about its not very complex characters. Clark Collis of Entertainment Weekly appreciated the performances, but considered Vikings to be "kind of a mess '', lacking the intrigue of The Tudors and Game of Thrones. Brian Lowry criticized the series in Variety as an "unrelenting cheese-fest '' and as a "more simpleminded version of Game of Thrones '', but considered that it had "a level of atmosphere and momentum that makes it work as a mild diversion ''. In the San Francisco Chronicle, David Wiegand was disappointed by the series 's "glacial pace '' and lack of action as well as the "flabby direction and a gassy script '', while appreciating the performances and characters.
The second season received a Metacritic rating of 77 %, and a Rotten Tomatoes rating of 92 % based on twelve professional critic reviews.
According to Nielsen, the series premiere drew six million viewers in the U.S., topping all broadcast networks among viewers aged 18 to 49. An earlier claim of over eighteen million viewers was later retracted by the channel with an apology.
In Canada, the premiere had 1.1 million viewers. The first season averaged 942,000 viewers.
Some critics have pointed out historical inaccuracies in the series 's depiction of Viking society. Lars Walker, in the magazine The American Spectator, criticized its portrayal of early Viking Age government (represented by Earl Haraldson) as autocratic rather than essentially democratic. Joel Robert Thompson criticized depiction of the Scandinavians ' supposed ignorance of the existence of Britain and Ireland, and of the death penalty rather than outlawry (skoggangr) as their most serious punishment.
Monty Dobson, a historian at Central Michigan University, criticised the depiction of Viking Age clothing, but went on to say that fictional shows like Vikings could still be a useful teaching tool. The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten reported that the series incorrectly depicted the temple at Uppsala as a stave church in the mountains, whereas the historical temple was situated on flat land and stave churches were a hallmark of later Christian architecture. On the other hand, the temple as depicted does have similarities with reconstructions of the Uppåkra hof.
Many characters are based on (or inspired by) real people from history or legend, and the major events portrayed are broadly drawn from history. However, events from over a hundred years have been condensed, so that people who could never have met are shown as of similar age, with the historical events amended for dramatic effect. For example, season one leads up to the attack on Lindisfarne Abbey of 793 (before the real Rollo was born), but in season three the same characters at roughly the same ages participate in the Siege of Paris of 845. By this time, Ecbert had been dead for over forty years, and King Alfred the Great was already king, yet he is still portrayed as a child in season four. Rollo is portrayed having his followers killed, and fighting his fellow Vikings, whereas in history they were granted what became Normandy and continued to co-operate with their Norse kinsmen. Furthermore, most of the principal characters are portrayed as being from Norway, while according to primary sources they would most likely have been Danes.
Little is known about Viking religious practice and so its depiction is largely creative. When Katheryn Winnick was asked why she licked the seer 's hand she answered: "It was n't originally in the script and we just wanted to come up with something unique and different ''. Regarding the historical differences and accuracy issues of the show, showrunner Michael Hirst said: "I especially had to take liberties with Vikings because no one knows for sure what happened in the Dark Ages... we want people to watch it. A historical account of the Vikings would reach hundreds, occasionally thousands, of people. Here we 've got to reach millions. ''
Zenescope partnered with the History Channel to create a free Vikings comic book based on the series. It was first distributed at Comic - Con 2013 and by comiXology in February 2014. The comic was written by Michael Hirst, features interior artwork by Dennis Calero (X-Men Noir), and is set before the events of season one. In addition to featuring Ragnar and Rollo battling alongside their father, the comic depicts the brothers ' first encounter with Lagertha.
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when did the word ain't become a word in the dictionary | Ai n't - wikipedia
The word ai n't is a contraction for am not, is not, are not, has not, and have not in the common English language vernacular. In some dialects ai n't is also used as a contraction of do not, does not, and did not. The development of ai n't for the various forms of to be not, to have not, and to do not occurred independently, at different times. The usage of ai n't for the forms of to be not was established by the mid-18th century, and for the forms of to have not by the early 19th century.
The usage of ai n't is a continuing subject of controversy in English. Ai n't is commonly used by many speakers in oral and informal settings, especially in certain regions and dialects. Its usage is often highly stigmatized, and it can be used by the general public as a marker of low socio - economic or regional status or education level. Its use is generally considered non-standard by dictionaries and style guides except when used for rhetorical effect.
Ai n't has several antecedents in English, corresponding to the various forms of to be not and to have not that ai n't contracts. The development of ai n't for to be not and to have not is a diachronic coincidence; in other words, they were independent developments at different times.
Am n't as a contraction of am not is known from 1618. As the "mn '' combination of two nasal consonants is disfavoured by many English speakers, the "m '' of am n't began to be elided, reflected in writing with the new form a n't. Are n't as a contraction for are not first appeared in 1675. In non-rhotic dialects, are n't lost its "r '' sound, and began to be pronounced as a n't.
A n't (sometimes a' n't) arose from am not and are not almost simultaneously. A n't first appears in print in the work of English Restoration playwrights. In 1695 a n't was used as a contraction of "am not '', in William Congreve 's play Love for Love: "I can hear you farther off, I a n't deaf ''. But as early as 1696 Sir John Vanbrugh uses a n't to mean "are not '' in The Relapse: "Hark thee shoemaker! These shoes a n't ugly, but they do n't fit me ''.
A n't for is not may have developed independently from its use for am not and are not. Is n't was sometimes written as i n't or e n't, which could have changed into a n't. A n't for is not may also have filled a gap as an extension of the already - used conjugations for to be not. Jonathan Swift used a n't to mean is not in Letter 19 of his Journal to Stella (1710 -- 13): It a n't my fault, ' tis Patrick 's fault; pray now do n't blame Presto.
A n't with a long "a '' sound began to be written as ai n't, which first appears in writing in 1749. By the time ai n't appeared, a n't was already being used for am not, are not, and is not. A n't and ai n't coexisted as written forms well into the nineteenth century -- Charles Dickens used the terms interchangeably, as in Chapter 13, Book the Second of Little Dorrit (1857): "' I guessed it was you, Mr Pancks '', said she, ' for it 's quite your regular night; ai n't it?... A n't it gratifying, Mr Pancks, though; really? ' ". In the English lawyer William Hickey 's memoirs (1808 -- 1810), ai n't appears as a contraction of are n't; "thank God we 're all alive, ai n't we... ''
Ha n't or ha' n't, an early contraction for has not and have not, developed from the elision of the "s '' of has not and the "v '' of have not. Ha n't appeared in the work of English Restoration playwrights, as in The Country Wife (1675) by William Wycherley: Gentlemen and Ladies, ha n't you all heard the late sad report / of poor Mr. Horner. Much like a n't, ha n't was sometimes pronounced with a long "a '', yielding hai n't. With H - dropping, the "h '' of ha n't or hai n't gradually disappeared in most dialects, and became ai n't.
Ai n't as a contraction for has not / have not first appeared in dictionaries in the 1830s, and appeared in 1819 in Niles ' Weekly Register: Strike! Why I ai n't got nobody here to strike... Charles Dickens likewise used ai n't to mean have n't in Chapter 28 of Martin Chuzzlewit (1844): "You ai n't got nothing to cry for, bless you! He 's righter than a trivet! ''
Like with a n't, ha n't and ai n't were found together late into the nineteenth century, as in Chapter 12 of Dickens ' Our Mutual Friend: "' Well, have you finished? ' asked the strange man. ' No, ' said Riderhood, ' I ai n't '... ' You sir! You ha n't said what you want of me. ' ''
Ai n't meaning did n't is widely considered a feature unique to African American Vernacular English, although it can be found in some dialects of Caribbean English as well. It may function not as a true variant of did n't, but as a creole - like tense - neutral negator (sometimes termed "generic ai n't ''). Its origin may have been due to approximation when early African Americans acquired English as a second language; it is also possible that early African Americans inherited this variation from colonial European - Americans, and later kept the variation when it largely passed out of wider usage. Ai n't is rarely attested for the present - tense constructions do not or does not.
Linguistically, ai n't is formed by the same rule that English speakers use to form are n't and other contractions of auxiliary verbs. Most linguists consider usage of ai n't to be grammatical, as long as its users convey their intended meaning to their audience. In other words, a sentence such as "She ai n't got no sense '' is grammatical because it generally follows a native speaker 's word order, and because a native speaker would recognize the meaning of that sentence. Linguists draw a distinction, however, between grammaticality and acceptability: what may be considered grammatical across all dialects may nevertheless be considered not acceptable in certain dialects or contexts. The usage of ai n't is socially unacceptable in some situations.
Functionally, ai n't has operated in part to plug what is known as the "am n't gap '' -- the anomalous situation in standard English whereby there are standard contractions for other forms of to be not (are n't for are not, and is n't for is not), but no standard contraction for am not. Historically, ai n't has filled the gap where one might expect am n't, even in contexts where other uses of ai n't were disfavored. Standard dialects that regard ai n't as non-standard often substitute are n't for am not in tag questions (e.g., "I 'm doing okay, are n't I? ''), while leaving the "am n't gap '' open in declarative statements.
Ai n't has been called "the most stigmatized word in the language '', as well as "the most powerful social marker '' in English. It is a prominent example in English of a shibboleth -- a word used to determine inclusion in, or exclusion from, a group.
Historically, this was not the case. For most of its history, ai n't was acceptable across many social and regional contexts. Throughout the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, ai n't and its predecessors were part of normal usage for both educated and uneducated English speakers, and was found in the correspondence and fiction of, among others, Jonathan Swift, Lord Byron, Henry Fielding, and George Eliot. For Victorian English novelists William Makepeace Thackeray and Anthony Trollope, the educated and upper classes in 19th century England could use ai n't freely, but in familiar speech only. Ai n't continued to be used without restraint by many upper middle class speakers in southern England into the beginning of the 20th century.
Ai n't was a prominent target of early prescriptivist writers. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, some writers began to propound the need to establish a "pure '' or "correct '' form of English. Contractions in general were disapproved of, but ai n't and its variants were seen as particularly "vulgar ''. This push for "correctness '' was driven mainly by the middle class, which led to an incongruous situation in which non-standard constructions continued to be used by both lower and upper classes, but not by the middle class. The reason for the strength of the prescription against ai n't is not entirely clear.
The strong prescription against ai n't in standard English has led to many misconceptions, often expressed jocularly (or ironically), as "ai n't ai n't a word '' or "ai n't ai n't in the dictionary. '' Ai n't is listed in most dictionaries, including the Oxford Dictionary of English and Merriam - Webster. However, Oxford states "it does not form part of standard English and should never be used in formal or written contexts '', and Merriam - Webster states it is "widely disapproved as non-standard and more common in the habitual speech of the less educated ''.
Webster 's Third New International Dictionary, published in 1961, went against then - standard practice when it included the following usage note in its entry on ai n't: "though disapproved by many and more common in less educated speech, used orally in most parts of the U.S. by many cultivated speakers esp. in the phrase ai n't I. '' Many commentators disapproved of the dictionary 's relatively permissive attitude toward the word, which was inspired, in part, by the belief of its editor, Philip Gove, that "distinctions of usage were elitist and artificial ''.
Ai n't is found throughout the English - speaking world across regions and classes, and is among the most pervasive nonstandard terms in English. It is one of two negation features (the other being the double negative) that are known to appear in all nonstandard English dialects. Ai n't is used throughout the United Kingdom, with its geographical distribution increasing over time. It is also found throughout the United States, including in Appalachia, the South, New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and the Upper Midwest. In its geographical ubiquity, ai n't is to be contrasted with other folk usages such as y'all, which is confined to the South region of the United States.
In England, ai n't is generally considered a non-standard usage, as it is used by speakers of a lower socio - economic class, or by educated people in an informal manner. In the nineteenth century, ai n't was often used by writers to denote regional dialects such as Cockney English. A notable exponent of the term is Cockney flower girl Eliza Doolittle from George Bernard Shaw 's play Pygmalion; "I ai n't done nothing wrong by speaking to the gentleman '' said Doolittle. Ai n't is a non-standard feature commonly found in mainstream Australian English, and in New Zealand, ai n't is a feature of Māori - influenced English. In American English, usage of ai n't corresponds to a middle level of education, although it is widely believed that its use establishes of lack of education or social standing in the speaker.
The usage of ai n't in the southern United States is distinctive, however, in the continued usage of the word by well - educated, cultivated speakers. Ai n't is in common usage of educated Southerners. In the South, the use of ai n't can be used as a marker to separate cultured speakers from those who lack confidence in their social standing and thus avoid its use entirely.
Ai n't can be used in both speech and writing to catch attention and to give emphasis, as in "Ai n't that a crying shame '', or "If it ai n't broke, do n't fix it. '' Merriam - Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary gives an example from film critic Richard Schickel: "the wackiness of movies, once so deliciously amusing, ai n't funny anymore. '' It can also be used deliberately for what The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style describes as "tongue - in - cheek '' or "reverse snobbery ''. Star baseball pitcher Dizzy Dean, a member of the Baseball Hall of Fame and later a popular announcer, once said, "A lot of people who do n't say ai n't, ai n't eatin '. ''
Although ai n't is seldom found in formal writing, it is frequently used in more informal written settings, such as popular song lyrics. In genres such as traditional country music, blues, rock n ' roll, and hip - hop, lyrics often include nonstandard features such as ai n't. This is principally due to the use of such features as markers of "covert identity and prestige ''.
Ai n't is standard in some fixed phrases, such as "You ai n't seen nothing yet ''.
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who is the eye in lord of the rings | Sauron - wikipedia
Sauron / ˈsaʊrɒn / is the title character and main antagonist of J.R.R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings.
In the same work, he is identified as the Necromancer, mentioned in Tolkien 's earlier novel The Hobbit. In Tolkien 's The Silmarillion (published posthumously by Tolkien 's son Christopher Tolkien), he is also described as the chief lieutenant of the first Dark Lord, Morgoth. Tolkien noted that the Ainur, the "angelic '' powers of his constructed myth, "were capable of many degrees of error and failing '', but by far the worst was "the absolute Satanic rebellion and evil of Morgoth and his satellite Sauron ''.
The Ainulindalë, the cosmological myth prefixed to The Silmarillion, explains how the supreme being Eru initiated his creation by bringing into being innumerable spirits, "the offspring of his thought '', who were with him before anything else had been made. The being later known as Sauron originated among these as an "immortal (angelic) spirit ''. In his origin, Sauron therefore perceived the Creator directly. As Tolkien noted: "Sauron could not, of course, be a ' sincere ' atheist. Though one of the minor spirits created before the world, he knew Eru, according to his measure. ''
In the terminology of Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, these angelic spirits were called Ainur. Those who entered the physical world were called Valar, especially the most powerful ones. The lesser Ainur who entered the world, of whom Sauron was one, were called Maiar. In Tolkien 's letters, the author noted that Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person (in the terms of this mythology; a lesser member of the race of Valar) ''. Tolkien noted that he was of a "far higher order '' than the Maiar who later came to Middle - earth as the Wizards Gandalf, Radagast, and Saruman. As created by Eru, the Ainur were all good and uncorrupt, as Elrond stated in The Lord of the Rings: "Nothing is evil in the beginning. Even Sauron was not so. ''
Rebellion originated with the Vala Melkor (as Morgoth was called before he turned to darkness). According to a story meant as a parable of events beyond Elvish comprehension, Eru let his spirit - children perform a great Music, the Music of the Ainur, developing a theme revealed by Eru himself. For a while the cosmic choir made wondrous music, but then Melkor tried to increase his own glory by weaving into his song thoughts and ideas that were not in accordance with the original theme. "Straightway discord arose around him, and many that sang nigh him grew despondent... but some began to attune their music to his rather than to the thought which they had at first. ''
The discord Melkor created would have dire consequences, as this singing was a kind of template for the world: "The evils of the world were not at first in the great Theme, but entered with the discords of Melkor. '' However, "Sauron was not a beginner of discord; and he probably knew more of the Music than did Melkor, whose mind had always been filled with his own plans and devices. '' Apparently Sauron was not even one of the spirits that immediately began to attune their music to that of Melkor, since it is noted elsewhere that his fall occurred later (see below).
The cosmic Music now represented the conflict between good and evil. Finally, Eru abruptly brought the Song of Creation to an end. To show the spirits, faithful or otherwise, what they had done, Eru gave independent being to the now - marred Music. This resulted in the manifestation of the material World, Eä, where the drama of good and evil would play out and be resolved.
Entering Eä at the beginning of time, the Valar and Maiar tried to build and organize the world according to the will of Eru. Each Maia was associated with one of the powerful Valar whom they served; for example, Sauron was prominent among the Maiar who served Aulë the Smith, the great craftsman of the Valar. As a result, Sauron came to possess great knowledge of the physical substances of the world, forging, and all manner of craftsmanship -- emerging as "a great craftsman of the household of Aulë ''. Sauron would always retain the "scientific '' knowledge he derived from the great Vala of Craft: "In his beginning he was of the Maiar of Aulë, and he remained mighty in the lore of that people. '' Sauron 's original Elvish name in Valinor was Mairon (Quenya for "the Admirable ''), but this name was not used anymore after he joined Melkor. In Beleriand, he was called in Sindarin Gorthu "Mist of Fear '' and Gorthaur "The Cruel ''. However, during the Second Age, Sauron continued to call himself Tar - Mairon (Quenya "King Excellent '').
Melkor opposed the other Valar, who remained faithful to Eru and tried to carry out the Creator 's designs. Within the larger universe, they eventually focused on developing the world of Arda (Earth, or the entire solar system). Around this time, Sauron fell victim to Melkor 's corrupting influence: "In the beginning of Arda, Melkor seduced him to his allegiance. ''
As for Sauron 's motives, Tolkien noted that "it had been his virtue (and therefore also the cause of his fall...) that he loved order and coordination, and disliked all confusion and wasteful friction ''. Thus, "it was the apparent will and power of Melkor to effect his designs quickly and masterfully that had first attracted Sauron to him ''.
For a while, Sauron apparently kept up the pretence that he was a faithful servant of the Valar, all the while feeding Melkor information about their doings. Thus, when the Valar made Almaren as their first physical abode in the world, "Melkor knew of all that was done; for even then he had secret friends and spies among the Maiar whom he had converted to his cause, and of these the chief, as after became known, was Sauron. ''
Melkor soon destroyed Almaren, and the Valar established a new abode in the Uttermost West: the Blessed Realm of Valinor. They still did not perceive Sauron 's treachery, for he too became "a being of Valinor ''.
At some point, Sauron left the Blessed Realm and went to Middle - earth, the central continent of Arda, where Melkor had established his stronghold. In one text, Tolkien wrote of Sauron that "in Valinor he had dwelt among the people of the gods, but there Morgoth had drawn him to evil and to his service ''. Sauron deserted his service to the Valar and openly joined their great enemy: "Because of his admiration of Strength he had become a follower of Morgoth and fell with him down into the depths of evil. ''
After joining his new master in Middle - earth, Sauron proved to be a devoted and capable servant: "While Morgoth still stood, Sauron did not seek his own supremacy, but worked and schemed for another, desiring the triumph of Melkor, whom in the beginning he had adored. He thus was often able to achieve things, first conceived by Melkor, which his master did not or could not complete in the furious haste of his malice. '' "In all the deeds of Melkor the Morgoth upon Arda, in his vast works and in the deceits of his cunning, Sauron had a part. ''
In chapter three of The Silmarillion, Tolkien writes that by the time the Elves awoke in the world, Sauron had become Melkor 's lieutenant and was given command over the newly built stronghold of Angband. To protect the Elves, the Valar made war on Melkor and captured him, but could not find Sauron.
Thus, "when Melkor was made captive, Sauron escaped and lay hid in Middle - earth; and it can in this way be understood how the breeding of the Orcs (no doubt already begun) went on with increasing speed ''. In the Blessed Realm, Melkor feigned reform, but eventually escaped back to Middle - earth, holding the Silmarils of Fëanor. By then, Sauron had "secretly repaired Angband for the help of his Master when he returned; and there the dark places underground were already manned with hosts of the Orcs before Melkor came back at last, as Morgoth the Black Enemy ''.
Shortly after the return of Morgoth, the Noldorin Elves also left the Blessed Realm of Valinor in the Uttermost West, against the counsel of the Valar, to wage war on Morgoth, who had stolen the Silmarils. In that war, Sauron served as Morgoth 's chief lieutenant, surpassing all others in rank, such as Gothmog, the Lord of Balrogs. Known as Gorthaur the Cruel, Sauron was at that time a master of illusions and shapeshifting; werewolves and vampires were his servants, chief among them Draugluin, Father of Werewolves, and his vampire herald Thuringwethil.
When Morgoth left Angband to corrupt the newly discovered Men, Sauron directed the war against the Elves. He conquered the Elvish island of Tol Sirion and its watchtower Minas Tirith, so that it became known as Tol - in - Gaurhoth, the Isle of Werewolves.
Ten years later, Finrod Felagund, the king of Nargothrond and former lord of Tol Sirion, came there with Beren and ten Elves, disguised as Orcs. However Sauron had them brought before him. Finrod had a magical battle with Sauron, but was defeated (in part because of the curse of Fëanor). All 12 were thrown into Sauron 's dungeons and the 10 Elves were devoured by wolves. Finrod died fighting a wolf to save Beren.
Soon afterwards Lúthien and Huan the Wolfhound arrived, hoping to rescue Beren. Sauron sent werewolves against them, including their sire Draugluin, but Huan slew them all. Aware of a prophecy to the effect that Huan would be killed by the greatest wolf ever, Sauron himself assumed a monstrous wolf - like form and attacked him. But the prophecy actually applied to the still - unborn Carcharoth, and Sauron could not prevail against Huan, despite transforming into a serpent and his own form.
Eventually, Huan had Sauron by the throat. Lúthien gave Sauron two options: either surrender to her the magical control he had established over Tol - in - Gaurhoth, or have his body destroyed so that his naked ghost would have to endure the scorn of Morgoth. Sauron yielded, and Huan let him go. Lúthien destroyed the tower and rescued Beren from the dungeons.
Sauron fled in the form of a huge vampiric bat, and spent some time as a vampire in the woods of Taur - nu - Fuin. Nothing is told of his subsequent activities in the First Age until the end.
Following the voyage of Eärendil to the Blessed Realm, the Valar finally moved against Morgoth. In the resulting War of Wrath, the Dark Lord was defeated and cast into the Outer Void beyond the world. But "Sauron fled from the Great Battle and escaped ''.
Chastened, Sauron assumed his fairest form and approached Eönwë, emissary of the Valar, who nevertheless could not pardon a Maia like himself. Through Eönwë, Manwë as Lord of the Valar "commanded Sauron to come before him for judgement, but (he) had left room for repentance and ultimate rehabilitation ''. Although Sauron 's repentance before Eönwë was genuine, if out of fear, he was ashamed to return to Valinor and receive a judgement or sentence due to his long service to Morgoth. Furthermore, the influence of his former master was still strong, so he escaped and hid in Middle - earth.
About 500 years into the Second Age, Sauron reappeared. "Bereft of his lord... (he) fell into the folly of imitating him ''. "Very slowly, beginning with fair motives: the reorganizing and rehabilitation of Middle - earth, ' neglected by the gods, ' he becomes a reincarnation of Evil, and a thing lusting for Complete Power '', eventually rising to become "master and god of Men ''.
As for Sauron 's "fair motives '', Tolkien emphasized that at this time he "was not indeed wholly evil, not unless all ' reformers ' who want to hurry up with ' reconstruction ' and ' reorganization ' are wholly evil, even before pride and the lust to exert their will eat them up ''.
"Though the only real good in, or rational motive for, all this ordering and planning and organization was the good of all inhabitants of Arda (even admitting Sauron 's right to be their supreme lord), his ' plans ', the idea coming from his own isolated mind, became the sole object of his will, and an end, the End, in itself... (H) is capability of corrupting other minds, and even engaging their service, was a residue from the fact that his original desire for ' order ' had really envisaged the good estate (especially physical well - being) of his ' subjects '. ''
As part of a plan to seduce the Elves into his service, Sauron assumed a fair appearance as Annatar, "Lord of Gifts '', befriended the Elven - smiths of Eregion, led by Celebrimbor, and counselled them in arts and magic. Sauron hinted that he was an emissary of the Valar, specifically of Aulë, whom the Noldor in Exile held in high regard. Some of the Elves distrusted him, especially Galadriel and Gil - galad, the High King of the Noldor. The Elves in Eregion, however, did not heed their warnings.
With Sauron 's assistance, the Elven - smiths forged the Rings of Power, which conferred great power upon their bearers. He then secretly forged the One Ring in the volcanic Mount Doom in Mordor. This "One Ring to rule them all '' had the power to dominate the other Rings and enslave their wearers to Sauron 's will. The Rings of Power were extremely potent, however; to create an instrument that could dominate even them, Sauron was forced to transfer a great part of his native power into it. Yet "while he wore it, his power on earth was actually enhanced ''.
Sauron 's plan would have succeeded had the Elves not detected his influence when he put on the One Ring. It was then the Elves saw him for who he really was, removed their Rings, and did not use them for as long as Sauron retained the One Ring. Enraged, Sauron initiated a great war and conquered much of the land west of Anduin. The Three Rings, however, had been forged by Celebrimbor himself without Sauron 's help. These rings were saved and remained in the hands of the Elves, specifically Gil - galad, Círdan, and Galadriel.
This began the Dark Years. Sauron overran Eregion, killed Celebrimbor, leader of the Elven - smiths, and seized the Seven and the Nine Rings of Power that had been previously forged with his assistance. Sauron besieged Imladris, battled Moria and Lothlórien, and pushed further into Gil - galad 's realm. The Elves were hard pressed to defend Lindon and the Havens, but in the nick of time the powerful army from Númenor arrived to their aid, defeating Sauron 's forces and driving the remnant back to Mordor. The Númenóreans were descended from the Three Houses of the Edain who helped the Elves in their war against Morgoth. They lived on the island of Númenor in the seas between Middle - earth and Valinor, a reward for their service from the Valar, and theirs was the most powerful kingdom of Men at this time.
In Unfinished Tales, "The History of Galadriel and Celeborn '' states that Sauron and his bodyguard were all that was left of his original army. Gil - galad 's power after the War was such that Sauron was unable to move out of Mordor for some time.
From this time on, Sauron became known as the Dark Lord of Mordor. Sauron fortified Mordor and completed the Dark Tower of Barad - dûr, already centuries in the building. He distributed the remaining rings of the Seven and the Nine to lords of Dwarves and Men. Dwarves proved too resilient to bend to his will, but the Men were enslaved by Sauron as the Nazgûl, his most feared servants. Well aware of the strength of the Númenóreans after his earlier defeat, Sauron withdrew from the coasts and for a long time avoided directly challenging them, although he managed to use some of the Nine rings to snare three of their great lords.
Sauron regained control over most of the creatures that had served Morgoth in the First Age (such as Orcs and Trolls). Sauron also gained power over most of the Men in the East and the South, becoming their god - king.
Toward the end of the Second Age, as the Númenóreans withdrew from the coasts after their people were divided by strife over the fear of death, Sauron began assailing their Middle - earth strongholds and assumed the titles of Lord of the Earth and King of Men.
Toward the end of the Second Age, Ar - Pharazôn, who would turn out to be the last and most powerful of the Númenórean kings, had just ascended to the throne when he was angered by reports of Sauron 's increasing power. In a show of force, Ar - Pharazôn led a massive army to Middle - earth to reassert Númenórean dominance. Sauron, realizing he could not defeat the Númenóreans with military strength, surrendered. Clad in a beautiful incarnation, he came to Ar - Pharazôn 's camp to swear fealty to the king, and allowed himself to be taken as a prisoner to Númenor.
This was part of his plan to corrupt Númenórean civilization from inside. "Sauron 's personal ' surrender ' was voluntary and cunning: he got free transport to Númenor. '' When Ar - Pharazôn in his arrogance took Sauron hostage, he failed to realise with whom he was dealing: Sauron "was of course a ' divine ' person... and thus far too powerful to be controlled in this way. He steadily got Arpharazôn 's (sic) mind under his own control, and in the event corrupted many of the Númenóreans. ''
The Akallabêth, the account of the history of Númenor, does not specifically mention the One Ring much, and it has been suggested that Sauron left it at Barad - dûr before he became a hostage of Ar - Pharazôn. In his letters, however, Tolkien noted that Sauron "naturally had the One Ring, and so very soon dominated the minds and wills of most of the Númenóreans ''. Through the power of the Ring, Sauron soon became an advisor of the king, and he used his influence to undermine the religion of Númenor. He represented Eru as an invention of the Valar that they used to justify their decrees, and substituted the worship of Melkor, with himself as high priest, for that of Eru. The worship of Melkor, with human sacrifice, became mandatory in Númenor.
But there was seen the effect of Melkor upon Sauron: he spoke of Melkor in Melkor 's own terms, as a god, or even as God. This may have been the residue of a state which was in a sense a shadow of good: the ability once in Sauron at least to admire or admit the superiority of a being other than himself... But it may be doubted whether even such a shadow of good was still sincerely operative in Sauron by that time. His cunning motive is probably best expressed thus. To wean one of the God - fearing from their allegiance it is best to propound another unseen object of allegiance and another hope of benefits; propound to him a Lord who will sanction what he desires and not forbid it. Sauron, apparently a defeated rival for world - power, now a mere hostage, can hardly propound himself; but as the former servant and disciple of Melkor, the worship of Melkor will raise him from hostage to high priest.
Besides introducing the worship of Melkor, Sauron also helped the people to design greater engines and amass more wealth, and soon the Númenóreans returned to Middle - earth where they cruelly hunted and enslaved the Men there for eventual sacrifice. While Sauron ruled behind the scenes, Ar - Pharazôn became the mightiest tyrant in the world since Melkor - Morgoth himself.
Ar - Pharazôn, despite his power, eventually became fearful of his approaching death. Sauron convinced the king that he now had the status to take what was rightfully his, and suggested that the Númenóreans send a great armada upon Aman in order to seize immortality by force from the Valar. While he led the King to believe that it was actually possible to conquer the Blessed Realm, Sauron knew well that the godlike Valar would utterly defeat any mortal army. Sauron did expect the Valar to respond by destroying Ar - Pharazôn and his naval might, thus removing Sauron 's greatest obstacle to dominance of Middle - earth. But the Valar had no direct dominance over the Children of Eru, so in the face of this challenge they laid down their guardianship of the world and appealed to Eru for a solution.
Eru 's divine intervention did indeed bury the king 's armies and drown the armada; but Númenor itself was swallowed by the sea, and the Blessed Realm was removed from the physical world. Sauron had not foreseen this, and his body was destroyed in the cataclysm. Having expended much effort in the corruption of Númenor, he was diminished, particularly as he forever lost the ability to take a fair form. Yet his spirit rose out of the abyss, and he was able to carry with him the one thing that mattered most. Wrote Tolkien, "I do not think one need boggle at this spirit carrying off the One Ring, upon which his power of dominating minds now largely depended. ''
In "Akallabêth '', Tolkien wrote that Sauron "took up '' the Ring after his spirit returned to Middle - earth. According to "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '', Sauron then realized that Gil - galad 's power had grown great during his absence and now spread across the Misty Mountains and Greenwood the Great, drawing nigh to places that Sauron initially thought secure before leaving for Númenór.
Led by Elendil, nine ships carrying the faithful Númenóreans were saved from the Downfall and escaped the cataclysm. These Númenórean exiles founded the kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor in Middle - earth. At first they believed that Sauron had perished in the Downfall, but it soon became evident that the Dark Lord had returned to Mordor when Mount Doom erupted. The Appendices in The Return of the King recount that while Sauron 's power had not yet been fully rebuilt, he had decided to attack the Númenóreans before they could become too strong in their new realms.
Sauron struck first, capturing Minas Ithil and destroying the White Tree, although Isildur managed to escape down the Anduin and seek Elendil, while Anárion defended Osgiliath and for a time drove Sauron 's forces back to the mountains. In "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age '' and The Fellowship of the Ring, Tolkien wrote that Elendil and his sons forged the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Gil - galad, as they realized that unless they united, Sauron would destroy them each individually.
A great battle ensued between the Alliance and the Host of Sauron on the battle plain of Dagorlad. The Alliance emerged victorious and invaded Mordor, laying siege to Barad - dûr for seven years. Finally, Sauron was forced to emerge from his tower and fight against the Last Alliance himself. During the final challenge on the slopes of Mount Doom, Sauron was slain by Gil - galad and Elendil, who themselves perished in the act. When Elendil fell, his sword Narsil broke beneath him. Isildur, Elendil 's surviving son, took up the hilt - shard of Narsil and cut the One Ring from Sauron 's hand. "Then Sauron was for that time vanquished, and he forsook his body, and his spirit fled far away and hid in waste places. ''
Elrond and Círdan, Gil - galad 's lieutenants, urged Isildur to destroy the Ring by casting it into Mount Doom, but he refused and kept it for his own: "This I will have as weregild for my father 's death, and my brother 's. Was it not I that dealt the Enemy his death - blow? ''
The traumatic loss of the Ring greatly weakened Sauron; he spent the first thousand years of the Third Age as a shapeless, dormant evil. Nonetheless, his servants were involved in several events that gradually weakened the Númenórean exile kingdoms, although it is unclear if Sauron was actively involved in directing them.
A few years after the War of the Last Alliance, Isildur 's army, while marching to Rivendell, was ambushed and overwhelmed by a band of Orcs in what became known as the Disaster of the Gladden Fields. Isildur put on the Ring and attempted to escape by swimming across Anduin, but the Ring -- which had a will of its own and a desire to return to Sauron -- slipped from his finger. He was spotted and killed by Orc archers. The Ring would remain lost beneath the water for about 2461 years (from year 2 of the Third Age until Déagol found it in 2463).
Around the year 1050, a shadow of fear fell on the forest later called Mirkwood. As would later become known, this was the first sign of Sauron 's remanifestation, but for many years he was not recognized. He was known (as in The Hobbit) as the Necromancer. He established a stronghold called Dol Guldur, "Hill of Sorcery '', in the southern part of the forest not far from Lórien.
Shortly after the shadow fell upon the forest, the Valar sent five Maiar to oppose this growing power. They took the form of Wizards, the most prominent being Gandalf and Saruman. By about 1100, "the Wise '' (the Wizards and the chief Elves) became aware that an evil power had made a stronghold at Dol Guldur. Initially, it was assumed that this was one of the Nazgûl rather than Sauron himself. About the year 1300, the Nazgûl did indeed reappear. In the ensuing centuries, the chief of the Nazgûl, the Witch - king of Angmar, repeatedly attacked the northern realm of Arnor, first in 1409 and finally overrunning and effectively destroying the realm in 1974. Though driven from the north in the following year by the Elves and forces from Gondor, the Witch - king retreated to Mordor and gathered the Nazgûl there. In 2000, the Nazgûl issued from Mordor to besiege the city of Minas Ithil, in the mountains bordering Mordor. The city fell in 2002, and became known as Minas Morgul. With the city the Nazgûl also captured the palantír of Minas Ithil, one of the seven seeing stones that Elendil 's people had brought with them from Númenor at the eve of the Downfall.
As the power of Dol Guldur grew, the Wise came to suspect that the controlling force behind the Witch - king and the other Nazgûl was indeed their original master, Sauron. In 2063, Gandalf went to Dol Guldur and made the first attempt to learn the truth, but Sauron retreated and hid in the East. It would be almost 400 years before he returned to his stronghold in Mirkwood, and his identity remained undetermined.
Sauron finally reappeared with increased strength in 2460. About the same time, the long - lost Ruling Ring was finally recovered from the River Anduin, found by a Stoor Hobbit named Déagol. Déagol 's friend and relative, Sméagol, coveted the Ring and killed Déagol to get it, and was swiftly corrupted by it. Banished by his family, Smeagol took the Ring, which he called his "Precious ''. His life unnaturally prolonged by the Ring, he hid in the Misty Mountains for centuries, becoming further corrupted and eventually degenerating into the creature Gollum.
In 2850, Gandalf made a second attempt to spy out Dol Guldur. Stealing into the stronghold, he was finally able to confirm the identity of its lord. He reported this to the White Council of Elves and Wizards, but Saruman, hoping to acquire the One Ring for himself, dissuaded the Council from acting against Sauron.
Eventually, the Wise put forth their might and drove Sauron from Mirkwood in 2941. During the White Council 's delay he had, however, prepared his next move, and was willing to abandon Dol Guldur.
Just before Sauron fled Dol Guldur, the hobbit Bilbo Baggins, on an improbable adventure with a party of Dwarves, stumbled across the Ring deep within the Misty Mountains. After his quest was over, Bilbo brought the Ring back to Hobbiton in the Shire. Decades later, he passed it on to his heir, Frodo.
By then, Sauron 's power had recovered to the point that he was able to extend his will over Middle - earth. The Eye of Sauron, as his attention and force of will was perceived, became a symbol of oppression and fear. Following his expulsion from Dol Guldur, he returned to Mordor in 2942, openly declared himself nine years later, and started raising Barad - dûr anew. In preparation for a final war against Men and Elves, he bred armies of monstrous orcs, known as Uruks.
The three volumes of The Lord of the Rings tell the story of Sauron 's last attempt at achieving world dominion, as the Third Age reached its climax in the years 3018 and 3019.
In The Fellowship of the Ring, Gandalf deduced that the ring that Bilbo had found in Gollum 's cave was indeed Sauron 's lost Master - ring. He informed Frodo about the true nature of the heirloom Bilbo had left for him, and its terrible potential if Sauron should ever regain it: "The Enemy still lacks one thing to give him strength and knowledge to beat down all resistance, break the last defences, and cover all the lands in a second darkness. He lacks the One Ring... So he is seeking it, seeking it, and all his thought is bent on it. ''
Gandalf went to Saruman for advice, but discovered that he had been corrupted by his long studies of Sauron. Using the palantír in the tower of Orthanc, Saruman was now in communication with the Dark Lord and acted as his ally, though he also secretly hoped to take the Ring for himself and use its power to supplant Sauron. Gandalf was held captive atop Orthanc for a time, but soon escaped with the help of one of the giant Eagles of Manwë.
Having captured and tortured Gollum, Sauron learned that the Ring had been found by a Hobbit named "Baggins ''. Sauron sent the Nazgûl to the Shire, Bilbo 's home, where they found that both Bilbo and Frodo had left. The Nazgûl pursued and nearly killed Frodo, but they were defeated near Rivendell by the Elf - lord Glorfindel and by Aragorn, Isildur 's heir, whom Gandalf had sent to protect the Hobbits.
In Rivendell, Elrond convened a high council of the peoples of Middle - earth to decide how to handle the crisis. The council determined that the Ring must be destroyed where it was forged, since it was utterly impervious to any other flame than the volcanic fires at its place of making, Orodruin. Frodo and Sam joined the Fellowship of the Ring, accepting the council 's mission to cast it into the volcano. The Fellowship was eventually broken when one of its members, Boromir, tried to take the Ring from Frodo; in the ensuing chaos, Boromir was killed by Orcs, and Frodo and Sam went out on their own toward Mordor.
In The Two Towers, Saruman used his own army on Sauron 's behalf and invaded Rohan. Gandalf, Théoden King of Rohan, and the Ents, led by Treebeard, finally defeated Saruman 's forces. His stronghold at Isengard was overthrown and Saruman left trapped within the Tower of Orthanc. Thus, one of Sauron 's most powerful allies was neutralized.
During Saruman 's confrontation with Gandalf, the palantír of Orthanc fell into the hands of the Fellowship, and Gandalf handed it over to Aragorn. In The Return of the King, Aragorn used it to show himself to Sauron (who still controlled another Seeing Stone, presumably the one captured from Minas Ithil centuries earlier). Aragorn was leading Sauron to think that he now had the Ring and was preparing to turn its power against its maker. The Dark Lord was troubled by this revelation, and therefore attacked sooner than he had planned by sending an army to overthrow Minas Tirith, capital of Gondor. (See Battle of the Pelennor Fields)
Immediately after the huge army left Mordor from the fortress of Minas Morgul, which was formerly Minas Ithil, Frodo and Sam attempted to enter Mordor through the pass of Cirith Ungol in the mountains above. They had been previously met by Gollum, whom Sauron had earlier released from captivity. For a while, Gollum had acted as a guide for Frodo and Sam. However, he finally betrayed them to Shelob -- a monstrous, spider - like creature that guarded the pass. (Sauron is said to have called Shelob his "cat '', sending her the occasional prisoner to be devoured.)
In the end, Sam drove off both Gollum and Shelob, but Frodo had been stung by Shelob and appeared to have died from her venom. The Orcs found Frodo 's body and stripped him of his gear, but Sam (thinking his friend dead) had already secured the Ring. Frodo regained consciousness and was freed from the orcs by Sam, and the two started the grueling journey across the plains of Mordor towards Mount Doom.
Aragorn marched on the Black Gate of Mordor with 7,000 men, knowing this force was far too small to actually defeat Sauron, but intending to cause a diversion to draw Sauron 's armies away while Frodo and Sam journeyed to Mount Doom. After a brief encounter with the Mouth of Sauron, the battle was joined and went very poorly for the outnumbered Gondor / Rohan armies. Now wrongly convinced that Aragorn had the Ring, Sauron apparently reacted just as Gandalf had thought he would: "I will crush him, and what he has taken in his insolence shall be mine again for ever. ''
Even as the Captains of the West were about to be utterly defeated by the superior might of Sauron 's grand armies, Frodo reached his goal, entering the fiery interior of Mount Doom. However, his will failed at the last moment; unable to resist the growing power of the Ring, he put it on his finger and claimed it for his own. Sauron was instantly aware of him, and his gaze turned immediately to the Door in the Mountain. Recalling his remaining Nazgûl from the ongoing battle, he commanded them to hasten to Mount Doom in a desperate attempt to secure the Ring. It was too late, however: Gollum attacked Frodo, bit the Ring from his finger, then lost his footing and fell with the Ring into the fire. With "a roar and a great confusion of noise '', the One Ring perished along with all the power Sauron had invested in it. Tolkien later commented in one of his letters that Gollum 's convenient slip was an immediate intervention by Eru himself: Gollum 's fate was "bound up with that of the ring '', as Gandalf predicted in the Mines of Moria.
At the Ring 's destruction, Sauron 's power evaporated and his form in Middle - earth was destroyed. His departing spirit towered above Mordor like a black cloud, but was blown away by a powerful wind from the West (the direction of the Blessed Realm and the Valar). His constructions crumbled, the Nazgûl were consumed in a hail of fire, and his armies, suddenly left with no direction, were easily defeated.
Gandalf had predicted what the destruction of the Ring would mean to Sauron: "If it is destroyed, then he will fall, and his fall will be so low that none can foresee his arising ever again. For he will lose the best part of the strength that was native to him in his beginning, and all that was made or begun with that power will crumble, and he will be maimed for ever, becoming a mere spirit of malice that gnaws itself in the shadows, but can not again grow or take shape. And so a great evil of this world will be removed. ''
In some of Tolkien 's notes, it is said that Sauron 's original name was Mairon or "the admirable '', though this was altered after he was suborned by Melkor. Despite this, he continued to call himself Mairon the Admirable, or Tar - Mairon "King Excellent '', until after the downfall of Númenor. ''
The name Sauron (from an earlier form Thauron) originates from the adjective saura "foul, putrid '' in Tolkien 's invented language of Quenya, and can be translated as "the Abhorred '' or "the Abomination ''. In Sindarin (another Elf - language created by Tolkien) he is called Gorthaur, "the Abhorred Dread '' or "the Dread Abomination ''. He is also called the Nameless Enemy. The Dúnedain (the descendants of the Númenóreans) call him "Sauron the Deceiver '' due to his role in the Downfall of Númenor and the forging of the Rings of Power. In the Númenórean (Adûnaic) tongue he was also known as Zigûr, The Wizard.
His two most common titles, the "Dark Lord of Mordor '' and the "Lord of the Rings '', appear only a few times in The Lord of the Rings. His other titles or variants thereof include "Base Master of Treachery '', "The Great Deceiver '', the "Dark Lord '', the "Dark Power '', "Lord of Barad - dûr '', the "Red Eye '', the "Ring - maker '' and the "Sorcerer ''.
In the First Age (as detailed in The Silmarillion) he was called the "Lord of Werewolves '' of Tol - in - Gaurhoth. In the Second Age he assumed the name Annatar, which means "Lord of Gifts '', and Aulendil, meaning "Friend of Aulë '', as well as Artano, meaning "High - Smith '', with which he assumed a new identity and tricked the Elves into working with him to create the Rings. In the Third Age he was known for a time as the Necromancer of Dol Guldur because his true identity was still unknown.
Nowhere does Tolkien provide a detailed description of Sauron 's appearance during any of his incarnations.
According to The Silmarillion, Sauron was initially able to change his appearance at will. In the beginning he assumed a beautiful form, but after switching his allegiance to Morgoth, he took a sinister shape. In the First Age, Gorlim was at one point brought into "the dreadful presence of Sauron '', but the only concrete hint about his appearance is a reference to his daunting eyes.
As part of a plan to destroy Huan, Sauron took the form of the greatest werewolf in Middle - earth 's history. When the plan backfired, he assumed a serpent - like form, and finally changed back "from monster to his own accustomed form ''. The implication is that his "accustomed form '' was not, at least, overtly monstrous. It is understood to have been humanoid.
Sauron took a beautiful appearance once again at the end of the First Age in an effort to charm Eönwë, near the beginning of the Second Age when appearing as Annatar to the Elves, and again near the end of the Second Age when corrupting the men of Númenor.
One version of the story describes, in general terms, the impression Sauron made on the Númenóreans. He appeared "as a man, or one in man 's shape, but greater than any even of the race of Númenor in stature... And it seemed to men that Sauron was great, though they feared the light of his eyes. To many he appeared fair, to others terrible; but to some evil. ''
Like Morgoth, Sauron eventually lost the ability to change his physical form (his hröa). After the destruction of his fair form in the fall of Númenor, Sauron was unable to take a pleasing appearance or veil his power again. Thereafter, at the end of the Second Age and again in the Third, he always took the shape of a terrible dark lord. His first incarnation after the Downfall of Númenor was extremely hideous, "an image of malice and hatred made visible ''. Isildur recorded that Sauron 's hand "was black, and yet burned like fire... ''. Gil - galad perished from Sauron 's heat.
In one of his letters Tolkien states that Sauron had a physical form in the Third Age:
... in a tale which allows the incarnation of great spirits in a physical and destructible form their power must be far greater when actually physically present... Sauron should be thought of as very terrible. The form that he took was that of a man of more than human stature, but not gigantic.
J.R.R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator includes a watercolour illustration of Sauron made by Tolkien himself (shown at the top of the article). It appears to show a moment in the book occurring immediately after the destruction of the Ring, when the armies of the West saw a towering, dark shape above Mordor, stretching out a threatening arm towards them before the figure dissolved.
Since the illustration refers to a more - or-less visionary moment and is moreover highly sketchy (a second sketch of Sauron 's arm appears beneath the arm itself), the image should not necessarily be pressed too hard for details about Sauron 's appearance. The head, right arm and upper torso of an apparently humanoid figure are seen. The arm is black, the rest of the body is grey, except for a red eye. No other facial features can be made out. A series of spikes are visible on Sauron 's head, possibly suggesting a crown. The mountains of Mordor are seen under the outstretched arm, confirming the enormous size of Sauron 's final apparition.
Throughout The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' (the Red Eye, the Evil Eye, the Lidless Eye, the Great Eye) is the image most often associated with Sauron. Sauron 's Orcs bore the symbol of the Eye on their helmets and shields, and referred to him as the "Eye '' because he did not allow his name to be written or spoken, according to Aragorn (a notable exception to this rule was his emissary, the Mouth of Sauron). Also, the Lord of the Nazgûl threatened Éowyn with torture before the "Lidless Eye '' at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields.
Frodo had a vision of the Eye in the Mirror of Galadriel:
The Eye was rimmed with fire, but was itself glazed, yellow as a cat 's, watchful and intent, and the black slit of its pupil opened on a pit, a window into nothing.
Later, Tolkien writes as if Frodo and Sam really glimpse the Eye directly. The mists surrounding Barad - dûr are briefly withdrawn, and:
one moment only it stared out... as from some great window immeasurably high there stabbed northward a flame of red, the flicker of a piercing Eye... The Eye was not turned on them, it was gazing north... but Frodo at that dreadful glimpse fell as one stricken mortally.
This raises the question of whether an "Eye '' was Sauron 's actual manifestation, or whether he had a body beyond the Eye. Gollum (who was tortured by Sauron in person) tells Frodo that Sauron has, at least, a "Black Hand '' with four fingers. The missing finger was cut off when Isildur took the Ring, and the finger was still missing when Sauron reappeared centuries later.
Tolkien writes in The Silmarillion that "the Eye of Sauron the Terrible few could endure '' even before his body was lost in the War of the Last Alliance.
In the draft text of the climactic moments of The Lord of the Rings, "the Eye '' stands for Sauron 's very person, with emotions and thoughts:
The Dark Lord was suddenly aware of him (Frodo), the Eye piercing all shadows... Its wrath blazed like a sudden flame and its fear was like a great black smoke, for it knew its deadly peril, the thread upon which hung its doom... (I) ts thought was now bent with all its overwhelming force upon the Mountain... ''
Christopher Tolkien comments: "The passage is notable in showing the degree to which my father had come to identify the Eye of Barad - dûr with the mind and will of Sauron, so that he could speak of ' its wrath, its fear, its thought '. In the second text... he shifted from ' its ' to ' his ' as he wrote out the passage anew. ''
Most adaptations of the story to visual media depict the Eye as visibly present. The film adaptations directed by Peter Jackson depict the Eye of Sauron as an all - seeing eye, and his prequel adaptation shows it as an extended aura about Sauron 's spiritual essence, which is a silhouette of his physical form and appears as the eye 's slit pupil.
Since the earliest versions of The Silmarillion legendarium as detailed in the History of Middle - earth series, Sauron underwent many changes. The prototype or precursor Sauron - figure was a giant monstrous cat, the Prince of Cats. Called Tevildo, Tifil and Tiberth among other names, this character played the role later taken by Sauron in the earliest version of the story of Beren and Tinúviel in The Book of Lost Tales. The Prince of Cats was later replaced by Thû, the Necromancer. The name was then changed to Gorthû, Sûr, and finally to Sauron. Gorthû, in the form Gorthaur remained in The Silmarillion; both Thû and Sauron name the character in the Lay of Leithian.
The story of Beren and Lúthien also features the heroic hound Huan and involved the subtext of cats versus dogs in its earliest form. Later the cats were changed to wolves or werewolves, with the Sauron - figure becoming the Lord of Werewolves.
Prior to the publication of The Silmarillion (1977), Sauron 's origins and true identity were unclear to those without full access to Tolkien 's notes. In early editions of Robert Foster 's The Complete Guide to Middle - earth, Sauron is described as "probably of the Eldar elves ''. Yet there were other critics who essentially hit the mark. As early as 1967, W.H. Auden conjectured that Sauron might have been a Vala, long before it became known that Tolkien had indeed described him as "a lesser member of the race of Valar '' (see full quote above).
In film versions of The Lord of the Rings, Sauron has been portrayed as either a humanoid creature (as in Ralph Bakshi 's 1978 animated version, The Lord of the Rings) or a physical, disembodied Eye (as in the 1980 animated The Return of the King), or both.
This last option is shown in the 2001 -- 2003 film trilogy directed by Peter Jackson, with Sauron voiced by Alan Howard. Here, Sauron is shown to have a large humanoid form during the forging of the Ring and up to his losing it, then being "limited '' to the disembodied Eye form throughout the rest of the storyline. The 2014 video game Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor presents a related version of this premise. In the game, he regains his physical form sometime after his defeat at Dol Guldur, losing it once more. This depiction preserves continuity with Jackson 's film adaptations, at least -- if not with Tolkien canon.
Though the 1978 animated film and the 2001 live - action film both contain a prologue featuring the forging of the Rings of Power, the War of the Elves and Sauron goes unmentioned and the films jump straight to the much later War of the Last Alliance. In both, Sauron does not have the form he wore as "Annatar '' when he forges the One Ring, but rather the one reflecting his identity as Dark Lord, and he is defeated by Isildur alone.
In Jackson 's series, Sauron is originally portrayed as a towering "black knight '' wielding a huge black mace (reminiscent of Tolkien 's descriptions as well as conceptual artist John Howe 's illustrations of Morgoth); in this form, he is portrayed by Sala Baker. While Tolkien never specifically discussed the type of armour, Sauron is shown in spiky plate armour of very high quality: it has very ornate filigree but is also quite functional. In the DVD commentary, the production team explained their intent was to represent Sauron 's great skill as a craftsman and ring - maker: Sauron was originally a maia spirit in service to the smith - vala Aulë, and thus was very wise in the lore of physical construction. Sauron may have fallen from his previously angelic state, but a shadow of his great skill in forging and construction remains, even though it has been twisted to making weapons of war. Thus they chose to depict Sauron as wearing frightening, but very high quality and ornate armour of his own creation. Sauron 's body disintegrates with explosive force after Isildur cuts off the Ring with the hilt - shard of the sword Narsil. Sauron 's spiritual essence remained intact as it eventually consolidates into the Eye of Sauron by the time of Barad - dûr 's restoration, stationing himself between the twin horn - like spires above the tower to scan Mordor like a searchlight. The effect in Mordor is seen as a red beam that moves across the land, forever probing. It also seems to be visible to Frodo (and to see him in turn) any time that he is wearing the Ring. Pippin has a brief encounter with the Eye, after gazing into the palantír of Orthanc. In the extended edition of The Return of the King, Sauron 's humanoid form appears when Aragorn looks into the palantír. When the Ring is destroyed, the Eye of Sauron collapses in on itself, causing a massive shock wave that destroys his entire kingdom.
In earlier versions of Jackson 's script, Sauron does indeed "come forth '' at Aragorn 's challenge, and does battle with him: The extra materials published together with the extended DVD version of the third movie indicate as much. Scenes of the fight were shot, but later this idea was discarded and was replaced by a scene (in the extended version) where Aragorn kills the "Mouth of Sauron '' (a representative of Sauron) before fighting a Mordor troll. In fact, the footage of the battle with the troll was the same footage of Aragorn fighting Sauron, with the CGI troll mapped over a painted - out Sauron, as seen in the DVD special features. In this abandoned scene, when Sauron first emerges from the Black Gate, he appears in his fair and seductive form as "Annatar the Lord of Gifts '', trying to entice Aragorn and the other leaders with offers of peace and dominion. When they reject him, he reverts to his true form, as seen in the prologue. Jackson said he removed the scene when he realized it was too much of a departure from the source material and thematically missed the point: the battle was supposed to be a selfless sacrifice by Aragorn and his army, and making it into a duel between Aragorn and Sauron made it more about personal glory. Sauron appears as The Necromancer (a figure only incidentally mentioned by Gandalf in the original novel) and one of the main antagonists in Jackson 's The Hobbit film adaptations where he is portrayed through voice and motion capture by Benedict Cumberbatch. The Necromancer appears briefly in The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey when Radagast the Brown enters Dol Guldur. In The Hobbit: The Desolation of Smaug, Jackson moves Gandalf 's decisive expedition to Dol Guldur forward in time to coincide with the Quest of Erebor. Sauron appears an amorphous entity of shadowy mist floating around in the ruins before he assumes his semi-physical form, and then manifests the Eye of Sauron while capturing Gandalf. In The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies, and the extended edition of The Desolation of Smaug, Sauron is shown to have been behind Smaug 's actions as part of a grand scheme to restore the Kingdom of Angmar. However, the actions of Thorin Oakenshield and company forces Sauron to dispatch his Orc army to capture Erebor. During the third film, as his Orc army is nearing Erebor, Sauron appears before the White Council after they battle the nine Nazgûl and rescue Gandalf from Dol Guldur. He is rendered formless by Galadriel, who uses Eärendil 's Light to banish him and the Nazgûl back to Mordor.
Sauron appears in merchandise of the Jackson films, including computer and video games. These include The Lord of the Rings: The Battle for Middle - earth II (where he was voiced by Fred Tatasciore), The Lord of the Rings: Tactics, and The Lord of the Rings: The Third Age.
Sauron also appears as a playable character in the game The Lord of the Rings: Conquest, voiced by Jon Olson.
Sauron is a playable character in Lego The Lord of the Rings. His Necromancer form is playable in Lego The Hobbit.
He is further alluded to in Middle - earth: Shadow of Mordor as the Black Hand of Sauron, the aspect of himself that resided within the hand cut off by Isildur during the War of the Last Alliance. While Sauron was voiced by Steven Blum, the Black Hand of Sauron was voiced by Nolan North. Sauron returns in the sequel Middle - earth: Shadow of War.
Sauron appears as a boss in Lego Dimensions with the voice provided by Steve Blum once again. He is one the villains serving Lord Vortech, and he takes over Superman 's hometown, Metropolis. He is stopped by Batman, Gandalf, and Wyldstyle, with Gandalf noting that his power is significantly decreased since he is not in his home realm, and is cleansed of the Locate Keystone. Similar to the movie, his armour crumbles up when he is defeated. The only difference is that he crumbles into a cube that is teleported back to Lord Vortech 's lair.
The Lego Batman Movie portrays Sauron in his eye form, voiced by comedian Jemaine Clement. He appears as one of the villains imprisoned in the Phantom Zone who join with Joker to take over Gotham City. The Eye of Sauron causes mayhem in the city by spreading lava, and supports the takeover by being able to find anyone anywhere. He is accidentally destroyed by fire blast from the Kraken from Clash of the Titans when it was trying to shoot down the Batwing. Joker was devastated at this loss while Kraken sheepishly slips away quoting "Nothing to see here. ''
The Eye of Sauron is mentioned in The Stand, a post-apocalyptic novel written by Stephen King. The villain Randall Flagg possesses an astral body in the form of an "Eye '' akin to the Lidless Eye. The novel itself was conceived by King as a "fantasy epic like The Lord of the Rings, only with an American setting ''. The idea of Sauron as a sleepless eye that watches and seeks the protagonists also influenced King 's epic fantasy series The Dark Tower; its villain, the Crimson King, is a similarly disembodied evil presence whose icon is also an eye.
In the Marvel Comics Universe, the supervillain Sauron, an enemy of the X-Men, names himself after the Tolkien character.
In the comic series Fables, by Bill Willingham, one character is called "The Adversary '', an ambiguous figure of immense evil and power believed to be responsible for much of the misfortune in the Fables ' overall history. Willingham has stated "The Adversary '', in name and in character, was inspired by Sauron.
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who started the first magazine dedicated exclusively to female audiences | Cosmopolitan (magazine) - wikipedia
Cosmopolitan is an international fashion magazine for women. Formerly titled The Cosmopolitan, the magazine was first published in 1886 in the United States as a family magazine; it was later transformed into a literary magazine and eventually became a women 's magazine since 1965. Often referred to as Cosmo, its content as of 2011 includes articles on relationships, sex, health, careers, self - improvement, celebrities, fashion, and beauty. Published by Hearst Corporation, Cosmopolitan has 64 international editions, is printed in 35 languages, and is distributed in more than 110 countries.
Cosmopolitan began as a family magazine, launched in 1886 by Schlicht & Field of New York as The Cosmopolitan.
Paul Schlicht told his first - issue readers that his publication was a "first - class family magazine '', adding, "There will be a department devoted exclusively to the concerns of women, with articles on fashions, on household decoration, on cooking, and the care and management of children, etc. There was also a department for the younger members of the family. ''
Cosmopolitan 's circulation reached 25,000 that year, but by November 1888, Schlicht & Field were no longer in business. John Brisben Walker acquired the magazine in 1889. That same year, he dispatched Elizabeth Bisland on a race around the world against Nellie Bly to draw attention to his magazine.
Under John Brisben Walker 's ownership, E.D. Walker, formerly with Harper 's Monthly, took over as the new editor, introducing colour illustrations, serials and book reviews. It became a leading market for fiction, featuring such authors as Annie Besant, Ambrose Bierce, Theodore Dreiser, Rudyard Kipling, Jack London, Willa Cather, and Edith Wharton. The magazine 's circulation climbed to 75,000 by 1892.
In 1897, Cosmopolitan announced plans for a free correspondence school: "No charge of any kind will be made to the student. All expenses for the present will be borne by the Cosmopolitan. No conditions, except a pledge of a given number of hours of study. '' When 20,000 immediately signed up, Walker could not fund the school and students were then asked to contribute 20 dollars a year. Also in 1897, H.G. Wells ' The War of the Worlds was serialized, as was his The First Men in the Moon (1900). Olive Schreiner contributed a lengthy article about the Boer War.
In 1905, William Randolph Hearst purchased the magazine for US $ 400,000 (equivalent to $10,662,000 in 2016) and brought in journalist Charles Edward Russell, who contributed a series of investigative articles, including "The Growth of Caste in America '' (March 1907), "At the Throat of the Republic '' (December 1907 -- March 1908) and "What Are You Going to Do About It? '' (July 1910 -- January 1911), and "Colorado - New Tricks in an Old Game '' (December 1910).
Other contributors during this period included O. Henry, A.J. Cronin, Alfred Henry Lewis, Bruno Lessing, Sinclair Lewis, O.O. McIntyre, David Graham Phillips, George Bernard Shaw, Upton Sinclair, and Ida Tarbell. Jack London 's novella, "The Red One '', was published in the October 1918 issue (two years after London 's death), and a constant presence from 1910 - 18 was Arthur B. Reeve, with 82 stories featuring Craig Kennedy, the "scientific detective ''. Magazine illustrators included Francis Attwood, Dean Cornwell, Harrison Fisher, and James Montgomery Flagg.
Hearst formed Cosmopolitan Productions (also known as Cosmopolitan Pictures), a film company based in New York City from 1918 to 1923, then Hollywood until 1938, for the purpose of making films from stories published in the magazine.
Cosmopolitan magazine was officially titled as Hearst 's International Combined with Cosmopolitan from 1925 until 1952, but was simply referred to as Cosmopolitan. In 1911, Hearst had bought a middling monthly magazine called World To - Day and renamed it Hearst 's Magazine in April 1912. In June 1914 it was shortened to Hearst 's and was ultimately titled "Hearst 's International '' in May 1922. In order to spare serious cutbacks at San Simeon, Hearst merged the magazine Hearst 's International with Cosmopolitan effective March 1925. But while the Cosmopolitan title on the cover remained at a typeface of eight - four points, over time span the typeface of the Hearst 's International decreased to thirty - six points and then to a barely legible twelve points. After Hearst died in 1951, the Hearst 's International disappeared from the magazine cover altogether in April 1952.
With a circulation of 1,700,000 in the 1930s, Cosmopolitan had an advertising income of $5,000,000. Emphasizing fiction in the 1940s, it was subtitled The Four - Book Magazine since the first section had one novelette, six or eight short stories, two serials, six to eight articles and eight or nine special features, while the other three sections featured two novels and a digest of current non-fiction books. During World War II, sales peaked at 2,000,000.
The magazine began to run less fiction during the 1950s. Circulation dropped to slightly over a million by 1955, a time when magazines were overshadowed during the rise of paperbacks and television. The Golden Age of magazines came to an end as mass market, general interest publications gave way to special interest magazines targeting specialized audiences.
Cosmopolitan 's circulation continued to decline for another decade until Helen Gurley Brown became chief editor in 1965. Brown remodeled and re-invented it as a magazine for modern single career women. The magazine eventually adopted a cover format consisting of a usually young female model (in recent years, an actress, singer, or another prominent female celebrity), typically in a low cut dress, bikini, or some other revealing outfit.
The magazine set itself apart by frankly discussing sexuality from the point of view that women could and should enjoy sex without guilt. The first issue under Helen Gurley Brown, July 1965, featured an article on the birth control pill, which had gone on the market exactly five years earlier.
This was not Brown 's first publication dealing with sexually liberated women. Her 1962 advice book, Sex and the Single Girl, had been a bestseller. Fan mail begging for Brown 's advice on many subjects concerning women 's behavior, sexual encounters, health, and beauty flooded her after the book was released. Brown sent the message that a woman should have men complement her life, not take it over. Enjoying sex without shame was also a message she incorporated in both publications.
In Brown 's early years as editor, the magazine received heavy criticism. The magazine ran a near - nude centerfold of actor Burt Reynolds in April 1972, causing great controversy and attracting much attention.
In April 1978, a single edition of Cosmopolitan Man was published as a trial, targeted to appeal to men. Its cover featured Jack Nicholson and Aurore Clément. It was published twice in 1989 as a supplement to Cosmopolitan. Hearst abandoned this project after the company purchased Esquire.
The magazine, and in particular its cover stories, have become increasingly sexually explicit in tone, and covers have models wearing revealing clothes. Kroger, the largest grocery chain in the United States, used to cover up Cosmopolitan at checkout stands because of complaints about sexually inappropriate headlines. The UK edition of Cosmopolitan, which began in 1972, was the first Cosmopolitan magazine to be branched out to another country. It was well known for sexual explicitness, with strong sexual language, male nudity, and coverage of such subjects as rape. In 1999, CosmoGIRL!, a spinoff magazine targeting a teenage female audience, was created for international readership. It shut down in December 2008.
The magazine currently features topics including sex, relationships, beauty, fashion, and health. The advice and feature articles in the US edition are written to a presumed audience of white women. On September 2016, Michele Promaulayko was named the new Editor in Chief of Cosmopolitan after Joanna Coles was promoted to Chief Content Office of Hearst. The magazine has featured many Hollywood celebrities, such as Kelly Rowland, Taylor Swift, Kate Upton, Megan Fox, and many more, on its cover page "Over 10 Years of Sizzling Issues ''.
Cosmopolitan has 64 international editions worldwide, and are published in 35 languages, with distribution in more than 100 countries making Cosmopolitan the largest - selling young women 's magazine in the world. Some international editions are published in partnerships, such as licenses or joint ventures, with established publishing houses in each local market.
Cosmopolitan has since the sixties been a women 's magazine discussing such topics as sex, health, fitness, and fashion. Cosmopolitan also has a section called "Ask Him Anything '' where a male writer answers readers ' questions about men and dating.
Over 3,000,000 people are subscribed to Cosmopolitan.
For more than a decade, the February issue has featured this award. In 2011, Russell Brand received the magazine 's Fun Fearless Male of the Year Award, joining Kellan Lutz and Paul Wesley (2010), John Mayer (2008), Nick Lachey (2007), Patrick Dempsey (2006), Josh Duhamel (2005), Matthew Perry (2004), and Jon Bon Jovi (2003).
Nicole Scherzinger received the 2012 Fun, Fearless Female of the Year honor, a title that had been previously awarded to Kayla Itsines (2015), Mila Kunis (2011), Anna Faris (2010), Ali Larter (2009), Katherine Heigl (2008), Eva Mendes (2007), Beyoncé (2006), Ashlee Simpson (2005), Alicia Silverstone (2004), Sandra Bullock (2003), Britney Spears (2002), Debra Messing (2001), Jennifer Love Hewitt (2000), Shania Twain (1999), and Ashley Judd (1998)
Cosmopolitan 's November issue features the hottest bachelors from all 50 states. Pictures and profiles of all the Bachelors are posted on www.cosmopolitan.com, where readers view and vote for their favorite, narrowing it down to six finalists. A team of Cosmopolitan editors then selects the Bachelor of the Year, who is announced at an annual party and media event in New York. The 50 bachelors generally appear on programs such as The Today Show.
Past winners include:
In the May 2006 issue of Cosmopolitan, the magazine launched the Practice Safe Sun campaign, an initiative aimed at fighting skin cancer by asking readers to stop all forms of tanning other than tanning from a bottle. In conjunction with the campaign, Cosmo 's editor - in - chief, Kate White, approached Congresswoman Carolyn Maloney (D - NY), known for her support of women 's health issues, with concerns that women were n't fully aware of the dangers of indoor tanning and the effectiveness of the current warning labels. After careful review, the Congresswoman agreed that it was necessary to recommend that the FDA take a closer look. She and Representative Ginny Brown - Waite (R - FL) introduced the Tanning Accountability and Notification Act (TAN Act - H.R. 4767) on February 16, 2006. President Bush signed the act in September 2007, and the new federal law requires the FDA to scrutinize the warning labels on tanning beds and issue a report by September 2008.
Cosmopolitan UK launched the Cosmo Blog Awards in 2010. The awards attracted more than 15,000 entries and winning and highly commended blogs were voted for in several categories including beauty, fashion, lifestyle, and celebrity. The 2011 awards launched in August 2011 and nominations are open until 31 August 2011. All UK - based bloggers and blogs written by British blogges abroad with a British perspective can be entered.
In May 2015, Cosmopolitan UK announced they were launching their first ever fragrance. This is considered a first in the magazine industry. Named ' Cosmopolitan, The Fragrance ', the perfume takes on the notion of their much - loved phrase ' Fun, Fearless Female ' and was set to launch in September.
Cosmopolitan played a role in passing the Seventeenth Amendment to the US Constitution, which allowed for the popular election of Senators. In 1906, William Randolph Hearst hired David Graham Phillips to write a series of articles entitled "The Treason of the Senate. '' These articles, which were largely sensationalized, helped galvanize public support for this cause.
In September 2014, Cosmopolitan began endorsing political candidates. The endorsements are based on "established criteria '' agreed upon by the magazine 's editors. Specifically, Cosmopolitan will only endorse candidates that support equal pay laws, legal abortion, free contraceptives, gun control, and oppose voter identification laws. Amy Odell, editor of Cosmopolitan.com, has stated that under no circumstances will the magazine endorse a political candidate that is pro-life: "We 're not going to endorse someone who is pro-life because that 's not in our readers ' best interest. '' According to Joanna Coles, the magazine 's Editor - in - Chief, the endorsements of Cosmopolitan will focus on "candidates in swing states or candidates who are strongly in favor of issues like contraception coverage or gun control. '' In the 2014 U.S. elections, Cosmopolitan officially endorsed twelve Democratic candidates. However, only two of them won their respective political campaigns.
In its January 1988 issue, Cosmopolitan ran a feature claiming that women had almost no reason to worry about contracting HIV long after the best available medical science indicated otherwise. The piece claimed that unprotected sex with an HIV - positive man did not put women at risk of infection and went on to state that "most heterosexuals are not at risk '' and that it was impossible to transmit HIV in the missionary position. This article angered many knowledgeable people, including AIDS and gay rights activists. The protests organised in response to the article 's publication were turned into a 30 - minute documentary titled "Doctors, Liars and Women: AIDS Activists Say NO to Cosmo '' by two members of ACTUP, a New York City based collective of HIV / AIDS activists.
While considered a magazine for adult women, Cosmopolitan has been accused of subtly targeting children. Former model Nicole Weider accused the magazine of using slang "which is used by young people not adults '' and using (then) underage celebrities, such as Demi Lovato and Selena Gomez, as well as other celebrities popular with teens such as Ashley Greene and Dakota Fanning, in an attempt to gain the attention of underage girls.
Victoria Hearst, a granddaughter of William Randolph Hearst (founder of Cosmopolitan 's parent company) and sister of Patty Hearst, has lent her support to a campaign which seeks to have Cosmopolitan classified as harmful under the guidelines of "Material Harmful to Minors '' laws. Hearst, the founder of an evangelical Colorado church called Praise Him Ministries, states that "the magazine promotes a lifestyle that can be dangerous to women 's emotional and physical well being. It should never be sold to anyone under 18 ''. Donald Clark, the secretary of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), has also shown interest in the matter.
Cosmopolitan was criticized by Katie Yoder of the Campaign Life Coalition for its September 2014 decision to exclude pro-life candidates in its endorsements, stating "Yes, Cosmo deeply cares about ' all young women. ' Minus those pro-life women voters, women candidates -- and unborn females, of course. ''
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how many times in the last 10 elections has illinois voted for the winning candidate | United States presidential elections in Illinois - wikipedia
Following is a table of United States presidential elections in Illinois, ordered by year. Since its admission to statehood in 1818, Illinois has participated in every U.S. presidential election.
Winners of the state are in bold.
The election of 1860 was a complex realigning election in which the breakdown of the previous two - party alignment culminated in four parties each competing for influence in different parts of the country. The result of the election, with the victory of an ardent opponent of slavery, spurred the secession of eleven states and brought about the American Civil War.
The election of 1824 was a complex realigning election following the collapse of the prevailing Democratic - Republican Party, resulting in four different candidates each claiming to carry the banner of the party, and competing for influence in different parts of the country. The election was the only one in history to be decided by the House of Representatives under the provisions of the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution after no candidate secured a majority of the electoral vote. It was also the only presidential election in which the candidate who received a plurality of electoral votes (Andrew Jackson) did not become President, a source of great bitterness for Jackson and his supporters, who proclaimed the election of Adams a corrupt bargain.
In the election of 1820, incumbent President James Monroe ran effectively unopposed, winning all electoral votes (including the three electoral votes from Illinois) except one vote in New Hampshire. The popular vote was primarily directed to filling the office of Vice President.
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what do you call a group of lynx | Lynx - wikipedia
A lynx (/ lɪŋks /; plural lynx or lynxes) is any of the four species (Canada lynx, Iberian lynx, Eurasian lynx, Bobcat) within the medium - sized wild cat genus Lynx. The name "lynx '' originated in Middle English via Latin from the Greek word λύγξ, derived from the Indo - European root leuk - ("light, brightness '') in reference to the luminescence of its reflective eyes.
Two other cats that are sometimes called lynxes, the caracal (desert lynx) and the jungle cat (jungle lynx), are not members of the genus Lynx.
Lynx have a short tail, characteristic tufts of black hair on the tips of their ears, large, padded paws for walking on snow and long whiskers on the face. Under their neck, they have a ruff which has black bars resembling a bow tie although this is often not visible.
Body colour varies from medium brown to goldish to beige - white, and is occasionally marked with dark brown spots, especially on the limbs. All species of lynx have white fur on their chests, bellies and on the insides of their legs, fur which is an extension of the chest and belly fur. The lynx 's colouring, fur length and paw size vary according to the climate in their range. In the Southwestern United States, they are short - haired, dark in colour and their paws are smaller and less padded. As climates get colder and more northerly, lynx have progressively thicker fur, lighter colour, and their paws are larger and more padded to adapt to the snow. Their paws may be larger than a human hand or foot.
The smallest species are the bobcat and the Canada lynx, while the largest is the Eurasian lynx, with considerable variations within species.
The four living species of the genus Lynx are believed to have evolved from the "Issoire lynx '', which lived in Europe and Africa during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene. The Pliocene felid Felis rexroadensis from North America has been proposed as an even earlier ancestor; however, this was larger than any living species, and is not currently classified as a true lynx.
Of the four lynx species, the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) is the largest in size. It is native to European, Central Asian, and Siberian forests. While its conservation status has been classified as "least concern '', populations of Eurasian lynx have been reduced or extirpated from Europe, where it is now being reintroduced.
The Eurasian lynx is the third largest predator in Europe after the brown bear and the grey wolf. It is a strict carnivore, consuming about one or two kilograms of meat every day. The Eurasian lynx is one of the widest - ranging.
During the summer, the Eurasian lynx has a relatively short, reddish or brown coat which is replaced by a much thicker silver - grey to greyish - brown coat during winter. The lynx hunts by stalking and jumping its prey, helped by the rugged, forested country in which it resides. A favorite prey for the lynx in its woodland habitat is roe deer. It will feed however on whatever animal appears easiest, as it is an opportunistic predator much like its cousins.
The Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), or Canadian lynx, is a North American felid that ranges in forest and tundra regions across Canada and into Alaska, as well as some parts of the northern United States. Historically, the Canadian lynx ranged from Alaska across Canada and into many of the northern U.S. states. In the eastern states, it resided in the transition zone in which boreal coniferous forests yielded to deciduous forests. By 2010, after an 11 - year effort, it had been successfully reintroduced into Colorado, where it had become extirpated in the 1970s. In 2000, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service designated the Canada lynx a threatened species in the lower 48 states.
The Canada lynx is a good climber and swimmer; it constructs rough shelters under fallen trees or rock ledges. It has a thick coat and broad paws, and is twice as effective as the bobcat at supporting its weight on the snow. The Canada lynx feeds almost exclusively on snowshoe hares; its population is highly dependent on the population of this prey animal. It will also hunt medium - sized mammals and birds if hare numbers fall.
The Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is an endangered species native to the Iberian Peninsula in Southern Europe. It was the most endangered cat species in the world, but conservation efforts have changed its status from critical to endangered. According to the Portuguese conservation group SOS Lynx, if this species dies out, it will be the first feline extinction since the Smilodon 10,000 years ago. The species used to be classified as a subspecies of the Eurasian lynx, but is now considered a separate species. Both species occurred together in central Europe in the Pleistocene epoch, being separated by habitat choice. The Iberian lynx is believed to have evolved from Lynx issiodorensis.
In 2004, a Spanish government survey showed just two isolated breeding populations of Iberian lynx in southern Spain, totaling about 100 lynx (including only 25 breeding females). An agreement signed in 2003 by the Spanish Environment Ministry and the Andalusian Environment Council seeks to breed the Iberian lynx in captivity. Three Iberian lynx cubs were born as part of the Spanish program in 2005, at the Centro El Acebuche facility in Doñana National Park.
As a result of the Spanish government program and efforts by others (such as the WWF and the EU 's Life projects), the Iberian lynx "has recovered from the brink of extinction ''; from 2000 to 2015, the population of Iberian lynx more than tripled. The IUCN reassessed the species from "critically endangered '' to "endangered '' in 2015. A 2014 census of the species showed 327 animals in Andalucia in the "reintroduction areas '' of Sierra Morena and Montes de Toledo (Castilla - La Mancha, Spain), the Matachel Valley (Extremadura, Spain), and the Guadiana Valley (Portugal).
The bobcat (Lynx rufus) is a North American wild cat. With 12 recognized subspecies, the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States, and northern Mexico. The bobcat is an adaptable predator that inhabits deciduous, coniferous, or mixed woodlands, but unlike other Lynx, does not depend exclusively on the deep forest, and ranges from swamps and desert lands to mountainous and agricultural areas, its spotted coat serving as camouflage. The population of the bobcat depends primarily on the population of its prey. Nonetheless, the bobcat is often killed by larger predators such as coyotes.
The bobcat resembles other species of the genus Lynx, but is on average the smallest of the four. Its coat is variable, though generally tan to grayish brown, with black streaks on the body and dark bars on the forelegs and tail. The ears are black - tipped and pointed, with short, black tufts. There is generally an off - white color on the lips, chin, and underparts. Bobcats in the desert regions of the southwest have the lightest - colored coats, while those in the northern, forested regions have the darkest.
The lynx is usually solitary, although a small group of lynx may travel and hunt together occasionally. Mating takes place in the late winter and once a year the female gives birth to between one and four kittens. The gestation time of the lynx is about 70 days. The young stay with the mother for one more winter, a total of around nine months, before moving out to live on their own as young adults. The lynx creates its den in crevices or under ledges. It feeds on a wide range of animals from white - tailed deer, reindeer, roe deer, small red deer, and chamois, to smaller, more usual prey: snowshoe hares, fish, foxes, sheep, squirrels, mice, turkeys and other birds, and goats. It also eats ptarmigans, voles, and grouse.
The lynx inhabits high altitude forests with dense cover of shrubs, reeds, and tall grass. Although this cat hunts on the ground, it can climb trees and can swim swiftly, catching fish.
The Eurasian lynx ranges from central and northern Europe across Asia up to Northern Pakistan and India. In Iran, they live in Mount Damavand area. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Eurasian lynx was considered extinct in the wild in Slovenia and Croatia. A resettlement project, begun in 0, has successfully reintroduced lynx to the Slovenian Alps and the Croatian regions of Gorski Kotar and Velebit, including Croatia 's Plitvice Lakes National Park and Risnjak National Park. In both countries, the lynx is listed as an endangered species and protected by law. The lynx was distributed throughout Japan during Jōmon period, but no archeological evidence thereafter suggesting extinction at that time.
Several lynx resettlement projects begun in the 1970s have been successful in various regions of Switzerland. Since the 1990s, there have been numerous efforts to resettle the Eurasian lynx in Germany, and since 2000, a small population can now be found in the Harz mountains near Bad Lauterberg.
The lynx is found in the Białowieża Forest in northeastern Poland, in Estonia and in the northern and western parts of China, particularly the Tibetan Plateau. In Romania, the numbers exceed 2,000, the largest population in Europe outside of Russia, although most experts consider the official population numbers to be overestimated.
The lynx is more common in northern Europe, especially in Norway, Sweden, Estonia, Finland, and the northern parts of Russia. The Swedish population is estimated to be 1200 -- 1500 individuals, spread all over the country, but more common in middle Sweden and in the mountain range. The lynx population in Finland was 1900 -- 2100 individuals in 2008, and the numbers have been increasing every year since 1992. The lynx population in Finland is estimated currently to be larger than ever before. Lynx in Britain were wiped out in the 17th century, but there have been calls to reintroduce them to curb the numbers of deer.
The critically endangered Iberian lynx lives in southern Spain and formerly in eastern Portugal. There is an Iberian lynx reproduction center outside Silves in the Algarve in southern Portugal.
The two Lynx species in North America, Canada lynx and bobcats, are both found in the temperate zone. While the bobcat is common throughout southern Canada, the continental United States and northern Mexico, the Canada lynx is present mainly in boreal forests of Canada and Alaska.
The lynx is considered a national animal in the Republic of Macedonia and is displayed on the reverse of the 5 denar coin. It is also the national animal of Romania.
Media related to Lynx at Wikimedia Commons
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what is the value of the 2 in 239 407 | Table of divisors - wikipedia
The tables below list all of the divisors of the numbers 1 to 1000.
A divisor of an integer n is an integer m, for which n / m is again an integer (which is necessarily also a divisor of n). For example, 3 is a divisor of 21, since 21 / 7 = 3 (and 7 is also a divisor of 21).
If m is a divisor of n then so is − m. The tables below only list positive divisors.
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where did do your ears hang low come from | Do Your ears Hang Low? - Wikipedia
"Do Your Ears Hang Low? '' (Roud 15472) is a children 's song that is often sung in schools, at camps and at birthday parties. The melody of this song is usually a shorter version of "Turkey in the Straw '', but it can also be sung to the "Sailor 's Hornpipe ''. Various theories exist concerning the origin of the lyrics, but no conclusive evidence seems to exist. A common belief is that the lyrics refer to the ears of a hound dog. It is most likely that this was a crude wartime soldiers ' song that, in sanitized form, has made its way into other circles.
The origins of the song are obscure. Variant versions with obscene lyrics exist, notably "Do Your Balls Hang Low? '' and "Do Your Boobs Hang Low? ''. These have sometimes been regarded as parody versions of the campfire song, but it is more likely that the obscene versions came first, and that "Do Your Ears Hang Low? '' is a sanitized version.
Certainly "Do Your Balls Hang Low? '' is known to have been sung by British soldiers on the Western Front during the First World War. Lyn MacDonald reports that, on one occasion in 1916, General Douglas Haig heard the song being sung by a column of soldiers as they marched past on their way to the Somme. He immediately called for his horse and rode to the head of the column to remonstrate with the battalion commander, only to find the Colonel singing as heartily as his men. Haig congratulated him on his fine voice, but added: "I like the tune, but you must know that in any circumstances those words are inexcusable! ''
The following lyrics are from one particular variant of the song:
Do your ears hang low? Do they wobble to and fro? Can you tie ' em in a knot? Can you tie ' em in a bow? Can you throw ' em o'er your shoulder Like a continental soldier? Do your ears hang low? Do your ears stand high? Do they reach up to the sky? Do they droop when they are wet? Do they stiffen when they 're dry? Can you wave them at your neighbor With an element of flavor? Do your ears stand high? Do your ears flip - flop? Can you use them as a mop? Are they stringy at the bottom? Are they curly at the top? Can you use them for a swatter? Can you use them for a blotter? Do your ears flip - flop? Do your ears stick out? Can you waggle them about? Can you flap them up and down As you fly around the town? Can you shut them up for sure When you hear an awful bore? Do your ears stick out? Do your ears give snacks? Are they all filled up with wax? Do you eat it in the morning Do you eat it in the bath? Do you eat it with a scone Or do you eat it on its own? Do your ears give snacks?
In the United Kingdom, a shorter version with differences in the lyrics is heard, commonly sung in Cubs and Brownies events:
Do your ears hang low? Can you swing them to and fro? Can you tie them in a knot? Can you tie them in a bow? Can you swing them over your shoulder like a regimental soldier Do your ears hang low?
(With a humorous glissando at a perfect fourth down, and back up again on the final "low ''.)
The lyrics of the World War I version of "Do Your Balls Hang Low? '' are recorded as:
Do your balls hang low? Do they dangle to and fro? Can you tie them in a knot? Can you tie them in a bow? Do they itch when it 's hot? Do you rest them in a pot? Do you get them in a tangle? Do you catch them in a mangle? Do they swing in stormy weather? Do they tickle with a feather? Do they rattle when you walk? Do they jingle when you talk? Can you sling them on your shoulder Like a lousy fucking soldier? Do your balls hang low?
This version was popular in elementary schools in suburban Philadelphia and the surrounding area in the late 1970s and beyond:
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when does grey's season 14 episode 13 air | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
The fourteenth season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season marks the last appearance of Martin Henderson, Jason George, Jessica Capshaw, and Sarah Drew as series regulars, as well as the first appearance of Jaina Lee Ortiz as Andy Herrera, the lead character of Grey 's Anatomy 's second spin - off series, Station 19.
On April 20, 2018, ABC officially renewed Grey 's Anatomy for a network primetime drama record - setting fifteenth season.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
After the explosion at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, Chief Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) finds it the perfect time to give the place a much needed upgrade in look and functionality. During the construction, Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) struggles with the shocking reunion with his sister, Megan (Abigail Spencer), who was recently found in a hostage camp overseas. The discovery also welcomes back Teddy Altman (Kim Raver), the former chief cardiothoracic surgery and Owen 's best friend, which leads to awkward moments with Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone). Of course, Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson), who was once in love with Megan, is torn between his love for her and his most recent interest in Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo). Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw) learns what "ghosting '' is after Eliza Minnick (Marika Dominczyk) vanishes without a trace, but she quickly finds company in an Italian girl she met at the bar, Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), sister to Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) struggles to patch her relationship with Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), but when her attempts fail, she finds herself sleeping with one of the new interns.
When Carina finds that Amelia has a brain tumor, she brings her former mentor / professor Dr Tom Koracek (Greg Germann) to create a treatment plan. But when he points out how the tumor has affected her judgment, she fears that it might have ruined her patient 's lives or put them in more danger -- specifically Dr Nicole Herman (Geena Davis), who despite saving her life, left her blind. After the tumor is removed, Amelia and Owen reflect on their marriage and decide that everything up to that point has been misguided; the tumor made Amelia someone she was not, and they ultimately decide to get a divorce. With all the changes happening at Grey Sloan, Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) shows up to discuss everything with Bailey and then ends up firing her. Shortly after, he immediately dies from cardiac arrest. Before they have to find another chief, Catherine (Debbie Allen) and Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) reinstate Bailey to her position. At a family dinner hosted by Catherine and Richard Weber (James Pickens Jr.), Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) and Jackson learn that he 'll be receiving his grandfather 's inheritance, a quarter billion dollars, which he 'll eventually use to fund a medical research contest.
Now that Megan is healthy again, Meredith and Nathan work together to bring her son over to the United States. Upon arrival, Nathan, Megan, and Farouk all move to California to start a life together, which officially ends Nathan 's relationship with Meredith. Despite the breakup, Meredith has more exciting news on the horizon when she learns at the intern mixer that a ground breaking surgery has earned her a nomination for the highly - esteemed Harper Avery Foundation Award, which she goes on to win. While the joyous news spreads around the hospital, Bailey learns that Ben Warren (Jason George) wants to leave surgery to join the Seattle Fire Department. With Jo and Alex now living together again, she realizes how much control her estranged husband, Dr Paul Stadler (Matthew Morrison), has over her. Now in the running for chief resident, Jo decides to file for divorce. With her mind on her secret relationship with Paul, she 's surprised to find him in the hospital. Jo attempts to steer clear of him, but at the same time also believes she has a duty to inform Paul 's fiancé of what type of man he really is. As Paul keeps trying to find Jo, Meredith pretends to call security to have him removed, but he leaves before they can get there. However, he winds up back in the ER as a victim of a hit and run accident. With everyone running around the ER, April Kepner (Sarah Drew) sees a familiar face in Matthew (Justin Bruening), the paramedic she left at the altar for Jackson. He 's there with his wife who is now pregnant. After Jo talks to Jenny (Bethany Joy Lenz), Paul 's fiancé, they venture to Paul 's room to tell him they 're taking him to court. Upon receiving the news, he tries to attack them in a bout of rage; however, he falls out of bed and hits his head knocking him unconscious, rendering him brain dead. Still legally his wife, Jo decides to have them remove all life - sustaining support. April struggles with the idea that the man she left to pursue her own happiness is now married and expecting a child, while she 's alone and a single mother. As she begins to question her faith, she acts out and sleeps with an intern.
With all the stress and work that comes with being Chief of Surgery, Bailey begins to show signs of a heart attack. She winds up at Seattle Presbyterian Hospital, where the doctors take her concerns less than seriously. They see in her chart a history of OCD and believe that is the underlying issue, since the tests they are running are coming back negative. Bailey calls on Maggie to save her, and after she does, Bailey decides to support Ben 's decision to become a firefighter, as she realizes life is too short to do anything than what makes you happy.
With the medical research contest, funded by Jackson 's money, getting underway, the doctors begin to team up and brainstorm ideas that will help them win the top prize of a grant that will fund their research even further. Meredith learns that for her project, she 'll need to acquire a patent that is owned by Marie Cerone... a former friend of her mother 's. When Marie denies access to the patent, Meredith is forced to investigate further into the reason why. According to Richard, there was a falling out of some sort, but he never knew what happened between the two women. At a dinner party hosted by Amelia, Maggie brings her new boyfriend around to meet her friends. However, it 's soon revealed that her boyfriend is a married man. Quick to call it off, Jackson sees his opportunity to invest in his love interest with Maggie. In Meredith 's search for answers, she learns that Ellis Grey left Marie 's name off the surgical method they created together. If she is to acquire the patent, she must publicly announce a change the method 's name to the Grey - Cerone Method. Meredith denies the ultimatum. While Maggie and Jackson try to get past the quirks of their relationship and the fact that their step - siblings, Jo shockingly asks Alex to marry him. He quickly accepts.
With the research projects humming along, Owen and Amelia continue to take advantage of their "friends with benefits '' relationship, that is until Amelia learns how close Owen is with Teddy. She advises him to go after her if she 's the love of his life. The advice sends him to Germany where he surprises Teddy. The two talk all night and make plans to stay together, but when she learns that Amelia had just told him the night before to pursue her, she refuses to be his backup plan and kicks him out.
Bailey is surprised to learn that one of her interns, Sam Bello (Jeanine Mason), is a "Dreamer '' protected by (DACA). Meredith designs a plan to keep from being deported. Despite pleas from Andrew (Sam 's boyfriend), Meredith sends to work under Dr Cristina Yang in Switzerland. While the research contest reaches the next milestone, presentation day, Catherine confronts Jackson about a major secret concerning his grandfather. The man had 13 cases of sexual harassment filed against him, and she herself paid the women major settlements to keep it all covered up. Meredith learns of this truth and also that Marie Cerone was one of the 13. Disgusted with the whole situation, Meredith decides to return her and her mother 's Harper Avery awards and Bailey shuts down the research contest. In the meantime, Catherine tries with all her might to save the face of the foundation since the news has spread. While in surgery, Jackson and Meredith come up with their own plan, which is to rename the foundation in honor of Catherine (née Fox) to the Catherine Fox Foundation.
When Alex learns that his mom has n't been cashing the checks he 's been sending, he and Jo take off to Iowa to check on her. He surprisingly finds that she is doing well and even works her old job at the library. The two extend an invitation to the wedding, but she declines stating it would be too much for her. While Owen and Amelia struggle with adjusting to being foster parents -- Owen to a baby and Amelia to the baby 's teenaged mother on drugs, Arizona continues to battle with Sofia who wants to move back to New York to be with her other mom, Callie. After calling Callie to tell her they 're moving to the east coast to be closer to her, Arizona announced her impeding departure to Bailey. However, an unexpected visit from Nicole Herman changes those plans just slightly. Nicole has been following Arizona 's work and she would like to partner with her in creating the Robbins - Herman Center for Women 's Health. Knowing that she 's headed to New York, Arizona asks that it be there, and Nicole obliges.
Matthew winds up in the ER again, but this time for himself, after he rolled his car. Trying to get information from him about what happened, he mentions April 's name, which sends the doctors into a frenzy trying to make sure she 's safe. Owen finds her unconscious at the site of the accident, down in a ravine nearby. After he rushes her back to the hospital, the team rallies to save her, and after extreme measures have been taken to bring her back to life, she wakes up, fully functional. Alex and Jo 's wedding day has arrived, and though most details have come together, April (who has been planning the wedding) panics when multiple guests go to the wrong ceremony. While trying to escape, the mother of the bride faints, keeping Ben and Bailey behind. Once at the hospital, Bailey struggles to find an available cardio surgeon until Teddy unexpectedly arrives looking for a job. Jo learns she 's been accepted into Mass Gen 's fellowship program, but fearful of losing Alex, Meredith offers Jo the general surgery attending position. The wedding is delayed when the wedding planner goes into anaphylactic shock and an emergency tracheotomy is performed to save her. After the guests leave thinking there 'll be no wedding, the pastor finally arrives in time to marry April and Matthew after a surprise re-engagement. On a ferry back to the main land, Maggie has the idea to have Meredith ordained online to officiate the wedding right there on the ferry. Bailey, wanting to take a break from being chief to focus on her passions, offers Teddy the chance to be interim chief. Watching the wedding happening at the hospital on a tablet, in the ICU with the bride 's mother, Teddy reveals she 's pregnant. Arizona says her sad goodbyes before heading to New York, but is giddy to be closer to Callie who is recently single.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw returned for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver would reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released. On April 20, 2018, it was released that Geena Davis would return for the episode "Cold as Ice '' as Dr. Herman to present a new opportunity for Arizona.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith pretends to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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who wrote hope you do by chris brown | Heartbreak on a Full Moon - Wikipedia
Heartbreak on a Full Moon is the eighth studio album by American singer Chris Brown. The album is a double - disc, consisting of 45 tracks, and was released digitally October 31, 2017, and onto CD three days later by RCA Records.
Brown started working on and recording tracks for the album a few weeks before the release of Royalty, his seventh studio album, in late 2015. He continued working on the album during 2016 and 2017. Brown also built a recording studio inside of his home. Brown said about the album during an interview for Complex:
The cover art for the album was announced on October 5, 2017. The artwork shows a human heart, dripping blood, in front of a pink moon.
On January 10, 2016 Brown had previewed 11 unreleased songs on his Periscope and Instagram profiles, showing him dancing and lip - synching these songs. Later on January, February and March 2016, he released videos on his Instagram profile where he was lip - synching snippets from the unreleased songs "Sirens '', "Lost and Found '', and "Dead Wrong ''.
On April 27 through Twitter, he announced the release of a new single on May 5. On May 3 he revealed that the single would be "Grass Ai n't Greener '', showing its cover art and announcing it as the first single from Heartbreak on a Full Moon. The single was released on May 5, 2016, the day of Brown 's 27th birthday, but it was originally not included on the album 's previous track listing then was re-included on the official tracklist as the last track when the album was available for pre-order.
In November and December 2016, he released videos on his Instagram profile where he was lip - synching snippets from other unreleased songs: "For Me '', "Post & Delete '', and "Yellow Tape ''.
On December 16, 2016, he released the second official single from the album, "Party '', that features guest vocals from American R&B singer Usher and rapper Gucci Mane. On January 4, 2017 Brown had previewed two snippets on his Instagram profile from the songs "Privacy '' and "Tell Me Baby '', then in February announced that "Privacy '' would have been released as the next single from Heartbreak on a Full Moon. The single was released on March 24, 2017.
The initial track listing was announced by Brown on his Instagram account on May 2, 2017, saying that it would have been a double - disc album, and that it would have been released in June 2017. In the first days of June 2017 46 songs discarded from the album were leaked, most of them were unfinished versions while a few were demos.
In July 2017 he announced the pending release of upcoming singles from his album. Later on August 4, 2017, he released the album 's fourth single "Pills & Automobiles '', that features guest vocals from American trap artists Yo Gotti, A Boogie Wit Da Hoodie and Kodak Black. Then on August 14, 2017 he announced the release of the fifth official single from the album, "Questions '', on August 16, announcing the album release date, saying that it would be released on October 31, 2017.
In the run up to the album 's release, on October 5, 2017, Brown unveiled the official artwork on his Instagram profile, sharing a video with an animated cartoon - style visual of a blood - dripping human heart set against a pink full moon, with a snippet of the song "Heartbreak on a Full Moon '' in the background.
On October 13, 2017 Brown released a promotional single "High End '', that features guest vocals from American trap artists Future and Young Thug, announcing the final tracklist of the album. On October 25, 2017 Brown organized with Tidal a free pop - up concert in New York City to perform the singles on the album and promote it.
AllMusic editor Andy Kellman called Heartbreak on a Full Moon "artistically conservative ''. Slant Magazine 's Zachary Hoskins found most of the songs to be forgettable retreads of Brown 's past music, writing that the album "fails to offer anything new from Brown, or contemporary R&B in general: It 's almost four dozen songs about fucking or breaking up, sometimes both in the same song. ''
After selling 25,000 copies and earning 68,000 album - equivalent units within three days, Heartbreak on a Full Moon debuted at number three on the US Billboard 200, becoming Brown 's ninth consecutive top 10 album on the chart. The album was Brown 's seventh album to debut at number one on the US Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums chart. After the first full week of tracking, the double album up 7 % in consumption, moving 73,000 album - equivalent units, remained at number three on Billboard 200. By the end of 2017, Heartbreak on a Full Moon had accumulated 608,000 album - equivalent units in the United States, with 80,000 being pure sales. On January 18, 2018, Heartbreak on a Full Moon was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album - equivalent units of over 1,000,000 units in the United States (in this case, 500,000 double album sets, which are double - counted by the RIAA). In Australia, it entered the ARIA Albums Chart at number five, becoming his first top ten in the nation since X in 2014. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 10 on the UK Albums Chart, giving Brown his sixth top 10 album on the chart. The album was eventually certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for sales of over 60,000 copies in the UK. In New Zealand, the album debuted at number three on the RMNZ Albums Chart, giving Brown his seventh top ten album on the chart. Until June 2018, the album has accumulated over 3 billion streams worldwide.
On March 27, 2018, Chris Brown announced an official headlining concert tour to further promote the album titled Heartbreak on a Full Moon Tour. The tour began on June 19 in Auburn, at White River Amphitheatre. He will be supported by 6lack, H.E.R., Rich the Kid, and Jacquees.
Credits were adapted from RCA 's official website, TIDAL, and the album liner notes.
