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what is the definition of the word bible | Bible - Wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Bible (from Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books '') is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans.
Many different authors contributed to the Bible. What is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups; a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint; the Hebrew Bible is known in Judaism as the Tanakh. The New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first - century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of Gospels, letters, and apocalyptic writings. Among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect.
Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups. Roman Catholics, high church Anglicans and Eastern Orthodox Christians stress the harmony and importance of the Bible and sacred tradition, while Protestant churches, including Evangelical Anglicans, focus on the idea of sola scriptura, or scripture alone. This concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching.
With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the best - selling book of all time. It sells approximately 100 million copies annually, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West, where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type.
The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the same word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin and ultimately from Koinē Greek: τὰ βιβλία, translit. ta biblia "the books '' (singular βιβλίον, biblion).
Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra "holy book '', while biblia in Greek and Late Latin is neuter plural (gen. bibliorum). It gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun (biblia, gen. bibliae) in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra "holy books '' translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, "the holy books ''.
The word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "paper '' or "scroll '' and came to be used as the ordinary word for "book ''. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, "Egyptian papyrus '', possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos (also known as Gebal) from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece. The Greek ta biblia (lit. "little papyrus books '') was "an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books (the Septuagint). Christian use of the term can be traced to c. 223 CE. The biblical scholar F.F. Bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer (in his Homilies on Matthew, delivered between 386 and 388) to use the Greek phrase ta biblia ('' the books ") to describe both the Old and New Testaments together.
By the 2nd century BCE, Jewish groups began calling the books of the Bible the "scriptures '' and they referred to them as "holy '', or in Hebrew כִּתְבֵי הַקֹּדֶשׁ (Kitvei hakkodesh), and Christians now commonly call the Old and New Testaments of the Christian Bible "The Holy Bible '' (in Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια, tà biblía tà ágia) or "the Holy Scriptures '' (η Αγία Γραφή, e Agía Graphḗ). The Bible was divided into chapters in the 13th century by Stephen Langton and it was divided into verses in the 16th century by French printer Robert Estienne and is now usually cited by book, chapter, and verse. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th - century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in earlier oral traditions.
The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th - century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, and it is known as the Codex Vaticanus. The oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin (Vulgate) Bible is the Codex Amiatinus, dating from the 8th century.
Professor John K. Riches, Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, says that "the biblical texts themselves are the result of a creative dialogue between ancient traditions and different communities through the ages '', and "the biblical texts were produced over a period in which the living conditions of the writers -- political, cultural, economic, and ecological -- varied enormously ''. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, says that the Old Testament is "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. Parallel to the solidification of the Hebrew canon (c. 3rd century BCE), only the Torah first and then the Tanakh began to be translated into Greek and expanded, now referred to as the Septuagint or the Greek Old Testament.
In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from oral traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that:
Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, but the results have not been too encouraging. The period of transmission is short: less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Mark 's Gospel. This means that there was little time for oral traditions to assume fixed form.
The Bible was later translated into Latin and other languages. John Riches states that:
The translation of the Bible into Latin marks the beginning of a parting of the ways between Western Latin - speaking Christianity and Eastern Christianity, which spoke Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and other languages. The Bibles of the Eastern Churches vary considerably: the Ethiopic Orthodox canon includes 81 books and contains many apocalyptic texts, such as were found at Qumran and subsequently excluded from the Jewish canon. As a general rule, one can say that the Orthodox Churches generally follow the Septuagint in including more books in their Old Testaments than are in the Jewish canon.
The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh. It defines the books of the Jewish canon, and also the precise letter - text of these biblical books, with their vocalization and accentuation.
The oldest extant manuscripts of the Masoretic Text date from approximately the 9th century CE, and the Aleppo Codex (once the oldest complete copy of the Masoretic Text, but now missing its Torah section) dates from the 10th century.
The name Tanakh (Hebrew: תנ "ך ) reflects the threefold division of the Hebrew Scriptures, Torah ('' Teaching "), Nevi'im ('' Prophets ") and Ketuvim ('' Writings ").
The Torah (תּוֹרָה) is also known as the "Five Books of Moses '' or the Pentateuch, meaning "five scroll - cases ''.
The Hebrew names of the books are derived from the first words in the respective texts. The Torah consists of the following five books:
The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the world and the history of God 's early relationship with humanity. The remaining thirty - nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God 's covenant with the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also called Israel) and Jacob 's children, the "Children of Israel '', especially Joseph. It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt. The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs. He leads the Children of Israel from slavery in Ancient Egypt to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation was ready to enter the land of Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of Moses.
The Torah contains the commandments of God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although there is some debate among traditional scholars as to whether these were all written down at one time, or over a period of time during the 40 years of the wanderings in the desert, while several modern Jewish movements reject the idea of a literal revelation, and critical scholars believe that many of these laws developed later in Jewish history). These commandments provide the basis for Jewish religious law. Tradition states that there are 613 commandments (taryag mitzvot).
Nevi'im (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים , translit. Nəḇî'îm, "Prophets '') is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah and Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim נביאים ראשונים , the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim נביאים אחרונים , the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets).
The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy and its division into two kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah, focusing on conflicts between the Israelites and other nations, and conflicts among Israelites, specifically, struggles between believers in "the LORD God '' and believers in foreign gods, and the criticism of unethical and unjust behaviour of Israelite elites and rulers; in which prophets played a crucial and leading role. It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.
The Former Prophets are the books Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain narratives that begin immediately after the death of Moses with the divine appointment of Joshua as his successor, who then leads the people of Israel into the Promised Land, and end with the release from imprisonment of the last king of Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single books, they cover:
The Latter Prophets are divided into two groups, the "major '' prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, collected into a single book. The collection is broken up to form twelve individual books in the Christian Old Testament, one for each of the prophets:
Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים "writings '') is the third and final section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are believed to have been written under the Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with one level less authority than that of prophecy.
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two - column form emphasizing the parallel stichs in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in Hebrew, איוב, משלי, תהלים yields Emet אמ "ת, which is also the Hebrew for "truth '').
These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system of cantillation notes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.
The five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative '' in the Jewish canon even though they were not complete until the 2nd century CE.
Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are Daniel, Ezra -- Nehemiah and Chronicles. Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics:
The following list presents the books of Ketuvim in the order they appear in most printed editions. It also divides them into three subgroups based on the distinctiveness of Sifrei Emet and Hamesh Megillot.
The Three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet)
The Five Megillot (Hamesh Megillot)
Other books
The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. The Babylonian Talmud (Bava Batra 14b -- 15a) gives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.
In Tiberian Masoretic codices, including the Aleppo Codex and the Leningrad Codex, and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.
The Ketuvim is the last of the three portions of the Tanakh to have been accepted as biblical canon. While the Torah may have been considered canon by Israel as early as the 5th century BCE and the Former and Latter Prophets were canonized by the 2nd century BCE, the Ketuvim was not a fixed canon until the 2nd century of the Common Era.
Evidence suggests, however, that the people of Israel were adding what would become the Ketuvim to their holy literature shortly after the canonization of the prophets. As early as 132 BCE references suggest that the Ketuvim was starting to take shape, although it lacked a formal title. References in the four Gospels as well as other books of the New Testament indicate that many of these texts were both commonly known and counted as having some degree of religious authority early in the 1st century CE.
Many scholars believe that the limits of the Ketuvim as canonized scripture were determined by the Council of Jamnia c. 90 CE. Against Apion, the writing of Josephus in 95 CE, treated the text of the Hebrew Bible as a closed canon to which "... no one has ventured either to add, or to remove, or to alter a syllable... '' For a long time following this date the divine inspiration of Esther, the Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes was often under scrutiny.
The Tanakh was mainly written in biblical Hebrew, with some small portions (Ezra 4: 8 -- 6: 18 and 7: 12 -- 26, Jeremiah 10: 11, Daniel 2: 4 -- 7: 28) written in biblical Aramaic, a sister language which became the lingua franca for much of the Semitic world.
The Septuagint, or the LXX, is a translation of the Hebrew Scriptures and some related texts into Koine Greek, begun in the late 3rd century BCE and completed by 132 BCE, initially in Alexandria, but in time it was completed elsewhere as well. It is not altogether clear which was translated when, or where; some may even have been translated twice, into different versions, and then revised.
As the work of translation progressed, the canon of the Greek Bible expanded. The Torah always maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon but the collection of prophetic writings, based on the Nevi'im, had various hagiographical works incorporated into it. In addition, some newer books were included in the Septuagint, among these are the Maccabees and the Wisdom of Sirach. However, the book of Sirach, is now known to have existed in a Hebrew version, since ancient Hebrew manuscripts of it were rediscovered in modern times. The Septuagint version of some Biblical books, like Daniel and Esther, are longer than those in the Jewish canon. Some of these deuterocanonical books (e.g. the Wisdom of Solomon, and the second book of Maccabees) were not translated, but composed directly in Greek.