Notes
Sample credits
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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which countries need a visa to enter usa | Visa Waiver Program - wikipedia
The Visa Waiver Program (VWP) is a program of the United States Government which allows citizens of specific countries to travel to the United States for tourism, business, or while in transit for up to 90 days without having to obtain a visa. The program applies to the United States as well as the US territories of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands in the Caribbean, with limited application to other US territories.
All of the countries selected by the US government to be in the program are high - income economies with a very high Human Development Index that are generally regarded as developed countries.
To be eligible for a visa waiver under the VWP, the traveler seeking admission to the United States must be a citizen of a country that has been designated by the U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security, in consultation with the Secretary of State, as a "program country ''. Permanent residents of designated countries who are not citizens of a designated country do not qualify for a visa waiver. The criteria for designation as program countries are specified in Section 217 (c) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8 U.S.C. § 1187). The criteria stress passport security and a very low nonimmigrant visa refusal rate, not more than 3 % as specified in Section 217 (c) (2) (A) of the Immigration and Nationality Act and ongoing compliance with the immigration law of the United States.
Citizens of 38 countries and territories are eligible for visa - free entry into the United States under the VWP:
Argentina was added to the program on 8 July 1996 and removed from the list from 21 February 2002. Uruguay was added to the program on 9 August 1999 and removed from the list from 15 April 2003.
Visitors may stay for 90 days in the United States which also includes the time spent in Canada, Mexico, Bermuda, or the islands in the Caribbean if the arrival was through the United States. The ESTA is required if arriving by air or cruise ship. Visa Waiver applies without ESTA for land border crossings, but the VWP does not apply at all (i.e. a visa is required) if a passenger is arriving via air or sea on an unapproved carrier.
As of January 2016, the visa waiver does not apply in cases where a person had previously traveled to Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, or Yemen on or after 1 March 2011 or for those who are dual citizens of Iran, Iraq, Sudan or Syria. Certain categories such as diplomats, military, journalists, humanitarian workers or legitimate businessmen may have their visa requirement waived by the Secretary of Homeland Security.
Countries nominated for status in the Visa Waiver Program are in between "road map '' status and eligibility to participate. Nomination kicks off a detailed evaluation by the United States Department of Homeland Security of the nominated country 's homeland security and immigration practices. There is no established timeline for how long a country may remain on the nominated list before either being approved or rejected from the program.
Since 2005, the U.S. Department of State has been conducting discussions with countries known as "road map countries, '' which are interested in joining (or rejoining) the VWP. Of the original 19 countries, 10 have been admitted to the VWP. The remaining nine countries are:
Eligibility for the visa waiver may be withdrawn at any time. Usually this may happen if the United States feels that citizens of a certain country are more likely than before to violate their VWP restrictions, such as working without a permit or overstaying their allowed period of stay in the United States. Accordingly, Argentina 's participation in the VWP was terminated in 2002 in light of the financial crisis taking place in that country and its potential effect on mass emigration and unlawful overstay of its citizens in the United States by way of the VWP. Uruguay 's participation in the program was revoked in 2003 for similar reasons. While a country 's political and economic standing does not directly determine its eligibility, it is widely believed that citizens of politically stable and economically developed nations would not have much incentive to illegally seek employment and violate their visa while in the U.S., risks that the consul seriously considers in approving or denying a visa. Israel has not been included in the VWP reportedly in part because of its strict scrutiny of Palestinian Americans traveling to Israel, thus not fulfilling the mutuality requirement.
The European Union has been pressuring the United States to extend the Visa Waiver Program to its five remaining member countries that are not currently in it: Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Poland, and Romania. All of these are "road map countries '' except Croatia, which only recently joined the EU in 2013. In November 2014 Bulgarian Government announced that it will not ratify the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership unless the United States lifted visas for its citizens.
Number of admissions into the United States per VWP country under the program (including the Guam and Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program):
* Only for Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands.
The Adjusted Refusal Rate is based on the refusal rate of B visa applications. B visas are adjudicated based on applicant interviews; the interviews generally last between 60 and 90 seconds. Due to time constraints, adjudicators profile applicants. Certain demographics, such as young adults, those who are single and / or unemployed, almost never receive visas. Adjudicators are evaluated on how fast they carry out interviews, not the quality of adjudication decisions. The validity of B visa decisions is not evaluated.
To qualify for the Visa Waiver Program, a country must have had a nonimmigrant visa refusal rate of less than 3 % for the previous year or an average of no more than 2 % over the past two fiscal years with neither year going above 2.5 %. In addition, the country must provide visa - free access to United States citizens and has to be either an independent country or a dependency of a VWP country (which has precluded Hong Kong and Macau from participating in the program.) (Until 4 April 2016, Argentina charged $160 to U.S. citizens to enter.)
In the table below, eligible countries are in bold, with their flag depicted and linked to their relevant individual article on Wikipedia. The Adjusted Visa Refusal Rate for B visas were as follows:
A number of visitors from the Visa Waiver Program countries overstayed the 90 - day maximum. The Department of Homeland Security published a report for 2015 that lists the number of violations made by passengers who arrived via air and sea. The table below excludes statistics on persons who left the United States later than their allowed stay or legalized their status and shows only suspected overstays who remained in the country.
After the expansion of the European Union in 2004, both the newly admitted countries and EU agencies began intensive lobbying efforts to include those new countries in the VWP. The U.S. Government initially responded to those efforts by developing bilateral strategies with 19 candidate countries known as the Visa Waiver Roadmap process. The U.S. Government began to accept the possibility of departing from the original country designation criteria - which had been contained within immigration law per se - and to expand them by adding political criteria, with the latter being able to override the former. This development began first with Bill S. 2844 which explicitly named Poland as the only country to be added to the VWP, and continued as an amendment to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006 (S. 2611), whose Sec. 413, Visa Waiver Program Expansion, defined broader criteria that would apply to any EU country that provided "material support '' to the multinational forces in Iraq and Afghanistan. However, the definition of that "material support '' would be met again only by Poland and Romania, a fact that was not favorably received by the other EU candidate countries. Ironically, Poland remains the only Central European country that is not a participating nation in the VWP as of 2017, due to a visa refusal rate above the critical threshold of 3 %.
A June 2007 Hudson Institute Panel stressed the urgency of the inclusion of Central Europe in the VWP: "An inexplicable policy that is causing inestimable damage to the United States with its new Central and Eastern European NATO allies is the region 's exclusion from the visa waiver program. As Helle Dale wrote in the spring issue of European Affairs: "Meanwhile the problem is fueling anti-U.S. antagonisms and a perception of capricious discrimination by U.S. bureaucrats -- - and damping the visits to the U.S. of people from countries with whom Washington would like to improve commercial and intellectual ties. Meanwhile horror stories abound from friends and diplomats from Central and Eastern Europe about the problems besetting foreigners seeking to visit the United States. In fact bringing up the subject of visas with any resident of those countries is like waving a red flag before a bull. '' Visa waiver must be satisfactorily addressed and resolved at long last. ''
During his visit to Estonia in November 2006, President Bush announced his intention "to work with our Congress and our international partners to modify our visa waiver program ''. In 2006, the Secure Travel and Counterterrorism Partnership Bill was introduced in the Senate but no action was taken and that bill, as well as a similar one introduced in the House the following year, died after two years of inactivity. The bill would have directed the Secretary of Homeland Security to establish a pilot program to expand the visa waiver program for up to five new countries that are cooperating with the United States on security and counterterrorism matters. The bill would have changed the nonimmigrant visa refusal rate threshold - from 3 % - to 10 %, thus making (as of 2010) 28 countries qualify for inclusion in the visa - waiver program: Argentina, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Croatia, Cyprus, Hong Kong (HKSAR passport and British National (Overseas) passport), Israel, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Poland, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Taiwan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and Uruguay. Note that Cyprus, Malta, Timor Leste, and Vatican City, had already (in 2006) refusal rates less than the original 3 %, but were not included in the VWP countries (whereas a year later, some additional countries had this original low level: Cyprus and Taiwan). However, for continued participation, DHS re-evaluates participating countries every two years, as required by Congress. Through this process, two countries, Argentina and Uruguay, now are no longer eligible to participate. Current members will have to fulfill any new requirements to continue their eligibility for membership in the program. The European Union is currently planning to negotiate for participation of all of its members in the Visa Waiver Program.
In October 2008, President Bush announced that the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia and South Korea would be added to the program on November 17. "It is a removal of the last relic of Communism and the Cold War '', said Czech Prime Minister Mirek Topolánek.
On December 22, 2008, in a joint press conference at Auberge de Castille, Maltese Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi and U.S. Ambassador Molly Bordonaro announced that Malta would join the program with effect from 30 December 2008.
In January 2009 the first Assistant Secretary (acting as Under Secretary - equivalent) for Policy at the United States Department of Homeland Security Stewart Baker announced that Croatia is expected to join the Visa Waiver program by 2011.
On June 17, 2008, Bulgarian Foreign Minister Ivailo Kalfin and U.S. Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff signed an interim agreement under the Visa Waiver Program, the press service of the Bulgarian Foreign Ministry said in a statement.
Greece officially joined the program on April 5, 2010.
President Obama promised that Poland would be added to the program, in a meeting with Polish President Bronislaw Komorowski in December 2010; however no date has been set for when Poland will be added. Organizations such as the Federation for American Immigration Reform and the Center for Immigration Studies still oppose Poland 's admission both due to its continued high visa refusal rate, as well as its being a major source of illegal immigrants; the CIS also criticized South Korea 's admission to the program on these grounds.
On October 2, 2012, Secretary Napolitano announced the inclusion of Taiwan into the program effectively as of November 1, 2012. Only Taiwanese nationals with a valid passport and National Identification Number can apply for ESTA online to benefit from the country 's newly acquired visa - free status.
In 2013 there was conflict over the United States - Israel Strategic Partnership Act of 2013 whose Senate version specifies that satisfaction of the requirements regarding reciprocal travel privileges for U.S. citizens would be subject to security concerns. Many members of the House of Representatives oppose the security language because it seems to validate Israel 's tendency to turn away Arab Americans without giving any reason. None of the other 37 countries in the visa waiver program has such an exemption.
The only European microstate that is not a member of the program is the Vatican City.
The visa refusal rate for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region has dropped to 1.7 % for HKSAR passport and 2.6 % for British National (Overseas) passport as of 2012. Hong Kong met all VWP criteria but did not qualify at the time because it is not legally a separate country, despite having its own passports and independent judicial system, monetary system and immigration control. The former Chief Executive of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, raised the issue with then - Secretary of State Hillary Clinton during his visit to the U.S. in 2011 and was met with positive response. On May 16, 2013, a bipartisan amendment bill was passed by the Senate Judiciary Committee but not ratified into law. On 10 August 2015, the U.S. Consul General to Hong Kong and Macau, Clifford Hart, said during an interview with South China Morning Post that the visa waiver is "not happening anytime soon '', as the Visa Waiver law requires the participant to be a "sovereign state '' and Hong Kong is not independent, thus ending the possibility of Hong Kong joining the program. He also denied that the failed lobbying effort of HKSAR government on this issue was a result of the refusal of detaining Edward Snowden in 2013.
Congress passed legislation in 1986 to create the Visa Waiver Program with the aim of facilitating tourism and short - term business visits to the United States, and allowing the United States Department of State to focus consular resources on addressing higher risks. The United Kingdom became the first country to participate in the Visa Waiver Program in July 1988, followed by Japan on 16 December 1988. In October 1989, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland, and West Germany were added to the VWP.
In 1991, more European countries joined the Program - Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Norway, San Marino and Spain - as well as New Zealand (the first country from Oceania). In 1993, Brunei became the second Asian country to be admitted to the Program.
On 1 April 1995, Ireland was added to the VWP. In 1996, Australia and Argentina (the first Latin American country) joined, although Argentina was later removed in 2002. On 30 September 1997, Slovenia was added. On 9 August 1999, Portugal, Singapore and Uruguay joined the program, although Uruguay was subsequently removed in 2003.
Following the September 11 terrorist attacks, the George W. Bush administration decided to tighten entry requirements into the United States, as a result of which legislation was passed requiring foreign visitors entering under the Visa Waiver Program to present a machine - readable passport upon arrival starting from 1 October 2003. However, as a number of VWP still issued non-machine readable passports (for example, more than a third of French and Spanish passport holders held a non-machine readable version), the implementation of the new rule was postponed to 26 October 2004, with the exception of Belgian citizens, as there were concerns about the security and integrity of Belgian passports.
The US government originally planned to require all visitors to the US under the Visa Waiver Program to hold a biometric passport starting from 26 October 2004 if their passport was issued on or after that date. However, after the requirement to have a machine - readable passport was postponed to 26 October 2004, the biometric passport requirement subsequently had its implementation date moved to 26 October 2005, only to be further postponed by another year to 26 October 2006 at the request of the European Union, which raised concerns about the number of participating countries which would have been able to make the deadline.
Starting on 26 October 2006, travellers entering the US under the Visa Waiver Program are required to present a biometric passport if their passport was issued on or after that date. When the new rule came into force on that day, three countries (Andorra, Brunei and Liechtenstein) had not yet started issuing biometric passports.
In November 2006, the US government announced that plans for an "Electronic Travel Authorization '' program (officially named "Electronic System for Travel Authorization '') would be developed so that VWP travelers can give advance information on their travels to the United States. In return, they will be given authorization electronically to travel to the United States, although it does not guarantee admission to the United States. This program is modeled on the Electronic Travel Authority scheme that has been used in Australia for many years.
While all participating nations must provide reciprocal visa - free travel for U.S. citizens (usually ninety days for tourism or business purposes), Australia is the only nation that requires U.S. citizens to apply for an Electronic Travel Authority (ETA), which in fact is a visa that is stored electronically in a computer system operated by the Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship (DIAC). The ETA has replaced visa - free travel to Australia, and the only nation accorded visa - free travel rights to Australia is New Zealand under the auspices of the Trans - Tasman Travel Arrangement (rather than not requiring a visa, NZ citizens are accorded one automatically upon arrival). A passport holder must apply for and purchase an ETA through an authorized travel agency, airline, or via the official DIAC website before departing for Australia. However, as the ETA process is relatively free of formality, the United States recognizes it as the equivalent of visa - free travel. Citizens of the European Union and other European nations must apply for an eVisitor electronic travel authorization for travel to Australia, which is similar to the ETA program, but free. Australian government policy in this respect is similar to U.S. policy, which similarly requires Visa Waiver Program participants to apply for an ESTA.
The Northern Mariana Islands had previously been a separate jurisdiction from the United States in terms of immigration control. Under a federalization law passed by the U.S. Congress in 2008, the Northern Marianas ' immigration functions were taken over by United States Department of Homeland Security agencies on November 28, 2009. The present Guam - Northern Mariana Islands Visa Waiver Program took effect at that time, replacing previous Northern Marianas ' legislation governing entry to the islands and also replacing a previous Guam - specific Visa Waiver Program. That program had included the aforementioned countries as well as Indonesia, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands, though these countries were removed from the list of eligible nations for the new program.
In the past, the government of the Northern Mariana Islands had issued Visitor Entry Permits (VEP) instead of visas. Citizens of all countries in the federal visa waiver program were exempt from the VEP requirement, as were citizens of Taiwan and holders of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports and British National (Overseas) passports. Under the islands ' previous immigration policy, citizens of the following countries or jurisdictions were prohibited from entering the CNMI: Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Cuba, Egypt, Eritrea, Fujian Province of China, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Myanmar, North Korea, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
U.S. visa policy does not apply to the territory of American Samoa, as it has its own entry requirements and maintains control of its own borders. Hence, neither a U.S. visa nor an ESTA can be used to enter American Samoa. U.S. nationals may enter and remain indefinitely; nationals of Canada or one of the countries in the U.S. Visa Waiver Program may enter with an "OK to board '', issued electronically for a $20 fee, for visits not exceeding 30 days; nationals of other countries require an entry permit. The "OK to board '' and entry permit can not be obtained from an U.S. diplomatic mission, but from the Attorney General 's Office of American Samoa.
The requirements for the visa waiver program are as follows:
All travelers must have individual passports. It is not acceptable (for the visa waiver scheme) for children to be included on a parent 's passport.
All visitors from VWP countries must hold a biometric passport.
All incoming passengers who intend to take advantage of the Visa Waiver Program are required to apply for a travel authorization through the Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA) online before departure to the United States, preferably at least 72 hours (3 days) in advance. This new requirement was announced on June 3, 2008 and is intended to bolster U.S. security by pre-screening participating VWP passengers against terrorist and / or no - fly lists and databases. The electronic authorization, which is valid for a two - year period, mirrors Australia 's Electronic Travel Authority system. The authorization is mandatory for participating VWP citizens before boarding flights destined to the United States, but as with formal visas this does not guarantee admission into the United States since final admission eligibility is determined at U.S. ports of entry by CBP officers.
According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security 's ESTA fact sheet:
An approved ESTA travel authorization is:
valid for up to two years or until the traveler 's passport expires, whichever comes first; valid for multiple entries into the U.S.; and not a guarantee of admissibility to the United States at a port of entry. ESTA approval only authorizes a traveler to board a carrier for travel to the U.S. under the VWP. In all cases, CBP officers make admissibility determinations at our ports of entry. (For additional information, please visit "Know Before You Go '' at www.cbp.gov/travel.)
Currently all travelers from VWP countries are required to obtain an ESTA approval prior to boarding a carrier to travel by air or sea to the United States under the VWP.
The standard requirement for passport validity is six months beyond the expected date of departure from the United States. However, the US has signed agreements with a number of countries to waive this requirement.
If entering the United States by air or sea, additional requirements apply. The traveler must:
Applicants for admission under the Visa Waiver Program:
Those who do not meet the requirements for the Visa Waiver Program must obtain a U.S. tourist visa from an U.S. embassy or consulate.
Having been arrested or convicted does not in itself make a person ineligible to use the Visa Waiver Program. You are only ineligible if you do not meet the requirements of the program. However, some U.S. embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa even though there is no legal obligation for the individual to do so. There is no right of appeal if a CBP officer decides to refuse entry, unless you hold a visa when an appeal can be made to an immigration judge.
Those previously refused entry to the United States are not automatically ineligible for the Visa Waiver Program, but unless the reason for refusal is addressed, it is likely to reoccur. Hence again, many embassies advise such persons to apply for a tourist visa.
A person entering the United States under the VWP can not request an extension of the original allowed period of stay in the U.S. (this practice is allowed to those holding regular visas). However, VWP visitors may seek to adjust status on the basis of either (1) marriage to a US citizen or (2) an application for asylum. U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers determine admissibility upon traveler 's arrival. If one seeks to enter the U.S. under the VWP and is denied entry by a CBP officer at a port of entry, no path of appealing or review of the denial of entry is allowed. VWP including ESTA does not guarantee entry to the United States. CBP officers make the final determination of entry to the United States.
Travelers can leave to contiguous countries (Canada, Mexico and the Caribbean), but will not be granted another 90 days after reentry in the United States.
There are restrictions on the type of employment - related activities allowed. Meetings and conferences in relation to the alien 's profession / line of business / employer in their home country, are generally acceptable, but most forms of "gainful employment '' are not. There are however poorly - classifiable exceptions such as persons performing professional services in the US for a non US employer, and persons installing, servicing and repairing commercial or industrial equipment or machinery pursuant to a contract of sale. Performers (such as actors and musicians) who plan on performing live or taping scenes for productions back home, as well as athletes participating in an athletic event are likewise not allowed to use the VWP for their respective engagements and are instead required to have an O or P visa prior to arrival. Foreign media representatives and journalists on assignment are required to have a nonimmigrant media (I) visa.
Applicant should display social and economic ties which bind them to their country of origin or may be refused entry.
Separate from the Visa Waiver Program, 8 U.S.C. § 1182 (d) (4) (B) permits the Attorney General and the Secretary of State (acting jointly) to waive visa requirements for admission to the United States in nonimmigrant status for nationals of foreign contiguous territories or adjacent islands or for residents of those territories or islands who have a common nationality with those nationals. The regulations relating to such admissions can be found at 8 C.F.R. 212.1.
Until 2003, this visa waiver was granted not only to citizens of those countries and territories, but to permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada who were citizens of Commonwealth of Nations countries or of Ireland. In 2003, the Immigration and Naturalization Service announced that it would be terminating the visa waiver for non-citizen permanent residents of Bermuda and Canada; thenceforth, those Canadian & Bermudian permanent residents who were citizens of a Visa Waiver Program country could enjoy visa - free entry to the United States under that program, while citizens of other countries would be required to possess a valid advance visa for entry to the United States.
Bahamian citizens do not require a visa to enter the United States if they apply for entry at one of the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports. Bahamian citizens must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must be in possession of valid, unexpired passport or a Bahamian Travel Document indicating that they have Bahamian citizenship. In addition to a passport, all applicants 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Bahamas Police Force within the past six months. All Bahamians applying for admission at a port - of - entry other than the Preclearance Facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International Airports are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Canadian citizens do not require a non-immigrant visa when entering the United States, except those Canadians that fall under nonimmigrant visa categories E, K, S, or V, but under different legislation from the Visa Waiver program. This does not preclude them from meeting the requirements of the appropriate status they wish to enter in, for example, while a Canadian does not require a F - 1 visa to study in the U.S., they are still required to be in F - 1 status, not requiring a visa simply allows a Canadian to obtain the status at the Port of Entry.
Citizens of Canada who enter as visitors are exempted from being fingerprinted or photographed under US - VISIT and do not require a machine readable passport. Canadian visitors are also not issued an I - 94, and US Customs and Border Protection decides whether to allow entry based on non-immigrant intent. The maximum permitted length of stay is one year but can be extended, although CBP usually considers six months to be the maximum permitted per calendar year, except under unusual circumstances (such as medical treatment).
Before 23 January 2007, citizens of Canada, (provided they held valid photo identification) were able to enter the United States with only a birth certificate as proof of citizenship and were not required to show a passport. Citizens of other parts of North America, such as Mexico or Bermuda have always been subject to holding a valid Visa stamp or a border crossing card along with their passports. On 23 January 2007, Canadian and U.S. citizens were required to have passports when entering the U.S. by air only.
As of 1 June 2009, Canadian and U.S. citizens are required to present either a valid passport, a NEXUS card, a Free and Secure Trade card (FAST) or an enhanced driver 's licence / enhanced identification card when entering the United States by land or water. Canadians entering the U.S. by air are still required to present a valid passport or NEXUS card. A NEXUS card can only be used at designated U.S. and Canadian airports with NEXUS card kiosks. Children under 16, or under 19 while traveling with a school group need to only present a birth certificate or other similar proof of citizenship when entering the U.S. from Canada by land or water.
British Overseas Territories citizens by virtue of their connection to Bermuda can enter the United States visa - free provided they are bona - fide visitors -- no I - 94 is required. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must not be arriving the United States from outside the Western Hemisphere. In addition, they must present a Bermudian passport which fulfils the following criteria:
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the British Virgin Islands can enter the neighboring U.S. Virgin Islands visa - free for short business and pleasure. Travelers must possess a valid British Virgin Islands passport and travel directly to the U.S. Virgin Islands in order to qualify for this territory - specific visa waiver arrangement. A visa is required for anyone traveling directly to Puerto Rico or the United States mainland.
Whilst residents of the Cayman Islands, as British Overseas Territories Citizens, are eligible automatically to register as a full British citizen under Section 4 (A) of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, thereby able additionally to enter the United States under the Visa Waiver Program, they can alternatively enter visa - free using their Cayman Islands passports. To qualify under the latter method, their Cayman Islands passports must confirm their British Overseas Territories citizenship and be endorsed by the Cayman Islands Passport and Corporate Services Office with a Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, issued at a cost of $15 -- 25 and valid for one entry. They must travel directly between the Cayman Islands and the United States and their Cayman Islands passport must also have a validity of at least six months beyond their intended departure date from the United States. If Cayman Islanders elect to enter the U.S. using the Cayman - U.S. visa waiver, they are not required to apply for an ESTA online, since they are not entering under the VWP.
British Overseas Territories Citizens by virtue of their connection to the Turks and Caicos Islands can enter the United States visa - free for short business and pleasure. To qualify, they must not have had a criminal conviction or ineligibility, not violated U.S. immigration laws in the past and must arrive in the United States on a direct flight from the territory. In addition, they must present a Turks and Caicos Islands passport which states that they are a British Overseas Territory Citizen and have the right to abode in the Turks and Caicos Islands. In addition to a valid, unexpired passport, all travellers 14 years of age or older must present a police certificate issued by the Royal Turks and Caicos Islands Police Force within the past six months. All British Overseas Territories Citizens of the Turks and Caicos Islands who apply for admission at a port - of - entry that does not have direct air service to / from the territory, are required to be in possession of a valid visa to enter the United States.
Under the Compact of Free Association, citizens of the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and the Republic of Palau (except for adopted children, citizens wishing to adopt while in the U.S., and citizens from any of these nations who acquired citizenship via an Immigrant investor program) may enter, reside, study, and work indefinitely in the United States without visas. These three sovereign nations hold the distinction of being the only countries in the world whose citizens do not require visas or other required documents (with the exception of a valid passport) for permanent residence, employment, educational pursuits, or for general visits in or to the United States. Time spent in the United States does not count towards permanent residency status, and those wishing to emigrate to the United States must obtain an immigrant visa prior to arriving in the country.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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model institute of engineering and technology - miet jammu | Model Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jammu - Wikipedia
Model Institute of Engineering and Technology (MIET) is a technical institution located in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India. It offers Undergraduate degrees in Engineering and Master 's degrees in Computer Engineering, Management, and Computer Applications. The institution was opened in 1998 and is approved by the All India Council for Technical Education and affiliated to the University of Jammu. MIET is accredited by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), while the departments of Electronics and Communications and Computer Science and Engineering were accredited by the National Board of Accreditation (NBA).. MIET is accredited with "A '' grade by NAAC. MIET was awarded the "Best Institution award '' in the year 2014 among all north Indian engineering colleges of north India by NITTR.
Admission to B.E programmes is made on the basis of the Common Entrance Test (CET) conducted by the Board of Professional Entrance Examinations (BOPEE) of the J&K Government. Admissions to the MCA programme are made by the University of Jammu, based on an independent entrance test. Admissions to the MBA programme are made on the basis of CAT / MAT / CMAT scores and as per procedure laid down by the University of Jammu.
MIET is a pioneer in Research and Development in J&K. Till date 15 patents have been filed at the Indian Patents Office in CS / IT and over 450 research papers have been published by the faculty in the last 5 years. Several papers have been published / indexed by prestigious international publishers such as IEEE, Springer, Elsevier, ACM, Taylor & Francis, InderScience and IGI - Global.
Two IT products have been incubated at MIET which are in the process of being commercialized. MIET offers consultancy services in several areas and has a dedicated Center for Software Development
MIET Alumni occupy high positions in reputed national and international corporate houses and in Government services. Over 400 alumni of MIET are currently working overseas in USA, UK, Singapore, Middle - East, Australia and Europe. MIET Alumni are currently enrolled or graduated from top universities such as Georgia Tech, Virginia, USA, University of Texas, Dallas, USA, University of Edinburgh, UK, IIM - Indore, India, King 's College, UK and IIT - Delhi, India. To recognize Alumni for their professional achievements, MIET has instituted the Distinguished Alumni Award which has been presented to six alumni so far.
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can you put a weaver sight on a picatinny rail | Weaver rail mount - wikipedia
A Weaver rail mount is a system to connect telescopic sights and other accessories to rifles, shotguns, pistols, and crossbows. It uses a pair of parallel rails and several slots perpendicular to these rails.
The later Picatinny rail, developed by the US military, is a development of the key concepts of the Weaver system, and they are partly compatible.
The Weaver mount was developed by William Ralph Weaver (1905 -- 8 November 1975) at his telescopic sight company W.R. Weaver Co., which he founded in 1930. Previous systems included the Leupold / Redfield mounts. Compared to the Leupold mount, the Weaver rail is not as strong and can not be adjusted for windage.
W.R. Weaver Co. became Weaver Optics, and was a subsidiary of Meade Instruments Corporation from 2002 to 2008, when it was on - sold to become part of Alliant Techsystems 's Security and Sporting division in Onalaska, Wisconsin.
Older Weaver systems used two pieces mounted a distance apart from one another typically on the receiver of a rifle over the bolt opening where the cartridge would be inserted and / or ejected. However, alignment problems of the two piece system can put undue stress on a rifle scope and cause problems between the scope and rifle barrel parallels and bullet Point Of Impact (POI). Also the two piece system must be mounted to exacting tolerances to one another to ensure perfect alignment using a scope alignment device called Alignment Sleeves. The two piece type can also be problematic when some rifles will not allow for the two pieces to be mounted due to metal thickness of the receiver or other issues of receiver length that will not allow for proper distance to hold the scope. With the later one piece approach, the rail system remains consistent in alignment.
The slots on a Weaver system are primarily used as a clearance of the locking screw that tightens the clamp to the rail. Some Weaver - type accessories have a bar that fits inside the machined slots on the rails while many others do not.
Weaver rails have a slot width of 0.180 in (4.57 mm), but are not necessarily consistent in the spacing of slot centers.
The lack of a locking bar on many Weaver - type accessories also lends to another alignment issue: Canting. Though this problem is not common it can be very problematic especially with scopes. Because scopes need to be mounted to a rifle in perfect parallel to the barrel and to ensure the cross hairs sit exactly where a bullet will go (POI), a small variation of even 1⁄4 of one degree can cause massive problems at longer ranges. The locking bar holds the mount in a perfect 90 degree to the rail system where as a non-locking bar system can cant to the left or right. This canting (sometimes called jamming of surfaces) is caused by not matching the clamping surface perfectly to the rail. When tightened down, stress exerted on the base can cause the scope to be off from the POI by as much as several feet at 100 -- 200 yards and gets progressively worse the farther out the range goes. Lower grade materials used in manufacturing of scope bases, inconsistent design tolerances from one manufacturer to another and other factors can cause twisting stress and cause the mount to move out of parallel with the rifle barrel. The locking bar system allows for even stress to be distributed and prevent canting of the scope mount.
Another form of scope canting is caused by the rings themselves. Many Weaver - type mounts (including many Picatinny - type scope rings and even the Redfield Type) have either two or four screws on top of the scope ring that hold the scope in place. Both the Weaver and Picatinny clamp systems have a screw side and a clamp side. With the two - screw style, the ring usually aligns well but does not have the strength of the four screw system. Many times, when tightening the screws of the four screw type, the scope can twist in place, causing misalignment. Tightening the mounts in an "X '' pattern and usually starting opposite of the outside clamp side; holding the scope slightly to the opposite side while tightening the screws usually allows for proper alignment of the scope to barrel parallel.
The military standard, MIL - STD - 1913 "Picatinny rails '' date from the mid-1990s and have very strict military standard dimensions and tolerances. The Picatinny rail has a similar profile to the Weaver, but the recoil groove width of the Picatinny rail is 0.206 in (5.23 mm) versus 0.180 in (4.57 mm) of the Weaver rail / mount, and by contrast with the Weaver, the spacing of the Picatinny recoil grove centers is consistent, at 0.394 in (10.01 mm). Many rail - grabber - mounted accessories can be used on either type of rail, and accessories designed for a Weaver system will generally fit Picatinny rails - although not vice versa. because the Picatinny locking slot width is 0.206 in (5.232 mm) vs the. 180 width of the Weaver, and the spacing of slot centers is 0.394 in (10.008 mm). Because of this, with devices that use only one locking slot, Weaver devices will fit on Picatinny rails, but Picatinny devices will not always fit on Weaver rails.
Another difference is that Weaver rails are continuous with only two to four recoil groves cut, while Picatinny rails have recoil groves cut across the entire length of the rail at the above noted spacing (like a dotted line). This allows for more mounting position flexibility and also helps to neutralize expansion caused by barrel heating.
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who played mr. hyde in once upon a time | Sam Witwer - wikipedia
Samuel Stewart Witwer (born October 20, 1977) is an American actor and musician. He has portrayed Crashdown in Battlestar Galactica, Davis Bloome in Smallville, and vampire Aidan Waite of the US / Canadian remake of BBC 's supernatural drama series Being Human on Syfy in the US and Space in Canada. He also voiced protagonist Galen Marek / Starkiller in the multimedia project Star Wars: The Force Unleashed, as well as The Son and Darth Maul in Cartoon Network 's Star Wars: The Clone Wars and Emperor Palpatine as well as Maul in Disney XD 's Star Wars Rebels. Witwer is also the current reigning Movie Trivia Schmoedown Star Wars Champion, a title he won from Ken Napzok in a 30 minute Iron Man Star Wars trivia match.
Witwer grew up in Glenview, Illinois, a small suburb outside of Chicago. He attended Glenbrook South High School, during which time he was involved in drama and theater classes, as well as being the lead singer of a high school band called "Love Plumber ''. He attended the Juilliard School for a time before moving to Los Angeles.
Witwer 's first on - screen credit was that of a Chicago Bulls commercial. He soon found himself in speaking roles on hit television series, such as ER.
Witwer 's first major recurring role came in the form of portraying Lt. Crashdown on Battlestar Galactica, although he has credited much of his current success to his role as Neil Perry on the Showtime series Dexter. Witwer also appeared as Private Wayne Jessup in the movie The Mist.
From 2008 to 2009, Witwer was cast in Season 8 of Smallville as Davis Bloome, a charming paramedic who struggles with a darkness within as he is the human camouflage of Doomsday, a character in the comics best known for being the only villain to have killed Superman. While Witwer played Davis, Doomsday was played by stuntman Dario Delacio. Witwer 's performance in Smallville was incredibly well - received, and he has stated that his experience on the show had opened more opportunities for him in the future of acting.
Witwer made a cameo appearance in The Walking Dead as a dead (zombie) soldier in a tank in the Season 1 episode "Days Gone Bye '' which reunited him with director Frank Darabont from The Mist.
Witwer starred in the North American remake of Being Human. He played the role of vampire Aidan Waite.
He voiced Ocean Master in the animated film Justice League: Throne of Atlantis for the DC Universe Animated Original Movies series, replacing fellow Star Wars actor Steven Blum from Justice League: War.
In 2016 Witwer played a recurring role of Edward Hyde on Once Upon a Time.
Sam is an avid player of both electronic games and pen - and - paper roleplaying games. This is a hobby that he has engaged in for years. He has been a frequent guest on the Podcast Order 66 and has expressed a love for all iterations of Star Wars roleplaying games Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game (by West End Games) to Star Wars Roleplaying Game (by Wizards of the Coast) and to the current series of cross-compatible Star Wars roleplaying games by Fantasy Flight Games.
Sam appeared in episode 19 of Geek and Sundry 's Tabletop playing the Dragon Age roleplaying game, and episodes 29 and 55 of Dice Camera Action.
A lifelong Star Wars fan, Witwer provided both his voice and likeness for lead character Galen Marek / Starkiller (Darth Vader 's secret apprentice) in the 2008 video game Star Wars: The Force Unleashed and 2010 sequel Star Wars: The Force Unleashed II. He has since received much praise for his contribution to the role. He also voiced Darth Sidious (Emperor Palpatine) in both games, and reprised it for the games Disney Infinity 3.0 and Battlefront and for season 2 of Star Wars Rebels, where he also plays Darth Maul.
For Star Wars: The Clone Wars, Witwer had also vocally performed the Son in a three episode story arc (known as the Mortis trilogy) in Season 3 as well as the iconic Sith Lord Darth Maul in the Season 4 finale episodes and in four episodes of Season 5. He also lent his voice for Darth Maul in other projects such as the Star Wars: Episode I Brisk commercial as well as the Cartoon Network special Lego Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Out, and is playing Maul again for Star Wars Rebels.
Sam attended The Clone Wars Season 5 Red Carpet Premier in Orlando, Florida on August 24, 2012 during Celebration VI along with some of his co-stars Matt Lanter, James Arnold Taylor, Dee Bradley Baker, Tom Kane, Daniel Logan, Stephen Stanton and Ashley Eckstein, as well as Supervising Director Dave Filoni. During Celebration VI, he also had his own panel called Sam Witwer "The Maul Within '' on August 26, 2012. In 2013, he attended for the first time the annual event, Star Wars Weekends at Disney 's Hollywood Studios in Orlando, Florida for a three - day weekend and fans praised him for his roles in The Force Unleashed games and on The Clone Wars. During the live show "Behind the Force '', Sam showed his acting skills by saying one or two lines of the characters that he 's played in the Star Wars universe.
Sam also guest voiced an alien as well as a stormtrooper during the siege of Maz Kanata 's palace in Star Wars: The Force Awakens.
Witwer serves as the front - man for the band The Crashtones, whose first studio album Colorful of the Stereo was released February 15, 2006.
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what form of government did vietnam have after reunification | History of Vietnam since 1945 - wikipedia
After World War II and the collapse of Vietnam 's monarchy, France attempted to re-establish its colonial rule but was ultimately defeated in the First Indochina War. The Geneva Accords in 1954 partitioned the country temporarily in two with a promise of democratic elections in 1956 to reunite the country. However, the United States and South Vietnam insisted on United Nations supervision of any election to prevent fraud, which the Soviet Union and North Vietnam refused. North and South Vietnam therefore remained divided until The Vietnam War ended with the Fall of Saigon in 1975.
After reunification in 1975, the newly reunified Vietnam faced many difficulties including internal repression and isolation from the international community due to the Cold War, Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia and an American economic embargo. In 1986, the Communist Party of Vietnam changed its economic policy and began a series of reforms to the private sector and to the economy through what is known as Đổi mới, a political movement primarily led by Prime Minister Võ Văn Kiệt. During the 6th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam, the country abolished its planned economy system in favor of a market oriented one. Ever since the reforms in the mid-1980s, Vietnam has enjoyed substantial economic growth.
The Japanese occupied Vietnam during World War II but allowed the French to remain and exert some influence. At the war 's end in August 1945, a power vacuum was created in Vietnam. Capitalizing on this, the Việt Minh launched the "August Revolution '' across the country to seize government offices. Emperor Bảo Đại abdicated on August 25, 1945, ending the Nguyễn dynasty. On September 2, 1945, at Duc Anh Ba Đình Square, Ho Chi Minh, leader of the Viet Minh organization, declared Vietnam 's independence under the new name of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN) in a speech that invoked the United States Declaration of Independence and the French Revolution 's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Ho sent several letters to the US government asking to be recognised as the government of Vietnam and offering friendship to America, but none were ever answered.
The British commander in Southeast Asia, Lord Louis Mountbatten, sent 20,000 troops of the 20th Indian division to occupy Saigon under General Douglas Gracey who landed in southern Vietnam on 6 September 1945, disarming the Japanese and restoring order. They had to re-arm Japanese prisoners of war known as Gremlin force to keep order until more troops arrived. The British began to withdraw in December 1945, but this was not completed until June of the following year. The last British soldiers were killed in Vietnam in June 1946. Altogether 40 British and Indian troops were killed and over a hundred were wounded. Vietnamese casualties were 600. They were followed by French troops trying to re-establish their rule. In the north, Chiang Kai - shek 's Kuomintang army entered Vietnam from China, also to disarm the Japanese, followed by the forces of the non-Communist Vietnamese parties, such as Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng and Việt Nam Cách Mạng Đồng Minh Hội. In January 1946, Vietnam had its first National Assembly election (won by the Viet Minh in central and northern Vietnam), which drafted the first constitution, but the situation was still precarious: the French tried to regain power by force; some Cochinchinese politicians formed a seceding government of the Republic of Cochinchina (Nam Kỳ Quốc) while the non-Communist and Communist forces were engaging each other in sporadic battles. Stalinists purged Trotskyists. Religious sects, like the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo, and resistance groups formed their own militias. Under the terms of the Accord between France and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam on 6 March 1946:
The seat of the conference was held at either Hanoi, Saigon or Paris.
In 1947 full - scale war broke out between the Viet Minh and France. Realizing that colonialism was coming to an end worldwide, France fashioned a semi-independent State of Vietnam, within the French Union, with Bảo Đại as Head of State. Meanwhile, as the Communists under Mao Zedong took over China, the Viet Minh began to receive military aid from China. Beside supplying materials, Chinese cadres also pressured the Vietnamese Communist Party, then under First Secretary Trường Chinh, to emulate their brand of revolution, unleashing a purge of "bourgeois and feudal '' elements from the Viet Minh ranks, carrying out a ruthless and bloody land reform campaign (Cải Cách Ruộng Đất), and denouncing "bourgeois and feudal '' tendencies in arts and literature. Many true patriots and devoted Communist revolutionaries in the Viet Minh suffered mistreatment or were even executed during these movements. Many others became disenchanted and left the Viet Minh. The United States became strongly opposed to Hồ Chí Minh. In the 1950s the government of Bảo Đại gained recognition by the United States and the United Kingdom.
The Việt Minh force grew significantly with China 's assistance and in 1954, under the command of General Võ Nguyên Giáp, launched a major siege against French bases in Điện Biên Phủ. The Việt Minh force surprised Western military experts with their use of primitive means to move artillery pieces and supplies up the mountains surrounding Điện Biên Phủ, giving them a decisive advantage. On May 7, 1954, French troops at Điện Biên Phủ, under Christian de Castries, surrendered to the Viet Minh and in July 1954, the Geneva Accord was signed between France and the Viet - Minh, paving the way for the French to leave Vietnam.
The Geneva Conference of 1954 ended France 's colonial presence in Vietnam and partitioned the country into two states at the 17th parallel pending unification on the basis of internationally supervised free elections. Ngô Đình Diệm, a former mandarin with a strong Catholic and Confucian background, was selected as Premier of the State of Vietnam by Bảo Đại. While Diệm was trying to settle the differences between the various armed militias in the South, Bảo Đại was persuaded to reduce his power. Diệm created a referendum in 1955 to depose Bảo Đại and declared himself President of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The Republic of Vietnam (RVN) was proclaimed in Saigon on October 26, 1955. The United States began to provide military and economic aid to the RVN, training RVN personnel, and sending U.S. advisors to assist in building the infrastructure for the new government.
Also in 1954, Viet Minh forces took over North Vietnam according to the Geneva Accord. One million North Vietnamese civilians emigrated to South Vietnam to avoid persecution from the imminent Communist regime. At the same time, Viet Minh armed forces from South Vietnam were also moving to North Vietnam, as dictated by the Geneva Accord. However, some high - ranking Viet Minh cadres secretly remained in the South to follow the local situation closely, and created a communist insurgency against the Southern government if necessary. The most important figure among those was Lê Duẩn.
The Geneva Accord had promised elections to determine the government for a unified Vietnam. Neither the United States government nor Ngô Đình Diệm 's State of Vietnam signed anything at the 1954 Geneva Conference. With respect to the question of reunification, the non-communist Vietnamese delegation objected strenuously to any division of Vietnam, but lost out when the French accepted the proposal of Viet Minh delegate Phạm Văn Đồng, who proposed that Vietnam eventually be united by elections under the supervision of "local commissions ''. The United States countered with what became known as the "American Plan '', with the support of South Vietnam and the United Kingdom. It provided for unification elections under the supervision of the United Nations, but was rejected by the Soviet delegation.
Diệm took strong measures to secure South Vietnam from perceived internal threats, especially from the Viet Cong. He eliminated all private militias from the Bình Xuyên Party and the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. In October 1955, he deposed Bảo Đại and proclaimed himself President of the newly established the Republic of Vietnam, after rigging a referendum. He repressed political opposition, arresting the famous writer Nguyễn Tường Tam, who committed suicide while awaiting trial in jail. Diệm also acted aggressively to remove Communist agents still remaining in the South. He formed the Cần Lao Nhân Vị Party, mixing Individualist philosophy with republican and capitalist elements, as well as being anti-Communist and pro-Catholic. Another controversial policy was the Strategic Hamlet Program, which aimed to build fortified villages to remove and lock out Communists. However, it was in some ways ineffective as many covert communists were already part of the population and visually indistinguishable. It became unpopular as it limited the villagers ' freedom and altered their traditional way of life.
Although Ngô Đình Diệm personally was respected for his nationalism, political stability and policies triggering rapid economic growth, he ran a nepotistic and authoritarian government. Elections were routinely rigged and Diệm favored of minority Roman Catholics on many issues, believing that Catholics were "more trustworthy '', more anti-communist and more impermeable to Viet Cong infiltration. His religious policies sparked protests from the Buddhist community after demonstrators were killed on Vesak, Buddha 's birthday, in 1963 when they were protesting a ban on the Buddhist flag. This incident sparked mass protests calling for religious equality. The most famous case was of Venerable Thích Quảng Đức, who burned himself to death to protest. The images of this event made worldwide headlines and brought extreme embarrassment for Diệm. The tension was not resolved, and on August 21, the ARVN Special Forces loyal to his brother and chief adviser Ngô Đình Nhu and commanded by Lê Quang Tung raided Buddhist pagodas across the country, leaving a death toll estimated to range into the hundreds. In the United States, the Kennedy administration became worried that the problems of Diệm 's government were undermining the US 's anti-Communist effort in Southeast Asia, and of Diệm 's increasing resistance and non-cooperation with the American government. On November 1, 1963, with the planning and backing of the CIA and the Kennedy administration, South Vietnamese generals led by Dương Văn Minh engineered a coup d'état and overthrew Ngô Đình Diệm, killing both him and his brother Nhu. (see also Ngô Đình Cẩn)
Between 1963 and 1965, South Vietnam was extremely unstable as no government could keep power for long. There were more coups, often more than one every year. The Communist - run Viet Cong expanded their operation and scored some significant military victories during this period. In 1965, US President Lyndon Johnson sent troops to South Vietnam to secure the country and started to bomb North Vietnam, assuming that if South Vietnam fell to the Communists, other countries in the Southeast Asia would follow, in accordance with the domino theory. Other US allies, such as Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, Thailand, the Philippines, and Taiwan also sent troops to South Vietnam. Although the American - led troops succeeded in containing the advance of Communist forces, the presence of foreign troops, the widespread bombing over all of Vietnam, and the social vices that mushroomed around US bases upset the sense of national pride among many Vietnamese, North and South, causing some to become sympathetic to North Vietnam and the Viet Cong. In 1965, Air Marshal Nguyễn Cao Kỳ and General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu took power in a coup, and presided over a stable junta, and promised to hold elections under US pressure. In 1967, South Vietnam managed to conduct a National Assembly and Presidential election with Lt. General Nguyễn Văn Thiệu being elected to the Presidency, bringing the government to some level of stability.
Between 1953 and 1956, the North Vietnamese government instituted various agrarian reforms, including "rent reduction '' and "land reform '', which resulted in significant political oppression. During the land reform, testimony from North Vietnamese witnesses suggested a ratio of one execution for every 160 village residents, which extrapolated nationwide would indicate nearly 100,000 executions. Because the campaign was concentrated mainly in the Red River Delta area, a lower estimate of 50,000 executions became widely accepted by scholars at the time. However, declassified documents from the Vietnamese and Hungarian archives indicate that the number of executions was much lower than reported at the time, although likely greater than 13,500. A Northern democratic literary movement called Nhân văn - Giai phẩm (from the names of the two magazines which started the movement, based in Hanoi) developed, which attempted to encourage the democratization of the North and the free expression of thought. Intellectuals were thus lured into criticizing the leadership so they could be arrested later, and many were sent to hard labor camps (Gulags), following the model of Mao Tse - tung 's Hundred Flowers campaign in China. Freedom of speech, freedom of assembly and other basic civilian freedoms were soon revoked after the government 's attempt of destroying the literary movement. A puritan personality cult was also established around Ho Chi Minh, later extended nationwide after the Communist reunification of the Vietnam.
During this period, North Vietnam was a Communist state with a centralized command economy, an extensive security apparatus to carry out dictatorship of the proletariat, a powerful propaganda machine that effectively rallied the people for the Party 's causes, a superb intelligence system that infiltrated South Vietnam (spies such as Phạm Ngọc Thảo climbed to high military government positions), and a severe suppression of political opposition. Even some decorated veterans and famed Communist cadres, such as Trần Đức Thảo, Nguyễn Hữu Đang, Trần Dần, Hoàng Minh Chính, were persecuted during the late 1950s Nhân Văn Giai Phẩm events and the 1960s Trial Against the Anti-Party Revisionists (Vụ Án Xét Lại Chống Đảng) for speaking their opinions. Nevertheless, this iron grip, together with consistent support from the Soviet Union and China, gave North Vietnam a militaristic advantage over South Vietnam. North Vietnamese leadership also had a steely determination to fight, even when facing massive casualties and destruction at their end. The young North Vietnamese were idealistically and innocently patriotic, ready to give the ultimate sacrifice for the "liberation of the South '' and the "unification of the motherland ''.
In 1960, at the Third Party Congress of the Vietnamese Communist Party, renamed the Labor Party since 1951, Lê Duẩn arrived from the South and strongly advocated the use of revolutionary warfare to topple Diệm 's government, unifying the country, and establish communism nationwide. Despite some elements in the Party opposing the use of force, Lê Duẩn won the seat of First Secretary of the Party. As Hồ Chí Minh was aging, Lê Duẩn virtually took the helm of war from him. The first step of his war plan was coordinating a rural uprising in the South (Đồng Khởi) and forming the Viet Cong or National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam (NLF) toward the end of 1960. The figurehead leader of the Viet Cong was Nguyễn Hữu Thọ, a South Vietnamese lawyer, but the true leadership was the Communist Party hierarchy in South Vietnam. Arms, supplies, and troops came from North Vietnam into South Vietnam via a system of trails, named the Ho Chi Minh trail, that branched into Laos and Cambodia before entering South Vietnam. At first, most foreign aid for North Vietnam came from China, as Lê Duẩn distanced Vietnam from the "revisionist '' policy of the Soviet Union under Nikita Khrushchev. However, under Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet Union picked up the pace of aid and provided North Vietnam with heavy weapons, such as T - 54 tanks, artillery, MIG fighter planes, surface - to - air missiles etc.
In 1968, the Viet Cong launched a massive and surprise Tết Offensive (known in South Vietnam as "Biến Cố Tết Mậu Thân '' or in the North as "Cuộc Tổng Tấn Công và Nổi Dậy Tết Mậu Thân ''), attacking almost all major cities in South Vietnam over the Vietnamese New Year (Tết). The Viet Cong and North Vietnamese captured the city of Huế, after which many mass graves were found. Many of the executed victims had relations with the South Vietnamese government or the US, or part of social groups that were considered enemies to the Viet Cong, like Catholics, business owners and intellectuals (Thảm Sát Tết Mậu Thân). Over the course of the year the Viet Cong forces were pushed out of all cities in South Vietnam and nearly decimated. In subsequent major offensives in later years, North Vietnamese regulars with artillery and tanks took over the fighting. In the months following the Tet Offensive, an American unit massacred civilian villagers, suspected to be sheltering Viet Cong guerillas, in the hamlet of My Lai in Central Vietnam, causing an uproar in protest around the world.
In 1969, Hồ Chí Minh died, leaving wishes that his body be cremated. However, the Communist Party embalmed his body for public display and built the Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum on Ba Đình Square in Hà Nội, in the style of Lenin 's Mausoleum in Moscow.
Although the Tết Offensive was a catastrophic military defeat for the Việt Cộng, it was a stunning political victory as it led many Americans to view the war as unwinnable. U.S. President Richard Nixon entered office with a pledge to end the war "with honor. '' He normalized US relations with China in 1972 and entered into détente with the USSR. Nixon thus forged a new strategy to deal with the Communist Bloc, taking advantage of the rift between China and the Soviet Union. A costly war in Vietnam begun to appear less effective for the cause of Communist containment. Nixon proposed "Vietnamization '' of the war, with South Vietnamese troops taking charge of the fighting, yet still receiving American aid and, if necessary, air and naval support. The new strategy started to show some effects: in 1970, troops from the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) successfully conducted raids against North Vietnamese bases in Cambodia (Cambodian Campaign); in 1971, the ARVN made an incursion into Southern Laos to cut off the Ho Chi Minh trail in Operation Lam Son 719, but the operation failed as most high positions captured by ARVN forces were recaptured by North Vietnamese artillery; in 1972, the ARVN successfully held the town of An Lộc against massive attacks from North Vietnamese regulars and recaptured the town of Quảng Trị near the demilitarised zone (DMZ) in the center of the country during the Easter Offensive.
At the same time, Nixon was pressing both Hanoi and Saigon to sign the Paris Peace Agreement of 1973, for American military forces to withdraw from Vietnam. The pressure on Hanoi materialized with the Christmas Bombings in 1972. In South Vietnam, Nguyễn Văn Thiệu vocally opposed any accord with the Communists, but was threatened with withdrawal of American aid.
Despite the peace treaty, the North violated the treaty and continued the war as had been envisioned by Lê Duẩn and the South still tried to recapture lost territories. In the U.S., Nixon resigned after the Watergate scandal. South Vietnam was seen as losing a strong backer. Under U.S. President Gerald Ford, the Democratic - controlled Congress became less willing to provide military support to South Vietnam.
In 1974, South Vietnam also fought and lost the Battle of Hoàng Sa, in defending the islands against the invading Chinese over the control of the Paracel Islands in the South China Sea. Neither North Vietnam nor the U.S. were involved.
In early 1975, North Vietnamese military led by General Văn Tiến Dũng launched a massive attack against the Central Highland province of Buôn Mê Thuột. South Vietnamese troops had anticipated attack against the neighboring province of Pleiku, and were caught off guard. President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu ordered the moving of all troops from the Central Highland to the coastal areas, as with shrinking American aid, South Vietnamese forces could not afford to spread too thin. However, due to lack of experience and logistics for such a large troop movement in such a short time, the whole South Vietnamese 2nd Corps got bogged down on narrow mountain roads, flooded with thousands of civilian refugees, and was decimated by ambushes along the way. The South Vietnamese First Corps near the DMZ was cut off, received conflicting orders from Saigon on whether to fight or to retreat, and eventually collapsed. Many civilians tried to flee to Saigon via land, air, and sea routes, suffering massive casualties along the way. In early April 1975, South Vietnam set up a last - ditch defense line at Xuân Lộc, under commander Lê Minh Đảo. North Vietnamese troops failed to penetrate the line and had to make a detour, which the South Vietnamese failed to stop due to lack of troops. President Nguyễn văn Thiệu resigned. Power fell to Dương Văn Minh.
Dương Văn Minh had led the coup against Diệm in 1963. By the mid-1970s, he had leaned toward the "Third Party '' (Thành Phần Thứ Ba), South Vietnamese elites who favored dialogues and cooperation with the North. Communist infiltrators in the South tried to work out political deals to let Dương Văn Minh ascend to the Presidency, with the hope that he would prevent a last stand, a destructive battle for Saigon. Although many South Vietnamese units were ready to defend Saigon, and the ARVN 4th Corps was still intact in the Mekong Delta, Dương Văn Minh ordered a surrender on April 30, 1975, sparing Saigon from destruction. Nevertheless, the reputation of the North Vietnamese army towards perceived traitors preceded them, and hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese fled the country by all means: airplanes, helicopters, ships, fishing boats, and barges. Most were picked up by the U.S. Seventh Fleet in the South China Sea or landed in Thailand. The seaborne refugees came to be known as "boat people ''. In a famous case, a South Vietnamese pilot, with his wife and children aboard a small Cessna plane, landed safely without a tailhook on the aircraft carrier USS Midway. This mass exodus of (mostly South) Vietnamese political refugees continued into the 1980s as refugees fled from persecution, political oppression and economic collapse caused by the new Communist regime.
In 1976, Vietnam was officially unified and renamed Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRVN), with its capital in Hà Nội. The Vietnamese Communist Party dropped its front name "Labor Party '' and changed the title of First Secretary, a term used by China, to General Secretary, used by the Soviet Union, with Lê Duẩn as General Secretary. The Viet Cong was dissolved. The Party emphasized development of heavy industry and collectivization of agriculture. Over the next few years, private enterprises were seized by the government and their owners were often sent to the New Economic Zones -- a communist euphemism for a thick jungle -- to clear land. The farmers were coerced into state - controlled cooperatives. Transportation of food and goods between provinces was deemed illegal except by the government. Within a short period of time, Vietnam was hit with severe shortages of food and basic necessities. The Mekong Delta, once a world - class rice - producing area, was threatened with famine. During the mid-1980s, inflation reached triple figures.
In foreign relations, the SRVN became increasingly aligned with the Soviet Union by both joining the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), and signing a Friendship Pact, which was in fact a military alliance. Tension between Vietnam and China mounted together with China 's rivalry with the Soviet Union and conflict erupted with Cambodia, China 's ally. Vietnam was also subject to trade embargoes by the U.S. and its allies.
The SRVN government implemented a Stalinist dictatorship of the proletariat in the South as they had done in the North. The security apparatus network (Công An: literally "Public Security '', a communist term for the security apparatus) controlled every aspect of people 's lives. Censorship was strict and ultra-conservative, with most pre-1975 works in the fields of music, art, and literature being banned. All religions had to be re-organized into state - controlled churches. Any negative comments toward the Party, the government, Uncle Ho, or anything related to Communism might earn the person the tag of Phản Động (Reactionary), with consequences ranging from being harassed by police, expelled from school or workplace, to being sent to prison. Nevertheless, the Communist authorities failed to suppress the black market, where food, consumer goods, and banned literature could be bought at high prices. The security apparatus also failed to stop a nationwide clandestine network of people trying to escape the country. In many cases, the security officers of entire districts were bribed and even got involved in organizing the escape schemes.
These living conditions resulted in the exodus of over a million Vietnamese people secretly escaping the country either by sea or overland through Cambodia. For the people fleeing by sea, their wooden boats were often not seaworthy, were packed with people like sardines, and lacked sufficient food and water. Many were caught or shot at by the Vietnamese coast guards, and many perished at sea due to boats sinking, capsizing in storms, starvation and thirst. Another major threat was the pirates in the Gulf of Thailand, who viciously robbed, raped, and murdered the boat people. In many cases, they massacred the whole boat. Sometimes the women were raped for days before being sold into prostitution. The people who crossed Cambodia facd equal dangers with mine fields, and the Khmer Rouge and Khmer Serei guerillas, who also robbed, raped, and killed the refugees. Some were successful in fleeing the region and landed in numbers in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Hong Kong, only to wind up in United Nations refugee camps. Some famous camps were Bidong in Malaysia, Galang in Indonesia, Bataan in the Philippines and Songkla in Thailand. Some managed to travel as far as northern Australia in crowded, open boats. All foreign missionaries were expelled from Vietnam, including the most famous Salesian priest, Servant of God Andrej Majcen (1907 -- 1999) from Yugoslavia (now Slovenia).
While most refugees were resettled to other countries within five years, others languished in these camps for over a decade. In the 1990s, refugees who could not find asylum were deported back to Vietnam. Communities of Vietnamese refugees arrived in the US, Canada, Australia, France, West Germany, and the UK. The refugees often sent relief packages packed with necessities, such as medicines and sanitary goods to their relatives in Vietnam to help them survive. Very few would send money as it would be exchanged far below market rates by the Vietnamese government.
Despite the defeat of South Vietnam, there was no serious demobilization of the Vietnamese People 's Army, which remained one of Asia 's largest militaries at over one million troops, or sign that warfare was coming to an end anytime soon. Not only were Vietnamese soldiers highly experienced from decades of fighting, but also had acquired a large cache of captured US and South Vietnamese armaments. Vietnam soon found itself drawn into conflict with Cambodia, which had been ruled by the communist Khmer Rouge since 1975. In addition to this, Sino - Vietnamese relations deteriorated quite rapidly following Mao Zedong 's death in 1976 due to Hanoi 's unremitting loyalty to the Soviet Union, which was at odds with China during the 1970s. By 1978, most trade and material assistance programs between the two countries had ceased and Vietnam forbade Chinese ships from docking at its ports. As the Khmer Rouge were allies of Beijing, this further aggravated tensions and following border skirmishes, the VPA launched a full - scale armed invasion of Cambodia during the first week of 1979. This had the effect however of causing conflict with China and during a visit to the US in February, Deng Xiaoping stated that "It may be necessary to teach Vietnam a lesson. '' A large Chinese force invaded the Vietnamese border area, but with China still suffering the effects of the Cultural Revolution, the People 's Liberation Army was seriously deficient in training, equipment, and communications. Over 30,000 Chinese troops were killed or wounded in three weeks of battling Vietnamese border guards and militia (the VPA was then in Cambodia and had no involvement in the war). Shortly afterwards, they withdrew with Beijing proclaiming that the aforementioned "lesson '' had been taught as in any case, the fighting caused extensive destruction to Vietnam 's infrastructure along the border.
In Cambodia, The Vietnamese invasion had stopped the genocide of millions of Cambodians by the Khmer Rouge. The pro-Vietnamese People 's Republic of Kampuchea was created with Heng Samrin as Chairman in January 1979. Pol Pot 's Khmer Rouge allied with non-Communist guerrilla forces led by Norodom Sihanouk and Son Sann to fight against the Vietnamese forces and the new Phnom Penh regime. Some high - ranking officials of the Heng Samrin regime in the early 1980s resisted Vietnamese control, resulting in a purge that removed Pen Sovan, Prime Minister and General Secretary of the Kampuchean People 's Revolutionary Party. The war lasted until 1989 when Vietnam withdrew its troops and handed the administration of Cambodia to the United Nations.
Vietnam 's third Constitution, based on that of the USSR, was written in 1980. The Communist Party was stated by the Constitution to be the only party to represent the people and to lead the country. In 1980, cosmonaut Phạm Tuân became the first Vietnamese and the first Asian to go into space, traveling on the Soviet Soyuz 37 to service the Salyut 6 space station. During the early 1980s, a number of overseas Vietnamese organizations were created with the aim of overthrowing the Vietnamese Communist government through armed struggle. Most groups attempted to infiltrate Vietnam but eventually were eliminated by Vietnamese security and armed forces.
Overall, the first decade after reunification was not a happy time for the country. Nonstop warfare consumed large amounts of Vietnam 's resources, both financially and by depleting the labor force of young men. The country remained internationally isolated, having little contact with nations outside COMECON members, and faced with a huge, hostile neighbor to the north. Despite repeated overtures to the United States, attempts to reestablish diplomatic relation were hampered by the question of missing US soldiers from the war and President Ronald Reagan 's vocal hostility towards the country 's principle benefactor in Moscow. In a 1981 interview with American journalist Stanley Karnow, Premier Phạm Văn Đồng remarked "Yes, we defeated the United States, but now we are a poor undeveloped nation and barely have enough to eat. Hence the saying that waging war is easy, but running a country is hard. ''
Compounding all this was the complete failure of the Five - Year Plan adopted in 1976, as Vietnam remained one of the world 's poorest countries with a per - capita GDP of less than 300 USD and almost totally dependent on Soviet aid, which reached as much as 3 billion USD a year by 1982. Moscow faced mounting pressure from its Warsaw Pact allies to reduce outlays to Vietnam. Soviet - Vietnamese relations were also harmed by the former 's wishes to have greater involvement in Vietnam 's economic development and increased access to military facilities. In 1982, the VCP held its 5th National Congress in which General Secretary Lê Duẩn stated that "The Party wishes sternly to criticize itself. '' and "Our nation 's manifold difficulties, while aggravated by outside circumstances that could not be helped, are nonetheless worsened by the various errors and shortcoming of officials. '' Le also expressed his dismay at the average age of the party leadership, noting that there was only one person on the Central Committee under 60.
That year, a general purge of the party ranks began to weed out elderly and inefficient cadres and replace them with younger men. Võ Văn Kiệt, aged 59, was promoted to head of the State Planning Commission, and 62 - year - old Foreign Minister Nguyễn Cơ Thạch was elevated to Politburo membership. More surprising was the removal of General Võ Nguyên Giáp, considered a national hero, from the Politburo (it was later speculated that he was removed by political rivals) This rejuvenation campaign was nonetheless diminished by the fact that the country 's three most powerful individuals, Lê Duẩn, Phạm Văn Đồng, and President Trường Chinh, showed no sign of stepping down any time soon despite their combined age of 226 and clearly failing health (all of them visited Moscow for medical treatment during 1982). Although they saw the need for reforms and fighting corruption, such change was beyond their ability by this point.
The Second Five Year Plan was adopted for 1981 and showed a clear move towards more market reforms and away from the rigid central planning of the 1976 -- 80 scheme. Real change would not begin until the second half of the decade when Lê Duẩn died in July 1986, succeeded as General Secretary by Trường Chinh. However, Trường was expelled only five months later and replaced by Nguyễn Văn Linh, eight years his junior. Phạm Văn Đồng retired as Premier in 1987. Upon their accession, the country 's new leadership denounced their geriatric predecessors for "utterly failing to improve the people 's living standards, check corruption, or instill a more flexible, non-dogmatic outlook on life. ''
During the late 80s, Vietnam began tentative market reforms along the model then being adopted by China. The basis for these experiments were in the south which had a stronger tradition of trade and commerce. The perestroika policies of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev were also a source of motivation. Although communist governments in Eastern Europe were collapsing in 1989, Vietnam was kept comparatively isolated from these events due to its poverty and geographical distance and a few small pro-democracy protests in Hanoi were quickly suppressed. The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 caused a thaw in the long hostile Sino - Vietnamese relations as the two nations embraced each other as some of the only surviving communist states.
Soon after the Paris Agreement on Cambodia resolved the conflict in October 1991, however, Vietnam established or reestablished diplomatic and economic relations with most of Western Europe, and several Asian countries. In February 1994, the United States lifted its economic embargo against Vietnam, and in June 1995, the United States and Vietnam normalized relations. In June 2005, a high - level Vietnamese delegation, led by Prime Minister Phan Văn Khải, visited the United States and met with their U.S. counterparts, including President George W. Bush. This was the first such visit in 30 years. Although the visit mostly went well, a few embarrassing events occurred such as the White House 's official website (www.whitehouse.gov) accidentally depicting the flag of South Vietnam in its official announcement of the visit. This provoked dismay and hostile comments from the Vietnamese government until the White House officially apologized and corrected the webpage. In addition, a crowd of hostile protesters gathered outside the White House during Phan 's meeting with President Bush denouncing the Vietnamese Communist Party and waving South Vietnamese flags.
In late 2005, a three - person collective leadership was responsible for governing Vietnam. This triumvirate consisted of the VCP general secretary (Nông Đức Mạnh, 22 April 2001 -- 19 January 2011), the prime minister (Phan Văn Khải, 25 September 1997 -- 27 June 2006), and the president (Trần Đức Lương, 24 September 1997 -- 26 June 2006). General Secretary Manh headed up not only the VCP but also the 15 - member Politburo. President Luong was chief of state, and Prime Minister Khai was head of government. The leadership was promoting a "socialist - oriented market economy '' and friendly relations with the European Union, Russia, and the United States. Although the leadership was presiding over a period of rapid economic growth, official corruption and a widening gap between urban wealth and rural poverty remained stubborn problems that were eroding the VCP 's authority. In 2006, Vietnam hosted the APEC Annual Summit and became the 150th member state of WTO (World Trade Organization) on 11 January 2007, after concluding bilateral agreements with the United States, Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, and the Dominican Republic in order to qualify for membership. In the summer of 2011, spontaneous mass demonstrations erupted in Hanoi and Saigon, where thousands of Vietnamese protested China 's increasing military aggression and encroachment into Vietnamese waters and territories in the South China Sea. The authorities moved in to break up the protests after an official complaint was lodged by the Chinese embassy in Hanoi, as the VCP 's official policy since the 1990s has been one of good relations with Beijing and there was no desire on their part to disrupt the status quo.
In 2013, a baby girl named Nguyen Thi Thuy Dung was born and was officially designated Vietnam 's official 90 millionth citizen.
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which of the following is not a component of an innate response | Innate immune system - wikipedia
The innate immune system, also known as the non-specific immune system or in - born immunity system, is an important subsystem of the overall immune system that comprises the cells and mechanisms that defend the host from infection by other organisms. The cells of the innate system recognize and respond to pathogens in a similar way, but, unlike the adaptive immune system, the system does not provide long - lasting immunity to the host. Innate immune systems provide immediate defense against infection, and are found in all classes of plant and animal life.
The innate immune system is an evolutionarily older defense strategy, and is the dominant immune system found in plants, fungi, insects, and primitive multicellular organisms.
The major functions of the vertebrate innate immune system include:
Anatomical barriers include physical, chemical and biological barriers. The epithelial surfaces form a physical barrier that is impermeable to most infectious agents, acting as the first line of defense against invading organisms. Desquamation (shedding) of skin epithelium also helps remove bacteria and other infectious agents that have adhered to the epithelial surfaces. Lack of blood vessels and inability of the epidermis to retain moisture, presence of sebaceous glands in the dermis provides an environment unsuitable for the survival of microbes. In the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract, movement due to peristalsis or cilia, respectively, helps remove infectious agents. Also, mucus traps infectious agents. The gut flora can prevent the colonization of pathogenic bacteria by secreting toxic substances or by competing with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients or attachment to cell surfaces. The flushing action of tears and saliva helps prevent infection of the eyes and mouth.
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection or irritation. Inflammation is stimulated by chemical factors released by injured cells and serves to establish a physical barrier against the spread of infection, and to promote healing of any damaged tissue following the clearance of pathogens.
The process of acute inflammation is initiated by cells already present in all tissues, mainly resident macrophages, dendritic cells, histiocytes, Kupffer cells, and mast cells. These cells present receptors contained on the surface or within the cell, named pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which recognize molecules that are broadly shared by pathogens but distinguishable from host molecules, collectively referred to as pathogen - associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of their PRRs recognizes a PAMP) and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation.
Chemical factors produced during inflammation (histamine, bradykinin, serotonin, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) sensitize pain receptors, cause local vasodilation of the blood vessels, and attract phagocytes, especially neutrophils. Neutrophils then trigger other parts of the immune system by releasing factors that summon additional leukocytes and lymphocytes. Cytokines produced by macrophages and other cells of the innate immune system mediate the inflammatory response. These cytokines include TNF, HMGB1, and IL - 1.
The inflammatory response is characterized by the following symptoms:
The complement system is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps, or "complements '', the ability of antibodies to clear pathogens or mark them for destruction by other cells. The cascade is composed of many plasma proteins, synthesized in the liver, primarily by hepatocytes. The proteins work together to:
There are three different complements system: Classical, alternative, Lectin
Elements of the complement cascade can be found in many non-mammalian species including plants, birds, fish, and some species of invertebrates.
All white blood cells (WBCs) are known as leukocytes. Leukocytes differ from other cells of the body in that they are not tightly associated with a particular organ or tissue; thus, their function is similar to that of independent, single - cell organisms. Leukocytes are able to move freely and interact with and capture cellular debris, foreign particles, and invading microorganisms. Unlike many other cells in the body, most innate immune leukocytes can not divide or reproduce on their own, but are the products of multipotent hematopoietic stem cells present in the bone marrow.
The innate leukocytes include: Natural killer cells, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils; and the phagocytic cells include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells, and function within the immune system by identifying and eliminating pathogens that might cause infection.
Mast cells are a type of innate immune cell that reside in connective tissue and in the mucous membranes. They are intimately associated with wound healing and defense against pathogens, but are also often associated with allergy and anaphylaxis. When activated, mast cells rapidly release characteristic granules, rich in histamine and heparin, along with various hormonal mediators and chemokines, or chemotactic cytokines into the environment. Histamine dilates blood vessels, causing the characteristic signs of inflammation, and recruits neutrophils and macrophages.
The word ' phagocyte ' literally means ' eating cell '. These are immune cells that engulf, or ' phagocytose ', pathogens or particles. To engulf a particle or pathogen, a phagocyte extends portions of its plasma membrane, wrapping the membrane around the particle until it is enveloped (i.e., the particle is now inside the cell). Once inside the cell, the invading pathogen is contained inside an phagosome, which merges with a lysosome. The lysosome contains enzymes and acids that kill and digest the particle or organism. In general, phagocytes patrol the body searching for pathogens, but are also able to react to a group of highly specialized molecular signals produced by other cells, called cytokines. The phagocytic cells of the immune system include macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.
Phagocytosis of the hosts ' own cells is common as part of regular tissue development and maintenance. When host cells die, either by programmed cell death (also called apoptosis) or by cell injury due to a bacterial or viral infection, phagocytic cells are responsible for their removal from the affected site. By helping to remove dead cells preceding growth and development of new healthy cells, phagocytosis is an important part of the healing process following tissue injury.
Macrophages, from the Greek, meaning "large eaters, '' are large phagocytic leukocytes, which are able to move outside of the vascular system by migrating across the walls of capillary vessels and entering the areas between cells in pursuit of invading pathogens. In tissues, organ - specific macrophages are differentiated from phagocytic cells present in the blood called monocytes. Macrophages are the most efficient phagocytes and can phagocytose substantial numbers of bacteria or other cells or microbes. The binding of bacterial molecules to receptors on the surface of a macrophage triggers it to engulf and destroy the bacteria through the generation of a "respiratory burst '', causing the release of reactive oxygen species. Pathogens also stimulate the macrophage to produce chemokines, which summon other cells to the site of infection.
Neutrophils, along with two other cell types (eosinophils and basophils; see below), are known as granulocytes due to the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, or as polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) due to their distinctive lobed nuclei. Neutrophil granules contain a variety of toxic substances that kill or inhibit growth of bacteria and fungi. Similar to macrophages, neutrophils attack pathogens by activating a respiratory burst. The main products of the neutrophil respiratory burst are strong oxidizing agents including hydrogen peroxide, free oxygen radicals and hypochlorite. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of phagocyte, normally representing 50 - 60 % of the total circulating leukocytes, and are usually the first cells to arrive at the site of an infection. The bone marrow of a normal healthy adult produces more than 100 billion neutrophils per day, and more than 10 times that many per day during acute inflammation.
Dendritic cells (DCs) are phagocytic cells present in tissues that are in contact with the external environment, mainly the skin (where they are often called Langerhans cells), and the inner mucosal lining of the nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to neuronal dendrites, but dendritic cells are not connected to the nervous system. Dendritic cells are very important in the process of antigen presentation, and serve as a link between the innate and adaptive immune systems.
Basophils and eosinophils are cells related to the neutrophil (see above). When activated by a pathogen encounter, histamine - releasing basophils are important in the defense against parasites and play a role in allergic reactions, such as asthma. Upon activation, eosinophils secrete a range of highly toxic proteins and free radicals that are highly effective in killing parasites, but may also damage tissue during an allergic reaction. Activation and release of toxins by eosinophils are, therefore, tightly regulated to prevent any inappropriate tissue destruction.
Natural killer cells (NK cells) are a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus - infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self. '' This term describes cells with abnormally low levels of a cell - surface marker called MHC I (major histocompatibility complex) - a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. They were named "natural killer '' because of the initial notion that they do not require activation in order to kill cells that are "missing self. '' For many years, it was unclear how NK cell recognize tumor cells and infected cells. It is now known that the MHC makeup on the surface of those cells is altered and the NK cells become activated through recognition of "missing self ''. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors (KIR) that, in essence, put the brakes on NK cells. The NK - 92 cell line does not express KIR and is developed for tumor therapy.
Like other ' unconventional ' T cell subsets bearing invariant T cell receptors (TCRs), such as CD1d - restricted Natural Killer T cells, γδ T cells exhibit characteristics that place them at the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells may be considered a component of adaptive immunity in that they rearrange TCR genes to produce junctional diversity and develop a memory phenotype. However, the various subsets may also be considered part of the innate immune system where a restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as a pattern recognition receptor. For example, according to this paradigm, large numbers of Vγ9 / Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to common molecules produced by microbes, and highly restricted intraepithelial Vδ1 T cells will respond to stressed epithelial cells.
The coagulation system overlaps with the immune system. Some products of the coagulation system can contribute to the non-specific defenses by their ability to increase vascular permeability and act as chemotactic agents for phagocytic cells. In addition, some of the products of the coagulation system are directly antimicrobial. For example, beta - lysine, a protein produced by platelets during coagulation, can cause lysis of many Gram - positive bacteria by acting as a cationic detergent. Many acute - phase proteins of inflammation are involved in the coagulation system.
Also increased levels of lactoferrin and transferrin inhibit bacterial growth by binding iron, an essential nutrient for bacteria.
The innate immune response to infectious and sterile injury is modulated by neural circuits that control cytokine production period. The inflammatory reflex is a prototypical neural circuit that controls cytokine production in the spleen. Action potentials transmitted via the vagus nerve to spleen mediate the release of acetylcholine, the neurotransmitter that inhibits cytokine release by interacting with alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (CHRNA7) expressed on cytokine - producing cells. The motor arc of the inflammatory reflex is termed the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway.
The parts of the innate immune system have different specificity for different pathogens.
Cells of the innate immune system prevent free growth of microorganisms within the body, but many pathogens have evolved mechanisms to evade it.
One strategy is intracellular replication, as practised by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or wearing a protective capsule, which prevents lysis by complement and by phagocytes, as in Salmonella. Bacteroides species are normally mutualistic bacteria, making up a substantial portion of the mammalian gastrointestinal flora. Some species like B. fragilis for example are opportunistic pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity inhibit phagocytosis by affecting the phagocytes receptors used to engulf bacteria. They may also mimick host cells so the immune system does not recognize them as foreign. Staphylococcus aureus inhibits the ability of the phagocyte to respond to chemokine signals. M. tuberculosis, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Bacillus anthracis utilize mechanisms that directly kill the phagocyte.
Bacteria and fungi may form complex biofilms, protecting from immune cells and proteins; biofilms are present in the chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cenocepacia infections characteristic of cystic fibrosis.
Type I interferons (IFN), secreted mainly by dendritic cells, play a central role in antiviral host defense and a cell _́ s antiviral state. Viral components are recognized by different receptors: Toll - like receptors are located in the endosomal membrane and recognize double - stranded RNA (dsRNA), MDA5 and RIG - I receptors are located in the cytoplasm and recognize long dsRNA and phosphate - containing dsRNA respectively. When the cytoplasmic receptors MDA5 and RIG - I recognize a virus the conformation between the caspase - recruitment domain (CARD) and the CARD - containing adaptor MAVS changes. In parallel, when toll - like receptors in the endocytic compartments recognize a virus the activation of the adaptor protein TRIF is induced. Both pathways converge in the recruitment and activation of the IKKε / TBK - 1 complex, inducing dimerization of transcription factors IRF3 and IRF7, which are translocated in the nucleus, where they induce IFN production with the presence of a particular transcription factor and activate transcription factor 2. IFN then binds to the IFN receptors, inducing hundreds of interferon - stimulated genes to be expressed. This leads to antiviral protein production, such as protein kinase R, which inhibits viral protein synthesis, or the 2 ′, 5 ′ - oligoadenylate synthetase family, which degrades viral RNA.
Some viruses evade this by producing molecules which interfere with IFN production. For example, the Influenza A virus produces NS1 protein, which can bind to single - stranded and double - stranded RNA, thus inhibiting type I IFN production. Influenza A also blocks protein kinase R activation and establishment of the antiviral state. The dengue virus also inhibits type I IFN production by blocking IRF - 3 phosophorylation using NS2B3 protease complex.
Bacteria (and perhaps other prokaryotic organisms), utilize a unique defense mechanism, called the restriction modification system to protect themselves from pathogens, such as bacteriophages. In this system, bacteria produce enzymes, called restriction endonucleases, that attack and destroy specific regions of the viral DNA of invading bacteriophages. Methylation of the host 's own DNA marks it as "self '' and prevents it from being attacked by endonucleases. Restriction endonucleases and the restriction modification system exist exclusively in prokaryotes.
Invertebrates do not possess lymphocytes or an antibody - based humoral immune system, and it is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first vertebrates. Nevertheless, invertebrates possess mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Pattern recognition receptors are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with microbial pathogens. Toll - like receptors are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body - cavity), including humans. The complement system, as discussed above, is a biochemical cascade of the immune system that helps clear pathogens from an organism, and exists in most forms of life. Some invertebrates, including various insects, crabs, and worms utilize a modified form of the complement response known as the prophenoloxidase (proPO) system.
Antimicrobial peptides are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found among all classes of life and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. Several species of insect produce antimicrobial peptides known as defensins and cecropins.
In invertebrates, pattern recognition proteins (PRPs) trigger proteolytic cascades that degrade proteins and control many of the mechanisms of the innate immune system of invertebrates -- including hemolymph coagulation and melanization. Proteolytic cascades are important components of the invertebrate immune system because they are turned on more rapidly than other innate immune reactions because they do not rely on gene changes. Proteolytic cascades have been found to function the same in both vertebrate and invertebrates, even though different proteins are used throughout the cascades.
In the hemolymph, which makes up the fluid in the circulatory system of arthropods, a gel - like fluid surrounds pathogen invaders, similar to the way blood does in other animals. There are various different proteins and mechanisms that are involved in invertebrate clotting. In crustaceans, transglutaminase from blood cells and mobile plasma proteins make up the clotting system, where the transglutaminase polymerizes 210 kDa subunits of a plasma - clotting protein. On the other hand, in the horseshoe crab species clotting system, components of proteolytic cascades are stored as inactive forms in granules of hemocytes, which are released when foreign molecules, like lipopolysaccharides enter.
Members of every class of pathogen that infect humans also infect plants. Although the exact pathogenic species vary with the infected species, bacteria, fungi, viruses, nematodes, and insects can all cause plant disease. As with animals, plants attacked by insects or other pathogens use a set of complex metabolic responses which lead to the formation of defensive chemical compounds that fight infection or make the plant less attractive to insects and other herbivores. (see: plant defense against herbivory).
Like invertebrates, plants neither generate antibody or T - cell responses nor possess mobile cells that detect and attack pathogens. In addition, in case of infection, parts of some plants are treated as disposable and replaceable, in ways that very few animals are able to do. Walling off or discarding a part of a plant helps stop spread of an infection.
Most plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals sent throughout a plant. Plants use pattern - recognition receptors to recognize conserved microbial signatures. This recognition triggers an immune response. The first plant receptors of conserved microbial signatures were identified in rice (XA21, 1995) and in Arabidopsis (FLS2, 2000). Plants also carry immune receptors that recognize highly variable pathogen effectors. These include the NBS - LRR class of proteins. When a part of a plant becomes infected with a microbial or viral pathogen, in case of an incompatible interaction triggered by specific elicitors, the plant produces a localized hypersensitive response (HR), in which cells at the site of infection undergo rapid programmed cell death to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. HR has some similarities to animal pyroptosis, such as a requirement of caspase - 1 - like proteolytic activity of VPEγ, a cysteine protease that regulates cell disassembly during cell death.
"Resistance '' (R) proteins, encoded by R genes, are widely present in plants and detect pathogens. These proteins contain domains similar to the NOD Like Receptors and Toll - like receptors utilized in animal innate immunity. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a type of defensive response that renders the entire plant resistant to a broad spectrum of infectious agents. SAR involves the production of chemical messengers, such as salicylic acid or jasmonic acid. Some of these travel through the plant and signal other cells to produce defensive compounds to protect uninfected parts, e.g., leaves. Salicylic acid itself, although indispensable for expression of SAR, is not the translocated signal responsible for the systemic response. Recent evidence indicates a role for jasmonates in transmission of the signal to distal portions of the plant. RNA silencing mechanisms are also important in the plant systemic response, as they can block virus replication. The jasmonic acid response, is stimulated in leaves damaged by insects, and involves the production of methyl jasmonate.
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rupaul elton john don't go breaking my heart lyrics | Do n't Go Breaking My Heart - wikipedia
"Do n't Go Breaking My Heart '' is a duet by Elton John and Kiki Dee. It was written by Elton John with Bernie Taupin under the pseudonyms "Ann Orson '' and "Carte Blanche '', respectively, and intended as an affectionate pastiche of the Motown style, notably the various duets recorded by Marvin Gaye and singers such as Tammi Terrell and Kim Weston. It is not to be confused with the Burt Bacharach / Hal David song of the same title recorded in 1965 by Dionne Warwick for the album Here I Am.
John and Taupin originally intended to record the song with Dusty Springfield, but ultimately withdrew the offer; Springfield 's partner Sue Cameron later said this was because she was too ill at the time.
Writers John and Taupin received the 1976 Ivor Novello award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically.
Unlike many of John 's singles from the 1970s, it was never included on an original album (although it was recorded during the Blue Moves sessions), but was subsequently released as the third single on the album Duets, in early 1994. This version of the song was recorded with RuPaul, and reached # 7 on the UK charts, and the album included another duet with Kiki Dee, Cole Porter 's "True Love '', which reached # 2 on the UK Charts.
"Do n't Go Breaking My Heart '' was the first No. 1 single in the UK for both John and Kiki Dee, topping the chart for six weeks in mid 1976. John would not enjoy a solo British chart - topper until "Sacrifice '' in 1990. It also became his sixth No. 1 single in the US, topping the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks and spent one week on the Easy Listening chart. Billboard ranked it as the No. 2 song for 1976. In the U.S. it has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. After this duet with Dee, John failed to have another solo number one single until "Candle in the Wind 1997 ''. This 21 - year period included two intervening number one hits in America with musical partners: "That 's What Friends Are For '' by Dionne & Friends in 1986, and a 1992 re-make of John 's "Do n't Let the Sun Go Down on Me '' with George Michael credited as a duet.
The B - side, "Snow Queen '', was supposedly inspired by Cher, with John quoting past Sonny & Cher hits "I Got You Babe '' and "The Beat Goes On '', as well as the solo Cher song "Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down) '' during the fadeout of the song.
In 1977, John guest starred on The Muppet Show and performed the track with Miss Piggy. In 1985, John and Dee performed the track to the crowd at Wembley Stadium during John 's set at Live Aid (where Dee sang backup). In 1987, John appeared with Minnie Mouse on the NBC series Totally Minnie miming to the track. He performed the track with Alan Partridge (Steve Coogan) at the 2001 British Comedy awards. He also performed it with the Spice Girls on his ITV tribute programme An Audience with... Elton John.
In June 2013, 37 years after its original release, the single reached one million sales in the UK.
The song can be found on Elton John 's Greatest Hits Volume II (1977) and Greatest Hits 1976 -- 1986; the 1995 UK CD of Rock of the Westies includes it as a bonus track (the US edition did not, however). In 2002, it also appeared on John 's 2 - disc greatest hits album, Elton John 's Greatest Hits 1970 - 2002. A demo version of the song was recorded by John as a solo artist. This version has not been released commercially. The B - side, "Snow Queen '', has not seen any re-release since being issued on the single.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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5. what factors contributed to the economic issues in argentina | Economic History of Argentina - wikipedia
The economic history of Argentina is one of the most studied, owing to the "Argentine paradox '', its unique condition as a country that had achieved advanced development in the early 20th century but experienced a reversal, which inspired an enormous wealth of literature and diverse analysis on the causes of this decline.
Argentina possesses definite comparative advantages in agriculture, as the country is endowed with a vast amount of highly fertile land. Between 1860 and 1930, exploitation of the rich land of the pampas strongly pushed economic growth. During the first three decades of the 20th century, Argentina outgrew Canada and Australia in population, total income, and per capita income. By 1913, Argentina was the world 's 10th wealthiest nation per capita.
Beginning in the 1930s, however, the Argentine economy deteriorated notably. The single most important factor in this decline has been political instability since 1930, when a military junta took power, ending seven decades of civilian constitutional government. In macroeconomic terms, Argentina was one of the most stable and conservative countries until the Great Depression, after which it turned into one of the most unstable. Despite this, up until 1962 the Argentine GDP per capita was higher than of Austria, Italy, Japan and of its former colonial master, Spain. Successive governments from the 1930s to the 1970s pursued a strategy of import substitution to achieve industrial self - sufficiency, but the government 's encouragement of industrial growth diverted investment from agricultural production, which fell dramatically.
The era of import substitution ended in 1976, but at the same time growing government spending, large wage increases and inefficient production created a chronic inflation that rose through the 1980s. The measures enacted during the last dictatorship also contributed to the huge foreign debt by the late 1980s, which became equivalent to three - fourths of the GNP.
In the early 1990s the government reined in inflation by making the peso equal in value to the U.S. dollar, and privatised numerous state - run companies, using part of the proceeds to reduce the national debt. However, a sustained recession at the turn of the 21st century culminated in a default, and the government again devalued the peso. By 2005 the economy had recovered, but a judicial ruling originating from the previous crisis led to a new default in 2014.
During the colonial period, present - day Argentina offered fewer economic advantages compared to other parts of the Spanish Empire such as Mexico or Peru, which caused it to assume a peripheral position within the Spanish colonial economy. It lacked deposits of gold or other precious metals, nor did it have established native civilizations to subject to the encomienda. The sparse population was accompanied by a difficult numeracy development in the 17th century. Nevertheless, Argentina overtook Peru, which enjoyed an early rapid development in numeracy through the contact with Indios, in the middle of the 18th century. This numeracy development as a measure of early modern development demonstrates the rapid and remarkable development of Argentina in the period of colonial time.
Only two - thirds of its present territory were occupied during the colonial period, as the remaining third consisted of the Patagonian Plateau, which remains sparsely populated to this day. The agricultural and livestock sector 's output was principally consumed by the producers themselves and by the small local market, and only became associated with foreign trade towards the end of the 18th century. The period between the 16th and the end of the 18th century was characterized by the existence of self - sufficient regional economies separated by considerable distances, a lack of road, maritime or river communications, and the hazards and hardship of land transport. By the end of the 18th century, a significant national economy came into being, as Argentina developed a market in which reciprocal flows of capital, labour, and goods could take place on a significant scale between its different regions, which it had hitherto lacked.
Historians like Milcíades Peña consider this historical period of the Americas as pre-capitalist, as most production of the coastal cities was destined to overseas markets. Rodolfo Puiggrós consider it instead a feudalist society, based on work relations such as the encomienda or the slavery. Norberto Galasso and Enrique Rivera consider that it was neither capitalist nor feudalist, but an hybrid system result of the interaction of the Spanish civilization, on the transition from feudalism to capitalism, and the natives, still living in the prehistory.
The Argentine territories, held back by their closed economies, the lack of any activity closely linked to foreign trade, and the scant amounts of labour and capital they consequently received, fell far behind those of other areas of the colonial world that participated in foreign trade. Only activities associated with a dynamic exporting centre enjoyed some degree of prosperity, as occurred in Tucuman, where cloth was manufactured, and in Córdoba and the Litoral, where livestock was raised to supply the mines of Upper Peru.
This trade was legally limited to Spain: the Spanish Crown enforced a monopsony which limited supplies and enabled Spanish merchants to mark up prices and increase profits. British and Portuguese merchants broke this monopsony by resorting to contraband trade.
The British desire to trade with South America grew during the Industrial Revolution and the loss of their 13 colonies in North America during the American Revolution. To achieve their economic objectives, Britain initially launched the British invasions of the Río de la Plata to conquer key cities in Spanish America but they were defeated by the local forces of what is now Argentina and Uruguay not once but twice without the help of Spain. When they allied to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars, they requested the Spanish authorities to open commerce to Britain in return.
The first Argentine historians, such as Bartolomé Mitre, attributed the free trade to The Representation of the Hacendados economic report by Mariano Moreno, but is currently considered the result of a general negotiation between Britain and Spain, as reflected in the Apodaca - Canning treaty of 1809. The actions of Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros in Buenos Aires reflected similar outcomes emanating from the other Spanish cities of South America.
Compared to other parts of Latin America, slavery played a much lesser role in the development of the Argentine economy, mostly because of the absence of gold mines and sugar plantations, which would have demanded huge numbers of slave workers. Colonial Brazil, for example, imported as many as 2.5 million Africans in the 18th century. By contrast, an estimated 100,000 African slaves arrived at the port of Buenos Aires in the 17th and 18th centuries, and many were destined for Paraguay, Chile and Bolivia.
The colonial livestock ranches were established toward the middle of the 18th century. The pace of growth in the region increased dramatically with the establishment in 1776 of the new Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata with Buenos Aires as its capital, and increased legal trading allowed by the Free Trade Act of 1778, which allowed for "free and protected '' trade between Spain and its colonies. This trade system disintegrated during the Napoleonic era, and contraband became common again.
During the early post-independence period, an important share of Argentina 's exports came from cattle and sheep production. The livestock - raising economy was based upon the abundance of fertile land in the littoral provinces. Cropping apparently lacked comparative advantage compared to livestock grazing.
Exports rose 4 % to 5 % annually from 1810 to 1850 and 7 % to 8 % from 1850 to 1870. This growth was achieved through the extension of the frontier and greater efficiency in livestock production.
As a result of the diversification in markets and products, Argentina managed to escape the trap of a single - staple economy and sustained its economic growth over six decades. The combined effect of declining prices of textiles and rising prices of livestock products produced dramatic improvements in the terms of trade, which rose 377 % between 1810 and 1825 in local prices. Several governors waged campaigns against the natives to increase the available lands, from Juan Manuel de Rosas to Julio Argentino Roca.
Most poor gauchos joined forces with the most powerful caudillos in the vicinity. As the Federal party, they opposed the policies implemented by Buenos Aires, and waged the Argentine Civil Wars.
After Argentina became independent in 1810, an era in which commerce was controlled by a small group of peninsular merchants came to an end. The Primera Junta, the first government established after the 1810 May Revolution, undertook a protectionist policy until their fall from government.
The First Triumvirate (1811 -- 1812), influenced by Bernardino Rivadavia and Manuel García, instead promoted unrestricted trade with Britain. The Second Triumvirate (1812 -- 1814) and José Gervasio Artigas (who controlled the Liga Federal during the 1815 -- 1820 period) sought to restore the initial protectionist policy, but the Supreme Director restored free trade once more. Thus, the economy of the Río de la Plata became one of the most open economies in the world.
Between 1812 and 1816 divisions developed between an Unitarist faction centred on Buenos Aires and a Federalist faction in the provinces, which eventually led to a series of civil wars that ended with the conquest of Buenos Aires by Federalist caudillos at the Battle of Cepeda in 1820.
Each province had its own money, and the same money had a different value from one province and another, and even among cities in the same province.
The government of Martín Rodríguez (1820 -- 1824) and his minister Bernardino Rivadavia, then Las Heras and finally Rivadavia himself as the first president of Argentina from 1826 to 1827, developed an economic plan deemed as "The happy experience ''. This plan increased the British influence in the national politics. It was based on five main pillars: complete free trade and no protectionist policies against British imports, finance with a central bank managed by British investors, absolute control of the port of Buenos Aires as the sole source of income from national customs, British exploitation of the national natural resources, and an Unitarist national organization centred in Buenos Aires. After Rivadavia resigned in 1827, ending the "happy experience '', the federalist Manuel Dorrego assumed power as governor of Buenos Aires, but was soon executed by the unitarian Juan Lavalle during a military coup.
The exports of gold, allowed by the free trade policies, soon depleted the national reserves. This posed a great problem, as gold was the medium of exchange of the local economy. Rivadavia sought to fix it by establishing the "Discount Bank '', a central bank for printing fiat money. Like a number of other central banks worldwide (e.g., The Bank of England, and the US Federal Reserve), this bank was not owned by the state, but by private investors, British in this case.
The report of the American John Murray Forbes to John Quincy Adams, sixth President of the United States, in 1824 mentioned that Britain had a huge influence in the economic power of the country.
He mentioned that the government in Buenos Aires was so eager to be on good terms with Britain and gain recognition of the declaration of independence that most official institutions (as the Bank) were under British control, and that Britain had similar control over the Argentine economy to that metropole of a colony, without the financial, civil or military costs. Even the lack of an Argentine merchant fleet allowed Britain to manage the maritime trade. Forbes 's testimony should be appraised in perspective of the contemporary Anglo - American commercial rivalry, In light of the partial nature of the account and of his "jealousy, even antipathy '' towards the English in Rio de la Plata.
In the mid-1820s, when Manuel José García was Minister of Finance, the government borrowed heavily to finance new projects and to pay off war debts. These loans were tendered at usurious rates: in one notorious loan, the government received credit for £ 570,000 from the Baring Brothers in exchange for a debt of £ 1,000,000. In the 1820s, the peso papel began to lose value rapidly with respect to the peso fuerte, which was linked to the price of gold. In 1827 the peso papel was devalued by 33 %, and was devalued again by 68 % in 1829.
Juan Manuel de Rosas forced Lavalle to leave the province, and the federals ruled Buenos Aires until 1852. Rosas modified a number of policies of the Rivadavian period but maintained others: he set a customs law with protectionist policies, but kept the port under the exclusive control of Buenos Aires and refused to call a constituent assembly.
The customs law set trade barriers to products produced in the country, and imposed high import tariffs on luxury goods, together with export quotas and tariffs on gold and silver. However, the law was not completely effective because of the control of the port, which did not allow the provinces a steady financial income. The exclusive control of the port was long resisted by federals from other provinces, and led to the conflict of Rosas and Justo José de Urquiza at the battle of Caseros. Despite the financial obstacles, the economy of Entre Ríos has grew to a size near that of Buenos Aires, with the decline of saladeros and the growth of wool production.
In 1838 there was a new currency crisis, and the peso papel was devalued by 34 %, and in 1839 when the peso papel lost 66 % of its value. It was again devalued by 95 % in 1845, and by 40 % in 1851. The Alsina years, which coincided with the secession of Buenos Aires, saw an extremely poor economic performance. Efforts to fund extraordinary expenditure on the conflict between Buenos Aires and the other provinces of the Confederation caused the fiscal deficit to skyrocket. Similarly, the Confederation faced harsh economic conditions. Urquiza, president of the Confederation, issued the ' law of differential rights ', benefiting the ships trading with the ports of the Confederation and but not with Buenos Aires.
The end of the civil wars provided the political and legal stability necessary to assert property rights and cut transaction costs, contributing to the huge inflows of capital and labour resources that built modern Argentina. In 1866 an attempt was made to stabilize the currency, by introducing a system of convertibility, which restricted the monetary authorities to issue paper currency only if it was fully backed by gold or convertible foreign currency. The decades of the 1860s and 1880s experienced the most favourable performance of the economy overall, setting the stage for the so - called Golden Age of Argentine history. - Nevertheless, the first years of independence included a difficult economic development. In spite of the new freedom caused by the inauguration of the republic, the country was not economically united: expansion in some parts and decline in other parts. Indeed, people experienced different levels of income and welfare. Therefore, it is unclear if this period of time (1820 -- 1870) brought an income or welfare improvement.
In the 60 years after the founding of the farming colony at Esperanza in 1856, the base of Argentine agriculture gradually shifted from livestock to crops.
Percy F. Martin, Through Five Republics of South America, 1905.
Argentina, which had been insignificant during the first half of the 19th century, showed growth from the 1860s up until 1930 that was so impressive that it was expected to eventually become the United States of South America. This impressive and sustained economic performance was driven by the export of agricultural goods.
During the second half of the 19th century, there was an intense process of colonization of the territory in the form of latifundia. Until 1875 wheat was imported as it was not grown in sufficient quantities to supply local demand; by 1903 the country supplied all its own needs and exported 75,270,503 imperial bushels (2,737,491.8 m) of wheat, enough to sustain 16,000,000 people.
In the 1870s real wages in Argentina were around 76 % relative to Britain, rising to 96 % in the first decade of the 20th century. GDP per capita rose from 35 % of the United States average in 1880 to about 80 % in 1905, similar to that of France, Germany and Canada.