Since Late Antiquity, once attributed to a hypothetical late 1st - century Council of Jamnia, mainstream Rabbinic Judaism rejected the Septuagint as valid Jewish scriptural texts. Several reasons have been given for this. First, some mistranslations were claimed. Second, the Hebrew source texts used for the Septuagint differed from the Masoretic tradition of Hebrew texts, which was chosen as canonical by the Jewish rabbis. Third, the rabbis wanted to distinguish their tradition from the newly emerging tradition of Christianity. Finally, the rabbis claimed a divine authority for the Hebrew language, in contrast to Aramaic or Greek -- even though these languages were the lingua franca of Jews during this period (and Aramaic would eventually be given a holy language status comparable to Hebrew).
The Septuagint is the basis for the Old Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Old Armenian, Old Georgian and Coptic versions of the Christian Old Testament. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches use most of the books of the Septuagint, while Protestant churches usually do not. After the Protestant Reformation, many Protestant Bibles began to follow the Jewish canon and exclude the additional texts, which came to be called Biblical apocrypha. The Apocrypha are included under a separate heading in the King James Version of the Bible, the basis for the Revised Standard Version.
In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion 's translation from the Hebrew, which more closely resembles the Masoretic Text. The Septuagint version was discarded in favour of Theodotion 's version in the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE. In Greek - speaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin - speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. History does not record the reason for this, and St. Jerome reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, "This thing ' just ' happened. '' One of two Old Greek texts of the Book of Daniel has been recently rediscovered and work is ongoing in reconstructing the original form of the book.
The canonical Ezra -- Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B '', and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A ''. 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra -- Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It has been proposed, and is thought highly likely by scholars, that "Esdras B '' -- the canonical Ezra -- Nehemiah -- is Theodotion 's version of this material, and "Esdras A '' is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.
Some texts are found in the Septuagint but are not present in the Hebrew. These additional books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus son of Sirach, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah (which later became chapter 6 of Baruch in the Vulgate), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Susanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasseh, the Psalms of Solomon, and Psalm 151.
Some books that are set apart in the Masoretic Text are grouped together. For example, the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the LXX one book in four parts called Βασιλειῶν ("Of Reigns ''). In LXX, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and it is called Paralipomenon (Παραλειπομένων -- things left out). The Septuagint organizes the minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.
A Christian Bible is a set of books that a Christian denomination regards as divinely inspired and thus constituting scripture. Although the Early Church primarily used the Septuagint or the Targums among Aramaic speakers, the apostles did not leave a defined set of new scriptures; instead the canon of the New Testament developed over time. Groups within Christianity include differing books as part of their sacred writings, most prominent among which are the biblical apocrypha or deuterocanonical books.
Significant versions of the English Christian Bible include the Douay - Rheims Bible, the Authorized King James Version, the English Revised Version, the American Standard Version, the Revised Standard Version, the New American Standard Version, the New King James Version, the New International Version, and the English Standard Version.
The books which make up the Christian Old Testament differ between the Catholic (see Catholic Bible), Orthodox, and Protestant (see Protestant Bible) churches, with the Protestant movement accepting only those books contained in the Hebrew Bible, while Catholics and Orthodox have wider canons. A few groups consider particular translations to be divinely inspired, notably the Greek Septuagint and the Aramaic Peshitta.
In Eastern Christianity, translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. The Septuagint was generally abandoned in favour of the 10th - century Masoretic Text as the basis for translations of the Old Testament into Western languages. Some modern Western translations since the 14th century make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic Text, where the Septuagint may preserve a variant reading of the Hebrew text. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in other texts, e.g., those discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls.
A number of books which are part of the Peshitta or the Greek Septuagint but are not found in the Hebrew (Rabbinic) Bible (i.e., among the protocanonical books) are often referred to as deuterocanonical books by Roman Catholics referring to a later secondary (i.e., deutero) canon, that canon as fixed definitively by the Council of Trent 1545 -- 1563. It includes 46 books for the Old Testament (45 if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one) and 27 for the New.
Most Protestants term these books as apocrypha. Modern Protestant traditions do not accept the deuterocanonical books as canonical, although Protestant Bibles included them in Apocrypha sections until the 1820s. However, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches include these books as part of their Old Testament.
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes:
In addition to those, the Greek and Russian Orthodox Churches recognize the following:
Russian and Georgian Orthodox Churches include:
There is also 4 Maccabees which is only accepted as canonical in the Georgian Church, but was included by St. Jerome in an appendix to the Vulgate, and is an appendix to the Greek Orthodox Bible, and it is therefore sometimes included in collections of the Apocrypha.
The Syriac Orthodox tradition includes:
The Ethiopian Biblical canon includes:
and some other books.
The Anglican Church uses some of the Apocryphal books liturgically. Therefore, editions of the Bible intended for use in the Anglican Church include the Deuterocanonical books accepted by the Catholic Church, plus 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras and the Prayer of Manasseh, which were in the Vulgate appendix.
The term Pseudepigrapha commonly describes numerous works of Jewish religious literature written from about 300 BCE to 300 CE. Not all of these works are actually pseudepigraphical. It also refers to books of the New Testament canon whose authorship is misrepresented. The "Old Testament '' Pseudepigraphal works include the following:
Notable pseudepigraphal works include the Books of Enoch (such as 1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, surviving only in Old Slavonic, and 3 Enoch, surviving in Hebrew, c. 5th to 6th century CE). These are ancient Jewish religious works, traditionally ascribed to the prophet Enoch, the great - grandfather of the patriarch Noah. They are not part of the biblical canon used by Jews, apart from Beta Israel. Most Christian denominations and traditions may accept the Books of Enoch as having some historical or theological interest or significance. It has been observed that part of the Book of Enoch is quoted in the Epistle of Jude (part of the New Testament) but Christian denominations generally regard the Books of Enoch as non-canonical or non-inspired. However, the Enoch books are treated as canonical by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.
The older sections (mainly in the Book of the Watchers) are estimated to date from about 300 BCE, and the latest part (Book of Parables) probably was composed at the end of the 1st century BCE.
There arose in some Protestant biblical scholarship an extended use of the term pseudepigrapha for works that appeared as though they ought to be part of the biblical canon, because of the authorship ascribed to them, but which stood outside both the biblical canons recognized by Protestants and Catholics. These works were also outside the particular set of books that Roman Catholics called deuterocanonical and to which Protestants had generally applied the term Apocryphal. Accordingly, the term pseudepigraphical, as now used often among both Protestants and Roman Catholics (allegedly for the clarity it brings to the discussion), may make it difficult to discuss questions of pseudepigraphical authorship of canonical books dispassionately with a lay audience. To confuse the matter even more, Eastern Orthodox Christians accept books as canonical that Roman Catholics and most Protestant denominations consider pseudepigraphical or at best of much less authority. There exist also churches that reject some of the books that Roman Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants accept. The same is true of some Jewish sects. Many works that are "apocryphal '' are otherwise considered genuine.
The Old Testament has always been central to the life of the Christian church. Bible scholar N.T. Wright says "Jesus himself was profoundly shaped by the scriptures. '' He adds that the earliest Christians also searched those same Hebrew scriptures in their effort to understand the earthly life of Jesus. They regarded the "holy writings '' of the Israelites as necessary and instructive for the Christian, as seen from Paul 's words to Timothy (2 Timothy 3: 15), and as pointing to the Messiah, and as having reached a climactic fulfillment in Jesus himself, generating the "new covenant '' prophesied by Jeremiah.
The New Testament is the name given to the second and final portion of the Christian Bible. Jesus is its central figure.
The term "New Testament '' came into use in the second century during a controversy among Christians over whether or not the Hebrew Bible should be included with the Christian writings as sacred scripture. The New Testament presupposes the inspiration of the Old Testament. Some other works which were widely read by early churches were excluded from the New Testament and relegated to the collections known as the Apostolic Fathers (generally considered orthodox) and the New Testament Apocrypha (including both orthodox and heretical works).
The New Testament is a collection of 27 books of 4 different genres of Christian literature (Gospels, one account of the Acts of the Apostles, Epistles and an Apocalypse). These books can be grouped into:
The Gospels
Narrative literature, account and history of the Apostolic age
Pauline Epistles
Pastoral epistles
General epistles, also called catholic epistles
Apocalyptic literature, also called Prophetical
The New Testament books are ordered differently in the Catholic / Orthodox / Protestant tradition, the Slavonic tradition, the Syriac tradition and the Ethiopian tradition.