In 1870, during Sarmiento 's presidency, total debt amounted to 48 million gold pesos. A year later, it had almost doubled. Avellaneda became president after winning the 1874 presidential election. The coalition that supported his candidature became the Partido Autonomista Nacional, Argentina 's first national party; all the presidents until 1916 would come from this party. Avellaneda undertook the tough actions needed to get the debt under control. In 1876 convertibility was suspended. The inflation rate rose to almost 20 % in the following year, but the ratio of debt to GDP plummeted. Avellaneda 's administration was the first to deliver a balance in the fiscal accounts since the mid-1850s. Avellaneda passed on to his successor, Julio Argentino Roca, a much more manageable economic environment.
In 1881, a currency reform introduced a bimetallic standard, which went into effect in July 1883. Unlike many precious metal standards the system was very decentralized: no national monetary authority existed and all control over convertibility rested with the five banks of issue. The period of convertibility lasted only 17 months: from December 1884 the banks of issue refused to exchange gold at par for notes. The suspension of convertibility was soon accommodated by the government, since, having no institutional power over the monetary system, there was little they could do to prevent it.
The profitability of the agricultural sector attracted foreign capital for railways and industries. British capital investments went from just over £ 20 million in 1880 to £ 157 million in 1890. During the 1880s, investment began to show some diversification as capital began to flow from other countries such as France, Germany and Belgium, though British investment still accounted for two thirds of total foreign capital. In 1890 Argentina was the destination of choice for British investment in Latin America, a position it held until World War I. By then, Argentina had absorbed between 40 % and 50 % of all British investment outside the United Kingdom. Despite its dependence on the British market, Argentina managed a 6.7 % annual rate of growth of exports between 1870 and 1890 as a result of successful geographic and commodity diversification.
The first Argentine railway, a ten - kilometre road, had been built in 1854. By 1885, a total of 2,700 miles (4,300 km) of railways were open for traffic. The new railways brought livestock to Buenos Aires from the vast pampas, for slaughter and processing in the (mainly English) meat - packing plants, and then for shipment around the world. Some contemporary analysts lamented the export bias of the network configuration, while opposing the "monopoly '' of private British companies on nationalist grounds. Others have since argued that the initial layout of the system was mostly shaped by domestic interests, and that it was not, in fact, strictly focused on the port of Buenos Aires.
The scarcity of labour and abundance of land induced a high marginal product of labour. European immigrants (chiefly Italians, Spaniards, French and Germans), tempted by the high wages, arrived in droves. The government subsidized European immigration for a short time in the late 1880s, but immigrants arrived in massive numbers even with no subsidy.
Juárez Celman 's administration saw a substantial increase in the ratio of debt to GDP toward the end of his tenure and an increasing weakness in the fiscal situation. The Baring Brothers merchant bank had developed a close and profitable association with Argentina, and when Celman 's government was unable to meet its payments to the House of Baring, a financial crisis ensued. Argentina defaulted and suffered bank runs as the Baring Brothers faced failure. The crisis was caused by the lack of co-ordination between monetary policy and fiscal policy, which ultimately led to the collapse of the banking system. The financial crisis of 1890 left the government with no funds for its immigration subsidies programme, and it was abolished in 1891. Loans to Argentina were severely curtailed, and imports had to be cut sharply. Exports were less affected, but the value of Argentine exports did not surpass the 1889 peak until 1898.
Celman 's successor, Carlos Pellegrini, laid the foundations for a return to stability and growth after the restoration of convertibility in 1899. He also reformed the banking sector in ways that were to restore stability in the medium term. Rapid growth rates soon returned: in the period 1903 -- 1913, GDP increased at an annual rate of 7.7 %, and industry grew even faster, jumping by 9.6 %. By 1906, Argentina had cleared the last remnants of the 1890 default and a year later the country re-entered the international bond markets.
All the same, between 1853 and the 1930s, fiscal instability was a transitory phenomenon. The depressions of 1873 -- 77 and 1890 -- 91 played a crucial role in fostering the rise of industry: timidly in the 1870s and more decisively in the 1890s, industry grew with each crisis in response to the need of a damaged economy to improve its trade balance through import - substitution. By 1914, about 15 % the Argentine labour force was involved in manufacturing, compared to 20 % involved in commercial activities. In 1913, the country 's income per head was on a par with that of France and Germany, and far ahead of Italy 's or Spain 's. At the end of 1913, Argentina had a gold stock of £ 59 million, or 3.7 % of the world 's monetary gold, while representing 1.2 % of the world 's economic output.
Argentina, like many other countries, entered into a recession following the beginning of World War I as international flows of goods, capital and labour declined. Foreign investment in Argentina came to a complete standstill from which it never fully recovered: Great Britain had become heavily indebted to the United States during the war and would never again export capital at a comparable scale. And after the opening of the Panama canal in 1914, Argentina and the other Southern cone economies declined, as investors turned their attention to Asia and the Caribbean. The United States, which came out of the war a political and financial superpower, especially perceived Argentina (and to a lesser extent Brazil) as a potential rival on world markets. Neither the Buenos Aires Stock Exchange nor the private domestic banks developed rapidly enough to fully replace British capital.
As a consequence, investable funds became increasingly concentrated in a single institution, the Banco de la Nacion Argentina (BNA), creating a financial system vulnerable to rent - seeking. Rediscounting and non-performing loans grew steadily at the BNA after 1914, polluting its balance sheet. This corrosion of balance sheets was a result of crony loans to the other banks and the private sector. In its rediscounting actions the BNA was not engaged in pure lender of last resort actions, following Bagehot 's principle of lending freely at a penalty rate. Instead, the state bank allowed the private banks to shed their risks, with bad paper used as security, and lent them cash at 4.5 %, below the rate the BNA offered its customers on time deposits.
However, unlike its neighbors, Argentina became capable of still having relatively healthy growth rates during the 1920s, not being as affected by the worldwide collapse on commodity prices such as Brazil and Chile. Similarly, the gold standard was still in place at a time almost all European countries had abandoned it. Automobile ownership in the country in 1929 was the highest in the Southern hemisphere.
For all its success, by the 1920s Argentina was not an industrialized country by the standards of Britain, Germany or the United States. A major hindrance to full industrialisation was the lack of energy sources such as coal or hydropower. Experiments with oil, discovered in 1907, had poor results. Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales, the first state - owned oil company in Latin America, was founded in 1922 as a public company responsible for 51 % of the oil production; the remaining 49 % was in private hands.
Exports of frozen beef, especially to Great Britain, proved highly profitable after the invention of refrigerated ships in the 1870s. However Britain imposed new restrictions on meat imports in the late 1920s, which sharply reduced beef imports from Argentina. Ranchers responded by switching from pastoral to arable production, but there was lasting damage to the Argentine economy.
The Great Depression had a comparatively mild effect on Argentina, the unemployment rate never went above 10 %, and the country largely recovered by 1935. However, the Depression permanently halted its economic expansion. Actually, much like other developing countries, the economy was already in a downturn beginning in 1927, a result of declining prices.
Argentina abandoned the gold standard in December 1929, earlier than most countries. For much of the previous period, the country had operated a currency board, in which a body known as the caja de conversión was charged with maintaining the peso 's value in gold. The devaluation of the peso increased the competitiveness of its exports and protected domestic production. Argentina saw the value of its exports drop from $1,537 million in 1929 to $561 million in 1932, but this was by no means the most severe downturn in the region.
In response to the Great Depression, successive governments pursued a strategy designed to transform Argentina into a country self - sufficient in industry as well as agriculture. The strategy of growth was based on import substitution in which tariffs and quotas for final goods were raised. The import - substitution process had progressively been adopted since the late 19th century, but the Great Depression intensified it. The government 's encouragement of industrial growth diverted investment from agriculture, and agricultural production fell dramatically.
In 1930, the armed forces forced the Radicals from power and improved economic conditions, but political turbulence intensified. In 1932, Argentina required immigrants to have a labour contract prior to arrival, or proof of financial means of support. The Roca - Runciman Treaty of 1933 gave Argentina a quota of the British market for exports of its primary products, but the discriminatory British imperial tariffs and the effects of deflation in Britain actually led to a small decline of Argentine exports to Great Britain.
Unemployment resulting from the Great Depression caused unrest. The industrial growth spurt of the 1930s gradually slowed. The economic conditions of the 1930s contributed to the process of internal migration from the countryside and smaller towns to the cities, especially Buenos Aires, where there were greater opportunities for employment. The urban working classes led several unsuccessful uprisings prior to the 1937 presidential elections. Traditional export agriculture stagnated at the outbreak of World War II and remained sluggish.
After the 1943 Argentine coup d'état, Juan Perón, a member of the United Officers Group that engineered the plot, became Minister of Labor. Campaigning among workers with promises of land, higher wages, and social security, he won a decisive victory in the 1946 presidential elections. Under Perón, the number of unionized workers expanded as he helped to establish the powerful General Confederation of Labor. Perón turned Argentina into a corporatist country in which powerful organized interest groups negotiated for positions and resources. During these years, Argentina developed the largest middle class on the South American continent.
Early Peronism was a period of macroeconomic shocks during which a strategy of import substitution industrialization was put into practice. Bilateral trade, exchange control and multiple exchange rates were its most important characteristics. Beginning in 1947, Perón took a leftward shift after breaking up with the "Catholic nationalism '' movement, which led to gradual state control of the economy, reflected in the increase in state - owned property, interventionism (including control of rents and prices) and higher levels of public inversion, mainly financed by the inflationary tax. The expansive macroeconomic policy, which aimed at the redistribution of wealth and the increase of spending to finance populist policies, led to inflation.
Wartime reserves enabled the Peronist government to fully pay off the external debt in 1952; by the end of the year, Argentina became creditor of US $5.000. 000.000. Between 1946 and 1948, the French and British - owned railways were nationalized, and the existing networks were expanded, reaching 120 000 kilometers of rails by 1954. The government also established the IAPI to control the foreign trade in export commodities. Perón erected a system of almost complete protection against imports, largely cutting off Argentina from the international market. In 1947, he announced his first Five - Year Plan based on growth of nationalized industries. Protectionism also created a domestically oriented industry with high production costs, incapable of competing in international markets. At the same time, output of beef and grain, the country 's main export goods, stagnated. The IAPI began shortchanging growers and, when world grain prices dropped in the late 1940s, it stifled agricultural production, exports and business sentiment, in general. Despite these shortcomings, protectionism and government credits did allow an exponential growth of the internal market: radio sales increased 600 % and fridge sales grew 218 %, among others.
During the first Five - Year Plan, various public works and programs were executed, with the aim to modernize the country 's infrastructure. For example, a total of 22 hydroelectrical power plants were erected, increasing electrical output from 45 000 kVA in 1943, to 350 000 kVA in 1952. Between 1947 and 1949, a network of gas pipelines, which linked Comodoro Rivadavia with Buenos Aires, was built. The gas distribution reached 15 million m3, reducing costs by a third.
During this period Argentina 's economy continued to grow, on average, but more slowly than the world as a whole or than its neighbours, Brazil and Chile. A suggested cause is that a multitude of frequently changed regulations, at times extended to ridiculous specifics (such as a 1947 decree setting prices and menus for restaurants), choked economic activity. The long - term effect was to create pervasive disregard for the law, which Argentines came to view as a hindrance to earning a living rather than an aid to enforcing legitimate property rights. The combination of industrial protectionism, redistribution of income from the agrarian to the industrial sector, and growing state intervention in the economy sparked an inflationary process. By 1950, Argentina 's GDP per capita accounted just nearly half of the United States.
Perón 's second Five - Year Plan in 1952 favoured increased agricultural output over industrialization, but industrial growth and high wages in previous years had expanded the domestic demand for agrarian goods. During the 1950s, output of beef and grain fell, and the economy suffered. The policy shift toward agricultural production created a gap in income distribution, as the majority of those who worked in agriculture laboured on tiny plots, while the majority of the land was in large estates. Argentina signed trade agreements with Britain, the Soviet Union and Chile, slightly opening the market to international trade as Perón 's second economic plan sought to capitalize on the country 's comparative advantage in agriculture.
In the 1950s and part of the 1960s, the country had a slow rate of growth in line with most Latin American countries, while most of the rest of the world enjoyed a golden era. Stagnation prevailed during this period, and the economy often found itself contracting, mostly the result of union strife.
Wage growth beginning in 1950 pushed prices up. The inflation rate increased faster, and soon real wages fell. High inflation prompted a stabilization plan that included tighter monetary policy, a cut in public expenditures, and increases in taxes and utility prices. Increasing economic wariness as the 1950s progressed became one of the leading causes for Perón 's downfall in the Revolución Libertadora of 1955, as the working classes saw their quality of life diminished, thus stripping Perón from a large part of his popular support.
Arturo Frondizi won the 1958 presidential election in a landslide. In the same year he announced the beginning of the "oil battle '': a new attempt at import substitution which aimed to achieve self - sufficiency in oil production by signing several contract with foreign companies for the mining and exploitation of oil. In 1960, Argentina joined the Latin American Free Trade Association.
Another coup in June 1966, the so - called Argentine Revolution, brought Juan Carlos Onganía to power. Ongania appointed Adalbert Krieger Vasena to head the Economy Ministry. His strategy implied a very active role for the public sector in guiding the process of economic growth, calling for state control over the money supply, wages and prices, and bank credit to the private sector.
Krieger 's tenure witnessed increased concentration and centralization of capital, coupled with privatisation of many important sectors of the economy. The international financial community offered strong support for this program, and economic growth continued. GDP expanded at an average annual rate of 5.2 % between 1966 and 1970, compared to 3.2 % during the 1950s.
After 1966, in a radical departure from past policies, the Ministry of Economy announced a programme to reduce rising inflation while promoting competition, efficiency, and foreign investment. The anti-inflation programme focussed on controlling nominal wages and salaries. Inflation decreased sharply, decreasing from an annual rate of about 30 % in 1965 -- 67 to 7.6 % in 1969. Unemployment remained low, but real wages fell.
A gradual reversal in trade policy culminated in the military announcing import substitution as a failed experiment, lifting protectionist barriers and opening the economy to the world market. This new policy boosted some exports, but an overvalued currency meant certain imports were so cheap that local industry declined, and many exports were priced out of the market. The Ministry of Economy put an end to the exchange rate policy of previous governments. The currency underwent a 30 % devaluation. In 1970, the "peso moneda nacional '' (one of the longest - lived currencies in the region) was replaced by the "peso ley '' (100 to 1).
In May 1969, discontent with Krieger 's economic policies led to riots in the cities of Corrientes, Rosario and Córdoba. Krieger was removed, but the Onganía administration was unable to agree on an alternative economic policy. By 1970, the authorities were no longer capable of maintaining wage restraints, leading to a wage - price spiral. As the economy started to languish and import substitution industrialization ran out of steam, urban migration slowed. Per capita income fell, and with it the standard of living. Perón 's third term of office was characterized by an expansive monetary policy, which resulted in an uncontrolled rise in the level of inflation.
Between 1975 and 1990, real per capita income fell by more than 20 %, wiping out almost three decades of economic development. The manufacturing industry, which had experienced a period of uninterrupted growth until the mid-1970s, began a process of continuous decline. The extreme dependence on state support of the many protected industries exacerbated the sharp fall of the industrial output. The degree of industrialization at the start of the 1990s was similar to its level in the 1940s.
In the early 1970s, per capita income in Argentina was twice as high as in Mexico and more than three times as high as in Chile and Brazil. By 1990, the difference in income between Argentina and the other Latin American countries was much smaller.
Starting with the Rodrigazo in 1975, inflation accelerated sharply, reaching an average of more than 300 % per year from 1975 to 1991, increasing prices 20 billion times.
When the military dictatorship finance minister Martinez de Hoz assumed power, inflation was equivalent to an annual rate of 5000 %, and output had declined sharply. In 1976, the era of import substitution was ended, and the government lowered import barriers, liberalized restrictions on foreign borrowing, and supported the peso against foreign currencies.
That exposed the fact that domestic firms could not compete with foreign imports because of the overvalued currency and long - term structural problems. A financial reform was implemented that aimed both to liberalize capital markets and to link Argentina more effectively with the world capital market.
After the relatively stable years of 1976 to 1978, fiscal deficits started to climb again, and the external debt tripled in three years. The increased debt burden interrupted industrial development and upward social mobility. From 1978, the rate of exchange depreciation was fixed with a tablita, an active crawling peg that was based on a timetable to announce a gradually - declining rate of depreciation. The announcements were repeated on a rolling basis to create an environment in which economic agents could discern a government commitment to deflation. Inflation gradually fell throughout 1980 to below 100 %.
However, in 1978 and 1979, the real exchange rate appreciated because inflation consistently outpaced the rate of depreciation. The overvaluation ultimately led to capital flight and a financial collapse.
Growing government spending, large wage raises, and inefficient production created a chronic inflation that rose through the 1980s, when it briefly exceeded an annual rate of 1000 %. Successive regimes tried to control inflation by wage and price controls, cuts in public spending, and restriction of the money supply. Efforts to stem the problems came to naught when in 1982 Argentina came into conflict with the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands.
In August 1982, after Mexico had announced its inability to service its debt, Argentina approached the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for financial assistance, as it too was in serious difficulties. While developments looked positive for a while, an IMF staff team visiting Buenos Aires in August 1983 discovered a variety of problems, particularly a loss of control over wages affecting both the budget and external competitiveness, and the program failed. With the peso quickly losing value to inflation, the new Argentine peso argentino was introduced in 1983, with 10,000 old pesos exchanged for each new peso.
In December 1983, Raúl Alfonsín was elected President of Argentina, bringing to an end to the military dictatorship. Under Alfonsin, negotiations started on a new programme with the IMF, but they led to nothing. In March 1984, Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Venezuela lent Argentina $300 million for three months, followed by a similar amount by the United States. That provided some breathing space as it was not before late September 1984 that an agreement was reached between the IMF and Argentina.
In 1985, the Argentine austral replaced the discredited peso. In 1986, Argentina failed to pay the debt for several months, and the debt was renegotiated with the creditor banks. In 1986 and 1987, the Austral Plan faded away, as fiscal policy was undermined by large off - budget spending and a loose monetary policy, again falling out of compliance with an IMF programme. A new IMF arrangement was reached in July 1987, only to collapse in March 1988.
The next move by the authorities was to launch the Primavera Plan in August 1988, a package of economically heterodox measures that foresaw little fiscal adjustment. The IMF refused to resume lending to Argentina. Six months after its introduction, the plan collapsed, leading to hyperinflation and riots.
The Peronist Carlos Menem was elected president in May 1989. He immediately announced a new shock programme, this time with more fiscal adjustment in view of a government deficit of 16 % of GDP. In November 1989 agreement was reached on yet another standby with the IMF, but again the arrangement was ended prematurely, followed by another bout of hyper - inflation, which reached 12,000 % per year.
After the collapse of public enterprises during the late 1980s, privatisation became strongly popular. Menem privatised almost everything the state owned, except for a couple of banks. In terms of service there were indisputable improvements. For example, before the telephone privatisation, to get a new line it was not unusual to wait more than ten years, and apartments with telephone lines carried a big premium in the market. After privatisation the wait was reduced to less than a week. Productivity increased as investment modernised farms, factories and ports. However, in all cases, there were large outlays of employees. In addition, the process of privatisation was suspected of corruption in many cases. Ultimately, the privatised enterprises became private (rather than public) monopolies. Their tariffs on long - term contracts were raised in line with American inflation, even though prices in Argentina were falling.
In 1991, economy minister Domingo Cavallo set out to reverse Argentina 's decline through free - market reforms such as open trade. On 1 January 1992, a monetary reform replaced the austral with the peso at a rate of 10,000 australs for 1 peso. The cornerstone of the reform process was a currency board, under which the peso was fixed by law at par to the dollar, and the money supply restricted to the level of hard - currency reserves. A risky policy which meant at a later stage Argentina could not devalue. After a lag, inflation was tamed. With risk of devaluation apparently removed, capital poured in from abroad. GDP growth increased significantly and total employment rose steadily until mid-1993. During the second half of 1994, the economy slowed down and unemployment increased from 10 % to 12.2 %.
Although the economy was already in a mild recession at this point, conditions worsened substantially after the devaluation of the Mexican peso during December 1994. The economy shrank by 4 %, and a dozen banks collapsed. With the labour force continuing to expand and employment falling sharply along with aggregate demand, unemployment rose by over 6 % in 6 months. But the government responded effectively: it tightened bank regulation and capital requirements, and encouraged foreign banks to take over weaker local ones. The economy soon recovered and, between 1996 and 1998, both output and employment grew rapidly and unemployment declined substantially. However, at the beginning of 1999, the Brazilian currency underwent a strong depreciation. The Argentine economy contracted 4 % in 1999, and unemployment increased again.
Exports grew from $12 billion in 1991 to $27 billion in 2001, but many industries could not compete abroad, especially after Brazil 's devaluation. The strong, fixed exchange rate turned the trade balance to a cumulative US $22 billion in deficits between 1992 and 1999. Unable to devalue, Argentina could only become more competitive if prices fell. Deflation came from recession, falling wages and rising unemployment. Interest rates remained high, with banks lending dollars at 25 %.
The share of public spending in GDP increased from 27 % in 1995 to 30 % in 2000. Some poorer provinces had depended on state enterprises or on inefficient industries, such as sugar, which could not compete when trade was opened. To quell social unrest, provincial governors padded their payrolls. The government had embarked on a pension reform with costs reaching 3 % of GDP in 2000, as it still had to pay pensioners but no longer received contributions.
Argentina fell into a deep recession in the second half of 1998, triggered and then compounded by a series of adverse external shocks, which included low prices for agricultural commodities, the appreciation of the US dollar, to which the peso was pegged at par, the 1998 Russian financial crisis, the LTCM crisis and the devaluation of the Brazilian real in January 1999. Argentina did not enjoy a rapid recovery, and the sluggishness of GDP growth fuelled concerns about the sustainability of public debt.
In December 1999, President Fernando de la Rúa took office, seeking assistance from the IMF shortly thereafter. In March 2000, the IMF agreed to a three - year $7.2 billion stand - by arrangement with Argentina, conditioned on a strict fiscal adjustment and the assumption of 3.5 % GDP growth in 2000 (actual growth was 0.5 %). In late 2000, Argentina began to experience severely diminished access to capital markets, as reflected in a sharp and sustained rise in spreads on Argentine bonds over U.S. Treasuries. In December, The de la Rua government announced a $40 billion multilateral assistance package organized by IMF. The uneven implementation of fiscal adjustments and reforms, a worsening global macroeconomic environment, and political instability led to the complete loss of market access and intensified capital flight by the second quarter of 2001. Argentine debt, held mostly in bonds, was massively sold short and the government found itself unable to borrow or meet debt payments.
In December 2001, a series of deposit runs began to have a severe impact on the health of the banking system, leading the Argentine authorities to impose a partial deposit freeze. With Argentina no longer in compliance with the conditions of the expanded IMF - supported program, the IMF decided to suspend disbursements. At the end of December, in a climate of severe political and social unrest, the country partially defaulted on its international obligations; in January 2002, it formally abandoned the convertibility regime.
The ensuing economic and political crisis was arguably the worst since the country 's independence. By the end of 2002, the economy had contracted by 20 % since 1998. Over the course of two years, output fell by more than 15 %, the Argentine peso lost three - quarters of its value, and registered unemployment exceeded 25 %. Income poverty in Argentina grew from an already high 35.4 % in October 2001 to a peak of 54.3 % in October 2002.
Critics of the policy of economic liberalization pursued during the Menem Presidency argued that Argentina 's economic woes were caused by neoliberalism, which had been actively promoted by the U.S. government and the IMF under the Washington Consensus. Others have stressed that the main shortcoming of economic policy - making during the 1990s was that economic reform was not pursued with enough determination. A 2004 report by the IMF 's Independent Evaluation Office criticised the IMF 's conduct prior to Argentina 's economic collapse of 2001, saying the IMF had supported the country 's fixed exchange rate for too long, and was too lenient towards fiscal deficits.
In January 2002 Eduardo Duhalde was appointed president, becoming Argentina 's fifth president in two weeks. Roberto Lavagna, who became Minister of the Economy in April 2002, was credited for the ensuing recovery of the economy, having stabilised prices and the exchange rate in a moment when Argentina was at risk of hyperinflation. Since the default in 2001, growth has resumed, with the Argentine economy growing by over 6 % a year for seven of the eight years to 2011. This was achieved in part because of a commodity price boom, and also because the government managed to keep the value of the currency low, boosting industrial exports.
Néstor Kirchner became president in May 2003. In the mid-2000s, export of unprocessed soybeans and of soybean oil and meal generated more than 20 % of Argentina 's export revenue, triple the joint share of the traditional exports, beef and wheat. Export taxes comprised 8 % to 11 % of the Kirchner government 's total tax receipts, around two - thirds of which came from soy exports. Taxes on imports and exports increased government spending from 14 % to 25 % of GDP. However, the import and export taxes have discouraged foreign investment, while high spending has pushed inflation over 20 %.
An attempt by the Kirchner administration to impose price controls in 2005 failed as the items most in demand went out of stock and the mandatory prices were in most cases not observed. Various sectors of the economy were re-nationalised, including the national postal service (2003), the San Martín Railway line (2004), the water utility serving the Province of Buenos Aires (2006) and Aerolíneas Argentinas (2009).
In December 2005, Kirchner decided to liquidate the Argentine debt to the IMF in a single payment, without refinancing, for a total of $9.8 billion. The payment was partly financed by Venezuela, who bought Argentine bonds for US $1.6 billion. As of mid-2008 Venezuela hold an estimated US $6 billion in Argentine debt. In 2006, Argentina re-entered international debt markets selling US $500 million of its Bonar V five - year dollar denominated bonds, with a yield of 8.36 %, mostly to foreign banks and Moody 's boosted Argentina 's debt rating to B from B -.
In early 2007 the administration began interfering with inflation estimates.
In December 2007 Fernández de Kirchner became president. In 2008 the rural sector mobilized against a resolution that would have increased the export tax rate on soybean exports from 35 % to 44.1 %. Ultimately, the new taxation regime was abandoned. Official Argentine statistics are believed to have significantly underreported inflation since 2007, and independent economists publishing their own estimates of Argentine inflation have been threatened with fines and prosecution.
In October 2008 President Fernández de Kirchner nationalised private pension funds for almost $30 billion, ostensibly to protect the pensions from falling stock prices around the world, although critics said the government simply wanted to add the money to its budget. Private pension funds, which were first licensed in 1994, suffered large losses during the 1998 -- 2002 crisis and by 2008, the state subsidized 77 % of the funds ' beneficiaries.
The late - 2000s recession hit the country in 2009 with GDP growth slowing to 0.8 %. High GDP growth resumed in 2010, and the economy expanded by 8.5 %. In April 2010, Economy Minister Amado Boudou prepared a debt swap package for the holders of over US $18 billion in bonds who did not participate in the 2005 Argentine debt restructuring. In late 2010, the largest new natural gas deposits in 35 years were discovered in Neuquén Province. The unemployment rate in the third quarter of 2011 was 7.3 %.
In November 2011, the government laid a plan to cut utilities subsidies to higher income households. By mid-2011, credit was outpacing GDP by a wide margin, raising concerns that the economy was overheating. Argentina began a period of fiscal austerity in 2012. In April 2012, the government announced plans to expropriate YPF, despite the opposition of some energy experts, claiming that YPF 's Spanish partner and major holder, Repsol, had not done his duty as to provide the financial support for research and land exploitation, as well as being a bad administrator concerned only in sending profits to Spain and forsaking YPF 's economic growth.
Rising inflation and capital flight caused a rapid depletion of the country 's dollar reserves, prompting the government to severely curtail access to dollars in June 2012. The imposition of capital controls, in turn, led to the emergence of a black market for dollars, known as the "dólar blue '', at higher rates than the official exchange rate.
By May 2014, private forecasts estimated annual inflation at 39.9 %, one of the highest rates in the world. In July 2014, a ruling from a New York court ordered the country to pay the remaining holders of the bonds defaulted in 2001, which by then were mostly American Vulture funds, before it paid any of its exchange bondholders. The Argentine government refused, causing the country to default on its debt again.
On December 17, 2015 Macri released the exchange restrictions, which meant, according to the opinion of some, that the peso undergoes a devaluation near 40 %, It would be the largest recorded since 2002, when convertibility ended. In January 2016 it devaluated again strongly, climbing to 44 Cents Also, the measure of some products for a contraction of consumption. To top it off, unemployment will reach double digits as a result of current economic measures and the multiplication of layoffs in the public and private sector. Layoffs in the private sector have increased five-fold.
In April 2016, monthly inflation in the country rose to 6.7 %, the highest since 2002, according to the indicator disseminated by Congress based on reports from economic consultants for the suspension of INDEC indices, decreed in December In interannual terms, inflation reached 41.7 %, one of the highest in the world. By 2016, it is estimated that inflation reached 37.4 %, the fiscal deficit 4.8 % and GDP will fall by 1.9 %. In December 2015, in fiscal year 2015, it announced the elimination of export retentions for wheat, maize and meat, while reducing withholding taxes on soybean to 30 %, with a fiscal cost of 23,604 million pesos. This led to strong increases in staple products, including oil which increased by 51 %, flour 110 %, chicken 90 %, and noodles 78 % among others, and a 50 % increase in the price of meat in two weeks. Because of the new prices of cereals, which increased by about 150 %, many producing pigs are in crisis. The removal of the retentions has caused the cost of corn to increase by 150 % and soybean by 180 %. It is estimated that in the province of Buenos Aires alone 40 thousand pork producers would be in crisis.
One of Macri 's promises during the 2015 campaign was the elimination of Income tax for workers, saying "During my government workers will not pay tax on profits ''. The Minister of the Economy and Public Finances, Alfonso Prat - Gay said that the draft amendments to the income tax will be sent to Congress for treatment on March 1, 2016. As of december 2017, Macri has not fulfilled his promise, and it 's not in the government 's plan to eliminate the Income tax in the future either.
Among the most notorious vulnerabilities of the current administration is an extremely high inflation rate, which, in the middle of the current economic crisis is still strangling the urban and rural, less - privileged population: although it was seen as coming down from the astounding 40 % of 2016, it 's expected to be of only 17 % in 2018, from 27 % in 2017 (while the government and the Central Bank said it was expecting a 17 % inflation rate for the whole year of 2017). Other vulnerabilities includes the unemployment rate close to 9 % (and expected to be in two digits in the next two years), as well as the sharp rise in the current - account deficit, which is likely to be around 3 % to 4 % of GDP in 2017 - 2018 thanks to an over-valued currency. Forecasts from the IMF show GDP growth backsliding a little in 2018, decelerating to 2.5 % from 2.75 % this year, and clearly any halting of the cyclical upswing in the global economy would set the country back.
The unique condition of Argentina, as a country which had achieved advanced development in the early 20th century but experienced a reversal, has inspired a wealth of literature and analyses on the causes of this progressive decline. The Nobel prize - winning economist Simon Kuznets is said to have remarked that there were four types of countries: the developed, the underdeveloped, Japan and Argentina.
According to Di Tella and Zymelman (1967), the main difference between Argentina and other settler societies such as Australia and Canada was its failure to seek adequate alternatives to compensate for the end of geographical expansion with the definitive closing of the frontier. Solberg (1985) noted the differences between the land distribution in Canada, which led to a rising number of small farmers, and the small number of landowners each with large areas of land in Argentina.
Duncan and Fogarty (1984) argued that the key difference lies in the contrast between the stable, flexible government of Australia and the poor governance of Argentina. According to Platt and Di Tella (1985) the political tradition and immigration from different regions were the key factors, while Díaz Alejandro (1985) suggested that a restrictive immigration policy, similar to Australia 's, would have increased productivity encouraged by the relative scarcity of labour.
More recently, Taylor (1992) pointed that the relatively high dependency ratio and the slow demographic transition in Argentina led to a reliance on foreign capital to offset the resulting low savings rate. From the 1930s onwards, the accumulation of capital was hampered by the relatively high prices of (mostly imported) capital goods, which was caused by the industrial policy of import substitution, in contrast with the export - led growth favoured by Canada. Other distorting factors behind the high relative prices of capital goods include the multiple exchange rates, the black market for foreign currencies, the depreciation of the national currency and high customs tariffs. This resulted in a lower capital intensity, which led to lower rates of labour productivity.
The ultimate cause of Argentina 's historical backwardness appears to be its institutional framework. In macroeconomic terms, Argentina was one of the most stable and conservative countries until the Great Depression, after which it turned into one of the most unstable.
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when did dot cotton first appeared in eastenders | Dot Cotton - wikipedia
Dorothy ' Dot ' Branning (also Cotton) is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera, EastEnders, played by June Brown since 1985. Dot first appeared in EastEnders in July 1985 as the mother of criminal Nick Cotton (John Altman). The character has worked as a launderette assistant for most of that time along with original character Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard). Dot moved away with her son and his family in 1993. In reality, Brown left the show in 1993, unhappy with the axing of her co star Peter Dean, who played Pete Beale from the shows first episode to early 1993. Brown returned to the role in April 1997, and on 28 April 2017, Dot overtook Pat Butcher (Pam St. Clement) as the second longest - serving character in EastEnders, surpassed only by original character Ian Beale (Adam Woodyatt). In a special episode entitled EastEnders: Dot 's Story (2003) a young Dot was played by Tallulah Pitt - Brown in flashbacks. In April 2012, Brown took a six - month break from the show to write her memoirs. Dot temporarily departed on 18 May 2012. She returned on 14 January 2013. In February 2015, Dot began appearing less frequently due to Brown gradually losing her eyesight; this aspect of her life was later written into her character the following year. In January 2016, it was announced that Brown had renewed her contract with the BBC until March 2017. In January 2017 it was reported that the BBC were offering Brown £ 300,000 for a one - year contract. In April 2018 it was announced that Brown had renewed her contract again until 2019. June Brown will be returning to the soap full time late 2018, after a big break due to her health. She will be returning alongside Harold Legg.
A tragicomic character, Dot is known for her devout Christian faith, gossiping, chain smoking, hypochondria, and motherly attitude to those in need. A recurring storyline in the serial has been Dot 's continuous forgiveness of her son 's villainous crimes. Initially married at the start of the series to conman Charlie Cotton (Christopher Hancock), Dot married again in 2002 to pensioner Jim Branning (John Bardon) and the union proved to be popular with fans. Brown and Bardon won awards for their screen partnership. On 31 January 2008, Dot became the first character ever to appear in a monologue episode, "Pretty Baby... '', of a British soap. The acclaimed episode saw Dot reminiscing about her years of loss and grief into a tape recorder as a message to her ailing husband Jim. Dot has been used to explore topical and controversial issues such as euthanasia, cancer, immigration and homophobia.
Dot has been generally well received by critics; she has been referred to as a cultural archetype and Brown has won multiple awards for her portrayal. However, aspects of the character such as her smoking and her religious beliefs have been criticised, with religious groups suggesting Dot 's faith is used in a pejorative manner. The character has also made an impact on popular culture; she has been spoofed, most notably by Alistair McGowan, and has been credited as inspiration for catwalk collections.
Dot 's backstory states that she was born in Walford, the main setting for EastEnders, and was evacuated to Wales as a child during the Second World War. Her guardians, Gwen (Eve Myles; Gwenllian Davies) and Will (Dafydd Emyr), wished to adopt her, but Dot returned to Walford after Will 's death and spent the remainder of her childhood helping her neglectful mother care for her younger half - siblings: Gerry, Tim and Rose (Polly Perkins).
Aged 18, Dot married Charlie Cotton (Christopher Hancock). The following year, he forced her to have an abortion; threatening to leave her if she did not, but left anyway. While Dot was giving birth to their son, Nick (John Altman), Charlie was having an affair with her sister, Rose, in Liverpool. She raised Nick alone, with Charlie making unannounced returns and departures sporadically, and although Dot doted on Nick, she was not an affectionate mother.
Dot is introduced to EastEnders soon after its launch as the gossiping, chain smoking, Christian friend of Ethel Skinner (Gretchen Franklin) and Lou Beale (Anna Wing) who works with Pauline Fowler (Wendy Richard) at the Walford launderette. She has a difficult life with a criminal husband, Charlie, and their son Nick, who appeared in the first episode. Charlie comes and goes, always treating Dot badly and stealing from her, until he dies in a lorry accident. Nick is also a criminal; he is involved in drugs, robberies and murder, and tries to cheat Dot out of her money. He attempts to poison her to inherit her bingo winnings, but is unsuccessful. Despite Nick 's deeds, Dot believes he can be redeemed. Dot also associates herself as Walford 's Good Samaritan, often taking in residents when they are homeless. Amongst these include Colin Russell (Michael Cashman) and Donna Ludlow (Matilda Ziegler), who becomes addicted to drugs. Dot believes that she can help Donna change for the better, but comes home one day to find Donna dead in her lounge. It is concluded that she died after choking on her own vomit, and Dot is devastated.
However, Dot causes trouble for certain residents too, although not intentionally. She is responsible for the break - up of Saeed Jeffery 's (Andrew Johnson) marriage to Naima Jeffery (Shreela Ghosh). Due to the lack of lust in his marriage to Naima, Saeed begins visiting prostitutes. After continual pressure, Naima relents and finally consummates her marriage to Saeed, improving things between the couple (their marriage was arranged to begin with, much to their disliking), but their marital bliss is short - lived. Naima receives an anonymous letter from Dot, who has discovered Saeed 's sordid exploits. Dot feels it is her Christian duty to inform Saeed 's wife, and when Naima confronts Saeed, he does not deny it so she leaves him.
In 1993, Nick 's girlfriend Zoe (Elizabeth Chadwick) arrives in Walford and introduces Dot to their nine - year - old son, Ashley (Rossi Higgins). Dot becomes close to Ashley and eventually Zoe asks her to move to Gravesend with them. Dot then leaves the Square.
Dot returns nearly four years later when Nigel tracks her down. She reveals that Nick has been arrested for drugs possession and Zoe and Ashley have moved away. After being held hostage by a convict friend of Nick, she returns to the square and is shocked when Nick returns unexpectedly. He tries to steal her money again by claiming he has AIDS and needs money to pay for illegally imported medication. Dot believes him but later discovers it is a lie and he is on the run from the police. She contacts the police, and he is arrested a week after his return.
Dot moves in with fellow senior citizen Lilly Mattock (Barbara Keogh) and is arrested for the illegal use of cannabis, which she confuses for herbal tea. When Lilly leaves after she is mugged, Dot moves in with Pauline. Her oldest friend Ethel also comes to stay with the Fowlers for a time, having become terminally ill. Ethel begs Dot to help her end her life. Torn between her Christian beliefs against euthanasia and her best friend 's wishes, she helps Ethel to die, but later feels she should be jailed for murder. When the police do not believe her story, Dot demands retribution in another form and she ends up in court for shoplifting. She initially avoids a prison sentence but is sent down for 14 days for contempt of court following an outburst in the courtroom.
When Nick and Ashley (now Frankie Fitzgerald) reappear in Walford, Dot is pleased to have her family around and moves out of the Fowler household to live with them. However, Nick 's feud with Mark Fowler (Todd Carty) causes Ashley 's death after Nick cuts the brakes on Mark 's motorbike and Ashley steals it and crashes. Dot disowns Nick after Ashley 's funeral, having overheard the truth about Ashley 's death during an earlier argument between Nick and Mark.
She starts a relationship with neighbour Jim Branning (John Bardon), but when he proposes, she is overwhelmed and leaves Walford. Jim perseveres and when they go on the London Eye one Christmas Eve, he proposes again and she accepts. They decide that they will have a platonic marital relationship. Dot is diagnosed with kidney cancer and decides not to tell anyone except her friend Dennis Rickman (Nigel Harman). She initially refuses treatment and plans to die quietly, but is eventually persuaded to undergo chemotherapy and makes a full recovery.
When Dot finds an abandoned baby, Tomas, in a church, she takes him home, leaving her contact details at the church and subsequently Tomas 's mother Anya (Olga Fedori) arrives in Walford, revealing she is an illegal immigrant. Jim anonymously reports Anya and when she is deported, Dot hides Tomas from the authorities, vowing to take care of him. Dot and Jim struggle to look after the baby and, after talking to the local vicar and her old friend Dr. Harold Legg (Leonard Fenton), Dot decides to hand him over to social services.
Jim suffers a stroke, leaving him seriously ill. Jim is placed in a nursing home, but Dot struggles with this decision and tries at a later date to care for Jim at home. However, she finds being a full - time carer exhausting and lonely. Eventually, after Dot experiences ill - health brought on by stress, Jim moves back to a nursing home.
When Nick returns after a seven - year absence, he tells Dot he has changed and is now a plumber, introducing her to his six - year - old daughter Dotty Cotton (Molly Conlin). However, Dot discovers that Nick is only there for her money. She refuses to pay him, so he tells her if she does not, she can not see Dotty. Dot gives Nick the money and looks after Dotty. It is revealed Dotty and Nick are planning to kill Dot for her life insurance. They convince her that she has symptoms of dementia, but their plan backfires when Dotty exposes the plot. In a rage, Nick holds various members of the community hostage in the café, resulting in an explosion. Nick survives and after being disowned again by Dot, he informs her that Dotty had masterminded the murder plot before fleeing. Dotty is retrieved by her mother, Sandy (Caroline Pegg), following various devious deeds, such as accusing Dot of beating her, which leads to Dot being questioned by the police for child abuse. Nevertheless, Dot is sorry to see Dotty go.
Dot develops a friendship with vicar Edward Bishop (Frank Barrie), who develops romantic intentions towards her. Dot turns Edward down, remaining loyal to her husband. She takes in various lodgers, including Arthur "Fatboy '' Chubb (Ricky Norwood), her sister Rose and Cora Cross (Ann Mitchell), who causes Dot problems with the council for failing to pay the rent, leaving her in arrears. Dot is taken to court but manages to persuade the judge to allow her to keep her home and avoids a prison sentence. Fatboy later allows his girlfriend Poppy Meadow (Rachel Bright) to move in with him and Dot, and Dot forms a close bond with Poppy. When Fatboy and Poppy break up and Poppy moves out, Fatboy gently assures Dot that she and Poppy are still friends.
Dot receives a police visit, informing her that Nick has died. One of the police officers returns later to tell her that he is actually her grandson Charlie Cotton (Declan Bennett), a child of Nick 's Dot had not known existed. A devastated Dot holds a funeral for Nick and grows close to Charlie in the aftermath as he moves in with Dot, causing Fatboy to move out. However, it is later revealed that Charlie is being dishonest and although he is Nick 's son, he is not a policeman but a caretaker and that he has helped Nick stage his own death to avoid being arrested following a robbery. Nick reappears in Walford to Dot 's shock and persuades his mother to hide him at her house. Although horrified that Charlie and Nick lied to her, she forgives Charlie and agrees to aid Nick 's escape from the UK, this time for good. However, Nick later realises that he does not want to leave and gets embroiled in a feud with Charlie 's fiancée, Ronnie Mitchell (Samantha Womack), who tries and fails to ensure his departure. This leads to Nick tampering with the brakes of Charlie 's car and the resulting crash leaves a pregnant Ronnie comatose in hospital. When Charlie discovers this, he demands that Nick leave, and as Charlie moves out to live at Ronnie 's flat, Fatboy moves back in with Dot. However, Dot, unwilling to give up on her son, hides Nick in a derelict neighbouring house.
Unable to leave the premises, Nick starts using heroin again but can not feed his drug addiction and asks Dot to obtain drugs for him. Dot purchases the heroin but Fatboy catches her and urges her to cut ties with Nick. Dot urges Nick to confess to the police, but when he tells her he does not feel remorse for Ronnie 's injuries, she gives him the drugs and storms out. Dot later finds Nick unconscious, having had a bad reaction to the drugs. When it is clear Nick is dying, Nick confesses various past misdemeanours, including the murder of Reg Cox (Johnnie Clayton). Nick seeks his mother 's forgiveness and she cradles him as he dies, ultimately deciding not to call an ambulance to attempt to save his life. Dot, seeking punishment for this, decides to confess to the police and is arrested and imprisoned. Dot initially decides to plead guilty, believing she should atone for her sins in prison, but when Jim dies, she attends his funeral and realises how much her family needs her. She changes her plea and is cleared of murder at the court hearing; however, she is found guilty of manslaughter and sentenced to prison for 14 months.
Four months later, Dot is released and shares her regret with Ian that she did not report Nick 's crimes earlier in life. Fatboy tells Dot he is spending Christmas with his father, but later Vincent Hubbard (Richard Blackwood) discovers Fatboy 's belongings amongst some blood in the boot of a crushed car and tells Dot that Fatboy is not coming back because of a job abroad. Dot takes salsa classes and works with Patrick Trueman (Rudolph Walker) to prepare for a salsa show, who mistakenly thinks she wants a relationship, but she actually sets him and Claudette Hubbard (Ellen Thomas) up on a date. Dot receives a wedding invitation from her old friend, Colin, but she does not want to attend because she does not believe in homosexual marriage. Colin visits her on his wedding day to persuade her to come, which she does. Dot discovers the launderette will become a dry cleaner and is interviewed for her own job; she struggles with the technical terminology but defends herself as a people person. However, she is told that she will not be kept on after the launderette is refurbished. She tries to contact her boss by telephone but when she finally gets through, he hangs up. Ricky Mitchell (Henri Charles) learns about the harvest festival and leaves a box of food on Dot 's doorstep, which offends her as she does not believe she is poor or lonely, however, she realises just how lonely she is when Abi is unable to have dinner with her. Dot and Kim Fox - Hubbard (Tameka Empson) are involved in a car collision, but both blame the other as Kim has no licence but Kim accuses Dot of being too old to drive. Dot then locks her car key away. After Patrick and Dot go to the cinema together, he convinces her to see an optician because she was squinting throughout. Dot is seen hiding away in her house on Halloween and Patrick comes to talk to her. Dot says her hatred of Halloween is due to awful things happening on Halloween such as Stacey Fowler (Lacey Turner) getting electrocuted and Max Branning (Jake Wood) getting run over. She then tries to read the Bible to Patrick but can not see the words. Patrick tells her she is n't scared of Halloween but of the world. Dot reveals that she thinks she is going blind but then kicks Patrick out of the house. When he leaves, it is revealed that Dot can not see anything clearly. Patrick books Dot a doctor 's appointment; the doctor suspects age - related macular degeneration, which is later confirmed. Dot starts treatment but she is annoyed that her eyesight does not improve much. She turns down Ronnie 's offer of paying for surgery to permanently fix her sight.
Abi invites Dot to Christmas in Exeter but Dot insists she has plans of her own. The launderette closes on Christmas Eve, but everyone is too busy to visit her. She finds a Christmas mixtape recorded by her deceased friend Heather Trott (Cheryl Fergison), and takes in a stray cat, which she eventually names Dave. She spends Christmas Day alone, but when Patrick realises she has not gone to Exeter, he invites her to The Queen Victoria pub where everyone is celebrating Christmas, and her neighbours present her with the gift of a washing machine. When Ronnie, the wife of Dot 's former stepson, Jack Branning (Scott Maslen), and her sister Roxy Mitchell (Rita Simons), mother of one of Jack 's children, both die, Dot tells the children that they are in heaven, helping them to understand after Jack struggles to find an appropriate way to tell them. When Jack is unable to take Dot to the garden centre, she decides to drive herself with her great - grandson, Matthew Mitchell Cotton, but drives through a no entry sign into oncoming traffic and ends up in the verge. Dot is surprised when Charlie returns but he is only back for his son and she is upset when he leaves again with Matthew. Dot 's step - granddaughter Abi Branning (Lorna Fitzgerald) lives with her for a while but moves out with Dot 's blessing.
Dot trips over Dave and falls awkwardly onto a chair. Nobody knows she is injured until her step - granddaughter, Sonia Fowler (Natalie Cassidy), finds her. Dot is then taken to hospital and Sonia blames her neighbours for not looking out her and scolds Sharon and Ian. Dot is worried when the doctor tells her that she will need an operation on her hip but she refuses physiotherapy. Dot goes to stay with Dotty for three months, returning when she hears that Abi is brainstem dead after an accident. Dot is surprised to see the launderette had reopened and Karen Taylor (Lorraine Stanley) is working there. After attending Abi 's funeral, Dot goes to stay with Charlie, Liz and Matthew in Ireland.
Although Dot had been referred to since the very early episodes of the programme as the mother of villain Nick Cotton (John Altman), she did not actually appear on - screen until episode 40 in July 1985. Dot was conceptualised by show creators, Tony Holland and Julia Smith, along with the other original characters. Introduced as the "bible thumping, arch - gossip '' of the launderette, Dot was a character who bridged the generations. The actress June Brown was given the role after being recommended by actor Leslie Grantham, who played original character, Den Watts.
Brown was offered the part of Dot Cotton for a period of three months initially and in her own words, she was brought in "merely to be Nick Cotton 's mother because Nick was coming back again ''. Brown has told Decca Aitkenhead of The Guardian in 2009 that she was wary of joining a soap opera as she had seen EastEnders once on television, "and there was an argument going on, and I thought, ' Oh, I do n't want to watch all that, ' so I switched it off. I did n't watch it again until I was asked to be in it. '' The role was extended and the character has become one of the longest - running to have featured in EastEnders.
In order to become the character of Dot Cotton, Brown is required to wear a wig to replicate Dot 's 1950s "Italian Boy '' hairstyle that has remained in a largely unchanged style since she first appeared in 1985. Although Brown now wears a wig, for many years the hair sported by Dot actually belonged to the actress. Brown has stated that as soon as Dot 's hairpiece is on, she becomes the character. The unchanged style of Dot was deemed so important by the programme makers, that when Brown requested to have dental work carried out to improve her prominent front teeth, the producers refused to allow it, arguing that Dot could not afford expensive tooth capping. Brown was not permitted to alter her teeth until early 1991 when they became loose. Brown has indicated that she does not want Dot 's style altered. She claimed in 2002 that Dot had the same coats in her wardrobe that she was given in 1985. The fur - collared coat Dot wears for special occasions was donated by the character Angie Watts (Anita Dobson) in 1988 when she left the serial. Brown commented, "I like the older clothes (...) I do n't want new clothes, I 'm happy the way she is. She thinks she looks really smart. She 's got a terrible opinion of herself that woman! ''
Brown has said that when she was cast as Dot, she was given a list of illnesses the character had. She added, "It meant she was a hypercondriac (sic) because she had nobody to care about her. She was quite a selfish woman (initially). '' Dot has been described by author Hilary Kingsley as a "born victim. '' She adds that "with each blow that life delivers (Dot) bobs back up again, almost asking for more trouble, more pain, more suffering. '' Dot is renowned for being a hypochondriac, her Christian faith and quoting from the Bible. She has been described by Rupert Smith, author of 20 Years in Albert Square, as "God - bothering '' and self - righteous. According to Kingsley, "nothing shakes Dot 's view that the world is good because the creator made it so. Her faith sustains her through the most appalling ordeals. '' The character once expressed part of the reason for her faith on - screen in 2000, commenting to a vicar, "I could n't manage without my faith, not with the life I 've had ''; former executive producer of EastEnders, John Yorke, has stated that this is his favourite line of EastEnders ' entire existence. Author Antony Slide has noted that Dot 's religious beliefs have given her solace, but has given her an excuse to be prejudiced against her neighbours, and to deal with the criminal antics of her wayward son. He described her as a "simpleminded woman whom one loved to hate ''.
In Kathryn and Phillip Dodd 's published essay, From EastEnd to EastEnders, Dot has been used as an example of the media 's representation of the working - class as community - orientated, but defensive: "evangelist - cum - launderette supervisor. Eagle - eyed, she patrols the Square, confronting evil and despair and asking those stricken with doubt to trust God, while simultaneously organizing the local Neighbourhood Watch scheme. ''
The character has taken on a matriarchal role in the absence of her own family, taking on the burdens of numerous waifs and strays throughout the show 's history, including Donna Ludlow (Matilda Ziegler), Rod Norman (Christopher McHallem), Disa O'Brien (Jan Graveson), Nigel Bates (Paul Bradley) and Clare Bates (Gemma Bissix). Author Christine Geraghty asserts that Dot 's role in the mothering structure of the serial has been confirmed.
Describing Dot, Brown has said, "I love playing her -- she 's a strong character. Dear old Dot, she 's got strong moral views and odd religious beliefs, but her heart 's in the right place. She has that awful worried expression on her face the whole time ''. Brown has noted the changes within Dot since the show 's inception, saying that initially Dot was sharp and selfish, but since her character remarried in 2002, she has gained security and has "no reason to have the hypochondria she had in the past (...) She 's become more caring over the years. She enjoys the company of young people. She loves her church. She can get in an anxious state -- I like it when Dot 's hysterical! She 's also amusing, mostly because she does n't realise she is ''.
As well as being tragic, Dot is scripted as a comic character. Brown has discussed the humour she incorporates into her performances: "I think Dot would be awfully boring if she were n't a bit comic (...) I always thought I had to put an edge on it, an edge of comedy, which just means doing it more seriously than you would do. If you want to play comedy then you have to be very intense about it (...) very, very serious. '' Some of Dot 's catchphrases are used for humour, such as "Ooh I say! '', uttered when she is "stuck for words ''. In 2004, Brown discussed the origin of the saying: "It was written once in the script and I quite enjoyed it, so I used to say it occasionally when it was n't in the scripts. It was useful because it could be said in all different ways. Dot 's very straight - laced, so it helped to express her horror at what went on. '' Brown revealed in 2008 that she has tried to cut down the use of this, along with the mispronunciation of her employer, Mr Papadopolous, as she has become a little embarrassed by them now they are so known. Mr. Papadopolous is the owner of the launderette where Dot works. In a long - running joke, Dot has difficulty pronouncing his surname, and for much of the show 's history he has been referred to as Mr. Oppodopolus, Oppydoppy, or varying other mispronunciations. Brown has said she enjoys playing the comical aspects of Dot, stating, "She 's not dreadfully funny but she 's amusing and I like that because it lightens it up a bit. ''
Smoking cigarettes has become synonymous with Dot, and Brown has suggested that the habit is "intrinsic '' to the character. Following the 2007 England smoking ban, it was reported in the Daily Mail that the BBC were refusing to prohibit the character from smoking on - screen despite the act being banned in workplaces, as they have "to portray real life -- and people smoke ''. Dot 's smoking was criticised by private healthcare company Bupa in 2008, when they rated her television 's most unhealthy character. They suggest that, in order to spread a public message, Dot should appear breathless, not with "implausibly good health ''. They added, "Though Dot Cotton has a smoker 's voice -- deeper than you might expect, she does not seem to be short of breath or wheezy '' and that viewers would be influenced by this. However, Dot 's smoking has been described by broadcasting watchdogs Ofcom as "justified in the context of the programme as a representation of an East End character '' and they therefore stipulate that enforcement of broadcast smoking - sanctions would be unlikely on EastEnders.
Upon her arrival, Dot Cotton was quickly established as the gossip, whose purpose, as author Anthony Slide sees it, was "that of a Greek chorus, commenting on the foibles of her fellow residents of Albert Square, from her vantage point as manager of the local launderette ''. The "gossip '' is a soap opera role that author Christine Geraghty has described as "crucial to the audience 's engagement with a serial and provides both a source of information and a means of speculation for the viewer. '' She asserts that a fundamental aspect of British soap is the idea of supporting members of community, based on the sharing of intimate knowledge, allowing "practical and emotional needs to be met '' within the enclosed community. However, according to Geraghty, there is nevertheless "an unease about the price paid for such support and an acknowledgement of the fine - line between neighbourliness and nosiness. The ' gossip ' personifies this unease and though her task of passing on information and ferreting out problems is crucial to the community, she (...) is frequently the butt of mockery and criticism (...) The avidity with which Dot Cotton seeks out news is the subject of some embarrassment to her more restrained neighbours but the exchange of information she provides is essential if the community is to provide support to its members (...) the very process of exchanging information makes her an essential yet mistrusted figure. ''
Indeed, it has been noted that, throughout the soap 's early years, Dot was portrayed as a "lovable bigot '', prejudiced against her neighbours and only happy when others were not. During the 1980s, Dot was shown to exhibit both racism and homophobia to members of the Walford community. In 1987, Dot was shown to respond negatively to Colin Russell (Michael Cashman) upon learning he was gay, reacting in "horror and ignorant self - righteousness '' and spreading rumours that Colin had AIDS. According to Gary Loach from GaydarNation, Dot was being used by the programme makers to expose the bigotry of the "moral majority '' in the real world following a public and media backlash over EastEnders ' screening of its first homosexual kiss. However, while Dot has portrayed bigotry, author Anthony Slide has noted that the character can typically be "relied upon to drop her prejudices -- she learned to accept both blacks and homosexuals in Albert Square. ''
Despite Dot 's remaining penchant for gossip, it has been noted by Cole Moreton of The Independent in 2008 that the character has "evolved from a nasty gossip into a strong character for whom viewers feel warmth ''. Author Dorothy Hobson has discussed this in her book Soap Opera, suggesting that Dot, while providing a narrative function as a gossip, has in turn been the subject of other people 's gossip, with her own problems, troubles and vulnerability.
Dot 's relationship with her wayward son Nick (John Altman), has been a feature of the character 's narrative since her inception. Unlike Dot, Nick is scripted as a semi-regular character, one who comes and goes sporadically and, as authors Jill Marshall and Angela Werndly have observed, "we know heartache is in store for Dot Cotton every time her son, ' Nasty Nick ', turns up (...) The recurrence of generic elements means we derive pleasure from expectation and prediction. ''
Executive producer Diederick Santer has discussed the "wonderfully dysfunctional mother - son relationship '' Nick shares with Dot and her perpetual willingness to give Nick another chance regardless of his history of wrongdoing. Santer explained: "There 's that thing where you sort of dare to hope that someone 's changed, which is really tragic. They 've let you down a hundred times, and yet you still hope that the hundred and first time they 'll have changed. '' Actor Leslie Grantham has stated that Dot is the "one friend in (Nick 's) life '', while series story producer Dominic Treadwell - Collins has affirmed: "Dot 's always going to forgive him. And that 's the beauty of Nick and Dot. '' Concurring with this sentiment, John Altman (Nick) agreed: "No matter what he does, she 'll forgive him. So did a lot of gangsters ' mothers throughout history. Probably Al Capone 's mother thought he was a sweet lad, you know. ''
One of Nick 's most notable returns to the series occurred in 1990. Nick returned to his mother 's life with the claim that he was a born - again Christian, which happened to coincide with her £ 1000 win on the bingo. EastEnders writer Sarah Phelps explained: "For Dot, the idea that Jesus had finally spoken to Nick, that was all her Christmases coming at once! Nick knew that. It was sort of obvious that Nick could be saying ' Jesus walks with me ' and then just go out and kick somebody or nick their wallet. '' With the help of a fake priest, Nick managed to convince his mother of his new - found faith and then began a slow campaign to control her eating habits and poison her in order to claim her money. Discussing the storyline, scriptwriter Colin Brake has indicated that at first it was not clear to the audience whether Nick had reformed or not, but as the weeks passed it became obvious that he did intend to kill his mother, as he was shown practising a fake suicide note in Dot 's handwriting -- a foil to cover the intended murder; according to Brake, Dot remained blithely and perhaps purposefully ignorant to his wrongdoing. The episode which culminated the storyline, written by P.J. Hammond, was set solely in Dot 's house and featured an unusually small cast consisting of Nick, Dot, Nick 's estranged father Charlie, Dot 's close friend Ethel Skinner and Alistair the fake priest. At the last moment, in what Altman has called the "one time we saw a glimmer of Nick 's good side '', Nick backed out of his plan and stopped Dot from eating the poisoned meal he had intended to kill her with. Once again Dot was left alone, broken - hearted at what her own son had been prepared to do to her.
Other storylines have concentrated on Dot 's various attempts to reform Nick, such as in 1991, when Nick returned with a heroin addiction. As the plot unfolded, Dot tried to curtail Nick 's addiction by locking him in his room and forcing him to go cold turkey. His resulting paranoia and cravings led him to escape and murder the first person he encountered, The Queen Victoria landlord Eddie Royle (Michael Melia). The episode where Eddie was murdered was the big autumn launch episode for 1991. Nick stood trial in January 1993; however, "he got away with murder '' for a second time in the serial. Other scams have included Nick 's attempt to con Dot by claiming he had AIDS in 1998 after escaping from prison, which ultimately led to Dot having him re-imprisoned. Then followed a plot that saw him largely responsible for the death of his son Ashley (Frankie Fitzgerald) in June 2001, ultimately leading Dot to disown Nick and prompting to leave the Square again. He is not seen for more than seven years after this, although he was mentioned in 2006 when recovering from cancer off - screen.
Following pleas from Brown to resurrect Nick, John Altman returned to the serial again in December 2008, in a storyline that saw Nick attempt to con Dot again, this time aided by a previously unheard of daughter, Dotty (Molly Conlin), who was born in 2002 after Nick 's previous exit. Altman explained: "Nick needed something, because I think if he did n't have little Dotty, for him to walk through that door, she would just have treated him as a complete outcast. '' As the storyline progressed, it was revealed that Nick and Dotty had intentions to kill Dot for her inheritance; they concocted a plan to make her think she had developed dementia then overdose her with sleeping pills, which fails when Dotty has a change of heart and Nick flees once again after causing an explosion and being disowned by Dot.
In March 2014, Dot is told by the police that Nick has died of respiratory failure from a heroin overdose the previous week. One of the police officers who breaks the news to Dot is Nick 's son Charlie Cotton, although it is later revealed that he is impersonating a police officer. Charlie explains that he was conceived from a brief marriage Nick had with his mother Yvonne. During the funeral, Charlie and undertaker Les Coker prevent Dot from looking in the coffin. Dot is suspicious and invites Yvonne to tell the truth and she assures Dot that Charlie is her grandson. A few weeks later, Carol Jackson asks Charlie for advice, when he leaves his phone at her house, she answers a call and discovers that Nick is still alive.
Nick reappears in Albert Square seven months after his faked death. Ronnie takes an instant dislike to him and tries to bribe him to leave but Nick returns for Charlie and Ronnie 's wedding. Nick decides to get revenge on Ronnie and cuts the brakes of her car. After the wedding, Roxy, Charlie and Ronnie are involved in an accident which hits and later kills Emma Summerhayes, while Ronnie ends up in a coma but survives. Yvonne discovers that Nick cut the brakes of the car. Yvonne tells Charlie but he does not believe her until he catches Nick with some of the money Ronnie used to bribe him. Then Nick implicates Yvonne in Ronnie 's accident, so Charlie asks them both to leave. Dot hides Nick next door and obtains heroin for Nick. Later she finds him unconscious, Nick regains consciousness briefly but later dies in Dot 's arms, in the same location that Reg Cox was discovered 30 years earlier.
Like Nick, Dot 's first screen husband, Charlie Cotton (Christopher Hancock), was also a semi-regular character who came and went throughout his duration in the show. Depicted as bigamous and a conman, Charlie typically would reappear in the show whenever he needed money or temporary accommodation and, because of Dot 's Christian ideals regarding forgiveness, Charlie would always be permitted to return. According to Christopher Hancock, Charlie was "a truly revolting character, a loser. ''
Producers decided to kill Charlie off in 1991; Charlie died off - screen when crashing his lorry on a motorway. The decision to kill Charlie was taken in order to reintroduce Charlie 's son, Nick. Nick had been involved in a storyline that saw him attempt to poison Dot in 1990, and producers felt that in order for Dot to allow Nick back into her life again, something major had to occur in her narrative, that being the death of her husband. Storyline editor, Andrew Holden, has discussed this in the EastEnders Handbook publication in 1991: "We wanted to bring Nick Cotton back and we also wanted to push Dot forward and change her life. But the problem was how? The last time we saw Nick he was attempting to kill his mother. Dot is n't a fool so we knew getting them back together was like a three card trick. How do we get out of this? So we made (Nick) a heroin addict. That made him vulnerable, in a mess and needing his mother to get money for him. We then had to kill Charlie because I figured that only in a state of shock and uncertainty about her belief in God would Dot contemplate forgiving Nick and attempting to reform him. She decides to believe that she can make a decent human being of Nick. She feels it 's her last chance. As a widow Dot enters new territory. Dot 's snobbery is based on ludicrous misconceptions, one of which is that she is better than (her friend) Ethel because she has a husband. She is going to have a lot of scope (...) Dot 's life is going to change. '' Brown was opposed to the killing of Charlie and she attempted to get the programme - makers to change their minds. She comments, "I was very unhappy to learn that Charlie would be killed off. I would have preferred if they 'd left the door open for him to possibly return one day. I went to see the writers and put this forward. I suggested that there could be some uncertainty about the body. Charlie may have picked up a hitch - hiker and he was the one who died. John Altman, who plays Nick, was also sorry about Charlie. We were n't thinking just about Christopher Hancock, who played Charlie so well, it was that we liked the character and it seemed a waste. But I was too late, I could n't change their minds. In the past, I have talked things through and I was listened to ''.
Charlie 's funeral episode, written by Linda Dearsley, was aired on 11 July 1991, and was dominated by Dot 's reaction to Charlie 's death and her trip to identify his body. It is selected by writer Colin Brake as one of 1991 's episodes of the year.
Dot 's second significant romance was built upon by scriptwriters in 2000 on the behest of producer John Yorke. Dot was paired romantically with pensioner Jim Branning, played by John Bardon and a slow courtship was featured, with Dot often shown to be outraged by Jim 's advances, resulting in numerous rejections. Dot finally succumbed and accepted his marriage proposal in an episode that aired in December 2001; the scenes were filmed inside one of the carriages of the London Eye on the South Bank of the River Thames. Their wedding aired on 14 February 2002, Valentine 's Day. The Guardian critic, Nancy Banks - Smith, described the wedding as "uniquely uneventful (...) For Dot and Jim ' In sickness and health... till death do us part ' seemed to carry more resonance than for most. ''
Bardon has revealed that both he and Brown were sceptical about their characters marrying. In an interview with American fan - based newspaper, Walford Gazette, he commented, "No way did the pair of us want to get married because we thought if we got married, we 'd sit indoors and watch the telly every night. As it happened, we 've had some nice things to do. And we are married, and it 's worked out all right. '' Brown has reiterated that she feared Dot would become boring if she married Jim, but that producers persuaded her that the marriage might be a good thing. On - screen, Dot had just suffered the death of her grandson Ashley (in which Nick had played a part), and Brown felt that a traumatic event like that would have changed her character. In her opinion, the only way Dot would have got over Ashley 's death "would be to have someone else to care for and when it happened there was nobody (but) with marrying Jim she gets a family -- that 's what persuaded me. That house will become a house again -- it will have a central point, they will be able to use the house as a central point, as Dot will be there. ''
Critic Grace Dent has likened Dot and Jim to Coronation Street 's Hilda and Stan Ogden, comparing a scene in EastEnders where Dot nags Jim and he prays for a quiet life to a similar one from Coronation Street, that aired decades before. Brown discussed Dot 's relationship with Jim in 2004: "Initially, Jim was n't the sort of person that Dot approved of. He drank, he gambled, he lied -- he was n't reliable at all. But Jim decided that he quite fancied Dot -- heaven knows why! I think that you always have to work out for yourself how you can make the character work in a new situation. I could see that Jim was kind to Dot (...) His kindness drew her towards him. (...) Dot 's definitely in control of Jim. She quite enjoys bossing him around. '' Brown stated that she enjoys her screen partnership with John Bardon, saying "We work very well together -- he 's got great timing and he can be very tender too. ''
The on - screen relationship between Dot and Jim was halted in 2007 when Jim was hastily written out of the soap due to John Bardon suffering a major stroke. In the script Jim suffered a stroke and was placed in the care of off - screen relatives. Dot and Jim remained together, with Jim making sporadic appearances between 2008 and 2009 to visit Dot. A more permanent return for the character was announced in 2009. However, it was reported in April 2011 that Bardon had filmed his exit from the series, and that the show 's staff believed it marked the end of the character. A source told the Daily Mirror: "Dot 's been struggling for a while and realises that she can no longer give Jim the care and attention he deserves and is forced to make the heartbreaking decision that he should move into a home. (...) It was very emotional on the set for the scenes where Dot discusses her decision and talks to Jim about him going into care for good. There were a lot of tears. (...) The feeling is that this is the end of Jim as a character because he wo n't leave the home and wo n't ever be a regular in Albert Square again. '' It was reported that Jim could still appear in the care home if Bardon 's health permitted it, although ultimately this did not happen, as Bardon never recovered enough to make any further appearances. Jim left the show on 26 May 2011. Brown opined that Dot would feel lonely without Jim, saying, "I think she 'll be very lonely and feel she does n't have much purpose in life. It was really important to tell this story because there are so many people in a similar situation to Dot. It was moving to act out, too -- not just because of Dot and Jim 's relationship, but because I 'm really good friends with John Bardon in real life. '' Jim died off - screen four years later, shortly after the death of actor John Bardon.
In May 2011, it was reported that Dot 's estranged half - sister, Rose, would join the series, played by Polly Perkins. Reports stated that Dot and Rose fell out when the latter had an affair with the former 's husband, Charlie, but Dot would decide to track Rose down after suffering a bout of hypochondria, feeling it is time to put things right, however, Rose will not be pleased to see Dot again after so many years.
An enduring friendship featured in EastEnders was the one shared between the characters Dot Cotton and Ethel Skinner (played by Gretchen Franklin), first shown on - screen in 1985 and ending with Ethel 's death in 2000, though the characters shared a backstory set prior to 1985 and were scripted as neighbours who grew old together in East London, along with Lou Beale (Anna Wing). BBC News has described Dot and Ethel as an "incomparable double - act (...) Occasionally spiky and often hilarious ''. Dot and Ethel shared few similarities in personality. During an episode that aired in 2008, just under 8 years after Ethel died in the serial, Dot discussed the differences between them: "Ethel was a free spirit, not like me. All bottled up. I remember sitting on the step of the Vic, waiting for me mother. I caught a glimpse of her through the door. Sitting on top of the piano, her legs spread, showing next week 's washing and bawling out "Roll Out the Barrel ''. Just like a navvy. She did n't seem to have a care in the world. I had enough for both of us. I loved Ethel. '' Critic for The Guardian, Nancy Banks - Smith, discussed the characters ' relationship in 2008, comparing them to the girls written about by Dylan Thomas: "There was always one pretty and pert (Ethel), and always one in glasses (Dot). '' Banks - Smith adds that theirs was "a symbiotic relationship in which the pretty one looks even prettier by contrast and the plain one is popular by proxy. Which is not to say it is not a real and enduring friendship. ''
Their bickering and personality differences were often used for comic effect; however, in episode 248 of the show, scriptwriter Colin Brake notes that viewers were shown a different side to Ethel and Dot 's friendship in the soaps second two - hander episode. The episode aired in July 1987 and featured just the two old ladies (although Dot was Ethel 's junior by twenty years or so). Brake has described the episode as a "mini-play about nostalgia and growing old '', adding that "some viewers found it too unusual, but many others were charmed by the change of pace ''. According to Brake, the episode gave Franklin and Brown the opportunity to show the sadness behind the often comical characters of Ethel and Dot. The episode was written by Charlie Humphreys and directed by Mike Gibbon, a future producer of the show. Author Christine Geraghty has used the episode as an example of the fact that "female conversation is the backbone to traditional soap ''.
Author Dorothy Hobson has discussed the use of older female characters in British soap opera as a means of providing comedy. She compares Ethel and Dot 's function in EastEnders to the trio of Ena Sharples, Minnie Caldwell and Martha Longhurst from Coronation Street with regard to providing humour. She has noted that following Ethel 's retirement from the serial, the production team at EastEnders attempted to replicate Dot and Ethel 's friendship by introducing a number of "' friends ' to fulfill the same function of a female friend for Dot and the series. '' An example of this was the character Lilly Mattock (Barbara Keogh) who appeared between 1998 and 1999. The author goes on to note that Ethel 's role in Dot 's narrative was difficult to replace because "far from being complete stereotypes, their relationships depend on them being long - standing friends with the ability to share stories and reminisce. For the characters to ' work ', there is a need for unspoken intimacy and a shared knowledge for each other 's lives. They carry the internal knowledge of the narratives and share that knowledge with the audience. '' Brown has spoken about the "wonderful rapport '' she had with Gretchen Franklin who played Ethel. She added, "I do miss Ethel, it was great with Dot and Ethel. They did try and stop us working together at one time, but the producer changed and it all went back to where it started. ''
Throughout her time in EastEnders, many of Dot 's scenes have been set in Walford 's launderette, where the character has worked as an assistant for almost the entire duration of her time in EastEnders. Here, Dot was frequently featured with another long - running protagonist, fellow launderette colleague, Pauline Fowler, played by Wendy Richard from 1985 -- 2006. Author Christine Geraghty has discussed the working environment the women inhabited, indicating that because the owner of the launderette is barely present, the "working relationship hinges on the friendships (or otherwise) of the women who work in it ''. As with Ethel, Dot and Pauline 's friendship was often used for comedic purposes; emphasis was placed on their differences, leading to numerous petty squabbles and in 2004 saw them "buried alive '' underneath a collapsed fairground ride, in the midst of a cake - selling war. However, Pauline and Dot were most frequently shown gossiping, reminiscing about the past, or sharing their woes in the launderette. The duo has been described by television personality Paul O'Grady as a "fabulous double - act '': "Dot 's probably Pauline 's one and only confidant. Pauline eventually will break down and tell Dot things that she 'd never tell anybody else. '' On the episode marking the screen death of Pauline on 25 December 2006, Dot remarks to Pauline, "You 're the only real friend I 've got '', in a scene that Tim Teeman of The Times has described as "one of the most moving scenes in a soap (in 2006) ''.
In 1993, Brown decided to quit EastEnders after becoming "discontented '' with the way Dot was portrayed. In 1997 she revealed to the Daily Mirror: "I always felt Dot was one of those characters who should stay the same. She 's a simple creature. There are some people who the same things happen to them again and again. They never learn (...) When I left, there was all that rubbish about it getting too much for me (but) I stopped because I was n't being used very much. I thought, ' It 's a part - time job '. It was n't being written properly. Instead of finding the gossip and passing it on, (Dot was hearing the gossip from others). (Dot) was living on a reputation. (viewers) said to me, ' I loved it when (Dot) had (...) varicose veins. ' I thought: ' What?! That was in 1985, it 's 1993! '. I was getting so tetchy, so I thought I 'd go. I 'd had enough. They were a bit shocked, because apparently there were some good stories coming up. '' Expanding on this in 2008, Brown stated that she "did n't like what they were doing with Dot -- she was meant to spread the gossip. Originally she was a fountain of knowledge then next thing I know, people are telling Dot what had been happening and I thought, ' No, this just wo n't do '. I was very annoyed, I felt like they had completely changed my character. '' The character departed on - screen in August 1993, when Dot moved away from the soap 's setting to live with her son Nick and his family in Gravesend, Kent.
In October 1996, newspapers reported that BBC bosses had approached Brown about reprising her role as Dot Cotton and, according to the Daily Mirror, Brown had been in negotiations with EastEnders for several months prior. Brown is quoted by the paper as saying, "I have always been reluctant to go back because I thought Dot 's character was not being portrayed properly. I thought it had faded. I always said if Dot comes back it must be as Dot. '' Brown secured a deal to return and began filming on - location in Gravesend in February 1997. The episode saw Dot 's former lodger, Nigel Bates (Paul Bradley), visiting Dot to discover that Nick was once again in prison, leaving Dot alone. Her return episode aired in April 1997. Brown has since revealed that she opted to return to EastEnders to raise her profile again. She had originally only intended to return for a 3 - month stint, but was persuaded to stay when a project she had been working on was cancelled. In July 1997, she commented, "I 've decided to stay in EastEnders. They asked me, and in the end I thought: ' Oh well, I might as well. ' Everyone, including Barbara Windsor, Wendy Richard and Adam Woodyatt, was saying: ' Do n't leave '. And people were coming up in the street saying: ' It 's lovely to have you back. ' Anyway, I find playing the old dear quite fun. '' After a 5 - month break, following Dot being held hostage in her flat by the escaped convict friend of her son, Brown returned to filming in October 1997 on a permanent contract.
In 2000, Dot was featured in a storyline about euthanasia, when her oldest friend Ethel, who had terminal cancer, asked her to help her die. The storyline allowed the production team to present all sides of the debate about euthanasia, from the perspective of the sufferer and from the person who is asked to assist in the mercy killing, religious and moral opposition. According to author Dorothy Hobson, "Dot suffered torment as she struggled with her conscience and she tried to resist the request (...) to assist (Ethel) in the ultimate sin ''. In the storyline, Ethel enjoyed the last days of her life and chose her final evening. Assisted by Dot, she took an overdose of her medication and died. Written by Simon Ashton and directed by Francesca Joseph the episode ended with a scene in which Ethel tells a weeping Dot "you 're the best friend I ever had ''. Alternative credit music replaced the typical drum beats and theme tune at the end of the episode. The 1931 song used instead of the usual theme was "Guilty '' by Al Bowlly. Ben Summerskill from The Observer has suggested that Dot 's part in the euthanasia storyline was "one of the most moving dramatic sequences shown in recent years on British TV ''. The episode was voted the most emotional soap death in a Radio Times poll of 4,000 readers in 2006.
The repercussions of the euthanasia for Dot 's character have been described as "extremely serious '' as she suffered from "untold guilt and felt that she needed to be punished for the action. '' The Executive Producer overseeing this storyline, John Yorke, has discussed the storyline in a speech given at the Bishops ' Conference for clergy and other ministers in the Diocese of St Albans: "Dot, as a good Christian, refused to help, until her love for her friend overcame her own fear of damnation. Riddled with an intolerable burden of guilt, she felt there was only one person she could talk to (Jesus) The Dot and Ethel storyline played out in over four months with many similar scenes, to an average audience of 16 million viewers. Dot (...) explored the full panoply of religious belief before coming back to terms with her maker. When Alan Bookbinder took over as head of religious broadcasting at the BBC he described EastEnders for the weeks the Dot and Ethel story ran as ' the best religious programme on television ' and compared (it) to Graham Greene. While we felt a little uncomfortable in such exalted company, what it did show is that handled properly an audience is able to engage in, and relate to profound ethical debate. ''
Deborah Annetts, CEO of the Voluntary Euthanasia Society (VES), has praised the storyline. In 2004 she commented, "It was a sympathetic portrayal. It demonstrated to a lot of people their own experiences. Lots of us have had conversations with someone, particularly our mothers and fathers, where they have said to us: ' If I get really ill, you will end it, wo n't you? ' The Dot / Ethel storyline showed just what that conversation can entail and what happens to the other person after -- the guilt and pain they have to live with. ''
Such was the controversy surrounding this storyline that the University of Glamorgan uses the plot as part of their new approach to the study of British criminal law. Part of the law foundation course involves studying the soap opera and giving students the chance to decide if Dot Cotton 's character is guilty of murder. The storyline is also featured in GCSE Religious Studies textbooks.
In a 2004 plot, Dot was diagnosed with kidney cancer. The programme makers sought advice from health care professionals when devising the storyline, including specialist information nurses from CancerBACUP. Nurse Martin Ledwick said, "We drew on our experience of talking to the thousands of people who call our helpline, to help advise the EastEnders scriptwriters. Many people react to a cancer diagnosis as Dot does in the BBC serial -- with confusion and fear. We also speak to family and friends affected by the illness and those living with continuing uncertainty. EastEnders explores all these issues, and hopefully will help improve people 's understanding of what it 's like to be affected by a cancer diagnosis. ''
According to Macmillan Cancer Support, "Dot 's experience (increased) people 's understanding of the emotional impact of a cancer diagnosis; how the illness affects family and friends; and what it 's like to live with uncertainty. It also (helped) to raise awareness of a comparatively rare cancer and the fact that cancer is a disease most often affecting older people. ''
Brown herself has confessed that she was unhappy with the storyline as she felt playing illness was not productive at her age. Discussing Dot 's reluctance to reveal her illness to anyone, Brown said "(it 's) ironic because I 've played her as a hypochondriac, longing for attention, for 20 years. Now something 's wrong, she does n't want anyone to know. ''
In the Easter 2007 episode, Dot takes an abandoned baby she finds in a church. This was filmed in Kent at Stansted, St. Giles Church in Wormshill, The Ringlestone Inn near Harrietsham and Court Lodge Farm. After being contacted by the child 's Ukrainian mother Anya, Dot offers to care for both of them, however Jim turns Anya in to the authorities for being an illegal immigrant. Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury questioned the plausibility of the storyline, observing: "Babies are n't abandoned in the real world very often. But you can barely cross (Albert) Square (...) without tripping over poor tots who their mothers do n't want. '' Laws also felt that the speed at which the immigration department operated was "amazingly on - the - ball '', when in reality many illegal immigrants "slip through the net ''. The Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen deemed the storyline one of the worst in EastEnders ' history, writing a critical review in which she opined that the use of the infant playing Tomas was tantamount to abuse, and criticised several scenes which saw the baby "screeching until he was red in the face. '' Stephen questioned: "How can the show justify this and, more to the point, how can his real - life mother stand by and do nothing to comfort the poor little mite? ''
In January 2008, Dot became the first soap opera character to be featured in a monologue episode, known as a "single - hander ''. Written by Tony Jordan, the episode features Dot recording a message for Jim, who is in hospital recovering from a stroke. The episode is entitled "Pretty Baby... '', named after the song of the same name by Tony Jackson, which replaced the drumbeats and EastEnders ' theme tune that typically accompanies the end credits of episodes. Brown was nominated in the Best Actress category at the 2009 British Academy Television Awards for her performance in the episode, becoming the first soap actress nominated in the category since 1988, when Jean Alexander was shortlisted for her role as Hilda Ogden in Coronation Street.
According to author Pauline Frommer, Dot has been embraced by the viewing British population as a cultural archetype. Brown has suggested that Dot has universal appeal because everybody knows a person like Dot. In 2009, a poll by magazine Inside Soap named Dot as the UK 's ' greatest gossip ' in a soap opera.
Brown was nominated for the ' Best Actress ' BAFTA award for Dot 's single - hander EastEnders episode in 2009; she became the first soap actress nominated in the category since 1988, when Jean Alexander was shortlisted for her role as Hilda Ogden in Coronation Street. The show 's executive producer, Diederick Santer, described Brown 's BAFTA nomination as his proudest moment of 2009, saying: "I 'm not one to complain to the referee, but it 's beyond me why she did n't win. Week in, week out, she turns out amazing performances. The audience knew it and we knew it. With the greatest respect to the actress who won, you could hear the audience in the Royal Festival Hall that night sigh with disappointment. It was a missed opportunity by BAFTA -- of which I 'm a member -- to connect with a big audience. '' Brown has also won ' Best Actress ' for her role as Dot at the Inside Soap Awards in 2001 and 2004, as well as the ' Outstanding Achievement ' award in 2003, and ' Best Couple ' in 2005 with John Bardon, as Dot and Jim Branning. She and Bardon also won ' Best On - Screen Partnership ' at the British Soap Awards in both 2002 and 2005, while in 2005, Brown won a ' Lifetime Achievement ' award for her role, again at the British Soap Awards. The role also resulted in several award nominations including a ' Most Popular Actress ' nomination at the National Television Awards in 2005, and a ' Best Actress ' nomination at the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards among others. Dot was also voted the 46th best television character in a television poll entitled The 100 Greatest Television Characters.
At the time of the 2005 general election, Labour chiefs feared that an episode of EastEnders in which Dot learned to drive could distract viewers from voting. In the same year, Dot was criticised as revealing an anti-religious bias on the part of the BBC. Dr Indarjit Singh, editor of the Sikh Messenger and patron of the World Congress of Faiths suggested that Dot 's endless quoting from the Bible served to ridicule religion. The character has been cited as an example of anti-Christian bias in the media. The BBC were accused of portraying Christians as old - fashioned in 2008 after an episode aired in which Dot asked a gay, male couple to stop kissing. The BBC responded, "EastEnders aims to reflect real life, and this means including and telling stories about characters from many different backgrounds, faiths, religions and sexualities. '' In a report to the BBC 's Board of Governors in July 2004 regarding religion, Dot was used as an example of how religion can be portrayed as stereotypical "out - of - date and occasionally offensive '' in drama and entertainment output, that Christian figures are highlighted because of their faith "rather than seen as normal people who also have a religious belief ''. It was suggested that some Christians think Dot "is made deliberately unappealing to audiences by her eccentric traits and hypocritical behaviour ''. However, it was also suggested that others think she is convincing.
Brown 's single - hander episode of EastEnders received much critical acclaim. The Guardian ' Nancy Banks - Smith deemed Brown possibly the only member of the cast with the exception of Barbara Windsor (Peggy Mitchell) capable of carrying such a monologue. Robert Hanks for The Independent wrote that "I do n't ever remember hearing anybody on a soap talk like this before. I mean, like a real person, with real feelings, such as self - pity and a desperate urge for self - preservation. Brown conveyed the seedy gloom of it all beautifully, as well. '' Conversely, Tim Teeman posed the question in The Times: "I know she 's a national institution and June Brown plays her like a dream, but was last night 's Dot Cotton extravaganza really that great? Or even necessary? '' Teeman opined that: "Quite rightly, the producers want to eke as much gold out of the character and actress as possible: both are fantastic. But this was much - loved character overkill. '' He deemed Dot a "soap icon '', however he also assessed that:
The Daily Telegraph 's Gerard O'Donovan agreed that "June Brown, as Dot, was mesmerising '', but was similarly critical of the episode as a whole, concluding: "Overall (...) the feeling could n't be avoided that in the greater scheme of things this was a fuss over nothing. Had it been a swan song, it would have been a worthy one. But doubtless Dot will be out and about again tonight, fag in hand, quoting from the Good Book. Enjoyable as this Albert Square indulgence was, I suspect that most fans will be hoping this one - hander remains a one - off. '' Leigh Holmwood for The Guardian suggested that viewers may have agreed with O'Donovan's assessment, highlighting the fact that the episode received only 8.7 million viewers, compared to 9.4 million watching EastEnders the previous week. A 2003 episode centred around Dot also resulted in a notable ratings slump. The New Year episode, which detailed her childhood evacuation to the countryside, received just 8.1 million viewers, compared with 12.2 m the previous evening and 16m on Christmas Day. Prior to this, however, a 2002 two - hander episode featuring just Dot and Sonia Jackson (Natalie Cassidy) was watched by 11.5 million viewers, with an almost 60 % share of viewers in the timeslot.
The character of Dot Branning has been spoofed in the cartoon sketch show 2DTV. She was also impersonated by Alistair McGowan in his television series Big Impression. As part of the sketch, Dot and her son Nick were morphed into a version of the sitcom duo Steptoe and Son. McGowan stated in 2001 that Dot was his favourite impression, because he "looks a bit like her ''.
Dot 's old - fashioned style of dress has been likened to the clothing collection of Prada 's designer, Miuccia Prada. Dot has been said to have inspired clothing, hairstyles and has been quoted by various fashion professionals as a style icon. She has also inspired catwalk themes, such as that of aspiring designer Hollie Luxton in 2007, who stated, "I wanted to capture the nostalgia of the bygone days and play with the idea of clothing coming out of the wash misshapen and faded. ''
Dot 's long - suffering luckless life has also led to her being labelled as a gay icon by Tim Lusher of the Evening Standard. The monthly Dot Cotton Club, a gay club night in Cambridge, is named in her honour.
Dot is a notable smoker on British television as she regularly appears on - screen smoking. The character is so synonymous with smoking that the term "Dot Cotton syndrome '' is used within the health industry to: "describe the elderly population who continue to smoke heavily without registering the health problems they are or will soon suffer from, seeing it as their only pleasure left in life ''.
Impressionist Francine Lewis performed an impression of Dot Cotton in the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent. During 2003, a promotional advertisement for the BBC featuring a character, Fizz, from the children 's television programme The Tweenies pulling off a mask and morphing into Dot received complaints. Parents complained that their children were having nightmares and the BBC subsequently moved back the screening times.
In the BBC drama Line of Duty one of the prominent detectives in series 1 -- 3, Matthew Cottan, is nicknamed ' Dot '.
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when was real housewives of beverly hills season 8 filmed | The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills - wikipedia
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills (abbreviated RHOBH) is an American reality television series that premiered on October 14, 2010 on Bravo. Developed as the sixth installment of The Real Housewives franchise following The Real Housewives of Orange County, New York City, Atlanta, New Jersey and D.C., it has aired eight seasons and focuses on the personal and professional lives of several women residing in Beverly Hills, California.
The series originally focused on Taylor Armstrong, Camille Grammer, Adrienne Maloof, Kim Richards, Kyle Richards and Lisa Vanderpump. The cast currently consists of Kyle Richards, Vanderpump, Lisa Rinna, Erika Girardi, Dorit Kemsley and Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave. Of the original housewives, Grammer left after the second season, Armstrong and Maloof left after the third, and Kim Richards left after the fifth. The remaining housewives joined in later seasons: Rinna in the fifth, Girardi in the sixth, Kemsley in the seventh and Mellencamp Arroyave in the eighth. Other housewives include Brandi Glanville (seasons 3 -- 5), Yolanda Hadid (seasons 3 -- 6), Carlton Gebbia (season 4), Joyce Giraud de Ohoven (season 4), Eileen Davidson (seasons 5 -- 7), and Kathryn Edwards (season 6).
The success of the show has resulted in the conception of the spin - off Vanderpump Rules.
The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills was announced in March 2010 as the sixth installment of The Real Housewives franchise. The first season premiered on October 14, 2010, and starred Kim Richards, Kyle Richards, Adrienne Maloof, Lisa Vanderpump, Camille Grammer and Taylor Armstrong. The series received a 2011 Critics Choice Award for best reality series.
The second season premiered on September 5, 2011, with Brandi Glanville and Dana Wilkey introduced as a friend of the housewives. The second season was re-edited after the death of Taylor Armstrong 's husband, Russell Armstrong, who committed suicide on August 15, 2011. Grammer left the main cast after the second season.
The third season aired on November 5, 2012. Glanville was upgraded to main housewife and Yolanda Foster was added to the series. Marisa Zanuck and Faye Resnick were introduced as a friend of the housewives and Grammer held the same title. Adrienne Maloof did not return for the fourth season after she did n't attend the season three reunion.
The fourth season premiered on November 4, 2013 with Carlton Gebbia and Joyce Giraud de Ohoven joining the cast. While Armstrong was demoted to a guest role. Giraud and Gebbia were not asked after the fourth season.
The fifth season premiered on November 18, 2014 featuring Lisa Rinna and Eileen Davidson as the new housewives. Maloof, Grammer and Armstrong appeared in the season as guests. Kim Richards and Glanville were not asked back for the sixth season as regular cast members.
Erika Girardi and Kathryn Edwards joined the show 's sixth season which premiered on December 1, 2015. Kim Richards, Grammer, Armstrong, Resnick, Maloof and Glanville returned in guest appearances, alongside Bethenny Frankel of The Real Housewives of New York City. The season served as the final season for Hadid and Edwards.
The seventh season premiered on December 6, 2016 with new cast member, Dorit Kemsley. Eden Sassoon joined the show in a recurring capacity whilst Kim Richards and Grammar made regular appearances throughout the season. Davidson and Sassoon left the series after the seventh season.
The eighth season premiered on December 19, 2017, with the addition of Teddi Mellencamp Arroyave. Grammer returned in a friend of capacity, while Davidson, Resnick and Maloof appeared as guests.
In April 2018, the show was renewed for a ninth season.
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what is the main purpose of the preamble of the u.s. constitution | Preamble to the United States Constitution - wikipedia
The Preamble to the United States Constitution is a brief introductory statement of the Constitution 's fundamental purposes and guiding principles. It states in general terms, and courts have referred to it as reliable evidence of the Founding Fathers ' intentions regarding the Constitution 's meaning and what they hoped the Constitution would achieve.
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.
The Preamble was placed in the Constitution during the last days of the Constitutional Convention by the Committee on Style, which wrote its final draft, with Gouverneur Morris leading the effort. It was not proposed or discussed on the floor of the convention beforehand. The initial wording of the preamble did not refer to the people of the United States, rather, it referred to people of the various states, which was the norm. In earlier documents, including the 1778 Treaty of Alliance with France, the Articles of Confederation, and the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognizing American independence, the word "people '' was not used, and the phrase the United States was followed immediately by a listing of the states, from north to south. The change was made out of necessity, as the Constitution provided that whenever the popularly elected ratifying conventions of nine states gave their approval, it would go into effect for those nine, irrespective of whether any of the remaining states ratified.
The Preamble serves solely as an introduction, and does not assign powers to the federal government, nor does it provide specific limitations on government action. Due to the Preamble 's limited nature, no court has ever used it as a decisive factor in case adjudication, except as regards frivolous litigation.
The courts have shown interest in any clues they can find in the Preamble regarding the Constitution 's meaning. Courts have developed several techniques for interpreting the meaning of statutes and these are also used to interpret the Constitution. As a result, the courts have said that interpretive techniques that focus on the exact text of a document should be used in interpreting the meaning of the Constitution. Balanced against these techniques are those that focus more attention on broader efforts to discern the meaning of the document from more than just the wording; the Preamble is also useful for these efforts to identify the "spirit '' of the Constitution.
Additionally, when interpreting a legal document, courts are usually interested in understanding the document as its authors did and their motivations for creating it; as a result, the courts have cited the Preamble for evidence of the history, intent and meaning of the Constitution as it was understood by the Founders. Although revolutionary in some ways, the Constitution maintained many common law concepts (such as habeas corpus, trial by jury, and sovereign immunity), and courts deem that the Founders ' perceptions of the legal system that the Constitution created (i.e., the interaction between what it changed and what it kept from the British legal system) are uniquely important because of the authority "the People '' invested them with to create it. Along with evidence of the understandings of the men who debated and drafted the Constitution at the Constitutional Convention, the courts are also interested in the way that government officials have put into practice the Constitution 's provisions, particularly early government officials, although the courts reserve to themselves the final authority to determine the Constitution 's meaning. However, this focus on historical understandings of the Constitution is sometimes in tension with the changed circumstances of modern society from the late 18th century society that drafted the Constitution; courts have ruled that the Constitution must be interpreted in light of these changed circumstances. All of these considerations of the political theory behind the Constitution have prompted the Supreme Court to articulate a variety of special rules of construction and principles for interpreting it. For example, the Court 's rendering of the purposes behind the Constitution have led it to express a preference for broad interpretations of individual freedoms.
An example of the way courts utilize the Preamble is Ellis v. City of Grand Rapids. Substantively, the case was about eminent domain. The City of Grand Rapids wanted to use eminent domain to force landowners to sell property in the city identified as "blighted '', and convey the property to owners that would develop it in ostensibly beneficial ways: in this case, to St. Mary 's Hospital, a Catholic organization. This area of substantive constitutional law is governed by the Fifth Amendment, which is understood to require that property acquired via eminent domain must be put to a "public use ''. In deciding whether the proposed project constituted a "public use '', the court pointed to the Preamble 's reference to "promot (ing) the general Welfare '' as evidence that "(t) he health of the people was in the minds of our forefathers ''. "(T) he concerted effort for renewal and expansion of hospital and medical care centers, as a part of our nation 's system of hospitals, is as a public service and use within the highest meaning of such terms. Surely this is in accord with an objective of the United States Constitution: ' * * * promote the general Welfare. ' ''
On the other hand, courts will not interpret the Preamble to give the government powers that are not articulated elsewhere in the Constitution. United States v. Kinnebrew Motor Co. is an example of this. In that case, the defendants were a car manufacturer and dealership indicted for a criminal violation of the National Industrial Recovery Act. The Congress passed the statute in order to cope with the Great Depression, and one of its provisions purported to give to the President authority to fix "the prices at which new cars may be sold ''. The dealership, located in Oklahoma City, had sold an automobile to a customer (also from Oklahoma City) for less than the price for new cars fixed pursuant to the Act. Substantively, the case was about whether the transaction in question constituted "interstate commerce '' that Congress could regulate pursuant to the Commerce Clause. Although the government argued that the scope of the Commerce Clause included this transaction, it also argued that the Preamble 's statement that the Constitution was created to "promote the general Welfare '' should be understood to permit Congress to regulate transactions such as the one in this case, particularly in the face of an obvious national emergency like the Great Depression. The court, however, dismissed this argument as erroneous and insisted that the only relevant issue was whether the transaction that prompted the indictment actually constituted "interstate commerce '' under the Supreme Court 's precedents that interpreted the scope of the Commerce Clause.
The Preamble 's reference to the "United States of America '' has been interpreted over the years to explain the nature of the governmental entity that the Constitution created (i.e., the federal government). In contemporary international law, the world consists of sovereign states (or "sovereign nations '' in modern equivalent). A state is said to be "sovereign, '' if any of its ruling inhabitants are the supreme authority over it; the concept is distinct from mere land - title or "ownership. '' While each state was originally recognized as sovereign unto itself, the Supreme Court held that the "United States of America '' consists of only one sovereign nation with respect to foreign affairs and international relations; the individual states may not conduct foreign relations. Although the Constitution expressly delegates to the federal government only some of the usual powers of sovereign governments (such as the powers to declare war and make treaties), all such powers inherently belong to the federal government as the country 's representative in the international community.
Domestically, the federal government 's sovereignty means that it may perform acts such as entering into contracts or accepting bonds, which are typical of governmental entities but not expressly provided for in the Constitution or laws. Similarly, the federal government, as an attribute of sovereignty, has the power to enforce those powers that are granted to it (e.g., the power to "establish Post Offices and Post Roads '' includes the power to punish those who interfere with the postal system so established). The Court has recognized the federal government 's supreme power over those limited matters entrusted to it. Thus, no state may interfere with the federal government 's operations as though its sovereignty is superior to the federal government 's (discussed more below); for example, states may not interfere with the federal government 's near absolute discretion to sell its own real property, even when that real property is located in one or another state. The federal government exercises its supreme power not as a unitary entity, but instead via the three coordinate branches of the government (legislative, executive, and judicial), each of which has its own prescribed powers and limitations under the Constitution. In addition, the doctrine of separation of powers functions as a limitation on each branch of the federal government 's exercise of sovereign power.
One aspect of the American system of government is that, while the rest of the world now views the United States as one country, domestically American constitutional law recognizes a federation of state governments separate from (and not subdivisions of) the federal government, each of which is sovereign over its own affairs. Sometimes, the Supreme Court has even analogized the States to being foreign countries to each other to explain the American system of State sovereignty. However, each state 's sovereignty is limited by the U.S. Constitution, which is the supreme law of both the United States as a nation and each state; in the event of a conflict, a valid federal law controls. As a result, although the federal government is (as discussed above) recognized as sovereign and has supreme power over those matters within its control, the American constitutional system also recognizes the concept of "State sovereignty, '' where certain matters are susceptible to government regulation, but only at the State and not the federal level. For example, although the federal government prosecutes crimes against the United States (such as treason, or interference with the postal system), the general administration of criminal justice is reserved to the States. Notwithstanding sometimes broad statements by the Supreme Court regarding the "supreme '' and "exclusive '' powers the State and Federal governments exercise, the Supreme Court and State courts have also recognized that much of their power is held and exercised concurrently.