The mainstream consensus is that the New Testament was written in a form of Koine Greek, which was the common language of the Eastern Mediterranean from the Conquests of Alexander the Great (335 -- 323 BCE) until the evolution of Byzantine Greek (c. 600).
The original autographs, that is, the original Greek writings and manuscripts written by the original authors of the New Testament, have not survived. But historically copies exist of those original autographs, transmitted and preserved in a number of manuscript traditions. There have been some minor variations, additions or omissions, in some of the texts. When ancient scribes copied earlier books, they sometimes wrote notes on the margins of the page (marginal glosses) to correct their text -- especially if a scribe accidentally omitted a word or line -- and to comment about the text. When later scribes were copying the copy, they were sometimes uncertain if a note was intended to be included as part of the text.
The three main textual traditions of the Greek New Testament are sometimes called the Alexandrian text - type (generally minimalist), the Byzantine text - type (generally maximalist), and the Western text - type (occasionally wild). Together they comprise most of the ancient manuscripts.
The Old Testament canon entered into Christian use in the Greek Septuagint translations and original books, and their differing lists of texts. In addition to the Septuagint, Christianity subsequently added various writings that would become the New Testament. Somewhat different lists of accepted works continued to develop in antiquity. In the 4th century a series of synods produced a list of texts equal to the 39, 46, 51, or 54 - book canon of the Old Testament and to the 27 - book canon of the New Testament that would be subsequently used to today, most notably the Synod of Hippo in 393 CE. Also c. 400, Jerome produced a definitive Latin edition of the Bible (see Vulgate), the canon of which, at the insistence of the Pope, was in accord with the earlier Synods. With the benefit of hindsight it can be said that this process effectively set the New Testament canon, although there are examples of other canonical lists in use after this time.
The Protestant Old Testament of today has a 39 - book canon -- the number of books (though not the content) varies from the Jewish Tanakh only because of a different method of division -- while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books (51 books with some books combined into 46 books) as the canonical Old Testament. The Eastern Orthodox Churches recognize 3 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Prayer of Manasseh and Psalm 151 in addition to the Catholic canon. Some include 2 Esdras. The Anglican Church also recognizes a longer canon. The term "Hebrew Scriptures '' is often used as being synonymous with the Protestant Old Testament, since the surviving scriptures in Hebrew include only those books, while Catholics and Orthodox include additional texts that have not survived in Hebrew. Both Catholics and Protestants (as well as Greek Orthodox) have the same 27 - book New Testament Canon.
The New Testament writers assumed the inspiration of the Old Testament, probably earliest stated in 2 Timothy 3: 16, "All scripture is given by inspiration of God ''.
The Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is wider than the canons used by most other Christian churches. There are 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The Ethiopian Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the Septuagint accepted by other Orthodox Christians, in addition to Enoch and Jubilees which are ancient Jewish books that only survived in Ge'ez but are quoted in the New Testament, also Greek Ezra First and the Apocalypse of Ezra, 3 books of Meqabyan, and Psalm 151 at the end of the Psalter. The three books of Meqabyan are not to be confused with the books of Maccabees. The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups ', as well. The Old Testament follows the Septuagint order for the Minor Prophets rather than the Jewish order.
The Second Epistle to Timothy says that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness ''. (2 Timothy 3: 16) Various related but distinguishable views on divine inspiration include:
Within these broad beliefs many schools of hermeneutics operate. "Bible scholars claim that discussions about the Bible must be put into its context within church history and then into the context of contemporary culture. '' Fundamentalist Christians are associated with the doctrine of biblical literalism, where the Bible is not only inerrant, but the meaning of the text is clear to the average reader.
Jewish antiquity attests to belief in sacred texts, and a similar belief emerges in the earliest of Christian writings. Various texts of the Bible mention divine agency in relation to its writings. In their book A General Introduction to the Bible, Norman Geisler and William Nix write: "The process of inspiration is a mystery of the providence of God, but the result of this process is a verbal, plenary, inerrant, and authoritative record. '' Most evangelical biblical scholars associate inspiration with only the original text; for example some American Protestants adhere to the 1978 Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy which asserted that inspiration applied only to the autographic text of Scripture. Among adherents of Biblical literalism, a minority, such as followers of the King - James - Only Movement, extend the claim of inerrancy only to a particular translation.