The phrase "People of the United States '' has sometimes been understood to mean "citizens. '' This approach reasons that, if the political community speaking for itself in the Preamble ("We the People '') includes only citizens, by negative implication it specifically excludes non-citizens in some fashion. It has also been construed to mean something like "all under the sovereign jurisdiction and authority of the United States. '' The phrase has been construed as affirming that the national government created by the Constitution derives its sovereignty from the people, (whereas "United Colonies '' had identified external monarchical sovereignty) as well as confirming that the government under the Constitution was intended to govern and protect "the people '' directly, as one society, instead of governing only the states as political units. The Court has also understood this language to mean that the sovereignty of the government under the U.S. Constitution is superior to that of the States. Stated in negative terms, the Preamble has been interpreted as meaning that the Constitution was not the act of sovereign and independent states.
The Constitution claims to be an act of "We the People. '' However, because it represents a general social contract, there are limits on the ability of individual citizens to pursue legal claims allegedly arising out of the Constitution. For example, if a law was enacted which violated the Constitution, not just anybody could challenge the statute 's constitutionality in court; instead, only an individual who was negatively affected by the unconstitutional statute could bring such a challenge. For example, a person claiming certain benefits that are created by a statute can not then challenge, on constitutional grounds, the administrative mechanism that awards them. These same principles apply to corporate entities, and can implicate the doctrine of exhaustion of remedies.
In this same vein, courts will not answer hypothetical questions about the constitutionality of a statute. The judiciary does not have the authority to invalidate unconstitutional laws solely because they are unconstitutional, but may declare a law unconstitutional if its operation would injure a person 's interests. For example, creditors who lose some measure of what they are owed when a bankrupt 's debts are discharged can not claim injury, because Congress ' power to enact bankruptcy laws is also in the Constitution and inherent in it is the ability to declare certain debts valueless. Similarly, while a person may not generally challenge as unconstitutional a law that they are not accused of violating, once charged, a person may challenge the law 's validity, even if the challenge is unrelated to the circumstances of the crime.
The Preamble has been used to confirm that the Constitution was made for, and is binding only in, the United States of America. For example, in Casement v. Squier, a serviceman in China during World War II was convicted of murder in the United States Court for China. After being sent to prison in the State of Washington, he filed a writ of habeas corpus with the local federal court, claiming he had been unconstitutionally put on trial without a jury. The court held that, since his trial was conducted by an American court and was, by American standards, basically fair, he was not entitled to the specific constitutional right of trial by jury while overseas.
Since the Preamble declares the Constitution to have been created by the "People of the United States '', "there may be places within the jurisdiction of the United States that are no part of the Union. '' The following examples help demonstrate the meaning of this distinction:
The phrase "to form a more perfect Union '' has been construed as referring to the shift to the Constitution from the Articles of Confederation. The contemporary meaning of the word "perfect '' was complete, finished, fully informed, confident, or certain. The phrase has been interpreted in various ways throughout history based on the context of the times. For example, shortly after the Civil War and the ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court said that the "Union '' was made "more perfect '' by the creation of a federal government with enough power to act directly upon citizens, rather than a government with narrowly limited power that could act on citizens only indirectly through the states, e.g., by imposing taxes. Also, the institution was created as a government over the States and people, not an agreement (union) between the States.
Later, the phrase came to mean the continual process of improvement of the country.
"To know what has come before is to be armed against despair. If the men and women of the past, with all their flaws and limitations and ambitions and appetites, could press on through ignorance and superstition, racism and sexism, selfishness and greed, to create a freer, stronger nation, then perhaps we, too, can right wrongs and take another step toward that most enchanting and elusive destinations: a more perfect Union. ''
The phrase has also been interpreted to support the federal supremacy clause and that state nullification of any federal law, dissolution of the Union, or secession from it, are not contemplated by the Constitution.
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when does the newest mission impossible come out | Mission: Impossible -- Fallout - wikipedia
Mission: Impossible -- Fallout is a 2018 American action spy film written, produced and directed by Christopher McQuarrie. It is the sixth installment in the Mission: Impossible film series, and the second film to be directed by McQuarrie, after Rogue Nation (2015), making him the first person to direct more than one film in the franchise. The cast includes Tom Cruise, Ving Rhames, Simon Pegg, Rebecca Ferguson, Sean Harris, Michelle Monaghan and Alec Baldwin, all of whom reprise their roles from previous films, along with Henry Cavill, Vanessa Kirby and Angela Bassett, who join the franchise. In the film, Ethan Hunt (Cruise) and his team must track down stolen plutonium while being monitored by a CIA agent (Cavill) after a mission goes awry.
Talks for a sixth Mission: Impossible film began prior to the release of Rogue Nation in 2015. The film was officially announced in November 2015, with McQuarrie confirming his return as writer and director, as well as producer alongside Cruise, the seventh collaboration between the pair. Filming took place from April 2017 to March 2018, in Paris, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Arab Emirates.
Mission: Impossible -- Fallout had its world premiere in Paris on July 12, 2018 and was released in the United States on July 27, 2018. It was the first in the series to be released in RealD 3D, and also had a limited IMAX release. The film has grossed over $540 million worldwide, making it the tenth highest - grossing film of 2018. It received universal acclaim for its direction, story, acting, action sequences and stunts, with many critics calling it the best installment in the franchise, and some regarding it as one of the greatest action films of all time.
Two years after Solomon Lane 's capture, the remains of his organization "the Syndicate '' are now a terrorist group named "the Apostles ''. Ethan Hunt is assigned to intercept three stolen plutonium cores in Berlin before the Apostles can sell them to fundamentalist John Lark. He joins Benji Dunn and Luther Stickell for the mission, but they fail when Luther is taken hostage and Ethan chooses to save his life, allowing the Apostles to take the plutonium. The team capture nuclear weapons expert Nils Debruuk and learn that he built three portable nuclear weapons for the Apostles.
Furious at the IMF 's failure to secure the plutonium, CIA Director Erica Sloane instructs Special Activities Division operative August Walker to shadow Ethan as he attempts to retrieve the plutonium. Ethan and Walker infiltrate a party in Paris where Lark is believed to be buying the cores from an arms dealer known as White Widow. They track a man whom they suspect to be Lark and engage in a brutal fight with him. Despite their combined efforts to fight, the man gains the upper hand until he is killed when Ilsa Faust intervenes just as he is about to kill Hunt. Ethan impersonates Lark and warns the White Widow that the Apostles are trying to kill her. Walker passes doctored evidence on to Sloane suggesting that Hunt has always been Lark and the man killed by Ilsa was a decoy.
To secure the plutonium, White Widow tasks Ethan with extracting Lane from an armoured convoy moving through Paris. She provides one of the plutonium cores as a payment in kind for the mission. Ethan and Walker attack the convoy and lead the police and the White Widow 's men on a chase across Paris while Benji and Luther secure Lane. Ilsa reappears and attempts to kill Lane to prove her loyalty to MI6. The mission to extract Lane is successful and White Widow instructs the team to deliver Lane to London.
At a safehouse in London, IMF Secretary Alan Hunley confronts Ethan about being John Lark. Ethan denies it and incapacitates him to continue the mission. The team trick Walker into admitting he is the real Lark, Walker is working with Lane, and the Apostles as part of a plot to acquire the plutonium and have Ethan branded a nuclear terrorist. The IMF team inform Sloane, who instructs a CIA unit to detain everyone, but the CIA unit has been compromised by the Apostles and Walker orders them to attack instead. After Walker kills Hunley and escapes, Ethan chases him across the city, but is unable to apprehend him. Walker threatens the life of Ethan 's estranged wife Julia Meade and departs for a medical camp in Kashmir with Lane.
The team deduces that Lane plans to detonate the two remaining nuclear weapons over the Siachen Glacier, contaminating the water supply of Pakistan, India, and China; with a third of its population affected, the world will descend into anarchy from which Lane hopes a new world order will emerge. Ethan finds Walker has arranged for Julia to be assigned to the medical camp, increasing the pressure on him. Lane activates the weapons and gives the detonator to Walker. Ethan follows him in a helicopter, leaving Benji, Luther, and Ilsa to find the weapons. Luther and Julia find the first bomb and work to understand its mechanism, but they are unable to defuse it without the detonator. Ilsa and Benji locate the second weapon and subdue Lane. After a lengthy chase Ethan uses his helicopter to ram Walker 's aircraft out of the sky. The two fight on a cliff edge and Walker is killed. Ethan gains the detonator, allowing Luther, Ilsa, and Benji to deactivate the bombs.
In the aftermath, the remaining two cores are safely recovered. Sloane hands Lane over to MI6 through the White Widow, earning Ilsa 's exoneration. Ethan recovers from his injuries with Julia 's help while the rest of the team celebrate with him.
On May 23, 2015, The Tracking Board reported that Paramount Pictures was developing a sixth Mission: Impossible film, with Tom Cruise, J.J. Abrams, David Ellison, and Dana Goldberg returning to produce, along with Don Granger and Matt Grimm as executive producers, and Elizabeth Raposo overseeing development. On July 28, 2015, Cruise confirmed on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart that a sixth film was already being developed, and told Jon Stewart that the filming would "probably '' commence in summer 2016. On August 2, 2015, Paramount executive Rob Moore told Variety that the sequel was already in the works, stating that they were "very happy to be developing this movie with Tom, '' and "there has to be another movie. '' On November 19, 2015, it was announced that Paramount had again hired Christopher McQuarrie to write the film, while it was possible that he would also direct again, and the studio was moving fast, with plans to begin shooting in August 2016. On November 30, 2015, McQuarrie confirmed through his Twitter account that he would be back for directing duty as well, and also produce the film along with Cruise. On December 8, 2015, Showbiz411 confirmed that the fifth film 's female lead, Rebecca Ferguson, would return for the sequel.
On August 19, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Paramount had halted pre-production on the film due to a dispute over salary between Cruise and the studio, as Cruise wanted to be paid equal to or more his fee for the Universal Studios film The Mummy. On September 16, The Hollywood Reporter confirmed that Cruise 's dispute with the studio had been resolved, and production would now begin in spring 2017. In November, Jeremy Renner -- who portrayed William Brandt in Ghost Protocol and Rogue Nation -- stated that he was unsure if he would be part of the sixth film, due to scheduling conflicts with Marvel Studios ' Avengers: Infinity War (2018). Renner ultimately did not return for the sixth film.
In February, McQuarrie revealed that the film would include more backstory to Ethan Hunt 's personal life. On June 13, 2017, Michelle Monaghan was announced to again play Hunt 's wife Julia Meade.
Filming was slated to start in Paris on April 10, 2017. Other locations include the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Norway. Filming officially began on April 8. Some of the filming also took place in New Zealand in July 2017. The municipality of Forsand in Norway allowed the closing of Preikestolen for a time in autumn for the film 's shoot; only crew members and cast were allowed to approach the mountain for nine consecutive days. They also were allowed up to 50 helicopter landings per day.
In August 2017, Cruise injured his right leg on the London set during filming. Following the accident, the studio announced it would halt production for at least nine weeks in order for Cruise 's broken ankle and other injuries to heal, but released a statement saying that they would be keeping the July 2018 release date for the film. The injury resulted in a cost of around $80 million for the studio, because they had to pay the cast and crew for the eight - week hiatus so they would not take another job. However, the injury and subsequent costs were offset by insurance, and did not count against the film 's final budget. Filming resumed in early October 2017, with Cruise spotted on the set seven weeks after his initial injury, and two weeks earlier than initially planned.
Reshoots for Cavill 's Justice League coincided with the schedule for Fallout, for which he had grown a mustache which he was contracted to keep while filming. While McQuarrie initially gave the producers of Justice League permission to have Cavill shave the mustache in exchange for the $3 million it would cost to shut down production on Fallout and then digitally fill the mustache in, executives from Paramount rejected the idea. Justice League 's VFX team was then forced to use special effects to digitally remove the mustache in post-production.
On January 25, 2018, the title was revealed to be Mission: Impossible -- Fallout. Filming concluded in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) on March 25, 2018. Production in the UAE included filming of a High Altitude Low Opening (HALO) jump scene with Cruise. The scene required Cruise and the crew to train on a ground - based vertical wind tunnel, and then use a C - 17 military aircraft to make over one hundred jumps from around 25,000 feet (7,600 m) to end up with three takes that McQuarrie wanted for the film. As the scene was to be set near sunset, they could only make one jump a day to try to get each shot. One of the biggest challenges for the visual effects team was replacing the Abu Dhabi desert with Paris, which is where the jump takes place in the film. Artists re-created the Grand Palais des Champs - Élysées using reference imagery, Lidar scans and photogrammetry from drone footage that was taken above the building.
The musical score for Mission: Impossible -- Fallout was composed by Lorne Balfe. Balfe was confirmed by McQuarrie to be the composer for the film in April 2018, replacing the previous composer Joe Kraemer.
The score has been applauded by some critics for being "action - packed '' and its balance between heaviness and moody reveries; some also considered it being too "Nolan-esque '', comparing it to scores by Hans Zimmer (particularly The Dark Knight Rises). The score implements the use of percussion, snares and bongos to create a jaunty staccato momentum.
The digital album was released through Paramount Music on July 14, 2018. The physical soundtrack will be released later in the month by La - La Land Records.
All music composed by Lorne Balfe.
Mission: Impossible -- Fallout was released in the United States and 36 other countries on July 27, 2018, by Paramount Pictures in RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D, and is scheduled for August 31, 2018 in China. The film premiered in Paris on July 12, 2018.
The first trailer was released on February 4, 2018, during Super Bowl LII, and a second one on May 16, 2018. Marketing spent a total of $140 million on global promotion and advertisements.
As of August 28, 2018, Mission: Impossible -- Fallout has grossed $195.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $344.8 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $540.7 million, against a production budget of $178 million.
In the United States and Canada, Fallout was released alongside Teen Titans Go! To the Movies, and was projected to gross $48 -- 65 million in its opening weekend, with some estimates going as high as $75 million. It opened in 4,386 theaters, the most ever for the franchise and the seventh - widest release all - time. The film made $6 million from Thursday night previews (including $1 million from IMAX screenings), the highest of the series, a record for Cruise, and a 66 % increase from Rogue Nation 's $4 million. It went on to debut to $61.2 million, the best of the series and the second - highest of Cruise 's career. It made $35 million in its second weekend to remain in first, and marked the best sophomore frame of the franchise. The film made $20 million in its third weekend, finishing second behind newcomer The Meg.
In other territories, the film was projected to debut to $75 -- 80 million from 36 countries, for an estimated total global opening of around $135 million. It made $15 million on its first day, including $2.8 million in South Korea. The film ended up overperforming, debuting to $92 million overseas for a worldwide total of $153.5 million. Its largest markets were South Korea ($24.9 million), the United Kingdom ($9.5 million) and India ($8.2 million). By its third weekend of release, the largest markets outside the US were: South Korea ($46.4 million), the UK ($22.4 million), India ($13.5 million), Taiwan ($11.9 million), Mexico ($10.8 million), Brazil ($9.6 million) and the UAE ($6.4 million).
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 97 % based on 338 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Fast, sleek, and fun, Mission: Impossible -- Fallout lives up to the ' impossible ' part of its name by setting yet another high mark for insane set pieces in a franchise full of them. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 86 out of 100, based on 60 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' Audiences polled by PostTrak gave the film an 84 % overall positive score and a 65 % "definite recommend, '' while CinemaScore reported filmgoers gave it an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, the highest - ever for the series.
Variety 's Peter Debruge called the film the series ' most exciting installment to date, saying, "McQuarrie clearly believes in creating coherent set pieces: His combat scenes are tense, muscular, and clean, shot and edited in such a way that the spatial geography makes sense. '' David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a grade of "A '' and called it one of the best action films ever, writing "He 's only Tom Cruise because nobody else is willing to be -- or maybe he 's only Tom Cruise so that nobody else has to be. Either way, Fallout is the film he 's always promised us, and it is worth the wait. '' Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Nashawaty also gave the film an "A '' grade, commenting on Cruise that "He 's still Hollywood 's hungriest movie star '', with the series getting "better, twistier and more deliriously fun with each installment ''. George Simpson of The Express complimented "the action is brutal and gut - punching, the pacing heart - pumping and the stakes so high it 's gasp - inducing at times, '' adding, "Fallout is an improvement on all the previous films ' failings, drawing together all the best aspects of them; simultaneously giving off that classic vibe of the original while never being afraid to continually evolve; '' he gave the film five out of five stars. The Telegraph 's Tim Robey summed up the film as "spectacular and eye - popping, '' deeming it "the blockbuster of the summer '' with "a pleasingly sinuous plot, '' and calling the film and its series a "Bond - like franchise ''; he also rated the film five out of five stars.
Robert Abele of TheWrap described Cruise as an "evergreen movie star with the daredevil heart of a stuntman '' and that he "puts every ounce of effort he can into the long, hard work of maintaining a blockbuster franchise. '' The Hollywood Reporter 's Todd McCarthy praised director Christopher McQuarrie, saying that with Mission: Impossible - Fallout he "tops what he did with Cruise three years ago, '' and also singled out Vanessa Kirby for playing her character with "a mix of elegance and frisky abandon. '' J.R. Kinnard of PopMatters wrote, "Though it lacks the gritty humanity of something like George Miller 's Mad Max: Fury Road (2015), Mission: Impossible -- Fallout is no less impressive in its dedication to character - driven action and practical special effects. It 's a dazzling, non-stop thriller that 's sure to become an instant action classic. '' Screen Daily 's Tim Grierson wrote "Tom Cruise is on fighting form in this thrilling franchise topper... (he is) ageless, riveting and seemingly unstoppable, '' further adding that "the sixth film in the series is among the most outstanding, delivering a near - exhausting amount of stupendous action sequences paired with deft character drama and the requisite life - or - death stakes. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film three out of five stars, saying "there is n't as much (humor) in the dialogue as before, '' but added, "Crashes and petrolhead spills are what this franchise is reasonably expected to deliver. And this is what it cheerfully does. ''
Sight & Sound 's Nick Pinkerton wrote "A strong contender for the most consistently cinematic franchise of the last 25 years, the Mission: Impossible films also offer a case study in the idea of the actor as auteur, with Tom Cruise continuing to present himself as a fearless screen immortal in Fallout. ''
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how old do you have to be to get your licence in america | List of countries by minimum Driving age - wikipedia
The minimum driving age is the minimum age at which a person may obtain a driver 's licence to lawfully drive a motor vehicle on public roads. That age is determined by and for each jurisdiction and is most commonly set at 18 years of age, but learner drivers may be permitted on the road at an earlier age under supervision. Before reaching the minimum age for a driver 's licence or anytime afterwards, the person wanting the licence would normally be tested for driving ability and knowledge of road rules before being issued with a licence, provided he or she is above the minimum driving age. Countries with the lowest driving ages (17 and below) are Canada, El Salvador, Iceland, Israel, India, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, the United Kingdom (Mainland), United States and Zimbabwe. In several jurisdictions in the United States and Canada, drivers can be as young as 14.
Most jurisdictions recognise driver 's licences issued by another jurisdiction, which may result in a young person who obtains a licence in a jurisdiction with a low minimum driving age being permitted to drive in a jurisdiction which normally has a higher driving age.
The minimum age may vary depending on vehicle type. This list refers to the minimum driving age for a motor vehicle with a maximum authorized mass not exceeding 3,500 kg and designed and constructed for the carriage of no more than eight passengers in addition to the driver (not including a trailer).
16 for motorcycles
16 (mopeds and tractors)
16 (All other states and territories)
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where did the columbus blue jackets get their name | Columbus Blue Jackets - Wikipedia
The Columbus Blue Jackets are a professional ice hockey team based in Columbus, Ohio. They are members of the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL).
The Blue Jackets were founded as an expansion team in 2000. The team qualified for the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 2009.
The Blue Jackets ' name and logos are inspired by Ohio 's Civil War history. The Blue Jackets play their home games at Nationwide Arena in downtown Columbus, which opened in 2000. They are affiliated with the Cleveland Monsters of the AHL.
Prior to the establishment of the Blue Jackets, the last NHL team in the state of Ohio was the Cleveland Barons, who played from 1976 to 1978. In Columbus, the Blue Jackets replaced the Columbus Chill of the ECHL, who played in the city from 1991 to 1999. The Chill played at the Ohio Expo Center Coliseum where they had an 83 - game sellout streak, which was a minor league hockey record at the time.
In November 1996, five investors formed a partnership called Columbus Hockey Limited, who then submitted an application and a $100,000 fee to the NHL office. The voters of Columbus were considering a referendum to build a publicly financed arena, a major step toward approval of their NHL bid. When League Commissioner Gary Bettman visited Columbus to meet with the community 's leaders about the franchise proposal, there was concern that the voters might not pass the needed referendum. The civic leaders told Bettman that they would not be willing to foot the bill for the team if the referendum failed. However, just after the meeting adjourned, John H. McConnell (one of those who entered the bid) privately guaranteed Bettman that an arena would be built, referendum or not.
Columbus ' hopes for the bid dimmed when the May referendum failed. However, Nationwide announced on May 31, 1997, that it would finance the $150 - million arena. Subsequently, on June 25, 1997, the NHL announced that Columbus would receive a new franchise. Afterwards a "Name the Team '' contest was held with the help from Wendy 's throughout central Ohio during the month of August 1997. Out of 14,000 submitted entries, the franchise with help from the NHL narrowed the 14,000 entries down to 10 names. Then with the information received from owner McConnell)) regarding Columbus ' history, the League and the franchise narrowed the list of potential names down to two -- Blue Jackets and Justice. The former, which referenced Ohio 's contributions to the American Civil War, was eventually announced as the team name in November.
On June 23, 2000, the NHL 's two newest teams, the Blue Jackets and the Minnesota Wild, took part in the 2000 NHL Expansion Draft in Calgary, Alberta. Under the draft 's rules, 26 of the NHL 's active 28 teams were allowed to protect one goaltender, five defensemen, and nine forwards, or two goaltenders, three defensemen, and seven forwards. The Atlanta Thrashers and Nashville Predators both had their full rosters protected because they were the two newest teams, only being in existence for one and two years, respectively. Both the Blue Jackets and Wild had to use their first 24 selections on three goaltenders, eight defensemen, and thirteen forwards. Their final two picks could be players of any position.
With the first - overall choice, the Blue Jackets selected goaltender Rick Tabaracci from the Colorado Avalanche. Over the course of the draft, Columbus picked up goalie Dwayne Roloson, defensemen Lyle Odelein and Mathieu Schneider, and forwards Geoff Sanderson, Turner Stevenson and Dallas Drake, among others. Instead of joining Columbus, Roloson signed with the American Hockey League 's Worcester IceCats, Schneider left for the Los Angeles Kings, and the St. Louis Blues signed Drake. Columbus also traded Stevenson to the New Jersey Devils to complete an earlier transaction.
The Blue Jackets and Wild were granted concessions by some franchises who could not protect their full rosters. The San Jose Sharks traded Jan Caloun, a ninth - round pick in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft, and a 2001 conditional pick to Columbus; in return, the Blue Jackets agreed not to select the Sharks ' unprotected goaltender Evgeni Nabokov. On June 24, at the 2000 NHL Entry Draft, Columbus selected Rostislav Klesla fourth overall.
The Blue Jackets played their first regular - season game on October 7, 2000, a 5 -- 3 loss to the Chicago Blackhawks. Bruce Gardiner scored the franchise 's first goal. Columbus finished with a 28 -- 39 -- 9 -- 6 record for 71 points, last in the Central Division, and failed to qualify for the playoffs. Geoff Sanderson became the first player in team history to score 30 goals. Ron Tugnutt, who was signed in the summer of 2000, supplied solid goaltending with 22 wins, which tied the 74 - year - old League record for wins by an expansion - team goalie (New York Rangers ' Lorne Chabot also had 22 wins in 1926 -- 27).
The Blue Jackets finished next - to - last in the NHL in the following season, with only 57 points. Ray Whitney, acquired from the Florida Panthers the previous season, led the team in scoring with 61 points, setting a franchise record. Tragedy struck the Blue Jackets organization in March 2002 when 13 - year - old Brittanie Cecil was killed after a deflected puck shot by Espen Knutsen struck her in the head while she was in the stands at Nationwide Arena. As a result of her death, large nylon mesh nets were installed behind the goals in all NHL arenas to shield spectators from pucks going over the glass. The team also wore small red hearts with the initials "BNC '' on their helmets.
During the off - season, the Blue Jackets traded a second - round pick (32nd overall) and Ron Tugnutt to the Dallas Stars. In return, Columbus received Dallas ' first - round pick (20th overall) in the 2002 Entry Draft. On the morning of the draft, Columbus traded the third - overall pick and the option to flip draft spots in 2003 to the Florida Panthers; in return, Columbus received the first - overall pick, which they used to select Rick Nash.
The 2002 -- 03 season started with Columbus putting up a 7 -- 5 -- 1 -- 1 record after the first 14 games. However, as expectations from their fans grew higher, the team came back to mediocrity, finishing last in the Central Division for the third consecutive season with 69 points and missing the playoffs once again. Dave King, who had been the team 's head coach since their debut in 2000, was fired mid-season and replaced by General Manager Doug MacLean. Marc Denis was named starting goalie; he played a franchise - record 77 games that season and set a League record with 4,511 minutes played in 2002 -- 03. He tied for second all - time for games played in a season by a goaltender, just two shy of the League record held by St. Louis Blues ' Grant Fuhr in the 1995 -- 96 season.
The 2003 -- 04 season was another losing season for the Blue Jackets despite key additions in the offseason. Checking center Todd Marchant was signed to a five - year contract in July from the Edmonton Oilers. Defenseman Darryl Sydor, known to play strong offense as well, was acquired from the Dallas Stars for Mike Sillinger and a draft pick. MacLean stepped aside as head coach midway through the season, giving way to Gerard Gallant. The Blue Jackets finished with just 62 points (the second - lowest total in their short history), but it was enough to help them break out of last place in the Central Division for the first time, finishing ahead of the Chicago Blackhawks. Nash was one of the few bright spots for the team; his 41 goals tied Jarome Iginla and Ilya Kovalchuk for the Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy (as League leader in goals scored).
In the 2004 off - season, the NHL Players ' Association (NHLPA) and NHL administration failed to renew their collective bargaining agreement. September 14, 2004, marked the beginning of the lockout of the 2004 -- 05 season. No games were played and the Stanley Cup was not awarded for the first time since the flu epidemic of 1919. An agreement was made on July 13, 2005, and the lockout officially ended nine days later on July 22, 2005.
In the summer of 2005, rugged Colorado Avalanche defenseman Adam Foote agreed to a three - year deal with the team. Heading into the 2005 -- 06 season, it appeared the Blue Jackets would finally take the next step and make the playoffs. Instead, injuries to Rick Nash, Rostislav Klesla and Gilbert Brule, the team 's 2005 first - round pick, led to the team putting up a dismal 9 -- 25 -- 1 record through its first 35 games. Superstar Sergei Fedorov was acquired from the Anaheim Mighty Ducks; Anaheim received Tyler Wright and François Beauchemin, and later claimed Todd Marchant off waivers. While again failing to make the playoffs, Columbus did manage to improve. They had the best overtime record in the NHL (14 -- 4) and finished the season with franchise records for wins (35) and points (74). For the first time ever, they earned a third - place finish in the Central Division, behind Detroit and Nashville.
The 2006 -- 07 season saw several changes made to the team. In the off - season, Marc Denis was dealt to the Tampa Bay Lightning for forward Fredrik Modin and goaltending prospect Fredrik Norrena, making way for Pascal Leclaire to take the starting job. The Blue Jackets also signed Anson Carter when it looked as if Nikolay Zherdev would be playing the season in Russia; in late September, however, Zherdev and General Manager Doug MacLean were able to reach a compromise. Partway through the season, on November 13, 2006, Gerard Gallant was relieved of his duties as head coach. The next day, Gary Agnew was named his interim replacement. On November 22, Ken Hitchcock, former coach of the Dallas Stars and Philadelphia Flyers, was named the new head coach, effective the following day. Under Hitchcock 's first year, two milestones were set: on December 10, 2006, the Blue Jackets scored a team - record five power - play goals in a 6 -- 2 win over the Ottawa Senators, and on April 3, 2007, the Blue Jackets broke the modern - day record for most times being shut - out in a season (16) with a 3 -- 0 loss to the Detroit Red Wings.
On April 18, 2007, Doug MacLean, the team 's first general manager and president, was fired after nine years and six seasons at the helm without a playoff berth. Mike Priest, President of Blue Jackets parent company JMAC, Inc., was named President of the club, while Assistant General Manager Jim Clark served as general manager until the Blue Jackets named Edmonton Oilers Assistant General Manager Scott Howson as the new general manager on June 15, 2007. On October 4, 2007, the Blue Jackets announced their affiliation with the Elmira Jackals, which replaced their former affiliation with the Dayton Bombers as the club 's ECHL affiliate.
The 2007 -- 08 season, the club 's first full season under Hitchcock, started off well as the Jackets got off to their best start in franchise history, starting with a 4 -- 0 shutout of the defending Stanley Cup champion Anaheim Ducks. At the trade deadline on February 26, 2008, however, apparently unable to agree on a new contract and amid some controversy, Blue Jackets captain Adam Foote requested a trade to the Colorado Avalanche, which was granted. The Blue Jackets received a pair of conditional picks in return. A few weeks later, on March 12, 2008, former Blue Jackets number - one draft pick Rick Nash was named the new team captain. Despite this, Columbus managed its best season record to date, staying above a. 500 game wins average until the very last game of the season and finishing fourth in the Central Division with 80 points. After the season, Nash was announced as the cover player for the NHL 2K9 video game by Take - Two Interactive.
At the 2008 NHL Entry Draft, the Blue Jackets selected Nikita Filatov with the sixth overall pick. They also traded away the 19th overall pick (acquired from the Colorado Avalanche in exchange for Adam Foote) for R.J. Umberger. The Blue Jackets made many trades in the 2008 off - season. Gilbert Brule was traded to the Edmonton Oilers for Raffi Torres. Enigmatic forward Nikolay Zherdev and Dan Fritsche were traded to the New York Rangers in exchange for defensemen Fedor Tyutin and Christian Backman. The Blue Jackets also signed free agents Kristian Huselius and Mike Commodore to multi-year contracts. On July 9, 2008, the Blue Jackets announced they signed Hitchcock to a three - year extension to remain as head coach.
During the 2008 -- 09 season, the Blue Jackets made two trades which greatly played to their benefit. Forward Jason Williams was acquired from the Atlanta Thrashers in exchange for defenseman Clay Wilson and a sixth - round draft pick. The Blue Jackets were also involved with the first major deal of the 2009 NHL trade deadline, by trading goaltender Pascal Leclaire and a second - round draft pick to the Ottawa Senators for skilled center Antoine Vermette. The changes in scenery benefited both players and the Jackets; Williams scored 28 points in his first 36 games as a Jacket, while Vermette scored 11 points in his first 14 games with the team.
On April 8, 2009, the Columbus Blue Jackets secured the first Stanley Cup playoff berth in the franchise 's eight - year history with a 4 -- 3 shootout win over the Chicago Blackhawks. However, they were swept in the first round by the Detroit Red Wings in four games, and would not qualify for the playoffs for the next four seasons. With 21 games remaining and sitting four points out of eighth in the Western Conference, the Blue Jackets dealt long time defenseman Rostislav Klesla and Dane Byers to the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for Scottie Upshall and Sami Lepisto at the trade deadline on February 28, 2011.
In the 2011 off - season, in an attempt to make a serious playoff run, the Blue Jackets traded Jakub Voracek, their 2011 first round pick (Sean Couturier) and a third round pick (Nick Cousins) to the Philadelphia Flyers for All - Star center Jeff Carter. They also signed several free agents: James Wisniewski, Vaclav Prospal and Radek Martinek. However, after a disastrous start to the 2011 -- 12 season that saw the firing of head coach Scott Arniel, Carter was traded to the Los Angeles Kings for Jack Johnson and a conditional first round pick after playing just 39 games with the Blue Jackets. The Blue Jackets also traded veteran centers Antoine Vermette and Samuel Pahlsson for goaltender Curtis McElhinney and several draft picks at the trade deadline. There was also heavy speculation that captain Rick Nash would be traded at the deadline. Although Nash was n't traded, General Manager Scott Howson publicly announced that he had privately requested a trade, a move that has stirred up much controversy. Nash was eventually traded to the New York Rangers on July 23, 2012, for Brandon Dubinsky, Artem Anisimov, prospect Tim Erixon and a 2013 first - round draft pick. At the 2012 NHL Entry Draft, the Blue Jackets traded their second and fourth round picks to the Philadelphia Flyers for the eventual winner of the 2013 Vezina Trophy, goaltender Sergei Bobrovsky.
The 2012 -- 13 lockout and season saw changes to the executive and front office of the organization. John Davidson was named as president of hockey operations for the Blue Jackets on October 24. On February 12, Scott Howson was relieved of his duties as general manager. Jarmo Kekalainen, who had previously worked with Davidson in St. Louis, was hired away from Jokerit of the Finnish SM - liiga to be the new general manager becoming the first European born general manager in the NHL. The Blue Jackets then traded for All - Star forward Marián Gáborík. The Blue Jackets just missed the playoffs via a tiebreaker against the Minnesota Wild, who had more regulation and overtime wins (ROW).
The Blue Jackets moved into the Metropolitan Division of the Eastern Conference in the 2013 -- 14 season after spending its first 13 seasons in the Central Division of the Western Conference. The other teams in the Metropolitan Division consist of the Carolina Hurricanes, New Jersey Devils, New York Islanders, New York Rangers, Philadelphia Flyers, Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals, the latter six of which once composed the old Patrick Division. On April 9, 2014, the Blue Jackets clinched their second playoff spot in franchise history by winning a 3 -- 1 game against the Dallas Stars. This game was also noted for being a game resumed after being postponed on March 10, 2014, due to Rich Peverley 's cardiac event in which the Blue Jackets led 1 -- 0. The NHL decided to keep the goal scored by Nathan Horton and resumed the game with a full 60 minutes. Nathan Horton made history by being credited for scoring a goal while not suiting up for the game.
The Blue Jackets faced the Pittsburgh Penguins in the first round (Eastern Conference Quarter - finals) of the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs. This series had a trend that was noted for making 3 -- 1 leads end up as 4 -- 3 loss. Game 1 and 2 were at the Consol Energy Center in downtown Pittsburgh. The Blue Jackets made a large jump in history when Jack Johnson scored the first goal of the game. This was the first time in franchise history that Columbus ever lead a post-season game. The Jackets lead the game 3 -- 1 at one point from goals by Mark Letestu and Derek MacKenzie. However, the Penguins rallied to win it 4 -- 3. Game 2 was the opposite. Pittsburgh led 3 -- 1 at one point, but Columbus rallied to win Game 2 4 -- 3 by an overtime goal from Matt Calvert. This was the first playoff victory in franchise history. Pittsburgh won Game 3 by a score of 4 -- 3. Game 4 was a memorable night at Nationwide Arena. Columbus was down 3 -- 0, and 3 -- 1 by the end of the first period. Boone Jenner and Ryan Johansen scored to make it 3 -- 2 by the end of the second period. Brandon Dubinsky scored the game tying goal with 22.5 seconds left in regulation, after a miss - play with the puck by Marc - Andre Fleury. Nick Foligno went on to score the game - winning goal in overtime. In the locker room during intermission, he supposedly told the team that he will score the game winner. Pittsburgh, however, went on to win the next two games and took the best - of - seven series in six games.
The 2014 -- 15 season was most notable for the amount of injuries the Jackets incurred. The Jackets lead the league in man games lost with 502. At one point, the injured reserve list consisted of 15 players, including stars Sergei Bobrovsky, Brandon Dubinsky, Jack Johnson, and Ryan Murray. When the team 's injured players began to return in late February, they were able to accumulate wins the way they had the previous two seasons and in the process, set a franchise record earning nine consecutive wins. However, the Blue Jackets still finished fifth in the Metropolitan Division and missed the playoffs by nine points despite a 42 - 35 - 5 record. On May 20, 2015, Nick Foligno was named the sixth captain in team history. The position had been vacant since Rick Nash was traded to the New York Rangers in July 2012. On June 30, 2015, the Jackets traded centers Marko Dano and Artem Anisimov, along with wingers Jeremy Morin and Corey Tropp, to the Chicago Blackhawks for Brandon Saad. This move was the subject of much controversy in Chicago since Blackhawks General Manager Stan Bowman had publicly said that Saad was going to be a part of the organization for many years to come. The Jackets also acquired Michael Paliotta and Alex Broadhurst in the trade. The Jackets signed center Gregory Campbell from the Boston Bruins a few days later.
The Blue Jackets initially went into the 2015 -- 16 season with high expectations. However, the team got off to an inauspicious start by losing their first eight regular season games in regulation. This prompted the Jackets to fire head coach Todd Richards and hire John Tortorella in his place. On January 6, 2016, the Blue Jackets traded Ryan Johansen to the Nashville Predators in exchange for defenseman Seth Jones. The Blue Jackets record at the end of the season was 34 -- 40 -- 8, and were ranked 27th overall in the NHL. They closed out the season on a high note, however, as they won the season finale against the defending Stanley Cup champion Blackhawks, overcoming a 3 -- 0 deficit after the 1st period to win 5 -- 4 in overtime.
The Blue Jackets set three franchise records during the 2016 -- 17 season. On November 4, 2016, the Blue Jackets scored a franchise - record ten goals in a 10 -- 0 shutout win against the Montreal Canadiens, becoming the first team to do so since 2011 (when the St. Louis Blues beat the Detroit Red Wings 10 -- 3). In mid-November, the Blue Jackets got a franchise record seventh consecutive win at home. During a franchise - record 16 - game win streak that started in late November, Tortorella recorded his 500th career win in a 4 -- 3 Blue Jackets overtime win on the road against the Vancouver Canucks, becoming the first American - born head coach to reach 500 wins. The team had a record of 14 -- 0 -- 0 in December. The team 's win streak ended in early January when they lost 5 -- 0 to the Washington Capitals. The win streak was the second longest in NHL history behind the 1992 -- 93 Pittsburgh Penguins ' 17 consecutive games. The team finished with a record of 50 -- 24 -- 8 and 108 points, setting a franchise record.
During the first round of the 2017 playoffs, the Blue Jackets were placed in a matchup against the Pittsburgh Penguins. The team lost three straight games to begin the series, but won the fourth game to save themselves from elimination. However, they would ultimately lose the series in five games.
The name "Blue Jackets '' was chosen to celebrate "patriotism, pride, and the rich Civil War history in the state of Ohio and city of Columbus. '' When President Abraham Lincoln requested that Ohio raise ten regiments at the outbreak of the Civil War, the state responded by raising a total of 23 volunteer infantry regiments for three months of service. Ohio also produced a number of great Civil War figures, including William Tecumseh Sherman, Ulysses S. Grant, Philip Sheridan and George Custer. Columbus itself was host to large military bases, Camp Chase and Camp Thomas, which saw hundreds of thousands of Union soldiers and thousands of Confederate prisoners during the Civil War.
The team logo is a stylized version of the flag of Ohio, which is a burgee (i.e. swallowtail pennant), in the form of a "C '' wrapped around a star, representing both patriotism and Columbus ' status as state capital. Previously used as an alternate logo starting in 2003, it became the primary logo as part of a Reebok - sponsored redesign for the 2007 -- 08 season. The original logo had a red ribbon with 13 stars representing the 13 Colonies, unfurled in the shape of the team 's initials, CBJ, with an electric gold hockey stick cutting through the center to represent the "J. '' An additional star atop the stick represented Columbus ' status as state capital. From 2003 to 2015, the team 's jerseys featured an alternate logo, a Civil War cap with crossed hockey sticks, on the shoulders.
The Blue Jackets unveiled a new third jersey in the 2010 -- 11 season, using a vintage hockey jersey design. In the spirit of its Civil War theme, it sports a union blue base with white stripes on the sleeves and on the shoulder padding. The crest features the team 's Civil War - era cannon. It honors the team 's founder, John H. McConnell, with his initials on the neckline, as well as its slogan "We fight, we march! '' on the inside of the collar. During the 2015 NHL Draft, it was revealed that the cannon crest had replaced the hat logo on the shoulders of the home and away jerseys, with a color change to match the jerseys ' color scheme.
Prior to the start of the 2007 -- 08 season, the Blue Jackets organization brought a hand - made replica 1857 Napoleon cannon into Nationwide Arena. The cannon is "fired '' at home games whenever:
It was fired 164 times in its inaugural season (41 home games, 20 home victories, 103 goals scored at home). The title line of "For Those About to Rock (We Salute You) '' by AC / DC is played when the cannon is fired followed by the chorus of "The Whip '' by Locksley.
On Fox Sports Ohio, Jeff Rimer serves as the television play - by - play announcer alongside former Blue Jacket Jody Shelley. Rimer started calling games on television in 2005 with Shelley joining Rimer in 2014 -- 15 replacing previous analyst Bill Davidge. Davidge is now a studio analyst alongside Brian Giesenschlag.
On radio stations WBNS - FM (flagship), WBNS, WWCD, and 34 other affiliates in Ohio and West Virginia, Bob McElligott provides play - by - play coverage. McElligott joined the Blue Jackets radio broadcast in July 2009 as a color analyst and became the play - by - play analyst for the 2013 - 14 season, taking over for George Matthews who had been calling Blue Jackets games since the team 's inception in 2000.
Fox Sports Ohio, which airs all Blue Jackets games, airs pre-game and post-game shows ("Blue Jackets Live '') for each game. Pre-game and post-game shows are hosted by Bill Davidge and Brian Giesenschlag. In - game reporting is provided by Dave Maetzold. The hosts of the radio pre - and post-game shows are Ryan Mitchell and Bob McElligott. Fans can interact by e-mail and Twitter with the radio personalities during and after the game.
Stinger is the official mascot of the Blue Jackets. Stinger is a 6 - foot 9 inch bright green bug that walks amongst the crowd during the games and skates on the ice between periods while wearing a Blue Jackets ' jersey. Stinger was originally yellow, but was changed to green, eventually mixing with the team 's blue. The image of Stinger was on the original Blue Jackets ' jerseys, eventually being removed in 2003. The team also had another mascot, an anthropomorphic cannon named Boomer, for half of the 2010 -- 11 season.
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Blue Jackets. For the full season - by - season history, see List of Columbus Blue Jackets seasons
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, OTL = Overtime Losses, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against
Updated July 1, 2017.
These are the top - ten - point - scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
Maurice "Rocket '' Richard Trophy
Vezina Trophy
Jack Adams Award
Calder Memorial Trophy
King Clancy Memorial Trophy
Mark Messier Leadership Award
NHL Foundation Player Award
NHL First All - Star Team
NHL Second All - Star Team
NHL All - Rookie Team
See also: "Columbus Blue Jackets ' Record Book '' (PDF). (533 KB)
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who played jeb pruitt on black sheep squadron | Jeb Stuart Adams - Wikipedia
Jeb Stuart Adams (born April 10, 1961 in Hollywood, California) is an American realtor and former actor. He comes from a family of successful actors, including his parents Nick Adams and Carol Nugent.
His father was Nick Adams, and his mother is Carol Nugent. He is the younger brother of playwright / author Allyson Adams, the nephew of Judy Nugent and Buck Taylor, a cousin to Adam Taylor, Cooper Taylor and Matthew Taylor, and the grandson of Carl Nugent.
Adams began his career at a young age. In 1969, he won a part in the film Run, Angel, Run. He also had a part in the film The Goonies. Arguably, his most memorable role was that of Christopher in the 1987 psychological horror film Flowers in the Attic. His television credits include Baa Baa Black Sheep, Quincy, M.E. and Airwolf.
In adulthood, Adams became a professional production designer in commercials, working such directors as Michael Cuesta and Tony Kaye. Adams is no longer an actor, his final acting role having been in the made - for - TV movie Sworn to Vengeance in 1993. He is now a successful realtor in Ventura County, California.
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how many premier league teams play in europa league | English Football clubs in international competitions - wikipedia
English football clubs have entered European association football competitions (UEFA Champions League / European Cup, UEFA Cup / Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and the now defunct UEFA Intertoto Cup and UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup) since 1955, when Birmingham City and a London XI took part in the inaugural Inter-Cities Fairs Cup. English clubs have also taken part in the FIFA Club World Cup on four occasions and the Intercontinental Cup on six occasions.
The European Cup began in 1955 -- 56, but there was no English representative during that inaugural season as reigning champions Chelsea had been persuaded to withdraw by The Football League. The first English side to participate in the following edition was Manchester United, who were also the first English winners in 1968, ten years after their first attempt to win the cup had effectively ended when eight of their players died in the Munich air disaster when flying home from Belgrade after qualifying for the 1957 -- 58 semi-final. Tottenham Hotspur won the Cup Winners ' Cup in 1963.
Prior to that, England had been pioneers in establishing international competitions, with the Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy, which was won by West Auckland when they defeated Italian side Juventus in 1909. English teams have participated in UEFA competitions every year save for the years between 1985 -- 1990, when in the aftermath of the Heysel Stadium disaster, all English clubs were banned from Europe by UEFA; Liverpool, who had been playing at the Heysel Stadium against Juventus, were banned for six years, until 1991. Several teams have managed to play in Europe while being outside the top flight, including more recently Birmingham City and Wigan Athletic.
From the 2015 -- 16 season, the various permutations allow for a maximum of five English clubs to qualify for the UEFA Champions League and five for the UEFA Europa League. From the 2018 - 19 season, the top four clubs in Europe 's four highest ranked leagues will qualify directly to the group stages. These leagues are currently England, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The minimum quota is for four English clubs to qualify for the UEFA Champions League and three for the UEFA Europa League.
From the 2015 -- 16 season the UEFA Europa League winners will gain entry to the UEFA Champions League. If the UEFA Champions League winners (irrespective of nationality) qualify for the UEFA Champions League through their domestic league this entry will be in the group stages; otherwise it will be in the play - off round.
From the 2015 -- 16 season, if English clubs win both the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League, and neither finish the Premier League in a position that qualifies them for the UEFA Champions League, the following will happen:
English teams have won the competition 12 times and been in the final on 8 more occasions as of 3 May 2018.
Villarreal, Benfica, Lille
Fiorentina, Lyon, Debrecen
Note: UEFA denotes qualified for the UEFA Cup / Europa League.
English teams have won the competition 12 times and reached the final on 10 other occasions.
Between the 1992 -- 93 and 2012 -- 13 seasons, Premier League clubs had won the UEFA Champions League four times (as well as supplying five of the runners - up), behind Spain 's La Liga with six wins, and Italy 's Serie A with five wins, and ahead of, among others, Germany 's Bundesliga with three wins (see table here). The FIFA Club World Cup (or the FIFA Club World Championship, as it was originally called) has been won by Premier league clubs once (Manchester United in 2008), and they have also been runners - up twice, behind Brazil 's Série A with four wins, and Spain 's La Liga and Italy 's Serie A with two wins each (see table here).
Note that some Premier League clubs are not based in England. Because they are members of the Football Association of Wales (FAW), the question of which country clubs like Cardiff City and Swansea City should represent in European competitions has caused long - running discussions in UEFA. Despite being a member of the FAW, Swansea took up one of England 's three available places in the UEFA Europa League in 2013 -- 14, thanks to winning the League Cup in 2012 -- 13. The right of Welsh clubs to take up such English places was in doubt until UEFA clarified the matter in March 2012.
Note: The European Cup began in 1955 -- 56 (abbreviated here to 1956) and was renamed the UEFA Champions League in 1992 -- 93 (abbreviated here to 1993). The Premier League also began in 1992 -- 93, so teams from the Premier League were playing in Europe in that season (abbreviated here to 1993), even though they had actually qualified for Europe through the old English First Division the previous season.
This table combines the English totals before and during the Premier League era. It shows that Liverpool lead, with five wins. Manchester United won the unofficial club world championship, the Intercontinental Cup, in 1999, and the official FIFA Club World Cup in 2008.
For details, see entries for the 1992 - 93 season (abbreviated here as 1993) and subsequent seasons in this table.
Premier League teams gradually improved their performance in the Champions League until a peak centred on the 2008 season, followed by a significant decline thereafter. They had no semi-finalists for the first four seasons (1993 to 1996). They then had four semi-finalists (Manchester United in 1997, 1999, and 2002, and Leeds United in 2001) over the next seven seasons (1997 to 2003), one of whom went on to become champions (Manchester United in 1999). They then had four semi-finalists (Chelsea in 2004 and 2005, Liverpool in 2005, and Arsenal in 2006) in the next three seasons (2004 to 2006), with Arsenal going on to be runners - up in 2006 and Liverpool winning in 2005.
They then peaked with nine semi-finalists (Chelsea, Manchester United and Liverpool in both 2007 and 2008, and Chelsea, Manchester United and Arsenal in 2009) in the next three seasons (2007 to 2009), with Liverpool (2007), Chelsea (2008), and Manchester United (2009) going on to be runners - up, and Manchester United going on to win an all - English final against Chelsea in 2008, a year in which none of the four English teams were eliminated by anybody except another English team. Around this time, then - UEFA president Michel Platini began to make statements which resulted in a widespread perception that he was anti-English, which some attributed to his alleged fear of English domination in European club competition.
However, this dominance did not produce a corresponding number of titles. At its most dominant, from 2007 to 2009, the Premier League had 75 % (9 out of 12) of the semi-finalists, 67 % (4 out of 6) of the finalists, 100 % (3 out of 3) of the runners - up, but only 33 % (1 out of 3) of the winners (Manchester United in 2008), with the other two titles going to Milan in 2007 and Barcelona in 2009. And English dominance did not last, with the Premier League managing only two semi-finalists (Manchester United in 2011, and Chelsea in 2012) over the next four seasons (2010 to 2013), although Manchester United went on to be runners - up in 2011, and Chelsea won in 2012. In 2013, no Premier League side reached the last eight for the first time since 1996 (back in a time when England were only entitled to one Champions League place compared to four today), only two (Manchester United and Arsenal) made it to the last 16, and Chelsea became the first defending champions to fail to make it past the group stage of the Champions League, although by finishing third in their group they did manage to qualify for the UEFA Europa League, which they went on to win.
If the decline were to get worse for long enough, it could in theory eventually deprive the Premier League of its current entitlement to have four teams in the Champions League each year, which it has had since 2005, but the current coefficients table gives little cause for concern from an English perspective, as all England 's relevant coefficients are currently ahead of fourth - placed Italy 's.
The FIFA Club World Cup (or the FIFA Club World Championship, as it was originally called) has been won by Premier league clubs once (Manchester United in 2008), and they have also been runners - up twice, behind Spain 's La Liga with six wins, Brazil 's Série A with four wins, and Italy 's Serie A with two wins.
Manchester United lead this table, just as they lead the equivalent table for English Champions League finalists in the Premier League era. Manchester United defeated LDU Quito of Ecuador 1 -- 0 in Yokohama, Japan, in 2008. Liverpool lost to São Paulo of Brazil 1 -- 0 in the same stadium in 2005. Chelsea lost to Corinthians of Brazil 1 -- 0 in the same stadium in 2012. Manchester United also took part in the first FIFA Club World Championship in 2000, but were eliminated at the group stage after finishing third in their group.
Before being supplanted by the FIFA Club World Cup, the now defunct Intercontinental Cup served as an de facto annual world club championship contested by the European South American club champions. Manchester United won it in 1999, the only time a Premier League club took part in the cup. This was a marked improvement on the performance of English teams before the Premier League era, when English clubs contested the cup on five occasions (1968, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1984), losing each time, and allowing South America to finish with 22 wins, one ahead of Europe 's 21 (see table here).
Additionally, English clubs have initially qualified for the Intercontinental Cup but withdrew from participation, namely Liverpool in 1977 and Nottingham Forest in 1979. Both berths were eventually taken by the respective European Cup losing finalists. Liverpool also qualified for the 1978 edition but they and opponents Boca Juniors declined to play each other, making it a no contest.
In the Premier League era, Manchester United under Sir Alex Ferguson have a 67 % success rate, having participated in 3 (Intercontinental Cup in 1999, FIFA Club World Cups in 2000 and 2008), and won 2 (Intercontinental Cup 1999, FIFA Club World Cup 2008).
This 67 % success rate compares favourably with the all - time European average of 53.6 % success - having participated in 57, and won 31 (having won 21 out of 43 Intercontinental Cups - see table here, and 10 out of 14 FIFA Club World Cups - see table here). It also compares favourably with the European average in the Premier League era (1993 onwards) of 69.2 % success - having participated in 26 (12 Intercontinental Cups from 1993 to 2004 - full details here, 14 FIFA Club World Cups - full details here), and won 18 (8 Intercontinental Cups in 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, and 10 FIFA Club World Cups in 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013). 2014). 2015). 2016, 2017).
In marked contrast, all other English clubs, including Manchester United in 1968 (before the Premier League and Alex Ferguson eras) have a record of 0 % success - participating in 7, winning none, losing 5 Intercontinental Cups before the Premier League era (Manchester United in 1968, Nottingham Forest in 1980, Liverpool in 1981, Aston Villa in 1982, Liverpool in 1984), and losing two FIFA Club World Cups in the Premier League era (Liverpool in 2005, Chelsea in 2012).
The above data means that when one includes Sir Alex Ferguson 's Manchester United, English clubs have success rates of 40 % (2 out of 5) in the Premier League era, 0 % (0 out of 5) before the Premier League era, and 20 % (2 out of 10) overall.
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which company has become the first to face bankruptcy proceedings under the new bankruptcy law | Bankruptcy - Wikipedia
Bankruptcy is a legal status of a person or other entity that can not repay debts to creditors. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor.
Bankruptcy is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term bankruptcy is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals, and other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies. In the United States, bankruptcy is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In France, the cognate French word banqueroute is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term faillite (cognate of "failure '') is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law.
The word bankruptcy is derived from Italian banca rotta, meaning "broken bank '', which may stem from a widespread custom in the Republic of Genoa of breaking a moneychanger 's bench or counter to signify his insolvency, or which may be only a figure of speech.
In Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into "debt slavery '', until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city - states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not enjoy. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions. An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise).
The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency. Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al - Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times.
A failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, "Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city - states. At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well. ''
The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business.
For private households, some argue that it is insufficient to merely dismiss debts after a certain period. It is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to re-occur. It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor 's behavior. In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law (ley concurs) in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge.
In the US, it is almost impossible to discharge student loan debt by filing bankruptcy. Unlike most other debtors, the individual with student debt must give a series of reasons and tests (with steps) to prove that the debtor could not pay the debt. If the person were to file bankruptcy, he or she is normally encouraged to do so under Chapter 13.
A person in financial straits can sometimes avoid bankruptcy by negotiating with the lender for lower monthly payments, or could seek debt consolidation. For student loan, bankruptcy is a last resort -- but some borrowers are forced to file bankruptcy if the lender refuses to lower payments or modify interest rates.
Bankruptcy fraud is a white - collar crime. While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements. Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury. Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law. In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions. Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States.
Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from strategic bankruptcy, which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state. However, it may still work against the filer.
All assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value. This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value. The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor. In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an "unscheduled asset '' after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy. The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors. Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S. Trustee.
In Argentina the national Act "24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras '' regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included.
In Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal Bankruptcy Act 1966. Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal Corporations Act 2001.
If a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order. Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice. A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt. A person can also seek to have himself or herself declared bankrupt by lodging a debtor 's petition with the "Official Receiver '', which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA).
To declare bankruptcy or for a creditor to lodge a petition, the debt must be at least $5,000.
All bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities. A bankruptcy can not be annulled until this document has been lodged.
Ordinarily, a bankruptcy lasts three years from the filing of the Statement of Affairs with AFSA.
A Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Receiver) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate. The Trustee 's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with his or her obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt 's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available.
For the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them. For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of his or her trustee to travel overseas. Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police. Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide his or her trustee with details of income and assets. If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee 's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further five years.
The realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt 's assets and the bankrupt 's wages. There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as protected assets. These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value. All other assets of value are sold. If a house or car is above a certain value, the bankrupt can buy the interest back from the estate in order to keep the asset. If the bankrupt does not do this, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it.
The bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold. If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt 's wages. If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further five years.
Bankruptcies can be annulled prior to the expiration of the normal three - year period if all debts are paid out in full. Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed. If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received.
After the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt 's credit report status is shown as "discharged bankrupt '' for some years. The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act. How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act.
In Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101 / 05) governs court - ordered or out - of - court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities. It does not apply to state - run companies.
Current law covers three legal proceedings. The first one is bankruptcy itself ("Falência ''). Bankruptcy is a court - ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business. The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors.
The second one is Court - ordered Restructuring (Recuperação Judicial). The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity. It 's a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge.
The Extrajudicial Restructuring (Recuperação Extrajudicial) is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court - ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts.
Bankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals, for example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second - largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy in January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12. The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada.
Trustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates and are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada.
Bankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and can not pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt.
In 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates. Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates. The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals. This represented a reduction of 8.9 % from 2010. Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals. This represents a reduction of 8.6 % over 2010.
Some of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:
Creditors become involved by attending creditors ' meetings. The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:
In Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy. A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors.
A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors. Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal -- because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money. The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal. Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action. If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.
A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence). If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act. An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable). A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators.
In 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals.
The People 's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007.
Bankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons. Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency.
Irish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform. Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform.
The Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code). Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874. The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act.
The legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system. There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions.
Winding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent. On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity.
Dutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code (Faillissementswet). The code covers three separate legal proceedings.
Federal Law No. 127 - FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy) '' dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the "Bankruptcy Act ''), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action. Russian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state - owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations. There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry. Federal Law No. 40 - FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy) '' dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the "Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions '') contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company. Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act.
Bankruptcy law provides for the following stages of insolvency proceedings: Monitoring procedure (nablyudeniye); The economic recovery (finansovoe ozdorovleniye); External control (vneshneye upravleniye); Liquidation (konkursnoye proizvodstvo) and Amicable Agreement (mirovoye soglasheniye).
The main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager). At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in Monitoring procedure, external manager in External control, the receiver or administrative officer in The economic recovery, the liquidator. During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations.
Under Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency. It is a court - ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only. In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code.
In Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual. It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid. A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy. An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible. A person or a company in bankruptcy can not access its assets (with some exceptions).
The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this -- and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3 - 10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy.
For companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g. by finding an investor. The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way. Banks have such a priority. After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated. The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company.
Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships. Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership). However, the term ' bankruptcy ' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation. Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration. To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £ 1,500 of debt.
A trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner. Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986. Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally last no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete. It was expected that the UK Government 's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out. Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014 / 15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases.
The UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000. Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases.
The Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy. UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upront fee of £ 655. The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts.
Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact "uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States ''. Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code.
A debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is normally accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt. When a debtor files a voluntary petition, his or her bankruptcy case commences.
While bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law. A Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy. Certain real and personal property can be exempted on "Schedule C '' of a debtor 's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor 's bankruptcy estate. Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy.
There are two alternative systems that can be used to "exempt '' property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states). For example, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that can not be seized for payment of debts. This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but normally only the first $5,000 in Virginia. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, such that there may be significant differences in the outcome of a bankruptcy case depending upon the state in which it is filed.
After a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a 341 meeting or meeting of creditors, at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner 's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper.
There are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code:
An important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay. The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut - offs, and debt collection activity.
The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13. Chapter 7, known as a "straight bankruptcy '' involves the discharge of certain debts without repayment. Chapter 13, involves a plan of repayment of debts over a period of years. Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income. As many as 65 % of all U.S. consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases.
Before a consumer may obtain bankruptcy relief under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13, the debtor is to undertake credit counselling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13. Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code.
Corporations and other business forms normally file under Chapters 7 or 11.
Often called "straight bankruptcy '' or "simple bankruptcy, '' a Chapter 7 bankruptcy potentially allows debtors to eliminate most or all of their debts over a period of as little as three or four months. In a typical consumer bankruptcy, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills and criminal fines. Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged.
In Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor 's unsecured creditors. In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt. However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans). Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt. Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee. The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.) Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight - year period. Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged. For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or "reaffirm '' a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor 's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged.
Ninety - one percent of U.S. individuals who petition for relief under Chapter 7 hire an attorney to file their petitions. The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00. Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition.
To be eligible to file a consumer bankruptcy under Chapter 7, a debtor must qualify under a statutory "means test ''. The means test < which was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code. The "means test '' is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180 - day period prior to filing. If the individual must "take '' the "means test '', their average monthly income over this 180 - day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual 's actual monthly budget. If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief. An individual who fails the means test will have his or her chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert the case to a chapter 13 bankruptcy.
If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code. A Chapter 13 plan often does not require repayment to general unsecured debts, such as credit cards or medical bills.
Generally, a trustee sells most of the debtor 's assets to pay off creditors. However, certain debtor assets will be protected to some extent by bankruptcy exemptions. These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books. However, these exemptions vary from state to state.
In Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a debtor in possession (DIP). The debtor in possession runs the day - to - day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan. Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan. If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan. If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan. Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as "Chapter 22 '' filers.
In Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets, but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years. The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor 's property and the amount of a debtor 's income and expenses. Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years. If the monthly income is less than the state 's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds "just cause '' to extend the plan for a longer period. If the debtor 's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor 's state, the plan must generally be for five years. A plan can not exceed the five - year limit.
Relief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits. If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts. Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors.
In contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt. If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms. Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code 's statutory requirements. Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan.
When the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formally grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan. However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court will normally dismiss the case on the motion of the trustee. After a dismissal, creditors may resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt.
In 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries. In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4 %, in Austria by more than 10 %, and in Greece by more than 20 %. The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case. An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write - off rates for the economy as a whole.
Bankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator. There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy. In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings. Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis. Two examples:
The insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture. Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency. Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage.
Following the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013. They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis. These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies.
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the passage of which act led colonial leaders to form the first continental congress | First Continental Congress - wikipedia
The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies who met from September 5 to October 26, 1774, at Carpenters ' Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, early in the American Revolution. It was called in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament, which the British referred to as the Coercive Acts, with which the British intended to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party.
The Congress met briefly to consider options, including an economic boycott of British trade and drawing up a list of rights and grievances; in the end, they petitioned King George III for redress of those grievances.
The Congress also called for another Continental Congress in the event that their petition was unsuccessful in halting enforcement of the Intolerable Acts. Their appeal to the Crown had no effect, and so the Second Continental Congress was convened the following year to organize the defense of the colonies at the onset of the American Revolutionary War. The delegates also urged each colony to set up and train its own militia.
The Congress met from September 5 to October 26, 1774. Peyton Randolph presided over the proceedings; Henry Middleton took over as President of the Congress from October 22 to 26. Charles Thomson, leader of Philadelphia Committee of Correspondence, was selected to be Secretary of the Continental Congress.
The delegates who attended were not of one mind concerning why they were there. Conservatives such as Joseph Galloway, John Dickinson, John Jay, and Edward Rutledge believed their task to be forging policies to pressure Parliament to rescind its unreasonable acts. Their ultimate goal was to develop a reasonable solution to the difficulties and bring about reconciliation between the Colonies and Great Britain. Others such as Patrick Henry, Roger Sherman, Samuel Adams, and John Adams believed their task to be developing a decisive statement of the rights and liberties of the Colonies. Their ultimate goal was to end what they felt to be the abuses of parliamentary authority, and to retain their rights which had been guaranteed under both Colonial charters and the English constitution.
Roger Sherman denied the legislative authority of Parliament, and Patrick Henry believed that the Congress needed to develop a completely new system of government, independent from Great Britain, for the existing Colonial governments were already dissolved. In contrast to these ideas, Joseph Galloway put forward a "Plan of Union '' which suggested that an American legislative body be formed with some authority, whose consent would be required for imperial measures.
In the end, the voices of compromise carried the day. Rather than calling for independence, the First Continental Congress passed and signed the Continental Association in its Declaration and Resolves, which called for a boycott of British goods to take effect in December 1774. It requested that local Committees of Safety enforce the boycott and regulate local prices for goods. These resolutions adopted by the Congress did not endorse any legal power of Parliament to regulate trade, but consented, nonetheless, to the operation of acts for that purpose. Furthermore, they did not repudiate control by the royal prerogative, which was explicitly acknowledged in the Petition to the King a few days later.
The Congress had two primary accomplishments. The first was a compact among the Colonies to boycott British goods beginning on December 1, 1774. The West Indies were threatened with a boycott unless the islands agreed to non-importation of British goods. Imports from Britain dropped by 97 percent in 1775, compared with the previous year. Committees of observation and inspection were to be formed in each Colony to ensure compliance with the boycott. All of the Colonial Houses of Assembly approved the proceedings of the Congress, with the exception of New York.
If the Intolerable Acts were not repealed, the Colonies would also cease exports to Britain after September 10, 1775. The boycott was successfully implemented, but its potential for altering British colonial policy was cut off by the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War.
The second accomplishment of the Congress was to provide for a Second Continental Congress to meet on May 10, 1775. In addition to the Colonies which had sent delegates to the First Continental Congress, the Congress resolved on October 21, 1774, to send letters of invitation to Quebec, Saint John 's Island (now Prince Edward Island), Nova Scotia, Georgia, East Florida, and West Florida. However, letters appear to have been sent only to Quebec (three letters in all). None of these other colonies sent delegates to the opening of the Second Congress, though a delegation from Georgia arrived the following July.
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what is the meaning of the song roxanne | Roxanne (song) - wikipedia
"Roxanne '' is a song by English rock band The Police. Written by lead singer and bassist Sting, the song was released in April 1978 as a single from their debut album Outlandos d'Amour. It was written from the point of view of a man who falls in love with a prostitute. On re-release in 1979, the song peaked at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart.
The song ranked No. 388 on the Rolling Stone 's "500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' and was voted No. 85 by VH1 on its list of the "100 Greatest Rock Songs ''.
In 2008, "Roxanne '' was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
Police lead singer Sting wrote the song, inspired by the prostitutes he saw near the band 's seedy hotel in Paris, France, where the Police were lodged in October 1977 to perform at the Nashville Club. The song 's title comes from the name of the character in the play Cyrano de Bergerac, an old poster of which was hanging in the hotel foyer.
Sting had originally conceived the song as a bossa nova, although he credits Police drummer Stewart Copeland for suggesting its final rhythmic form as a tango. During recording, Sting accidentally sat down on a piano keyboard in the studio, resulting in the atonal piano chord and laughter preserved at the beginning of the track. The Police were initially diffident about the song, but Miles Copeland III was immediately enthusiastic after hearing it; he became their manager and got them their first record deal with A&M Records.
We went into Surrey Sound Studios and it was working pretty well. We recorded a few tracks, one of which I wrote more or less as a throwaway. That was ' Roxanne ', I did n't think much more about it until we played the album to Miles Copeland who is, of course, Stewart 's brother and a bit of an entrepreneur, though he 'd never been particularly interested in The Police. In fact, he 'd kept away from it to say the least. He did come along to the sessions while we were putting the first album together but more or less just to offer brotherly advice to Stewart. He heard the album and quite liked it. When we got to Roxanne, we were a bit embarrassed because the song was a bit of an anachronism, because compared with our usual material it was slow, quiet and melodic. Far from saying he thought it was a piece of shit, he said it was amazing. I thought, ' He likes this song. This is fantastic!
According to Andy Summers:
Sting played it for me in my living room early on. He was very shy at first bringing in his songs. But it was brilliant, and later on we all worked it out in a damp basement in North London. I remember Stewart telling Sting where to place the bass notes, which was a bit tricky. Miles Copeland came down to hear us and we were kind of embarrassed to play it for him, because Miles had blinders on and was into fast and furious punk. But much to his credit, he said, ' This is great, a knockout! ' I was really surprised. And he took it to A&M and got a contract for one single. I do n't think it ever broke the Top 40 in America, but eventually it became the Police signature tune.
"Roxanne '' became the band 's debut single for A&M Records. However, despite the praise given by Miles Copeland, the single did not chart upon its initial release. Writing in Record Mirror, singles reviewer Bev Briggs declared "This must be the big breaker for The Police... what the hell, go out and buy it immediately ''.
The band released two further singles in the UK that year: "Ca n't Stand Losing You '', which charted at number 42, and "So Lonely '', which did not chart. Then, in early 1979, "Roxanne '' was issued in North America as the group 's first single there. In the US, "Roxanne '' entered the Billboard Hot 100 in February 1979 and peaked at number 32 in April. In Canada, the single placed one rung higher on the charts, peaking at number 31.
The song 's international success spurred a UK re-release of "Roxanne '' in April 1979. This re-release of the song was a hit, reaching number 12 in the UK Singles Chart. A live solo version performed by Sting from the 1982 album The Secret Policeman 's Other Ball received moderate airplay on album - oriented rock radio and reached number 28 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart. The song went on to become a staple of Sting 's performances during his solo career, and it was performed when The Police reunited in 2003 for their induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
"Roxanne '' has appeared on all of the Police 's greatest hits albums. In 2004, Rolling Stone ranked it No. 388 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
In 2000, VH1 ranked the song at number 85 on its list of the "100 Greatest Rock Songs '' while in 2003 it was ranked number 90 on their list of the "100 Greatest Songs of the Past 25 years ''.
It is one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. In 2008, "Roxanne '' was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
This was the first song the band performed live at the 2007 Grammy Awards to kick off their 30th Anniversary Reunion Tour.
Two different music videos were released for "Roxanne ''. The first shows the band performing the song on a stage on what is perhaps a sound check to a show. Many slow motion shots of the group live appear here as well. The second version was shot on a soundstage and shows the band performing before a red backdrop.
Roxanne ' 97 (Puff Daddy Remix)
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what time do the boston red sox play | Boston Red Sox - wikipedia
The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston, Massachusetts. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) East division. The Red Sox have won eight World Series championships and have played in twelve. Founded in 1901 as one of the American League 's eight charter franchises, the Red Sox ' home ballpark has been Fenway Park since 1912. The "Red Sox '' name was chosen by the team owner, John I. Taylor, around 1908, following the lead of previous teams that had been known as the "Boston Red Stockings '', including the forerunner of the Atlanta Braves.
Boston was a dominant team in the new league, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in 1903 and winning four more championships by 1918. However, they then went into one of the longest championship droughts in baseball history, dubbed the "Curse of the Bambino '' after its alleged beginning with the Red Sox ' sale of Babe Ruth to the rival New York Yankees two years after their world championship in 1918, an 86 - year wait before the team 's sixth World Championship in 2004. The team 's history during that period was punctuated with some of the most memorable moments in World Series history, including Enos Slaughter 's "mad dash '' in 1946, the "Impossible Dream '' of 1967, Carlton Fisk 's home run in 1975, and Bill Buckner 's error in 1986. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, they became the first team to win three World Series trophies in the 21st century, including championships in 2004 and 2007. Red Sox history has also been marked by the team 's intense rivalry with the Yankees, arguably the fiercest and most historic in North American professional sports.
The Boston Red Sox are owned by Fenway Sports Group, which also owns Liverpool F.C. of the Premier League in England. The Red Sox are consistently one of the top MLB teams in average road attendance, while the small capacity of Fenway Park prevents them from leading in overall attendance. From May 15, 2003 to April 10, 2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game -- a total of 820 games (794 regular season) for a major professional sports record. Neil Diamond 's "Sweet Caroline '' has become an anthem for the Red Sox.
The name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning 1908. Sox had been previously adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline - friendly form of Stockings, as "Stockings Win! '' in large type would not fit on a page. The team name "Red Sox '' had previously been used as early as 1888 by a ' colored ' team from Norfolk, Virginia. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as Medias Rojas, a translation of "red socks ''. The official Spanish site uses the variant "Los Red Sox ''.
The Red Stockings nickname was first used by a baseball team by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who were members of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired by Boston businessman Ivers Whitney Adams to organize a new team in Boston, and he did, bringing three teammates and the "Red Stockings '' nickname along (Most nicknames were then only nicknames, neither club names nor registered trademarks, so the migration was informal). The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league.
When a new Cincinnati club was formed as a charter member of the National League in 1876, the "Red Stockings '' nickname was commonly reserved for them once again, and the Boston team was referred to as the "Red Caps ''. Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname "Braves '' in 1912; the club eventually left Boston for Milwaukee and is now playing in Atlanta, Georgia.
In 1901, the upstart American League established a competing club in Boston. (Originally, a team was supposed to be started in Buffalo, but league ownership at the last minute removed that city from their plans in favor of the expansion Boston franchise.) For seven seasons, the AL team wore dark blue stockings and had no official nickname. They were simply "Boston '', "Bostonians '' or "the Bostons ''; or the "Americans '' or "Boston Americans '' as in "American Leaguers '', Boston being a two - team city. Their 1901 -- 1907 jerseys, both home, and road, just read "Boston '', except for 1902 when they sported large letters "B '' and "A '' denoting "Boston '' and "American. '' Newspaper writers of the time used other nicknames for the club, including "Somersets '' (for owner Charles Somers), "Plymouth Rocks '', "Beaneaters '', the "Collinsites '' (for manager Jimmy Collins) ", and "Pilgrims. ''
For years many sources have listed "Pilgrims '' as the early Boston AL team 's official nickname, but researcher Bill Nowlin has demonstrated that the name was barely used, if at all, during the team 's early years. The origin of the nickname appears to be a poem entitled "The Pilgrims At Home '' written by Edwin Fitzwilliam that was sung at the 1907 home opener ("Rory O'More '' melody). This nickname was commonly used during that season, perhaps because the team had a new manager and several rookie players. John I. Taylor had said in December 1907 that the Pilgrims "sounded too much like homeless wanderers. ''
The National League club in Boston, though seldom called the "Red Stockings '' anymore, still wore red trim. In 1907, the National League club adopted an all - white uniform, and the American League team saw an opportunity. On December 18, 1907, Taylor announced that the club had officially adopted red as its new team color. The 1908 uniforms featured a large icon of a red stocking angling across the shirt front. For 1908, the National League club returned to wearing red trim, but the American League team finally had an official nickname, and would remain the "Red Sox '' for good.
The name is often shortened to "Bosox '' or "BoSox '', a combination of "Boston '' and "Sox '' (similar to the "ChiSox '' in Chicago or the minor league "PawSox '' of Pawtucket). Sportswriters sometimes refer to the Red Sox as the Crimson Hose and the Olde Towne Team. Recently, media have begun to call them the "Sawx '' casually, reflecting how the word is pronounced with a New England accent. However, most fans simply refer to the team as the "Sox '' when the context is understood to mean Red Sox.
The formal name of the entity which owns the team is "Boston Red Sox Baseball Club Limited Partnership ''. The name shown on the door on Yawkey Way, "Boston American League Baseball Company '', is historical, predating the formation of the limited partnership on May 26, 1978. The entrance also figures in Robert B. Parker 's Spenser - and - baseball novel Mortal Stakes.
In 1901, the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of the league to the American League, leading teams in his league to be christened with the unofficial nickname "Americans ''. This was especially true in the case of the new Boston franchise, which would not adopt an official nickname until 1908.
The upstart league placed franchises in Baltimore, Maryland and Buffalo. After looking at his new league, Ban Johnson decided that he would need a team in Boston to compete with the National League team there, and so cancelled the Buffalo club 's franchise, offering one to a new club in Boston. The Boston franchise was purchased in 1903 by Milwaukee publisher, George Brumder who sold the team one year later. Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise finished second and third before capturing their first pennant in 1903 and repeating the next year. Those teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins, outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman, and Patsy Dougherty, and pitcher Cy Young, who in 1901 won the pitching Triple Crown with 33 wins (41.8 % of the team 's 79 games), 1.62 ERA and 158 strikeouts. His 1901 to 1904 seasons rank among the best four - year runs ever.
In 1903, Boston participated in the first modern World Series, going up against the Pittsburgh Pirates. The Pirates were heavily favored as they had won the NL pennant by 61⁄2 games. Aided by the modified chants of "Tessie '' by the Royal Rooters fan club and by its stronger pitching staff, the Americans managed to overcome the odds, and win the best - of - nine series five games to three.
The 1904 club was almost as good as the previous team, but due to the surprise emergence of the New York Highlanders, the Boston club found itself in a tight pennant race through the last games of the season. A predecessor to what would become a storied rivalry, this race featured such controversial moves as the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub. The climax of the season occurred on the last, dramatic doubleheader at the Highlanders ' home stadium, Hilltop Park. In order to win the pennant, the Highlanders needed to win both games. With Jack Chesbro, the Highlanders ' 41 - game winner, on the mound, and the score tied 2 -- 2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro and Lou Criger scored the go - ahead run on one of the most famous wild pitches in history.
Unfortunately, the NL champion New York Giants declined to play any postseason series, fearing it would give their New York rivals credibility (they had expected the Highlanders to win), but a sharp public reaction led the two leagues immediately to make the World Series a permanent championship, starting in 1905. These successful times soon ended, however, as Boston lost 100 games in 1906. However, several new star players helped the newly renamed Red Sox improve almost immediately.
By 1909, legendary center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the team worked their way to third place. However, the Red Sox would not win the pennant again until their 105 - win 1912 season, finishing with a club record. 691 winning percentage. Anchored by an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game -- Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis -- and superstar pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4 -- 3 -- 1 in the classic 1912 World Series best known for Snodgrass 's Muff. From 1913 to 1916 the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin, who signed Babe Ruth, soon the best - known and one of the best players ever. Another 101 wins in 1915 propelled the Red Sox to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. Following the 1915 season, Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians. His departure was more than compensated for, however, by the emergence of star pitcher Babe Ruth. The Red Sox went on to win the 1916 World Series, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins. In 1918, Babe Ruth led his team to another World Series championship, this time over the Chicago Cubs.
Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in 1916 for about $500,000. A couple of notable trades involving Harry Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard (who had posted a modern record 0.96 ERA in 1914), and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. As all three players were well regarded in Boston -- Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard had only four years before setting a modern record for earned run average -- this trade was regarded as a poor one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine - style pitching star Carl Mays was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000. Mays would go on to have several good years for the Yankees, but had been a discipline problem for the Red Sox.
On December 26, 1919, Frazee sold Babe Ruth, who had played the previous six seasons for the Red Sox, to the rival New York Yankees (Ruth had just broken the single - season home run record, hitting 29 in 1919.) Legend has it that Frazee did so in order to finance the Broadway play No, No, Nanette. That play did not actually open on Broadway until 1925, but as Leigh Montville discovered during research for his book, The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. My Lady Friends had, indeed, been financed by the Ruth sale to the Yankees.
During that period, the Red Sox, Yankees and Chicago White Sox had a détente; they were called "Insurrectos '' because their actions antagonized league president Ban Johnson. Although Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (it was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one; Johnson could move another team into the ballpark. His club was in debt, but Frazee felt the need to purchase its playing site (which he did in 1920). Further, providing the Yankees with a box office attraction would help that mediocre club, which had sided with him against Johnson and "the Loyal Five '' clubs. Finally, Ruth was considered a serious disciplinary problem, a reputation he amply confirmed while playing for the Yankees. Frazee moved Ruth to stabilize Red Sox finances and cut distractions. It was a straight sale, no players in return.
New York achieved great success after acquiring Ruth and several other very good players. The sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry, considered the "Greatest Rivalry on Earth '' by American sports journalists.
After deciding to get out of baseball, Frazee began selling many of his star players. In the winter of 1920, Wally Schang, Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, John Costello, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick and cash. The following winter, iron man shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh (who would be immediately shipped to the Washington Senators), Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy and $50,000. On July 23, 1922, Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith were traded to the Yankees for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and Lefty O'Doul, who was at the time a mediocre pitching prospect. Acquiring Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race, and the resulting uproar helped create a June 15 trading deadline that went into effect the next year. Perhaps an even more outrageous deal was the trade of Herb Pennock, occurring in early 1923. Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, George Murray and $50,000.
The loss of so much talent sent the Red Sox into free fall, even with the money Frazee earned from the trades. During the 1920s and early 1930s, they were fixtures in the second division, never finishing closer than 20 games out of first. The losses only mounted when Frazee sold the team to Bob Quinn in 1923. During an eight - year period from 1925 to 1932, the Red Sox averaged over 100 losses per season, bottoming out in 1932 with a record of 43 - 111, still the worst record in franchise history. One of the few bright spots on these teams was Earl Webb, who set the all - time mark for most doubles in a season in 1931 with 67. The BoSox ' fortunes began to change in 1933 when Tom Yawkey bought the team. Yawkey acquired pitcher Wes Ferrell and one of the greatest pitchers of all - time, Lefty Grove, making his team competitive once again in the late thirties. He also acquired Joe Cronin, an outstanding shortstop and manager and slugging first baseman Jimmie Foxx whose 50 home runs in 1938 would stand as a club record for 68 years. Foxx also drove in a club record 175 runs.
In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox. '' Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right - field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams ' left - handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg. '' Before this addition, it was over 400 feet (120 m) to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing at least five full seasons of baseball. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is currently the last player to hit over. 400 for a full season, batting. 406 in 1941. Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard '', and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion.
With Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series, but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift '', a defensive tactic in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left - handed - hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that he was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. His performance may have also been affected by a pitch he took in the elbow in an exhibition game a few days earlier. Either way, in his only World Series, Williams gathered just five singles in 25 at - bats for a. 200 average.
The Cardinals won the 1946 Series when Enos Slaughter scored the go - ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky, who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball '' before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed.
Along with Williams and Pesky, the Red Sox featured several other star players during the 1940s, including second baseman Bobby Doerr and center fielder Dom DiMaggio (the younger brother of Joe DiMaggio).
The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in 1948 and 1949. In 1948, Boston finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one - game playoff ended hopes of an all - Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joseph McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Red Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games.
The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in 1953, many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox ' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs. '' Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however it appeared that owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team at that time. Willie Mays also tried out for Boston and was highly praised by team scouts. In 1955, Frank Malzone debuted at third base and Ted Williams hit. 388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at - bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu. '' The Red Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in 1959.
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz '' Yastrzemski, Williams ' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching - rich decade.
Red Sox fans know 1967 as the season of the "Impossible Dream. '' The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "Man of La Mancha ''. 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team went to the 1967 World Series, only to lose the Series to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the most recent player to accomplish such a feat until Miguel Cabrera did so in 2012), hitting. 326 with 44 home runs and 121 RBIs. He finished one vote short of a unanimous MVP selection, as a Minnesota sportswriter placed Twins center fielder César Tovar first on his ballot. But the Red Sox lost the series -- again to the St. Louis Cardinals, in seven games. Legendary pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Red Sox winning three games.
An 18 - year - old Bostonian rookie named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs in 1964. "Tony C '' became the youngest player in Major League Baseball to hit his 100th home run, a record that stands today. He was struck just above the left cheek bone by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels on Friday, August 18, 1967 and sat out the entire next season with headaches and blurred vision. Although he did have a productive season in 1970, he was never the same.
Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when they lost by a half - game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players ' strike, and the Red Sox had lost one more game to the strike than the Tigers had. Games lost to the strike were not made up. The Red Sox went to Detroit with a half - game lead for the final series of the season, but lost the first two of those three and were eliminated from the pennant race.
The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975. The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill "The Spaceman '' Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A 's.
In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered among the greatest games in postseason history. Down 6 -- 3 in the bottom of the eighth inning, Red Sox pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three - run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the eleventh inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled Ken Griffey at first base to preserve the tie. In the bottom of the twelfth inning, Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball which sliced towards the left field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball complied, and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game for the Red Sox 7 -- 6.
The Red Sox lost game 7, 4 -- 3 even though they had an early 3 -- 0 lead. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch '' or "space ball '' to Reds first baseman Tony Pérez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4. ''
In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were 14 ⁄ games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4 - game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre ''), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead.
On September 16 the Yankees held a 3 ⁄ game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 11 of their next 13 games and by the final day of the season, the Yankees ' magic number to win the division was one -- with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division. However, New York lost 9 -- 2 and Boston won 5 -- 0, forcing a one - game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2.
The most remembered moment from the game was Bucky Dent 's 7th inning three - run home run in off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster, giving the Yankees their first lead. The dejected Boston manager, Don Zimmer, gave Mr. Dent a new middle name which lives on in Boston sports lore to this day, uttering three words as the ball sailed over the left - field wall: "Bucky F * * king Dent! '' Reggie Jackson provided a solo home run in the 8th that proved to be the difference in the Yankees ' 5 -- 4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles in foul territory with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. Although Dent became a Red Sox demon, the Red Sox would get retribution in 1990 when the Yankees fired Dent as their manager during a series at Fenway Park.
Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven - team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966.
However, in 1986, it appeared that the team 's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24 -- 4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20 - strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. Despite spending a month and a half on the disabled list in the middle of the season, left - hander Bruce Hurst went 13 - 8, striking out 167 and pitching four shutout games. Boston sportswriters that season compared Clemens and Hurst to Don Drysdale and Sandy Koufax from the 1960s Los Angeles Dodgers.
The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, and faced the California Angels in the ALCS. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two home games, taking a 3 -- 1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5 -- 2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two - run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6 -- 5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the 11th on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six - and seven - run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title.
The Red Sox faced a heavily favored New York Mets team that had won 108 games in the regular season in the 1986 World Series. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at 2 games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3 -- 2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever and former Met Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3 -- 3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5 -- 3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett.
After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the Player of the Game and Bruce Hurst as World Series MVP. A message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as world champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. With the count at two balls and one strike, Mets catcher Gary Carter hit a single. It was followed by singles by Kevin Mitchell and Ray Knight. With Mookie Wilson batting, a wild pitch by Bob Stanley tied the game at 5. Wilson then hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner 's legs, allowing Knight to score the winning run from second.
While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers -- as well as both Wilson and Buckner -- have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, the speedy Wilson probably would still have been safe, leaving the game - winning run at third with two out.
Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late - inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. After falling behind 3 -- 0, the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed. ''
This World Series loss had a strange twist: Red Sox General Manager Lou Gorman was vice-president, player personnel, of the Mets from 1980 to 1983. Working under Mets ' GM Frank Cashen, with whom Gorman served with the Orioles, he helped lay the foundation for the Mets ' championship.
The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All - Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Walpole, Massachusetts, resident and longtime minor - league manager Joe Morgan on July 15. Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as Morgan Magic. But the magic was short - lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox would again win the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A 's sweeping the ALCS in four straight.
In 1990, Yankees fans started to chant "1918! '' to taunt the Red Sox. The demeaning chant would echo at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Also, Fenway Park became the scene of Bucky Dent 's worst moment as a manager, although it was where he had his greatest triumph. In June, when the Red Sox swept the Yankees during a four - game series at Fenway Park, the Yankees fired Dent as their manager. Red Sox fans felt retribution to Dent being fired on their field, but the Yankees used him as a scapegoat. However, Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe severely criticized Yankees Owner George Steinbrenner for firing Dent -- his 18th managerial change in as many years since becoming owner -- in Boston and said he should "have waited until the Yankees got to Baltimore '' to fire Dent. He said that "if Dent had been fired in Seattle or Milwaukee, this would have been just another event in an endless line of George 's jettisons. But it happened in Boston and the nightly news had its hook. '' "The firing was only special because... it 's the first time a Yankee manager -- who was also a Red Sox demon -- was purged on the ancient Indian burial grounds of the Back Bay. ''
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean 's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership.
In 1994, General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team 's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an 8 - year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the 2000 season.
The Red Sox won the newly realigned American League East in 1995, finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in the ALDS by the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series.
Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18, 1996 in what would prove to be one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993 -- 96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career ''. Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young Awards.
Out of contention in 1997, the team traded closer Heathcliff Slocumb to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right - handed pitcher Derek Lowe. Prior to the start of the 1998 season, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas, Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team 's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card, but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians.
In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete '' and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium.
On the field, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians. Cleveland took a 2 -- 0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4 's 23 -- 7 win by the Red Sox was the highest - scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5 -- 2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team 's offense rallied for a 12 -- 8 win behind two home runs and seven RBIs from outfielder Troy O'Leary. After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Red Sox in the much - hyped Martinez - Clemens game.
In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little.
While nearly all offseason moves were made under Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland Athletics, the new ownership made additions such as outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games -- becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20 games in back - to - back seasons.
After failing to reach the playoffs, Port was replaced by Yale University graduate Theo Epstein. Epstein, raised in Brookline, Massachusetts, and just 28 at the time of his hiring, became the youngest general manager in MLB history.
The 2003 team was known as the "Cowboy Up '' team, a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar 's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0 -- 2 series deficit against the Athletics to win the best - of - five series. Derek Lowe returned to his former relief pitching role to save Game 5, a 4 -- 3 victory. The team then faced the Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In Game 7, Boston led 5 -- 2 in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez allowed three runs to tie the game. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6 -- 5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off of Tim Wakefield. Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove starting pitcher Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. Others credited Little with the team 's successful season and dramatic come - from - behind victory in the ALDS. Nevertheless, Boston 's management did not renew Little 's contract, and hired former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona.
During the 2003 -- 04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Due to some midseason struggles with injuries, management shook up the team at the July 31 trading deadline as part of a four - team trade. The Red Sox traded the team 's popular, yet oft - injured, shortstop Nomar Garciaparra and outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs, and received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox acquired center fielder Dave Roberts from the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the trades, the club won 22 out of 25 games and qualified for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "the Idiots '', a term coined by Damon and Millar during the playoff push to describe the team 's eclectic roster and devil - may - care attitude toward their supposed "curse. ''
Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. In the third game of the series, David Ortiz hit a walk - off two - run homer in the 10th inning to win the game and the series to advance to a rematch of the previous year 's ALCS in the ALCS against the Yankees. The ALCS started very poorly for the Red Sox, as they lost the first three games (including a crushing 19 - 8 home loss in game 3). In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4 -- 3 in the ninth with Mariano Rivera in to close for the Yankees. After Rivera issued a walk to Millar, Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller, sending the game into extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two - run home run by Ortiz in the 12th inning, who also made the walk - off hit in the 14th inning of game 5. The comeback continued with a victory from an injured Schilling in game 6. Three sutures being used to stabilize the tendon in Schilling 's right ankle bled throughout the game, famously making his sock appear bloody red. The Red Sox completed their historic comeback in game 7 with a 10 -- 3 defeat of the Yankees. Ortiz, who had the game - winning RBIs in Games 4 and 5, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders as the only professional sports teams in history at the time to win a best - of - seven games series after being down three games to none. The 2009 -- 10 Philadelphia Flyers (against the Boston Bruins) and the 2013 -- 14 Los Angeles Kings (against the San Jose Sharks) would also accomplish the feat.
The Red Sox swept the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox never trailed throughout the series; Mark Bellhorn hit a game - winning home run off Pesky 's Pole in game 1, and Schilling pitched another bloodied - sock victory in game 2, followed by similarly masterful pitching performances by Martinez and Derek Lowe. It was the Red Sox ' first championship in 86 years. Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston 's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their incredible season, such as in December, when Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year.
The 2005 AL East would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one - game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95 -- 67. However, a playoff was not needed, as the loser of such a playoff would still make the playoffs as a Wild Card team. As the Yankees had won the season series, they were awarded the division title, and the Red Sox competed in the playoffs as the Wild Card. Boston failed to defend their championship, and was swept in three games by the eventual 2005 World Series champion Chicago White Sox in the first round of the playoffs. In 2006 David Ortiz broke Jimmie Foxx 's single season Red Sox home run record by hitting 54 homers. However, Boston failed to make the playoffs after compiling a 9 -- 21 record in the month of August due to several injuries in club 's roster.
Theo Epstein 's first step toward restocking the team for 2007 was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in baseball history. On November 14, MLB announced that Boston had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese Nippon Professional Baseball superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million to negotiate with Matsuzaka and completed a 6 - year, $52 million contract after they were announced as the winning bid.
The Red Sox moved into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquished their division lead. Initially, rookie second baseman Dustin Pedroia under - performed, hitting below. 200 in April. Manager Terry Francona refused to bench him and his patience paid off as Pedroia eventually won the AL Rookie of the Year Award for his performance that season, which included 165 hits and a. 317 batting average. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff with his first 20 - win season, as fellow starting pitchers Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield and Julián Tavárez all struggled at times. Relief pitcher Hideki Okajima, another recent arrival from the NPB, posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was selected for the All - Star Game. Okajima finished the season with a 2.22 ERA and 5 saves, emerging as one of baseball 's top relievers. Minor league call - up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no - hitter in his second career start. The Red Sox captured their first AL East title since 1995.
The Red Sox swept the Angels in the ALDS. Facing the Cleveland Indians in the ALCS, the Red Sox fell in games 2, 3, and 4 before Beckett picked up his second victory of the series in game 5, starting a comeback. The Red Sox captured their twelfth American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30 -- 5 over the final three games. The Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies in the 2007 World Series, and swept the Rockies in four games. In Game 4, Wakefield gave up his spot in the rotation to a recovered Jon Lester, who gave the Red Sox an impressive start, pitching 52⁄3 shutout innings. Key home runs late in the game by third baseman Mike Lowell and pinch - hitter Bobby Kielty secured the Red Sox ' second title in four years, as Lowell was named World Series MVP.
The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A 's in the Tokyo Dome. On May 19, Jon Lester threw the 18th no - hitter in team history, defeating the Kansas City Royals 7 -- 0. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez became embroiled in controversy surrounding public incidents with fellow players and other team employees, as well as criticism of ownership and not playing, which some claimed was due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgrunted outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three - way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox improved vastly and made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. The Red Sox defeated the Angels in the 2008 ALDS three games to one. The Red Sox then took on their AL East rivals the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS. Down three games to one in the 5th game of the ALCS, Boston mounted a comeback from trailing 7 - 0 in the 7th inning to win 8 - 7. They tied the series at 3 games apiece with a game 6 victory before losing game 7, 3 -- 1, thus becoming the eighth team in a row since 2000 to fail to repeat as world champions.
The Red Sox returned to postseason play the following season, but were swept by the Los Angeles Angels in three games. In 2011, the Red Sox collapsed in the month of September losing 11 of 14, reminiscent of 1978 and destroying their playoff aspirations. In December 2011, Bobby Valentine was hired as a new manager. The 2012 season marked the centennial of Fenway Park, and on April 20, past and present Red Sox players and coaches assembled to celebrate the park 's anniversary. However, the collapse that they endured in September 2011 carried over into the season. The Red Sox struggled throughout the season due to injuries, inconsistent play, and off - field news. finished 69 -- 93 for their first losing season since 1997, and their worst season since 1965.
Boston, which finished last in the American League East with a 69 -- 93 record in 2012 -- 26 games behind the Yankees, became the 11th team in major league history to go from worst in the division to first the next season when it clinched the A.L. East division title on September 21, 2013. Many credit the team 's turnaround with the hiring of manager John Farrell, the former Red Sox pitching coach under Terry Francona from 2007 to 2010. As a former member of the staff, he had the respect of influential players such as Lester, Pedroia, and Ortiz. But there were other moves made in the offseason by general manager Ben Cherington who targeted "character '' players to fill the team 's needs. These acquisitions included veteran catcher David Ross, Jonny Gomes, Mike Napoli, and Shane Victorino. While some questioned these players as "re-treads '', it was clear that Cherington was trying to move past 2011 -- 2012 by bringing in "clubhouse players ''. Essential to the turnaround, however, was the pitching staff. With ace veteran John Lackey coming off Tommy John surgery and both Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz returning to their prior form, this allowed the team to rely less on their bullpen. Everything seemed in danger of collapsing, however, when both closers, Joel Hanrahan and Andrew Bailey, went down early with season - ending injuries. Farrell gave the closing job to Koji Uehara on June 21 who delivered with a 1.09 ERA and an MLB record 0.565 WHIP. On September 11, the 37 - year - old right - hander set a new Red Sox record when he retired 33 straight batters. Other reasons include the trade deadline acquisition of pitcher Jake Peavy when the Red Sox were in second place in the AL East, the depth of the bench with players such as Mike Carp and rookies Jackie Bradley, Jr. and Xander Bogaerts, and the re-emergence of players such as Will Middlebrooks and Daniel Nava. On September 28, 2013, the team secured home field advantage throughout the American League playoffs when their closest competition, the Oakland Athletics, lost. The next day, the team finished the season going 97 -- 65, the best record in the American League and tied with the St. Louis Cardinals for the best record in baseball. They proceeded to defeat the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2013 World Series, four games to two. The Red Sox became the first team since the 1991 Minnesota Twins to win the World Series a year after finishing in last place, and the second overall. The 2012 Red Sox '. 426 winning percentage was the lowest for a team in a season prior to a World Series championship.
Throughout the season, the Red Sox players and organization formed a close association with the city of Boston and its people in relation to the Boston Marathon bombings that occurred on April 15, 2013. On April 20, the day after the alleged bombers were captured, David Ortiz gave a pre-game speech following a ceremony honoring the victims and the local law enforcement, in which he stated, "This is our fucking city! And nobody is going to dictate our freedom! Stay strong! '' For the entirety of the season, the team wore an additional arm patch that exhibited the Red Sox "B '' logo and the word "Strong '' within a blue circle. The team also hung up in the dugout a custom jersey that read "Boston Strong '' with the number 617, representing the city of Boston 's area code. On many occasions during the season, victims of the attack and law enforcement involved were given the honor of throwing the ceremonial first pitch. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, the first one clinched at home in Fenway Park since 1918, Red Sox players Jonny Gomes and Jarrod Saltalamacchia performed a ceremony during the team 's traditional duck boat victory parade, in which they placed the World Series trophy and the custom 617 jersey on the Boston Marathon finish line on Boylston Street, followed by a moment of silence and a singing of God Bless America. This ceremony helped the city "reclaim '' its spirit that was lost after the bombing. Overall, the Red Sox team and organization played a role in the healing process after the tragedy, owing to the team 's unifying effect on the city.
Following the 2013 championship, the team finished last in the AL East during 2014 with a record of 71 -- 91, and again in 2015 with a record of 78 -- 84. On September 20, 2015, David Ortiz hit his 500th career home run off Matt Moore in Tropicana Field becoming the 27th player in MLB history to achieve that prestigious milestone; in November 2015, Ortiz announced that the 2016 season would be his last.
The Red Sox had a record of 93 -- 69 and won their division in 2016, with six American League All - Stars, the AL Cy Young Award winner in Rick Porcello, and the runner - up for the AL Most Valuable Player Award, Mookie Betts. Rookie Andrew Benintendi established himself in the Red Sox ' outfield, and Steven Wright emerged as one of the year 's biggest surprises. The Red Sox grabbed the lead in the AL East early and held on to it throughout the year, which included many teams honoring Ortiz throughout the season. Despite the success, the team lost five of their last six games of the regular season and were swept in the ALDS by the eventual American League Champion Cleveland Indians.
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37 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated November 6, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
The unofficial beginning of the spring training season for the Red Sox is Truck Day, the day a tractor - trailer filled with equipment leaves Fenway Park bound for the Sox spring training facility in Florida.
Former left fielder Mike Greenwell is from Fort Myers, Florida and was instrumental in bringing his team to the city for spring training. City of Palms Park was built in 1992 for that purpose and holds 8,000 people. It is also the home of the Red Sox Rookie team, the Gulf Coast League Red Sox, from April through June.
On October 28, 2008, the Lee County commission voted 3 -- 1 to approve an agreement with the Boston Red Sox to build a new spring - training facility for the team in south Lee County. Commissioner Brian Bigelow was the lone dissenting vote. Commissioner Bob Janes was not present for the vote, but stated that he supported it.
Dee was present in the chambers for the vote, and took the agreement back to Boston to meet with John Henry and other team officials. On November 1, 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County that will keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years.
Wednesday, April 30, 2009, the Lee County commissioners selected the Watermen - Pinnacle site on Daniels Parkway (a little more than a mile east of Interstate 75) as the site for the new facility. The backup choice, if negotiations between county staff and the developer falter, is the University Highland site just north of Germain Arena in Estero. Jeff Mudgett, a Fort Myers architect who is volunteering his time toward the project, envisions a facility with a mini-Fenway Park that would open for Spring 2012.
On March 29, 2011, it was announced that the new field would be named JetBlue Park at Fenway South. The park was named JetBlue Park after JetBlue Airlines, which has maintained major operations at Boston 's Logan International Airport since 2004.
Many characteristics of the stadium will be taken from Fenway Park, including a 37 - foot (11 m) Green Monster wall in left field, featuring seating on top of and behind the wall. Included in the wall will be a restored version of the manual scoreboard that was housed at Fenway for almost 30 years, beginning in the 1970s. The field dimensions at JetBlue Park will be identical to those at Fenway.
The Yankees -- Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Red Sox and New York Yankees have been rivals.
The rivalry is often a heated subject of conversation in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, every playoffs has featured one or both of the American League East rivals and they both have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. In addition, the teams have twice met in the last regular - season series of a season to decide the league title, in 1904 (when the Red Sox won) and 1949 (when the Yankees won).
The teams also finished tied for first in 1978, when the Yankees won a high - profile one - game playoff for the division title. The 1978 division race is memorable for the Red Sox having held a 14 - game lead over the Yankees more than halfway through the season. Similarly, the 2004 AL Championship Series is notable for the Yankees leading 3 games to 0 and ultimately losing a best of seven series. The Red Sox comeback was the only time in baseball history that a team has come back from a 0 -- 3 deficit to win a series.
The rivalry is often termed "the best '' and "greatest rivalry in all of sports. '' Games between the two teams often generate a great deal of interest and get extensive media coverage, including being broadcast on national television.
Currently, the flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WEEI - FM / 93.7. Joe Castiglione, in his 25th year as the voice of the Red Sox, serves as the lead play - by - play announcer, along with Dave O'Brien and Jon Rish. Some of Castiglione 's predecessors include Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman, and Ned Martin. He has also worked with play - by - play veterans Bob Starr and Jerry Trupiano. Many stations throughout New England and beyond pick up the broadcasts.
All Red Sox telecasts not shown nationally on Fox or ESPN are seen on New England Sports Network (NESN), until 2015 with Don Orsillo calling play - by - play and Jerry Remy, former Red Sox second baseman, as color analyst. At the start of the 2016 season, Dave O'Brien took over the play - by - play duties. During Remy 's recovery from cancer, former Red Sox players Dennis Eckersley and Dave Roberts have alternated doing color commentary. NESN became exclusive in 2006; before then, games were shown on such local stations as the original WHDH - TV, WNAC - TV (now the current WHDH), WBZ - TV, WSBK - TV, WLVI, WABU, and WFXT at various points in team history.
The Red Sox used to publish on their website and their annual media guides three official requirements for a player to have his number retired:
These requirements were reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame in 2000; who met the first two requirements but played the second half of his career with the White Sox. As a means of meeting the criteria, then - GM Dan Duquette hired Fisk for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically finish his career with the Red Sox.
In 2008, the Red Sox made an "exception '' by retiring # 6 for Johnny Pesky. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited "... his versatility of his contributions -- on the field, off the field, (and) in the dugout... '', including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well - earned. Pesky spent 55 years with the Red Sox organization; as a player (1942, 1946 - 1952), minor league manager (1961 - 1962, 1990), major league manager (1963 - 1964, 1980), broadcaster (1969 - 1974), major league coach (1975 - 1984), and as a special instructor and assistant general manager (1985 - 2012).
In 2015, the Red Sox chose to forgo the official criteria and retire Pedro Martínez 's # 45. Martínez only spent 7 of his 18 seasons in Boston. In justifying the number 's retirement, Red Sox principal owner John Henry stated, "To be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame upon his first year of eligibility speaks volumes regarding Pedro 's outstanding career, and is a testament to the respect and admiration so many in baseball have for him. '' After which, the official criteria no longer appeared on the team website nor future media guides.
In 2017, less than eight months after he played the final game of his illustrious career, David Ortiz had his # 34 retired by the Red Sox. Ortiz will not be eligible for election to the Hall of Fame until 2021. Ortiz is the only Red Sox player to have won three World Series championships since the issuance of jersey numbers starting in 1931.
The number 42 was officially retired by Major League Baseball in 1997, but Mo Vaughn was one of a handful of players to continue wearing # 42 through a grandfather clause. He last wore it for the team in 1998. In commemoration of Jackie Robinson Day, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 for games played on April 15, Coco Crisp (CF), David Ortiz (DH), and DeMarlo Hale (Coach) did that in 2007 and again in 2008. Starting in 2009, MLB had all uniformed players for all teams wear # 42 for Jackie Robinson Day.
While not officially retired, the Red Sox have not issued several numbers since the departure of prominent figures who wore them, specifically:
There has also been debate in Boston media circles and among fans about the potential retiring of Tony Conigliaro 's number 25. Nonetheless, since Conigliaro 's last full season in Boston, 1970, the number has continued to be issued to individuals, including players Orlando Cepeda, Steve Renko, Mark Clear, Ed Romero, Don Baylor, Larry Parrish, Jack Clark, Jeff Russell, Troy O'Leary, Jeremy Giambi, Ellis Burks, Adam Hyzdu, Mike Lowell, Jackie Bradley, Jr., Kyle Kendrick and Rajai Davis; coach Dwight Evans, and manager Bobby Valentine.
Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right - field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9 -- 4 -- 1 -- 8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9 / 4 / 18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship series that the Red Sox won before 2004. After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order. In 2012, the numbers were rearranged again in chronological order of retirement (9, 4, 1, 8, 27, 6, 14) followed by Robinson 's 42. As additional numbers are retired (e.g.: Pedro 's 45, Boggs 's 26, Papi 's 34), Robinson 's 42 is moved to the right so it remains the right-most number hanging.
Luis Aparicio Wade Boggs Lou Boudreau Jesse Burkett Orlando Cepeda Jack Chesbro Jimmy Collins
Joe Cronin Andre Dawson Bobby Doerr Dennis Eckersley Rick Ferrell * Carlton Fisk * Jimmie Foxx *
Lefty Grove * Rickey Henderson Harry Hooper Waite Hoyt Ferguson Jenkins George Kell Heinie Manush
Juan Marichal Pedro Martínez * Herb Pennock * Tony Pérez Jim Rice Red Ruffing Babe Ruth
Tom Seaver Al Simmons John Smoltz Tris Speaker Dick Williams Ted Williams Carl Yastrzemski Cy Young
Curt Gowdy
Bob Murphy
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cast of once upon a time season 5 episode 9 | Once Upon a Time (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American ABC fantasy - drama Once Upon a Time was ordered on May 7, 2015. It began airing on September 27, 2015, and ended on May 15, 2016. On June 9, 2015, the promotion of Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire to series regulars was announced for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while a few days later, Michael Socha was confirmed to not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts. The fifth season also saw the series reach its 100th episode, which aired on March 6, 2016 as the mid-season premiere.
New characters introduced to the series include the main antagonists for the two volumes, King Arthur, Nimue, and Hades. In addition, Guinevere, Merlin, Merida, Percival, Hercules, Megara, Zeus, Poole, Jekyll, and Hyde are also introduced to the series. The season also saw the return of numerous deceased characters from the first four seasons, including the Blind Witch, Queen of Hearts, Peter Pan, Cruella De Vil, Baelfire / Neal Cassidy, Milah, Prince Henry, Liam Jones, Prince James, Gaston, Claude, and Stealthy.
With Emma as the new Dark One, her family travels to Camelot to find the sorcerer Merlin to help remove the darkness from her vessel. The heroes are met with King Arthur and Queen Guinevere of Camelot, with both on the hunt of the Dark One 's dagger to make Excalibur whole. The trip to Camelot is cut short when another Dark Curse is cast, returning everyone to Storybrooke, where it 's revealed that Hook had also become a Dark One and is responsible for the new curse. The battle to destroy the darkness leads to the death of Hook, prompting Emma and the heroes to take a trip to the Underworld where Hades, as well as most of the deceased villains have plans of their own to get back to the land of the living. Hook is eventually resurrected, but results in the arrival of Mr. Hyde and refugees from the Land of Untold Stories to Storybrooke, as well as the separation of Regina Mills and her evil self, who wages war on Regina.
The season has been confirmed to be split into two halves, with the mid-season premiere being the 100th episode. In October 2015, Horowitz announced that the episode set to air on November 15, 2015 was set to be a two - hour episode. He later clarified that the season 's twelfth episode would be considered the 100th episode of the show, stating "it 's all semantics. But yes, we 're considering 512 the 100th! '' when discussing the fourth - season episode, Smash the Mirror, being two separate episodes.
On June 9, 2015, it was announced that Rebecca Mader and Sean Maguire had been promoted to series regulars for the fifth season, portraying their characters Zelena / Wicked Witch of the West and Robin Hood, respectively, while it was later revealed that Michael Socha would not be returning as a series regular as Will Scarlet / Knave of Hearts although further appearances as a recurring or guest star were hinted. Adam Horowitz confirmed via Twitter that Emilie de Ravin would return as Belle, while Vine Report confirmed the return of Jennifer Morrison as Emma Swan. On June 26, 2015, Josh Dallas confirmed his return as Prince Charming / David Nolan and Horowitz confirmed that there would be ten series regulars for the season. During Comic - Con 2015, Ginnifer Goodwin, Lana Parrilla, Colin O'Donoghue and Robert Carlyle were confirmed to return as Snow White / Mary Margaret Blanchard, Evil Queen / Regina Mills, Captain Killian "Hook '' Jones and Rumplestiltskin / Mr. Gold respectively, while Morrison 's character was confirmed to take on the moniker "Dark Swan ''. Jared S. Gilmore also returned as Henry Mills.
On June 26, 2015, it was revealed that Sinqua Walls would return as Lancelot. On July 1, 2015, it was announced that Liam Garrigan would play King Arthur during the first half of the season, while Gabe Khouth and Lee Arenberg confirmed via social media that they would be returning as Sneezy / Tom Clark and as Grumpy / Dreamy / Leroy respectively. On July 10, Beverley Elliott and Keegan Connor Tracy confirmed via their Twitter accounts that they would be returning as Widow Lucas / Granny and Blue Fairy / Mother Superior respectively while it was also confirmed that Elliot Knight, Joana Metrass and Andrew Jenkins had been cast as Merlin, Guinevere and Percival respectively.
Adam Horowitz announced on Twitter that Amy Manson had been cast in the role of the Scottish archer Princess Merida from Brave. Addressing rumours surrounding the characters origins Kitsis and Horowitz stated, "we are sticking to the canon of the movie Brave in terms of who her parents are and where she came from, but post-movie is where our Once Upon a Time spin comes into play ''. On September 8, Meghan Ory was confirmed to be returning for multiple episodes of the season as Little Red Riding Hood / Ruby, while on September 15, Horowitz revealed that Jamie Chung would be returning as Mulan. Both Chung and Ory will first appear in the season 's two - parter on November 15, 2015.
The premiere episode of the season, "The Dark Swan '', saw the return of David - Paul Grove as Doc, Faustine Di Bauda as Sleepy, Jeffrey Kaiser as Dopey, Michael Coleman as Happy, Mig Macario as Bashful, Raphael Alejandro as Roland, Timothy Weber as the Apprentice and Ingrid Torrance as the Severe Nurse who is revealed during the episode to be the show 's version of Nurse Ratched from Ken Kesey 's One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest, and introduced Lee Majdoub as Sir Kay and Mckenna Grace as Young Emma. Towards the end of the month, David Anders was confirmed to be returning as Dr. Victor Frankenstein / Dr. Whale. The second episode of the season, "The Price '', introduced Olivia Steele Falconer as Violet, a love interest for Henry.
On October 14, it was announced that Adam Croasdell was cast as Hook 's father, who will appear in a flashback before the midseason finale, and was later revealed to be called Brennan. The fifth episode, "Dreamcatcher '', saw the introduction of Ryan Robbins as Sir Morgan, Violet 's father, and Guy Fauchon as Vortigan. The sixth episode of the season, "The Bear and the Bow '', introduced Paul Telfer as Lord Macintosh, Marco D'Angelo as Lord MacGuffin and Josh Hallem as Lord Dingwall while the seventh episode, "Nimue '', saw the introductions of Jason Simpson as Adda, Caroline Ford as Nimue, Darren Moore as Vortigan and Graham Verchere as a young version of Merlin 's Apprentice.
On October 27, Glenn Keogh and Caroline Morahan were cast as Merida 's parents King Fergus and Queen Elinor respectively. During October and November 2015, multiple recurring characters from previous seasons were confirmed to be returning for the 100th episode, "Souls of the Departed '', these include Barbara Hershey as Cora, Robbie Kay as Peter Pan, Giancarlo Esposito would return as Magic Mirror / Sidney Glass, and Emma Caulfield as the Blind Witch who was last seen during the first season episode "True North ''. The episode will also introduce a recurring character, Hades (initially dubbed "The Distinguished Gentleman ''), who will be portrayed by Greg Germann. On February 22, it was announced that Michael Raymond - James will also return in the 100th episode as the deceased Neal Cassidy.
On November 10, it was announced that Victoria Smurfit would return as Cruella De Vil for numerous episodes during the second half of the season, beginning with the thirteenth episode, "Labor of Love ''. On November 16, it was announced that Bailee Madison would be returning in the same episode to reprise her role as a young Snow White, joined by newcomers Jonathan Whitesell and Kacey Rohl, who will be portraying Hercules and Megara, respectively. On December 3, 2015, the cast of the mid-season finale, "Swan Song '', was revealed with Eric Keenleyside returning as Maurice, Belle 's father and Oliver Bell being introduced as a Young Killian. On December 4, it was announced that Rachel Shelley would be reprising her role as Milah, Rumplestiltskin 's ex-wife and Hook 's ex-lover, for at least one episode in the second half of the season. On December 8, it was announced that the character of Dorothy Gale (previously portrayed by Matreya Scarrwener) will be returning midway through the second half of the season to be portrayed by a new actress, as the character will be aged up to her late 20s - early 30s. On December 18, it was revealed that the recurring role had been recast to Teri Reeves, who will be making her first appearance in the 16th episode of the season. On January 8, 2016, it was announced that the character of Gaston from Beauty and the Beast will be reappearing in an upcoming episode in the back - half of the 5B arc. This marks his first appearance since the season one episode "Skin Deep. '' Wes Brown will be taking over the role from Sage Brocklebank. On February 9, it was announced that Ava Acres and Isabella Blake - Thomas were cast as young versions of Regina and Zelena, respectively. They will appear via flashbacks in the nineteenth episode, "Sisters. '' On February 18, it was announced that Costas Mandylor will be appearing as Captain Silver, a pirate from Hook 's past. On February 23, it was announced that Rya Kihlstedt had been cast as Cleo, Emma 's former mentor, in a flashback to a time before Emma became a bail bonds woman. On March 15, it was announced that Sam Witwer and Hank Harris will be appearing in the recurring roles of Jacob and Nathaniel for a mental hospital arc, starting at the end of this season and into the sixth season.
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what is the second most widely spoken language in south asia | Languages of India - Wikipedia
Languages spoken in India belong to several language families, the major ones being the Indo - Aryan languages spoken by 78.05 % of Indians and the Dravidian languages spoken by 19.64 % of Indians. Languages spoken by the remaining 2.31 % of the population belong to the Austroasiatic, Sino - Tibetan, Tai - Kadai, and a few other minor language families and isolates. India (780) has the world 's second highest number of languages, after Papua New Guinea (839).
Article 343 of the Indian constitution stated that the official language of the Union should become Hindi in Devanagari script instead of the extant English. But this was thought to be a violation of the constitution 's guarantee of federalism. Later, a constitutional amendment, The Official Languages Act, 1963, allowed for the continuation of English in the Indian government indefinitely until legislation decides to change it.. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union were supposed to be the international form of Indian numerals, distinct from the numerals used in most English - speaking countries. Despite the misconceptions, Hindi is not the national language of India. The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.
The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution lists 22 languages, which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. Classical language status is given to languages which have a rich heritage and independent nature.
According to the Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599 other languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in definition of the terms "language '' and "dialect ''. The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English. Persian was the court language during the Mughal period in India. It reigned as an administrative language for several centuries until the era of British colonisation. English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government. Hindi, the most commonly spoken language in India today, serves as the lingua franca across much of North and Central India. However, there have been anti-Hindi agitations in South India, most notably in the state of Tamil Nadu.
The southern Indian languages are from the Dravidian family. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Proto - Dravidian languages were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE. The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami -- Parji), South - Central (Telugu -- Kui) and South Dravidian (Tamil - Kannada).
The northern Indian languages from the Indo - Aryan branch of the Indo - European family evolved from Old Indic by way of the Middle Indic Prakrit languages and Apabhraṃśa of the Middle Ages. The Indo - Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages -- Old Indo - Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo - Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE) and New Indo - Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo - Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo - Aryan Age.
Persian or Farsi was brought into India by the Ghaznavids and other Turko - Afghan dynasties as the court language. Culturally Persianized, they, in combination with the later Mughal dynasty (of Turco - Mongol origin), influenced the art, history and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, mainly lexically. In 1837, the British replaced Persian with English and Hindustani in Perso - Arabic script for administrative purposes, and the Hindi movement of the 19th Century replaced Persianised vocabulary with Sanskrit derivations and replaced or supplemented the use of Perso - Arabic script for administrative purposes with Devanagari.
Each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example, Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic, leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language. Hindi and Urdu are two of India 's official languages.
The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by Sir George Abraham Grierson from 1898 to 1928. Titled the Linguistic Survey of India, it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects. However, the results were skewed due to ambiguities in distinguishing between "dialect '' and "language '', use of untrained personnel and under - reporting of data from South India, as the former provinces of Burma and Madras, as well as the princely states of Cochin, Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore were not included in the survey.
Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language '' and "dialect '' are defined and grouped. Ethnologue, produced by the Christian evangelist organisation SIL International, lists 461 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 447 of which are living, while 14 are extinct. The 447 living languages are further subclassified in Ethnologue as follows: -
The People 's Linguistic Survey of India, a privately owned research institution in India, has recorded over 66 different scripts and more than 780 languages in India during its nationwide survey, which the organisation claims to be the biggest linguistic survey in India.
The People of India (POI) project of Anthropological Survey of India reported 325 languages which are used for in - group communication by 5,633 Indian communities.
The Census of India records and publishes data with respect to the number of speakers for languages and dialects, but uses its own unique terminology, distinguishing between language and mother tongue. The mother tongues are grouped within each language. Many of the mother tongues so defined could be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many mother tongues with tens of millions of speakers that are officially grouped under the language Hindi.
Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to the fact the returns were intentionally recorded incorrectly in states such as East Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, PEPSU, and Bilaspur.
The 1961 census recognised 1,652 mother tongues spoken by 438,936,918 people, counting all declarations made by any individual at the time when the census was conducted. However, the declaring individuals often mixed names of languages with those of dialects, subdialects and dialect clusters or even castes, professions, religions, localities, regions, countries and nationalities. The list therefore includes languages with barely a few individual speakers as well as 530 unclassified mother tongues and more than 100 idioms that are non-native to India, including linguistically unspecific demonyms such as "African '', "Canadian '' or "Belgian ''.
The 1991 census recognises 1,576 classified mother tongues. According to the 1991 census, 22 languages had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).
According to the most recent census of 2001, there are 1635 rationalised mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages. Of these, 29 languages have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers. There are a few languages like Kodava that do not have a script but have a group of native speakers in Coorg (Kodagu).
The language - related data results of the 2011 Census have not yet been released by the Government of India.
of total population
percentage of total
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Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of language families, language phyla and isolates. The languages of India belong to several language families, the most important of which are:
The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of speakers, is the Indo - Aryan language family, a branch of the Indo - Iranian family, itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the Indo - European language family. This language family predominates, accounting for some 1035 million speakers, or over 76.5 of the population, as per 2018 estimate. The most widely spoken languages of this group are Hindi (or more correctly, Hindustani, which includes Hindi and Urdu), Bengali, Konkani, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Rajasthani, Sindhi, Assamese (Asamiya), Maithili and Odia. Aside from the Indo - Aryan languages, other Indo - European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a lingua franca.
The second largest language family is the Dravidian language family, accounting for some 277 million speakers, or approximately 20.5 % as per 2018 estimate The Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in southern India and parts of eastern and central India as well as in parts of northeastern Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are Telugu, Tamil, Kannada and Malayalam. Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small scheduled tribe communities, such as the Oraon and Gond tribes. Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, Brahui in Pakistan and Dhangar, a dialect of Kurukh, in Nepal.
Families with smaller numbers of speakers are Austroasiatic and numerous small Sino - Tibetan languages, with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 3 % of the population.
The Austroasiatic language family (austro meaning South) is the autochthonous language in South Asia and Southeast Asia, other language families having arrived by migration. Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the Khasi and Munda languages, including Santhali. The languages of the Nicobar islands also form part of this language family. With the exceptions of Khasi and Santhali, all Austroasiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.
The Sino - Tibetan language family are well represented in India. However, their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a patch of leaves on the forest floor '' rather than with the conventional metaphor of a "family tree ''.
Sino - Tibetan languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, and also in the Indian states of West Bengal, Assam (hills and autonomous councils), Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura and Mizoram. Sino - Tibetan languages spoken in India include the scheduled languages Meitei and Bodo, the non-scheduled languages of Karbi, Lepcha, and many varieties of several related Tibetic, West Himalayish, Tani, Brahmaputran, Angami -- Pochuri, Tangkhul, Zeme, Kukish language groups, amongst many others.
Ahom language, a Southwestern Tai language, had been once the dominant language of the Ahom Kingdom in modern - day Assam, but was later replaced by the Assamese language (known as Kamrupi in ancient era which is the pre-form of the Kamrupi dialect of today). Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh together with Sino - Tibetans, e.g. Tai Phake, Tai Aiton and Tai Khamti, which are similar to the Shan language of Shan State, Myanmar; the Dai language of Yunnan, China; the Lao language of Laos; the Thai language of Thailand; and the Zhuang language in Guangxi, China.
The extinct and endangered languages of the Andaman Islands form a fifth Andamanese -, comprising two families, namely:
In addition, Sentinelese, an unattested language of the Andaman Islands, is generally considered to be related and part of the aerial group.
The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a language isolate is Nihali. The status of Nihali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austroasiatic language, as a dialect of Korku and also as being a "thieves ' argot '' rather than a legitimate language.
The other language isolates found in the rest of South Asia include Burushaski, a language spoken in Gilgit -- Baltistan (administered by Pakistan), Kusunda (in western Nepal) and Vedda (in Sri Lanka). The validity of the Great Andamanese language group as a language family has been questioned and it has been considered a language isolate by some authorities.
In addition, a Bantu language, Sidi, was spoken until the mid-20th century in Gujarat.
The language families in India are not necessarily related to the various ethnic groups in India, specifically the Indo - Aryan and Dravidian people. The languages within each family have been influenced to a large extent by both families.
Urdu has also had a significant influence on many of today 's Indian languages. Many North Indian languages have lost much of their Sanskritised base (50 % current vocabulary) to a more Urdu - based form. In terms of the written script, most Indian languages, except the Tamil script, nearly perfectly accommodate the Sanskrit language. South Indian languages have adopted new letters to write various Indo - Aryan based words as well, and have added new letters to their native alphabets as the languages began to mix and influence each other.
Though various Indo - Aryan and Dravidian languages may seem mutually exclusive when first heard, there is a much deeper underlying influence that both language families have had on each other down to a linguistic science. There is proof of the intermixing of Dravidian and Indo - Aryan languages through the pockets of Dravidian - based languages on remote areas of Pakistan, and interspersed areas of North India. In addition, there is a whole science regarding the tonal and cultural expression within the languages that are quite standard across India. Languages may have different vocabulary, but various hand and tonal gestures within two unrelated languages can still be common due to cultural amalgamations between invading people and the natives over time; in this case, the Indo - Aryan peoples and the native Dravidian people.
Prior to Independence, in British India, English was the sole language used for administrative purposes as well as for higher education purposes.
In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly of India, specifically what should be the language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national ''. Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English. This was not agreed to by the drafting Committee on the grounds that English was much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects. The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively. Eventually, a compromise was reached with Hindi in Devanagari script to be the official language of the union but for "fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, the English Language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement ''.
Article 343 (1) of the Constitution of India states "The Official Language of the Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. '' Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of English for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.
As the date for changeover approached, however, there was much alarm in the non Hindi - speaking areas of India, especially in Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry and Andhra Pradesh. Accordingly, Jawaharlal Nehru ensured the enactment of the Official Languages Act, 1963, which provided that English "may '' still be used with Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965. The wording of the text proved unfortunate in that while Nehru understood that "may '' meant shall, politicians championing the cause of Hindi thought it implied exactly the opposite.
In the event, as 1965 approached, India 's new Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri prepared to make Hindi paramount with effect from 26 January 1965. This led to widespread agitation, riots, self - immolations and suicides in Tamil Nadu. The split of Congress politicians from the South from their party stance, the resignation of two Union ministers from the South and the increasing threat to the country 's unity forced Shastri to concede.
As a result, the proposal was dropped, and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a resolution to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.
The Constitution of India does not give any language the status of national language.
Hindi, written in Devanagari script, is the most prominent language spoken in the country. In the 2001 census, 422 million (422,048,642) people in India reported Hindi to be their native language. This figure not only included Hindi speakers of Hindustani, but also people who identify as native speakers of related languages who consider their speech to be a dialect of Hindi, the Hindi belt. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
"Modern Standard Hindi '', a standardised language is the official language of the Union of India. In addition, it is one of only two languages used for business in Parliament however the Rajya Sabha now allows all 22 official languages on the Eighth Schedule to be spoken..
Hindustani, evolved from khari boli, a prominent tongue of Mughal times, which itself evolved from Apabhraṃśa, an intermediary transition stage from Prakrit, from which the major North Indian Indo - Aryan languages have evolved.
Varieties of Hindi spoken in India include Rajasthani, Braj Bhasha, Haryanvi, Bundeli, Kannauji, Hindustani, Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Magahi and Chhattisgarhi. By virtue of its being a lingua franca, Hindi has also developed regional dialects such as Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai. In addition, a trade language, Andaman Creole Hindi has also developed in the Andaman Islands.
In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a lingua franca across both North and Central India
Hindi is widely taught both as a primary language and language of instruction, and as a second tongue in most states.
British colonial legacy has resulted in English being a language for government, business and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a lingua franca over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a de facto lingua franca over much of India.
Until the Twenty - first Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy - First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Meitei and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages, which are given in the table below together with the speaking population and the regions where they are used.
The individual states, the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio - linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being Karnataka and Gujarat, which have Kannada and Gujarati as their sole official language respectively. Telangana, with a sizeable Urdu - speaking Muslim population, has two languages, Telugu and Urdu, as its official languages.
Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages. Jammu and Kashmir uses Urdu, which is spoken by fewer than 1 % of the population. Meghalaya uses English spoken by 0.01 % of the population. This phenomenon has turned majority languages into "minority languages '' in a functional sense.
In addition to states and union territories, India has autonomous administrative regions which may be permitted to select their own official language -- a case in point being the Bodoland Territorial Council in Assam which has declared the Bodo language as official for the region, in addition to Assamese and English already in use. and Bengali in the Barak Valley, as its official languages.
Native to the Bengal region, comprising the nation of Bangladesh and the states of West Bengal, Tripura and Barak Valley region of Assam. Bengali (also spelt as Bangla: বাংলা) is the fifth most spoken language in the world. After the partition of India (1947), refugees from East Pakistan were settled in Tripura, and Jharkhand and the union territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. There is also a large number of Bengali - speaking people in Maharashtra and Gujarat where they work as artisans in jewellery industries. Bengali developed from Abahatta, a derivative of Apabhramsha, itself derived from Magadhi Prakrit. The modern Bengali vocabulary contains the vocabulary base from Magadhi Prakrit and Pali, also borrowings & reborrowings from Sanskrit and other major borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Austroasiatic languages and other languages in contact with. Like most Indian languages, Bengali has a number of dialects. It exhibits diglossia, with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language. Bengali language has developed a rich cultural base spanning art, music, literature and religion. There have been many movements in defence of this language and in 1999 UNESCO declared 21 Feb as the International Mother Language Day in commemoration of the Bengali Language Movement in 1952.
Telugu is the most widely spoken Dravidian language in India. Telugu is an official language in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, making it one of the few languages (along with Hindi, Bengali, and Urdu) with official status in more than one state. It is also spoken by a significant number of people in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and by the Sri Lankan Gypsy people. It is one of six languages with classical status in India. Telugu ranks third by the number of native speakers in India (74 million in the 2001 Census), fifteenth in the Ethnologue list of most - spoken languages worldwide and is the most widely spoken Dravidian language.
Marathi is an Indo - Aryan language.It is the official language and co-official language in Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India respectively, and is one of the official languages of India. There were 71 million speakers in 2001 and 73 million speakers in 2007, ranking 19th in the list of most spoken languages. Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo - Aryan languages, dating from about 1200 AD (Mukundraj 's Vivek Sindhu from the close of the 12th century). The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and the Varhadi dialect. There are other related languages such as Khandeshi, Dangi, Vadvali and Samavedi. Malvani Konkani has been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi is one of several languages that descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. Further change led to the Apabhraṃśa languages like Old Marathi.
Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In Goa, Konkani is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes.
Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of Prakrit, Maharashtri, Dravidian languages, Apabhraṃśa and Sanskrit is understandable. At least 50 % of the words in Marathi are either taken or derived from Sanskrit. Many scholars claim that Sanskrit has derived many words from Marathi. Marathi has also shared directions, vocabulary and grammar with languages such as Indian Dravidian languages, and foreign languages such as Persian, Arabic, English and a little from Portuguese.
Tamil (also spelt as Thamizh: தமிழ்) is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken in Tamil Nadu, Puduchery and many parts of Sri Lanka. It is also spoken by large minorities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius and throughout the world. Tamil ranks fifth by the number of native speakers in India (61 million in the 2001 Census) and ranks 20th in the list of most spoken languages. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was the first Indian language to be declared a classical language by the Government of India in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving classical languages in the world. It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past. '' The two earliest manuscripts from India, acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil. Tamil is an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Sri Lanka and Singapore. It is also recognized as minority language in Canada, Malaysia, Mauritius and South Africa.
After independence, Modern Standard Urdu, the Persianised register of Hindustani became the national language of Pakistan. During British colonial times, a knowledge of Hindustani or Urdu was a must for officials. Hindustani was made the second language of British Indian Empire after English and considered as the language of administration. The British introduced the use of Roman script for Hindustani as well as other languages. Urdu had 70 million speakers in India (as per the Census of 2001), and, along with Hindi, is one of the 22 officially recognised regional languages of India and also an official language in the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Telangana that have significant Muslim populations.
Gujarati is an Indo - Aryan language. It is native to the west Indian region of Gujarat. Gujarati is part of the greater Indo - European language family. Gujarati is descended from Old Gujarati (c. 1100 -- 1500 CE), the same source as that of Rajasthani. Gujarati is the chief language in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also an official language in the union territories of Daman and Diu and Dadra and Nagar Haveli. According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 4.5 % of population of India (1.21 billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati. This amounts to 54.6 million speakers in India.
Kannada language is a Dravidian language which branched off from Kannada - Tamil sub group around 500 B.C.E according to the Dravidian scholar Zvelebil. According to the Dravidian scholars Steever and Krishnamurthy, the study of Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450 -- 1200 CE), Middle (1200 -- 1700 CE) and Modern (1700 -- present). The earliest written records are from the 5th century, and the earliest available literature in rich manuscript (Kavirajamarga) is from c. 850. Kannada language has the second oldest written tradition of all vernacular languages of India. Current estimates of the total number of epigraph present in Karnataka range from 25,000 by the scholar Sheldon Pollock to over 30,000 by the Sahitya Akademi, making Karnataka state "one of the most densely inscribed pieces of real estate in the world ''. According to Garg and Shipely, more than a thousand notable writers have contributed to the wealth of the language.
Malayalam (/ mæləˈjɑːləm /; മലയാളം, Malayāḷam (maləjaːɭəm)) has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages and is spoken by some 38 million people. Malayalam is also spoken in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka; with some speakers in the Nilgiris, Kanyakumari and Coimbatore districts of Tamil Nadu, and the Dakshina Kannada and the Kodagu district of Karnataka. Malayalam originated from Middle Tamil (Sen - Tamil) in the 7th century. As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from Sanskrit, the Grantha alphabet was adopted for writing and came to be known as Arya Eluttu. This developed into the modern Malayalam script.
Odia (formerly spelled Oriya) is the only Indian classical language from Indo - Aryan group alongside Sanskrit. Odia is primarily spoken in the Indian state of Odisha and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 80 % of the population in Odisha. Odia is thought to have originated from Magadhi Prakrit similar to Ardha Magadhi, a language spoken in eastern India over 1,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (7th century -- 1200), Early Middle Odia (1200 -- 1400), Middle Odia (1400 -- 1700), Late Middle Odia (1700 -- 1850) and Modern Odia (1850 till present day). The National Manuscripts Mission of India have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia.
Punjabi, written in the Gurmukhi script in India, is one of the prominent languages of India with about 32 million speakers. In Pakistan it is spoken by over 80 million people and is written in the Shahmukhi alphabet. It is mainly spoken in Punjab but also in neighboring areas. It is an official language of Delhi and Punjab.
Asamiya or Assamese language is most popular in the state of Assam and Brahmaputra Valley. It 's an Eastern Indo - Aryan language having more than 10 million speakers as per world estimates by Encarta.
Maithili (/ ˈmaɪtɪli /; Maithilī) is an Indo - Aryan language spoken in the Bihar and Jharkhand states of India. In Nepal, it is spoken in the eastern Terai, and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal. Tirhuta was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of Kaithi. Today it is written in the Devanagari script.
In 2003, Maithili was included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution as a recognised regional language of India, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts.
In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language in India ''. In 2004, the Tamil Nadu politician M Karunanidhi offered support to the Manmohan Singh Government on the condition that the Central government would declare Tamil as a Classical language. Over the next few years, several other languages were granted the Classical status, and similar demands have been made for other languages, including Marathi.
Languages thus far declared to be Classical:
In a 2006 press release, Minister of Tourism and Culture Ambika Soni told the Rajya Sabha the following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a "Classical Language '',
High antiquity of its early texts / recorded history over a period of 1500 -- 2000 years; a body of ancient literature / texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; the literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; the classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
The Government has been criticized for not including Pali as a classical language, as experts have argued that it fits all the above criteria.
As per Government of India 's Resolution No. 2 - 16 / 2004 - US (Akademies) dated 1 November 2004, the benefits that will accrue to a language declared as a "Classical Language '' are:
The 2001 census identified the following native languages having more than one million speakers. Most of them are dialects / variants grouped under Hindi.
India has several languages in use; choosing any single language as an official language presents problems to all those whose "mother tongue '' is different. However, all the boards of education across India recognise the need for training people to one common language. There are complaints that in North India, non-Hindi speakers have language trouble. Similarly, there are complaints that North Indians have to undergo difficulties on account of language when travelling to South India. It is common to hear of incidents that result due to friction between those who strongly believe in the chosen official language, and those who follow the thought that the chosen language (s) do not take into account everyone 's preferences. Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.
There are conflicts over linguistic rights in India. The first major linguistic conflict, known as the Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu, took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing DMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu. Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Karnataka, Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra. To express disapproval of the imposition of Hindi on its states ' people as a result of the central government, the government of Maharashtra made the state languages mandatory in educational institutions.
The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, and the Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Most languages in India are written in Brahmi - derived scripts, such as Devanagari, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Eastern Nagari - Assamese / Bengali, etc., though Urdu is written in a script derived from Arabic, and a few minor languages such as Santali use independent scripts.
Various Indian languages have their own scripts. Hindi, Marathi and Angika are languages written using the Devanagari script. Most major languages are written using a script specific to them, such as Assamese (Asamiya) with Asamiya, Bengali with Bengali, Punjabi with Gurmukhi, Odia with Odia script, Gujarati with Gujarati, etc. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Saraiki and Sindhi are written in modified versions of the Perso - Arabic script. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Languages like Kodava that did n't have a script whereas Tulu which had a script adopted Kannada due to its readily available printing settings; these languages have taken up the scripts of the local official languages as their own and are written in the Kannada script.
Tamil - Brahmi inscription in Jambaimalai.
Silver coin issued during the reign of Rudra Singha with Assamese inscriptions.
North Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillar.
The Halmidi inscription, the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period.
An early Telugu inscription found in the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh.
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who owns mandalay bay casino in las vegas nevada | Mandalay Bay - wikipedia
Mandalay Bay is a 43 - story luxury resort and casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by MGM Resorts International. One of the property 's towers operates as the Delano; the Four Seasons Hotel is independently operated within the Mandalay Bay tower, occupying 5 floors (35 -- 39).
Mandalay Bay has 3,309 hotel rooms, 24 elevators and a casino of 135,000 square feet (12,500 m). Adjacent to the hotel is the 2,000,000 square feet (190,000 m) Mandalay Bay Convention Center and the 12,000 - seat Mandalay Bay Events Center. The Mandalay Bay Tram connects the resort to its sister properties, Excalibur and Luxor, all three of which were constructed by Circus Circus Enterprises before its sale to MGM.
In 1995, Circus Circus Enterprises bought the Hacienda for $80 million and an adjacent 74 - acre (30 ha) site for $73 million. They closed the Hacienda on December 1, 1996, and imploded it a month later on New Year 's Eve. Plans for the tropical - themed "Project Paradise '' were revealed the same day, with an estimated budget of $800 million to $1 billion. In February 1998 the project was renamed Mandalay Bay to evoke the exotic tropical romanticism of the poem "Mandalay ''.
Problems arose during construction because of excessive and uneven settling of the soil beneath the building; the core of the building sank by 17 inches (430 mm), while one of the wings had settled by only 2 inches (51 mm). Rumors about the severity of the issues depressed Circus Circus 's stock price. The problem was solved by installing 536 micropiles (200 - foot - long metal pipes filled with grout, each capped with a hydraulic jack) below the building, at an estimated cost of $8 to $10 million.
The resort opened on March 2, 1999, with grand opening festivities that included the Blues Brothers (Dan Aykroyd, James Belushi, and John Goodman) leading a procession of 200 motorcycles to Mandalay Bay 's front doors, and a concert by Bob Dylan at the House of Blues.
In June 1999, Circus Circus changed its name to Mandalay Resort Group.
Construction of a major convention center at Mandalay Bay was begun in June 2001, with its opening originally set for the summer of 2002. After a delay in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Mandalay Bay Convention Center opened in January 2003. With 1.5 million square feet (140,000 m) of space, it was the fifth largest convention center in the nation.
On May 23, 2002, the Mandalay Resort Group announced a second 1,122 - room hotel tower, with a cost of at least $200 million. Construction began on the project in September 2002. The name of the tower, THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, was revealed in October 2003. The tower opened on December 17, 2003.
In February 2005, Mandalay Resort Group was sold to MGM Mirage (later MGM Resorts International), who currently own the resort. The acquisition was finalized on April 25, 2005.
On October 1, 2017, gunman Stephen Paddock opened fire on an adjacent country music festival from a room on the 32nd floor of the hotel, killing 58 and wounding 546. The shooting ended when Paddock committed suicide before Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department officers breached the hotel room. The incident is the deadliest mass shooting by a lone gunman in recent U.S. history.
The gold coloring of the hotel is a result of gold leaf used on the windows. Levels 40 - 42 (numbered as floors 60 -- 62) are designed as penthouse suites, with a penthouse lounge on level 62 for guests staying in the penthouses. Level 43 (numbered as 64) is the Foundation Room, a restaurant and bar.
Five floors (floors 35 -- 39) of the main hotel building are occupied by the five - star and AAA Five - Diamond Four Seasons Hotel Las Vegas.
The resort 's second tower, with 45 stories and 1,117 suites, previously operated as THEhotel at Mandalay Bay, now operates as Delano Las Vegas. Each suite is at least 750 square feet (70 m).
A production of the classic Broadway musical Chicago debuted at Mandalay Bay 's 1999 grand opening and ran for one year. Storm, an original production show featuring Latin music, ran from April 2001 to July 2002. Mamma Mia! was a long - running stage production at the resort from 2003 to 2009. The show was replaced with Disney 's The Lion King, which opened on May 15, 2009. Its run ended in 2011 to make way for Michael Jackson: One, by Cirque du Soleil, which opened May 2013.
Another popular attraction is the House of Blues, a venue for live music and a restaurant, with a capacity of approximately 1,800. On the top floor of the hotel is the House of Blues Foundation Room, featuring a dining room, private dining rooms, and a balcony looking down the Las Vegas Strip.
Mandalay Beach is an 11 acres (4.5 ha) pool area with three heated pools, a wave pool with connecting pool for small children, and a lazy river that features a small waterfall. The wave pool features 1.6 million gallons of water and waves in 90 - second intervals with heights ranging anywhere from two to four feet. Because of this, it has a strict 48 '' height requirement. The European - style pool, called Moorea, features its own private bar as well as the allowance of female guests to bathe topless. Because of this, Moorea is separated from the rest of the pool by smoked glass windows and has an over-21 requirement. There are also two restaurants at the Beach. The pool area won the Las Vegas Review Journal 's Reader 's "Best Pool of Las Vegas '' award for seven years in a row. One pool remains open throughout the winter months.
In keeping with the resort 's tropical theme, it features a saltwater aquarium, the Shark Reef Aquarium, which contains the third largest tank in North America. Shark Reef Aquarium contains numerous other exhibits, including two tunnel - shaped, walk - through aquariums.
The Mandalay Bay Events Center, a 12,000 - seat arena, hosts major events including concerts, boxing matches, and Ultimate Fighting Championship events. It has played host to the Latin Grammy Awards several times, and the Miss Universe pageant.
This 1,000,000 square feet (93,000 m) facility is one of the largest privately owned convention centers in the world. It has several ballrooms ranging in size up to 100,000 square feet (9,300 m), and can support up to 75 breakout sessions.
The Shoppes at Mandalay Place is a 310 - foot (94 m) - long retail sky bridge.
There are 24 restaurants at the resort. Michael Mina, Alain Ducasse, Rick Moonen, Charlie Palmer, Hubert Keller, Wolfgang Puck, Mary Sue Milliken and Susan Feniger are all associated with restaurants on the property.
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who is rudolph the red-nosed reindeer's dad | Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer - wikipedia
Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer, popularly known as "Santa 's ninth reindeer '', is a fabled reindeer created by Robert Lewis May. Rudolph is usually depicted as the lead reindeer pulling Santa 's sleigh on Christmas Eve, though he is a young buck who has only adolescent antlers and a glowing red nose. Though he receives scrutiny for it, the luminosity of his nose is so great that it illuminates the team 's path through harsh winter weather.
Rudolph first appeared in a 1939 booklet written by Robert L. May and published by Montgomery Ward, the department store.
The story is owned by The Rudolph Company, LP and has been adapted in numerous forms including a popular song, the iconic 1964 television special and sequels, and a feature film and sequel. Character Arts, LLC manages the licensing for the Rudolph Company, LP. In many countries, Rudolph has become a figure of Christmas folklore. 2014 marked the 75th anniversary of the character and the 50th anniversary of the television special. A series of postage stamps featuring Rudolph was issued by the United States Postal Service on November 6, 2014.
Robert L. May created Rudolph in 1939 as an assignment for Chicago - based Montgomery Ward. The retailer had been buying and giving away coloring books for Christmas every year and it was decided that creating their own book would save money. May considered naming the reindeer "Rollo '' or "Reginald '' before deciding upon using the name "Rudolph. '' In its first year of publication, Montgomery Ward distributed 2.4 million copies of Rudolph 's story. The story is written as a poem in anapestic tetrameter, the same meter as "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' (also known as "' Twas the Night Before Christmas ''). Publication and reprint rights for the book Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer are controlled by Pearson PLC.
While May was pondering how best to craft a Christmas story about a reindeer, while staring out his office window in downtown Chicago, a thick fog from Lake Michigan blocked his view -- giving him a flash of inspiration. "Suddenly I had it! '' he recalled. "A nose! A bright red nose that would shine through fog like a spotlight. ''
The cultural significance of a red nose has changed since the story 's publication. In 1930 's popular culture, a bright red nose was closely associated with chronic alcoholism and drunkards, so the story idea was initially rejected. May asked his illustrator friend at Montgomery Ward, Denver Gillen, to draw "cute reindeer '', using zoo deer as models. The alert, bouncy character Gillen developed convinced management to support the idea.
Maxton Books published the first mass - market edition of Rudolph in 1947 and a sequel, Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer Shines Again, in 1954. In 1992, Applewood Books published Rudolph 's Second Christmas, an unpublished sequel that Robert May wrote in 1947. In 2003, Penguin Books issued a reprint version of the original Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer with new artwork by Lisa Papp. Penguin also reprinted May 's sequels, Rudolph Shines Again and Rudolph 's Second Christmas (now retitled Rudolph to the Rescue).
The story chronicles the experiences of Rudolph, a youthful reindeer buck (male) who possesses an unusual luminous red nose. Mocked and excluded by his peers because of this trait, Rudolph proves himself one Christmas Eve with poor visibility due to inclement weather after Santa Claus catches sight of Rudolph 's nose and asks Rudolph to lead his sleigh for the evening. Rudolph agrees and is finally favored by his fellow reindeer for his heroism and accomplishment.
Rudolph made his first screen appearance in 1948, in a cartoon short produced by Max Fleischer for the Jam Handy Corporation that was more faithful to May 's original story than Marks ' song, which had not yet been written. It was reissued in 1951 with the song added.
May 's brother - in - law, Johnny Marks, adapted the story of Rudolph into a song. Gene Autry 's recording of the song hit No. 1 on the Billboard pop singles chart the week of Christmas 1949. Autry 's recording sold 2.5 million copies the first year, eventually selling a total of 25 million, and it remained the second best - selling record of all time until the 1980s.
DC Comics, then known as National Periodical Publications, published a series of 13 annuals titled Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer from 1950 to 1962. Rube Grossman drew most of the 1950s stories.
In 1972, DC Comics published a 14th edition in an extra-large format. Subsequently, they published six more in that format: Limited Collectors ' Edition C - 24, C - 33, C - 42, C - 50 and All - New Collectors ' Edition C - 53, C - 60.
Additionally, one digest format edition was published as The Best of DC # 4 (March -- April 1980). The 1970s Rudolph stories were written and drawn by Sheldon Mayer.
In 1958, Little Golden Books published an illustrated storybook, adapted by Barbara Shook Hazen and illustrated by Richard Scarry. The book, similar in story to the Max Fleischer cartoon short, is no longer in print, but a revised Little Golden Books version of the storybook was reissued in 1972.
Perhaps the most well - known version of all the Rudolph adaptations is the Rankin / Bass Productions version of 1964. Filmed in Japan, with all sound recordings done in Toronto, Canada, the show premièred on NBC. As the producers of the special only had the song as source material and did not have a copy of the original book, they interpolated an original story around the central narrative of the song, one that differed from the book. This re-telling chronicles Rudolph 's social rejection among his peers and his decision to run away from home. Rudolph is accompanied by a similarly outcast elf named Hermey, who skipped elf practice to become a dentist, along with a loud, boisterous, eager prospector named Yukon Cornelius who was in search of wealth. Additional original characters include Rudolph 's love interest, Clarice; the antagonistic "Abominable Snow Monster ''; and, as narrator, the living Sam the Snowman, voiced by Burl Ives.
In the 1964 stop - motion movie, Rudolph is born to Donder the Reindeer and Donder 's wife. He is discovered by Santa to have a shiny, glowing red nose. Donder, regardless of Rudolph 's defect, trains him to be a normal reindeer with skills such as gathering food and hiding from the "Abominable Snow Monster '', a giant, furry white beast. To hide Rudolph 's nose, Donder puts dirt on it to cover it with a black coating. This causes Rudolph to talk in a funny accent, as told by the Rudolph 's peers. A short time later, Rudolph joins his peers at the Reindeer Games, where he meets Fireball, who is initially friendly and has a shock of strawberry blond hair on his head, and Clarice, a female spectator who takes a liking to Rudolph. Clarice 's flirtation inspires Rudolph to perform better than all of his peers at flying, but in his excitement he knocks the black cover off his nose, revealing a red glow that causes Fireball and the others to turn against him; this distraction, in turn, prompts the coach (Comet) to ban Rudolph from the Reindeer Games. Clarice remains loyal to him, only to be ordered by her father not to shame the family by associating with "a red - nosed reindeer. ''
Rudolph soon runs into Hermey, an elf who was forced out of his job at the North Pole 's toy factory; Hermey showed a total lack of interest in the toymaking and singing aspects of being an elf and instead wanted to pursue dentistry. They come to the conclusion that they 're both misfits and decide to run away together. On their aimless journey, they run into Yukon Cornelius, the self - described "greatest prospector of the North '' who nevertheless seems to never find any silver or gold, and attempt to stay away from the Bumble, a huge abominable snow monster. Their journey leads them to the Island of Misfit Toys, where sentient but unorthodox toys go when they are abandoned by their owners. King Moonracer, the winged lion that lords over the Island, refuses to let them stay there permanently, instead telling the trio to return home and tell Santa Claus of the toys ' plight, in exchange for one night 's stay on the island. Rudolph refuses the offer and, fearing for his friends ' life, runs off alone.
A now older Rudolph, still unable to find a place in the world, returns home to the North Pole, only to find that his family and Clarice had left to look for him and are now about to be eaten by the Bumble. With the help of Hermey and Yukon (who arrived separately), they lure the Bumble away and pacify him by knocking him unconscious and allowing Hermey (with dental skills he has acquired by reading books) to remove his sharp teeth. Everyone eventually returns to Santa 's workshop, where a dismayed Santa Claus breaks the bad news that the weather is too bad to take the sleigh out and that Christmas would be canceled. Santa changes his mind when he notices Rudolph 's red nose and asks Rudolph to lead the sleigh team, which he happily accepts.
After the story 's initial broadcast, its closing credits were revised. Images of wrapped presents being dropped from Santa 's sleigh were replaced by a scene in which Santa stops to pick up the Misfit Toys and delivers them to the homes of children below, where they were found by children who loved them. The changes were prompted by viewer feedback pleading for a happy ending for each toy. The special now airs annually on CBS, rather than NBC, and is hailed as a classic by many. The special 's original assortment of characters have acquired iconic status, and an uncertainty surrounding an error in the special 's copyright has allowed the special to be widely parodied and imitated in the decades since its original airing.
The sequel Rudolph 's Shiny New Year (premier air date December 10, 1976) continued the reindeer 's journeys, and the series was made into a trilogy with the 1979 feature - length film Christmas in July, which integrated the Rudolph universe into that of Rankin / Bass 's adaptation of Frosty the Snowman.
Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer: The Movie (1998) is an animated feature film. It received only a limited theatrical release before debuting on home video. Its inclusion of a villain, a love interest, a sidekick, and a strong protector are more derivative of the Rankin / Bass adaptation of the story than the original tale and song (the characters of Stormella, Zoey, Arrow, Slyly, and Leonard parallel the Rankin / Bass characters of the Bumble, Clarice, Fireball, Hermey, and Yukon, respectively). The movie amplifies the early backstory of Rudolph 's harassment by his schoolmates (primarily his cousin Arrow) during his formative years.
GoodTimes Entertainment, the producers of Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer: The Movie, brought back most of the same production team for a CGI animated sequel, Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer and the Island of Misfit Toys (2001). Unlike the previous film, the sequel featured the original characters from the Rankin / Bass special (as GoodTimes soon learned that Rankin / Bass had made a copyright error that made the characters unique to their special free to use).
A live - action version of Rudolph (complete with glowing nose) along with Donder and Blitzen appears in the Doctor Who Christmas special, "Last Christmas '' which was broadcast on BBC One on 25 December 2014. In this special, Santa is able to park him like a car and turn off his nose.
Nathaniel Dominy, an anthropology professor at Dartmouth College (Robert L. May 's alma mater), published a scholarly paper on Rudolph 's red nose in the open access online journal Frontiers for Young Minds in 2015. In the paper, Dominy noted that reindeer eyes can perceive shorter wavelengths of light than humans, allowing them to see ultraviolet light; ultraviolet light, however, is much more easily scattered in fog, which would blind reindeer. Thus, Rudolph 's red nose, emitting longer - wavelength red light, would penetrate the fog more easily. A summary of Dominy 's findings was released in an Associated Press article on December 22.
Three BBC animations carry on the legend by introducing Rudolph 's son, Robbie the Reindeer. However, Rudolph is never directly mentioned by name (references are replaced by the first and second films ' villain Blitzen interrupting with the phrase, "Do n't say that name! '', or something similar, presumably for copyright reasons.)
Rudolph is also given a younger brother, Rusty Reindeer, in the American special, Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Did n't Happen (2006). Unlike in the "Robbie the Reindeer '' cartoons, Rudolph 's name is mentioned in the film.
Michael Fry and T. Lewis have given Rudolph another brother in a series of Over the Hedge comic strips: an overweight, emotionally damaged reindeer named Ralph, the Infra - Red nosed Reindeer, who is referred to as Rudolph 's older brother. Ralph 's red nose is good for defrosting Santa 's sleigh and warming up toast and waffles; he enviously complains about his brother Rudolph 's publicity and his own anonymity.
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who plays the opera singer in the fifth element | Inva Mula - wikipedia
Inva Mula (born June 27, 1963) is an Albanian opera lyric soprano. She began her soprano career at a very early age. Her father (Avni Mula) and mother (Nina Mula) were also opera singers. She is also widely known in popular culture for providing the voice of the Diva Plavalaguna in the film The Fifth Element.
Mula was born in Tirana, Albania to an Albanian father from Gjakove and a Russian mother. In 1987 she won the Cantante d'Albania competition in Tirana and in 1988 the George Enescu Competition in Bucharest. In 1992 she won the Butterfly Competition in Barcelona. She received an award at Plácido Domingo 's first Operalia International Opera Competition contest in Paris, 1993. A CD of the event was released.
She later performed in various concerts at the Opéra Bastille in Paris, and in Brussels for Europalia Mexico, in Munich, and in Oslo. In 1996 she performed Luigi Cherubini 's opera Médée (which was taped for TV) at Compiègne in France. She then returned for Georges Bizet 's opera La Jolie fille de Perth (released CD, filmed for TV, and released DVD in Japan) in 1998. After this she recorded Puccini 's La Rondine with Angela Gheorghiu for EMI and for 2005 's stage production she took Gheorghiu 's place in the leading role of Magda during performances in Toulouse and Paris. Later on, she performed Bizet 's Ivan IV concert version, which had its recital debut at Salle Pleyel in Paris, and a live recording was released as CD. In 2001, she was busy in Italy, performing Verdi 's Falstaff at the Teatro alla Scala and Rigoletto at the Verona Arena, both of which were taped for TV then released on DVD.
Mula has sung in Lucia di Lammermoor, La bohème, and Manon, among others. She is also a renowned Violetta in La Traviata, and has sung the role in many cities around the world, including Tokyo, Bilbao, Orange, Trieste, and Toronto. In 2007, she performed Adina in L'elisir d'amore at Toulouse, and in 2009 she sang the title role in Gounod 's Mireille with the Paris Opera at the Palais Garnier, a performance that was issued on DVD.
She is often accompanied by the French - Albanian pianist Genc Tukiçi.
Her ex-husband Pirro Çako is a well - known singer and composer from Albania, so she used the spelling Tchako rather than Çako. However, after mid-1990 she began using the name Inva Mula, and never returned to the old one. They are now divorced. Her current husband is Hetem Ramadani, a businessman from Kosovo.
Mula is perhaps best known to Western filmgoers as the voice of the Diva Plavalaguna (played on - screen by Maïwenn Le Besco) in the 1997 film The Fifth Element, where she is credited using her (then) married name as Inva Mulla Tchako. She performed the aria "Oh, giusto cielo!... Il dolce suono '' (the mad scene) from Gaetano Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor and "The Diva Dance ''.
Director Luc Besson adored Maria Callas, but the sound quality of her 1956 EMI Classics recording of "Lucia '' was n't clear enough to use on a film soundtrack, so Callas 's agent Michel Glotz, who had produced this recording, introduced him to Mula.
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what does it mean for a drug to be highly protein bound | Plasma protein binding - wikipedia
Plasma protein binding refers to the degree to which medications attach to proteins within the blood. A drug 's efficiency may be affected by the degree to which it binds. The less bound a drug is, the more efficiently it can traverse cell membranes or diffuse. Common blood proteins that drugs bind to are human serum albumin, lipoprotein, glycoprotein, and α, β ‚ and γ globulins.
A drug in blood exists in two forms: bound and unbound. Depending on a specific drug 's affinity for plasma protein, a proportion of the drug may become bound to plasma proteins, with the remainder being unbound. If the protein binding is reversible, then a chemical equilibrium will exist between the bound and unbound states, such that:
Notably, it is the unbound fraction which exhibits pharmacologic effects. It is also the fraction that may be metabolized and / or excreted. For example, the "fraction bound '' of the anticoagulant warfarin is 97 %. This means that of the amount of warfarin in the blood, 97 % is bound to plasma proteins. The remaining 3 % (the fraction unbound) is the fraction that is actually active and may be excreted. Note that this does not mean that 97 % of the plasma proteins are bound with drug, however.
Protein binding can influence the drug 's biological half - life. The bound portion may act as a reservoir or depot from which the drug is slowly released as the unbound form. Since the unbound form is being metabolized and / or excreted from the body, the bound fraction will be released in order to maintain equilibrium.
Since albumin is alkalotic, acidic and neutral drugs will primarily bind to albumin. If albumin becomes saturated, then these drugs will bind to lipoprotein. Basic drugs will bind to the acidic alpha - 1 acid glycoprotein. This is significant because various medical conditions may affect the levels of albumin, alpha - 1 acid glycoprotein, and lipoproteins.
Only the unbound fraction of the drug undergoes metabolism in the liver and other tissues. As the drug dissociates from the protein, more and more drug undergoes metabolism. Changes in the levels of free drug change the volume of distribution because free drug may distribute into the tissues leading to a decrease in plasma concentration profile. For the drugs which rapidly undergo metabolism, clearance is dependent on the hepatic blood flow. For drugs which slowly undergo metabolism, changes in the unbound fraction of the drug directly change the clearance of the drug.
The fraction unbound can be altered by a number of variables, such as the concentration of drug in the body, the amount and quality of plasma protein, and other drugs that bind to plasma proteins. Higher drug concentrations would lead to a higher fraction unbound, because the plasma protein would be saturated with drug and any excess drug would be unbound. If the amount of plasma protein is decreased (such as in catabolism, malnutrition, liver disease, renal disease), there would also be a higher fraction unbound. Additionally, the quality of the plasma protein may affect how many drug - binding sites there are on the protein.
Using 2 drugs at the same time can sometimes affect each other 's fraction unbound. For example, assume that Drug A and Drug B are both protein - bound drugs. If Drug A is given, it will bind to the plasma proteins in the blood. If Drug B is also given, it can displace Drug A from the protein, thereby increasing Drug A 's fraction unbound. This may increase the effects of Drug A, since only the unbound fraction may exhibit activity.
Note that for Drug A, the % increase in unbound fraction is 100 % -- hence, Drug A 's pharmacological effect can potentially double (depending on whether the free molecules get to their target before they are eliminated by metabolism or excretion). This change in pharmacologic effect could have adverse consequences.
However, this effect is really only noticeable in closed systems where the pool of available proteins could potentially be exceeded by the number of drug molecules. Biological systems, such as humans and animals, are open systems where molecules can be gained, lost or redistributed and where the protein pool capacity is almost never exceeded by the number of drug molecules. A drug that is 99 % bound means that 99 % of the drug molecules are bound to blood proteins not that 99 % of the blood proteins are bound with drug. When two, highly protein - bound drugs (A and B) are added into the same biological system it will lead to an initial small increase in the concentration of free drug A (as drug B ejects some of the drug A from its proteins). However, this free drug A is now more available for redistribution into the body tissues and / or for excretion. This means the total amount of drug in the system will decrease quite rapidly, keeping the free drug fraction (the concentration of free drug divided by the total drug concentration) constant and yielding almost no change in clinical effect.
The effects of drugs displacing each other and changing the clinical effect (though important in some examples) is vastly overestimated usually and a common example incorrectly used to display the importance of this effect is the anticoagulant Warfarin. Warfarin is highly protein - bound (> 95 %) and has a low therapeutic index. Since a low therapeutic index indicates that there is a high risk of toxicity when using the drug, any potential increases in warfarin concentration could be very dangerous and lead to hemorrhage. In horses, it is very true that if warfarin and phenylbutazone are administered concurrently, the horse can develop bleeding issues which can be fatal. This is often explained as being due to the effect of phenylbutazone ejecting warfarin from its plasma protein, thus increasing the concentration of free warfarin and increasing its anticoagulant effect. However, the real problem is that phenylbutazone interferes with the liver 's ability to metabolize warfarin so free warfarin can not be metabolized properly or excreted. This leads to an increase in free warfarin and the resulting bleeding issues.
Shargel, Leon (2005). Applied Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics. New York: McGraw - Hill, Medical Pub. Division. ISBN 0 - 07 - 137550 - 3.
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how old is the figure skater from japan | Yuzuru Hanyu - wikipedia
Yuzuru Hanyu (羽生 結 弦, Hanyū Yuzuru, born 7 December 1994) is a Japanese figure skater who competes in the men 's singles discipline. He is a two - time Olympic champion (2014, 2018), a two - time World champion (2014, 2017), a four - time Grand Prix Final champion (2013 -- 2016), a three - time Four Continents silver medalist (2011, 2013, 2017), the 2010 World Junior champion, the 2009 -- 10 Junior Grand Prix Final champion, and a four - time Japanese national champion (2012 -- 2015). He has also medaled at three other World Championships, taking bronze in 2012, and silver in 2015 and 2016.
Hanyu is the first Asian figure skater competing in men 's singles to win the Olympic gold. At the age of nineteen, he was the youngest male skater to win the Olympic title since Dick Button in 1948. He also became the first man to win two consecutive Olympic gold medals since Dick Button 's back - to - back titles in 1948 and 1952. At the 2016 CS Autumn Classic International, Hanyu became the first skater in history to successfully land a quadruple loop in competition. He is the first men 's singles skater from Asia to win multiple World Championships.
Widely regarded as the greatest figure skater in history, Hanyu has broken world records twelve times, and currently holds the world records for the highest short program, free skating, and combined total scores. As one of the pioneers of the so - called ' quad era ', he is the first man to have broken the 100 - point barrier in the men 's short program, the 200 - point barrier in the men 's free skating, and the 300 - point barrier in the combined total score. He is also the only man to have achieved scores above the 110, 220, and 330 - point barriers. Because of his ability to seamlessly execute technical elements with unparalleled artistry and musicality, he is considered as the gold standard in men 's figure skating.
Hanyu was born and raised in Sendai, and has an older sister named Saya. His name means "a bowstring which is pulled tight '', symbolizing confidence, strength, and straightness. His father named him, wishing him to be as hardworking, with a strong mind. His parents wanted him to live a simple life, but be dignified, powerful and graceful.
Hanyu has asthma, and can often be seen heavily catching his breath after finishing his programs. He attended Tohoku High School, where famous Japanese figure skaters Takeshi Honda and Shizuka Arakawa also attended. His house was damaged by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, but remained habitable. As of 2014, he was a sophomore at Waseda University 's e-School program, studying human informatics and cognitive sciences.
Hanyu is fond of Winnie the Pooh and is frequently given stuffed Pooh bears as gifts by spectators after finishing his programs.
Hanyu began skating at the age of four, following his older sister to the rink. His figure skating idol growing up was Evgeni Plushenko. He first competed nationally as a novice skater in the 2004 -- 05 season; he skated at the 2004 Japan Novice Championships in the Novice B category, which is the lower of the two categories at the novice level, and won the gold medal in this competition. His home rink then closed due to financial problems, reducing his training time. Nanami Abe became his coach around that time. In the 2006 -- 07 season, Hanyu competed at the 2006 Japan Novice Championships in the Novice A category and won the bronze medal. This placement earned him an invitation to compete at the 2006 -- 07 Japan Junior Championships, where he placed 7th.
Hanyu 's home rink reopened in 2007. He competed at the 2007 Japan Novice Championships in the Novice A category and won the event. He was invited to compete in the 2007 -- 08 Japan Junior Championships, where he won the bronze medal.
Hanyu moved up to the junior level and debuted at the ISU Junior Grand Prix. He placed 6th in the short program and 4th in the free skating to finish 5th overall at the event in Merano, Italy. Following his Junior Grand Prix event, Hanyu placed 4th in the short program with 57.25 points and 1st in his free skating with 124.92 points, giving him a total of 182.17 points to win the gold medal overall at the 2008 -- 09 Japan Junior Championships. He was the youngest male skater to win Japan Junior Championship, at the age of 13. This competition served both as the junior national championships and the World Junior Championships qualifier, so Hanyu was also qualified by this placement for the 2009 World Junior Championships.
The medal also earned him an invitation to compete on the senior level at the 2008 -- 09 Japan Championships, where he placed 8th. At the 2009 World Junior Championships in February, Hanyu placed 11th in the short program with 58.18 points and 13th in his free skating with 103.59 points, giving him a total of 161.77 points to finish 12th overall.
In the 2009 -- 10 season, Hanyu won both of his Junior Grand Prix events, in Croatia and Poland, and finished as the top qualifier for the Junior Grand Prix Final. At the 2009 -- 10 Japan Junior Championships, he won the short program and placed 2nd in the free skating to win the title overall. This earned Hanyu an invitation to compete on the senior level at the 2009 -- 10 Japan Championships. He then competed at and won the 2009 -- 10 Junior Grand Prix Final, achieving a new personal best score. At the 2009 -- 10 Japan Junior Championships, he placed first on the junior level. He also competed at the senior level, where he came in sixth. Based on his results, Hanyu was chosen to compete at the 2010 World Junior Championships. He won the competition after placing third in the short program and first in the free skating to earn a new personal best of 216.10 points, and became the fourth, and the youngest, Japanese man to win the junior world title.
For the 2010 -- 11 season, Hanyu moved up to the senior level at the age of 15. His assignments for the 2010 -- 11 Grand Prix series were the 2010 NHK Trophy and the 2010 Cup of Russia. In his senior debut at the 2010 NHK Trophy, Hanyu placed 5th in the short program with 69.31 points; in his free skating, he landed his first quadruple toe loop jump in an ISU competition and came in 4th with 138.41 points, giving him a total of 207.72 points to finish 4th overall. Hanyu finished in seventh place at the Cup of Russia. At the 2010 -- 11 Japan Championships, Hanyu was in second place after the short program, but faltered in the free skating and finished fourth overall. As the result, he was selected to compete at the 2011 Four Continents Championships, where he won the silver medal with a new personal best score.
Hanyu was skating at his home rink in Sendai when the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami struck his hometown and the region. Water pipes under the ice at his home rink burst as a result of the April 2011 Miyagi earthquake. He trained in Yokohama and Hachinohe, Aomori until his home rink reopened on July 24, 2011. He also skated in 60 ice shows, using them as an opportunity to train. In April, he and other skaters took part in an ice show to raise money for the victims.
Hanyu began the 2011 -- 12 season with a win at the Nebelhorn Trophy. He placed first in both the short program and the free skating, for a combined total score of 226.26 points. For the 2011 -- 12 Grand Prix series, he was assigned to the 2011 Cup of China and the 2011 Rostelecom Cup. He finished 4th at the Cup of China, then won the Rostelecom Cup with a new personal best score to qualify for his first senior Grand Prix Final, where he placed fourth.
Hanyu then won the bronze medal at the 2011 -- 12 Japan Championships, earning a spot on the Japanese team for the 2012 World Championships. In his senior Worlds debut, Hanyu was seventh in the short program but placed second in the free skating. He won the bronze medal overall with a total score of 251.06 points, behind gold medalist Patrick Chan of Canada and silver medalist, his teammate, Daisuke Takahashi of Japan.
In April 2012, Hanyu switched coaches to Brian Orser in Toronto, Canada. It was reported he would make frequent trips to Toronto and continue to attend high school in Sendai. After moving to Canada, Hanyu increased his on - ice training to 3 -- 4 hours a day, up from 1 -- 2 hours which had been due to a combination of limited ice time in Sendai, schooling, and asthma.
Hanyu began his season at the 2012 Finlandia Trophy, where he won the gold medal. He landed two quadruple jumps, a quad toe loop and a quad salchow, in his free skating; it was the first time he had a landed the latter jump in competition. Hanyu won the silver medal at his first Grand Prix event of the season, the 2012 Skate America. His short program score at Skate America, 95.07 points, was a new world record. At his second event, the 2012 NHK Trophy, he scored 95.32 in the short program, beating his own world record, and went on to win the gold medal in his hometown. Hanyu qualified for the 2012 -- 13 Grand Prix Final in Sochi, where he finished second.
In December 2012, Hanyu claimed his first national title at the 2012 -- 13 Japan Championships after placing first in the short program and second in the free skating. He took silver at the 2013 Four Continents Championships, having placed first in the short program and third in the free skating. At the 2013 World Championships, he was ninth in the short program and third in the free skating, finishing fourth overall.
In the 2013 - 14 season, Hanyu succeeded in capturing the Grand Prix Final, Olympic and World titles and breaking the record for the short program twice. He was also the first skater to break the 100 - point barrier in the short program.
Hanyu began his season at the 2013 Finlandia Trophy, where he won the gold medal after placing first in both the short program and free skating. He won silver in both of his 2013 -- 14 Grand Prix events, the 2013 Skate Canada International and 2013 Trophée Éric Bompard, qualifying him for the 2013 -- 14 Grand Prix Final. At the Grand Prix Final in Fukuoka, Hanyu placed first in the short program with 99.84 points and set a new world record. He also won the free skating with a personal best of 193.41 despite falling on the quadruple Salchow and won the title with a total score of 293.25 points.
In December 2013, Hanyu competed at the 2013 -- 14 Japan Championships where he went on to win a second Japanese national title after placing first in both programs. He earned 103.10 points in the short program and 194.70 in the free skating. He was subsequently named to Japan 's teams to the Olympics and World Championships.
At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Hanyu competed for Team Japan at the Figure Skating Team Event. During the team event, he took part only in the men 's short program, where he scored 97.98 points, winning that segment of the competition and giving Team Japan 10 points. They finished 5th at the end of the competition.
Hanyu broke his own world record in the men 's short program individual event, scoring 101.45 points. He was the first skater to score over 100 points in the short program. Hanyu obtained 178.64 points in the free skating and won the first Olympic gold medal for Japan in men 's figure skating event, and only the second for the nation, his following Shizuka Arakawa 's gold medal in the women 's event in 2006 in Turin. His win also marked the first time any Asian country has won gold in the men 's event. He was the youngest winner of the Olympic men 's title since American Dick Button in 1948. Hanyu was also the only Japanese athlete to win gold in Sochi. After winning the gold medal, he returned to Sendai, where a parade attended by 92,000 people was held in celebration.
Hanyu completed the season with a victory at the 2014 World Championships in Saitama, Japan. Following a fall in a Quad toe loop in the short program, Hanyu sat in 3rd place coming into the final with a score of 91.24, 6.97 points behind compatriot Tatsuki Machida. He came back with a free skating earning 191.35 points to win that segment of the competition and claiming his first World title scoring 282.59 points overall. His total score was 0.33 points ahead of silver medalist Machida.
Hanyu became the first skater since Alexei Yagudin (in 2002) to win the Olympics, World Championships, and Grand Prix Final in the same season. His free skating costume was designed by American figure skater Johnny Weir.
Hanyu 's 2014 - 15 season was plagued by injury and illness. Despite that, Hanyu defended his Grand Prix Final title and earned a silver medal at the 2015 World Championships.
Hanyu withdrew from the 2014 Finlandia Trophy due to a back injury. For the 2014 -- 15 Grand Prix season, he was selected to compete at the 2014 Cup of China and 2014 NHK Trophy.
At the Cup of China, Hanyu was second in the short program. The next day, during the free skating warm - up, Hanyu had a collision with China 's Yan Han. Hanyu was visibly injured, but decided to compete. He fell five times in the free skating, but scored enough to win the silver medal. After the competition, he received stitches on his head and chin. He flew to Japan for further treatment. He had bruising to his chin and head, hurt his midriff and left thigh, and sprained his right ankle.
A few days before the NHK Trophy, he announced that he would compete but stated that he was n't in top form. He struggled in the short program, placing fifth. The next day, he continued to have difficulties but placed third in the free skating, fourth overall. The score just barely, by a 0.15 point margin, earned him a spot to the Grand Prix Final. At the Final, he was first in both the short program (94.08 points) and free skating (194.08 points, a new personal best score and the overall highest free skating score of the season), earning the gold medal. His total score was 34.26 points higher than silver medalist Javier Fernández.
In December 2014, Hanyu competed in the 2014 -- 15 Japan Championships. He placed first in both the short program and free skating with a total score of 286.86 points, earning him his third consecutive Japan National Championships title and the first spot for Japan at the 2015 World Championships. He withdrew from the gala following the competition due to abdominal pain. Hanyu was diagnosed with a bladder problem related to the urachus and had surgery. He was hospitalized for two weeks, and was expected to resume training a month afterwards. However, in the middle of February, he sprained his right ankle and once again, suspended on - ice training for two weeks. In March, his training restarted in Japan without his coach, Brian Orser.
He competed at the 2015 World Championships, where he scored a season 's best in the short program. He entered as 1st into the free skating, and scored 175.88, for a total of 271.08. He finished second behind Spain 's Javier Fernández by less than 3 points, and over bronze medalist Denis Ten.
He competed for the first time at the 2015 World Team Trophy, in Tokyo, Japan. He scored first in both the short program (with a new season 's best) and the free skating, receiving 24 points to help Team Japan win the bronze medal, behind Team USA and Team Russia. He was the only skater to win both segments in that competition.
The 2015 -- 16 season saw Hanyu break all three men 's figure skating world records twice, become the first man to break the 200 - point and 300 - point barriers in the free skating and total scores respectively, become the first man to win three consecutive Grand Prix Final titles and earn a silver medal at the 2016 World Championships, despite an injury in his left foot.
For the 2015 -- 16 season, Hanyu decided to skate to a Japanese theme for his free skating, with music from the soundtrack to the films Onmyōji and Onmy ō ji 2 where he would be portraying natural philosopher and astrologer Abe no Seimei. He also met up with Mansai Nomura, the actor who portrayed Seimei in the film to get advice on how to portray him.
Hanyu started his season by winning gold at 2015 Skate Canada Autumn Classic, finishing 36 points ahead of silver medalist, Nam Nguyen. For the 2015 -- 16 Grand Prix series, Hanyu was selected to compete at Skate Canada and NHK Trophy.
At 2015 Skate Canada International, he placed sixth in the short program with the score of 73.25 points after invalidating his popped quadruple toe loop into a double and breaking the Zayak Rule by executing a triple lutz - double toe loop instead of a planned triple lutz - triple toe loop. In the free skating, he pulled up to second with a score of 186.29, after executing three quadruple jumps including the quadruple Salchow and toe loop in the first half, and quadruple toe loop - double toe loop in the second. He finished second overall behind Patrick Chan and above Daisuke Murakami with a total score of 259.54.
At the 2015 NHK Trophy, Hanyu placed first in the short program with a world record score of 106.33. He cleanly executed a quadruple Salchow, a quadruple toe loop - triple toe loop combination, and a triple Axel. In the free skating, Hanyu landed three clean quadruple jumps, two clean triple Axels, and five clean triple jumps to receive 216.07 and combined total of 322.40, breaking both world records. With this result, he qualified for the Grand Prix Final in second place with 28 ranking points.
At the 2015 -- 16 Grand Prix Final in Barcelona, Hanyu broke the short program record which he had set just two weeks prior, totaling a score of 110.95 points, putting him in the lead, 19.43 points ahead of Javier Fernandez. In the free skating, Hanyu again broke his own record, scoring 219.48 points, giving him a combined total of 330.43, which was also a new world record, and his third Grand Prix Final title in a row. Hanyu is the first man to have won Grand Prix Final for three consecutive seasons. He won with a margin of 37.48 points, breaking the previous victory margin record held by Evgeni Plushenko in 2004 (35.1 points).
On December 26, 2015, Hanyu won his fourth consecutive title at the 2015 -- 16 Japan Championships, leading in both the short program and the free skating. Following that event, Hanyu announced that he would not compete at the 2016 Four Continents Championships because he planned to focus on training for the 2016 World Championships.
Hanyu skated another clean short program at the 2016 World Championships, scoring 110.56 points. He won that segment of the competition and had a 12.04 - point lead over Javier Fernández, who came in second. In the free skating, Hanyu put a hand down on a quadruple Salchow, fell on the second attempt without putting it into combination, stepped out of a triple Axel, popped a triple Salchow into a double, and had another hand down on the triple Lutz. After an error - filled performance he finished the competition in 2nd place, behind Javier Fernandez.
On April 26, the Japan Skating Federation announced that Hanyu would be taking two months off the ice to heal from injury. He had been dealing with pain in his left foot since the beginning of the season, which got worse in January. The pain was the reason why Hanyu elected to do two quadruple Salchows in his free skating at Worlds, instead of two quadruple toe loops. Hanyu was diagnosed with Lisfranc ligament damage in his left foot.
In the 2016 -- 17 season, Hanyu succeeded in being the first skater in history to land a quadruple loop, defending his Grand Prix Final title, and recapturing his World title while breaking the world record for the free skating score.
For the 2016 -- 17 Grand Prix, Hanyu 's assignments were Skate Canada International and NHK Trophy. His short program music was "Let 's Go Crazy '' by Prince and the free skating music was from "Asian Dream Song '' & "View of Silence '' by Joe Hisaishi, with the program 's name titled as "Hope and Legacy ''.
Hanyu competed at the Autumn Classic International, where he won the gold medal and became the first skater in history to successfully land a quadruple Loop in competition.
At the 2016 Skate Canada International, he placed fourth in the short program, after landing his first jump on one knee, nearly putting his hand on the ice on the second and failing to perform a jump combination. In the free skating, he pulled up to first with a score of 183.41. Overall he finished second behind Patrick Chan, and ahead of Kevin Reynolds.
Following this, at the NHK Trophy, Hanyu scored 103.89 in the short program and led this segment of the competition by almost 16 points over Nathan Chen. In his free skating, Hanyu landed three quadruple jumps: loop, Salchow and a toe loop, but made mistakes on two other jumping passes. He broke the three - hundred barrier again, scoring 301.47 and winning the gold medal.
At the 2016 -- 17 Grand Prix Final in Marseille, Hanyu placed first in the short program with 106.53 points after a solid showing. During the free skating, Hanyu had a strong start with clean jumps in the first half of the program, but made mistakes on three jumping passes in the latter half. He came in third in that segment of the competition, but thanks to his score advantage from the short program finished first overall and became the first man to win four consecutive Grand Prix finals.
After developing the flu, Hanyu withdrew from the Japanese National Championships. Despite this, he was selected to compete at the 2017 Four Continents Championships and 2017 World Championships.
At the 2017 Four Continents Championships, Hanyu placed third in the short program with a score of 97.04 points, due to popping his quadruple Salchow - triple toe loop combination to a double - triple. He finished the short program 6 points behind Nathan Chen who placed first, and around 3.5 points behind Shoma Uno, who was second. During his free skating, despite a strong start, he again popped his planned quadruple Salchow - triple toe loop combination attempt. Hanyu then improvised his layout for the second half of the program, successfully changing three of his jumping passes into more difficult elements to maximize his score after the mistake. He placed first in the free skating with a score of 206.67, but overall finished second behind Nathan Chen by about four points.
At the 2017 World Championships, Hanyu was fifth after the short program after an invalidating the second part of his quadruple Salchow - double toe loop combination and receiving a time deduction. In the free skating, Hanyu landed all of his jumps cleanly with high grades of execution, including two triple Axels and four quadruple jumps, as well as executing level four footwork and spins. He scored 223.20 in the free skating and set a new world record and personal best, finishing the competition with 321.59 points in first place, winning his second World title. Second was Japan 's Shoma Uno (319.31), while China 's Boyang Jin (303.58) took bronze.
At the 2017 World Team Trophy, Hanyu came in seventh place after a mistake - laden short program. He popped his quadruple loop to a single loop and invalidated the element, as well as put his hand down on a quadruple Salchow and failed to perform a combination. In the free skating Hanyu placed first after receiving 200.49 points for a program that featured four quadruple jumps, three with positive grades of execution. He performed three of his quads in the second half of the program including a quadruple toe loop - half loop - triple Salchow combination, in doing so becoming the first skater to complete three quadruple jumps in the second half of a free skating program. However, he singled two other jumps. Overall he added 18 points to the team score, and took gold with Team Japan.
The 2017 -- 18 season was a turbulent one for Hanyu, after an injury he had suffered in November 2017 kept him off the ice for two months and sidelined him from competing for three months in the middle of his preparations for the Olympics. Despite being able to participate in only three events that season, he managed to set a new world record for the short program, land his first quadruple Lutz in competition and defend his Olympic title.
For the 2017 -- 18 season, Hanyu returned to Chopin 's "Ballade No. 1 '' for his short program, the same music he used two seasons ago for his world record breaking short program. He also decided to repeat his free skating to the soundtrack from the film Onmyōji, with an upgraded layout compared to the one he performed in the 2015 - 16 season.
His assignments for the 2017 -- 18 Grand Prix series were the 2017 Rostelecom Cup and the 2017 NHK Trophy.
At his first competition of the season, Skate Canada Autumn Classic International, he received 112.72 points for his short program, breaking the world record he had set previously at the 2015 - 16 Grand Prix Final (110.95). Hanyu executed all of his jumping passes cleanly, with two of them receiving the highest grade of execution (+ 3.00) unanimously from the judges. Due to pain in his right knee, he elected to not perform a quadruple loop in this competition. During the free skating, Hanyu popped his opening jump into a single Lutz and uncharacteristically fell on a triple Axel. He also popped three planned jumps into doubles and landed forward on a quadruple toe loop attempt, receiving a downgrade. He received 155.52 points and won the silver medal overall behind Fernández.
At the 2017 Rostelecom Cup, Hanyu was second after the short program. He under - rotated his opening quadruple loop jump and slightly lost balance after a poor landing. He also fell after his final jump, a quadruple toe loop - triple toe loop combination. The next day, Hanyu landed his first quadruple Lutz in competition and received + 1.14 grade of execution for the jump. Despite making mistakes on two of his jumping passes, his performance pulled him to first in the free, with a score of 195.92. Overall, he finished second behind Nathan Chen by around three points.
Hanyu injured a lateral ligament in his right ankle while practicing the quadruple Lutz on November 9, 2017. As a result, he decided to withdraw from the 2017 NHK Trophy, which automatically prevented him from competing for his fifth consecutive Grand Prix Final title. Due to his recovery taking longer than expected, Hanyu also decided to withdraw from the 2017 Japanese National Championships. Despite missing the event serving as an Olympic qualifier for Japanese skaters, he would be assured of a spot on the Olympic team, given his top world standing and position as the reigning world champion.
On December 24, 2017, it was announced that Hanyu was assigned to represent Japan at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea and the 2018 World Figure Skating Championships in Milan, Italy. On February 3, it was announced that Hanyu would not participate in the team event at the Olympics to buy more time for practice at his training base in Toronto in preparation for the individual event.
Hanyu arrived in South Korea on February 11, accompanied by heavy security detail and amid intense media coverage. His practice sessions at the Olympics were a subject of media scrutiny and were attended by hundreds of reporters. At a press conference on February 13, held by Hanyu after one of his official practices, he revealed he was off the ice until January and started executing triple jumps just three weeks, and quadruple jumps just two weeks prior to the competition, and that he still had not decided which technical elements he would use for the event.
On February 16, Hanyu performed a flawless short program, for which he scored 111.68 points, putting him first in that segment of the competition. The score was just 1.04 points shy of his personal best of 112.72, which is also the current world record. The next day, he went on to score 206.17 points in the free skating with a solid program that included four quadruple jumps, three of them landed cleanly. He earned 317.85 points overall, winning his second consecutive Olympic gold medal, a feat that had not been achieved since Dick Button 's back - to - back titles in 1948 and 1952. Hanyu 's medal was the 1000th medal awarded in the history of the Winter Olympic Games. He stood on the podium with his compatriot Shoma Uno (silver) and training mate Javier Fernandez (bronze). Hanyu was the most discussed and mentioned athlete of these Olympics on the social networking website Twitter.
During a press conference on February 18, Hanyu revealed that he performed his Olympic practices and programs on strong painkillers, admitting that if he was n't taking medication, he would be unable to attempt the jumps or land them. The ankle injury he sustained in November, which forced him to go on a 3 - month hiatus from competing and lower the technical difficulty of his programs for the Olympics, turned out to be more severe than anticipated. He stated that his future competition plans were unclear, since the injury had not healed yet and he wanted to focus on full recovery. However, Hanyu said he had no intention to quit skating, and that his next goal would be landing a quadruple Axel, a jump that has never been landed in competition.
On March 7, 2018 the Japan Skating Federation announced that Hanyu decided to withdraw from the upcoming World Championships in Milan, Italy to allow his injured foot to recover. After a medical examination following his Olympic win, it was revealed that the damaged ligaments in his right ankle and other unspecified injuries required at least two weeks of rest and three months of rehabilitation to heal.
Hanyu is regarded by analysts as a well - rounded skater, known for his ability to combine strong technique with mature and versatile artistry. The 2006 Olympic silver medalist Stephane Lambiel described him as "the most complete athlete in figure skating, probably ever ''. Various media outlets and commentators have recognized Hanyu as the greatest skater in history, particularly after his second Olympic victory, for his consistency in results in a highly competitive field and ability to deliver under pressure. His skating techniques include the Biellmann spin and the doughnut spin. Both are known for their difficulty, for male skaters especially, due to the flexibility required. Other signature moves include the layback Ina Bauer, hydroblading, and the side lunge.
His elements are praised for their high quality of execution and his jumps are noted for their precision, flow, and ice coverage. Hanyu is known for his difficult triple Axel entries, usually from a back counter or a spread eagle. He stated his preference for edge jumps, and notably featured all three edge jumps in his short program for the 2016 - 17 season. Hanyu is credited as the first figure skater to successfully land a quadruple loop in an ISU sanctioned competition. Currently, Hanyu is able to execute four different types of quadruple jumps in competition -- the toe loop, Salchow, loop, and Lutz.
Before the 2011 -- 12 season, most of Hanyu 's career was guided by Nanami Abe in Sendai. However, after winning bronze at the 2012 World Figure Skating Championships, Hanyu switched coaches to Brian Orser, who is known for guiding Kim Yuna to gold in the 2010 Winter Olympics. In switching, Hanyu continued to go to high school in Sendai, but also made frequent trips to Toronto Cricket, Skating and Curling club, where Orser works as a skating instructor. Hidehito Ito, the figure skating director at the Japanese Skating Federation, said the change was necessary to "challenge '' Hanyu and "raise the level (of his skating) more ''.
In Hanyu 's junior career, all of his programs were choreographed by Nanami Abe. Starting from his 2012 - 2013 season, his programs were choreographed by others, such as David Wilson, Shae - Lynn Bourne, and Jeffrey Buttle. Choreographers for his exhibitions include Kurt Browning, Kenji Miyamoto, and former coach Nanami Abe as well.
Hanyu has appeared in a number of commercials and advertising campaigns. From December 2013, Hanyu, alongside fellow Japanese figure skater Daisuke Takahashi, became the 2014 Sochi Winter Olympics campaign ambassador for P&G 's global "Proud sponsor of moms '' campaign. From February 8 to 23, 2014, Hanyu endorsed All Nippon Airways ' new line of flight attendant outfits, which were designed by Prabal Gurung.
On September 2, 2014, Hanyu endorsed Lotte 's Ghana milk chocolate with Mao Asada, singer Airi Matsui, and actresses Suzu Hirose and Tao Tsuchiya, as well as Xylitol Whites. Later that month, he starred in a TV commercial for Capcom 's new video game "Monster Hunter 4G ''. In October 2014, Hanyu also endorsed sport nutritional products Amino Vital as well as Bathclin in February 2015. Since December 13, 2014, Hanyu has partnered up with Phiten for their line of Rakuwa nylon coated necklace models. He also signed an endorsement contract with Nishikawa Sangyo co. since March 2015. For Olympic Day 2015, Hanyu appeared in its promotional video as a boxer. He became the spokesperson for the Red Cross ' Hatachi blood donation campaign, where he starred in the promotional video with patients. On December 31, 2015, Hanyu served as a judge on Japan 's popular New Year 's Eve music show, Kōhaku Uta Gassen.
Since the 2011 Japan earthquake and tsunami, Hanyu has been an active spokesperson and supporter for various campaigns to help the earthquake victims, as he himself was directly affected by the disaster. Shortly after the disaster, he and other skaters skated ice shows to raise money for the victims, raising a total of more than $ 150,000. He also sold his personal belongings at the show, fundraising an additional ¥ 2,954,323 ($35,387). His autobiography, Blue Flames, was published in Japan in April 2012, with the royalties and part of the proceeds going to the Sendai ice rink, which was rendered unusable after the disaster. It was revealed, in 2017, that a total of ¥ 11,638,660 was donated to Sendai ice rink from the royalties of Blue Flames. His second autobiography, Blue Flames II, was released in 2016. Like its predecessor, the royalties went to Sendai ice rink for its reconstruction. A total of ¥ 13,674,115 from Blue Flames II ' s royalties was donated. In 2014, Hanyu held a one night ice show, which was broadcast on 24Hour TV, to bring in donations. Since February 2015, he is the spokesperson for reconstruction efforts led by the Japanese Red Cross Society. As part of his efforts, Hanyu also visited earthquake affected areas in Fukushima and Ishinomaki, interviewing the victims as part of the 24Hour TV segment. In July 2015, he and Hey! Say! JUMP member Yuri Chinen designed "CHARI - T - shirts '' for 24Hour TV annual event under the slogan: "to connect ~ a smile beyond time ~ ''. The shirts were to be sold, with the profits given to charity.
Hanyu 's first DVD / Blu - ray album, Time of Awakening, was released on May 21, 2014, selling 21,000 copies. It was the first DVD from an athlete to top Oricon 's DVD ranking since its establishment in 1999. The album also peaked at number 3 on the chart 's Blu - ray ranking. His first photo book, YUZURU, was released on October 4 of the same year, selling over 23,000 copies. It ranked first in Oricon 's weekly charts for photos and sport - related categories, as well as second in the chart 's general books category. On September 25, 2015, Yuzuru Hanyu Goroku was released containing pictures and quotes by the athlete. The book topped Amazon 's reservation sales rankings. On December 18, 2015, NHK Enterprises released the DVD, Flowers bloom ON ICE, featuring behind - the - scenes and interviews with Shizuka Arakawa and Yuzuru Hanyu as they skate an ice show together to support reconstruction after the 2011 Japan earthquake.
Hanyu made his on - screen debut as Date Shigemura, a samurai lord, in the 2016 movie, The Magnificent Nine.
Hanyu is the most popular athlete in Japan according to Oricon News.
Japan Medals of Honor
Japanese Olympic Committee
Japan Skating Federation
Media
Municipality
Hanyu has broken 12 world records in his career:
Hope and Legacy:
GP: Grand Prix; CS: Challenger Series; JGP: Junior Grand Prix
Small medals for short programs and free skating awarded only at ISU Championships.
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where do trains go when not in use | Train station - wikipedia
A train station, railway station, railroad station, or depot (see below) is a railway facility where trains regularly stop to load or unload passengers or freight.
It generally consists of at least one track - side platform and a station building (depot) providing such ancillary services as ticket sales and waiting rooms. If a station is on a single - track line, it often has a passing loop to facilitate traffic movements. The smallest stations are most often referred to as "stops '' or, in some parts of the world, as "halts '' (flag stops).
Stations may be at ground level, underground, or elevated. Connections may be available to intersecting rail lines or other transport modes such as buses, trams or other rapid transit systems.
In British English, traditional usage favours railway station or simply station, even though train station, which is often perceived as an Americanism, is now about as common as railway station in writing; railroad station is not used, railroad being obsolete there. In British usage, the word station is commonly understood to mean a railway station unless otherwise qualified.
In the American English, the most common term in contemporary usage is train station. Railway station and railroad station are less frequent.
In addition to its use for storage facilities, in North America the term depot is sometimes used as an alternative name for station, along with the compound forms train depot, railway depot, and railroad depot, but also applicable for goods and other vehicles.
The world 's first recorded railway station was The Mount on the Oystermouth Railway (later to be known as the Swansea and Mumbles) in Swansea, Wales, which began passenger service in 1807, although the trains were horsedrawn rather than by locomotives.
The two - storey Mount Clare station in Baltimore, Maryland, which survives as a museum, first saw passenger service as the terminus of the horse - drawn Baltimore and Ohio Railroad on 22 May 1830.
The oldest terminal station in the world was Crown Street railway station in Liverpool, built in 1830, on the locomotive hauled Liverpool to Manchester line. As the first train on the Liverpool - Manchester line left Liverpool, the station is slightly older than the Manchester terminal at Liverpool Road. The station was the first to incorporate a train shed. The station was demolished in 1836 as the Liverpool terminal station moved to Lime Street railway station. Crown Street station was converted to a goods station terminal.
The first stations had little in the way of buildings or amenities. The first stations in the modern sense were on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, opened in 1830. Manchester 's Liverpool Road Station, the second oldest terminal station in the world, is preserved as part of the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester. It resembles a row of Georgian houses. Early stations were sometimes built with both passenger and goods facilities, though some railway lines were goods - only or passenger - only, and if a line was dual - purpose there would often be a goods depot apart from the passenger station.
Dual - purpose stations can sometimes still be found today, though in many cases goods facilities are restricted to major stations. In rural and remote communities across Canada and the United States, passengers wanting to board the train had to flag the train down in order for it to stop. Such stations were known as "flag stops '' or "flag stations ''.
Many stations date from the 19th century and reflect the grandiose architecture of the time, lending prestige to the city as well as to railway operations. Countries where railways arrived later may still have such architecture, as later stations often imitated 19th - century styles. Various forms of architecture have been used in the construction of stations, from those boasting grand, intricate, Baroque - or Gothic - style edifices, to plainer utilitarian or modernist styles. Stations in Europe tended to follow British designs and were in some countries, like Italy, financed by British railway companies.
Stations built more recently often have a similar feel to airports, with a simple, abstract style. Examples of modern stations include those on newer high - speed rail networks, such as the Shinkansen in Japan, TGV lines in France and ICE lines in Germany.
Stations usually have staffed ticket sales offices, automated ticket machines, or both, although on some lines tickets are sold on board the trains. Many stations include a shop or convenience store. Larger stations usually have fast - food or restaurant facilities. In some countries, stations may also have a bar or pub. Other station facilities may include: toilets, left - luggage, lost - and - found, departures and arrivals boards, luggage carts, waiting rooms, taxi ranks, bus bays and even car parks. Larger or manned stations tend to have a greater range of facilities including also a station security office. These are usually open for travellers when there is sufficient traffic over a long enough period of time to warrant the cost. In large cities this may mean facilities available around the clock. A basic station might only have platforms, though it may still be distinguished from a halt, a stopping or halting place that may not even have platforms.
In many African, South American countries, and Asian countries, stations are also used as a place for public markets and other informal businesses. This is especially true on tourist routes or stations near tourist destinations.
As well as providing services for passengers and loading facilities for goods, stations can sometimes have locomotive and rolling stock depots (usually with facilities for storing and refuelling rolling stock and carrying out minor repair jobs).
In addition to the basic configuration of a station, various features set certain types of station apart. The first is the level of the tracks. Stations are often sited where a road crosses the railway: unless the crossing is a level crossing, the road and railway will be at different levels. The platforms will often be raised or lowered relative to the station entrance: the station buildings may be on either level, or both. The other arrangement, where the station entrance and platforms are on the same level, is also common, but is perhaps rarer in urban areas, except when the station is a terminus. Elevated stations are more common, not including metro stations. Stations located at level crossings can be problematic if the train blocks the roadway while it stops, causing road traffic to wait for an extended period of time.
Occasionally, a station serves two or more railway lines at differing levels. This may be due to the station 's position at a point where two lines cross (example: Berlin Hauptbahnhof), or may be to provide separate station capacity for two types of service, such as intercity and suburban (examples: Paris - Gare de Lyon and Philadelphia 's 30th Street Station), or for two different destinations.
Stations may also be classified according to the layout of the platforms. Apart from single - track lines, the most basic arrangement is a pair of tracks for the two directions; there is then a basic choice of an island platform between, or two separate platforms outside, the tracks. With more tracks, the possibilities expand.
Some stations have unusual platform layouts due to space constraints of the station location, or the alignment of the tracks. Examples include staggered platforms, such as at Tutbury and Hatton railway station on the Derby -- Crewe line, and curved platforms, such as Cheadle Hulme railway station on the Macclesfield to Manchester Line. Triangular stations also exist where two lines form a three - way junction and platforms are built on all three sides, for example Shipley and Earlestown stations.
In a station, there are different types of tracks to serve different purposes. A station may also have a passing loop with a loop line that comes off the straight main line and merge back to the main line on the other end by railroad switches to allow trains to pass.
A track with a spot at the station to board and disembark trains is called station track or house track regardless of whether it is a main line or loop line. If such track is served by a platform, the track may be called platform track. A loop line without a platform which is used to allow a train to clear the main line at the station only, it is called passing track. A track at the station without a platform which is used for trains to pass the station without stopping is called through track.
There may be other sidings at the station which are lower speed tracks for other purposes. A maintenance track or a maintenance siding, usually connected to a passing track, is used for parking maintenance equipment, trains not in service, autoracks or sleepers. A refuge track is a dead - end siding that is connected to a station track as a temporary storage of a disabled train.
A "terminal '' or "terminus '' is a station at the end of a railway line. Trains arriving there have to end their journeys (terminate) or reverse out of the station. Depending on the layout of the station, this usually permits travellers to reach all the platforms without the need to cross any tracks -- the public entrance to the station and the main reception facilities being at the far end of the platforms.