The original texts of the Tanakh were mainly in Hebrew, with some portions in Aramaic. In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, and the Targum Onkelos, an Aramaic version of the Bible. There are several different ancient versions of the Tanakh in Hebrew, mostly differing by spelling, and the traditional Jewish version is based on the version known as Aleppo Codex. Even in this version there are words which are traditionally read differently from written, because the oral tradition is considered more fundamental than the written one, and presumably mistakes had been made in copying the text over the generations.
The primary biblical text for early Christians was the Septuagint. In addition, they translated the Hebrew Bible into several other languages. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek - speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translations of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.
The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.
According to the Latin Decretum Gelasianum (also known as the Gelasian Decree), thought to be of a 6th - century document of uncertain authorship and of pseudepigraphal papal authority (variously ascribed to Pope Gelasius I, Pope Damasus I, or Pope Hormisdas) but reflecting the views of the Roman Church by that period, the Council of Rome in 382 AD under Pope Damasus I (366 -- 383) assembled a list of books of the Bible. Damasus commissioned Saint Jerome to produce a reliable and consistent text by translating the original Greek and Hebrew texts into Latin. This translation became known as the Latin Vulgate Bible, in the fourth century AD (although Jerome expressed in his prologues to most deuterocanonical books that they were non-canonical). In 1546, at the Council of Trent, Jerome 's Vulgate translation was declared by the Roman Catholic Church to be the only authentic and official Bible in the Latin Church.
Since the Protestant Reformation, Bible translations for many languages have been made. The Bible continues to be translated to new languages, largely by Christian organizations such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, New Tribes Mission and Bible societies.
John Riches, professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism at the University of Glasgow, provides the following view of the diverse historical influences of the Bible:
It has inspired some of the great monuments of human thought, literature, and art; it has equally fuelled some of the worst excesses of human savagery, self - interest, and narrow - mindedness. It has inspired men and women to acts of great service and courage, to fight for liberation and human development; and it has provided the ideological fuel for societies which have enslaved their fellow human beings and reduced them to abject poverty... It has, perhaps above all, provided a source of religious and moral norms which have enabled communities to hold together, to care for, and to protect one another; yet precisely this strong sense of belonging has in turn fuelled ethnic, racial, and international tension and conflict.
In Islam, the Bible is held to reflect true unfolding revelation from God; but revelation which had been corrupted or distorted (in Arabic: tahrif); which necessitated the giving of the Qur'an to the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to correct this deviation.
Members of other religions may also seek inspiration from the Bible. For example, Rastafaris view the Bible as essential to their religion and Unitarian Universalists view it as "one of many important religious texts ''.
Biblical criticism refers to the investigation of the Bible as a text, and addresses questions such as authorship, dates of composition, and authorial intention. It is not the same as criticism of the Bible, which is an assertion against the Bible being a source of information or ethical guidance, or observations that the Bible may have translation errors.
In the 17th century Thomas Hobbes collected the current evidence to conclude outright that Moses could not have written the bulk of the Torah. Shortly afterwards the philosopher Baruch Spinoza published a unified critical analysis, arguing that the problematic passages were not isolated cases that could be explained away one by one, but pervasive throughout the five books, concluding that it was "clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not written by Moses... ''
Biblical archaeology is the archaeology that relates to and sheds light upon the Hebrew Scriptures and the Christian Greek Scriptures (or the "New Testament ''). It is used to help determine the lifestyle and practices of people living in biblical times. There are a wide range of interpretations in the field of biblical archaeology. One broad division includes biblical maximalism which generally takes the view that most of the Old Testament or the Hebrew Bible is based on history although it is presented through the religious viewpoint of its time. It is considered to be the opposite of biblical minimalism which considers the Bible to be a purely post-exilic (5th century BCE and later) composition. Even among those scholars who adhere to biblical minimalism, the Bible is a historical document containing first - hand information on the Hellenistic and Roman eras, and there is universal scholarly consensus that the events of the 6th century BCE Babylonian captivity have a basis in history.