Sometimes, however, the track continues for a short distance beyond the station, and terminating trains continue forwards after depositing their passengers, before either proceeding to sidings or reversing to the station to pick up departing passengers. Bondi Junction and Kristiansand Station, Norway are like this.
Many terminus stations have underground rapid - transit urban rail stations beneath, to transit passengers to the local city or district.
A terminus is frequently, but not always, the final destination of trains arriving at the station. However a number of cities, especially in continental Europe, have a terminus as their main railway stations, and all main lines converge on this station. There may also be a bypass line, used by freight trains that do not need to stop at the main station. In such cases all trains passing through that main station must leave in the reverse direction from that of their arrival. There are several ways in which this can be accomplished:
Some termini have a newer set of through platforms underneath (or above, or alongside) the terminal platforms on the main level. They are used by a cross-city extension of the main line, often for commuter trains, while the terminal platforms may serve long - distance services. Examples of underground through lines include the Thameslink platforms at St Pancras in London, the Argyle and North Clyde lines of Glasgow 's suburban rail network, the recently built Malmö City Tunnel, in Antwerp in Belgium, the RER at the Gare du Nord in Paris, and many of the numerous S - Bahn lines at terminal stations in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, such as at Zürich Hauptbahnhof.
An American example of a terminal with this feature is Washington, DC 's Union Station, where there are bay platforms on the main concourse level to serve terminating trains, and standard island platforms one level below to serve trains continuing southwards. Those tracks run in a tunnel beneath the concourse and emerge a few blocks away to cross the Potomac River into Virginia.
Terminus stations in large cities are by far the biggest stations, with the largest being the Grand Central Terminal in New York City, United States. Often major cities, such as London, Boston, Paris, Istanbul, Tokyo and Milan have more than one terminus, rather than routes straight through the city. Train journeys through such cities often require alternative transport (metro, bus, taxi or ferry) from one terminus to the other. For instance in Istanbul transfers from the Sirkeci Terminal (the European terminus) and the Haydarpaşa Terminal (the Asian terminus) traditionally required crossing the Bosphorus via alternative means, before the railway tunnel linking Europe and Asia was completed. Though some cities, including New York, have both termini and through lines.
Terminals that have competing rail lines using the station frequently set up a jointly owned terminal railroad to own and operate the station and its associated tracks and switching operations.
A junction is a station where two or more rail routes converge or diverge. It could be both a terminus or an en - route station.
During a journey, the term station stop may be used in announcements, to differentiate a halt during which passengers may alight from a halt for another reason, such as a locomotive change.
A railway stop is a spot along a railway line, usually between stations or at a seldom - used station, where passengers can board and exit the train.
While a junction or interlocking usually divides two or more lines or routes, and thus has remotely or locally operated signals, a station stop does not. A station stop usually does not have any tracks other than the main tracks, and may or may not have switches (points, crossovers).
A halt, in railway parlance in the Commonwealth of Nations and Republic of Ireland, is a small station, usually unstaffed or with very few staff, and with few or no facilities. In some cases, trains stop only on request, when passengers on the platform indicate that they wish to board, or passengers on the train inform the crew that they wish to alight.
In the United Kingdom, most former halts on the national railway networks have had the word halt removed from their names. Historically, in many instances the spelling "halte '' was used, before the spelling "halt '' became commonplace. There are only two publicly advertised and publicly accessible National Rail stations with the word "halt '' remaining: Coombe Junction and St Keyne Wishing Well.
A number of other halts are still open and operational on privately owned, heritage, and preserved railways throughout the British Isles. The word is often used informally to describe national rail network stations with limited service and low usage, such as the Oxfordshire Halts on the Cotswold Line. The title halt had also sometimes been applied colloquially to stations served by public services but not available for use by the general public, being accessible only by persons travelling to / from an associated factory (for example IBM near Greenock -- although this is no longer restricted -- and British Steel Redcar), military base (such as Lympstone Commando) or railway yard. The only two such remaining "private '' stopping places on the national system where the "halt '' designation is still officially used seem to be Staff Halt (at Durnsford Road, Wimbledon) and Battersea Pier Sidings Staff Halt - both are solely for railway staff and are not open to passengers.
The Great Western Railway in Great Britain, began opening haltes on 12 October 1903; from 1905, the French spelling was Anglicised to "halt ''. These GWR halts had the most basic facilities, with platforms long enough for just one or two carriages; some had no platform at all, necessitating the provision of steps on the carriages. There was normally no station staff at a halt, tickets being sold on the train. On 1 September 1904, a larger version, known on the GWR as a "platform '' instead of a "halt '', was introduced; these had longer platforms, and were usually staffed by a senior grade porter, who sold tickets, and sometimes booked parcels or milk consignments.
From 1903 to 1947 the GWR built 379 halts and inherited a further 40 from other companies at the Grouping of 1923. Peak building periods were before the First World War (145 built) and 1928 - 39 (198 built)). Ten more were opened by BR on ex-GWR lines. The GWR also built 34 "platforms ''.
In many Commonwealth countries the term "halt '' is still used. In the United States such stations are traditionally referred to as flag stops.
In the Republic of Ireland, a few small railway stations are designated as "halts '' (Irish: stadanna, sing. stad).
In Victoria, Australia, a rail motor stopping place (RMSP) is a location on a railway line where a small passenger vehicle or railmotor can stop to allow passengers to alight. It is often designated by just a sign beside the railway at a convenient access point near a road. The passenger can hail the train driver to stop, and buy a ticket from the guard or the conductor on the train.
Accessibility for people with disabilities is mandated by law in some countries. Considerations include: elevator or ramp access to all platforms, matching platform height to train floors, making wheelchair lifts available when platforms do not match vehicle floors, accessible toilets and pay phones, audible station announcements, and safety measures such as tactile marking of platform edges.
Goods or freight stations deal exclusively or predominantly with the loading and unloading of goods and may well have marshalling yards (classification yards) for the sorting of wagons. The world 's first Goods terminal was the 1830 Park Lane Goods Station at the South End Liverpool Docks. Built in 1830 the terminal was reached by a 1.24 - mile (2 km) tunnel.
As goods are increasingly moved by road, many former goods stations, as well as the goods sheds at passenger stations, have closed. In addition, many goods stations today are used purely for the cross-loading of freight and may be known as transshipment stations, where they primarily handle containers they are also known as container stations or terminals.
Busiest
Largest
London Waterloo station, as seen from the London Eye.
Concourse of New York Penn Station, New York City, New York, United States
The famed Swiss railway clock designed in 1944 by Hans Hilfiker
The Deutsche Bahn clock in Germany (derived from the Swiss original)
Baggage carts for refundable deposit in a German railway station
ICE at Cologne station
Low - lying platform at a station in the outskirts of Bern
View of Alps from MGB 's stop next to SBB 's railway station (left) in Brig
Amsterdam Centraal railway station in Amsterdam, Netherlands
Antwerp Central Station in Belgium, nicknamed the "Railway Cathedral ''
Old Atocha Station, now a greenhouse, in Madrid, Spain
Railway station Bratislava - Petržalka, Slovakia
Budapest Keleti railway station in Budapest, Hungary.
Volos railway station, designed by Evaristo De Chirico.
Leningradsky Rail Terminal. Moscow, Russia
Luz Station in São Paulo, Brazil. Since 2006, is also the seat of Museum of the Portuguese Language.
Dunedin Railway Station, in Dunedin, New Zealand is one of the country 's most famous historic buildings.
Hsinchu Station in Hsinchu City, Taiwan.
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai, India
Railway station in Bereket city, Turkmenistan.
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first principal scientific advisor to the government of india | Rajagopala Chidambaram - wikipedia
Nuclear weapons programme
Rajagopala Chidambaram (born 12 November 1936) is an Indian Physicist who is known for his integral role in India 's nuclear weapons program; he coordinated test preparation for the Pokhran - I (1975) and Pokhran - II (1998).
Previously served as the principal scientific adviser to the federal Government of India, Chidambaram previously served as the director of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) -- and later as chairman, Atomic Energy Commission of the Government of India and he contributed in providing national defence and energy security to India. Chidambaram was chairman of the board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) during 1994 -- 95. He was also a member of the Commission of Eminent Persons appointed by the Director - General, IAEA, in 2008 to prepare a report on "The Role of the IAEA to 2020 and Beyond ''.
Throughout his career, Chidambaram played a key role in developing India 's nuclear weapons, being a part of the team conducting the first Indian nuclear test (Smiling Buddha) at Pokhran Test Range in 1974. He gained international fame when he led and represented the team of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) while observing and leading efforts to conduct the second nuclear tests in May 1998.
Chidambaram completed his early education in Meerut and Chennai, completing his B.Sc. with honors in physics, having stood first rank at the departmental and the university level of the Madras University in 1956. After enrolling in master 's program, Chidambaram taught introductory physics laboratory courses and obtained M.Sc. in physics, writing a fundamental thesis on analog computers from the same institution, in 1958. He was accepted for the doctoral programme of the Indian Institute of Science (IISc), and was awarded the PhD in 1962. His thesis contained the research work on the development of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, and was conferred with the Martin Forster Medal for the best doctoral thesis submitted to the Indian Institute of Science. Chidambaram is a versatile scholar, interest first in physics. After graduating, his interest in nuclear physics diminished and his research interest in physics did not keep him motivated to contribute in his field. Instead, Chidambaram found himself interested in crystallography and condensed matter physics, writing scientific articles which later played an influential role in the development of modern materials science. His contribution to the enhancement of condensed matter physics and material science led him to be conferred with a D.Sc., in physics by the IISc after submitting his doctoral thesis on experiments which he conducted at IISc. He has been conferred doctoral degrees in physics by eight Indian universities. After the test of the nuclear device at Pokharan in 1974, Chidambaram started ' open research ' in the area of high pressure physics. For this a complete range of instrumentation such as diamond anvil cells, and gas - gun for launching projectiles were indigenously built. He also laid the foundation of theoretical high - pressure research for calculation of equation of state and phase stability of materials by first principles techniques. The papers published by his high pressure group are also well cited. The one on ' Omega Phase in Materials ' is considered a textbook by researchers in Condensed Matter Physics / Materials Science. He is an excellent orator, brightest mind with understanding of diverse subjects. A scientific visionary of India.
After receiving his doctorate in physics, Chidambaram joined the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC). He served as the director of the physics group initiating research on physical aspects of nuclear weapons. At BARC, he rose to become one of the senior nuclear scientists involved in various classified projects, and was one of the central figures building the nuclear programme. In 1967, Chidambaram joined the nuclear weapon designing effort along with his fellow scientists in constructing and building the metallurgical and physical aspects of the nuclear weapons. He and his colleagues worked out the equation of state of plutonium, which is still classified by all nuclear weapon states. He chose the implosion method and initiated research at BARC in very close interaction with the Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) to achieve this. Chidambaram also assisted the Indian Army to construct a nuclear test site at long - constructed Indian Army base, Pokhran Test Range in Rajasthan, Chidambaram was part of a team of scientists who participated in and supervised India 's first nuclear test, codename Smiling Buddha, and was one of the scientists who were honoured by Indian Premier Indira Gandhi. Finally, in 1990, Chidambaram became Director of the BARC. His key participation in the design and successful execution of Operation Smiling Buddha saw him leading the DAE team of Operation Shakti in 1998. As the director of BARC, he initiated the development of super-computers, which now have multi-teraflop speed capability. During his chairmanship of the Atomic Energy Commission, he accelerated the development of nuclear power. Upset by the secret manner in which the test was conducted, and given his instrumental role in the test, Chidambaram was not positively reciprocated when he approached the US for a visa to attend the 1998 annual conference of the International Union of Crystallography, of which was the vice-president, which was followed by his withdrawal of the visa application.
Dr. R. Chidambaram was Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India (until Dr. Krishnasamy VijayRaghavan replaced him in March 2018) and Chairman of the Scientific Advisory to the Cabinet of the Federal Government. Some of his initiatives as Principal Scientific Adviser, including the setting up of the Core Advisory Group for R&D in the Automotive Sector (CAR) to increase academia - industry interaction, the creation of RuTAGs (Rural Technology Action Groups) for effective need based technology delivery in rural areas, the establishment of SETS (Society for Electronic Transactions and Security), are making significant impact. During the last few years, he along with National Informatic Center helped conceptualise and supervise the setting up of the high - speed ' National Knowledge Network ' to connect about 1,500 educational and research institutions in India. He has emphasized the need for ' Coherent Synergy ' (a phrase he has coined) in India 's Science & Technology (S&T) efforts to take India on a sustained fast - growth path. He has also focused on the importance of ' Directed Basic Research ' as an addition to (not a substitute for) self - directed basic research.
Chidambaram is the recipient a number of awards and honours. The Indian Government acknowledged his contribution to the successful nuclear tests by awarding the Padma Shri, the fourth highest Civilian honour of the nation, in 1975 and the Padma Vibushan, the second highest civilian honour, in 1999. His other prominent awards are the Distinguished Alumnus Award of the Indian Institute of Science (1991), the C.V. Raman Birth Centenary Award of the Indian Science Congress Association (1995), the Distinguished Materials Scientist of the Year Award of the Materials Research Society of India (1996), the R.D. Birla Award of the Indian Physics Association (1996), the H.K. Forodia Award for Excellence in S & T (1998), the Hari Om Prerit Senior Scientist Award (2000), the Meghnad Saha Medal of the Indian National Science Academy (2002), the INS Homi Bhabha Lifetime Achievement Award of the Indian Nuclear Society (2006), the Life Time Contribution Award in Engineering (2009) from Indian National Academy of Engineering, the C.V. Raman Medal of the Indian National Science Academy. He has been awarded D.Sc. degrees (Honoris Causa) by more than twenty universities in India and abroad. Chidambaram is a Fellow of all the science Academies in India and the Third World Academy of Science (TWAS), Trieste (Italy). He has also served as a member, chairman and president of a number of organizations which, among others, include IIT - Madras, IIT - Bombay, the Materials Research Society of India, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), and the International Union of Crystallography. In early 2008, the IAEA invited Chidambaram to be a member of the "Commission of Eminent Persons '', for making recommendations to the Board of Governors, regarding long - term priorities and funding.
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who wrote the song total eclipse of the heart | Total Eclipse of the Heart - wikipedia
"Total Eclipse of the Heart '' is a song recorded by Welsh singer Bonnie Tyler. It was written and produced by Jim Steinman, and released on Tyler 's fifth studio album, Faster Than the Speed of Night (1983). The song was released as a single by Columbia Records on 11 February 1983 in the United Kingdom and on 31 May 1983 in the United States.
The song became Tyler 's biggest career hit, topping the UK Singles Chart, and becoming the fifth - best - selling single in 1983 in the United Kingdom. In the United States, the single spent four weeks at the top of the charts, and was Billboard 's number - six song of the year for 1983.
Worldwide, the single has sales in excess of 6 million copies and was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of over 1 million copies after its release, updated to Platinum in 2001 when the certification threshold changed. In 2015, the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's third favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV.
After her contract with RCA Records ended in 1981, Tyler found a new manager in David Aspden and after seeing Meat Loaf perform "Bat Out of Hell '' live on The Old Grey Whistle Test, approached Meat Loaf 's producer Jim Steinman and asked him to be her producer. Tyler visited Steinman in his apartment in New York in April 1982 with her manager, where she was presented with two tracks: "Have You Ever Seen the Rain? '' and "Goin ' Through the Motions ''. She stated that had she not liked the songs Steinman played for her, he would have rejected Tyler 's invitation to collaborate. She returned to his studio apartment weeks later, where Steinman and Rory Dodd performed "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' for her. He also hand - picked the recording band for the song.
"Total Eclipse of the Heart '' had to be shortened for radio play. Tyler did not believe that the song was radio - friendly at its full length; the song was reduced from seven minutes and two seconds to four minutes and thirty seconds.
The power ballad became Tyler 's highest charting song in several countries; peaking at No. 1 in the United States, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United Kingdom. At its peak, it sold 60,000 copies per day, and approximately 6 million copies in total. It won the Variety Club award in the UK for best single of 1983. The song also made number 82 of VH1 's top 100 love songs.
Tyler told Record Mirror that she thought the song was about "someone who wants to love so badly she 's lying there in complete darkness. ''
Steinman said in an interview with Playbill:
with ' Total Eclipse of the Heart ', I was trying to come up with a love song and I remembered I actually wrote that to be a vampire love song. Its original title was ' Vampires in Love ' because I was working on a musical of Nosferatu, the other great vampire story. If anyone listens to the lyrics, they 're really like vampire lines. It 's all about the darkness, the power of darkness and love 's place in the dark...
He also told People magazine that he thought Tyler sounded like John Fogerty, and wrote the song "to be a showpiece for her voice. '' Tyler described the song as "a challenge (to sing), '' stating that she "(does n't) like songs that anybody can sing. I like songs that need a lot of energy. '' After Steinman presented her with the song she told The Times, "I just had shivers right up my spine... I could n't wait to actually get in and record it. ''
According to Meat Loaf, Steinman had written the song, along with "Making Love Out of Nothing at All '', for Meat Loaf 's album Midnight at the Lost and Found; however, Meat Loaf 's record company refused to pay Steinman and he wrote separate songs himself. "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' was then given to Bonnie Tyler and "Making Love Out of Nothing at All '' to Air Supply. Tyler has denied this claim. "Meat Loaf was apparently very annoyed that Jim gave that to me, '' Tyler stated. "But Jim said he did n't write it for Meat Loaf, that he only finished it after meeting me. ''
In an interview with journalist Mick Wall shortly after the release of Meat Loaf 's 2006 album Bat Out of Hell III: The Monster Is Loose, Steinman stated: "I did n't write (Total Eclipse of the Heart) for anyone but Bonnie. '' Steinman believed that CBS were expecting him to write something similar to "It 's a Heartache '', but he had different ideas.
Mike DeGagne from AllMusic retrospectively described "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' as "one of the finest ballads ever to hit radio. '' He noted the "lush instrumentation '' and said that Tyler 's voice "produced the perfect type of ' desperate lovelorn ' effect to suit the romantic lyrics. '' He described Roy Bittan 's piano playing as "dreamy '' and described Tyler 's voice as "wonderfully gritty. '' Donald A. Guarisco, also from AllMusic, retrospectively reviewed Faster Than the Speed of Night, and noted the song as an "epic ballad, '' describing the whole album as "rock at its most melodramatic. '' Jim Beviglia from American Songwriter said that Tyler 's raspy vocals helped to legitimize the "melodrama inherent in the lyrics, '' and described the song as a "garment - rending, chest - beating (and) emotionally exhausting ballad '' that suits the throes of a turbulent relationship.
The music video for "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' was directed by Russell Mulcahy and was filmed on location at the Holloway Sanatorium, a large Victorian Gothic hospital near Virginia Water, Surrey, England. The video features Bonnie Tyler clad in white, dreaming or fantasizing about her students in a boys ' boarding school. Young men are seen dancing and participating in various school activities and singing in a choir.
A long - running urban legend is that the boy who appears throughout the video and who shakes Tyler 's hand at the end is former Italian footballer Gianfranco Zola. In a 2012 interview, Zola confirmed that he did not appear in the video.
Since the song 's release, Tyler performs "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' in every concert she performs. "I sing it much better now than I used to, '' she told The Huffington Post. "I think my voice is probably not as husky as it was, I think it 's mellowed a bit. '' The song was performed at the 26th Annual Grammy Awards, held at the Shrine Auditorium, Los Angeles, on 28 February 1984. Tyler performed a brief, live performance of this song on a Royal Caribbean cruise during the solar eclipse of 21 August 2017.
Live recordings of Tyler performing the song have been released on her live albums Bonnie Tyler Live (2006) and Live in Germany 1993 (2011). Video performances have also been released on Tyler 's DVDs, Bonnie on Tour (2006) and the DVD edition of Live in Germany 1993.
UK 7 '' single
US 7 '' single
UK 12 '' single
Credits adapted from AllMusic (from the album, Faster Than the Speed of Night):
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In a 2013 UK survey, the song came first in a list of most popular songs to sing in the shower, above songs by Justin Bieber, Robbie Williams, One Direction and Elton John. In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's third favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV.
"Total Eclipse of the Heart '' received substantial media attention during the solar eclipse of March 20, 2015. Tyler 's version received a 214 % increase of Spotify streams throughout the day. A similar impact was experienced during the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017, when Nielsen Music reported a 503 % increase in record sales. Around that time, the song hit number one on the iTunes chart. On 16 August 2017, it was announced that Tyler would perform the song aboard the MS Oasis of the Seas during the total solar eclipse, backed by American dance - rock band DNCE.
In 2014, the Electric Picnic festival announced Bonnie Tyler as part of the lineup. Tickets were already sold out, though Irish rugby player Cian Healy won the Irish Women 's rugby team extra tickets for a comic miming video published on Instagram.
Since the original release in 1983, Tyler has re-recorded the song several times for albums and subsequent single releases. Her first and most successful re-recording of the song was released in 2003. Tyler recorded a French / English duet version called "Si demain... (Turn Around) '' with Kareen Antonn. It peaked at number one in France and Belgium. Tyler released another version of the song in 2004 as a duet with Peter Brocklehurst on his album For You. A solo version of the recording was released on her studio album Wings in the following year.
BabyPinkStar recorded the song with Tyler in a punk / electronic remix version that was released as a single in the UK in January 2007. In 2009, Tyler released another version of the song with Welsh choral group Only Men Aloud! In 2011, Tyler re-recorded the song on an EP named after the song, released by Cleopatra Records. Her most recent recording of the song appears as a bonus track on her album Rocks and Honey (2013).
Nicki French released a Hi - NRG remake of "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' in 1995, which was also a worldwide hit. It originally peaked at No. 54 on the UK Singles Chart in 1994, but reached No. 5 in the after being re-issued in 1995. In the United States, French 's version peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100, behind "Have You Ever Really Loved a Woman? '' by Bryan Adams and it garnered frequent airplay on AC radio. It enjoyed greater success in Australia, spending four nonconsecutive weeks at No. 2 behind "Here 's Johnny! '' by Hocus Pocus. Elsewhere, the cover reached number 13 in New Zealand, number 16 in Canada, and peaked within the top 10 of several European countries.
French had made her first dance version recording of "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' in 1994: she had purchased the Bonnie Tyler original as a teenager in 1983 and reacted negatively to the original suggestion that she (i.e. French) remake the song as dance track -- "I thought, no, it 's too strong a song to go down the dance route. You know, it demeans it almost. But then I thought well, I 'll give it a go. And as soon as I heard the track, I thought it actually does work. '' French 's first recording of "Total Eclipse of the Heart '', made with John Springate of the Glitter Band producing, came to the attention of Mike Stock and Matt Aitken who produced their own recording of the song by French and it was this version which appeared on the UK chart dated 15 October 1994 at No. 54. French would recall: "I just thought oh well that was great... I 've (worked with) Mike Stock and Matt Aitken and it was a dream come true... we tried and I had a great time... And then about two months later I had a call out of the blue from Mike saying the buzz will not die down on this track so we 're going to re-record the beginning... and we 're going to re-release it at the beginning of 1995. ''
According to French, her remake of "Total Eclipse of the Heart '' became popular in the UK and the US in distinct remixes: "the slower version was the one that actually took a hold in the UK where originally they started with the fast one and then decided to go with the (remix which began) in the same vein as the Bonnie Tyler version (and then) sped up when the chorus came in... In the US it was the (remix) which was fast all the way through. ''
Music & Media wrote about the song: "Away is the sandpaper vocal of Bonny Tyler, the edge now comes from the dance context put into the ballad. Needless to say it 's an upbeat song anno 1995. Top 10 in the UK. ''
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Irish boy band Westlife recorded a cover of the song on their 2006 album The Love Album. The song would have been released as the album 's second single but was cancelled due to their The Love Tour conflicts, though a promo release still reached No. 5 on the radio charts in the Philippines and No. 55 in Czech Republic. Three official remixes have been made for their version as well as a remix done by Jim Steinman, which was ultimately rejected by the record label but has surfaced on the Internet. The song was released as a promotional single in 2007. It was composed in the traditional verse -- chorus form in Bb major, with Filan and Feehily 's vocal ranging from the chords of C to C.
Promotional CD single
Mexican singer Yuridia covered the song in Spanish as "Eclipse Total del Amor '' from her second studio album Habla El Corazón in 2006. The single peaked at number 36 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart.
Italian singer L'Aura covered the song in Italian as "Eclissi del cuore '' from her third studio album Sei come me in 2010, which was not originally released as a single. One year later, a new version of the song, now a duet with fellow Italian singer Nek was officially released as a single, this duet peaking at number 6 on the Italian charts.
A parody of the song and music video were published in 2009, in what the fans and makers call a "literal video version '', which is a type of video that replaces the original song lyrics with humorous lyrics describing the images in the video. Time magazine listed it as the 6th best viral video of 2009. This was also the 6th literal video produced by professional video editor David A. Scott Jr.; the singer who performed for this re-dub was Scott 's friend Felisha Noble using the pseudonym Persephone Maewyn.
In 2010, Tyler appeared in an advertisement for MasterCard, performing a short parody of the song with its noted new lyric "Turn around, Neville. '' She performed the original song in a similar advertisement for Westpac in 2012.
Warby Parker produced a parody video in anticipation of the solar eclipse of August 21, 2017.
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multimedia database storage and retrieval of database management system | Multimedia database - wikipedia
A Multimedia database (MMDB) is a collection of related multimedia data. The multimedia data include one or more primary media data types such as text, images, graphic objects (including drawings, sketches and illustrations) animation sequences, audio and video.
A Multimedia Database Management System (MMDBMS) is a framework that manages different types of data potentially represented in a wide diversity of formats on a wide array of media sources. It provides support for multimedia data types, and facilitate for creation, storage, access, query and control of a multimedia database.
A Multimedia Database (MMDB) hosts one or more multimedia data types (i.e. text, images, graphic objects, audio, video, animation sequences). These data types are broadly categorized into three classes:
Additionally, a Multimedia Database (MMDB) needs to manage additional information pertaining to the actual multimedia data. The information is about the following:
The last three types are called metadata as they describe several different aspects of the media data. The media keyword data and media feature data are used as indices for searching purpose. The media format data is used to present the retrieved information.
Like the traditional databases, Multimedia databases should address the following requirements:
Multimedia databases should have the ability to uniformly query data (media data, textual data) represented in different formats and have the ability to simultaneously query different media sources and conduct classical database operations across them. (Query support)
They should have the ability to retrieve media objects from a local storage device in a good manner. (Storage support)
They should have the ability to take the response generated by a query and develop a presentation of that response in terms of audio - visual media and have the ability to deliver this presentation. (Presentation and delivery support)
Examples of multimedia database application areas:
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vande mataram song was first time sung in which revolution | Vande Mataram - wikipedia
Bande Mataram (IAST: Vande Mātaram) is a Bengali poem written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1870s, which he included in his 1881 novel Anandamath. The poem was composed into song by Rabindranath Tagore. The first two verses of the song were adopted as the National Song of India in October 1937 by Congress Working Committee prior to the end of colonial rule in August 1947.
An ode to Durga as the Mother goddess, it was written in Bengali script in the novel Anandmath. The title ' Vande Mataram ' means "I praise thee, Mother '' or "I praise to thee, Mother ''. The "mother goddess '' in later verses of the song has been interpreted as the motherland of the people -- Bangamata (Mother Bengal) and Bharat Mata (Mother India), though the text does not mention this explicitly.
It played a vital role in the Indian independence movement, first sung in a political context by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. It became a popular marching song for political activism and Indian freedom movement in 1905. Spiritual Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo referred it as "National Anthem of Bengal ''. The song and the novel containing it was banned by the British government, but workers and general public defied the ban, many went to colonial prisons repeatedly for singing it, and the ban was overturned by the Indians after they gained independence from the colonial rule.
In 1950 (after India 's independence), the first two verses of the song were declared the "national song '' of the Republic of India, distinct from the national anthem of India, Jana Gana Mana. The first two verses of the song are an abstract reference to mother and motherland, they do not mention any Hindu deity by name, unlike later verses that do explicitly mention goddesses such as Durga. There is no time limit or circumstantial specification for the rendition of this song (unlike the national anthem Jana Gana Mana that specifies 52 seconds).
The root of the Sanskrit word Vande is Vand, which appears in Rigveda and other Vedic texts. According to Monier Monier - Williams, depending on the context, vand means "to praise, celebrate, laud, extol, to show honour, do homage, salute respectfully '', or "deferentially, venerate, worship, adore '', or "to offer anything respectfully to ''. The word Mātaram has Indo - European roots in mātár - (Sanskrit), méter (Greek), mâter (Latin) which mean "mother ''.
The first two verses of Vande Mataram adopted as the "National Song '' read as follows:
বন্দে মাতরম্৷ সুজলাং সুফলাং মলয়জশীতলাম্ শস্যশ্যামলাং মাতরম্! বন্দে মাতরম্৷. শুভ্র - জ্যোৎস্না পুলকিত - যামিনীম্ ফুল্লকুসুমিত দ্রুমদলশোভিনীম্, সুহাসিনীং সুমধুরভাষিণীম্ সুখদাং বরদাং মাতরম্৷৷ বন্দে মাতরম্৷
bônde matôrôm sujôlang suphôlang môlôyôjôshitôlam shôsyô shyamôlang matôrôm bônde matôrôm shubhrô jyotsna pulôkitô jaminim phullô kusumitô drumôdôlôshobhinim suhasining sumôdhurôbhashini sukhôdang bôrôdang matôrôm bônde matôrôm
वन्दे मातरम् । सुजलाम् सुफलाम् मलयजशीतलाम् शस्यश्यामला मातरम् । वन्दे मातरम् । शुभ्रज्योत्स्नाम् पुलकितयामिनीम् फुल्लकुसुमित द्रुमदलशोभिनीम् सुहासिनीम् सुमधुर भाषिणीम् सुखदाम् वरदाम् मातरम् । । वन्दे मातरम् ।
vande mātaram sujalāṃ suphalāṃ malayajaśītalām śasya śyāmalāṃ mātaram vande mātaram śubhra jyotsnam pulakita yāminīm phulla kusumita drumadalaśobhinīm suhāsinīṃ sumadhura bhāṣiṇīm sukhadāṃ varadāṃ mātaram vande mātaram
The complete original lyrics of the Vande Mataram song including the first two verses forming the National Song are as follows.
সুজলাং সুফলাং মলয়জশীতলাম্
শস্যশ্যামলাং মাতরম্ ॥
শুভ্রজ্যোত্স্না পুলকিতযামিনীম্
পুল্লকুসুমিত দ্রুমদলশোভিনীম্
সুহাসিনীং সুমধুর ভাষিণীম্
সুখদাং বরদাং মাতরম্ ॥
সপ্ত কোটি কণ্ঠ কলকলনিনাদ করালে
দ্বিসপ্ত কোটি ভুজৈর্ধৃতখরকরবালে
কে বলে মা তুমি অবলে
বহুবলধারিণীং নমামি তারিণীম্
রিপুদলবারিণীং
তুমি বিদ্যা তুমি ধর্ম, তুমি হৃদি তুমি মর্ম
ত্বং হি প্রাণ শরীরে
বাহুতে তুমি মা শক্তি
হৃদয়ে তুমি মা ভক্তি
তোমারৈ প্রতিমা গড়ি মন্দিরে মন্দিরে ॥
ত্বং হি দুর্গা দশপ্রহরণধারিণী
কমলা কমলদল বিহারিণী
বাণী বিদ্যাদায়িনী ত্বাম্
নমামি কমলাং অমলাং অতুলাম্
সুজলাং সুফলাং মাতরম্ ॥ শ্যামলাং সরলাং সুস্মিতাং ভূষিতাম্ ধরণীং ভরণীং মাতরম্ ॥
वन्दे मातरम् सुजलां सुफलाम् मलयजशीतलाम् शस्यश्यामलाम् मातरम् । शुभ्रज्योत्स्नापुलकितयामिनीम् फुल्लकुसुमितद्रुमदलशोभिनीम् सुहासिनीं सुमधुर भाषिणीम् सुखदां वरदां मातरम् । । 1 । । सप्त - कोटि - कण्ठ - कल - कल - निनाद - कराले द्विसप्त - कोटि - भुजैर्धृत - खरकरवाले, अबला केन मा एत बले । बहुबलधारिणीं नमामि तारिणीं रिपुदलवारिणीं मातरम् । । 2 । । तुमि विद्या, तुमि धर्म तुमि हृदि, तुमि मर्म त्वम् हि प्राणा: शरीरे बाहुते तुमि मा शक्ति, हृदये तुमि मा भक्ति, तोमारई प्रतिमा गडी मन्दिरे - मन्दिरे । । । 3 । । त्वम् हि दुर्गा दशप्रहरणधारिणी कमला कमलदलविहारिणी वाणी विद्यादायिनी, नमामि त्वाम् नमामि कमलाम् अमलां अतुलाम् सुजलां सुफलाम् मातरम् । । 4 । । वन्दे मातरम् श्यामलाम् सरलाम् सुस्मिताम् भूषिताम् धरणीं भरणीं मातरम् । । 5 । ।
The first translation of Bankim Chandra Chatterji 's novel Anandamath, including the poem Vande Mataram, into English was by Nares Chandra Sen - Gupta, with the fifth edition published in 1906 titled "The Abbey of Bliss ''.
Here is the translation in prose of the above two stanzas rendered by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh. This has also been adopted by the Government of India 's national portal. The original Vande Mataram consists of six stanzas and the translation in prose for the complete poem by Shri Aurobindo appeared in Karmayogin, 20 November 1909.
Mother, I praise thee! Rich with thy hurrying streams, bright with orchard gleams, Cool with thy winds of delight, Dark fields waving Mother of might, Mother free. Glory of moonlight dreams, Over thy branches and lordly streams, Clad in thy blossoming trees, Mother, giver of ease Laughing low and sweet! Mother I kiss thy feet, Speaker sweet and low! Mother, to thee I praise thee. (Verse 1) Who hath said thou art weak in thy lands When the swords flash out in seventy million hands And seventy million voices roar Thy dreadful name from shore to shore? With many strengths who art mighty and stored, To thee I call Mother and Lord! Thou who savest, arise and save! To her I cry who ever her foeman drove Back from plain and Sea And shook herself free. (Verse 2) Thou art wisdom, thou art law, Thou art heart, our soul, our breath Thou art love divine, the awe In our hearts that conquers death. Thine the strength that nerves the arm, Thine the beauty, thine the charm. Every image made divine In our temples is but thine. (Verse 3) Thou art Durga, Lady and Queen, With her hands that strike and her swords of sheen, Thou art Lakshmi lotus - throned, And the Muse a hundred - toned, Pure and perfect without peer, Mother lend thine ear, Rich with thy hurrying streams, Bright with thy orchard gleems, Dark of hue O candid - fair (Verse 4) In thy soul, with bejeweled hair And thy glorious smile divine, Loveliest of all earthly lands, Showering wealth from well - stored hands! Mother, mother mine! Mother sweet, I praise thee, Mother great and free! (Verse 5)
Apart from the above prose translation, Sri Aurobindo also translated Vande Mataram into a verse form known as Mother, I praise thee!. Sri Aurobindo commented on his English translation of the poem that "It is difficult to translate the National Song of India into verse in another language owing to its unique union of sweetness, simple directness and high poetic force. ''
Vande Mataram has inspired many Indian poets and has been translated into numerous Indian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Assamese, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi and others.
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay was one of the earliest graduates of the newly established Calcutta University. After his BA, he joined the British Indian government as a civil servant, becoming a District Magistrate and later a District Collector. Chattopadhyay was very interested in recent events in Indian and Bengali history, particularly the Revolt of 1857 and the previous century 's Sanyasi Rebellion. Around the same time, the administration was trying to promote "God Save the Queen '' as the anthem for Indian subjects, which Indian nationalists disliked. It is generally believed that the concept of Vande Mataram came to Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay when he was still a government official, around 1876. He wrote Vande Mataram at Chinsurah, there is a white colour house of Adhya Family near river Hooghly (near Mallik Ghat).
Chattopadhyay wrote the poem in a spontaneous session using words from Sanskrit and Bengali. The poem was published in Chattopadhyay 's book Anandamatha (pronounced Anondomôţh in Bengali) in 1882, which is set in the events of the Sannyasi Rebellion. Jadunath Bhattacharya was asked to set a tune for this poem just after it was written.
"Vande Mataram '' was the whole nation 's thought and motto for independence (from British rule) during the Indian independence movement. Large rallies, fermenting initially in Bengal, in the major metropolis of Calcutta, would work themselves up into a patriotic fervour by shouting the slogan "Vande Mataram '', or "I praise the Mother (land)! '' The British, fearful of the potential danger of an incited Indian populace, banned the book and made the recital of the song a crime. The British colonial government imprisoned many independence activists for disobeying the order, but workers and general public repeatedly violated the ban many times by gathering together before British officials and singing it. Rabindranath Tagore sang Vande Mataram in 1896 at the Calcutta Congress Session held at Beadon Square. Dakhina Charan Sen sang it five years later in 1901 at another session of the Congress at Calcutta. Poet Sarala Devi Chaudurani sang the song in the Benares Congress Session in 1905. Lala Lajpat Rai started a journal called Vande Mataram from Lahore. Hiralal Sen made India 's first political film in 1905 which ended with the chant. Matangini Hazra 's last words as she was shot to death by the Crown police were Vande Mataram.
In 1907, Bhikaiji Cama (1861 -- 1936) created the first version of India 's national flag (the Tiranga) in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907. It had Vande Mataram written on it in the middle band.
A book titled Kranti Geetanjali published by Arya Printing Press (Lahore) and Bharatiya Press (Dehradun) in 1929 contains first two stanzas of this lyric on page 11 as Matra Vandana and a ghazal (Vande Mataram) composed by Bismil was also given on its back, i.e. page 12. The book written by the famous martyr of Kakori Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil was proscribed by the then British government of India.
Mahatama Gandhi supported adoption and the singing of the Vande Mataram song. In January 1946, in a speech in Gauhati (Assam), he urged that "Jai Hind should not replace Vande - mataram ''. He reminded everyone present that Vande - mataram was being sung since the inception of the Congress. He supported the "Jai Hind '' greeting, but remanded that this greeting should not be to the exclusion of Vande Mataram. Gandhi was concerned that those who discarded Vande Mataram given the tradition of sacrifice behind it, one day would discard "Jai Hind '' also.
Parts of the Vande Mataram was chosen as the "national song '' in 1937 by the Indian National Congress as it pursued independence of India from the British colonial rule, after a committee consisting of Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Acharya Deva and Rabrindanath Tagore recommended the adoption. The entire song was not selected by Hindu leaders in order to respect the sentiments of non-Hindus, and the gathering agreed that anyone should be free to sing an alternate "unobjectionable song '' at a national gathering if they do not want to sing Vande Mataram because they find it "objectionable '' for a personal reason. According to the gathered leaders, including the Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, though the first two stanzas began with an unexceptionable evocation of the beauty of the motherland, in later stanzas there are references to the Hindu goddess Durga. The Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah opposed the song. Thereafter, with the support of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Indian National Congress decided to adopt only the first two stanzas as the national song to be sung at public gatherings, and other verses that included references to Durga and Lakshmi were expunged.
Rajendra Prasad, who was presiding the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950, made the following statement which was also adopted as the final decision on the issue:
... The composition consisting of words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations as the Government may authorise as occasion arises, and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. (Applause) I hope this will satisfy members.
The poem has been set to a large number of tunes. The oldest surviving audio recordings date to 1907, and there have been more than a hundred different versions recorded throughout the 20th century. Many of these versions have employed traditional South Asian classical ragas. Versions of the song have been visualised on celluloid in a number of films, including Leader, Amar Asha, and Anand Math. It is widely believed that the tune set for All India Radio station version was composed by Ravi Shankar. In 1997, as part of the 50th anniversary celebrations of the Independence of India, a musical album composed by A.R. Rahman, titled Vande Mataram, was released. The version of the song played in it has become its popular interpretation in recent years. In 2002, BBC World Service conducted an international poll to choose ten most famous songs of all time. Around 7000 songs were selected from all over the world. Vande Mataram, from the movie Anand Math, was ranked second. All India Radio 's version, as well as A.R. Rahman 's version, are in Desh raga.
In July 2017, the Madras High Court ruled that the Vande Mataram shall be sung or played at least once a week in all schools, universities and other educational institutions of Tamil Nadu. The Court also ruled that the song should be played or sung in government offices and industrial facilities at least once a month.
Vocals
Debate
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thomas hardy novel far from the madding crowd | Far from the Madding Crowd - wikipedia
464 pages (Harper & Brothers edition,
Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) is Thomas Hardy 's fourth novel and his first major literary success. It originally appeared anonymously as a monthly serial in Cornhill Magazine, where it gained a wide readership.
The novel is the first to be set in Hardy 's fictional region of Wessex in rural south west England. It deals in themes of love, honour and betrayal, against a backdrop of the seemingly idyllic, but often harsh, realities of a farming community in Victorian England. It describes the farmer Bathsheba Everdene, her life and relationships -- especially with her lonely neighbour William Boldwood, the faithful shepherd Gabriel Oak, and the thriftless soldier Sergeant Troy.
On publication, critical notices were plentiful and mostly positive. Hardy revised the text extensively for the 1895 edition and made further changes for the 1901 edition.
The novel was listed at number 48 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read in 2003. The book finished 10th on The Guardian 's list of greatest love stories of all time in 2007.
The novel has been dramatised several times, notably in the Oscar - nominated 1967 film directed by John Schlesinger.
Gabriel Oak is a young shepherd. With the savings of a frugal life, and a loan, he has leased and stocked a sheep farm. He falls in love with a newcomer eight years his junior, Bathsheba Everdene, a proud beauty who arrives to live with her aunt, Mrs. Hurst. Over time, Bathsheba and Gabriel grow to like each other well enough, and Bathsheba even saves his life once. However, when he makes her an unadorned offer of marriage, she refuses; she values her independence too much, and him too little. Feeling betrayed and embarrassed, Gabriel offers blunt protestations that only foster her haughtiness. After a few days, she moves to Weatherbury, a village some miles off.
When next they meet, their circumstances have changed drastically. An inexperienced new sheepdog drives Gabriel 's flock over a cliff, ruining him. After selling off everything of value, he manages to settle all his debts but emerges penniless. He seeks employment at a hiring fair in the town of Casterbridge. When he finds none, he heads to another such fair in Shottsford, a town about ten miles from Weatherbury. On the way, he happens upon a dangerous fire on a farm and leads the bystanders in putting it out. When the veiled owner comes to thank him, he asks if she needs a shepherd. She uncovers her face and reveals herself to be none other than Bathsheba. She has recently inherited her uncle 's estate and is now wealthy. Though somewhat uncomfortable, she employs him.
Meanwhile, Bathsheba has a new admirer: the lonely and repressed William Boldwood. Boldwood is a prosperous farmer of about forty, whose ardour Bathsheba unwittingly awakens when -- her curiosity piqued because he has never bestowed on her the customary admiring glance -- she playfully sends him a valentine sealed with red wax on which she has embossed the words, "Marry me ''. Boldwood, not realising the valentine was a jest, becomes obsessed with Bathsheba and soon proposes marriage. Although she does not love him, she toys with the idea of accepting his offer; he is, after all, the most eligible bachelor in the district. However, she postpones giving him a definite answer. When Gabriel rebukes her for her thoughtlessness regarding Boldwood, she dismisses him.
When Bathsheba 's sheep begin dying from bloat, she discovers to her chagrin that Gabriel is the only man who knows how to cure them. Her pride delays the inevitable, but finally she is forced to beg him for help. Afterwards, she offers him back his job and their friendship is restored.
At this point, the dashing Sergeant Francis "Frank '' Troy returns to his native Weatherbury and by chance encounters Bathsheba one night. Her initial dislike turns to infatuation after he excites her with a private display of swordsmanship. Gabriel observes Bathsheba 's interest in the young soldier and tries to discourage it, telling her she would be better off marrying Boldwood. Boldwood becomes aggressive towards Troy, and Bathsheba goes to Bath to prevent Troy returning to Weatherbury, as she fears Troy may be harmed on meeting Boldwood. On their return, Boldwood offers his rival a large bribe to give up Bathsheba. Troy pretends to consider the offer, then scornfully announces they are already married. Boldwood withdraws, humiliated, and vows revenge.
Bathsheba soon discovers that her new husband is an improvident gambler with little interest in farming. Worse, she begins to suspect he does not love her. In fact, Troy 's heart belongs to her former servant, Fanny Robin. Before meeting Bathsheba, Troy had promised to marry Fanny; on the wedding day, however, the luckless girl went to the wrong church. She explained her mistake, but Troy, humiliated at being left at the altar, angrily called off the wedding. When they parted, unbeknownst to Troy, Fanny was pregnant with his child.
Some months later, Troy and Bathsheba encounter Fanny on the road, destitute, as she painfully makes her way toward the Casterbridge workhouse. Troy sends his wife onward with the horse and gig before she can recognise the girl, then gives Fanny all the money in his pocket, telling her he will give her more in a few days. Fanny uses up the last of her strength to reach her destination. A few hours later, she dies in childbirth, along with the baby. Mother and child are then placed in a coffin and sent home to Weatherbury for interment. Gabriel, who has long known of Troy 's relationship with Fanny, tries to conceal the child 's existence -- but Bathsheba agrees that the coffin can be left in her house overnight, from her sense of duty towards a former servant of the household. Her new servant, Liddy, repeats the rumour that Fanny had a child; when all the servants are in bed, Bathsheba unscrews the lid and sees the two bodies inside.
Troy then comes home from Casterbridge, where he had gone to keep his appointment with Fanny. Seeing the reason for her failure to meet him, he gently kisses the corpse and tells the anguished Bathsheba, "This woman is more to me, dead as she is, than ever you were, or are, or can be ''. The next day he spends all his money on a marble tombstone with the inscription: "Erected by Francis Troy in beloved memory of Fanny Robin... '' Then, loathing himself and unable to bear Bathsheba 's company, he leaves. After a long walk he bathes in the sea, leaving his clothes on the beach. A strong current carries him away, but he is rescued by a rowing boat.
A year later, with Troy presumed drowned, Boldwood renews his suit. Burdened with guilt over the pain she has caused him, Bathsheba reluctantly consents to marry him in six years, long enough to have Troy declared dead.
Troy, however, is not dead. When he learns that Boldwood is again courting Bathsheba, he returns to Weatherbury on Christmas Eve to claim his wife. He goes to Boldwood 's house, where a party is under way, and orders Bathsheba to come with him; when she shrinks back in surprise, he seizes her arm, and she screams. At this, Boldwood shoots Troy dead and tries unsuccessfully to turn the gun on himself. Although Boldwood is convicted of murder and sentenced to be hanged, his friends petition the Home Secretary for mercy, claiming insanity. This is granted, and Boldwood 's sentence is commuted to "confinement during Her Majesty 's pleasure ''. Bathsheba, profoundly chastened by guilt and grief, buries her husband in the same grave as Fanny Robin and her child and adds a suitable inscription.
Throughout her tribulations, Bathsheba comes to rely increasingly on her oldest and, as she admits to herself, only real friend, Gabriel. When he gives notice that he is leaving her employ, she realises how important he has become to her well - being. That night, she goes alone to visit him in his cottage, to find out why he is deserting her. Pressed, he reluctantly reveals that it is because people have been injuring her good name by gossiping that he wants to marry her. She exclaims that it is "... too absurd -- too soon -- to think of, by far! '' He bitterly agrees that it is absurd, but when she corrects him, saying that it is only "too soon '', he is emboldened to ask once again for her hand in marriage. She accepts, and the two are quietly married.
Hardy took the title from Thomas Gray 's poem Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751).
Far from the madding crowd 's ignoble strife Their sober wishes never learn 'd to stray; Along the cool sequester 'd vale of life They kept the noiseless tenor of their way.
"Madding '' here means "frenzied ''.
Lucasta Miller points out that the title is an ironic literary joke as Gray is idealising the noiselessness and sequestered calm whereas Hardy "disrupts the idyll, and not just by introducing the sound and fury of an extreme plot... he is out to subvert his readers ' complacency ''.
Far from the Madding Crowd offers in ample measure the details of English rural life that Hardy so relished.
Hardy first employed the term "Wessex '' in Far from the Madding Crowd to describe the "partly real, partly dream - country '' that unifies his novels of South West England. He found the word in the pages of early English history as a designation for an extinct, pre-Norman conquest kingdom, the Wessex from which Alfred the Great established England. In the first edition, the word "Wessex '' is used only once, in chapter 50; Hardy extended the reference for the 1895 edition. The village of Puddletown, near Dorchester, is the inspiration for the novel 's Weatherbury. Dorchester, in turn, inspired Hardy 's Casterbridge.
In The Mayor of Casterbridge, Hardy briefly mentions two characters from Far from the Madding Crowd -- Farmer Everdene and Farmer Boldwood, both in happier days.
In 2003, the novel was listed at number 48 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read. In 2007, the book finished 10th on the Guardian 's list of greatest love stories of all time.
The novel was adapted by Graham White in 2012 into a three - part series on BBC Radio 4 's Classic Serial. The production was directed by Jessica Dromgoole and featured Alex Tregear as Bathsheba, Shaun Dooley as Gabriel, Toby Jones as Boldwood and Patrick Kennedy as Troy.
The novel was adapted by Posy Simmonds into Tamara Drewe, weekly comic strip that ran from September 2005 to October 2006 in The Guardian 's Review section. The strip, a modern reworking of the novel, was itself adapted into a film, Tamara Drewe (2010), directed by Stephen Frears.
Literature
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who are the all time leading rushers in the nfl | List of National Football League career rushing yards Leaders - wikipedia
This is a list of National Football League running backs by total career rushing yards. This list includes all running backs who have rushed for at least 10,000 yards.
Through end of 2017 season.
Through end of 2017 season.
Seven players have been recognized as having held the career rushing yards record in the NFL. Since reliable yardage statistics were not recorded prior to 1932, the first NFL player recognized as the career leader in rushing yards was Cliff Battles, who played from 1932 to 1937 for the Boston Braves / Boston Redskins / Washington Redskins. He led the NFL with 576 yards in 1932 and held on to the record throughout his career. Emmitt Smith has held the record since surpassing Walter Payton 's long - standing total in 2002.
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what are the challenges in maintaining human rights in nepal | Human rights in Nepal - wikipedia
Executive:
Federal Parliament:
Judiciary:
A conflict between the Nepalese government forces and the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN - Maoist) occurred between 1996 and 2006, resulting in an increase in human rights abuses throughout the country. Both sides have been accused of torture, unlawful killings, arbitrary arrests, and abductions. Nepal was home to the most disappearances in the world during the conflict. The conflict also is considered as one of major reasons for lack of development in Nepal.
The conflict also resulted in a reduction in human rights in the realms of poverty, health, education, and gender equality. Issues in these realms continue to persist today. Nepalese people face discrimination based on ethnicity, caste, and gender, and citizens living in rural parts of Nepal due to lack of access to adequate health care, education, and other resources. Violence continues to plague the country, particularly towards women. Economic inequality is the prevalent, and health issues persist -- including high child mortality rates in some areas, mental illness, and insufficient health care services.
But the things have started to change after 2006, when the Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed between the government, political parties and the Maoists to end a decade - long conflict from 1996 - 2006, and to restore democracy and rule of law in Nepal.
From 1996 to 2006, Nepal experienced a violent conflict between the Nepalese government and the rebel political group the Communist Party of Nepal (the Maoists). The Maoists took arms against the Nepalese government to fight against what they saw as corrupt and discriminatory regime. Researchers say that ethnic, caste, gender, and rural vs. urban disparities in Nepal fueled the conflict. In 2006, both sides signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement to end the violence and form a cooperative government. However, ongoing political strife continues to obstruct peace developments.
According to Parker (2013), approximately 13,000 people died (including 500 children) and 100,000 - 200,000 Nepalis were displaced (including 40,000 children) during the war. Child Workers in Nepal reports that 27,323 children were taken from their communities to contribute to the war, possibly as child soldiers. Nepal ranked as the country with the most disappearances worldwide from 1996 - 2006. Both sides of the conflict engaged in torture and indiscriminate killings, and civilians often became unintentional casualties or were attacked for allegedly supporting the opposing side.
The conflict caused deterioration in human rights conditions across Nepal. Human capabilities in the realms of health, education, gender equality, torture, child rights and more have been obstructed.
The government forces and the Maoists have both been accused of torturing political prisoners and those they suspect oppose their views during the 1996 - 2006 conflict, including children. There is evidence that Nepalese police have also tortured, particularly during the conflict.
According to Stevenson (2001), forms of torture used during the conflict include physical, sexual, and psychological methods. The government used rape as a means of torture as well. Singh et al. (2005) reports that 70 % of Nepalese inmates were tortured in prison, and the Center for Victims of Torture estimates that 16,000 people were tortured per year during the war.
Both the Maoists and the Nepalese government used torture techniques to extract confessions and to force citizens to act in accordance with their dictates. Stevenson (2001) reports that 50 % of torture victims stated they only confessed because of the torture they received.
The long - lasting effects of torture can include physical issues such as disability, lingering pain, and weakness. Mental effects have also been documented, such as posttraumatic stress, anxiety, depression, sleep problems, eating difficulties, and dissociative disorders.
From 1996 - 2006, Nepal ranked as the country with the most disappearances recorded. The Nepalese government also frequently arrested and killed people with no explanation and no due process. Among the arrests, disappearances, and executions were civilians who were suspected of being against the government, NGO workers, and journalists.
The Maoists have been accused of arresting and killing civilians as well. During the conflict, they also took students to be trained to assist the Maoist forces, and possibly to become child soldiers. According to Child Workers in Nepal, approximately 27,323 children were taken. The Maoists will not admit to training and using child soldiers, however, though researchers such as Parker (2013) claim there is evidence that they did. The Maoists educated the students in their political point of view as well.
Current human rights issues include poverty (particularly in rural areas), education disparities, gender inequality, health issues, and child rights violations.
Poverty is an ongoing detriment to human rights in Nepal. 42 - 45 % of Nepalis are impoverished (surviving on income that falls beneath the poverty line) according to Parker (2013) and Paul (2012), while the 2014 Human Development Report for Nepal claims that 25 % of Nepalis are in poverty. The UN gives 64.7 % as the proportion in poverty using the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI). Bhusal (2012) reports that at least 75 % of Nepal 's citizens are in poverty if the poverty line is considered to be $2 a day; according to Bhusal, this higher poverty line better accounts for the practical social and cultural obligations that Nepalis face.
Some areas of Nepal lack sufficient food supply for children; in the worst areas, 60 % of children live without adequate food. According to the Human Development, the country 's Human Poverty Index (HPI) is 31.12, a relatively high number (where a higher HPI indicates increased poverty). However, Nepal 's HPI has been declining over the past years, decreasing by 21.4 % from 2001 to 2011.
Poverty is particularly high in Nepal 's rural regions, whose poverty levels are reported to be between 1.8 and 10 times those of cities. Paul (2012) has measured poverty levels at 4 % in the capital city Kathmandu and 56 % in the rural Mountain area. Paul also claims that the per capita income of people in urban areas is two times that of people in rural regions. Rural areas also do not receive as much aid from NGOs as urban areas do, further contributing to the disparities. In addition, researchers have observed that the most impoverished areas are slowest to show improvement. Researcher Lok P Sharma Bhattarai has stated that "(l) iving in the rural areas essentially means living in absence, struggling ' hand to mouth ' and being powerless. '' (Bhattarai 2012, 244.)
Despite poor HPI numbers, levels of inequality across Nepal appear to be decreasing over time, according to the 2014 Human Rights Report for Nepal. However, Bhattarai (2012) claims that the number of people in poverty is rising, and according to Bhusal (2012), 80 % of Nepalis have seen their quality of life go down within the last 15 years. Paul (2012) reports that Nepal 's Gini coefficient is. 51 -- a higher number than those of surrounding countries. Bhusal has also claimed that the top 20 % of income earners brought in nine times the amount of money as the bottom 20 % of income earners in 2005.
Poverty is also linked with ethnicity and caste, though equality between ethnic groups and castes is increasing. However, ethnic minorities and some lower castes continue to experience higher rates of poverty.
The 1996 - 2006 conflict in Nepal had a negative impact on health in the country. The violence was especially harmful to the health of women and children. The conflict prevented essential medical supplies from reaching those who needed them, particularly children. The maternal childbirth death rate during the conflict was at the high rate of 1 in 24.
Medical staff 's ability to work was also greatly impeded during the conflict, further harming the health of Nepalis. Staff was killed or arrested and hospitals were incapacitated. The violence forced many health workers to leave their jobs.
Low health indicators continue to persist in Nepal today. Health prospects vary greatly depending on where an individual lives in Nepal and to which class he or she belongs. Bhuttarai (2012) reports that a study revealed 50 % of poor Nepalis do not live within 30 minutes of a hospital. In addition, many areas in the country do not have adequate access to clean water and food.
This is particularly problematic for rural parts of Nepal, where there are fewer doctors. The same Bhuttarai study shows that only 21 % of rural Nepalis live within three hours of a public hospital; the rest must travel even greater distances to reach a doctor. Young child mortality rates in rural areas are also higher than they are in urban areas. Elderly citizens also tend to live in rural areas disproportionately, which obstructs their ability to receive healthcare. Finally, Bhuttarai reports that people living in rural areas tend to spend more money on health care than do city dwellers.
Mental health is also a significant problem in Nepal. Researchers have measured a rise in mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, which they think may have been caused by the violence of the 1996 - 2006 conflict. Suicide has also become more common. Though the demand for mental health treatment is high, there are only. 22 psychiatrists,. 06 psychologists, and 1.5 inpatient beds for every 100,000 people in Nepal, according to Luitel (2015). Throughout Nepal, primary care physicians do n't have supplies of psychotropic drugs that they require, mental health workers are overwhelmed, and primary care doctors do not receive the guidance and training they need to effectively treat mental illness. Rural areas of Nepal tend to particularly lack adequate sources of mental health treatment as well, as most mental health professionals reside in urban regions.
Singh (2005) reports that towards the end of the conflict, 30 % of Nepalis had some form of mental health issue. According to Luitel, Nepalis with mental health problems face stigma and discrimination; such stigma can discourage people from seeking mental health care.
Some attempts to improve the healthcare system in Nepal are in progress. Simkhada (2015) advocates for creating a public health protection organization in Nepal, in light of the recent global spread of disease. According to Simkhada, "This service is much needed in order to co-ordinate, strengthen, and support activities aimed at protecting the whole population of Nepal from infectious diseases, natural disasters and environmental hazards. '' (Simkhada 2015, 442.) The organization would help to recruit qualified health workers, train health professionals, educate the public, improve the delivery of health resources, and promote health research.
Children 's access to education was greatly disrupted during the 1996 - 2006 conflict between the Maoists and the Nepalese government. Students and teachers were attacked at school, and because of violence, some students were prevented from attending school during the conflict. Many schools were forced to close or faced reduced attendance because of attacks or threat of attack. Schools that remained open often held class for fewer hours, and student 's time in the classroom overall decreased greatly during the war.
The Maoists also occupied schools and used them as safe havens and as recruitment grounds. They taught children to be spies or messengers, and they took children to be trained to help the Maoist cause, possibly as child soldiers and child labourers. The Maoists forced teachers to use Maoist curricula and express Maoist political views, often compelling them to do so through violent means. Though the violence brought by the conflict was greatly detrimental to education, some Nepalis lauded the Maoists for making their school more inclusive to girls and those of lower caste, and for helping the school run more smoothly.
Since the 2006 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, however, the violence has abated and more children are able to attend school. However, several studies report that many children are still lacking education opportunity. Parker (2013) says that 18 % of children age five to nine are not receiving an education. However, the US State Department claims that 95 % of boys and 94 % of girls are enrolled in school. Paul (2012) reports that illiteracy in Nepal is currently at 64 %. This number varies widely between rural and urban areas; Paul measured the illiteracy rate at 37 % in urban areas and 67 % in rural areas.
Girls, children of lower caste, and ethnic minorities are still not given equal education opportunity. Children in rural areas also have reduced access to education, and children who were internally displaced persons (IDPs) during the war have had difficulty getting back to school.
The quality of schools in Nepal has also been questioned. More resources are needed to fund the schools and particularly to provide better school facilities. Schools also lack skilled and competent teachers; more quality teacher training is necessary. In addition, more comprehensive curricula are needed to accommodate students from all backgrounds.
Women in Nepal face discrimination, inequality, and violence.
Violence against Nepali women takes the form of domestic abuse, sexual assault, rape, human trafficking, and general harassment. Laws against these crimes are frequently unenforced, and as a result many perpetrators do not face legal consequences. Women also often fail to report rapes and sexual harassment. According to the US State Department, one reason for the lack of sexual harassment reports is that Nepalis do not receive adequate education concerning the definition of sexual harassment. The State Department claims that continued custom of dowry giving (which is illegal) increases violence against women as well. Women also faced violence during 1996 - 2006 conflict; Singh (2005) reports that 5000 - 10,000 women were trafficked every year.
In addition, women face inequalities in health, income, and education. Nepali women have a lower life expectancy than men, and medical care is preferentially given to boys over girls. Women in Nepal make 57 % less than men, according to the 2014 Human Development report for Nepal, and the US State Department says that continuing violence women face limits their ability to support themselves. Though equality in education among girls and boys has increased since 2003 according to Parker (2013), education inequalities still persist. Researchers such as Raj et al. (2014) view these disparities as problematic, and present research that suggests girls who receive more education are less likely to be married before age 14 in Nepal.
The Nepalese government, following the monarchy that ended in 2007, legalized cross dressing and a third gender option in 2007 along with the introduction of several new law sets. Cross-dressing was also illegal under various laws against public immorality but now is freely allowed. In the 2011 Nepal census, conducted in May 2011, the Central Bureau of Statistics officially recognized a third gender in addition to male and female. It also provides citizenship, passport, Ncell sim card registration, etc. with a third gender option. Yet there is not great acceptance for them in the society. Most of the violence and discrimination comes to third genders.
Local intersex activists have identified human rights violations including significant gaps in protection of rights to physical integrity and bodily autonomy, and protection from discrimination. A first national meeting of intersex people look place in early 2016, with support from the UNDP.
According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 234,600 people are enslaved in modern day Nepal, or 0.82 % of the population. One type of slavery in Nepal is kamlari, or domestic bonded labor. A child might be sold by their parents.
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when did mexico soccer team win the olympics | Mexico at the 2012 Summer Olympics - wikipedia
Mexico competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, from 27 July to 12 August 2012. This was the nation 's twenty - second appearance at the Olympics since its debut in 1900. Comité Olímpico Mexicano sent a total of 102 athletes to the Games, 64 men and 38 women, to compete in 23 sports. Men 's football was the only team sport in which Mexico was represented at these Olympic Games. There was only a single competitor in badminton, sprint canoeing, and table tennis.
The Mexican team featured several medal prospects for London, including taekwondo jin and defending champion María Espinoza, who was the nation 's flag bearer at the opening ceremony. Equestrian show jumper Jaime Azcárraga, who had competed in Olympics since 1984, marked his return in London after a twenty - year absence and was also the oldest member of the team, at age 52. Laser Radial sailor Tania Elías Calles and windsurfer David Mier, on the other hand, competed at their fourth Olympics.
This was Mexico 's most successful Olympics where it was not the host nation, winning a total of 8 medals (1 gold, 3 silver, and 4 bronze), and surpassing their record from Los Angeles and Sydney by a single medal. Three of these medals were awarded to the athletes in diving, and two in archery for the first time. Among the nation 's medalists were springboard diver Laura Sánchez, who won Mexico 's first Olympic medal for a female in an individual event. Meanwhile, taekwondo jin María Espinoza and platform diver Paola Espinosa became the first Mexican women in history to win a total of two Olympic medals. Mexico also set a milestone in its team sports, as the men 's football team won its first ever Olympic gold medal in the final match against Brazil.
Legend: FA = Qualify to final A (medal); FB = Qualify to final B (non-medal); OB = Olympic Best
The following is the Mexico squad in the men 's football tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics.
Coach: Luis Fernando Tena
* Over-aged player.
* Did not finish
Qualification Legend: FA = Final A (medal); FB = Final B (non-medal); FC = Final C (non-medal); FD = Final D (non-medal); FE = Final E (non-medal); FF = Final F (non-medal); SA / B = Semifinals A / B; SC / D = Semifinals C / D; SE / F = Semifinals E / F; QF = Quarterfinals; R = Repechage
M = Medal race; EL = Eliminated -- did not advance into the medal race;
Key:
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what year do i need to be born to be 21 | Millennials - wikipedia
Millennials (also known as Generation Y) are the demographic cohort following Generation X. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends; demographers and researchers typically use the early 1980s as starting birth years and the mid-1990s to early 2000s as ending birth years.
Millennials are sometimes referred to as "Echo Boomers '' due to a major surge in birth rates in the 1980s and 1990s, and because Millennials are often the children of the Baby boomers. The 20th - century trend toward smaller families in developed countries continued, however, so the relative impact of the "baby boom echo '' was generally less pronounced than the post -- World War II baby boom.
Millennial characteristics vary by region, depending on social and economic conditions. However, the generation is generally marked by an increased use and familiarity with communications, media, and digital technologies. In most parts of the world, their upbringing was marked by an increase in a liberal approach to politics and economics; the effects of this environment are disputed. The Great Recession has had a major impact on this generation because it has caused historically high levels of unemployment among young people, and has led to speculation about possible long - term economic and social damage to this generation.
Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe are widely credited with naming the Millennials. They coined the term in 1987, around the time children born in 1982 were entering preschool, and the media were first identifying their prospective link to the new millennium as the high school graduating class of 2000. They wrote about the cohort in their books Generations: The History of America 's Future, 1584 to 2069 (1991) and Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation (2000).
In August 1993, an Advertising Age editorial coined the phrase Generation Y to describe those who were aged 11 or younger as well as the teenagers of the upcoming ten years who were defined as different from Generation X. According to journalist Bruce Horovitz, in 2012, Ad Age "threw in the towel by conceding that Millennials is a better name than Gen Y '', and by 2014, a past director of data strategy at Ad Age said to NPR "the Generation Y label was a placeholder until we found out more about them ''. Millennials are sometimes called Echo Boomers, due to their being the offspring of the baby boomers and due to the significant increase in birth rates from the early 1980s to mid 1990s, mirroring that of their parents. In the United States, birth rates peaked in August 1990 and a 20th - century trend toward smaller families in developed countries continued. In his book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson called this cohort the "New Boomers ''.
Psychologist Jean Twenge described Millennials as "Generation Me '' in her 2006 book Generation Me: Why Today 's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled -- and More Miserable Than Ever Before, which was updated in 2014. In 2013, Time magazine ran a cover story titled Millennials: The Me Me Me Generation. Newsweek used the term Generation 9 / 11 to refer to young people who were between the ages of 10 and 20 years during the terrorist acts of 11 September 2001. The first reference to "Generation 9 / 11 '' was made in the cover story of the 12 November 2001 issue of Newsweek. Alternative names for this group proposed include Generation We, Global Generation, Generation Next and the Net Generation.
Chinese Millennials are commonly called the 1980s and 1990s generations. At a 2015 conference in Shanghai organized by University of Southern California 's US - China Institute, Millennials in China were examined and contrasted with American Millennials Findings included Millennials ' marriage, childbearing, and child raising preferences, life and career ambitions, and attitudes towards volunteerism and activism.
A minority of demographers and researchers start the generation in the mid-to - late 1970s, such as Synchrony Financial which describes Millennials as starting as early as 1976, Mobilize.org which uses 1976 -- 1996, MetLife which uses birth dates ranging from 1977 -- 1994, and Nielsen Media Research which uses 1977 -- 1995.
The majority of researchers and demographers start the generation in the early 1980s, with many ending the generation in the mid-1990s. Australia 's McCrindle Research regards 1980 -- 1994 as Generation Y birth years. A 2013 PricewaterhouseCoopers report and Edelman Berland use 1980 -- 1995. Gallup Inc., Eventbrite and Dale Carnegie Training and MSW Research all use 1980 -- 1996. Ernst and Young uses 1981 -- 1996. Manpower Group uses 1982 -- 1996.
Others end the generation in the late 1990s or early 2000s. A 2017 viral video from BuzzFeed, detailing the seven living generations of Americans, described Millennials as those born between 1981 -- 1997. On the American television program Survivor, for their 33rd season, subtitled Millennials vs. Gen X, the "Millennial tribe '' consisted of individuals born between 1984 and 1997. Goldman Sachs, Resolution Foundation, and a 2013 Time magazine cover story all use 1980 -- 2000. SYZYGY, a digital service agency partially owned by WPP, uses 1981 -- 1998, and the United States Census Bureau uses 1982 -- 2000. Pew Research Center defines Millennials as being born from 1981 onwards, with no chronological end point set yet.
Demographers William Straus and Neil Howe define Millennials as born between 1982 -- 2004. However, Howe described the dividing line between Millennials and the following Generation Z as "tentative '', saying "you ca n't be sure where history will someday draw a cohort dividing line until a generation fully comes of age ''. He noted that the Millennials ' range beginning in 1982 would point to the next generation 's window starting between 2000 and 2006.
In his 2008 book The Lucky Few: Between the Greatest Generation and the Baby Boom, author Elwood Carlson defined this cohort as born between 1983 -- 2001 based on the upswing in births after 1983 and finishing with the "political and social challenges '' that occurred after the September 11 terrorist acts. In 2016, U.S Pirg described Millennials as those born between 1983 and 2000.
Due to birth - year overlap between definitions of Generation X and Millennials, some individuals born in the late 1970s and early 1980s see themselves as being "between '' the two generations. Names given to those born in the Generation X and Millennial cusp years include Xennials, The Lucky Ones, Generation Catalano, and the Oregon Trail Generation.
Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe believe that each generation has common characteristics that give it a specific character with four basic generational archetypes, repeating in a cycle. According to their hypothesis, they predicted Millennials will become more like the "civic - minded '' G.I. Generation with a strong sense of community both local and global. Strauss and Howe ascribe seven basic traits to the Millennial cohort: special, sheltered, confident, team - oriented, conventional, pressured, and achieving. Arthur E. Levine, author of When Hope and Fear Collide: A Portrait of Today 's College Student describes these generational images as "stereotypes ''.
Strauss and Howe 's research has been influential, but it also has critics. Psychologist Jean Twenge says Strauss and Howe 's assertions are overly - deterministic, non-falsifiable, and unsupported by rigorous evidence. Twenge, the author of the 2006 book Generation Me, considers Millennials, along with younger members of Generation X, to be part of what she calls "Generation Me ''. Twenge attributes Millennials with the traits of confidence and tolerance, but also describes a sense of entitlement and narcissism, based on personality surveys showing increased narcissism among Millennials compared to preceding generations when they were teens and in their twenties. She questions the predictions of Strauss and Howe that this generation will turn out civic - minded. A 2016 study by SYZYGY a digital service agency, found Millennials in the U.S. continue to exhibit elevated scores on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory as they age, finding millennials exhibited 16 % more narcissism than older adults, with males scoring higher on average than females. The study examined two types of narcissism: grandiose narcissism, described as "the narcissism of extraverts, characterized by attention - seeking behavior, power and dominance '', and vulnerable narcissism, described as "the narcissism of introverts, characterized by an acute sense of self - entitlement and defensiveness. ''
The University of Michigan 's "Monitoring the Future '' study of high school seniors (conducted continually since 1975) and the American Freshman survey, conducted by UCLA 's Higher Education Research Institute of new college students since 1966, showed an increase in the proportion of students who consider wealth a very important attribute, from 45 % for Baby Boomers (surveyed between 1967 and 1985) to 70 % for Gen Xers, and 75 % for Millennials. The percentage who said it was important to keep abreast of political affairs fell, from 50 % for Baby Boomers to 39 % for Gen Xers, and 35 % for Millennials. The notion of "developing a meaningful philosophy of life '' decreased the most across generations, from 73 % for Boomers to 45 % for Millennials. The willingness to be involved in an environmental cleanup program dropped from 33 % for Baby Boomers to 21 % for Millennials.
A 2013 Pew Research Poll found that 84 % of Millennials, born since 1980, who were at that time between the ages of 18 and 32, favored legalizing the use of marijuana. In 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity that said a majority did not like the "Millennial '' label.
In March 2014, the Pew Research Center issued a report about how "Millennials in adulthood '' are "detached from institutions and networked with friends. '' The report said Millennials are somewhat more upbeat than older adults about America 's future, with 49 % of Millennials saying the country 's best years are ahead though they 're the first in the modern era to have higher levels of student loan debt and unemployment.
Fred Bonner, a Samuel DeWitt Proctor Chair in Education at Rutgers University and author of Diverse Millennial Students in College: Implications for Faculty and Student Affairs, believes that much of the commentary on the Millennial Generation may be partially accurate, but overly general and that many of the traits they describe apply primarily to "white, affluent teenagers who accomplish great things as they grow up in the suburbs, who confront anxiety when applying to super-selective colleges, and who multitask with ease as their helicopter parents hover reassuringly above them. '' During class discussions, Bonner listened to black and Hispanic students describe how some or all of the so - called core traits did not apply to them. They often said that the "special '' trait, in particular, is unrecognizable. Other socio - economic groups often do not display the same attributes commonly attributed to Millennials. "It 's not that many diverse parents do n't want to treat their kids as special, '' he says, "but they often do n't have the social and cultural capital, the time and resources, to do that. ''
In his book Fast Future, author David Burstein describes Millennials ' approach to social change as "pragmatic idealism '' with a deep desire to make the world a better place, combined with an understanding that doing so requires building new institutions while working inside and outside existing institutions.
There are vast, and conflicting, amounts of literature and empirical studies discussing the existence of generational differences as it pertains to the workplace. The majority of research concludes Millennials differ from both their generational cohort predecessors, and can be characterized by a preference for a flat corporate culture, an emphasis on work - life balance and social consciousness.
According to authors from Florida International University, original research performed by Howe and Strauss as well as Yu & Miller suggest Baby Boomers resonate primarily with loyalty, work ethic, steady career path, and compensation when it comes to their professional lives. Generation X on the other hand, started shifting preferences towards an improved work - life balance with a heightened focus on individual advancement, stability, and job satisfaction. Meanwhile, Millennials place an emphasis on producing meaningful work, finding a creative outlet, and have a preference for immediate feedback. Findings also suggest the introduction of social media has augmented collaborative skills and created a preference for a team - oriented environment.
In the 2010 the Journal of Business and Psychology, contributors Myers and Sadaghiani find Millennials "expect close relationships and frequent feedback from supervisors '' to be a main point of differentiation. Multiple studies observe Millennials ' associating job satisfaction with free flow of information, strong connectivity to supervisors, and more immediate feedback. Hershatter and Epstein, researches from Emory University, argue a lot of these traits can be linked to Millennials entering the educational system on the cusp of academic reform, which created a much more structured educational system. Some argue in the wake of these reforms, such as the No Child Left Behind Act, Millennials have increasingly sought the aid of mentors and advisers, leading to 66 % of Millennials seeking a flat work environment.
Hershatter and Epstein also stress a growing importance on work - life balance. Studies show nearly one - third of students ' top priority is to "balance personal and professional life ''. The Brain Drain Study shows nearly 9 out of 10 Millennials place an importance on work - life balance, with additional surveys demonstrating the generation to favor familial over corporate values. Studies also show a preference for work - life balance, which contrasts to the Baby Boomers ' work - centric attitude.
Data also suggests Millennials are driving a shift towards the public service sector. In 2010, Myers and Sadaghiani published research in the Journal of Business and Psychology stating heightened participation in the Peace Corps and MeriCorps as a result of Millennials, with volunteering being at all - time highs. Volunteer activity between 2007 and 2008 show the Millennial age group experienced almost three - times the increase of the overall population, which is consistent with a survey of 130 college upperclassmen depicting an emphasis on altruism in their upbringing. This has led, according to a Harvard University Institute of Politics, six out of ten Millennials to consider a career in public service.
The 2014 Brookings publication shows a generational adherence to corporate social responsibility, with the National Society of High School Scholars (NSHSS) 2013 survey and Universum 's 2011 survey, depicting a preference to work for companies engaged in the betterment of society. Millennials ' shift in attitudes has led to data depicting 64 % of Millennials would take a 60 % pay cut to pursue a career path aligned with their passions, and financial institutions have fallen out of favor with banks comprising 40 % of the generation 's least liked brands.
In 2008, author Ron Alsop called the Millennials "Trophy Kids, '' a term that reflects a trend in competitive sports, as well as many other aspects of life, where mere participation is frequently enough for a reward. It has been reported that this is an issue in corporate environments. Some employers are concerned that Millennials have too great expectations from the workplace. Some studies predict they will switch jobs frequently, holding many more jobs than Gen Xers due to their great expectations. Psychologist Jean Twenge reports data suggests there are differences between older and younger Millennials regarding workplace expectations, with younger Millennials being "more practical '' and "more attracted to industries with steady work and are more likely to say they are willing to work overtime '' which Twenge attributes to younger Millennials coming of age following the financial crisis of 2007 - 2008.
There is also a contention that the major differences are found solely between Millennials and Generation X. Researchers from the University of Missouri and The University of Tennessee conducted a study based on measurement equivalence to determine if such a difference does in fact exist. The study looked at 1,860 participants who had completed the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (MWEP), a survey aimed at measuring identification with work - ethic characteristics, across a 12 - year period spanning from 1996 to 2008. The results of the findings suggest the main difference in work ethic sentiments arose between the two most recent generational cohorts, Generation X and Millennials, with relatively small variances between the two generations and their predecessor, the Baby Boomers.
That said, some research fails to find convincing differences. A meta study conducted by researchers from The George Washington University and The U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences questions the validity of workplace differences across any generational cohort. According to the researchers, disagreement in which events to include when assigning generational cohorts, as well as varied opinions on which age ranges to include in each generational category are the main drivers behind their skepticism. The analysis of 20 research reports focusing on the three work - related factors of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and intent to turn over proved any variation was too small to discount the impact of employee tenure and aging of individuals. Newer research shows that Millennials change jobs for the same reasons as other generations -- namely, more money and a more innovative work environment. They look for versatility and flexibility in the workplace, and strive for a strong work -- life balance in their jobs and have similar career aspirations to other generations, valuing financial security and a diverse workplace just as much as their older colleagues.
Surveys of political attitudes among Millennials in the United Kingdom have suggested increasingly social liberal views, as well as higher overall support for classical liberal economic policies than preceding generations. They are more likely to support same - sex marriage and the legalization of drugs. The Economist parallels this with Millennials in the United States, whose attitudes are more supportive of social liberal policies and same - sex marriage relative to other demographics. They are also more likely to oppose animal testing for medical purposes than older generations. Bernie Sanders, a self - proclaimed democratic socialist and democratic candidate in the 2016 United States presidential election, was the most popular candidate among Millennial voters in the primary phase, having garnered more votes from people under 30 in 21 states than the major parties ' candidates, Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton, did combined. In April 2016, The Washington Post viewed him as changing the way Millennials viewed politics, saying, "He 's not moving a party to the left. He 's moving a generation to the left. '' Bernie Sanders referred to Millennials as "the least prejudiced generation in the history of the United States ''. A 2014 poll for the libertarian Reason magazine suggested that American Millennials were social liberals and fiscal centrists, more often than their global peers. The magazine predicted that Millennials would become more conservative on fiscal issues once they started paying taxes.
In the United Kingdom, the majority of Millennials opposed the British withdrawal from the European Union. Blaming Baby boomers, who largely supported the referendum, one commenter said: "The younger generation has lost the right to live and work in 27 other countries. We will never know the full extent of the lost opportunities, friendships, marriages and experiences we will be denied. '' The Washington Post phrased this as "we let you steal our future '', reporting high voter turnout among those over 55 years of age and low voter turnout among those under 34 years of age.
In some countries, like the U.S. and UK, Millennials are more likely to support political correctness than their elders. In 2015, a Pew Research study found 40 % of Millennials in the United States supported government restriction of public speech offensive to minority groups; agreeing with this were 27 % of Gen Xers, 24 % of Baby Boomers and only 12 % of the Silent Generation. Pew Research noted similar age related trends in the United Kingdom, but not in Germany and Spain, where Millennials were less supportive of restricting offensive speech than older groups, or France, Italy and Poland, where there were no noticeable age differences. In the U.S. and UK, Millennials have brought changes to higher education via drawing attention to microaggressions and advocating implementation of safe spaces and trigger warnings in the university setting. Critics of such changes have raised concerns regarding their impact on free speech, asserting these changes can promote censorship, while proponents have described these changes as promoting inclusiveness.
Millennial population size varies, depending on the definition used. William Strauss and Neil Howe projected in their 1991 book Generations that the U.S. Millennial population would be 76 million. Later, using dates ranging from 1982 to 2004, Neil Howe revised the number to over 95 million people (in the U.S.). In a 2012 Time magazine article, it was estimated that there were approximately 80 million U.S. Millennials. The United States Census Bureau, using birth dates ranging from 1982 to 2000, stated the estimated number of U.S. Millennials in 2015 was 83.1 million people.
In 2016, the Pew Research Center found that Millennials surpassed Baby Boomers to become the largest living generation in the United States. By analyzing 2015 U.S Census data they found there were 75.4 million Millennials, based on Pew 's definition of the generation which ranges from 1981 to 1997, compared to 74.9 million Baby Boomers.
Economic prospects for some Millennials have declined largely due to the Great Recession in the late 2000s. Several governments have instituted major youth employment schemes out of fear of social unrest due to the dramatically increased rates of youth unemployment. In Europe, youth unemployment levels were very high (56 % in Spain, 44 % in Italy, 35 % in the Baltic states, 19.1 % in Britain and more than 20 % in many more countries). In 2009, leading commentators began to worry about the long - term social and economic effects of the unemployment. Unemployment levels in other areas of the world were also high, with the youth unemployment rate in the U.S. reaching a record 19.1 % in July 2010 since the statistic started being gathered in 1948. In Canada, unemployment among youths in July 2009 was 15.9 %, the highest it had been in 11 years. Underemployment is also a major factor. In the U.S. the economic difficulties have led to dramatic increases in youth poverty, unemployment, and the numbers of young people living with their parents. In April 2012, it was reported that half of all new college graduates in the US were still either unemployed or underemployed. It has been argued that this unemployment rate and poor economic situation has given Millennials a rallying call with the 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement. However, according to Christine Kelly, Occupy is not a youth movement and has participants that vary from the very young to very old.
A variety of names have emerged in various European countries hard hit following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 to designate young people with limited employment and career prospects. These groups can be considered to be more or less synonymous with Millennials, or at least major sub-groups in those countries. The Generation of € 700 is a term popularized by the Greek mass media and refers to educated Greek twixters of urban centers who generally fail to establish a career. In Greece, young adults are being "excluded from the labor market '' and some "leave their country of origin to look for better options ''. They 're being "marginalized and face uncertain working conditions '' in jobs that are unrelated to their educational background, and receive the minimum allowable base salary of € 700 per month. This generation evolved in circumstances leading to the Greek debt crisis and some participated in the 2010 -- 2011 Greek protests. In Spain, they 're referred to as the mileurista (for € 1,000 per month), in France "The Precarious Generation, '' and as in Spain, Italy also has the "milleurista ''; generation of 1,000 euros (per month).
In 2015, Millennials in New York City were reported as earning 20 % less than the generation before them, as a result of entering the workforce during the great recession. Despite higher college attendance rates than Generation X, many were stuck in low - paid jobs, with the percentage of degree - educated young adults working in low - wage industries rising from 23 % to 33 % between 2000 and 2014. In 2016, research from the Resolution Foundation found Millennials in the UK earned £ 8,000 less in their 20s than Generation X, describing Millennials as "on course to become the first generation to earn less than the one before ''.
Generation Flux is a neologism and psychographic (not demographic) designation coined by Fast Company for American employees who need to make several changes in career throughout their working lives due to the chaotic nature of the job market following the Great Recession. Societal change has been accelerated by the use of social media, smartphones, mobile computing, and other new technologies. Those in "Generation Flux '' have birth - years in the ranges of both Generation X and Millennials. "Generation Sell '' was used by author William Deresiewicz to describe Millennials ' interest in small businesses.
Millennials are expected to make up approximately half of the U.S. workforce by 2020. Millennials are the most highly educated and culturally diverse group of all generations, and have been regarded as hard to please when it comes to employers. To address these new challenges, many large firms are currently studying the social and behavioral patterns of Millennials and are trying to devise programs that decrease intergenerational estrangement, and increase relationships of reciprocal understanding between older employees and Millennials. The UK 's Institute of Leadership & Management researched the gap in understanding between Millennial recruits and their managers in collaboration with Ashridge Business School. The findings included high expectations for advancement, salary and for a coaching relationship with their manager, and suggested that organizations will need to adapt to accommodate and make the best use of Millennials. In an example of a company trying to do just this, Goldman Sachs conducted training programs that used actors to portray Millennials who assertively sought more feedback, responsibility, and involvement in decision making. After the performance, employees discussed and debated the generational differences they saw played out.
Millennials have benefited the least from the economic recovery following the Great Recession, as average incomes for this generation have fallen at twice the general adult population 's total drop and are likely to be on a path toward lower incomes for at least another decade. A Bloomberg L.P. article wrote that "Three and a half years after the worst recession since the Great Depression, the earnings and employment gap between those in the under - 35 population and their parents and grandparents threatens to unravel the American dream of each generation doing better than the last. The nation 's younger workers have benefited least from an economic recovery that has been the most uneven in recent history. ''
In 2014, Millennials were entering an increasingly multi-generational workplace. Even though research has shown that Millennials are joining the workforce during a tough economic time they still have remained optimistic, as shown when about nine out of ten Millennials surveyed by the Pew Research Center said that they currently have enough money or that they will eventually reach their long - term financial goals.
American sociologist Kathleen Shaputis labeled Millennials as the Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan generation, because of the members ' perceived tendency for delaying some rites of passage into adulthood for longer periods than most generations before them. These labels were also a reference to a trend toward members living with their parents for longer periods than previous generations. Kimberly Palmer regards the high cost of housing and higher education, and the relative affluence of older generations, as among the factors driving the trend. Questions regarding a clear definition of what it means to be an adult also impacts a debate about delayed transitions into adulthood and the emergence of a new life stage, Emerging Adulthood. A 2012 study by professors at Brigham Young University found that college students were more likely to define "adult '' based on certain personal abilities and characteristics rather than more traditional "rite of passage '' events. Larry Nelson noted that "In prior generations, you get married and you start a career and you do that immediately. What young people today are seeing is that approach has led to divorces, to people unhappy with their careers... The majority want to get married (...) they just want to do it right the first time, the same thing with their careers. ''
Their expectations have had a dampening effect on Millennials ' rate of marriage. In 2016, the average American couple spent more than $14,000 on their wedding. A 2013 joint study by sociologists at the University of Virginia and Harvard University found that the decline and disappearance of stable full - time jobs with health insurance and pensions for people who lack a college degree has had profound effects on working - class Americans, who now are less likely to marry and have children within marriage than those with college degrees. Data from a 2014 study of US Millennials revealed over 56 % of this cohort considers themselves as part of the working class, with only approximately 35 % considering themselves as part of the middle class; this class identity is the lowest polling of any generation.
Research by the Urban Institute conducted in 2014, projected that if current trends continue, Millennials will have a lower marriage rate compared to previous generations, predicting that by age 40, 30.7 % of millennial women will remain single, approximately twice the share of their single Gen X counterparts. The data showed similar trends for males. A 2016 study from Pew Research showed Millennials delay some activities considered rites of passage of adulthood with data showing young adults aged 18 -- 34 were more likely to live with parents than with a relationship partner, an unprecedented occurrence since data collection began in 1880. Data also showed a significant increase in the percentage of young adults living with parents compared to the previous demographic cohort, Generation X, with 23 % of young adults aged 18 -- 34 living with parents in 2000, rising to 32 % in 2014. Additionally, in 2000, 43 % of those aged 18 -- 34 were married or living with a partner, with this figure dropping to 31.6 % in 2014. High student debt is described as one reason for continuing to live with parents, but may not be the dominant factor for this shift as the data shows the trend is stronger for those without a college education. Richard Fry, a senior economist for Pew Research said of Millennials, "they 're the group much more likely to live with their parents. '' furthering "they 're concentrating more on school, careers and work and less focused on forming new families, spouses or partners and children ''.
According to a cross-generational study comparing Millennials to Generation X conducted at Wharton School of Business, more than half of Millennial undergraduates surveyed do not plan to have children. The researchers compared surveys of the Wharton graduating class of 1992 and 2012. In 1992, 78 % of women planned to eventually have children dropping to 42 % in 2012. The results were similar for male students. The research revealed among both genders the proportion of undergraduates who reported they eventually planned to have children had dropped in half over the course of a generation.
In the U.S., Millennials are the least likely to be religious. There is a trend towards irreligion that has been increasing since the 1940s. 29 percent of Americans born between 1983 and 1994 are irreligious, as opposed to 21 percent born between 1963 and 1981, 15 percent born between 1948 and 1962 and only 7 percent born before 1948. A 2005 study looked at 1,385 people aged 18 to 25 and found that more than half of those in the study said that they pray regularly before a meal. One - third said that they discussed religion with friends, attended religious services, and read religious material weekly. Twenty - three percent of those studied did not identify themselves as religious practitioners. A Pew Research Center study on Millennials shows that of those between 18 -- 29 years old, only 3 % of these emerging adults self - identified as "atheists '' and only 4 % self - identified as "agnostics ''. Overall, 25 % of Millennials are "Nones '' and 75 % are religiously affiliated.
Over half of Millennials polled in the United Kingdom in 2013 said they had "no religion nor attended a place of worship '', other than for a wedding or a funeral. 25 % said they "believe in a God '', while 19 % believed in a "spiritual greater power '' and 38 % said they did not believe in God nor any other "greater spiritual power ''. The poll also found 41 % thought religion was "the cause of evil '' in the world more often than good.
In their 2007 book, authors Junco and Mastrodicasa expanded on the work of William Strauss and Neil Howe to include research - based information about the personality profiles of Millennials, especially as it relates to higher education. They conducted a large - sample (7,705) research study of college students. They found that Next Generation college students, born between 1983 -- 1992, were frequently in touch with their parents and they used technology at higher rates than people from other generations. In their survey, they found that 97 % of these students owned a computer, 94 % owned a mobile phone, and 56 % owned an MP3 player. They also found that students spoke with their parents an average of 1.5 times a day about a wide range of topics. Other findings in the Junco and Mastrodicasa survey revealed 76 % of students used instant messaging, 92 % of those reported multitasking while instant messaging, 40 % of them used television to get most of their news, and 34 % of students surveyed used the Internet as their primary news source. Older Millennials came of age prior to widespread usage and availability of smartphones, defined as those born 1988 and earlier, in contrast to younger Millennials, those born in 1989 and later, who were exposed to this technology in their teen years.
Gen Xers and Millennials were the first to grow up with computers in their homes. In a 1999 speech at the New York Institute of Technology, Microsoft Chairman and CEO Bill Gates encouraged America 's teachers to use technology to serve the needs of the first generation of kids to grow up with the Internet. Some Millennials enjoy having hundreds of channels from cable TV. However, some other Millennials do not even have a TV, so they watch media over the Internet using smartphones and tablets. One of the most popular forms of media use by Millienials is social networking. In 2010, research was published in the Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research which claimed that students who used social media and decided to quit showed the same withdrawal symptoms of a drug addict who quit their stimulant. Marc Prensky coined the term "digital native '' to describe "K through college '' students in 2001, explaining they "represent the first generations to grow up with this new technology. '' Millennials are identified as "digital natives '' by the Pew Research Center which conducted a survey titled Millennials in Adulthood.
Millennials use social networking sites, such as Facebook, to create a different sense of belonging, make acquaintances, and to remain connected with friends. In the Frontline episode "Generation Like '' there is discussion about Millennials, their dependence on technology, and the ways the social media sphere is commoditized.
Strauss & Howe 's book titled Millennials Rising: The Next Great Generation describes the Millennial generation as "civic - minded '', rejecting the attitudes of the Baby Boomers and Generation X. Since the 2000 U.S. Census, which allowed people to select more than one racial group, Millennials in abundance have asserted the ideal that all their heritages should be respected, counted, and acknowledged. Millennials are the children of Baby Boomers or Generation Xers, while some older members may have parents from the Silent Generation. A 2013 poll in the United Kingdom found that Generation Y was more "open - minded than their parents on controversial topics ''. Of those surveyed, nearly 75 % supported same - sex marriage.
A 2013 Pew Research Poll found that 84 % of Millennials, born since 1980, who were at that time between the ages of 18 and 32, favored legalizing the use of marijuana. In 2015, the Pew Research Center also conducted research regarding generational identity. It was discovered that Millennials, or members of Generation Y, are less likely to strongly identify with the generational term when compared to Generation X or to the baby boomers, with only 40 % of those born between 1981 and 1997 identifying as part of the Millennial Generation. Among older Millennials, those born 1981 -- 1988, Pew Research found 43 % personally identified as members of the older demographic cohort, Generation X, while only 35 % identified as Millennials. Among younger Millennials (born 1989 -- 1997), generational identity was not much stronger, with only 45 % personally identifying as Millennials. It was also found that Millennials chose most often to define itself with more negative terms such as self - absorbed, wasteful or greedy. In this 2015 report, Pew defined Millennials with birth years ranging from 1981 onwards.
Millennials came of age in a time where the entertainment industry began to be affected by the Internet. In addition to Millennials being the most ethnically and racially diverse compared to the generations older than they are, they are also on pace to be the most educated. As of 2008, 39.6 % of Millennials between the ages of 18 and 24 were enrolled in college, which was an American record. Along with being educated, Millennials are also very upbeat. As stated above in the economic prospects section, about 9 out of 10 Millennials feel as though they have enough money or that they will reach their long - term financial goals, even during the tough economic times, and they are more optimistic about the future of the U.S. Additionally, Millennials are also more open to change than older generations. According to the Pew Research Center that did a survey in 2008, Millennials are the most likely of any generation to self - identify as liberals and are also more supportive of progressive domestic social agenda than older generations. Finally, Millennials are less overtly religious than the older generations. About one in four Millennials are unaffiliated with any religion, which is much more than the older generations when they were the ages of Millennials.
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the route to hell is paved with good intentions | The road to hell is paved with good intentions - wikipedia
The road to hell is paved with good intentions is a proverb or aphorism. An alternative form is "Hell is full of good meanings, but heaven is full of good works ''.
The saying is thought to have originated with Saint Bernard of Clairvaux who wrote (c. 1150), "L'enfer est plein de bonnes volontés ou désirs '' (hell is full of good wishes or desires). An earlier saying occurs in Virgil 's Aeneid: "facilis descensus Averno (the descent to hell is easy) ''.
A common interpretation of the saying is that wrongdoings or evil actions are often masked by good intentions; or even that good intentions, when acted upon, may have unintended consequences. A simple example is the introduction of an invasive species, like the Asian carp, which has become a nuisance due to unexpected proliferation and behaviour.
Another meaning of the phrase is that individuals may have the intention to undertake good actions but nevertheless fail to take action. This inaction may be due to procrastination, laziness or other subversive vice. As such, the saying is an admonishment that a good intention is meaningless unless followed through.
Moral certainty can be used to justify the harm done by failing policies and actions. Those with good intentions believe their practices are good for the group; it is self - evident to them. They justify collateral damage in the belief they do a greater good. The Nazi concentration camps were created to hold so - called "racially undesirable elements '' of German society. The GULAG system was introduced in order to isolate disloyal elements not contributing to the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Inquisition was established to eradicate heretics in religious states. The harm done is clearly seen, and acknowledged, but is written off as a ' price worth paying '.
On a personal level, taking a subjectively "good action '' can land one in a horrific emotional and / or physical state of being, e.g., a soldier goes off to war to fight for the subjective good of their country and ends up with post-traumatic stress disorder.
Psychological studies of the effect of intention upon task completion by professors Peter Gollwitzer, Paschal Sheeran and Sheina Orbell indicate that there is some truth in the proverb. Perfectionists are especially prone to having their intentions backfire in this way. Some have argued that people are more likely to interpret their own actions as more well intended than the actions of others.
Attempts to improve the ethical behaviour of groups are often counter-productive. If legislation is used for such an attempt, people observe the letter of the law rather than improve the desired behaviour. During negotiation, groups that are encouraged to understand the point of view of the other parties are worse at this than those whose perspective is not enlightened. The threat of punishment may make behavior less rather than more ethical. Studies of business ethics indicate that most wrongdoing is not due directly to wickedness but is performed by people who did not plan to err.
Stephen Garrard Post, writing about altruism, suggests that good intentions are often not what they seem and that mankind normally acts from less worthy, selfish motives -- "If the road to hell is paved with good intentions, it is partly because that is the road they generally start out on. ''
Authors who have used the phrase include Charlotte Brontë, Lord Byron, Samuel Johnson, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Sir Walter Scott, Søren Kierkegaard, and Karl Marx. Ozzy Osbourne used the term in the song "Tonight '' on his album Diary of a Madman.
In the movie Highway to Hell, the phrase is taken literally to create one particular scene. The Good Intentions Paving Company has a team of Andy Warhols who grind good - intentioned souls into pavement. "I was only sleeping with my husband 's boss to advance his career '', says one. The figurative meaning of the phrase is a big part of the plot too, as several characters offer help to the two protagonists on the Road to Hell, but all of them have ulterior motives.
Pink used the phrase in her 2006 song Dear Mr. President to refer to the No Child Left Behind Act.
Madonna uses this line in her 2008 single "4 Minutes, '' featuring Justin Timberlake and Timbaland, off her eleventh studio album Hard Candy. She mentions it in one of her verses, singing "The road to hell is paved with good intentions, yeah. ''
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who provided the most financial support to america during the revolutionary war | Financial costs of the American Revolutionary war - Wikipedia
The American Revolutionary War inflicted great financial costs on all of the combatants, including the United States of America, France, Spain and Great Britain. France and Great Britain spent 1.3 billion livres and 250 million pounds, respectively. The United States spent $400 million in wages for its troops. Spain increased its military spending from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million reales in 1779.
The economic warfare between Great Britain and the colonists began well before the colonies declared their independence in 1776. Regulations from the crown were met with fierce opposition from the colonists. After lobbies and petitions proved ineffective, the colonists turned to boycotting imported English goods. Boycotting proved to be successful in crippling British trade. After the first colonial boycott in 1765, Parliament overturned the Sugar and Stamp Acts, and after a second boycott in 1768 Parliament overturned all of the Townshend duties except for the tax on tea. The colonists persisted, and the American boycott on tea ultimately culminated in the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Despite the Revolution 's widespread association with the colonists ' aversion to higher taxes, it has been claimed that the colonists actually paid far less tax compared to their British counterparts.
British efforts to weaken the colonies included isolating their economy from the rest of the world by cutting off trade. With a navy that was many times more powerful than its American counterpart, the English had virtual control over the American ports. The British took control of major port cities along the colonial east coast, and as a result British warships were able to drastically reduce the number of ships that could successfully travel from the colonies. Consequently, the U.S. saw a fall in exported goods due to the relentless British blockade. Furthermore, England 's naval strength was great enough to intimidate other nations and scare them away from exporting goods to the colonies, so smuggled and inexpensive imports became costly and rare.
The Continental Army under the direction of George Washington sought to engage in a war of attrition. Because the fight was on colonial soil, Washington aimed to take advantage of the lack of trade with Great Britain by cutting them off from necessary resources, hoping that eventually the redcoat army in North America would grow sick and tired. Under the Articles of Confederation, however, the Continental Congress did not have the power to impose taxes or regulate commerce in the colonies, and thus could not generate the sufficient funds for a war of attrition.
To solve this problem, the Continental Congress sent diplomats including Benjamin Franklin to Europe in search of foreign support for the American cause. For the first two years of war, the colonists received secretive private and public loans from the French, who held a lingering resentment for the British after the Seven Years ' War. After the British defeat at Saratoga, however, foreign support for the Continental Army increased, and in 1778 the colonies signed a treaty with France, officially bringing them into the war with England. By the end of the war, the colonies had received loans from several different European nations, including significant contribution from France, Spain and the Netherlands. In addition, the colonies received much private funding, most notably from the Marquis de Lafayette and the Baron of Kalb, both Frenchmen. This funding ultimately enabled them to fight the war of attrition that General Washington hoped for.
Because the French possessed a powerful navy, their entrance into the war weakened the British blockade on colonial ports and further cut off the British army from its Atlantic supply route. The British forces recognized that they would not last long without shipping in supplies, so in retaliation, the British redeployed some of their forces to the French Caribbean. Their hope was to capture French sugar islands and cut the French financial supply line. The new war in the Caribbean added to England 's already large financial costs, yet unlike the colonies, the British were not successful in their attempts to garner foreign loans or armaments. Without economic assistance from other nations, the financial strain on Parliament and British taxpayers became increasingly burdensome, and ultimately had a hand in wearing down the British forces and ending the war for independence.
As the war progressed, the Americans ' deteriorating financial stability quickly became Britain 's greatest asset. Because it did not possess the power to tax the colonists, the Continental Congress printed money at a rapid rate to fund the army 's expenses and pay off its loans from foreign nations. As a result, the colonies experienced severe inflation and depreciation of the Continental dollar. The colonists also had great difficulty in financing a wartime effort against the British southern campaign, not effectively halting the British destruction until the battle of Yorktown in 1781. When war ended in 1783, American negotiations, monetary policies and government restructuring all contributed to paying off the American national debt.
The American Revolutionary War took a heavy toll on Great Britain. The average cost for the war was £ 12 million a year. The British ended the war with a national debt of £ 250 million, which generated a yearly interest of over £ 9.5 million. This debt piled on to the already outstanding debt from the Seven Years ' War. Taxes on the British population increased over the years and duties on some items such as glass and lead were also added, the average tax for the British public being four shillings in every pound. Furthermore, the Royal Navy was not able to ' rule the waves ' as it had done in the Seven Years ' War.
Great Britain 's trade with the thirteen American colonies fell apart once the American Revolution started, causing British businessmen, especially from the tobacco industry, to suffer. Income from the sale of woolen and metal products dropped sharply and export markets dried up. British merchant sailors also felt the pinch: it is estimated that 3,386 British merchant ships were seized by enemy forces during the war. However, Royal Navy warships did make up these losses somewhat, due to their own privateering efforts on enemy shipping, particularly Spanish and French merchant ships.
During the war, France shouldered a financial burden similar to that of Great Britain, as debt from the American Revolutionary War was piled upon already existing debts from the Seven Years ' War. The French spent 1.3 billion livres on war costs. When the war ended, France had accumulated a debt of 3,315.1 million livres, a fortune at the time.
The debt caused major economic and political problems for France, and, as the country struggled to pay its debts, eventually led to the Financial Crisis of 1786 and the French Revolution in 1789.
Spain 's economic losses were not as great as those of the other belligerents in the American Revolutionary War. This was because Spain paid off her debts quickly and efficiently. However, Spain had nearly doubled her military spending during the war, from 454 million reales in 1778 to over 700 million reales in 1779. Spain 's revenue loss was similar to Britain 's, since she lost a lot of income from her American colonies due the war. To make up for the shortfall, Spanish governors introduced higher tax rates in the South American colonies, with little success. Spain 's next move was to issue royal bonds to her colonies, also with limited success. Finally, in 1782 the first national bank of Spain -- the Banco San Carlo -- was created to improve and centralize the economic situation.
For more details on the impact on the United States, see Economic history of the US.
The thirteen American states flourished economically at the beginning of the war. The colonies could trade freely with the West Indies and other European nations, instead of just Britain. Due to the abolition of the British Navigation Acts, American merchants could now transport their goods in European and American ships rather than only British ships. British taxes on expensive wares such as tea, glass, lead and paper were forfeit, and other taxes became cheaper. Plus, American privateering raids on British merchant ships provided more wealth for the Continental Army.
As the war went on however, America 's economic prosperity began to fall. British warships began to prey on American shipping, and the increasing upkeep costs of the Continental Army meant that wealth from merchant ships decreased. As cashflow declined, the United States of America had to rely on European loans to maintain the war effort; France, Spain and the Netherlands lent the United States over $10 million during the war, causing major debt problems for the fledgling nation. Coin circulation had also begun to wane. Because of this, the United States began to print paper money and bills of credit to raise income. This proved unsuccessful, inflation skyrocketed, and the new paper money 's value diminished. A popular saying circulated the colonies because of this: anything of little value became "not worth a continental. ''
According to a 2010 Congressional Research Service report on the "Costs of Major U.S. Wars '', the Revolution cost the United States the 2011 equivalent of $2.4 billion.
By 1780, the United States Congress had issued over $400 million in paper money to troops. Eventually, Congress tried to stop the inflation by imposing economic reforms. These failed, and only further devalued the American currency. There is, however, some disagreement over the amount of currency issued. Between 1775 and 1783 the colonies experienced an average annual inflation rate of approximately 4.3 %. The rate of inflation peaked at 29.78 % in 1778. Numerous food riots were recorded as discontent grew over rapidly rising prices. The destruction of property and the continued issuing of Continentals by the Congress was another cause of currency devaluation. In addition, counterfeiting of American dollars was carried out by the British Government as an intentional means of sabotaging the war effort.
Late in the war, Congress asked individual colonies to equip their own troops, and pay upkeep for their own soldiers in the Continental Army. When the war ended, the United States had spent $37 million at the national level and $114 million at the state level. The United States finally solved its debt problems in the 1790s when Alexander Hamilton founded the First Bank of the United States in order to pay off war debts and establish good national credit.
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who's the lead singer of stone temple pilots | Stone Temple Pilots - wikipedia
Stone Temple Pilots (often abbreviated as STP) is an American rock band from San Diego, California, that originally consisted of Scott Weiland (lead vocals), brothers Dean DeLeo (guitar) and Robert DeLeo (bass, backing vocals), and Eric Kretz (drums). From the band 's formation in 1989, its line - up remained unchanged until the firing of Weiland in February 2013. Linkin Park vocalist Chester Bennington joined the band in May 2013. In November 2015, Bennington left the band to focus solely on Linkin Park. On December 3, 2015, Weiland was found dead on his tour bus before a performance with his band The Wildabouts. On July 20, 2017, Bennington committed suicide. In 2016, the band launched an online audition for a new lead vocalist. On November 14, 2017, the band played their first show with new lead singer Jeff Gutt.
After forming in 1989 under the name Mighty Joe Young, the band signed with Atlantic Records and changed its name to Stone Temple Pilots. The band 's debut album, Core (1992), was a commercial success, and they went on to become one of the most commercially successful bands of the 1990s, selling more than 13 million albums in the United States and 35 million worldwide. The band released four more studio albums: Purple (1994), Tiny Music... Songs from the Vatican Gift Shop (1996), No. 4 (1999) and Shangri - La Dee Da (2001), before separating in 2002, after which the band members partook in various projects (most notably Velvet Revolver and Army of Anyone). The band eventually reconvened in 2008 for a reunion tour, released a new self - titled album in 2010, and actively toured until Chester Bennington 's departure. The band 's only material with Bennington was the EP High Rise in 2013. The band will release its seventh studio album, also titled Stone Temple Pilots, on March 16, 2018.
While initially rising to fame as part of the grunge movement of the early 1990s, further releases from the band expressed a variety of influences, including psychedelic rock, bossa nova and classic rock. The band 's evolution throughout the 1990s and early 2000s involved periods of commercial highs and lows, brought about in part by Weiland 's well - publicized struggles with drug addiction.
Two conflicting stories of how frontman Scott Weiland and bassist Robert DeLeo met have been described by the band; one was that Weiland and DeLeo met at a Black Flag concert in Long Beach, California in 1985. They began discussing their girlfriends, only to realize they were dating the same woman. However, instead of letting this come between them, they developed a bond and formed a band after they each subsequently broke it off with the girl. Weiland presented a different version of meeting Robert in his autobiography, stating that Weiland and his friends -- guitarist Corey Hicock and drummer David Allin -- pursued Robert after witnessing him play live with him sitting in during sets at various gigs with their band Soi Disant.
However, after a few years Allin went his separate way pursuing other interests. The remaining members witnessed drummer Eric Kretz play in a Long Beach club and convinced him to join the band. Guitarist Hicock eventually left the band in 1989; in need of a replacement and auditioning many guitarists, Robert suggested his older brother, Dean. At the time, Dean was a successful businessman who had left behind his previous career as a musician, but still played guitar as a hobby. The band managed to convince Dean to play guitar for Swing, completing the original STP lineup. Dean reportedly refused to continue playing in a band called "Swing '', and shortly afterwards the band became Mighty Joe Young. The band recorded a demo tape that was completed around 1990. The Mighty Joe Young demo features tracks that would go on to be re-recorded for the band 's first studio album, as well as some musical styles that would not be featured on any of STP 's studio albums, such as funk and yodeling.
Mighty Joe Young played several gigs in the San Diego area, building up a fanbase. Their first show was supporting Henry Rollins at the Whisky a Go Go. The group then began to work on their debut album with Brendan O'Brien. During the recording, they received a call from their lawyer who informed them that there was a bluesman who had already claimed the name Mighty Joe Young. Inspired by the STP Motor Oil stickers that the band members were fans of in their youth, various ideas on the initials "STP '' were shared by the band, including "Shirley Temple 's Pussy '' and Stereo Temple Pirates. They eventually settled on the name "Stone Temple Pilots ''.
Stone Temple Pilots developed a fan base in San Diego clubs. In 1992, Stone Temple Pilots signed with Atlantic Records. Their first album, Core, was released on September 29, 1992, and peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard Albums Chart. Core was a big success, producing hits "Sex Type Thing '', "Plush '', "Creep '', and "Wicked Garden ''. While the album was a major commercial success, some in the music press criticized the band as "grunge imitators ''. The same year, Scott Weiland and Dean DeLeo played an acoustic version of "Plush '' on the MTV show "Headbanger 's Ball. '' This is considered one of Weiland 's greatest vocal performances.
Despite hostile reviews from some critics, Stone Temple Pilots continued to gain fans. They toured for four weeks, opening for bands such as Rage Against the Machine and Megadeth. 1993 brought continued success on the road, with the band headlining a two - and - a-half - month American tour, often performing at benefits for pro-choice organizations.
In 1993, the band filmed an episode of MTV Unplugged, where they debuted the song "Big Empty ''. In a January 1994 Rolling Stone poll, the band was simultaneously voted Best New Band by Rolling Stone 's readers and Worst New Band by the magazine 's music critics. The following month the group won Favorite Pop / Rock New Artist and Heavy Metal / Hard Rock New Artist at the American Music Awards. In March 1994, the group won a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance for the song "Plush ''.
In the spring of 1994, Stone Temple Pilots returned to the studio to work on their second album, Purple. Completed in less than a month, Purple debuted at number one in the United States upon its release on June 7, 1994. The radio - friendly "Interstate Love Song '' quickly became a big hit, spending a record - setting fifteen weeks atop the album rock tracks chart. Other hits from the album included "Vasoline '' and "Big Empty '' (the latter also being featured on the soundtrack to the film The Crow). By October, just four months after its release, Purple had sold three million copies.
In October 1995, the band regrouped to begin recording its third album, renting out a mansion in Santa Barbara, California for the band to live together during the recording process. Stone Temple Pilots released the album Tiny Music... Songs from the Vatican Gift Shop, on March 5, 1996. The album 's sound marked a drastic change from their previous outings, oriented more in the direction of glam rock and psychedelic music than that of the hard rock / grunge sound that propelled them to popularity; critical reception, at the time, was mixed. Rolling Stone, a magazine known for its initial dismissal of the band 's music, held a favorable opinion of the album, regarding the release as the group 's best effort to date. They expressed surprise, however, at "the clattering, upbeat character of the music '' given Weiland 's much - publicized run - ins with drugs and the law. Stone Temple Pilots were also featured on the cover of issue No. 753 in February 1997.
The band was only partially successful in being able to tour in support of Tiny Music... and pulled out of a support slot on Kiss ' reunion tour. A short tour in the fall of 1996 ensued in the U.S. but final dates at the end of December in Hawaii and some dates in 1997 had to be cancelled in order for Weiland to go to rehab. The band then decided to take a break to work on other projects. "I ca n't call the kettle black, '' remarked Kiss drummer Peter Criss. "I just pray for the guy and hope that he gets himself better because they really are a great band. ''
The band, sans Weiland, recruited Dave Coutts, the frontman of Ten Inch Men, and performed under the moniker Talk Show. Talk Show released one eponymous album in 1997 before dissolving. Meanwhile, pursuing his own musical interests, Weiland released his first solo album, 12 Bar Blues, in 1998. Although both albums received moderate critical praise, neither was commercially successful.
In late 1998, the band regrouped and began work on a fourth Stone Temple Pilots album. Released in 1999, No. 4 was conceived as a "back - to - basics '' rock album in the vein of Core or Purple. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic compared the album 's sound to contemporary alternative metal bands and wrote in his review "it 's as if STP decided to compete directly with the new generation of alt - metal bands who prize aggression over hooks or riffs. '' STP scored one of its biggest hits since the success of Core and Purple with the single "Sour Girl '', fueled by a popular music video starring Sarah Michelle Gellar of Buffy the Vampire Slayer fame. The band also recorded an episode of VH1 Storytellers, and went on a summer tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers. No. 4 would eventually be certified platinum by the RIAA.
During the summer of 2001, the band released its fifth album, Shangri - La Dee Da, which produced one modest rock radio hit in "Days of the Week ''. Despite promotion of the album by going on tour with Linkin Park and Godsmack on the Family Values Tour, Shangri - La Dee Da was a commercial disappointment. At that point, marketing support from their label was reportedly minimal, and the band decided to put a hold on any future albums. However, the band recorded "All in the Suit That You Wear '', a song intended to be the lead single on the soundtrack for the 2002 film Spider - Man. However, Chad Kroeger 's song "Hero '' was ultimately chosen as the lead single.
Despite reports that the band had begun work on a sixth studio album in 2002, the band had dissolved by the end of that year, after reports of an altercation between Dean DeLeo and Weiland after the last show of Stone Temple Pilots ' fall 2002 tour. As a capstone to the band 's career, Atlantic Records released a greatest hits album, Thank You, with a bonus DVD of archive material and music videos, in 2003.
Following the band 's dissolution, Weiland was recruited to join the successful supergroup Velvet Revolver with Guns N ' Roses members Slash (guitar), Matt Sorum (drums), and Duff McKagan (bass) and former Wasted Youth guitarist Dave Kushner. The band released two albums, Contraband in 2004 and Libertad in 2007 before breaking up in 2008. Likewise, the DeLeo brothers formed the supergroup Army of Anyone with vocalist Richard Patrick of the industrial rock band Filter and session drummer Ray Luzier. The band released its self - titled in 2006 before going on "indefinite hiatus '' in 2007. Eric Kretz kept a lower profile during this time, operating his own studio, Bomb Shelter Studios, and drumming for the band Spiralarms.
According to Dean DeLeo, steps toward a Stone Temple Pilots reformation started with a phone call from Weiland 's wife, Mary Forsberg. She invited the DeLeo brothers to play at a private beach party, which led to the reconciliation of Weiland and the DeLeo brothers. In 2007, Dean DeLeo and Weiland discussed a concert promoter 's offer to headline several summer festivals. Weiland subsequently left Velvet Revolver in April 2008 and the following month, Stone Temple Pilots announced they were reuniting for a 65 - date North American tour. The group officially reunited for a private gig at the Houdini Mansion and held their first public show on Jimmy Kimmel Live! on May 1. Stone Temple Pilots toured throughout the summer and fall, headlining the Virgin Mobile Festival in Baltimore on August of that year as well as the 10th annual Voodoo Experience in New Orleans. The band 's six - month reunion tour wrapped up on Halloween 2008 in Pelham, Alabama.
After taking a short break to allow Scott to support his recently released second solo album, production for the band 's sixth studio album began in mid-2009. The band also went on the road for a 13 - date North American summer tour in 2009, taking place in - between the tours for Scott Weiland 's second solo album... The band showcased new material at South by Southwest in 2010, and also appeared at England 's Download Festival 2010 in June, as well as at the Hurricane Festival and the Southside Festival in Germany. The band also performed during the Final Four Concert Series in Indianapolis on April 2, 2010. The band appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman for the first time in ten years on May 19, performing "Between the Lines ''. The band 's self - titled sixth album was released on May 25, 2010, debuting at No. 2 on the Billboard 200.
Towards the end of 2010, STP announced they were rescheduling several U.S. tour dates so that the band could take a "short break ''. STP toured Southeast Asia for the first time in 2011, playing in Philippines (Manila), Singapore, and Indonesia (Jakarta). Following this, the band played successful shows in Australia, including sold out performances in Sydney and Melbourne.
In December 2011, Dean DeLeo told Rolling Stone, "what I 'd like to see happen is the band go out and do more intimate shows -- really lovely theaters around the country. '' DeLeo also commented on a possible extended reissue of Core including live archived material, "We have tons of live recordings from that era, and we did n't multi-track record that stuff. There 's no fixes, so they 'd sound incredible if we just master them ''. On January 2, 2012, Scott Weiland also commented on the 20th anniversary of Core, saying "Well, we 're doing a lot of special things. (There 's) a lot of archival footage that we 're putting together, a coffee table book, hopefully a brand new album -- so many ideas. A box set and then a tour, of course. ''
On June 26, STP released its first - ever concert film, Alive in the Windy City, on DVD and Blu - ray. The performance was filmed at a sold - out show in March 2010 at the Riviera Theatre in Chicago.
From then on, the band began to experience problems, and suspicions were raised that tensions within the band had arisen again. Despite the band 's claims that their fall tour would be celebrating the 20th anniversary of Core, this did not happen. According to Weiland 's bandmates, they did not want to do the celebration because they believed that he no longer had the vocal range to perform some of the album 's songs. Weiland then decided to perform the latter songs that they did not want to play on a separate solo tour. The rest of the band decided to hide their anger and frustration towards his decision, causing Weiland to assume that they were all on the same page.
On September 17, at a show in Abbotsford, British Columbia, STP arrived nearly two hours late, and cut their set 30 minutes short, angering many fans. The following day, the band released a brief statement announcing that that night 's show in Lethbridge, Alberta was cancelled due to Weiland being ordered to go on "48 hours complete vocal rest due to strained vocal cords. ''
On December 7, in response to a public declaration from Weiland that he was "completely open '' to returning to Velvet Revolver and a radio DJ 's questions about the state of that band, Slash (Weiland 's former bandmate with Velvet Revolver) told Minneapolis / St. Paul radio station 93X that he had heard rumors Weiland had been fired from Stone Temple Pilots, citing this as a possible reason for Weiland 's eagerness to return to Velvet Revolver, something that he quickly dismissed.
On February 27, 2013, Stone Temple Pilots fired Weiland. The firing was officially announced as Weiland left on tour with his solo band. Both parties issued lawsuits over the right to perform with the Stone Temple Pilots name; both were settled out of court, with the DeLeo brothers and Kretz retaining the rights to perform under the name.
On May 18, 2013, the three remaining members of Stone Temple Pilots performed with Chester Bennington of Linkin Park, appearing as special guests at the 21st Annual KROQ Weenie Roast, and the May 19, 2013 Live 105 BFD festival near San Francisco, where they performed a new song, "Out of Time ''.
On May 19, 2013, STP released a free download of their new single "Out of Time '' with Bennington now an official member. Bennington had exclaimed years before in interviews that being in Stone Temple Pilots was his lifelong dream. The new lineup performed again on May 30, 2013 at the MusiCares MAP Fund Benefit Concert in Los Angeles, California, and were joined by Weiland 's former bandmates Slash and Duff McKagan on stage to perform "All the Young Dudes ''.
On July 15, 2013, STP announced that it would embark on a small tour in September with Filter as the opening act. Stone Temple Pilots released a five - track EP titled High Rise on October 8, 2013, through Play Pen, LLC, credited as Stone Temple Pilots with Chester Bennington. The album 's second single, "Black Heart '', was released through iHeart Radio on September 18, 2013. They officially dropped "with Chester Bennington '' from their name in March 2015.
On November 9, 2015, Bennington announced he was amicably leaving Stone Temple Pilots to focus more on Linkin Park. Bennington would not return to the band, committing suicide later in 2017.
On December 3, 2015, Scott Weiland was found dead of an accidental overdose of alcohol, pills, and cocaine on his tour bus in Minnesota. Stone Temple Pilots released a statement noting his passing in which they thanked him for his time with them and said he was "gifted beyond words ''.
In February 2016, Stone Temple Pilots launched an online audition for a new vocalist, stating, "If you think you have what it takes to front this band, record with this band, and tour with this band, we would dig hearing from you. '' In September of that year, rumors circulated about "Fillipino musician John Borja being the top candidate for the job. '' In February 2017, it was reported by AlternativeNation.net that the band "has already selected their singer, so they have their hearts set on somebody, '' though it was not revealed who. That same article, however, called Borja and X Factor season 3 runner - up Jeff Gutt "two rumored finalists. ''
On July 26, 2017, the band announced that a 25th anniversary edition of Core would be released on September 29, 2017. The reissue includes a 25th Anniversary box set, it includes a remastered version of the album, previously unreleased demos and b - sides, and parts of three live performances from 1993 (Castaic Lake Natural Amphitheater, Reading Festival, and MTV Unplugged).
In October 2017, Dean DeLeo said that the band 's search for a new vocalist was "going great, '' and that the band is "working on new material. '' On November 14, the band revealed that Jeff Gutt had been chosen as their new lead singer.
On November 15, 2017, the band released a new song, "Meadow '' from their upcoming studio album.
On January 31, 2018, the band released a second new song, "Roll Me Under, '' as well as announced the release of its seventh studio album. The LP, which will be the band 's second self - titled album, will be released on March 16, 2018.
The band 's sound is considered a blending of the alternative rock of the 1980s and 1990s with the hard rock of the 1970s, though the band is known for making each of their records possess a unique musical style, despite having the "sonic blueprint '' of the band, as Robert DeLeo describes. Stone Temple Pilots have also been described as alternative metal and neo-psychedelia. Particularly, the band Aerosmith was a large influence on the band collectively, with guitarist Dean DeLeo acknowledging the band 's influence on songs such as "Huckleberry Crumble '' off their self - titled record. Steven Tyler and Joe Perry joined the band onstage at a 1996 show in Madison Square Garden for renditions of the Aerosmith songs "Sweet Emotion '' and "Lick and a Promise ''. All of the band members were Kiss fans during their childhood, and played shows at the Roseland Ballroom in 1993 dressed in Kiss - style makeup. During the taping of their VH1 Storytellers performance, Weiland acknowledged artists such as The Rolling Stones, Neil Young and Robert Plant as their musical heroes, being honored with the chance to perform with them throughout STP 's career. The band has covered songs by artists such as the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, The Doors, Pink Floyd, James Brown, David Bowie and Bob Marley both live and in the studio.
Early in their career, the band was considered to be a part of the grunge movement. Despite assertions by critics that their style in the early -- mid 1990s was derived from contemporary artists such as Alice in Chains and Soundgarden, the band maintained that the similarities were coincidental, due in part to having the same musical idols growing up. Much of the comparison was directed at Weiland 's vocal style drawing similarities to that of Eddie Vedder 's. Weiland stated that his vocal style is influenced by Jim Morrison and David Bowie, who also served as his main fashion influence. Weiland has been called a chameleon due to his ability to change his vocal and fashion style. Regarding the band 's musical evolution, Weiland commented in 2014 that "with STP, we never stuck to it. We saw that even great movements only last a certain period of time and you do n't want to be pigeonholed, so we got into other things, like the Beatles were a big influence, glam was a big influence, and it morphed along the way. I 'm proud of the legacy we created and where we stand among those other peers at the time. ''
Guitarist Dean DeLeo uses heavily layered and distorted guitar playing, while bassist Robert DeLeo draws influence from genres such as rhythm and blues, lounge music, and ragtime. Although the band 's early demo recordings displayed a funk rock sound, the band 's first album Core was a straightforward display of grunge. After reconvening in the studio for their second album, Purple, the band 's style developed, taking influence from psychedelic rock, country music, and jangle pop. The band continued to diverge into various genres and influences; for example, songs like "And So I Know '' on Tiny Music... have a distinct bossa nova sound. Regarding the evolution of the band 's sound, Weiland commented that "the transformation from Core to where we ended up before we took that time off, when I started with Velvet Revolver, was enormous. ''
Weiland was the band 's primary lyricist. His style changed with the band 's evolution; much of the lyrics on Core were written about societal issues such as religion, abuse of power, and isolation. The band 's breakthrough single "Sex Type Thing '' polarized critics with its lyrics, some interpreting it as advocacy of date rape. Weiland intended it as a feminist anthem, with its lyrics written in mockery of the narrator. As Weiland began to deal with substance abuse, his lyrics became more personal and intricate; songs like "Interstate Love Song '' deal with his addiction 's tolls on his relationship with his then - wife, Janina. The lyrics of the band 's fourth album were written to provide closure to his marriage and addiction to heroin. Following the band 's reunion in 2008, Weiland once again evolved as a songwriter, explaining: "(In) the ' 90s, I was so overwhelmed with my heroin addiction, and so a lot of the stuff was just from my point of view. Now, I tend to look at some of the greats like Leonard Cohen and Bob Dylan. I look at their storytelling (and) I try to tell stories. Every song does n't have to be narcissistically written about how I feel on that day. ''
Core, certified 8 × platinum by the RIAA, drove the band to popularity. STP went on to become one of the most commercially successful rock bands of the 1990s, selling 40 million records worldwide, including 17.5 million units in the United States, before their dissolution in 2002. The band has had 16 top ten singles on the Billboard rock charts, eight of which peaked at No. 1, and one No. 1 album for Purple in 1994. That same year, the band won a Grammy for "Best Hard Rock Performance '' for the song "Plush '' from the album Core. Stone Temple Pilots were also ranked No. 40 on VH1 's The 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock. As of 2015, the band has sold over 40 million albums worldwide
Despite being unpopular with critics in their heyday, Stone Temple Pilots have proved to be a popular and influential act. In retrospect, MTV writer James Montgomery published an article questioning the validity of music critics opinions of the band during the 90s, saying, "All I 'm suggesting is that perhaps it 's time to admit that we were wrong about them from the get - go -- that we treated them unfairly. '' In a review of the band 's 2003 greatest hits collection Thank You, AllMusic critic Stephen Erlewine wrote that "STP made music that sounded great at the time and even better now, '' and that "this music has stood the test of the time, '' calling Thank You "nearly perfect ''. Erlewine also wrote that "STP was the best straight - ahead rock singles outfit of their time. ''
After the death of Scott Weiland, Smashing Pumpkins singer Billy Corgan paid official tribute to the band and musician, calling him one of the greatest voices of their generation:
"It was, I 'd guess you 'd say, my way of apology for having been so critical of STP when they appeared on the scene like some crazy, man - fueled rocket. And not only was the knight up front freshly handsome to a fault, but he could sing too! As any supreme actor gives a real and different voice to each character played. It was STP 's 3rd album that had got me hooked, a wizardly mix of glam and post-punk, and I confessed to Scott, as well as the band many times, how wrong I 'd been in assessing their native brilliance. And like Bowie can and does, it was Scott 's phrasing that pushed his music into a unique, and hard to pin down, aesthetic sonicsphere. Lastly, I 'd like to share a thought which though clumsy, I hope would please Scott In Hominum. And that is if you asked me who I truly believed were the great voices of our generation, I 'd say it were he, Layne, and Kurt. ''
On December 3, 2016, STP posted a tribute on their website to mark the one year anniversary of Weiland 's death. In 2017, Metal Injection ranked Stone Temple Pilots at number 9 on their list of "10 Heaviest Grunge Bands ''.
Current members
Former members
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who are the groundlings who attended the globe | Groundling - wikipedia
A groundling was a person who visited the Globe Theatre in the early 17th century. They were too poor to pay to be able to sit on one of the three levels of the theatre. If they paid one penny, they could stand in "the pit '', also called "the yard '', just below the stage to watch the play. Standing in the pit was uncomfortable, and people were usually packed in tightly. The groundlings were commoners who were also referred to as stinkards or penny - stinkers. The name ' groundlings ' came about after Hamlet referenced them as such when the play was first performed around 1600. At the time, the word had entered the English language to mean a small type of fish with a gaping mouth - from the vantage point of the actor playing Hamlet, set on a stage raised around 5 feet from the ground, the sea of upturned faces may have looked like wide - mouthed fish. They were known to misbehave and are commonly believed to have thrown food such as fruit and nuts at characters they did not like, although there is no evidence of this. They would watch the plays from the cramped pits with sometimes over 500 people standing there.
In 1599, Thomas Platter mentioned the cost of admission at contemporary London theatres in his diary:
"There are separate galleries and there one stands more comfortably and moreover can sit, but one pays more for it. Thus anyone who remains on the level standing pays only one English penny: but if he wants to sit, he is let in at a farther door, and there he gives another penny. If he desires to sit on a cushion in the most comfortable place of all, where he not only sees everything well, but can also be seen then he gives yet another English penny at another door. And in the pauses of the comedy food and drink are carried round amongst the people and one can thus refresh himself at his own cost. ''
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who is playing the role of wonder woman | Wonder Woman (2017 film) - wikipedia
Wonder Woman is a 2017 American superhero film based on the DC Comics character of the same name, distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures. It is the fourth installment in the DC Extended Universe (DCEU). The film is directed by Patty Jenkins, with a screenplay by Allan Heinberg, from a story by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, and Jason Fuchs, and stars Gal Gadot, Chris Pine, Robin Wright, Danny Huston, David Thewlis, Connie Nielsen, and Elena Anaya. Wonder Woman is the second live action theatrical film featuring the titular character, following her debut in 2016 's Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. Jenkins 's role as director makes her the first female director of a live - action, theatrically released comic book superhero film. The film tells the story of Princess Diana, who grows up on the Amazon island of Themyscira. After American pilot Steve Trevor crashes offshore of the island and is rescued by her, he tells the Amazons about the ongoing World War. Diana then leaves her home in order to end the conflict.
While development for the film began in 1996, Jenkins signed on to direct in 2015. Principal photography began on November 21, 2015, with filming taking place in the United Kingdom, France, and Italy before wrapping up on May 9, 2016, the 123rd anniversary of the birth of the creator, William Moulton Marston. Additional filming took place in November 2016.
Wonder Woman premiered in Shanghai on May 15, 2017, and was released in the United States on June 2, 2017, in 2D, 3D and IMAX 3D. It received largely positive reviews from critics, being praised for the direction, performances, action sequences, and musical score. The film set numerous box office records; it is the fifth - highest - grossing superhero film domestically and 20th - highest - grossing film in the United States. It grossed over $821 million worldwide, making it the eighth highest - grossing film of 2017. It also helped the DCEU to push past $3 billion at the worldwide box office, making it the fourteenth - highest - grossing film franchise of all time. As of October 2017, the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes has listed the movie as # 1 on its list of the "50 Best Superhero Movies of All Time '', and the American Film Institute selected it as one of the top 10 Movies of the Year. A sequel is set to be released on November 1, 2019.
In present - day Paris, Diana Prince receives a photographic plate of herself and four men taken during World War I, prompting her to recall her past. Daughter of Queen Hippolyta, Diana was raised on the hidden island of Themyscira, home to the Amazonian warrior women created by Zeus to protect mankind. Hippolyta shares the Amazonian history with Diana, including how Ares, Zeus 's son, became jealous of humanity and orchestrated its destruction. When the other gods attempted to stop him, Ares killed all but Zeus, who used the last of his power to wound Ares and force his retreat (thus dying in the process). Zeus left the Amazons the island and a weapon, the "Godkiller '', to prepare them for Ares ' return.
Initially forbidding Diana to train as a warrior, Hippolyta allows her sister Antiope to train Diana, only more rigorously than any other warrior. In 1918, Diana, now a young woman, rescues American pilot Captain Steve Trevor when his plane crashes off the Themysciran coast. The island is soon invaded by a German ship pursuing Trevor. The Amazons kill the crew, but Antiope sacrifices herself to save Diana. Steve is interrogated with the Lasso of Hestia, and reveals that a war is consuming the outside world, and that he is an Allied spy. He has stolen a notebook of the chief chemist Isabel Maru, who is attempting to engineer a deadlier form of mustard gas, under the orders of General Erich Ludendorff. Believing Ares to be responsible for the war, Diana arms herself with the "Godkiller '' sword, the lasso, and her armor before leaving Themyscira with Steve to locate and destroy Ares for good.
In London, they deliver Maru 's notebook to the Supreme War Council, where Sir Patrick Morgan is trying to negotiate an armistice with Germany. Diana translates Maru 's notes and reveals that the Germans plan to release the deadly gas at the Western Front. Although forbidden by his commander to act, Steve, with secret funding from Sir Patrick, recruits spy Sameer, marksman Charlie, and smuggler Chief to help prevent the gas from being released. The team reaches the front in Belgium. Diana goes alone through No Man 's Land and captures the enemy trench, allowing the Allied forces to help her liberate the village of Veld. The team briefly celebrates, while Diana and Steve grow closer romantically.
The team learns a gala will be held at the nearby German High Command. Steve and Diana separately infiltrate the party, with Steve intending to locate the gas and destroy it, while Diana intends to kill Ludendorff, believing that he is Ares and thus killing him will end the war. Steve stops her to avoid jeopardizing his mission, but this allows Ludendorff to unleash the gas on Veld, killing its inhabitants. Blaming Steve for intervening, Diana pursues Ludendorff to a base where the gas is being loaded into a bomber aircraft bound for London. Diana fights and kills Ludendorff, but is confused and disillusioned when his death does not stop the war.
Sir Patrick appears and reveals himself as Ares. He tells Diana that although he has subtly given humans ideas and inspirations, using Ludendorff and Maru as pawns in the process, it is ultimately their decision to resort to violence as they are inherently corrupt. When Diana attempts to kill Ares with the "Godkiller '' sword, he destroys it, then reveals Diana to be the "Godkiller '', as the daughter of Zeus and Hippolyta. He fails to persuade Diana to help him destroy mankind to restore paradise on Earth. While the two battle, Steve 's team destroys Maru 's laboratory. Steve hijacks and pilots the bomber carrying the gas to a safe altitude and detonates it, sacrificing himself in the process. Ares attempts to direct Diana 's rage and grief at Steve 's death by convincing her to kill Maru, but the memories of her experiences with Steve cause her to realize that humans have good within them. She spares Maru and redirects Ares ' lightning into him, killing him. Later, the team celebrates the end of the war. In the present day, Diana sends an email to Bruce Wayne thanking him for the photographic plate of her and Steve and reaffirms her new mission to fight and give on the world 's behalf.
Additionally, Mayling Ng, Florence Kasumba, Madeleine Vall Beijner, Hayley Jane Warnes and Ann Wolfe portray Orana, Acantha, Egeria, Aella and Artemis, respectively, all of whom are Amazons. James Cosmo appears as Field Marshal Haig, Steffan Rhodri appears as Colonel Darnell, and Dutch model Doutzen Kroes portrays the Amazon Venelia. Samantha Jo was cast as the Amazonian Euboea, and previously played the Kryptonian, Car - Vex, in Man of Steel. Zack Snyder also makes a brief cameo appearance in the film as an unnamed soldier.
Development for a live action Wonder Woman feature film began in 1996, with Ivan Reitman attached as producer and possible director. In 1999 the project became attached to Jon Cohen, who adapted Wonder Woman for producer Joel Silver, with the hope that Sandra Bullock would star. By 2001, Todd Alcott was hired to write the screenplay, with Silver Pictures backing the project. At that time, performers such as Mariah Carey and Catherine Zeta - Jones were also rumored to be possible candidates for the role of Wonder Woman. Leonard Goldberg, however, focused on Bullock who said that she was approached for the role. In addition, wrestler Chyna also expressed interest. Lucy Lawless, the star of Xena: Warrior Princess, was also under consideration, though she stated that she would have been more interested if Wonder Woman was portrayed as a "flawed hero ''. The screenplay went through various drafts written by Alcott, Cohen, Becky Johnston, and Philip Levens, and by August 2003, Levens had been replaced by screenwriter Laeta Kalogridis.
In March 2005, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures announced that Joss Whedon would write and direct the film, with a reported salary was of $2 to $3 million. Since Whedon was directing Serenity at the time, and required time to research Wonder Woman 's background, he did not begin the screenplay until late 2005. Early drafts of his screenplay included Steve Trevor as the narrator, a fierce battle between Diana and her mother over Trevor 's welfare, and after leaving Themyscira, his need to frequently rescue a Diana rendered helpless by the modern world. Whedon was not able to complete a final version of his screenplay however, and left the project in 2007.
Although Whedon stated in May 2005 that he would not cast the part of Wonder Woman until he finished the script, actors such as Kate Beckinsale were linked to the part. In 2010 however, Whedon admitted that he did have an actress in mind for the part, stating that "Wonder Woman was basically Angelina Jolie. '' A few years later in May 2017, Indie Ground Films leaked a version of Whedon 's script in - progress online. Some reacted negatively to it on social media in June 2017, shortly after the release of Patty Jenkins ' version of the film. When asked about this response to his script, Jenkins said in a June 2017 interview that she has not read it and that Whedon is "in the DC universe now, and I do n't think there 's any reason to go there (...) It was what it was. I 'm lucky that I 'm the person who got to do it. But I do n't see what would be beneficial about comparing what he would 've done versus what I would have done. ''
A day before Whedon 's departure from Wonder Woman, Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures purchased a spec script for the film written by Matthew Jennison and Brent Strickland. Set during World War II, the script impressed executives at Silver Pictures. However, Silver stated that he had purchased the script because he did not want the rights reverting; while stating the script had good ideas, Silver did not want the film to be a period piece. By April 2008, Silver hired Jennison and Strickland to write a new script set in contemporary times that would not depict Wonder Woman 's origin, but explore Paradise Island 's history. In November 2008, Beyoncé met with representatives from DC Comics and Warner Bros., to discuss her interest in portraying Wonder Woman.
In 2010, Warner Bros. stated that a film was in development, along with films based on DC Comics superheroes the Flash and Aquaman. Both Wonder Woman and Aquaman were still under consideration for solo film subjects as of June 2013. DC Chief Diane Nelson said Wonder Woman "has been, since I started, one of the top three priorities for DC and for Warner Bros. We are still trying right now, but she 's tricky. '' On October 5, 2013, WB chairman Kevin Tsujihara said he wanted to get Wonder Woman in a film or on TV. Shortly afterward, Paul Feig said he had pitched the studio an idea for Wonder Woman as an action - comedy film. The studio then began to search for female directors to direct the film. While Michelle MacLaren was the studio 's initial choice to direct (and while she initially indicated interest), she eventually left the project due to creative differences.
In 2015, Patty Jenkins accepted an offer to direct Wonder Woman, based on a screenplay by Allan Heinberg and a story co-written by Heinberg, Zack Snyder, Geoff Johns and Jason Fuchs. Of this version, Gadot stated that,
for a long time, people did n't know how to approach the story. When Patty and I had our creative conversations about the character, we realized that Diana can still be a normal woman, one with very high values, but still a woman. She can be sensitive. She is smart and independent and emotional. She can be confused. She can lose her confidence. She can have confidence. She is everything. She has a human heart.
This version was conceived of as a prequel to the first live - action, theatrical appearance of Wonder Woman, in the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, placing Wonder Woman in the 1910s and World War I (a decision which differs from her comic book origins as a supporter of the Allies during World War II). As for story development, Jenkins credits the stories by the character 's creator William Moulton Marston in the 1940s and George Perez 's seminal stories in the 1980s in which he modernized the character. In addition, it follows some aspects of DC Comics ' origin changes in The New 52 reboot, where Diana is the daughter of Zeus. Jenkins cited Richard Donner 's Superman as an inspiration.
In late 2013, Zack Snyder cast Gal Gadot in the role of Wonder Woman for the 2016 film, Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice over Élodie Yung and Olga Kurylenko. Some fans initially reacted to this choice by criticizing Gadot 's appearance. Snyder would later comment on his decision to cast Gadot, stating that he tested a "bunch of actresses, as you can imagine. But the thing with Gal is that she 's strong, she 's beautiful, and she 's a kind person, which is interesting, but fierce at the same time. It 's that combination of being fierce but kind at the same time that we were looking for. Gadot described Diana as having "the heart of a human so she can be emotional, she 's curious, she 's compassionate, she loves people. And then she has the powers of a goddess. She 's all for good, she fights for good. '' She also said that Diana has "many strengths and powers, but at the end of the day she 's a woman with a lot of emotional intelligence ''. As to how her character is different from her appearance in Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, Gadot said "We go back 100 years to when she 's more naive '', further explaining, "She 's this young idealist. She 's pure. Very different to the experienced, super-confident, grown - up woman you 've seen ''. Gadot underwent a diet and training regimen, practiced different martial arts and gained 17 pounds of muscle for the role. Gadot was previously offered a different role (as a villain) in Man of Steel, which she declined because she was pregnant at the time; this allowed her to later be cast as Wonder Woman in the film 's follow - up. Gadot signed a three - picture deal. She was only paid a base salary of $300,000 for the film itself.
Chris Pine was cast as Steve Trevor, a character he described as a "rogue - ish, cynical realist who 's seen the awful brutish nature of modern civilization '' and added that he is a "worldly guy, a charming guy ''. He signed a multi-picture deal. Lucy Davis ' performance as Etta Candy is the first live - action cinematic portrayal of the character. As well, Elena Anaya 's performance as Doctor Poison is the cinematic debut of that character. Nicole Kidman was in negotiations for the role of Queen Hippolyta, but was forced to drop out due to scheduling conflicts with Big Little Lies.
Production began on November 21, 2015, under the working title Nightingale. Among the film sets were Lower Halstow, Kent, Australia House, and the Sassi di Matera, Castel del Monte and Camerota in Southern Italy. Matthew Jensen was the director of photography, filming in the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Production in London ended on March 13, 2016. On March 20, 2016, filming was underway in Italy. In late April, filming took place at a museum in France, where a Wayne Enterprises truck was spotted alongside Gadot. Production ended on May 9, 2016. Patty Jenkins and director of photography Matt Jensen revealed that the film 's look was inspired by painter John Singer Sargent. Reshoots took place in November 2016, while Gadot was five months pregnant. A green cloth was placed over her stomach to edit out her pregnancy during post-production.
To find the perfect location to shoot the Amazon island of Themyscira, the birthplace of Wonder Woman herself, the film 's producers searched all over the world, finally settling on the Amalfi Coast: a stretch of coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea, located in the Province of Salerno in Southern Italy. It was chosen because most beaches in the world that sit below big cliffs disappear beneath the tide for part of every day. Production designer Aline Bonetto and her location manager Charles Somers considered 47 countries and visited several of them before they found what they were looking for. Bonetto explained that, "Italy had beautiful weather, a beautiful blue - green sea, not too much tide, not too much wave. Our effects team added some cliffs in post-production, and it was the perfect way to go ''.
The estuary at Lower Halstow in Kent, featured in the scenes in which Princess Diana arrives in the Belgian creek to make her way to the warfront.
Bill Westenhofer served as the visual effects supervisor for the film and Martin Walsh served as editor.
On November 3, 2016, Rupert Gregson - Williams was hired to write and compose the film 's music. He was joined by Evan Jolly, Tom Howe, Paul Mounsey, and Andrew Kawczynski, who provided additional music. The soundtrack was released on CD, digital, and vinyl the same day as the film. Australian musician Sia sang a song for the film, titled "To Be Human '', featuring English musician Labrinth. Written by Florence Welch and Rick Nowels, the track is also featured on the soundtrack.
Additional music featured in the film are: "Another Little Drink Would n't Do Us Any Harm '' by Clifford Grey and Nat Ayer and performed by Edgar Trevor and Cecil Cooper; "Molly O'Morgan '' written by Fred Godfrey and Will Letters and performed by Ella Retford; "It 's a Long Way to Tipperary '' written by Jack Judge and Harry Williams; "Sous les ponts de Paris '' written by Jean Rodor and Vincent Scotto and performed by Lucienne Delyle; "I 'll Walk Beside You '' written by Edward Lockton and Alan Murray and performed by Ewen Bremner; "Green Grow the Rushes, O '' written by Robert Burns and performed by Ewen Bremner; and "Schatzwalzer Op. 4 '' written by Johann Strauss II and performed by the Berlin String Quartet. Also features samples from the movie 's soundtrack "Is She with You '' from Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice composed by Hans Zimmer and Junkie XL.
Wonder Woman had its world premiere on May 15, 2017 in Shanghai. It premiered on May 25, 2017 in Los Angeles. The film 's London premiere, which was scheduled to take place on May 31 at the Odeon Leicester Square, was cancelled due to the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing. The film had its Latin America premiere in Mexico City on May 27. It was released in most of the world, including in IMAX, on June 2, 2017, after originally being scheduled for June 23. Belgium, Singapore and South Korea received the film first, with May 31 openings. On April 17, it was announced that Wonder Woman would be released in China on June 2, the same day as its North American release.
The success of the superhero television series Supergirl informed the marketing and promotion strategy used for Wonder Woman. According to Time Warner chief marketing officer Kristen O'Hara, they wanted to approach the Wonder Woman marketing campaign in a light manner, similar to how they did with Supergirl. O'Hara elaborated that the modest campaign route they took for Supergirl aided in establishing a large central fanbase among women well in advance of the series, which reportedly generated 5 million female superhero fans in one week. They were then able to model over time, and grow that audience leading up to the 15 - months - later release of Wonder Woman. Though neither the film nor the series are aimed exclusively at women, the latter 's campaign gave them their first opportunity to begin collecting data about female superhero fans. In May 2017, a promo for Wonder Woman was released during the season finale of Supergirl, featuring a remix of the song "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' and Supergirl (Melissa Benoist) wearing Wonder Woman 's boots. The promo included an appearance by Lynda Carter, star of the 1970s Wonder Woman, who plays the American president on Supergirl.
The costs for television advertisements for Wonder Woman are higher in comparison to that of previous DCEU film Suicide Squad. Warner Bros. has spent over $3 million on advertisements for Wonder Woman, whereas they spent $2.6 million on advertisements for Suicide Squad. Ticket selling site Fandango reported that Wonder Woman rounded the final leg of its marketing campaign as the most anticipated blockbuster of summer 2017, according to a poll conducted by 10,000 voters, the biggest survey in company history. Separately, Fandango also found that 92 % of people surveyed said that they are looking forward to seeing a film that features a standalone woman superhero, and 87 % wished Hollywood would make more women - led superhero films. In May 2017, NASCAR driver Danica Patrick drove her No. 10 car with a Wonder Woman paint scheme at the Go Bowling 400 in Kansas and at the Monster Energy Open in Charlotte.
Wonder Woman was released on Digital HD on August 29, 2017 and on Blu - ray, Blu - ray 3D, 4K Ultra-HD Blu - ray and DVD on September 19, 2017. The film debuted at the top spot of both the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart and the Blu - ray Disc sales chart.
On May 31, Wonder Woman was banned in Lebanon after the Campaign to Boycott Supporters of Israel asked the Lebanese government 's Ministry of Economy and Trade to block the film because its star, Gal Gadot, is Israeli. The Lebanese government did not, however, ban Gadot 's Fast & Furious films which did screen in Lebanon. On June 7, Variety reported that a Tunisian court suspended the theatrical release of Wonder Woman after a lawsuit brought by the Al - Chaab party and the Tunisian Association of Young Lawyers to have the film blocked due to Gadot 's Israeli citizenship, military service, and public comments in support of the Israeli military during the 2014 war in Gaza. Jordan was reportedly also considering a ban of the film and suspended screenings pending a decision, but on June 11, Al Bawaba reported that the government decided not to do so, as there was no legal precedent for it.
Some men were unhappy with women - only screenings held at the Alamo Drafthouse Cinema in Austin, with some opponents of the gender - restricted screening stating on platforms such as Facebook that such screenings were discriminatory against men.
An Albany Law School professor initiated a complaint with Austin 's Equal Employment and Fair Housing Office claiming discrimination against male prospective customers and employees of the theater. The chain responded with an online statement saying the event "may have created confusion -- we want everybody to see this film '' and announced a similar event at their Brooklyn location. Tickets sold out in less than an hour, prompting the chain to schedule additional screenings. On July 18, Alamo Drafthouse proposed settlement offers of a Wonder Woman DVD to the complainants, stating "Respondent did not realize that advertising a ' women 's only ' screening was a violation of discrimination laws ''
Wonder Woman grossed $412.6 million in the United States and Canada and $409.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $821.9 million, against a production budget of $149 million. Estimates for the number the film needed to surpass internationally in order to cover its production and promotional costs and break even ranged from $300 million to $460 million.
In May 2017, early tracking had Wonder Woman opening with $65 -- 75 million, and possibly as high as $105 million. The film opened Friday, June 2, 2017, across 4,165 theaters and made $38.7 million on its opening day, including $3.7 million in IMAX. It was the biggest single - day gross for a woman - directed film, ahead of the $35.9 million opening Friday of Catherine Hardwicke 's Twilight in 2008 and the biggest opening day for a woman - led comic book superhero film, ahead of Ghost in the Shell ($7 million). This included $11 million it made from Thursday previews, also the best start for a film directed by a woman, surpassing Fifty Shades of Grey 's $8.6 million which was directed by Sam Taylor - Johnson, and the third - biggest of the year, behind Beauty and the Beast and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Of that, $1.5 million came from IMAX screenings.
Earning a total of $103.3 million on its opening weekend, the film recorded a number of records: the biggest domestic opening of all time for a female director (surpassing previous record holder Fifty Shades of Grey by Sam Taylor - Johnson), the biggest DC Comics release without Batman or Superman (ahead of Constantine), the sixth - biggest non-sequel comic book superhero debut ever, as well as the sixth - biggest June debut weekend. Its three - day opening alone made it the highest - grossing woman - led comic book superhero film ever (surpassing Ghost in the Shell). It was also the 16th superhero film to cross $100 million in its domestic box office launch. About 9 % ($9 million) of the opening weekend came from IMAX screenings from 343 theaters. In its second week the film grossed $58.5 million, again topping the box office. It marked a 43.3 % drop for its second weekend at the box office, better than the average 50 -- 60 % decline superhero films tend to see, and was a better second weekend than Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice ($51.3 million) and Suicide Squad ($43.5 million). In its third weekend it grossed $40.8 million, finishing second behind newcomer Cars 3 ($53.5 million). It was the second - best third weekend ever for Warner Bros. and was nearly double what Batman v Superman ($23.3 million), Suicide Squad ($20.9 million) and Man of Steel ($20.7 million) made in their third weekends. It earned $24.9 million and $15.7 million in its fourth and fifth weekends, respectively, dropping just 39 % and 36 % despite facing rough competition from opening films Transformers: The Last Knight and Despicable Me 3. It eventually became the highest - grossing film directed by a woman, surpassing the previous records of Jennifer Yuh Nelson 's Kung Fu Panda 2 and Phyllida Lloyd 's Mamma Mia!. By August 8, the film had garnered $400 million in ticket sales, becoming the second female - fueled film (after Disney 's Beauty and the Beast), Warner Bros. ' third - biggest movie (after Christopher Nolan 's The Dark Knight and The Dark Knight Rises), holding the record of the highest - earning superhero origin film -- supplanting the previous record held by Spider - Man (2002), and also becoming the highest - earning film with a female director in terms of domestic earnings -- surpassing Frozen (2013).
Internationally, the film was released day - and - date with its North American debut in 55 markets (72 % of its total release), and was projected to debut with anywhere between $92 -- 118 million. It ended up opening to $125 million, including $38 million in China, $8.5 million in Korea, $8.4 million in Mexico, $8.3 million in Brazil and $7.5 million in the UK. In its second week of release, the film brought in another $60 million, including holding the top spot on France, the UK, Australia and Brazil. As of June 25, 2017, the biggest markets of Wonder Woman outside North America are China (US $90 million) followed by Brazil (US $34 million), UK (US $28 million) and Australia (US $24 million). In the Philippines, it broke 2017 box office record for highest - earning non-holiday opening day -- earning $4.7 million and becoming the 6th-most successful commercial film of all time as well overtaking the record set by Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. The film opened in its last market, Japan, on August 25 and debuted to $3.4 million, helping the international gross cross the $400 million mark.
Wonder Woman received largely positive reviews from film critics, with some calling it the best film in the DC Extended Universe, and praising Jenkins ' direction, performances, chemistry of Gadot and Pine and musical score. On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 92 % based on 360 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Thrilling, earnest, and buoyed by Gal Gadot 's charismatic performance, Wonder Woman succeeds in spectacular fashion. '' It is the highest - rated superhero film on the site. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 76 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Critics commented favorably on Gadot 's performance of the titular character and Chris Pine 's Steve Trevor. Andrew Barker of Variety found the film to be more lighthearted than recent DC Comics films: "Never prone to stewing in solitude, and taking more notes from Richard Donner than from Christopher Nolan, Patty Jenkins ' Wonder Woman provides a welcome respite from DC 's house style of grim darkness -- boisterous, earnest, sometimes sloppy, yet consistently entertaining -- with star Gal Gadot proving an inspired choice for this avatar of truth, justice, and the Amazonian way. '' Vox stated "Trevor is the superhero girlfriend comic book movies need ''. The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle lauded the performances of Gadot, Pine, Huston, and Thewlis while commending the film 's "different perspective '' and humor. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times described Gadot 's performance as inspirational, heroic, heartfelt and endearing and the most "real '' Wonder Woman portrayal.
A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote that it "briskly shakes off blockbuster branding imperatives and allows itself to be something relatively rare in the modern superhero cosmos. It feels less like yet another installment in an endless sequence of apocalyptic merchandising opportunities than like... what 's the word I 'm looking for? A movie. A pretty good one, too. '' Michael Phillips of Chicago Tribune compared the film to Captain America: The First Avenger, noting that as with "the first Captain America movie over in the Marvel Comics universe, DC 's Wonder Woman offers the pleasures of period re-creation for a popular audience. Jenkins and her design team make 1918 - era London; war - torn Belgium; the Ottoman Empire; and other locales look freshly realized, with a strong point of view. There are scenes here of dispossessed war refugees, witnessed by an astonished and heartbroken Diana, that carry unusual gravity for a comic book adaptation. '' Katie Erbland of IndieWire commended its thematic depth, explaining that "Wonder Woman is a war movie. Patty Jenkins ' first -- and we hope not last -- entry into the DC Expanded Universe is primarily set during World War I, but while the feature does n't balk at war - time violence, it 's the internal battles of its compelling heroine that are most vital. '' Alonso Duralde of TheWrap similarly felt that, "Diana 's scenes of action are thrilling precisely because they 're meant to stop war, not to foment it; the idea of a demi - god using love to fight war might sound goofy in the abstract, but Jenkins makes the concept work. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post praised Gadot and Pine 's performances as well the film 's detailed plot and narrative while comparing of some slow - motion action sequences to The Matrix. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine hailed the film as a "cut above nearly all the superhero movies that have been trotted out over the past few summers '' while praising Gadot 's performance as "charming '' and "marvelous '' and commending Jenkins ' direction of the film as a step forward for women directors in directing big - budget blockbuster films in Hollywood.
Elise Jost of Moviepilot observed that "Gadot 's take on Wonder Woman is one of those unique cases of an actor merging with their story, similar to Robert Downey Jr. 's Tony Stark. Gal Gadot is Wonder Woman, and Wonder Woman is Gal Gadot. '' Jost praised Gadot 's interpretation of Wonder Woman as the one in which Gadot "absolutely nails the character 's unwaveringly positive outlook on life. She 's a force of nature who believes in the greater good; her conviction that she 's meant to save the world is stronger than her bullet - deflecting shield. She 's genuine, she 's fun, she 's the warm source of energy at the heart of the movie. '' The Federalist suggests that Wonder Woman is "a story of Jesus ''. "The movie is wrapped up in faux Greek mythology, true, but there 's no mistaking the Christology here. '' "Perhaps Christ in the form of a beautiful and kick - ass Amazon is all that our contemporary society can handle right now '', stated M. Hudson, a Christian feminist. On HuffPost cultural critic, G. Roger Denson, who regards the superhero genre as a source of contemporary "Mainstream Mythopoetics '' ("the making of new yet vitally meaningful, if not symbolic, stories filled with imagery reflecting, yet also shaping and advancing, the political, legal, moral and social practices of today ''), wrote that the "No Man 's Land '' scene "that people are crying over in theaters and raving about afterward happens to be among the most powerfully mythopoetic scenes ever filmed at the same time it is one of the oldest myths to have been utilized by artists and writers after it had been invented by early military strategists and leaders. '' Specifically "used by director Patty Jenkins '', the scene raises "the esteem for powerful yet compassionate women as heroes and leaders to a level equal with that of men for having won over a huge and adoring popular audience around the world ''.
Steve Rose in The Guardian criticized the film for failing to explore the material 's potential for "patriarchy - upending subversion ''. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticized the film 's over-reliance on exposition: "Wonder Woman is hobbled by a slogging origin story and action that only comes in fits and starts. Just when Gadot and director Patty Jenkins... are ready to kick ass, we get backstory. ''
"Gas was intended to win the war. On that much Wonder Woman is absolutely right. '' said David Hambling in Popular Mechanics. Rachel Becker of The Verge stated that despite the scientific liberties of using a "hydrogen - based '' chemical weapon as a plot device, the film succeeds in evoking real and horrifying history. "First off, mustard gas is such a horrible, terrifying weapon, it does n't need to be made more potent. But if you were a chemist bent on raining destruction on the Allied forces, you would n't do it by replacing the sulfur atom in mustard gas with a hydrogen atom. You 'd know that sulfur is the linchpin holding together this poisonous molecule. ''
Wonder Woman appeared on several critics ' lists of the best films of 2017.
Honorable Mentions:
Wonder Woman has been the subject of a discussion regarding the appearance and representation of female power in general, and of female action heroes in particular since her initial 1941 appearance in Sensation Comics, as she was created to document "the growth in the power of women '', while wearing "a golden tiara, a red bustier, blue underpants and knee - high, red leather boots. '' She was blacklisted a year later in 1942 in the "Publications Disapproved for Youth '' because, the group behind the list argued, she was "not sufficiently dressed ''.
A few decades later, second - wave feminist Gloria Steinem 's Ms. Magazine debuted in 1972 with an image of Wonder Woman on the cover. Historian Tim Hanley suggested that this move shifted "the focus away from female superiority to sisterhood and equality, essentially making her a mascot of the women 's movement ''. This perception shifted over the years, however, as demonstrated in December 2016 when the United Nations decided to drop the title of "honorary ambassador for the empowerment of women and girls '' which it had given to the comic book character Wonder Woman a few months before, in a ceremony attended by the actors who had portrayed her (Lynda Carter and Gal Gadot). The title was dropped in response to a petition signed by 44,000 people which argued that Wonder Woman undermines female empowerment due to her costume, described as a "shimmery, thigh - baring bodysuit with an American flag motif and knee - high boots ''. The petition stated that "it is alarming that the United Nations would consider using a character with an overtly sexualised image at a time when the headline news in United States and the world is the objectification of women and girls ''. Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins responded to both the petition and to the U.N. 's decision by stating that she thinks "that that 's sexist. I think it 's sexist to say you ca n't have both. I have to ask myself what I would apply to any other superhero ''.
The debate continued with the release of Jenkins ' 2017 film, Wonder Woman, which according to the BBC had "some thinking it 's too feminist and others thinking it 's not feminist enough ''. Kyle Killian found an inherent contradiction in the construction of Wonder Woman as "a warrior '' whom, she states, is also highly sexualized. Killian thus suggests that these elements "should not be the focus of a kickass heroine -- her beauty, bone structure, and sexiness -- if she is to be a feminist icon ''. Theresa Harold concurred, comparing Wonder Woman to Katniss Everdeen (of The Hunger Games), who "did n't have to wear a teenager 's wet dream of a costume to fight in ''. Christina Cauterucci also felt that Wonder Woman 's ability to be considered a "feminist antidote '' was undermined by her "sex appeal ''. Other critics refer to the construction of Wonder Woman in the film as "an implausible post-feminist hero ''.
Jenkins disagrees with this line of critique, however. She has stated that she was raised by a second - wave "feminist mother '', who taught her to be "both super aware that there had been sexism but also: ' Congratulations -- thank you, now I get to do whatever I want, Mom! ' '' Jenkins thus notes that it is this upbringing which has led her to question a feminist critique of Wonder Woman 's costume. When she was working on her own version of Wonder Woman 's "Gladiator '' re-design of the outfit (in the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice) Jenkins decided that Wonder Woman (as well as the other Amazons) "should n't be dressed in armor like men (...) It should be different (...) I, as a woman, want Wonder Woman to be hot as hell, fight badass, and look great at the same time -- the same way men want Superman to have huge pecs and an impractically big body. '' Jenkins also notes that she is "frustrated '' by the critique of Wonder Woman 's appearance, stating "when people get super critical about her outfit, who 's the one getting crazy about what a woman wears? That 's who she is; that 's Wonder Woman. '' Gal Gadot concurred with Jenkins, arguing that the character "is a feminist '' as "feminism is about equality and choice and freedom. And the writers, Patty and myself all figured that the best way to show that is to show Diana as having no awareness of social roles. She has no gender boundaries. To her, everyone is equal. ''
Critics such as Valerie Estelle Frankel support Jenkins ' vision. Frankel argues that the film subverts the male gaze, stating that the construction of Wonder Woman tends to shift every few decades as it reflects the state of feminism during different time periods, including third - wave feminism (which reflects Jenkins ' approach). Zoe Williams offers a similar argument stating that while Wonder Woman "is sort of naked a lot of the time '' it is n't, at the same time, "objectification so much as a cultural reset: having thighs, actual thighs you can kick things with, not thighs that look like arms, is a feminist act ''. Williams then juxtaposes Wonder Woman to past female action heroes such as Sarah Connor, Ellen Ripley, and Lara Croft, whom she suggests were all constructed for the male gaze, in which a "female warrior becomes a sex object '', (a point which she argues that Jenkins directly references in the film). Gloria Steinem thought that the film "was very good '' as it made Wonder Woman 's "Amazon origin story clear; she was stopping war, not perpetuating it. '' Steinem also noted that she knew "some women were disappointed by all the makeup, but I may be desperate -- I was just happy that the Amazons had wild hair! '' Her only complaint lay in the choice to eliminate the World War II setting as the Wonder Woman comic book developed in response to existing comics that were "so sadistic and racist that there was a congressional hearing on the subject ''. Steinem also gave Hillary Clinton the first Wonder Woman Award in October 2017 during the Women 's Media Center 's "Speaking Truth to Power Awards '' (an organization created by Steinem, Jane Fonda, and Robin Morgan). Upon receiving the award, Clinton noted that she had seen Jenkins ' Wonder Woman film and that she "loved the outfit ''. She also said that as her granddaughter was "really keen '' on Wonder Woman, Clinton "thought maybe I could borrow something from her for the night. It did n't quite work for me, but I will say that this award means a lot to me because as a little girl, and then as a young woman, and then as a slightly older woman, I always wondered when Wonder Woman would have her time, and now that has happened. '' Clinton had previously praised Jenkins ' film, in a public August 2017 message, stating that "it was just as inspirational as I 'd suspected a movie about a strong, powerful woman in a fight to save the world from international disaster would be. ''
Director James Cameron continued this debate, through his critique of the representation of female power in Jenkins ' film. In an August 2017 interview with The Guardian, Cameron qualifies Jenkins ' vision of Wonder Woman as "an objectified icon '' and called the film "a step backwards ''. In contrast, he states, his character Sarah Connor (from his Terminator films) "was not a beauty icon. She was strong, she was troubled, she was a terrible mother, and she earned the respect of the audience through pure grit. '' Jenkins stated in response that Cameron 's "inability to understand what ' Wonder Woman ' is, or stands for, to women all over the world is unsurprising as, though he is a great filmmaker, he is not a woman ''. She further argued "there is no right and wrong kind of powerful woman '' because "if women have to always be hard, tough and troubled to be strong, and we are n't free to be multidimensional or celebrate an icon of women everywhere because she is attractive and loving, then we have n't come very far have we. '' Reaction to this debate was mixed. Julie Miller sided with Cameron whom she states refers to himself as "a pretty hardcore feminist '' and who told Vulture that "I have no problem writing a script in which the males become subservient to the females, which is what happens in Aliens (...) It 's up to Ripley to win the day. '' In contrast, Miller argues that Jenkins and Gadot envisioned Wonder Woman as "a woman who exuded both femininity and strength, along with genuine confusion as to why men would treat women differently than they do other men ''. Susannah Breslin also agreed with Cameron, describing Jenkins ' Wonder Woman as "a Playmate with a lasso '' and "female power with no balls ''. Others were more critical of Cameron 's critique. An article in Newsweek suggested that Cameron 's films include "lot of objectification '', and included quotes from Hollywood celebrities such as Jesse McLaren who commented that "James Cameron 's just confused there 's a female hero whose motivations are n't centered around motherhood. '' Noah Berlatsky found areas of agreement between both Cameron and Jenkins, stating that while Cameron 's objection is "an old point that 's been made over and over for decades '', Jenkins film is n't "solely focused on objectifying Gal Gadot for a male audience ''.
A few weeks later in September, Cameron reiterated his criticism in an interview with The Hollywood Reporter. He compared Gal Gadot 's representation of the character to Raquel Welch films of the 1960s, and reinforced a comparison with Linda Hamilton 's portrayal of Sarah Connor. He argued that Connor was "if not ahead of its time, at least a breakthrough in its time '' because though she "looked great '', she "was n't treated as a sex object ''. He also stated that he while he "applaud (s) Patty directing the film and Hollywood, uh, ' letting ' a woman direct a major action franchise, I did n't think there was anything groundbreaking in Wonder Woman. I thought it was a good film. Period. '' Former Wonder Woman actress Lynda Carter responded to Cameron 's The Hollywood Reporter interview by asking him to "Stop dissing WW. '' Like Jenkins, she suggests that while Cameron does "not understand the character '', she does. She also refers to Cameron 's critiques as "thuggish jabs at a brilliant director '' that "are ill advised '' as the "movie was spot on ''. Carter also states that she has the authority to make these observations because she has "embodied this character for more than 40 years ''. A month later, Jenkins responded to Cameron 's comments once again in an interview with Variety, stating that she "was not upset at all '' as "everybody is entitled to their own opinion. But if you 're going to debate something in a public way, I have to reply that I think it 's incorrect. '' Tricia Ennis was also critical of Cameron 's statements, arguing that "while he may consider himself a feminist and an ally to women, (he) is not very good at it '' as being an ally means using his position of privilege "without silencing the voices of those you 're trying to help ''. She also states that it "is not enough to simply call yourself a feminist. It 's not even enough to create a strong female character (...) You have to bring women to the table. You have to let them speak. You can not speak for them. But speaking for women is exactly what Cameron is doing through his comments (...) Cameron is using his position of power as a respected producer and director to silence women. ''
Originally signed for three feature films, with Wonder Woman and Justice League being her second and third films, Gadot signed an extension to her contract for additional films. Jenkins initially signed for only one film, but in an interview with Variety, Geoff Johns revealed that he and Jenkins are writing the treatment for a Wonder Woman sequel and that he has a "cool idea for the second one ''. At the 2017 San Diego Comic Con, Warner Bros. officially announced a sequel would be released on December 13, 2019, and would be titled Wonder Woman 2; the date was later moved up to November 1, 2019 to avoid competition with Star Wars: Episode IX. Later, Jenkins was officially signed to return as director, with confirmation that Gadot will be returning as the titular role. On August 19, 2017, actress Geena Davis stated that she would like very much to play a role in Wonder Woman 2 and that she is in talks with Jenkins about that matter. Days later, the studio hired Dave Callaham to co-write the film 's script with Jenkins and Johns.
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when did the 1st incredibles movie come out | The Incredibles - Wikipedia
The Incredibles is a 2004 American computer - animated superhero film written and directed by Brad Bird, produced by Pixar Animation Studios, released by Walt Disney Pictures, and starring the voices of Craig T. Nelson, Holly Hunter, Sarah Vowell, Spencer Fox, Jason Lee, Samuel L. Jackson, and Elizabeth Peña. The film follows the Parrs, a family of superheroes who are forced to live a quiet suburban life while hiding their powers. Mr. Incredible 's desire to help people draws the entire family into a confrontation with a vengeful fan - turned - foe and his killer robot.
Bird, who was Pixar 's first outside director, developed the film as an extension of the 1960s comic books and spy films from his boyhood and personal family life. He pitched the film to Pixar after the box office disappointment of his first feature, The Iron Giant (1999), and carried over much of its staff to develop The Incredibles. The animation team was tasked with animating an all - human cast, which required creating new technology to animate detailed human anatomy, clothing and realistic skin and hair. Michael Giacchino composed the film 's orchestral score.
The film premiered on October 27, 2004, at the BFI London Film Festival and had its general release in the United States on November 5, 2004. It performed well at the box office, grossing $633 million worldwide during its original theatrical run. The Incredibles received widespread approval from critics and audiences, winning two Academy Awards and the Annie Award for Best Animated Feature. It was the first entirely animated film to win the prestigious Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. A sequel, Incredibles 2, was released on June 15, 2018.
Public opinion turns against superheroes -- also called "Supers '' -- due to the collateral damage caused by their crime - fighting. After several lawsuits, the government initiates the Superhero Relocation Program, which forces Supers to permanently adhere to their secret identities. Fifteen years later, Bob and Helen Parr -- formerly known as Mr. Incredible and Elastigirl -- and their children Violet, Dash, and baby Jack - Jack are a suburban family living in Metroville. Although he loves his family, Bob resents the mundanity of his suburban lifestyle and white - collar job. Together with his friend Lucius Best, formerly known as Frozone, Bob occasionally relives "the glory days '' by moonlighting as a vigilante.
After his supervisor prevents him from stopping a mugging, Bob loses his temper and injures him, resulting in his dismissal. Returning home, Bob receives a message from a mysterious woman known as Mirage, who gives him a mission to destroy a savage tripod - like robot, the Omnidroid, on the remote island of Nomanisan. Bob battles and disables it by tricking it into ripping off its own power source.
Bob finds the action and higher pay rejuvenating. He improves his relationship with his family and begins rigorous physical training while awaiting more work from Mirage for the next two months. Finding a tear in his suit, he visits superhero costume designer Edna Mode to have it mended. Assuming that Helen knows what Bob is doing, Edna also makes new suits for the other family members. Setting out for Nomanisan once again, Bob discovers Mirage is working for Buddy Pine, a disaffected former fan whom Mr. Incredible had rejected as his sidekick. Having adopted the alias of Syndrome, he has been perfecting the Omnidroid by hiring different superheroes to fight it, killing many of them in the process. Syndrome intends to send the latest Omnidroid to Metroville, where he will secretly manipulate its controls to defeat it in public, becoming a "hero '' himself. Later, he will sell his inventions so that everyone can become "super '', rendering the term meaningless.
Helen visits Edna and learns what Bob has been up to. She activates a beacon Edna built into the suits to find Bob, inadvertently causing him to be captured while infiltrating Syndrome 's base. Helen borrows a private plane to head for Nomanisan. She finds out that Violet and Dash have stowed away, leaving Jack - Jack with a babysitter. Helen 's radio transmissions are picked up by Syndrome, who sends missiles to shoot her down. The plane is destroyed, but Helen and the kids survive and use their powers to reach the island. Helen infiltrates the base and discovers Syndrome 's plan. Discontented with Syndrome 's indifference when her life was threatened, Mirage releases Bob and informs him of his family 's survival. Helen arrives and races off with Bob to find their children. Dash and Violet are chased by Syndrome 's guards, but fend them off with their powers before reuniting with their parents. Syndrome captures them all, leaving them imprisoned while he follows the rocket transporting the Omnidroid to Metroville.
The Parrs escape to Metroville in another rocket. As per its programming, the Omnidroid recognizes Syndrome as a threat and targets the remote control on his wrist, making him incapable of controlling it and knocking him unconscious. The Parrs and Frozone fight the Omnidroid. The battle is indecisive until Bob acquires the remote control, allowing Helen to control one of the robot 's claws and use it to destroy its power source. Returning home, the Parrs find Syndrome, who plans to kidnap and raise Jack - Jack as his own sidekick to exact revenge on the family. As Syndrome is flying upward to reach his jet, Jack - Jack 's own superpowers start to manifest and he escapes Syndrome midair. As Helen catches Jack - Jack, Syndrome manages to board the plane, but Bob throws his car at the villain, causing him to get sucked into the jet 's turbine, killing him and making the aircraft explode. The Parrs survive thanks to Violet 's force field, though the wreckage of the plane falls down and destroys their house.
Three months later, the Parrs witness the arrival of a new supervillain called the Underminer. They put on their superhero masks, ready to face the new threat together as a family.
The Incredibles as a concept dates back to 1993 when Bird sketched the family during an uncertain point in his film career. Personal issues had percolated into the story as they weighed on him in life. During this time, Bird had signed a production deal with Warner Bros. Feature Animation and was in the process of directing his first feature, The Iron Giant. Approaching middle age and having high aspirations for his filmmaking, Bird pondered whether his career goals were attainable only at the price of his family life. He stated, "Consciously, this was just a funny movie about superheroes. But I think that what was going on in my life definitely filtered into the movie. '' After the box office failure of The Iron Giant, Bird gravitated toward his superhero story.
He imagined it as a homage to the 1960s comic books and spy films from his boyhood and he initially tried to develop it as a 2D cel animation. When The Iron Giant became a box office bomb, he reconnected with old friend John Lasseter at Pixar in March 2000 and pitched his story idea to him. Bird and Lasseter knew each other from their college years at CalArts in the 1970s. Lasseter was sold on the idea and convinced Bird to come to Pixar, where the film would be done in computer animation. The studio announced a multi-film contract with Bird on May 4, 2000. The Incredibles was written and directed solely by Brad Bird, a departure from previous Pixar productions which typically had two or three directors and as many screenwriters with a history of working for the company. In addition, it would be the company 's first film in which all characters are human.
-- Brad Bird, writer and director of The Incredibles.
Bird came to Pixar with the lineup of the story 's family members worked out: a mom and dad, both suffering through the dad 's midlife crisis; a shy teenage girl; a cocky ten - year - old boy; and a baby. Bird had based their powers on family archetypes. During production, Hayao Miyazaki of Studio Ghibli visited Pixar and saw the film 's story reels. When Bird asked if the reels made any sense or if they were just "American nonsense, '' Miyazaki replied, through an interpreter, "I think it 's a very adventurous thing you are trying to do in an American film. ''
Upon Pixar 's acceptance of the project, Brad Bird was asked to bring in his own team for the production. He brought up a core group of people he worked with on The Iron Giant. Because of this, many 2 - D artists had to make the shift to 3 - D, including Bird himself. Bird found working with CG "wonderfully malleable '' in a way that traditional animation is not, calling the camera 's ability to easily switch angles in a given scene "marvelously adaptable. '' He found working in computer animation "difficult '' in a different way than working traditionally, finding the software "sophisticated and not particularly friendly. '' Bird wrote the script without knowing the limitations or concerns that went hand - in - hand with the medium of computer animation. As a result, this was to be the most complex film yet for Pixar. The film 's characters were designed by Tony Fucile and Teddy Newton, whom Bird had brought with him from Warner Bros. Like most computer - animated films, The Incredibles had a year - long period of building the film from the inside out: modeling the exterior and understanding controls that would work the face and the body -- the articulation of the character -- before animation could even begin. Bird and Fucile tried to emphasize the graphic quality of good 2 - D animation to the Pixar team, who had only worked primarily in CG. Bird attempted to incorporate teaching from Disney 's Nine Old Men that the crew at Pixar had "never really emphasized. ''
For the technical crew members, the film 's human characters posed a difficult set of challenges. Bird 's story was filled with elements that were difficult to animate with CGI back then. Humans are widely considered to be the most difficult things to execute in animation. Pixar 's animators filmed themselves walking to better grasp proper human motion. Creating an all - human cast required creating new technology to animate detailed human anatomy, clothing, and realistic skin and hair. Although the technical team had some experience with hair and cloth in Monsters, Inc. (2001), the amount of hair and cloth required for The Incredibles had never been done by Pixar up until this point. Moreover, Bird would tolerate no compromises for the sake of technical simplicity. Where the technical team on Monsters, Inc. had persuaded director Pete Docter to accept pigtails on Boo to make her hair easier to animate, the character Violet had to have long hair that obscured her face; in fact, this was integral to her character. Violet 's long hair, which was extremely difficult to animate, was only successfully animated toward the end of production. In addition, animators had to adapt to having hair both underwater and blowing through the wind. Disney was initially reluctant to make the film because of these issues, thinking that a live - action film would be preferable, but Lasseter denied this.
Not only did The Incredibles cope with the difficulty of animating CG humans, but also many other complications. The story was bigger than any prior story at the studio, was longer in running time, and had four times the number of locations. Supervising technical director Rick Sayre noted that the hardest thing about the film was that there was "no hardest thing, '' alluding to the amount of new technical challenges: fire, water, air, smoke, steam, and explosions were all additional to the new difficulty of working with humans. The film 's organizational structure could not be mapped out like previous Pixar features, and it became a running joke to the team. Sayre said the team adopted "Alpha Omega, '' where one team was concerned with building modeling, shading, and layout, while another dealt with final camera, lighting, and effects. Another team, dubbed the "character team, '' digitally sculpted, rigged, and shaded all of the characters, and a simulation team was responsible for developing simulation technology for hair and clothing. There were at least 781 visual effects shots in the film, and they were quite often visual gags, such as the window shattering when Bob angrily shuts the car door. Additionally, the effects team improved their modeling of clouds, using volumetric rendering for the first time.
The skin of the characters gained a new level of realism from a technology to produce known as "subsurface scattering. '' The challenges did not stop with modeling humans. Bird decided that in a shot near the film 's end, baby Jack - Jack would have to undergo a series of transformations, and in one of the five planned he would turn himself into a kind of goo. Technical directors, who anticipated spending two months or even longer to work out the goo effect, stealing precious hours from production that had already entered its final and most critical stages, petitioned the film 's producer, John Walker, for help. Bird, who had himself brought Walker over from Warner Bros. to work on the project, was at first immovable, but after arguing with Walker in several invective - laced meetings over the course of two months, Bird finally conceded. Bird also insisted that the storyboards define the blocking of characters ' motions, lighting, and camera movements, which had previously been left to other departments rather than storyboarded.
Bird self - admitted that he "had the knees of (the studio) trembling under the weight '' of The Incredibles, but called the film a "testament to the talent of the animators at Pixar, '' who were admiring the challenges the film provoked. He recalled, "Basically, I came into a wonderful studio, frightened a lot of people with how many presents I wanted for Christmas, and then got almost everything I asked for. ''
Lily Tomlin was originally considered for the role of Edna Mode, but later turned it down. After several failed attempts to cast Edna Mode, Bird took on her voice role himself. It was an extension of the Pixar custom of tapping in - house staff whose voices came across particularly well on scratch dialogue tracks.
The Incredibles is the first Pixar film to be scored by Michael Giacchino. Brad Bird was looking for a specific sound as inspired by the film 's retrofuturistic design -- the future as seen from the 1960s. John Barry was the first choice to do the film 's score, with a trailer of the film given a rerecording of Barry 's theme to On Her Majesty 's Secret Service. However, Barry did not wish to duplicate the sound of some of his earlier soundtracks; the assignment was instead given to Giacchino. Giacchino noted that recording in the 1960s was largely different from modern day recording and Dan Wallin, the recording engineer, said that Bird wanted an old feel, and as such the score was recorded on analog tapes. Wallin noted that brass instruments, which are at the forefront of the film 's score, sound better on analog equipment rather than digital. Wallin came from an era in which music was recorded, according to Giacchino, "the right way '', which consists of everyone in the same room, "playing against each other and feeding off each other 's energy ''. Tim Simonec was the conductor / orchestrator for the score 's recording.
The film 's orchestral score was released on November 2, 2004, three days before the film opened in theaters. It won numerous awards for best score including Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award, BMI Film & TV Award, ASCAP Film and Television Music Award, Annie Award, Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award and Online Film Critics Society Award and was nominated for Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media, Satellite Award and Broadcast Film Critics Association Award.
Several film reviewers drew precise parallels between the film and certain superhero comic books, like Powers, Watchmen, Fantastic Four, and The Avengers. The producers of the 2005 adaptation of Fantastic Four were forced to make significant script changes and add more special effects because of similarities to The Incredibles. Bird was not surprised that comparisons arose due to superheroes being "the most well - trod turf on the planet, '' but noted that he had not been inspired by any comic books specifically, only having heard of Watchmen. He did comment that it was nice to be compared to it, since "if you 're going to be compared to something, it 's nice if it 's something good ''.
Some commentators took Bob 's frustration with celebrating mediocrity and Syndrome 's comment that "when everyone 's super, no one will be '' as a reflection of views shared by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche or an extension of Russian - American novelist Ayn Rand 's Objectivism philosophy, which Bird felt was "ridiculous. '' He stated that a large portion of the audience understood the satire whereas "two percent thought I was doing The Fountainhead or Atlas Shrugged. '' Some purported that The Incredibles exhibited a right - wing bias, which Bird also scoffed at. "I think that 's as silly of an analysis as saying The Iron Giant was left - wing. I 'm definitely a centrist and feel like both parties can be absurd. ''
The film also explored Bird 's dislike for the tendency of the children 's comics and Saturday morning cartoons of his youth to portray villains as unrealistic, ineffectual, and non-threatening. In the film, Dash and Violet have to deal with villains who are perfectly willing to use deadly force against children. On another level, both Dash and Violet display no emotion or regret at the deaths of those who are trying to kill them, such as when Dash outruns pursuers who crash their vehicles while chasing him, or when both of them witness their parents destroy several attacking vehicles with people inside, in such a manner that the deaths of those piloting them is undeniable. Despite disagreeing with some analysis, Bird felt it gratifying for his work to be considered on many different levels, which was his intention: "The fact that it was written about in the op / ed section of The New York Times several times was really gratifying to me. Look, it 's a mainstream animated movie, and how often are those considered thought provoking? ''
The film opened on November 5, 2004, as Pixar 's first film to be rated PG (for "action violence ''). Its theatrical release was accompanied with a Pixar short film Boundin '. The promotional campaign included an official website with video segments, games, and printable memorabilia. While Pixar celebrated another triumph with The Incredibles, Steve Jobs was embroiled in a public feud with the head of its distribution partner, The Walt Disney Company. This would eventually lead to the ousting of Michael Eisner and Disney 's acquisition of Pixar the following year.
In March 2014, Disney CEO and chairman Bob Iger announced that the film would be reformatted and re-released in 3D.
On May 11, 2018, Disney and IMAX announced that the film would be reissued and digitally re-mastered for IMAX theaters (alongside its sequel, Incredibles 2) using their DMR Technology in a double feature for a one day only, "Fan Event '', on June 13.
The film was first released on both VHS and a two - disc collector 's edition DVD set on March 15, 2005. The DVD set included two newly commissioned Pixar short films, Jack - Jack Attack and Mr. Incredible and Pals, which were made specifically for this home - video release, and Boundin ', a Pixar short film that premiered alongside the feature film in its original theatrical release. It was the highest - selling DVD of 2005, with 17.38 million copies sold. The film was also released on UMD for the Sony PSP.
Disney released the film on Blu - ray in North America on April 12, 2011, and on 4K UHD Blu - ray on June 5, 2018; this marks Disney 's first 4K Blu - ray reissue on the format.
Despite concerns that the film would receive underwhelming results, the film 's domestic gross was $70,467,623 in its opening weekend from 7,600 screens at 3,933 theaters, averaging $17,917 per theater or $9,272 per screen, the highest opening - weekend gross for a Pixar film (the record was later broken in 2010 by Toy Story 3, with $110,307,189), the highest November opening weekend for a Disney film (the record was broken in 2013 by Thor: The Dark World with $85.7 million), the highest opening weekend for a non-sequel animated feature (the record was broken in 2007 by The Simpsons Movie, with $74,036,787), and the highest opening weekend for a non-franchise - based film for just over five years when Avatar opened with $77,025,481. This opening was the second - highest for an animated film at the time. The film was also number one in its second weekend, grossing another $50,251,359, dropping just 29 percent, and easily out - grossing new animated opener The Polar Express. The film ultimately grossed $261,441,092, making it the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2004. Worldwide, the film grossed $631,442,092, ranking fourth for 2004. It is also the second - highest - grossing 2004 animated film behind Shrek 2 ($919.8 million).
The film received a 97 % approval rating on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on 236 reviews, with an average rating of 8.3 / 10. which, as of January 2018, makes it the 20th - highest - rated animated film of all time. The site 's consensus reads "Bringing loads of wit and tons of fun to the animated superhero genre, The Incredibles easily lives up to its name. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, indicates the film was met with "universal acclaim '', with a score of 90 / 100 based on 41 critics. Audiences polled for CinemaScore gave the film an "A + '' on an "A+ to F '' scale.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three - and - a-half out of four, writing that the film "alternates breakneck action with satire of suburban sitcom life '' and is "another example of Pixar 's mastery of popular animation. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film three - and - a-half, calling it "one of the year 's best '' and saying that it "does n't ring cartoonish, it rings true. '' Giving the film three - and - a-half as well, People magazine found that The Incredibles "boasts a strong, entertaining story and a truckload of savvy comic touches. ''
Conversely, Eleanor Ringel Gillespie of The Atlanta Journal - Constitution was bored by the film 's "recurring pastiches of earlier action films '', concluding that "the Pixar whizzes do what they do excellently; you just wish they were doing something else. '' Similarly, Jessica Winter of The Village Voice criticized the film for "playing as a standard summer action film '', despite being released in early November. Her review, titled as "Full Metal Racket, '' noted that The Incredibles "announces the studio 's arrival in the vast yet overcrowded Hollywood lot of eardrum - bashing, metal - crunching action sludge. ''
Travers also named The Incredibles as # 6 on his list of the decade 's best films, writing "Of all the Pixar miracles studded through the decade, The Incredibles still delights me the most. It 's not every toon that deals with midlife crisis, marital dysfunction, child neglect, impotence fears, fashion faux pas, and existential angst. '' The National Review Online named The Incredibles no. 2 on its list of the 25 best conservative movies of the last 25 years, saying that it "celebrates marriage, courage, responsibility, and high achievement. '' Entertainment Weekly named the film No. 25 on its list of the 25 greatest action films ever and no. 7 on its list of the 20 best animated movies ever. IGN ranked the film as the third favorite animated film of all time in a list published in 2010. In 2012, film critic Matt Zoller Seitz declared The Incredibles as the greatest superhero film he has ever seen: "That thing works as a James Bond spoof; a meditation on identities, secret and otherwise; a domestic comedy; a statement on exceptionalism vs. mediocrity, and the perils of the nanny state... And yet it all hangs together. No part feels perfunctory or stupid. It 's all deeply felt. '' He would also later name the film as the "greatest action movie of the aughts, with (Hero) and (Kung Fu Hustle) following close behind. ''
The film won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, beating two DreamWorks films, Shrek 2 and Shark Tale, as well as Best Sound Editing at the 77th Academy Awards. It also received nominations for Best Original Screenplay (for writer / director Brad Bird) and Best Sound Mixing (Randy Thom, Gary Rizzo and Doc Kane). It was Pixar 's first feature film to win multiple Oscars, followed in 2010 by Up. Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal called The Incredibles the year 's best picture. Premiere magazine released a cross-section of all the top critics in America and The Incredibles placed at number three, whereas review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes cross-referenced reviews that suggested it was its year 's highest - rated film.
The film also received the 2004 Annie Award for Best Animated Feature and the 2005 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form, and it was nominated for the 2004 Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture -- Musical or Comedy. It also won the Saturn Award for Best Animated Film. The American Film Institute nominated The Incredibles for its Top 10 Animated Films list.
It was included on Empire 's 500 Greatest Films of All Time at number 400.
Several companies released promotional products related to the film. In the weeks before the film 's opening, there were also promotional tie - ins with SBC Communications (using Dash to promote the "blazing - fast speed '' of its SBC Yahoo! DSL service) Tide, Downy, Bounce and McDonald 's. Dark Horse Comics released a limited series of comic books based on the film. Toy maker Hasbro produced a series of action figures and toys based on the film. Kellogg 's released an Incredibles - themed cereal, as well as promotional Pop - Tarts and fruit snacks, all proclaiming an "Incrediberry Blast '' of flavor. Pringles included potato chips featuring the superheroes and quotes from the film.
In July 2008, it was announced that a series of comic books based on the film would be published by BOOM! Studios in collaboration with Disney Publishing by the end of the year. The first miniseries by BOOM! was The Incredibles: Family Matters by Mark Waid and Marcio Takara, which was published from March to June 2009 and collected into a trade paperback published in July of that year.
A video game based on the film was released on the PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, Game Boy Advance, PC, and Macintosh, as well as on mobile phones. Though based on the film, several key scenes are altered from the original script. A second game, The Incredibles: Rise of the Underminer, was released for the PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, Game Boy Advance, and Nintendo DS, as well as on Windows and OS X. Taking place immediately after the film, Rise focuses on Mr. Incredible and Frozone as they battle with the megalomaniacal mole, The Underminer. but the plot was later retconned out by Incredibles 2. A third game, The Incredibles: When Danger Calls, was released for Windows and OS X. It is a collection of 10 games and activities for the playable characters to perform. Another game, Kinect Rush: A Disney Pixar Adventure, was released on March 20, 2012, for Xbox 360. It features characters and missions from five Pixar 's films: The Incredibles, Up, Cars, Ratatouille and Toy Story. The Incredibles characters also star in Disney Infinity, which was released in August 2013. The playset for The Incredibles is featured in the starter pack. A LEGO - themed video game, Lego The Incredibles, was released by Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and is released on June 15, 2018 on the Nintendo Switch, Xbox One, and PlayStation 4.
Director Brad Bird stated in 2007 that he was open to the idea of a sequel if he could come up with an idea superior to the original film: "I have pieces that I think are good, but I do n't have them all together. '' During an interview in May 2013, Bird reiterated his interest in making a sequel. "I have been thinking about it. People think that I have not been, but I have. Because I love those characters and love that world, '' said Bird. "I am stroking my chin and scratching my head. I have many, many elements that I think would work really well in another Incredibles film, and if I can get ' em to click all together, I would probably wan na do that. ''
Disney announced their intentions to develop Incredibles 2 in March 2014. Bird returned to direct and write the screenplay. Nelson, Hunter, Vowell, Jackson, and Bird will also return to voice their characters, while Dash will now be voiced by Huck Milner as Fox 's voice had deepened in the intervening years. The film will follow immediately from the end of The Incredibles with the Parrs facing the Underminer. The film will focus on Holly Hunter 's character, Elastigirl. Originally, Incredibles 2 was to be released on June 21, 2019 as Pixar 's next film after Toy Story 4. Due to delays on that title, Pixar swapped the release dates, and Incredibles 2 was then officially released in the United States on June 15, 2018.
The teaser trailer for the sequel premiered on November 18, 2017. It featured Jack - Jack, who is revealed to have powers, with Bob, happy at this discovery.
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what kind of cars do the fbi use | Police vehicles in the United States and Canada - wikipedia
Police vehicles in the United States and Canada are made by several maufacturers and are available in three broad vehicle types:
The first police car was a wagon run by electricity fielded on the streets of Akron, Ohio in 1899. Since the 1920s, the New York City Police Department has employed a fleet of Radio Motor Patrol vehicles to aid in its fight against crime within the city.
Ford 's introduction of the flathead V - 8 in its Model 18 in 1932 -- -- the first low - priced, mass - marketed car with a V8 engine -- -- proved quite popular amongst police departments and led to strong brand loyalty. In turn, this gave the company a market - capturing edge that lasted until 1968. In the 1940s and 1950s, the "Big Three '' (Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler) began to offer specialized police packages with severe duty parts. Foremost amongst these was the Ford package of 1950, which utilized the larger and more powerful Mercury engine in the smaller, lighter Ford. This ended the practice of some state police buying larger and more powerful, but higher - priced models including Buicks, Hudsons, and Chryslers. In 1969, Plymouth took first place in the police market, with Chrysler 's 440 cu. in. V8s, Torqueflite transmissions, and torsion bar suspensions giving them a compelling advantage. Chrysler held this lead until the 1970s energy crisis drove buyers to smaller cars, and Chrysler subsequently discontinued their rear - drive platform after the 1989 model year.
In the United States and Canada, police departments have historically used standard - size, low - price line sedans since the days of the Ford Model A, although many police departments switched to intermediates -- -- such as the Plymouth Satellite, Ford Torino, and AMC Matador -- -- in the 1960s and 1970s. Some state highway patrols (including those of California and Missouri) adopted pony cars, such as the Ford Mustang, Chevrolet Camaro, and AMC Javelin for use as high - speed pursuit vehicles. The Ford LTD, Plymouth Gran Fury, and Chevrolet Caprice were re-adopted as standard when the models were downsized in the late 1970s.
Since the termination of the North American Chevrolet Caprice model in 1996 (though it would subsequently return in 2010 for exclusive law enforcement use), the Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor has replaced it as the standard patrol car currently used by most police departments. In an attempt to better combat the threat of rear - end impacts that highway patrol vehicles face when stopped on the shoulder, new models can be optionally equipped with a fire suppression system. In September, 2011, however, Ford discontinued the Crown Victoria in favor of the 6th - generation Taurus. This has helped Dodge reclaim leadership in the market with the Dodge Charger Pursuit, as of 2012.
Non-Crown Victoria police vehicles may be bought to diversify a police department 's fleet in order to better minimize disruption should a recall occur.
Despite some (primarily Canadian) jurisdictions electing to use front - wheel - drive sedans with smaller engines -- -- mainly the Chevrolet Impala, the current iteration of which being a V6 -- -- the rear - wheel - drive V8 configuration is still widely preferred, due in part to its consistency with pursuit driver training, as well as generally greater reliability. Furthermore, trials with FWD vehicles like the Taurus and Impala have proven problematic in terms of maintenance costs. In 1994, for example, a Ford spokeswoman noted that, "It is certainly true that any front - wheel - drive car would be more expensive and difficult to maintain if you subjected it to the kind of hard use they get in police departments. ''
The Dodge Charger Pursuit is the current best seller and performer. Given its superior performance and greater fuel efficiency, the Charger has proven itself to be a capable alternative to / replacement for the aged and arguably outdated Crown Victoria.
Nonetheless, more departments continue to opt for the Charger. At the end of 2006, multiple Dodge Chargers were added to the NYPD fleet for citywide testing. In the summer of 2006, the Georgia State Patrol announced that it would begin using the Charger Pursuit for high speed chases on Interstate highways due to its additional power and speed, and the Oklahoma Highway Patrol switched to the model early, as well. As of 2007, the Alameda County (California) Sheriff 's Office has plans to upgrade to the Charger. Dodge offers the Pursuit in V6, V8, and AWD V8 trims. Retail versions are not available in a police package. As of 2017, 28 state police agencies use the Charger Pursuit as a primary law enforcement vehicle.
The Chevrolet Tahoe PPV, along with the Ford Explorer Police Interceptor Utility, are both pursuit - rated SUVs that are also used by federal, state, and local agencies throughout the United States and Canada.
Pricing: These vehicles are not offered to or sold to retail customers. They are sold strictly on a government - bid basis, and the manufacturers offer considerable financial assistance to agencies that purchase them. For 2018, contracts were averaging the following initial prices:
Dodge Charger Pursuit $21,300 Dodge Durango SSV $26,500
Ford Taurus Interceptor $23,500 Ford Explorer Interceptor $26,500
Chevy Tahoe $32,900
It should be noted that the Ford Taurus is not expected to reappear in 2019. Ford is, instead, promoting its Fusion Responder, which is not a pursuit vehicle.
North American police cars were once noted for being painted black and white, with the car doors and roof painted white, while the trunk, hood, front fenders and rear quarter panels were painted black. The fleet vehicles that were used typically came painted in a single color, most commonly white or black, from the factory and were used as such. The contrasting black or white color was added to make the vehicle stand out from civilian vehicles. In 2007, the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) began converting its fleet back to a black - and - white scheme after decades of using other colors.
Beginning in the 1970s, police vehicle markings have become increasingly stylistic, with widespread use of computer - graphics and vinyl striping. While black and white designs are still in use in many jurisdictions, cars may range from being all white to completely black. Blues and greens of various hues are also frequently used. Brown, beiges and tans are favored by rural police and sheriff 's offices.
Official markings also vary by jurisdiction. The side doors and sometimes the hood of a marked police car usually bear the agency 's badge or the city seal, often in reflective finish. Markings such as emergency telephone numbers, generic anti-drug or anti-crime messages, or even website URLs are also common. Some agencies also have identification numbers printed on the roofs of patrol cars for tracking from aircraft, or to distinguish specialized units, such as K - 9 units or supervisors.
Currently, in the United States and Canada, the paint scheme for each fleet is determined either by the individual agency or by uniform state legislation as in Minnesota. Usually, state laws exist that establish standards for police vehicle markings, and proscribe civilian vehicles from using certain markings or paint schemes as is the case in California.
Today, most fleet markings on patrol vehicles are created from reflective vinyl with an adhesive backing that is applied in a peel - and - stick manner. Colors chosen to represent the departments identity are typically chosen by the individual department, although, as noted above, some states have specific guidelines for color schemes and markings. Vinyl used to produce fleet markings comes in large rolls that are fed through a plotter (cutter) or large - format printer / cutter. The designs are created in specialized computer software and sent to the machines via cable link for production. Once the design is cut into the vinyl, the excess vinyl on the sheet is removed in a process called "weeding ''. Finally, a paper pre-mask is applied to the top of the vinyl design to allow easy application of multiple letters and shapes at one time.