The historicity of the biblical account of the history of ancient Israel and Judah of the 10th to 7th centuries BCE is disputed in scholarship. The biblical account of the 8th to 7th centuries BCE is widely, but not universally, accepted as historical, while the verdict on the earliest period of the United Monarchy (10th century BCE) and the historicity of David is unclear. Archaeological evidence providing information on this period, such as the Tel Dan Stele, can potentially be decisive. The biblical account of events of the Exodus from Egypt in the Torah, and the migration to the Promised Land and the period of Judges are not considered historical in scholarship.
1) On December 1, 2017, the Museum of the Bible opened in Washington D.C. The museum was said to be built for all guests to understand and appreciate the existence of the Bible. Furthermore, the museum seeks to disperse historical information regarding the Bible as well as portray the significance of the Bible in a neutral way.
2) Durham Bible Museum: The Durham Bible Museum is located in Houston Texas and is known for the collection of rare Bibles around the world. Furthermore, the Durham Museum is known to have many different Bibles of various languages.
Old Bible from a Greek monastery
Imperial Bible, or Vienna Coronation Gospels from Wien (Austria), c 1500.
The Kennicott Bible, 1476
A Baroque Bible
The Bible used by Abraham Lincoln for his oath of office during his first inauguration in 1861
A miniature Bible
1866 Victorian Bible
Shelves of the Bizzell Bible Collection at Bizzell Memorial Library
Most old Bibles were illuminated, they were manuscripts in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders (marginalia) and miniature illustrations. Up to the twelfth century, most manuscripts were produced in monasteries in order to add to the library or after receiving a commission from a wealthy patron. Larger monasteries often contained separate areas for the monks who specialized in the production of manuscripts called a scriptorium, where "separate little rooms were assigned to book copying; they were situated in such a way that each scribe had to himself a window open to the cloister walk. '' By the fourteenth century, the cloisters of monks writing in the scriptorium started to employ laybrothers from the urban scriptoria, especially in Paris, Rome and the Netherlands. Demand for manuscripts grew to an extent that the Monastic libraries were unable to meet with the demand, and began employing secular scribes and illuminators. These individuals often lived close to the monastery and, in certain instances, dressed as monks whenever they entered the monastery, but were allowed to leave at the end of the day.
The manuscript was "sent to the rubricator, who added (in red or other colours) the titles, headlines, the initials of chapters and sections, the notes and so on; and then -- if the book was to be illustrated -- it was sent to the illuminator. '' In the case of manuscripts that were sold commercially, the writing would "undoubtedly have been discussed initially between the patron and the scribe (or the scribe 's agent,) but by the time that the written gathering were sent off to the illuminator there was no longer any scope for innovation. ''
Bible from 1150, from Scriptorium de Chartres, Christ with angels
Blanche of Castile and Louis IX of France Bible, 13th century
Maciejowski Bible, Leaf 37, the 3rd image, Abner (in the center in green) sends Michal back to David.
Jephthah 's daughter laments -- Maciejowski Bible (France, ca. 1250)
Coloured version of the Whore of Babylon illustration from Martin Luther 's 1534 translation of the Bible
An Armenian Bible, illuminated by Malnazar
Fleeing Sodom and Gomorrah, Foster Bible
Jonah being swallowed by the fish, Kennicott Bible, 1476
But if anyone receive not, as sacred and canonical, the said books entire with all their parts, as they have been used to be read in the Catholic Church, and as they are contained in the old Latin vulgate edition; and knowingly and deliberately contemn the traditions aforesaid; let him be anathema.
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how many times have man city won epl | Manchester City FC - Wikipedia
Manchester City Football Club, also known simply as City or the Cityzens, is a football club based in east Manchester, England. Founded in 1880 as St. Mark 's (West Gorton), it became Ardwick Association Football Club in 1887 and Manchester City in 1894. The club 's home ground is the City of Manchester Stadium in east Manchester, to which it moved in 2003, having played at Maine Road since 1923.
Manchester City first played in the top - tier of the Football League in 1899 and won their first major honour with the FA Cup in 1904. The club 's most successful period was from 1968 to 1970, when it won the League Championship, FA Cup, League Cup and European Cup Winners ' Cup, under the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison. After losing the 1981 FA Cup Final, the club went through a period of decline, culminating in relegation to the third tier of English football for the only time in its history in 1998. Having regained their Premier League status in the early 2000s, Manchester City was purchased in 2008 by Abu Dhabi United Group for £ 210 million, receiving considerable investment. The club won the Premier League in 2012, 2014 and, most recently in 2018, also becoming the first Premier League team to attain 100 points in a single season.