Police departments also use alternative police vehicles.
The New Jersey state police used marked and unmarked 2014 Ford Taurus police interceptors as well as Crown Victorias, and police editions of Chevrolet Impalas. Dodge Durangos and Ford Explorers have also been spotted.
A number of Drug Abuse Resistance Education (DARE) programs in local police departments have some notable vehicles marked as police cars to promote the program. The DARE cars appear at schools and in parades. Typically these cars are high - end or performance cars that have been seized in a drug raid. They are used to send the message that drug dealers forfeit all their glamorous trappings when they get caught. Cars include the Chevrolet Corvette, Ford Mustang, and Humvee.
Ford ceased production of the ubiquitous Ford Crown Victoria Police Interceptor in 2011, it was replaced by both the Ford Police Interceptor Sedan & Ford Police Interceptor Utility. On March 12, 2010, a prototype Ford Police Interceptor Sedan based on the sixth generation Taurus 's platform was demonstrated at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway and Ford assured law enforcement agencies that it would be in production when the last Crown Victorias are built in September 2011. The car was also displayed to fleet managers from Canada and the United States at the National Association of Fleet Administrators (NAFA) exposition in Detroit in April. Months after the Sedan was unveiled a prototype Ford Police Interceptor Utility based on the fifth generation Ford Explorer was unveiled at Ford 's Chicago plant in front of its work force by then VP of U.S. Marketing, Sales and Service Ken Czubay. The production of the Police Interceptor Sedan began in 2012 as a 2013 model along with the Utility counterpart.
The Dodge Charger Pursuit, was first introduced as an LX body in 2006. In 2011, as an LD body, numerous changes were made to resolve a number of teething issues in previous cars. The 3.6 V - 6 engine provides performance equal to - or better - than the P7B Crown Victoria, with much better fuel economy. The 5.7 Hemi cars set record after record during yearly testing with the Michigan State Police. In late 2014, Dodge surpassed many of their own records with the new All Wheel Drive Pursuit. The AWD version became the only large Chrysler passenger sedan with AWD and the V8. By mid - 2016, over 40 % of all new Charger Pursuits were AWD.
Prior to the release of the AWD Dodge, Ford held 60 % of the police market. In 2015, and especially 2016 (after a price reduction), Dodge gained some ground on Ford, largely at the expense of the Taurus.
The Mobile precinct station in both the models of a 26 ' trailer and AM General 6X6 military surplus vehicle have been inventoried in specific police departments within the United States.
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who sings the theme song for melissa and joey | Melissa & Joey - Wikipedia
Melissa & Joey is an American sitcom television series starring Melissa Joan Hart and Joey Lawrence that aired for four seasons between 2010 and 2015 on ABC Family. The series follows local politician Mel Burke (Hart) and Joe Longo (Lawrence), whom Mel hires to look after her niece (Taylor Spreitler) and nephew (Nick Robinson) after a Ponzi scheme leaves Joe broke.
The series originally was picked up for a pilot and season one containing 12 episodes - this premiered August 17, 2010. Then, due to the success of the show, ABC Family renewed it for 18 more episodes on October 8, 2010, which premiered June 29, 2011. The series was renewed by ABC Family for a second season of fifteen episodes, which began airing on May 30, 2012, and ended on August 29, 2012. Melissa & Joey ranks as cable TV 's # 1 telecast at 8 o'clock across target audiences 18 -- 34, 18 -- 49 and 12 -- 34 demographics.
On August 17, 2012, ABC Family renewed Melissa & Joey for a third season, set to premiere on May 29, 2013. On May 28, 2013, ABC Family announced that the third season would be expanded by 20 episodes, and that the show had also been renewed for a fourth season consisting of 20 episodes, bringing the series total to 104 episodes.
The show proved to be quite successful for ABC Family as the show established a 13 - week high in total viewers, an eight - week high in viewers between the ages of 18 -- 34 and 18 -- 49 and a 15 - week high in female viewers between the ages of 12 -- 34 in its third season. During the fourth season, the show reached a milestone of 100 episodes for syndication purposes but declined in the ratings. Along with most ABC Family shows, the declining number of viewers watching Melissa & Joey occurred in tandem with a general trend of reduced numbers of TV network subscribers. Looking to marginalize these declines, the show accelerated the availability of its episodes to non-provider - authenticated ABC Family subscribers with Hulu Plus to three weeks post broadcast. On February 9, 2015, ABC Family announced its decision to end the series after four seasons.
The series finale aired on August 5, 2015.
Mel is a local politician from a political family. When a family scandal leaves her niece, Lennox, and nephew, Ryder, without their parents, Mel takes them in. Meanwhile, Joe is a former commodities trader left bankrupt after a Ponzi scheme, and finds himself searching for a job. So when Mel finds it hard to handle an instant family and her own life, she hires Joe to become the family 's new male nanny, or "manny ''.
The show stars two former teen idols who were notable for roles they played in popular 1990s sitcoms, Lawrence for Gimme a Break!, Blossom, and Brotherly Love and Hart for Clarissa Explains It All and Sabrina, the Teenage Witch. Hart and Lawrence are both listed as executive producers of the series, and have each directed individual episodes.
The series marks the second time Hart and Lawrence have co-starred together in an ABC Family production; their first was the 2009 television film, My Fake Fiance. Melissa & Joey was criticized early on for lacking sufficient chemistry between the leads and a "will they, wo n't they '' theme present in their earlier project, My Fake Fiance.
On October 8, 2010, ABC Family announced their order of an additional 20 episodes for the first season, creating a season of 30 episodes. The mid-season finale for season one aired on October 26, 2010. The second half of the first season began airing on June 29, 2011. On July 11, 2011, ABC Family announced that Melissa & Joey had been picked up for a second season. On August 17, 2012, ABC Family announced that Melissa & Joey had been picked up for a third season.
Both Lawrence and Hart directed episodes in season two. Lawrence 's episode is called "Wherefore Art Thou Lennox '' and Hart was the first woman to direct an episode of the series.
The series was filmed before a live studio audience at CBS Studio Center stage 14. The house used for exteriors is located in the Hancock Park area of Los Angeles.
On February 9, 2015, ABC Family announced its decision to end the series after four seasons.
Melissa & Joey stood as Wednesday 's # 1 cable TV telecast at 8 o'clock in Adults 18 -- 34, Women 18 -- 34, Women 18 -- 49 and Females 12 -- 34 Demographics. The show continued to dominate its cable time period during its second season, ranking # 1 across key measures Adults 18 -- 34, Women 18 -- 34, Adults 18 -- 49, Women 18 -- 49, Viewers 12 -- 34 and Females 12 -- 34.
The following is a table with the average estimated number of viewers per episode, each season of Melissa & Joey on ABC Family.
Melissa & Joey premiered on STAR World India on October 6, 2011. In Southeast Asia, it premiered on STAR World in 2011. In the United Kingdom, all episodes were put on Sky On Demand on July 1, 2014 and began airing on E4 on July 28, 2014.
On May 24, 2011, Shout! Factory released Melissa & Joey: Season One, Part One on DVD in Region 1. Special features include a sneak peek of the remaining season 1 episodes, bloopers, and featurettes with Melissa Joan Hart and Joey Lawrence. On October 4, 2011, Shout! Factory released Melissa & Joey: Season One, Part Two on DVD in Region 1, collecting the final 18 episodes of season one in a 2 - disc set.
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where is the security code on visa debit card | Card security code - wikipedia
A card security code (CSC; also called card verification data (CVD), card verification number, card verification value (CVV), card verification value code, card verification code (CVC), verification code (V - code or V code), or signature panel code (SPC)) is a security feature for "card not present '' payment card transactions instituted to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud.
The CSC is in addition to the bank card number which is embossed or printed on the card. The CSC is used as a security feature, in situations where a PIN can not be used. The PIN is not printed or embedded on the card but is manually entered by the cardholder during point - of - sale (card present) transactions. Contactless card and chip cards may electronically generate their own code, such as iCVV or a dynamic CVV.
CSC was originally developed in the UK as an eleven character alphanumeric code by Equifax employee Michael Stone in 1995. After testing with the Littlewoods Home Shopping group and NatWest bank, the concept was adopted by APACS (the UK Association of Payment Clearing Services) and streamlined to the three - digit code known today. MasterCard started issuing CVC2 numbers in 1997 and Visa in the United States issued them by 2001. American Express started to use the CSC in 1999, in response to growing Internet transactions and card member complaints of spending interruptions when the security of a card has been brought into question.
In 2016, a new e-commerce technology called Motioncode was introduced, designed to automatically refresh the CVV code to a new one every hour or so.
The codes have different names:
There are several types of security codes:
The card security code is typically the last three or four digits printed, not embossed like the card number, on the signature strip on the back of the card. On American Express cards, the card security code is the four digits printed (not embossed) on the front towards the right. The card security code is not encoded on the magnetic stripe but is printed flat.
As a security measure, merchants who require the CVV2 for "card not present '' payment card transactions are required by the card issuer not to store the CVV2 once the individual transaction is authorized. This way, if a database of transactions is compromised, the CVV2 is not included, and the stolen card numbers are less useful. Virtual terminals and payment gateways do not store the CVV2 code; therefore, employees and customer service representatives with access to these web - based payment interfaces, who otherwise have access to complete card numbers, expiration dates, and other information, still lack the CVV2 code.
The Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) also prohibits the storage of CSC (and other sensitive authorisation data) post transaction authorisation. This applies globally to anyone who stores, processes or transmits card holder data. Since the CSC is not contained on the magnetic stripe of the card, it is not typically included in the transaction when the card is used face to face at a merchant. However, some merchants in North America, such as Sears and Staples, require the code. For American Express cards, this has been an invariable practice (for "card not present '' transactions) in European Union (EU) countries like Ireland and the United Kingdom since the start of 2005. This provides a level of protection to the bank / cardholder, in that a fraudulent merchant or employee can not simply capture the magnetic stripe details of a card and use them later for "card not present '' purchases over the phone, mail order or Internet. To do this, a merchant or its employee would also have to note the CVV2 visually and record it, which is more likely to arouse the cardholder 's suspicion.
Supplying the CSC code in a transaction is intended to verify that the customer has the card in their possession. Knowledge of the code proves that the customer has seen the card, or has seen a record made by somebody who saw the card.
The CSC for each card (form 1 and 2) is generated by the card issuer when the card is issued. It is calculated by encrypting the bank card number and expiration date (two fields printed on the card) with encryption keys known only to the card issuer, and decimalising the result.
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when were the lyrics to the star spangled banner written | The Star - Spangled Banner - wikipedia
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is the national anthem of the United States of America. The lyrics come from "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', a poem written on September 14, 1814, by the 35 - year - old lawyer and amateur poet Francis Scott Key after witnessing the bombardment of Fort McHenry by British ships of the Royal Navy in Baltimore Harbor during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. Key was inspired by the large American flag, the Star - Spangled Banner, flying triumphantly above the fort during the American victory.
The poem was set to the tune of a popular British song written by John Stafford Smith for the Anacreontic Society, a men 's social club in London. "To Anacreon in Heaven '' (or "The Anacreontic Song ''), with various lyrics, was already popular in the United States. Set to Key 's poem and renamed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', it soon became a well - known American patriotic song. With a range of one octave and one fifth (a semitone more than an octave and a half), it is known for being difficult to sing. Although the poem has four stanzas, only the first is commonly sung today.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' was recognized for official use by the United States Navy in 1889, and by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and was made the national anthem by a congressional resolution on March 3, 1931 (46 Stat. 1508, codified at 36 U.S.C. § 301), which was signed by President Herbert Hoover.
Before 1931, other songs served as the hymns of American officialdom. "Hail, Columbia '' served this purpose at official functions for most of the 19th century. "My Country, ' Tis of Thee '', whose melody is identical to "God Save the Queen '', the British national anthem, also served as a de facto anthem. Following the War of 1812 and subsequent American wars, other songs emerged to compete for popularity at public events, among them "The Star - Spangled Banner '', as well as "America the Beautiful ''.
On September 3, 1814, following the Burning of Washington and the Raid on Alexandria, Francis Scott Key and John Stuart Skinner set sail from Baltimore aboard the ship HMS Minden, flying a flag of truce on a mission approved by President James Madison. Their objective was to secure an exchange of prisoners, one of whom was Dr. William Beanes, the elderly and popular town physician of Upper Marlboro and a friend of Key 's who had been captured in his home. Beanes was accused of aiding the arrest of British soldiers. Key and Skinner boarded the British flagship HMS Tonnant on September 7 and spoke with Major General Robert Ross and Vice Admiral Alexander Cochrane over dinner while the two officers discussed war plans. At first, Ross and Cochrane refused to release Beanes, but relented after Key and Skinner showed them letters written by wounded British prisoners praising Beanes and other Americans for their kind treatment.
Because Key and Skinner had heard details of the plans for the attack on Baltimore, they were held captive until after the battle, first aboard HMS Surprise and later back on HMS Minden. After the bombardment, certain British gunboats attempted to slip past the fort and effect a landing in a cove to the west of it, but they were turned away by fire from nearby Fort Covington, the city 's last line of defense.
During the rainy night, Key had witnessed the bombardment and observed that the fort 's smaller "storm flag '' continued to fly, but once the shell and Congreve rocket barrage had stopped, he would not know how the battle had turned out until dawn. On the morning of September 14, the storm flag had been lowered and the larger flag had been raised.
During the bombardment, HMS Terror and HMS Meteor provided some of the "bombs bursting in air ''.
Key was inspired by the American victory and the sight of the large American flag flying triumphantly above the fort. This flag, with fifteen stars and fifteen stripes, had been made by Mary Young Pickersgill together with other workers in her home on Baltimore 's Pratt Street. The flag later came to be known as the Star - Spangled Banner and is today on display in the National Museum of American History, a treasure of the Smithsonian Institution. It was restored in 1914 by Amelia Fowler, and again in 1998 as part of an ongoing conservation program.
Aboard the ship the next day, Key wrote a poem on the back of a letter he had kept in his pocket. At twilight on September 16, he and Skinner were released in Baltimore. He completed the poem at the Indian Queen Hotel, where he was staying, and titled it "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''.
Much of the idea of the poem, including the flag imagery and some of the wording, is derived from an earlier song by Key, also set to the tune of "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song, known as "When the Warrior Returns '', was written in honor of Stephen Decatur and Charles Stewart on their return from the First Barbary War. Absent elaboration by Francis Scott Key prior to his death in 1843, some have speculated in modern times about the meaning of phrases or verses. According to British historian Robin Blackburn, the words "the hireling and slave '' allude to the thousands of ex-slaves in the British ranks organised as the Corps of Colonial Marines, who had been liberated by the British and demanded to be placed in the battle line "where they might expect to meet their former masters. '' Nevertheless, Professor Mark Clague, a professor of musicology at the University of Michigan, argues that the "middle two verses of Key 's lyric vilify the British enemy in the War of 1812 '' and "in no way glorifies or celebrates slavery. '' Clague writes that "For Key... the British mercenaries were scoundrels and the Colonial Marines were traitors who threatened to spark a national insurrection. '' This harshly anti-British nature of Verse 3 led to its omission in sheet music in World War I, when Britain and the U.S. were allies. Responding to the assertion of writer Jon Schwarz of The Intercept that the song is a "celebration of slavery, '' Clague said that: "The reference to slaves is about the use, and in some sense the manipulation, of black Americans to fight for the British, with the promise of freedom. The American forces included African - Americans as well as whites. The term ' freemen, ' whose heroism is celebrated in the fourth stanza, would have encompassed both. ''
Others suggest that "Key may have intended the phrase as a reference to the British Navy 's practice of impressment (kidnapping sailors and forcing them to fight in defense of the crown), or as a semi-metaphorical slap at the British invading force as a whole (which included a large number of mercenaries). ''
Key gave the poem to his brother - in - law Judge Joseph H. Nicholson who saw that the words fit the popular melody "The Anacreontic Song '', by English composer John Stafford Smith. This was the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th - century gentlemen 's club of amateur musicians in London. Nicholson took the poem to a printer in Baltimore, who anonymously made the first known broadside printing on September 17; of these, two known copies survive.
On September 20, both the Baltimore Patriot and The American printed the song, with the note "Tune: Anacreon in Heaven ''. The song quickly became popular, with seventeen newspapers from Georgia to New Hampshire printing it. Soon after, Thomas Carr of the Carr Music Store in Baltimore published the words and music together under the title "The Star Spangled Banner '', although it was originally called "Defence of Fort M'Henry ''. Thomas Carr 's arrangement introduced the raised fourth which became the standard deviation from "The Anacreontic Song ''. The song 's popularity increased, and its first public performance took place in October, when Baltimore actor Ferdinand Durang sang it at Captain McCauley 's tavern. Washington Irving, then editor of the Analectic Magazine in Philadelphia, reprinted the song in November 1814.
By the early 20th century, there were various versions of the song in popular use. Seeking a singular, standard version, President Woodrow Wilson tasked the U.S. Bureau of Education with providing that official version. In response, the Bureau enlisted the help of five musicians to agree upon an arrangement. Those musicians were Walter Damrosch, Will Earhart, Arnold J. Gantvoort, Oscar Sonneck and John Philip Sousa. The standardized version that was voted upon by these five musicians premiered at Carnegie Hall on December 5, 1917, in a program that included Edward Elgar 's Carillon and Gabriel Pierné 's The Children 's Crusade. The concert was put on by the Oratorio Society of New York and conducted by Walter Damrosch. An official handwritten version of the final votes of these five men has been found and shows all five men 's votes tallied, measure by measure.
The Italian opera composer Giacomo Puccini used an extract of the melody in writing the aria "Dovunque al mondo... '' in 1904 for his work Madama Butterfly.
The song gained popularity throughout the 19th century and bands played it during public events, such as July 4th celebrations.
A plaque displayed at Fort Meade, South Dakota, claims that the idea of making "The Star Spangled Banner '' the national anthem began on their parade ground in 1892. Colonel Caleb Carlton, Post Commander, established the tradition that the song be played "at retreat and at the close of parades and concerts. '' Carlton explained the custom to Governor Sheldon of South Dakota who "promised me that he would try to have the custom established among the state militia. '' Carlton wrote that after a similar discussion, Secretary of War, Daniel E. Lamont issued an order that it "be played at every Army post every evening at retreat. ''
In 1899, the US Navy officially adopted "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. In 1916, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that "The Star - Spangled Banner '' be played at military and other appropriate occasions. The playing of the song two years later during the seventh - inning stretch of Game One of the 1918 World Series, and thereafter during each game of the series is often cited as the first instance that the anthem was played at a baseball game, though evidence shows that the "Star - Spangled Banner '' was performed as early as 1897 at opening day ceremonies in Philadelphia and then more regularly at the Polo Grounds in New York City beginning in 1898. In any case, the tradition of performing the national anthem before every baseball game began in World War II.
On April 10, 1918, John Charles Linthicum, U.S. Congressman from Maryland, introduced a bill to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. The bill did not pass. On April 15, 1929, Linthicum introduced the bill again, his sixth time doing so. On November 3, 1929, Robert Ripley drew a panel in his syndicated cartoon, Ripley 's Believe it or Not!, saying "Believe It or Not, America has no national anthem ''.
In 1930, Veterans of Foreign Wars started a petition for the United States to officially recognize "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem. Five million people signed the petition. The petition was presented to the United States House Committee on the Judiciary on January 31, 1930. On the same day, Elsie Jorss - Reilley and Grace Evelyn Boudlin sang the song to the Committee to refute the perception that it was too high pitched for a typical person to sing. The Committee voted in favor of sending the bill to the House floor for a vote. The House of Representatives passed the bill later that year. The Senate passed the bill on March 3, 1931. President Herbert Hoover signed the bill on March 4, 1931, officially adopting "The Star - Spangled Banner '' as the national anthem of the United States of America. As currently codified, the United States Code states that "(t) he composition consisting of the words and music known as the Star - Spangled Banner is the national anthem. ''
O say can you see, by the dawn 's early light, What so proudly we hailed at the twilight 's last gleaming, Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming? And the rockets ' red glare, the bombs bursting in air, Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there; O say does that star - spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, Where the foe 's haughty host in dread silence reposes, What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep, As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses? Now it catches the gleam of the morning 's first beam, In full glory reflected now shines in the stream: ' Tis the star - spangled banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. And where is that band who so vauntingly swore That the havoc of war and the battle 's confusion, A home and a country, should leave us no more? Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps ' pollution. No refuge could save the hireling and slave From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: And the star - spangled banner in triumph doth wave, O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand Between their loved homes and the war 's desolation. Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the Heav'n rescued land Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation! Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just, And this be our motto: ' In God is our trust. ' And the star - spangled banner in triumph shall wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave!
In indignation over the start of the American Civil War, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. added a fifth stanza to the song in 1861, which appeared in songbooks of the era.
When our land is illumined with Liberty 's smile, If a foe from within strike a blow at her glory, Down, down with the traitor that dares to defile The flag of her stars and the page of her story! By the millions unchained who our birthright have gained, We will keep her bright blazon forever unstained! And the Star - Spangled Banner in triumph shall wave While the land of the free is the home of the brave.
In a version hand - written by Francis Scott Key in 1840, the third line reads "Whose bright stars and broad stripes, through the clouds of the fight ''.
The song is notoriously difficult for nonprofessionals to sing because of its wide range -- a 12th. Humorist Richard Armour referred to the song 's difficulty in his book It All Started With Columbus.
In an attempt to take Baltimore, the British attacked Fort McHenry, which protected the harbor. Bombs were soon bursting in air, rockets were glaring, and all in all it was a moment of great historical interest. During the bombardment, a young lawyer named Francis Off Key (sic) wrote "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and when, by the dawn 's early light, the British heard it sung, they fled in terror.
Professional and amateur singers have been known to forget the words, which is one reason the song is sometimes pre-recorded and lip - synced. Other times the issue is avoided by having the performer (s) play the anthem instrumentally instead of singing it. The pre-recording of the anthem has become standard practice at some ballparks, such as Boston 's Fenway Park, according to the SABR publication The Fenway Project.
"The Star - Spangled Banner '' is traditionally played at the beginning of public sports events and orchestral concerts in the United States, as well as other public gatherings. The National Hockey League and Major League Soccer both require venues in both the U.S. and Canada to perform both the Canadian and American national anthems at games that involve teams from both countries (with the "away '' anthem being performed first). It is also usual for both American and Canadian anthems (done in the same way as the NHL and MLS) to be played at Major League Baseball and National Basketball Association games involving the Toronto Blue Jays and the Toronto Raptors (respectively), the only Canadian teams in those two major U.S. sports leagues, and in All Star Games on the MLB, NBA, and NHL. The Buffalo Sabres of the NHL, which play in a city on the Canada -- US border and have a substantial Canadian fan base, play both anthems before all home games regardless of where the visiting team is based.
Two especially unusual performances of the song took place in the immediate aftermath of the United States September 11 attacks. On September 12, 2001, the Queen broke with tradition and allowed the Band of the Coldstream Guards to perform the anthem at Buckingham Palace, London, at the ceremonial Changing of the Guard, as a gesture of support for Britain 's ally. The following day at a St. Paul 's Cathedral memorial service, the Queen joined in the singing of the anthem, an unprecedented occurrence.
The 200th anniversary of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' occurred in 2014 with various special events occurring throughout the United States. A particularly significant celebration occurred during the week of September 10 -- 16 in and around Baltimore, Maryland. Highlights included playing of a new arrangement of the anthem arranged by John Williams and participation of President Obama on Defender 's Day, September 12, 2014, at Fort McHenry. In addition, the anthem bicentennial included a youth music celebration including the presentation of the National Anthem Bicentennial Youth Challenge winning composition written by Noah Altshuler.
The first popular music performance of the anthem heard by the mainstream U.S. was by Puerto Rican singer and guitarist José Feliciano. He created a nationwide uproar when he strummed a slow, blues - style rendition of the song at Tiger Stadium in Detroit before game five of the 1968 World Series, between Detroit and St. Louis. This rendition started contemporary "Star - Spangled Banner '' controversies. The response from many in the Vietnam War - era U.S. was generally negative. Despite the controversy, Feliciano 's performance opened the door for the countless interpretations of the "Star - Spangled Banner '' heard in the years since. One week after Feliciano 's performance, the anthem was in the news again when American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos lifted controversial raised fists at the 1968 Olympics while the "Star - Spangled Banner '' played at a medal ceremony.
Marvin Gaye gave a soul - influenced performance at the 1983 NBA All - Star Game and Whitney Houston gave a soulful rendition before Super Bowl XXV in 1991, which was released as a single that charted at number 20 in 1991 and number 6 in 2001 (along with José Feliciano, the only times the anthem has been on the Billboard Hot 100). In 1993, Kiss did an instrumental rock version as the closing track on their album, Alive III. Another famous instrumental interpretation is Jimi Hendrix 's version, which was a set - list staple from autumn 1968 until his death in September 1970, including a famous rendition at the Woodstock music festival in 1969. Incorporating sonic effects to emphasize the "rockets ' red glare '', and "bombs bursting in air '', it became a late - 1960s emblem. Roseanne Barr gave a controversial performance of the anthem at a San Diego Padres baseball game at Jack Murphy Stadium on July 25, 1990. The comedian belted out a screechy rendition of the song, and afterward she attempted a gesture of ball players by spitting and grabbing her crotch as if adjusting a protective cup. The performance offended some, including the sitting U.S. President, George H.W. Bush. Sufjan Stevens has frequently performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' in live sets, replacing the optimism in the end of the first verse with a new coda that alludes to the divisive state of the nation today. David Lee Roth both referenced parts of the anthem and played part of a hard rock rendition of the anthem on his song, "Yankee Rose '' on his 1986 solo album, Eat ' Em and Smile. Steven Tyler also caused some controversy in 2001 (at the Indianapolis 500, to which he later issued a public apology) and again in 2012 (at the AFC Championship Game) with a cappella renditions of the song with changed lyrics. A version of Aerosmith 's Joe Perry and Brad Whitford playing part of the song can be heard at the end of their version of "Train Kept A-Rollin ' '' on the Rockin ' the Joint album. The band Boston gave an instrumental rock rendition of the anthem on their Greatest Hits album. The band Crush 40 made a version of the song as opening track from the album Thrill of the Feel (2000).
In March 2005, a government - sponsored program, the National Anthem Project, was launched after a Harris Interactive poll showed many adults knew neither the lyrics nor the history of the anthem.
Several films have their titles taken from the song 's lyrics. These include two films titled Dawn 's Early Light (2000 and 2005); two made - for - TV features titled By Dawn 's Early Light (1990 and 2000); two films titled So Proudly We Hail (1943 and 1990); a feature (1977) and a short (2005) titled Twilight 's Last Gleaming; and four films titled Home of the Brave (1949, 1986, 2004, and 2006). A 1936 short titled "The Song of a Nation '' from Warner Brothers shows a version of the origin of the song.
When the National Anthem was first recognized by law in 1932, there was no prescription as to behavior during its playing. On June 22, 1942, the law was revised indicating that those in uniform should salute during its playing, while others should simply stand at attention, men removing their hats. (The same code also required that women should place their hands over their hearts when the flag is displayed during the playing of the Anthem, but not if the flag was not present.) On December 23, 1942 the law was again revised instructing men and women to stand at attention and face in the direction of the music when it was played. That revision also directed men and women to place their hands over their hearts only if the flag was displayed. Those in uniform were required to salute. On July 7, 1976, the law was simplified. Men and women were instructed to stand with their hands over their hearts, men removing their hats, irrespective of whether or not the flag was displayed and those in uniform saluting. On August 12, 1998, the law was rewritten keeping the same instructions, but differentiating between "those in uniform '' and "members of the Armed Forces and veterans '' who were both instructed to salute during the playing whether or not the flag was displayed. Because of the changes in law over the years and confusion between instructions for the Pledge of Allegence versus the National Anthem, throughout most of the 20th century many people simply stood at attention or with their hands folded in front of them during the playing of the Anthem, and when reciting the Pledge they would hold their hand (or hat) over their heart. After 9 / 11, the custom of placing the hand over the heart during the playing of the Anthem became nearly universal.
Since 1998, federal law (viz., the United States Code 36 U.S.C. § 301) states that during a rendition of the national anthem, when the flag is displayed, all present including those in uniform should stand at attention; Non-military service individuals should face the flag with the right hand over the heart; Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are present and not in uniform may render the military salute; Military service persons not in uniform should remove their headdress with their right hand and hold the headdress at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart; and Members of the Armed Forces and veterans who are in uniform should give the military salute at the first note of the anthem and maintain that position until the last note. The law further provides that when the flag is not displayed, all present should face toward the music and act in the same manner they would if the flag were displayed. Military law requires all vehicles on the installation to stop when the song is played and all individuals outside to stand at attention and face the direction of the music and either salute, in uniform, or place the right hand over the heart, if out of uniform. The law was amended in 2008, and since allows military veterans to salute out of uniform, as well.
The text of 36 U.S.C. § 301 is suggestive and not regulatory in nature. Failure to follow the suggestions is not a violation of law. This behavioral requirement for the national anthem is subject to the same First Amendment controversies that surround the Pledge of Allegiance. For example, Jehovah 's Witnesses do not sing the national anthem, though they are taught that standing is an "ethical decision '' that individual believers must make based on their "conscience. ''
The 1968 Olympics Black Power salute was a political demonstration conducted by African - American athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos during their medal ceremony at the 1968 Summer Olympics in the Olympic Stadium in Mexico City. After having won gold and bronze medals respectively in the 200 meter running event, they turned on the podium to face their flags, and to hear the American national anthem, "The Star - Spangled Banner ''. Each athlete raised a black - gloved fist, and kept them raised until the anthem had finished. In addition, Smith, Carlos, and Australian silver medalist Peter Norman all wore human rights badges on their jackets. In his autobiography, Silent Gesture, Smith stated that the gesture was not a "Black Power '' salute, but a "human rights salute ''. The event is regarded as one of the most overtly political statements in the history of the modern Olympic Games.
Politically motivated protests of the national anthem began in the National Football League (NFL) after San Francisco 49ers quarterback (QB) Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team 's third preseason game of 2016. Kaepernick also sat during the first two preseason games, but he went unnoticed.
In November 2017, the California NAACP called on Congress to remove The Star - Spangled Banner as the national anthem. Alice Huffman, California NCAAP president said "it 's racist; it does n't represent our community, it 's anti-black. '' The third stansa of the anthem, which is rarely sung, contain the words, "No refuge could save the hireling and slave, From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave: '', which some interpret as racist. The organization was still seeking a representative to sponsor the legislation in Congress at the time of their announcement.
As a result of immigration to the United States and the incorporation of non-English speaking people into the country, the lyrics of the song have been translated into other languages. In 1861, it was translated into German. The Library of Congress also has record of a Spanish - language version from 1919. It has since been translated into Hebrew and Yiddish by Jewish immigrants, Latin American Spanish (with one version popularized during immigration reform protests in 2006), French by Acadians of Louisiana, Samoan, and Irish. The third verse of the anthem has also been translated into Latin.
With regard to the indigenous languages of North America, there are versions in Navajo and Cherokee.
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examples of ancient greek influence in modern culture | Culture of Greece - wikipedia
The ' culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and states such as the Persian Empire, and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, Genoese Republic, and British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, but historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single entity of its multi-faceted culture.
Greece is widely considered to be the cradle of Western culture and democracy. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, and physics. They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.
Ancient Greek architecture is best known through its temples and theatres.
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine architecture emphasized a Greek cross layout, the Byzantine capitol style of column (a mixture of Ionic and Corinthian capitols) and a central dome surrounded by several small domes
During the Ottoman conquest, the Greek architecture was concentrated mainly on the Greek Orthodox churches of the Greek diaspora. These churches, much like other intellectual centres (foundations, schools, etc.) built by Greeks in Diaspora, were heavily influenced by the western European architecture. After the independence of Greece and during the nineteenth century, the Neoclassical architecture was heavily used for both public and private building. The 19th - century architecture of Athens and other cities of the Greek Kingdom is mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture, with architects like Theophil Hansen, Ernst Ziller and Stamatios Kleanthis. Regarding the churches, Greece also experienced the Neo-Byzantine revival.
In 1933 the Athens Charter, a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed, and was published later by Le Corbusier. Architects of this movement were among others: the Bauhaus - architect Ioannis Despotopoulos, Dimitris Pikionis, Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. After World War II and the Greek civil war, the massive construction of condominiums in the major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The first skyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as the OTE Tower and the Athens Tower Complex.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Xenia was a nationwide hotel construction program initiated by the Hellenic Tourism Organisation (Ελληνικός Οργανισμός Τουρισμού, EOT) to improve the country 's tourism infrastructure. It constitutes one of the largest infrastructure projects in modern Greek history. The first manager of the project was the architect Charalambos Sfaellos (from 1950 to 1958) and from 1957 the buildings were designed by a team under Aris Konstantinidis.
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896 but the first actual cine - theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films begun. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Greek Golden age of Cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Melina Mercouri, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, Irene Papas etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Notable films were Η κάλπικη λίρα (1955 directed by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956 directed by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955 directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Η Θεία από το Σικάγο, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as the Greek - American Elia Kazan.
Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, with ancient music influencing the Roman Empire, and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencing middle eastern music and the Renaissance. Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks ' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms.
The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on the Lyre and other supporting string instruments of the era. Beyond the well - known structural legacies of the Pythagorean scale, and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture of Rome. What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms of Greek art.
Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by the gods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow - men.
Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to the commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating the verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often the musicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion.
The Byzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, as liturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see: Renaissance Music). It is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in the eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance.
Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki.
Popular dances of this period included the Syrtos, Geranos, Mantilia, Saximos, Pyrichios, and Kordakas. Some of these dances have their origins in the ancient period and are still enacted in some form today.
A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditional Greek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A few Ottoman elements can be heard in the traditional songs, dhimotiká, as well as in the modern bluesy rembétika music. A well - known Greek musical instrument is the bouzouki. "Bouzouki '' is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known as pandoura, a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies '' playing cord instruments).
Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include the central figure of 20th - century European modernism Iannis Xenakis, a composer, architect and theorist. Maria Callas, Nikos Skalkottas, Mikis Theodorakis, Dimitris Mitropoulos, Manos Hadjidakis and Vangelis also lead twentieth - century Greek contributions, alongside Demis Roussos, Nana Mouskouri, Yanni, Georges Moustaki, Eleni Karaindrou and others.
The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή) came through the Ionian Islands (notable composers include Spyridon Samaras, Nikolaos Mantzaros and Pavlos Carrer), while Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School.
Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day - to - day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints ' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing the bride during a wedding and dancing the trousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. The carnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greek taverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program.
Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances in climatic conditions, land morphology and people 's social lives. In later years, wars, international pacts and consequent movement of populations, and even movements of civil servants around the country, intermingled traditions. People learned new dances, adapted them to their environment, and included them in their feasts. Kalamatianos and Syrtos are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over the world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include the Pentozali from Crete, Hasapiko from Constantinople, Zonaradikos from Thrace, Serra from Pontos and Balos from the Aegean islands.
The avant - garde choreographer, director and dancer Dimitris Papaioannou was responsible for the critically successful opening ceremony of the 2004 Olympic Games, with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms.
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae.
Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία, πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.
Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century AD until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract, '' or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies.
The term Cretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe.
The Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.
Modern Greek painting, after the independence and the creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis and Theodoros Vryzakis.
Ancient Greek monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high - intensity lamps, ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted.
The Byzantines inherited the early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life - size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so - called "minor arts '' were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket, hardstone carvings, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver.
After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom and the western influence of Neoclassicism, sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included the ancient Greek antiquity, the War of Independence and important figures of the Greek history.
Notable sculptors of the new state were Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis.
Theatre was born in Greece. The city - state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity.
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word "tragedy '' is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat '' and ᾠδή (ode) meaning "song '', from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing ''. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy.
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas ' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Angelos Terzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.
Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence -- via ancient Rome -- throughout Europe and beyond.
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad '': wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. It was Archestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years.
The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus.
The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from the Ottoman and Italian cuisine due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries.
Greece is one of the oldest wine - producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence of Greek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported from Crete, Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe.
Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6 -- 15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of the students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi '' (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens).
Post-compulsory Secondary Education, according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and the Epaggelmatika Lykeia (Vocational Upper Secondary Schools), as well as the Epaggelmatikes Sxoles (Vocational Schools). Musical, Ecclesiastical and Physical Education Gymnasia and Lykeia are also in operation.
Post-compulsory Secondary Education also includes the Vocational Training Institutes (IEK), which provide formal but unclassified level of education. These Institutes are not classified as an educational level, because they accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates according to the relevant specializations they provide. Public higher education is divided into Universities and Technological Education Institutes (TEI). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place at the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students are admitted to the Hellenic Open University upon the completion of the 22 year of age by drawing lots.
Nea Dimokratia (New Democracy), the Greek conservative right political party, has claimed that it will change the law so that private universities gain recognition. Without official recognition, students who have an EES degree are unable to work in the public sector. PASOK took some action after EU intervention, namely the creation of a special government agency which certifies the vocational status of certain EES degree holders. However, their academic status still remains a problem. The issue of full recognition is still an issue of debate among Greek politicians.
The Institute of Entrepreneurship Development (iED) is a Greek Non-governmental organization formed for the promotion of innovation and for enhancing the spirit of entrepreneurship intending to link with other European initiatives.
The origins of Western literature and of the main branches of Western learning may be traced to the era of Greek greatness that began before 700 BC with the epics of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod, the first didactic poet, put into epic verse his descriptions of pastoral life, including practical advice on farming, and allegorical myths. The poets Alcaeus of Mytilene, Sappho, Anacreon, and Bacchylides wrote of love, war, and death in lyrics of great feeling and beauty. Pindar celebrated the Panhellenic athletic festivals in vivid odes. The fables of the slave Aesop have been famous for more than 2,500 years. Three of the world 's greatest dramatists were Aeschylus, author of the Oresteia trilogy; Sophocles, author of the Theban plays; and Euripides, author of Medea, The Trojan Women, and The Bacchae. Aristophanes, the greatest author of comedies, satirized the mores of his day in a series of brilliant plays. Three great historians were Herodotus, regarded as the father of history, known for The Persian Wars; Thucydides, who generally avoided myth and legend and applied greater standards of historical accuracy in his History of the Peloponnesian War; and Xenophon, best known for his account of the Greek retreat from Persia, the Anabasis. Outstanding literary figures of the Hellenistic period were Menander, the chief representative of a newer type of comedy; the poets Callimachus, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautica; and Polybius, who wrote a detailed history of the Mediterranean world. Noteworthy in the Roman period were Strabo, a writer on geography; Plutarch, the father of biography, whose Parallel Lives of famous Greeks and Romans is a chief source of information about great figures of antiquity; Pausanias, a travel writer; and Lucian, a satirist.
The leading philosophers of the period preceding Greece 's golden age were Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Democritus. Socrates investigated ethics and politics. His greatest pupil, Plato, used Socrates ' question - and - answer method of investigating philosophical problems in his famous dialogues. Plato 's pupil Aristotle established the rules of deductive reasoning but also used observation and inductive reasoning, applying himself to the systematic study of almost every form of human endeavor. Outstanding in the Hellenistic period were Epicurus, the philosopher of moderation; Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism; and Diogenes of Sinope, the famous Cynic. The oath of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, is still recited by newly graduating physicians. Euclid evolved the system of geometry that bears his name. Archimedes discovered the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics. Eratosthenes calculated the earth 's circumference with remarkable accuracy, and Hipparchus Founded scientific astronomy. Galen was an outstanding physician of ancient times.
The sculptor Phidias created the statue of Athena and the figure of Zeus in the temple at Olympia and supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon. Another renowned sculptor was Praxiteles.
The legal reforms of Solon served as the basis of Athenian democracy. The Athenian general Miltiades the Younger led the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, and Themistocles was chiefly responsible for the victory at Salamis 10 years later. Pericles, the virtual ruler of Athens for more than 25 years, added to the political power of that city, inaugurated the construction of the Parthenon and other noteworthy buildings, and encouraged the arts of sculpture and painting. With the decline of Athens, first Sparta and then Thebes, under the great military tactician Epaminondas, gained the ascendancy; but soon thereafter, two military geniuses, Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, gained control over all of Greece and formed a vast empire stretching as far east as India. It was against Philip that Demosthenes, the greatest Greek orator, directed his diatribes, the Philippics.
The most renowned Greek painter during the Renaissance was El Greco, born in Crete, whose major works, painted in Spain, have influenced many 20th - century artists. An outstanding modern literary figure is Nikos Kazantzakis, a novelist and poet who composed a vast sequel to Homer 's Odyssey. Leading modern poets are Kostis Palamas, and Constantine P. Cavafy, as well as George Seferis, and Odysseus Elytis, winners of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. The work of social theorist Cornelius Castoriadis is known for its multidisciplinary breadth. Musicians of stature are the composers Nikos Skalkottas, Iannis Xenakis, and Mikis Theodorakis; the conductor Dmitri Mitropoulos; and the soprano Maria Callas. Filmmakers who have won international acclaim are Greek - Americans John Cassavetes and Elia Kazan, and Greeks Michael Cacoyannis and Costa - Gavras. Actresses of note are Katina Paxinou; Melina Mercouri, who was appointed minister of culture and science in the Socialist cabinet in 1981; and Irene Papas.
Outstanding Greek public figures in the 20th century include Cretan - born Eleutherios Venizelos, prominent statesman of the interwar period; Ioannis Metaxas, dictator from 1936 until his death; Constantine Karamanlis, prime minister (1955 -- 63, 1974 -- 80) and president (1980 -- 85) of Greece; George Papandreou, head of the Center Union Party and prime minister (1963 -- 65); and his son Andreas Papandreou, the PASOK leader who became prime minister in 1981. Costas Simitis was leader of PASOK and prime minister from 1996 -- 2004. He was succeeded by Kostas Karamanlis.
The Greek language is the official language of the Hellenic Republic and Republic of Cyprus and has a total of 15 million speakers worldwide; it is an Indo - European language. It is particularly remarkable in the depth of its continuity, beginning with the pre-historic Mycenaean Greek and the Linear B script, and maybe the Linear A script associated with Minoan civilization, though Linear A is still undeciphered. Greek language is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and the Cypriot syllabary, and eventually the dialects of Ancient Greek, of which Attic Greek bears the most resemblance to Modern Greek. The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.
Greek has had enormous impact on other languages both directly on the Romance languages, and indirectly through its influence on the emerging Latin language during the early days of Rome. Signs of this influence, and its many developments, can be seen throughout the family of Western European languages.
More recently, the rise of internet - based communication services as well as cell phones have caused a distinctive form of Greek written partially, and sometimes fully in Latin characters to emerge; this is known as Greeklish, a form that has spread across the Greek diaspora and even to the two countries with majority Greek population, Greece and Cyprus.
Katharévousa is a purified form of the Greek Language midway between modern and ancient forms set in train during the early nineteenth century by Greek intellectual and revolutionary leader Adamantios Korais, intended to return the Greek language closer to its ancient form. Its influence, in recent years, evolved toward a more formal role, and it came to be used primarily for official purposes such as diplomacy, politics, and other forms of official documentation. It has nevertheless had significant effects on the Greek language as it is still written and spoken today, and both vocabulary and grammatical and syntactical forms have re-entered Modern Greek via Katharevousa.
There are a variety of dialects of the Greek language; the most notable include Cappadocian, Cretan Greek (which is closely related to most Aegean Islands ' dialects), Cypriot Greek, Pontic Greek, the Griko language spoken in Southern Italy, and Tsakonian, still spoken in the modern prefecture of Arcadia and widely noted as a surviving regional dialect of Doric Greek.
Greece has a remarkably rich and resilient literary tradition, extending over 2800 years and through several eras. The Classical era is that most commonly associated with Greek Literature, beginning in 800 BCE and maintaining its influence through to the beginnings of Byzantine period, whereafter the influence of Christianity began to spawn a new development of the Greek written word. The many elements of a millennia - old tradition are reflected in Modern Greek literature, including the works of the Nobel laureates Odysseus Elytis and George Seferis.
The first recorded works in the western literary tradition are the epic poems of Homer and Hesiod. Early Greek lyric poetry, as represented by poets such as Sappho and Pindar, was responsible for defining the lyric genre as it is understood today in western literature. Aesop wrote his Fables in the 6th century BC. These innovations were to have a profound influence not only on Roman poets, most notably Virgil in his epic poem on the founding of Rome, The Aeneid, but one that flourished throughout Europe.
Classical Greece is also judged the birthplace of theatre. Aeschylus introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting and in doing so, he effectively invented "drama '': his Oresteia trilogy of plays is judged his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defined and shaped the idea of comedy as a theatrical form.
Herodotus and Thucydides are often attributed with developing the modern study of history into a field worthy of philosophical, literary, and scientific pursuit. Polybius first introduced into study the concept of military history.
Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, while his pupil Aristotle, in his work the Poetics, formulated the first set criteria for literary criticism. Both these literary figures, in the context of the broader contributions of Greek philosophy in the Classical and Hellenistic eras, were to give rise to idea of political Science, the study of political evolution and the critique of governmental systems.
The growth of Christianity throughout the Greco - Roman world in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, together with the Hellenization of the Byzantine Empire of the period, would lead to the formation of a unique literary form, combining Christian, Greek, Roman and Oriental (such as the Persian Empire) influences. In its turn, this would promote developments such as Cretan poetry, the growth of poetic satire in the Greek East and the several pre-eminent historians of the period.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in the Greek language from the 11th century, with texts written in a language that is more familiar to the ears of Greeks today than is the language of the early Byzantine times.
The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this early period of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553 -- 1613). The other major representative of the Cretan literature was Georgios Chortatzis and his most notable work was Erofili. Other plays include The Sacrifice of Abraham by Kornaros, Panoria and Katsourbos by Chortatzis, King Rodolinos by Andreas Troilos, Stathis (comedy) and Voskopoula by unknown artists.
Much later, Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values of European Enlightenment into the Greek world. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. In 1819, Korakistika, written by Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, was a lampoon against the Greek intellectual Adamantios Korais and his linguistic views, who favoured the use of a more conservative form of the Greek language, closer to the ancient.
The years before the Greek Independence, the Ionian islands became the center of the Heptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use of Demotic Greek. Notable representatives were Andreas Laskaratos, Andreas Kalvos, Aristotelis Valaoritis and Dionysios Solomos.
After the independence the intellectual center was transferred in Athens. A major figure of this new era was Kostis Palamas, considered "national poet '' of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so - called New Athenian School (or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use of Demotic Greek. He was also the writer of the Olympic Hymn.
Moving into the twentieth century, the modern Greek literary tradition spans the work of Constantine P. Cavafy, considered a key figure of twentieth - century poetry, Giorgos Seferis (whose works and poems aimed to fuse the literature of Ancient and Modern Greece) and Odysseas Elytis, both of whom won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Nikos Kazantzakis is also considered a dominant figure, with works such as The Last Temptation of Christ and The Greek Passion receiving international recognition.
The Greek world is widely regarded as having given birth to scientific thought by means of observation, thought, and development of a theory without the intervention of a supernatural force. Thales, Anaximander and Democritus were amongst those contributing significantly to the establishment of this tradition. It is also, and perhaps more commonly in the western imagination, identified with the dawn of Western philosophy, as well as a mapping out of the natural sciences. Greek developments of mathematics continued well up until the decline of the Byzantine Empire. In the modern era Greeks continue to contribute to the fields of science, mathematics and philosophy.
The tradition of philosophy in ancient Greece accompanied its literary development. Greek learning had a profound influence on Western and Middle Eastern civilizations. The works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers profoundly influenced Classical thought, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Renaissance.
In medicine, doctors still refer to the Hippocratic oath, instituted by Hippocrates, regarded as foremost in laying the foundations of medicine as a science. Galen built on Hippocrates ' theory of the four humours, and his writings became the foundation of medicine in Europe and the Middle East for centuries. The physicians Herophilos and Paulus Aegineta were pioneers in the study of anatomy, while Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive treatise on the practice of pharmacology.
The period of Classical Greece (from 800BC until the rise of Macedon, a Greek state in the north) is that most often associated with Greek advances in science. Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father of science; he was the first of the ancient philosophers to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather than supernatural causes. Pythagoras was a mathematician often described as the "father of numbers ''; it is believed that he had the pioneering insight into the numerical ratios that determine the musical scale, and the Pythagorean theorem is commonly attributed to him. Diophantus of Alexandria, in turn, was the "father of algebra ''. Many parts of modern geometry are based on the work of Euclid, while Eratosthenes was one of the first scientific geographers, calculating the circumference of the earth and conceiving the first maps based on scientific principles.
The Hellenistic period, following Alexander 's conquests, continued and built upon this knowledge. Hipparchus is considered the pre-eminent astronomical observer of the ancient world, and was probably the first to develop an accurate method for the prediction of solar eclipse, while Aristarchus of Samos was the first known astronomer to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, though the geocentric model of Ptolemy was more commonly accepted until the seventeenth century. Ptolemy also contributed substantially to cartography and to the science of optics. For his part Archimedes was the first to calculate the value of π and a geometric series, and also the earliest known mathematical physicist discovering the law of buoyancy, as well as conceiving the irrigation device known as Archimedes ' screw.
The Byzantine period remained largely a period of preservation in terms of classical Greco - Roman texts; there were, however, significant advances made in the fields of medicine and historical scholarship. Theological philosophy also remained an area of study, and there was, while not matching the achievements of preceding ages, a certain increase in the professionalism of study of these subjects, epitomized by the founding of the University of Constantinople.
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, the architects of the famous Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, also contributed towards mathematical theories concerning architectural form, and the perceived mathematical harmony needed to create a multi-domed structure. These ideas were to prove a heavy influence on the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in his creation of the Blue Mosque, also in Constantinople. Tralles in particular produced several treatises on the Natural Sciences, as well as his other forays into mathematics such as Conic Sections.
The gradual migration of Greeks from Byzantium to the Italian city states following the decline of the Byzantine Empire, and the texts they brought with them combined with the academic positions they held, was a major factor in lighting the first sparks of the Italian Renaissance.
Greeks continue to contribute to science and technology in the modern world. John Argyris, a mathematician and engineer, was among the creators of the finite element method and the direct stiffness method. Constantin Carathéodory made significant contributions to the theory of functions of a real variable, calculus of variations and measure theory, credited with the introduction of several mathematical theorems. In physics, John Iliopoulos is known for the prediction of the charm quark and the proposition of the GIM mechanism, as well as the Fayet -- Iliopoulos D - term formula, while Dimitri Nanopoulos is one of the principal developers of the Flipped SU (5) model.
Biologist Fotis Kafatos pioneers in the field of molecular cloning and genomics, and he was the founding president of the European Research Council. In medicine, Georgios Papanikolaou contributed heavily to the development of cervical screening inventing the Pap test, which is among the most common methods of cervical screening worldwide.
Car designer Alec Issigonis designed the groundbreaking and iconic Mini automobile, while Michael Dertouzos was amongst the pioneers of the Internet, instrumental in defining the World Wide Web Consortium and director for 27 years of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which innovated in a variety of areas during his term. Nicholas Negroponte, is the founder of the MIT Media Lab and the One Laptop per Child project aiming to extend Internet access in the developing world. Joseph Sifakis, a computer scientist, has won a Turing Award for his pioneering work on model checking.
Greece is a Parliamentary Republic with a president assuming a more ceremonial role than in some other republics, and the Prime Minister chosen from the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Greece has a codified constitution and a written Bill of Rights embedded within it. The current Prime Minister is Alexis Tsipras.
The politics of the third Hellenic Republic have been dominated by two main political parties, the self - proclaimed socialists of PASOK and the conservative New Democracy. Until recently PASOK had dominated the political scene, presiding over favourable growth rates economically but in the eyes of critics failing to deliver where unemployment and structural issues such as market liberalization were concerned.
New Democracy 's election to government in 2004 has led to various initiatives to modernize the country, such as the education university scheme above as well as labour market liberalization. Politically there has been massive opposition to some of these moves owing to a large, well organized workers ' movement in Greece, which distrusts the right wing administration and neo-liberal ideas. The population in general appears to accept many of the initiatives, reflected in governmental support; on the economic front many are so far warming to the reforms made by the administration, which have been largely rewarded with above average Eurozone growth rates. New Democracy were re-elected in September 2007.
A number of other smaller political parties exist. They include the third largest party (the Communist Party), which still commands large support from many rural working areas as well as some of the immigrant population in Greece, as well as the far - right Popular Orthodox Rally, with the latter, while commanding a mere three and a half per cent of votes, seeking to capitalise on opposition in some quarters regarding Turkey 's EU accession and any tension in the Aegean. There is also a relatively small, but well organized anarchist movement, though its status in Greece has been somewhat exaggerated by media overseas.
The political process is energetically and openly participated in by the people of Greece, while public demonstrations are a continual feature of Athenian life; however, there have been criticisms of a governmental failure to sufficiently involve minorities in political debate and hence a sidelining of their opinions. In general, politics is regarded as an acceptable subject to broach on almost every social occasion, and Greeks are often very vocal about their support (or lack of it) for certain policy proposals, or political parties themselves -- this is perhaps reflected in what many consider the rather sensationalist media on both sides of the political spectrum; although this is a feature of most European tabloids.
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. In addition, there are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, August 15 (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin) and December 25 (Christmas). Two more days, May 1 (Labour Day) and October 28 (Ohi Day), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, there Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint '', also called "Name Day '', or a "Liberation Day '', and at this day is customary for schools to have a day off.
Notable festivals include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe,
Classical Athens may be suggested to have heralded some of the same religious ideas that would later be promoted by Christianity, such as Aristotle 's invocation of a perfect God, and Heraclitus ' Logos. Plato considered there were rewards for the virtuous in the heavens and punishment for the wicked under the earth; the soul was valued more highly than the material body, and the material world was understood to be imperfect and not fully real (illustrated in Socrates 's allegory of the cave).
Alexander 's conquests spread classical concepts about the divine, the afterlife, and much else across the eastern Mediterranean area. Jews and early Christians alike adopted the name "hades '' when writing about "sheol '' in Greek. Greco - Buddhism was the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed in the Indo - Greek Kingdoms. By the advent of Christianity, the four original patriarchates beyond Rome used Greek as their church language.
The Greek Orthodox Church, largely because of the importance of Byzantium in Greek history, as well as its role in the revolution, is a major institution in modern Greece. Its roles in society and larger role in overarching Greek culture are very important; a number of Greeks attend Church at least once a month or more and the Orthodox Easter holiday holds special significance.
The Church of Greece also retains limited political influence through the fact the Greek constitution does not have an explicit separation of Church and State; a debate suggested by more conservative elements of the church in the early 2000s about identification cards and whether religious affiliation might be added to them highlights the friction between state and church on some issues; the proposal unsurprisingly was not accepted. A widely publicised set of corruption scandals in 2004 implicating a small group of senior churchmen also increased national debate on introducing a greater transparency to the church - state relationship.
Greek Orthodox Churches dot both the villages and towns of Greece and come in a variety of architectural forms, from older Byzantine churches, to more modern white brick churches, to newer cathedral - like structures with evident Byzantine influence. Greece (as well as Cyprus), also polled as, ostensibly, one of the most religious countries in Europe, according to Eurostat; however, while the church has wide respect as a moral and cultural institution, a contrast in religious belief with Protestant northern Europe is more obvious than one with Catholic Mediterranean Europe.
Greece also has a significant minority of Muslims in Eastern Thrace (numbering around 100 - 150,000), with their places of worship guaranteed since the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The Greek state has fully approved the construction a main mosque for the more recent Muslim community of Athens under the freedom of religion provisions of the Greek constitution.
Other religious communities living in Greece include Roman Catholics, Jehovah 's Witnesses, Protestants, Armenians, followers of the ancient Greek religion (see Hellenism (religion)), Jews and others.
Greece has risen to prominence in a number of sporting areas in recent decades. Football in particular has seen a rapid transformation, with the Greek national football team winning the 2004 UEFA European Football Championship. Many Greek athletes have also achieved significant success and have won world and olympic titles in numerous sports during the years, such as basketball, wrestling, water polo, athletics, weightlifting, with many of them becoming international stars inside their sports. The successful organisation of the Athens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games led also to the further development of many sports and has led to the creation of many World class sport venues all over Greece and especially in Athens. Greek athletes have won a total 146 medals for Greece in 15 different Olympic sports at the Summer Olympic Games, including the Intercalated Games, an achievement which makes Greece one of the top nations globally, in the world 's rankings of medals per capita.
The national colours of Greece are blue and white. The coat of arms of Greece consists of a white cross on a blue escutcheon which is surrounded by two laurel branches. The Flag of Greece is also blue and white, as defined by Law 851 / 1978 Regarding the National Flag. It specifies the colour of "cyan '' (Greek: κυανό, kyano), meaning "blue '', so the shade of blue is ambiguous.
The Order of the Redeemer and military decoration Cross of Valour both have ribbons in the national colours.
Since it was first established, the national emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design. The original Greek national emblem depicted the goddess Athena and an owl. At the time of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the phoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was added.
Other recognizable symbols include the (throughout the Byzantine empire) double - headed eagle and the Vergina Sun.
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so long and thanks for the fish a perfect circle lyrics | So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (A Perfect Circle song) - wikipedia
"So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish '' is a song by American rock band A Perfect Circle. It was released on April 15, 2018, as their fourth single off their album Eat the Elephant. The song 's title is taken from the Douglas Adams book So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish, the fourth book in his The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series.
The song was released as the fourth single from Eat the Elephant, after "The Doomed '', "Disillusioned '', and "TalkTalk ''. The song was first debuted on April 15, 2018 on BBC Radio 1, five days prior to the release of Eat the Elephant.
The song 's music was originally written by guitarist Billy Howerdel, and intended for his solo project, Ashes Divide. However, he often presents music intended for Ashes Divide to band frontman Maynard James Keenan to see if he has interest in writing lyrics and vocal harmonies for songs to become A Perfect Circle material instead; Keenan chose to use the song because he felt that "People are going to hate me for this one, so let 's do that.
The song 's name comes from the name of the fourth book in Douglas Adams 's The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series, So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish, though the song 's lyrics touches more on the subject of the deaths of celebrities. The song makes allusions to many celebrity deaths in 2016, including Gene Wilder (Willy Wonka), David Bowie (Major Tom), Muhammad Ali, Prince, and Carrie Fisher (Leia). In writing the lyrics, Keenan stated that he was inspired by the sarcastic nature of the R.E.M. song "It 's the End of the World as We Know It (And I Feel Fine) ''. Lyrically, the song was described by Revolver as "the absurdity of modern existence ''. Keenan stated of the song:
"We all cope with the absurd in our own manner. The Italian side of me produces and shares wine with friends in order to feel grounded and connected in the midst of all the madness. But once the wine is gone, the drunk and sarcastic Irish side of me goes straight for the unreasonable jugular. ''
Musically, Spin described the song as "an orchestral power - rocker of sorts, alternating sunnier, almost glam - like chord progressions with more traditional hard - rock gestures ''. The song was written in major key, and features a more upbeat tempo than most songs by the band. The song features driving percussion, dark guitar parts, and strings.
Metal Injection praised the song, comparing it favorably to "Disillusioned '' and concluding that it was "a bit of an earworm, as by the end of the track I found myself singing the hook ''. Louder Sound named the song one of the 10 Key songs done by Keenan and Howerdel throughout their careers, just one day after the song 's release.
Credits adapted from CD liner notes.
Band
Production
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article 324a of the swiss code of obligations | Swiss Code of Obligations - Wikipedia
The Swiss Code of Obligations (' SR22, German: Obligationenrecht; French: Code des obligations; Italian: Diritto delle obbligazioni; Romansh: Dretg d'obligaziuns) is a portion of the Swiss Civil Code that regulates contract law and corporations (Aktiengesellschaft). It was first adopted in 1911 (effective since 1 January 1912).
It is divided into a general part, which applies to all contracts, and a special part, which applies to specific types of contracts, such as sales of goods or loans.
The Code is governed by the principle of the freedom to contract, which includes freedom as to the content and type of the contract, and the freedom of the parties to enter into agreements which are not governed by the special part of the Code.
The first version, drafted by Walther Munzinger and Heinrich Fick, entered into force in 1883, and was subsequently revised and expanded to form the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1912. The first version of the Swiss Code of Obligations inspired similar legislation in Germany, Italy and Turkey. The Code of Obligations was drafted in a strikingly understandable style, without many instances of abstract legal terminology, so that it could be readily understood by the common population.
The Code was revised in 2011, so that in the future requirements for book - keeping and accounting will not depend on a company 's legal form, but on its financial size.
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french revolution associated with the reign of terror crossword | Reign of Terror - Wikipedia
The Reign of Terror, or The Terror (French: la Terreur), is the label given by most historians to a period during the French Revolution after the First French Republic was established.
Several historians consider the "reign of terror '' to have begun in 1793, placing the starting date at either 5 September, June or March (birth of the Revolutionary Tribunal), while some consider it to have begun in September 1792 (September Massacres), or even July 1789 (when the first lynchings took place), but there is a consensus that it ended with the fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794.
Between June 1793 and the end of July 1794, there were 16,594 official death sentences in France, of which 2,639 were in Paris.
There was a sense of emergency among leading politicians in France in the summer of 1793 between the widespread civil war and counter-revolution. Bertrand Barère exclaimed on 5 September 1793 in the Convention: "Let 's make terror the order of the day! '' They were determined to avoid street violence such as the September Massacres of 1792 by taking violence into their own hands as an instrument of government.
Robespierre in February 1794 in a speech explained the necessity of terror:
If the basis of popular government in peacetime is virtue, the basis of popular government during a revolution is both virtue and terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; terror, without which virtue is powerless. Terror is nothing more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; it is thus an emanation of virtue; it is less a principle in itself, than a consequence of the general principle of democracy, applied to the most pressing needs of the patrie (homeland, fatherland).
Some historians argue that such terror was a necessary reaction to the circumstances. Others suggest there were additional causes, including ideological and emotional.
Enlightenment thought emphasized the importance of rational thinking and began challenging legal and moral foundations of society, providing the leaders of the Terror with new ideas about the role and structure of government. Rousseau 's Social Contract argued that each person was born with rights, and they would come together to form a government that would then protect those rights. Under the social contract, the government was required to act for the general will, which represented the interests of everyone rather than a few factions. Drawing from the idea of a general will, Robespierre felt that the French Revolution could result in a Republic built for the general will but only once those who fought this ideal were expelled. Those who resisted the government were deemed "tyrants '' fighting against the virtue and honor of the general will. The leaders felt their ideal version of government was threatened from the inside and outside of France, and terror was the only way to preserve the dignity of the Republic created from French Revolution.
Robespierre 's ideology was not strictly derived from Rousseau. The writings of another Enlightenment thinker of the time, Baron de Montesquieu, greatly influenced Robespierre. One of Montesquieu 's writings, The Spirit of the Laws, defines a core principle of a democratic government: virtue. He describes it as "the love of laws and of our country. '' In Robespierre 's speech to the National Convention on February 5, 1794, On Political Morality, he talks about virtue being the "fundamental principle of popular or democratic government. '' This was, in fact, the same virtue defined by Montesquieu almost 50 years earlier. Robespierre believed that the virtue needed for any democratic government was extremely lacking in the French people. As a result, he decided to weed out those he believed could never possess this virtue. The result was a continual push towards Terror. The Convention used this as justification for the course of action to "crush the enemies of the revolution,... let the laws be executed,... and let liberty be saved. ''
These members of the Enlightenment movement greatly influenced revolutionary leaders; however, cautions from other Enlightenment thinkers were blatantly ignored. Voltaire 's warnings were often overlooked, though some of his ideas were used for justification of the Revolution and the start of the Terror. He protested against Catholic Dogmas and the ways of Christianity stating, "of all religions, the Christian should of course inspire the most toleration, but till now the Christian 's have been the most intolerant of all men. '' These criticisms were often used by Robespierre and other leaders as justification for their anti-religious reforms. Voltaire also laid down some warnings. In his Philosophical Dictionary, he states, "we are all steeped in weakness and error; let us forgive each other our follies; that is the first law of nature '' and "every individual who persecutes a man, his brother, because he is not of his opinion, is a monster. '' The importance of forgiveness and understanding the failings of the human conditions were obviously lost on Robespierre and other leaders as they pursued Terror.
After the beginning of the French Revolution, the surrounding monarchies did not show great hostility towards the rebellion. Though mostly ignored, Louis XVI was later able to find support in Leopold II of Austria (Marie Antionette 's brother) and Frederick William II of Prussia. On August 27, 1791, these foreign leaders made the Pillnitz Declaration saying they would restore the French monarch if other European rulers joined. In response to what they viewed to be the meddling of foreign powers, France declared war on April 20, 1792. However, at this point, the war was only Prussia and Austria against France. France began this war with a large series of defeats which set a precedent of fear of invasion in the people that would last throughout the war. Massive reforms of military institutions, while very effective in the long run, presented the initial problems of inexperienced forces and leaders of questionable political loyalty. In the time it took for officers of merit to use their new freedoms to climb the chain of command, France suffered. Many of the early battles were definitive losses for the French. There was the constant threat of the Austro - Prussian forces which were advancing easily toward the capital, threatening to destroy Paris if the monarch was harmed. This series of defeats, coupled with militant uprisings and protests within the borders of France pushed the government to resort to drastic measures to ensure the loyalty of every citizen to not only France but more importantly to the Revolution.
While this series of losses was eventually broken, the reality of what might have happened if they persisted hung over France. The tide would not turn from them until September of 1792 when the French won a critical victory at Valmy preventing the Austro - Prussian invasion. While the French military had stabilized and was producing victories by the time the Reign of Terror officially began, the pressure to succeed in this international struggle acted as justification for the government to pursue its tyrannical actions. It was not until after the execution of Louis XVI and the annexation of the Rhineland that the other monarchies began to feel threatened enough to form the First Coalition. The Coalition, consisting of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Holland, and Sardinia, began attacking France from all directions besieging and capturing ports and retaking ground lost to France. With so many similarities to the first days of the Revolutionary Wars, the French government with threats on all sides, unification of the country became a top priority. As the war continued and the Reign of Terror began, leaders saw a correlation between using terror and achieving victory. Well phrased by Albert Soboul, "terror, at first an improvised response to defeat, once organized became an instrument of victory. '' The threat of defeat and foreign invasion may have helped spur the origins of the terror, but the timely success of the Terror with French victories added justification to its growth and continuation.
During the Reign of Terror, the sans - culottes and the Hébertists put pressure on the National Convention delegates and contributed to the overall instability of France. The National Convention was bitterly split between the Montagnards and the Girondins. The Girondins were more conservative leaders of the National Convention, while the Montagnards supported radical violence and pressures of the lower classes. Once the Montagnards gained control of the National Convention, they began demanding radical measures. Moreover, the sans - culottes, the scrappy, urban workers of France, agitated leaders to inflict punishments on those who opposed the interests of the poor. The sans - culottes ' violent demonstrations pushing their demands, created constant pressure for the Montagnards to enact reform. The sans - culottes fed the frenzy of instability and chaos by utilizing popular pressure during the Revolution. For example, the sans - culottes sent letters and petitions to the Committee of Public Safety urging them to protect their interests and rights with measures such as taxation of foodstuffs that favored workers over the rich. They advocated for arrests of those deemed to oppose reforms against those with privilege, and the more militant members would advocate pillage in order to achieve the desired equality. The resulting instability caused problems that made forming the new Republic and achieving full political support even more critical.
The Reign of Terror was characterized by a dramatic rejection of long - held religious authority, its hierarchical structure, and the corrupt and intolerant influence of the aristocracy and clergy. Religious elements that long stood as symbols of stability for the French people, were replaced by reason and scientific thought. The radical revolutionaries and their supporters desired a cultural revolution that would rid the French state of all Christian influence. This process began with the fall of the monarchy, an event that effectively defrocked the State of its sanctification by the clergy via the doctrine of Divine Right and ushered in an era of reason.
Many long - held rights and powers were stripped from the Church and given to the State. In 1789, church lands were expropriated and priests killed and forced to leave France. A Festival of Reason was held in the Notre Dame Cathedral, which was renamed "The Temple of Reason '', and the old traditional calendar was replaced with a new revolutionary one. The leaders of the Terror tried to address the call for these radical, revolutionary aspirations, while at the same time trying to maintain tight control on the de-Christianization movement that was threatening to the clear majority of the still devoted Catholic population of France. The tension sparked by these conflicting objectives laid a foundation for the "justified '' use of terror to achieve revolutionary ideals and rid France of the religiosity that revolutionaries believed was standing in the way.
On 10 March 1793 the National Convention created the Revolutionary Tribunal. Among those charged by the tribunal, about a half were acquitted (though the number dropped to about a quarter after the enactment of the Law of 22 Prairial). In March rebellion broke out in the Vendée in response to mass conscription, which developed into a civil war that lasted until after the Terror.
On 6 April the Committee of Public Safety was created, which gradually became the de facto war - time government.
On 2 June, the Parisian sans - culottes surrounded the National Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to sans - culottes alone. With the backing of the national guard, they persuaded the convention to arrest 29 Girondist leaders. In reaction to the imprisonment of the Girondin deputies, some thirteen departments started the Federalist revolts against the National Convention in Paris, which were ultimately crushed.
On 24 June, the convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, the French Constitution of 1793. It was ratified by public referendum, but never put into force.
On 13 July the assassination of Jean - Paul Marat -- a Jacobin leader and journalist -- resulted in a further increase in Jacobin political influence. Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the king, was removed from the committee. On July 27, 1793, Robespierre became part of the Committee of Public Safety.
On 23 August, the National Convention decreed the levée en masse, "The young men shall fight; the married man shall forge arms and transport provisions; the women shall make tents and clothes and shall serve in the hospitals; the children shall turn all lint into linen; the old men shall betake themselves to the public square in order to arouse the courage of the warriors and preach hatred of kings and the unity of the Republic. ''
On 9 September, the convention established paramilitary forces, the "revolutionary armies '', to force farmers to surrender grain demanded by the government. On 17 September, the Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the imprisonment of vaguely defined "suspects ''. This created a mass overflow in the prison systems. On 29 September, the convention extended price fixing from grain and bread to other essential goods, and also fixed wages.
On 10 October, the Convention decreed that "the provisional government shall be revolutionary until peace. '' On 24 October, the French Republican Calendar was enacted. The trial of the Girondins started on the same day and they were executed on 31 October.
Anti-clerical sentiments increased during 1793 and a campaign of dechristianization occurred. On 10 November (20 Brumaire Year II of the French Republican Calendar), the Hébertists organized a Festival of Reason.
On 14 Frimaire (5 December 1793) was passed the Law of Frimaire, which gave the central government more control over the actions of the representatives on mission.
On 16 Pluviôse (4 February 1794), the National Convention decreed that slavery be abolished in all of France and French colonies.
On 8 and 13 Ventôse (26 February and 3 March), Saint - Just proposed decrees to confiscate the property of exiles and opponents of the revolution, known as the Ventôse Decrees.
By the end of 1793, two major factions had emerged, both threatening the Revolutionary Government: the Hébertists, who called for an intensification of the Terror and threatened insurrection, and the Dantonists, led by Georges Danton, who demanded moderation and clemency. The Committee of Public Safety took actions against both. The major Hébertists were tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal and executed on 24 March. The Dantonists were arrested on 30 March, tried on 3 to 5 April and executed on 5 April.
On 20 Prairial (8 June) was celebrated across the country the Festival of the Supreme Being, which was part of the Cult of the Supreme Being, a deist national religion. On 22 Prairial (10 June), the National Convention passed a law proposed by Georges Couthon, known as the Law of 22 Prairial, which simplified the judicial process and greatly accelerated the work of the Revolutionary Tribunal. With the enactment of the law, the number of executions greatly increased, and the period from this time to the Thermidorian Reaction became known as "The Grand Terror ''.
On 8 Messidor (26 June), the French army won the Battle of Fleurus, which marked a turning point in France 's military campaign and undermined the necessity of wartime measures and the legitimacy of the Revolutionary Government.
The fall of Robespierre was brought about by a combination of those who wanted more power for the Committee of Public Safety (and a more radical policy than he was willing to allow) and the moderates who completely opposed the revolutionary government. They had, between them, made the Law of 22 Prairial one of the charges against him, so that, after his fall, to advocate terror would be seen as adopting the policy of a convicted enemy of the republic, putting the advocate 's own head at risk. Between his arrest and his execution, Robespierre may have tried to commit suicide by shooting himself, although the bullet wound he sustained, whatever its origin, only shattered his jaw. Alternatively, he may have been shot by the gendarme Merda. The great confusion that arose during the storming of the municipal Hall of Paris, where Robespierre and his friends had found refuge, makes it impossible to be sure of the wound 's origin. In any case, Robespierre was guillotined the next day.
The reign of the standing Committee of Public Safety was ended. New members were appointed the day after Robespierre 's execution, and limits on terms of office were fixed (a quarter of the committee retired every three months). The Committee 's powers were gradually eroded.
"Battle of Valmy, (20 September 1792). '' Weapons and Warfare. April 09, 2018. Accessed October 30, 2018. https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2018/04/10/battle-of-valmy-20-september-1792/.
Bloy, Marjorie. "The First Coalition 1793 - 1797. '' A Web of English History. Accessed October 21, 2018. http://www.historyhome.co.uk/c-eight/france/coalit1.htm.
Leopold, II, and Frederick William. "The Declaration of Pillnitz (1791). '' French Revolution. February 27, 2018. Accessed October 26, 2018. https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/declaration-of-pillnitz-1791/.
McLetchie, Scott. "Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. '' Maximilien Robespierre, Master of the Terror. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://people.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1983-4/mcletchie.htm#22.
Montesquieu. "Modern History Sourcebook: Montesquieu: The Spirit of the Laws, 1748. '' Internet History Sourcebooks. Accessed October 23, 2018. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/montesquieu-spirit.asp.
Ozouf, Mona. "War and Terror in French Revolutionary Discourse (1792 - 1794). '' The Journal of Modern History 56, no. 4 (1984): 580 - 97. http://www.jstor.org.du.idm.oclc.org/stable/1880323.
Popkin, Jeremy D. A Short History of the French Revolution. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2016.
"Robespierre, "On Political Morality '', '' Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 19, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/413.
Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon. '' The Journal of Interdisciplinary History 18, no. 4 (1988): 771 - 93. doi: 10.2307 / 204824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/204824.
"'' Terror Is the Order of the Day ", '' Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, accessed October 26, 2018, http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/416.
Voltaire. "Voltaire, Selections from the Philosophical Dictionary. '' Omeka RSS. Accessed October 23, 2018. http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/273/.
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what part of the brain does buspar affect | Buspirone - wikipedia
Buspirone, sold under the brand name Buspar, is an anxiolytic drug that is primarily used to treat generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). It is also commonly used to augment antidepressants in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Unlike most anxiolytics, the pharmacology of buspirone is not related to that of benzodiazepines, barbiturates, or carbamates (it is not a GABA receptor agonist), and so buspirone does not carry the risk of physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms for which those drug classes are known. Buspirone is not considered to be a drug - of - abuse, is safer in overdose than traditional anxiolytics, and is significantly less impairing at therapeutic doses.
Buspirone is approved in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the short - or long - term treatment of anxiety disorders or can also be used for the short - term relief of the symptoms of anxiety. Likewise in Australia, buspirone is licensed for the treatment of anxiety disorders. In the United Kingdom, buspirone is indicated only for the short - term treatment of anxiety.
Buspirone has no immediate anxiolytic effects, and hence has a delayed onset of action; its full clinical effectiveness may require 2 to 4 weeks to manifest. The drug has been shown to be similarly effective in the treatment of GAD to benzodiazepines including diazepam, alprazolam, lorazepam, and clorazepate. Buspirone is not known to be effective in the treatment of other anxiety disorders besides GAD, although there is some limited evidence that it may be useful in the treatment of social phobia as an adjunct to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).
Although not approved for this indication, studies such as STAR * D have shown buspirone to be an effective augmentation agent alongside treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for clinical depression and is also used to counter the sexual dysfunction (anorgasmia and erectile dysfunction) associated with SSRIs. The drug has also been found to be effective in the treatment of depression as a standalone drug.
There is evidence that buspirone may be used to treat Cerebellar ataxia.
There is some evidence that buspirone on its own may be useful in the treatment of hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) in women.
Several clinical trials, most randomized double - blind trials (and in one buspirone was used as an adjunct to atomoxetine) and one open - label, have been conducted to evaluate the utility of buspirone in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), with mostly positive results.
Buspirone may be useful in the management of irritability, agitation, and aggression in older patients with dementia and in pediatrics, although further research is necessary to more clearly establish its effectiveness.
Buspirone is not effective as a treatment for benzodiazepine withdrawal, barbiturate withdrawal, or alcohol withdrawal / delirium tremens.
Buspirone has these contraindications:
Known side effects associated with buspirone include dizziness, headaches, nausea, nervousness, and paresthesia. Buspirone is relatively well - tolerated, and is not associated with sedation, cognitive and psychomotor impairment, muscle relaxation, physical dependence, or anticonvulsant effects. In addition, buspirone does not produce euphoria, and is not a drug of abuse.
Buspirone appears to be relatively benign in cases of single - drug overdose, although no definitive data on this subject appear to be available. In one clinical trial, buspirone was administered to healthy male volunteers at a dosage of 375 mg / day, and produced side effects including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, drowsiness, miosis, and gastric distress. In early clinical trials, buspirone was given at dosages even as high as 2,400 mg / day, with akathisia, tremor, and muscle rigidity observed. Deliberate overdoses with 250 mg and up to 300 mg buspirone have resulted in drowsiness in about 50 % of individuals. One death has been reported in association with 450 mg buspirone together with alprazolam, diltiazem, alcohol, cocaine.
Buspirone has been shown in vitro to be metabolized by the enzyme CYP3A4. This finding is consistent with the in vivo interactions observed between buspirone and these inhibitors or inducers of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4), among others:
Elevated blood pressure has been reported when buspirone has been administered to patients taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs).
Buspirone acts as an agonist of the serotonin 5 - HT receptor with high affinity. It is a preferential full agonist of presynaptic 5 - HT receptors, which are inhibitory autoreceptors, and a partial agonist of postsynaptic 5 - HT receptors. In accordance, an animal study found that buspirone dose - dependently decreases serotonin levels in specific brain areas while increasing dopamine and norepinephrine levels. It is thought that the main effects of buspirone are mediated via its interaction with the 5 - HT receptor. Some of its effects may be mediated via oxytocin release secondary to 5 - HT receptor agonism. Buspirone also has lower affinity for the serotonin 5 - HT, 5 - HT, 5 - HT, 5 - HT, and 5 - HT receptors.
In addition to binding to serotonin receptors, buspirone is an antagonist of the dopamine D receptor with weak affinity. It preferentially blocks inhibitory presynaptic D autoreceptors, and antagonizes postsynaptic D receptors only at higher doses. In accordance, buspirone has been found to increase dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nigrostriatal pathway at low doses, whereas at higher doses, postsynaptic D receptors are blocked and antidopaminergic effects such as hypoactivity and reduced stereotypy, though notably not catalepsy, are observed in animals. Buspirone has also been found to bind with much higher affinity to the dopamine D and D receptors, where it is similarly an antagonist.
A major metabolite of buspirone, 1 - (2 - pyrimidinyl) piperazine (1 - PP), occurs at higher circulating levels than buspirone itself, and is known to act as a potent α - adrenergic receptor antagonist. It may be responsible for the increased noradrenergic and dopaminergic activity observed with buspirone in animals. In addition, 1 - PP may play an important role in the antidepressant effects of buspirone. Buspirone also has very weak and probably clinically unimportant affinity for the α - adrenergic receptor. However, buspirone has been reported to have shown "significant and selective intrinsic efficacy '' at the α - adrenergic receptor expressed in a "tissue - and species - dependent manner ''.
Unlike benzodiazepines, buspirone does not interact with the GABA receptor complex.
Buspirone has a low oral bioavailability of 3.9 % relative to intravenous injection due to extensive first - pass metabolism. The time to peak plasma levels following ingestion is 0.9 to 1.5 hours. It is reported to have an elimination half - life of 2.8 hours, although a review of 14 studies found that the mean terminal half - life ranged between 2 and 11 hours, and one study even reported a terminal half - life of 33 hours. Buspirone is metabolized primarily by CYP3A4, and prominent drug interactions with inhibitors and inducers of this enzyme have been observed. Major metabolites of buspirone include 5 - hydroxybuspirone, 6 - hydroxybuspirone, 8 - hydroxybuspirone, and 1 - PP. 6 - Hydroxybuspirone has been identified as the predominant hepatic metabolite of buspirone, with plasma levels that are 40-fold greater than those of buspirone after oral administration of buspirone to humans. The metabolite is a high - affinity partial agonist of the 5 - HT receptor (K = 25 nM) similarly to buspirone, and has demonstrated occupancy of the 5 - HT receptor in vivo. As such, it is likely to play an important role in the therapeutic effects of buspirone. 1 - PP has also been found to circulate at higher levels than those of buspirone itself and may similarly play a significant role in the clinical effects of buspirone.
Buspirone is a member of the azapirone chemical class, and consists of azaspirodecanedione and pyrimidinylpiperazine components linked together by a butyl chain.
Structural analogues of buspirone include other azapirones like gepirone, ipsapirone, perospirone, and tandospirone.
Alkylation of 1 - (2 - pyrimidyl) piperazine (1) with 3 - chloro - 1 - cyanopropane (2, 4 - chlorobutyronitrile) gives 3, which is reduced either by hydrogenation over Raney nickel catalyst, or with LAH. The resulting 1 ° amine (4) from the previous step is then reacted with 3, 3 - tetramethyleneglutaric anhydride (5, 8 - Oxaspiro (4.5) decane - 7, 9 - dione) in order to yield buspirone (6).
Buspirone was first synthesized, by a team at Mead Johnson, in 1968, but was not patented until 1975. It was initially developed as an antipsychotic drug acting on the D receptor, but was found to be ineffective in the treatment of psychosis and was repurposed as an anxiolytic. In 1986, Bristol - Myers Squibb gained FDA approval for buspirone in the treatment of GAD. The patent placed on buspirone expired in 2001 and it is now available as a generic drug.
Buspirone is the INN, BAN, DCF, and DCIT of buspirone, while buspirone hydrochloride is its USAN, BANM, and JAN.
Buspirone is primarily sold under the brand name Buspar.
Buspirone / testosterone (tentative brand name Lybridos) is a combination formulation of buspirone and testosterone which is under development by a pharmaceutical company called Emotional Brain for the treatment of female sexual dysfunction.
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where did the sign of the cross come from | Sign of the cross - wikipedia
The sign of the cross (Latin: signum crucis), or blessing oneself or crossing oneself, is a ritual blessing made by members of some branches of Christianity. This blessing is made by the tracing of an upright cross or + across the body with the right hand, often accompanied by spoken or mental recitation of the trinitarian formula: "In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit / Holy Ghost. Amen. ''
The movement is the tracing of the shape of a cross in the air or on one 's own body, echoing the traditional shape of the cross of the Christian crucifixion narrative. There are two principal forms: one -- three fingers, right to left -- is exclusively used in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church of the East and the Eastern Catholic Churches in the Byzantine, Assyrian and Chaldean traditions; the other -- left to right to middle, other than three fingers -- is the one used in the Latin (Catholic) Church, Anglicanism, Methodism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism and Oriental Orthodoxy. The ritual is rare within other Christian traditions.
Many individuals use the expression "cross my heart and hope to die '' as an oath, making the sign of the cross, in order to show "truthfulness and sincerity '', sworn before God, in both personal and legal situations.
The Cross is a symbol representing Christ 's victory over sin and death. The sign of the cross was originally made in some parts of the Christian world with the right - hand thumb across the forehead only. In other parts of the early Christian world it was done with the whole hand or with two fingers. Around the year 200 in Carthage (modern Tunisia, Africa), Tertullian wrote: "We Christians wear out our foreheads with the sign of the cross ''. Vestiges of this early variant of the practice remain: in the Roman Rite of the Mass in the Catholic Church, the faithful make this gesture on the forehead, on the lips, and on the heart at the proclamation of the Gospel; on Ash Wednesday a cross is traced in ashes on the forehead; holy oil (called chrism) is applied on the forehead for the sacrament of Confirmation (called the Holy Mystery of Chrismation in the Eastern Orthodox Church, as Orthodox call the Sacraments by the name "Holy Mystery ''). By the 4th century, the sign of the cross involved other parts of the body beyond the forehead.
The open right hand is used in Western Christianity. The five open fingers are often said to represent the Five Wounds of Christ. This symbolism was adopted after the more ancient gesture of two or three fingers was simplified. Though this is the most common method of crossing by Western Christians, other forms are sometimes used. The West also employs the "Small Sign of the Cross '' (+). The primary use for this is immediately before the reading of The Gospel during the Mass. Using the right thumb, a small cross is traced over the forehead, lips, and heart of the individual while whispering or silently praying the words "May Christ 's words be on my mind, on my lips, and in my heart. '' The Small Sign is also used during the majority of the Sacraments.
In the Roman or Latin Rite Church it is customary to make the full Sign of the Cross using holy water when entering a church. The first three fingers of the right hand are dipped into the font containing the holy water and the Sign of the Cross is made on oneself. This gesture has a two-fold purpose: to remind one of their baptism and the rights and responsibilities that go with it and to also remind one that they are entering a sacred place that is set apart from the world outside.
In the Eastern Orthodox (including the Russian Orthodox) and Eastern Catholic Churches, the tips of the first three fingers (the thumb, index, and middle ones) are brought together, and the last two (the "ring '' and little fingers) are pressed against the palm. The first three fingers express one 's faith in the Trinity, while the remaining two fingers represent the two natures of Jesus, divine and human.
In Russia, until the reforms of Patriarch Nikon in the 17th century, it was customary to make the sign of the cross with two fingers (symbolising the dual nature of Christ). The enforcement of the three - finger sign was one of the reasons for the schism with the Old Believers whose congregations continue to use the two - finger sign of the cross.
The Oriental Orthodox (Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians etc.) generally use the "Western '' direction as well, though often with the Byzantine finger formation.
The sign of the cross is made by touching the hand sequentially to the forehead, lower chest or stomach, and both shoulders, accompanied by the Trinitarian formula: at the forehead In the name of the Father (or In nomine Patris in Latin); at the stomach or heart and of the Son (et Filii); across the shoulders and of the Holy Spirit / Ghost (et Spiritus Sancti); and finally: Amen.
There are several interpretations, according to Church Fathers: the forehead symbolizes Heaven; the solar plexus (or top of stomach), the earth; the shoulders, the place and sign of power. It also recalls both the Trinity and the Incarnation. Pope Innocent III (1198 -- 1216) explained: "The sign of the cross is made with three fingers, because the signing is done together with the invocation of the Trinity... This is how it is done: from above to below, and from the right to the left, because Christ descended from the heavens to the earth... ''
There are some variations: for example a person may first place the right hand in holy water. After moving the hand from one shoulder to the other, it may be returned to the top of the stomach. It may also be accompanied by the recitation of a prayer (e.g., the Jesus Prayer, or simply "Lord have mercy ''). In some catholic countries, like Spain, Italy, Brazil and other Latin countries, it is customary to kiss one 's thumb at the conclusion of the gesture, while in the Philippines, this extra step evolved into the thumb quickly touching the chin or lower lip.
Theodoret (393 -- 457) gave the following instruction:
This is how to bless someone with your hand and make the sign of the cross over them. Hold three fingers, as equals, together, to represent the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost. These are not three gods, but one God in Trinity. The names are separate, but the divinity one. The Father was never incarnate; the Son incarnate, but not created; the Holy Ghost neither incarnate nor created, but issued from the Godhead: three in a single divinity. Divinity is one force and has one honor. They receive on obeisance from all creation, both angels and people. Thus the decree for these three fingers. You should hold the other two fingers slightly bent, not completely straight. This is because these represent the dual nature of Christ, divine and human. God in His divinity, and human in His incarnation, yet perfect in both. The upper finger represents divinity, and the lower humanity; this way salvation goes from the higher finger to the lower. So is the bending of the fingers interpreted, for the worship of Heaven comes down for our salvation. This is how you must cross yourselves and give a blessing, as the holy fathers have commanded.
Peter of Damascus (12th century) gave the following instruction:
Then we should also marvel how demons and various diseases are dispelled by the sign of the precious and life - giving Cross, which all can make without cost or effort. Who can number the panegyrics composed in its honor? The holy fathers have handed down to us the inner significance of this sign, so that we can refute heretics and unbelievers. The two fingers and single hand with which it is made represent the Lord Jesus Christ crucified, and He is thereby acknowledged to exist in two natures and one hypostasis or person.
The use of the right hand betokens His infinite power and the fact that He sits at the right hand of the Father. That the sign begins with a downward movement from above signifies His descent to us from heaven. Again, the movement of the hand from the right side to the left drives away our enemies and declares that by His invincible power the Lord overcame the devil, who is on the left side, dark and lacking strength.
Athanasius of Alexandria (269 -- 373 A.D.)
By the signing of the holy and life - giving cross, devils and various scourges are driven away. For it is without price and without cost and praises him who can say it. The holy fathers have, by their words, transmitted to us, and even to the unbelieving heretics, how the two raised fingers and the single hand reveal Christ our God in His dual nature but single substance. The right hand proclaims His immeasurable strength, His sitting on the right hand of the Father, and His coming down unto us from Heaven. Again, by the movement of the hands to our right the enemies of God will be driven out, as the Lord triumphs over the Devil with His inconquerable power, rendering him dismal and weak.
Historian Herbert Thurston interprets this as indicating that at one time both Eastern and Western Christians moved the hand from the right shoulder to the left, although the point is not entirely clear. German theologian, Valentin Thalhofer, thought writings quoted in support of this, such as that of Innocent III, refer to the small cross made upon the forehead or external objects, in which the hand moves naturally from right to left, and not the big cross made from shoulder to shoulder. Andreas Andreopoulos, author of The Sign of the Cross, gives a more detailed description of the development and the symbolism of the placement of the fingers and the direction of the movement.
Today, Western Christians and the Oriental Orthodox touch the left shoulder before the right. Eastern Catholics and Orthodox Christians use the right - to - left movement.
The proper sequence of tracing the sign of the cross is taught to converts from Christian denominations that are either nontrinitarian or not using the gesture and non-Christian religions.
The sign of the cross may be made by individuals upon themselves as a form of prayer and by clergy upon others or objects as an act of blessing. The gesture of blessing is certainly related to the sign of the cross, but the two gestures developed independently after some point. In Eastern Christianity, the two gestures differ significantly. Priests and deacons are allowed to bless using the right hand, while bishops may bless simultaneously with both, the left mirroring the right. While individuals may make it at any time, clergy must make it at specific times (as in liturgies), and it is customary to make it on other occasions.
Although the sign of the cross dates to ante - Nicene Christianity, it was rejected by some of the Reformers and is absent from some forms of Protestantism, although some other reformed Christian traditions, such as Anglicanism, Lutheranism, Presbyterianism, and Methodism sometimes use it. However, it has often been rejected by some Non-Conformist Protestants as being a high church practice, despite Martin Luther 's positive personal view. The prescribed use of the sign in Book of Common Prayer and the defence of the sign of the cross were established in Anglican canon law in 1604.
Some Christians make the sign of the cross in response to perceived blasphemy. Others sign themselves to seek God 's blessing before or during an event with uncertain outcome. In Hispanic countries, people often sign themselves in public, such as athletes who cross themselves before entering the field or while concentrating for competition.
The sign of the cross is a prayer, a blessing, and a sacramental. As a sacramental, it prepares an individual to receive grace and disposes one to cooperate with it. The Christian begins his day, his prayers, and his activities with the Sign of the Cross: "In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. Amen. '' In this way a person dedicates the day to God and calls on him for strength in temptations and difficulties. John Vianney said a genuinely made Sign of the Cross "makes all hell tremble. ''
Also, a longer version is commonly said while making the sign of the cross in the forehead, the mouth and the chest: "By the sign of the cross deliver us from our enemies, you who are our God. In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen. '' After the "you who are our God '' part is recited, the ritual then proceeds with the normal Catholic sign of the cross as explained above.
Roman Catholicism draws a distinction between liturgical and non-liturgical use of the sign of the cross. The sign of the cross is required at certain points of the Mass: the laity sign themselves during the introductory greeting of the service, before the Gospel reading (small signs on forehead, lips, and heart), and at the final blessing; optionally, other times during the Mass when the laity often cross themselves are during a blessing with holy water, when concluding the penitential rite, immediately after receiving Communion, and when concluding private prayer after Communion. In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite the priest signs bread and wine once before the consecration. In the Tridentine Mass the priest signs the bread and wine 25 times during the Canon of the Mass, ten times before and fifteen times after they have been consecrated. The priest also uses the sign of the cross when blessing a deacon before the deacon reads the Gospel, when sending an Extraordinary Minister of Holy Communion to take the Eucharist to the sick (after Communion, but before the end of the Mass), and when blessing the congregation at the conclusion of the Mass.
Ordained bishops, priests and deacons have more empowerment to bless objects and other people. While lay people may preside at certain blessings, the more a blessing is concerned with ecclesial or sacramental matters, the more it is reserved to clergy. Extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion do not ordinarily have a commission to bless in the name of the Church, as priests and deacons do. At this point in the liturgy, their specific function is to assist the clergy in the distribution of holy Communion. Extraordinary Ministers of Communion, blessing those who do not wish to or can not receive communion can speak or raise the hand but not make the sign of the cross over the person.
A priest or deacon blesses an object or person with a single sign of the cross, but a bishop blesses with a triple sign of the cross. In the Catholic organization, the Legion of Mary, members doing door to door parish surveys bless the homes of those not home by tracing the sign of the cross on the door.
In the Eastern traditions, both celebrant and congregation make the sign of the cross quite frequently. It is customary in some Eastern traditions to cross oneself at each petition in a litany and to closely associate oneself with a particular intention being prayed for or with a saint being named. The sign of the cross is also made upon entering or leaving a church building, at the start and end of personal prayer, when passing the main altar (which represents Christ), whenever all three persons of the Trinity are addressed, and when approaching an icon.
When an Eastern Orthodox or Eastern Catholic bishop or priest blesses with the sign of the cross, he holds the fingers of his right hand in such a way that they form the Greek abbreviation for Jesus Christ "IC XC ''. The index finger is extended to make the "I ''; the middle finger signify letter "C ''; the thumb touches the lowered third finger to signify the "X '' and the little finger also signifies the letter "C ''. When a priest blesses in the sign of the cross, he positions the fingers of his right hand in the manner described as he raises his right hand, then moves his hand downwards, then to his left, then to his right. A bishop blesses with both hands (unless he is holding some sacred object such as a cross, chalice, Gospel Book, icon, etc.), holding the fingers of both hands in the same configuration, but when he moves his right hand to the left, he simultaneously moves his left hand to the right, so that the two hands cross, the left in front of the right, and then the right in front of the left. The blessing of both priests and bishops consists of three movements, in honour of the Holy Trinity.
Among Lutherans the practice was widely retained. For example, Luther 's Small Catechism states that it is expected before the morning and evening prayers. Lutheranism never abandoned the practice of making the sign of the cross in principle and it was commonly retained in worship at least until the early 19th century. During the 19th and early 20th centuries it was largely in disuse until the liturgical renewal movement of the 1950s and 1960s. One exception is The Lutheran Hymnal (1941) of the Lutheran Church -- Missouri Synod (LCMS), which states that "The sign of the cross may be made at the Trinitarian Invocation and at the words of the Nicene Creed ' and the life of the world to come. ' '' Since then, the sign of the cross has become fairly commonplace among Lutherans at worship. The sign of the cross is now customary in the Divine Service. Rubrics in contemporary Lutheran worship manuals, including Evangelical Lutheran Worship of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and Lutheran Service Book used by LCMS and Lutheran Church -- Canada, provide for making the sign of the cross at certain points in the liturgy. Most places are the same as the Roman Catholic practice, such as at the trinitarian formula, the benediction, at the consecration of the Eucharist, and following reciting the Nicene or Apostles ' Creed.
Devotional use of the sign of the cross among Lutherans also includes after receiving the Host and Chalice in the Eucharist, following Holy Absolution; similarly, they may dip their hands in the baptismal font and make the sign of the cross upon entering the church.
The sign of the cross is in the Methodist liturgy, primarily in the Methodist / Episcopal not necessarily in the UMC. And this is made by some clergy during the Great Thanksgiving, Confession of Sin and Pardon, and benediction. John Wesley, the principal leader of the early Methodists, prepared a revision of The Book of Common Prayer for Methodist use called The Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America which does instruct the minister to make the sign of the cross on the forehead of children just after they have been baptized. Making the sign of the cross at baptism is retained in the current Book of Worship, and widely practiced (sometimes with oil). Furthermore, on Ash Wednesday the sign of the cross is almost always applied by the elder to the foreheads of the laity. The liturgy for healing and wholeness, which is becoming more commonly practiced, calls for the pastor to make the sign of the cross with oil upon the foreheads of those seeking healing.
Whether or not a Methodist uses the sign for private prayer is a personal choice, but it is encouraged by the bishops of the United Methodist Church. Some United Methodists also perform the sign before and after receiving Holy Communion, and some ministers also perform the sign when blessing the congregation at the end of the sermon or service.
In some Reformed churches, such as the PCUSA and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Presbyterian Church in America the sign of the cross is used on the foreheads during baptism or during an Ash Wednesday service when ashes are imposed on the forehead. The sign of the cross in some instances is used during Communion and during the Confession of Sin and the Creeds. In instances during a Benediction, when the minister concludes the service using the Trinitarian blessing, a hand is extended and a sign of the cross is made out toward the congregation. This type of benediction is seen in quite a few High Presbyterian groups such as the Church of Scotland and congregations across the US especially on the Mid West and East Coast of the United States.
It is common practice in the Armenian Apostolic Church to make the sign of the cross when entering or passing a church, during the start of service and at many times during Divine Liturgy. The motion is performed by joining the first three fingers, to symbolize Holy Trinity and putting the two other fingers in the palm to symbolize the two natures of Christ, then touching one 's forehead, below the chest, left side, then right side and finishing with open hand on the chest again with bowing head.
The Assyrian Church of the East uniquely holds the sign of the cross as a sacrament in its own right. Another sacrament unique to the church is the Holy Leaven.
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hot springs hotel in japan that's run since 705 a.d | Nishiyama onsen Keiunkan - Wikipedia
Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan (西山 温泉 慶 雲 館) is a hot spring hotel in Hayakawa, Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan. Founded in 705, it is the oldest hotel and one of the oldest companies in operation. In 2011, the hotel was officially recognised by the Guinness World Records as the oldest hotel in the world. It has been continuously operated by 52 generations of the same family (including adopted heirs) for over 1,300 years.
The Keiunkan lies at the foot of the Akaishi Mountains. Since its foundation the hotel has had all its hot water sourced directly from the local Hakuho Springs. The hotel was last renovated in 1997 and has 37 rooms.
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