Manchester City has the fifth - highest revenue in football, at € 527.7 million in 2016 -- 17. Forbes magazine ranks it as the world 's fifth-most valuable football club, worth US $ 2.47 billion. In 2015, a 13.79 % stake purchase of the club 's parent company, City Football Group (CFG), by the CITIC Group for £ 265 million valued it at $3 billion.
City gained their first honours by winning the Second Division in 1899; with it came promotion to the highest level in English football, the First Division. They went on to claim their first major honour on 23 April 1904, beating Bolton Wanderers 1 -- 0 at Crystal Palace to win the FA Cup; City narrowly missed out on a League and Cup double that season after finishing runners - up in the League but City became the first club in Manchester to win a major honour. In the seasons following the FA Cup triumph, the club was dogged by allegations of financial irregularities, culminating in the suspension of seventeen players in 1906, including captain Billy Meredith, who subsequently moved across town to Manchester United. A fire at Hyde Road destroyed the main stand in 1920, and in 1923 the club moved to their new purpose - built stadium at Maine Road in Moss Side.
In the 1930s, Manchester City reached two consecutive FA Cup finals, losing to Everton in 1933, before claiming the Cup by beating Portsmouth in 1934. During the 1934 cup run, Manchester City broke the record for the highest home attendance of any club in English football history, as 84,569 fans packed Maine Road for a sixth round FA Cup tie against Stoke City in 1934 -- a record which still stands to this day. The club won the First Division title for the first time in 1937, but were relegated the following season, despite scoring more goals than any other team in the division. Twenty years later, a City team inspired by a tactical system known as the Revie Plan reached consecutive FA Cup finals again, in 1955 and 1956; just as in the 1930s, they lost the first one, to Newcastle United, and won the second. The 1956 final, in which Manchester City beat Birmingham City 3 -- 1, is one of the most famous finals of all - time, and is remembered for City goalkeeper Bert Trautmann continuing to play on after unknowingly breaking his neck.
After relegation to the Second Division in 1963, the future looked bleak with a record low home attendance of 8,015 against Swindon Town in January 1965. In the summer of 1965, the management team of Joe Mercer and Malcolm Allison was appointed. In the first season under Mercer, City won the Second Division title and made important signings in Mike Summerbee and Colin Bell. Two seasons later, in 1967 -- 68, Manchester City claimed the League Championship for the second time, clinching the title on the final day of the season with a 4 -- 3 win at Newcastle United and beating their close neighbours Manchester United into second place. Further trophies followed: City won the FA Cup in 1969, before achieving European success by winning the European Cup Winners ' Cup in 1970, beating Górnik Zabrze 2 -- 1 in Vienna. City also won the League Cup that season, becoming the second English team to win a European trophy and a domestic trophy in the same season.
The club continued to challenge for honours throughout the 1970s, finishing one point behind the league champions on two occasions and reaching the final of the 1974 League Cup. One of the matches from this period that is most fondly remembered by supporters of Manchester City is the final match of the 1973 -- 74 season against arch - rivals Manchester United, who needed to win to have any hope of avoiding relegation. Former United player Denis Law scored with a backheel to give City a 1 -- 0 win at Old Trafford and confirm the relegation of their rivals. The final trophy of the club 's most successful period was won in 1976, when Newcastle United were beaten 2 -- 1 in the League Cup final.
A long period of decline followed the success of the 1960s and 1970s. Malcolm Allison rejoined the club to become manager for the second time in 1979, but squandered large sums of money on unsuccessful signings, such as Steve Daley. A succession of managers then followed -- seven in the 1980s alone. Under John Bond, City reached the 1981 FA Cup final but lost in a replay to Tottenham Hotspur. The club were twice relegated from the top flight in the 1980s (in 1983 and 1987), but returned to the top flight again in 1989 and finished fifth in 1991 and 1992 under the management of Peter Reid. However, this was only a temporary respite, and following Reid 's departure Manchester City 's fortunes continued to fade. City were co-founders of the Premier League upon its creation in 1992, but after finishing ninth in its first season they endured three seasons of struggle before being relegated in 1996. After two seasons in Division One, City fell to the lowest point in their history, becoming the second ever European trophy winners to be relegated to their country 's third league tier, after 1. FC Magdeburg of Germany.
After relegation, the club underwent off - the - field upheaval, with new chairman David Bernstein introducing greater fiscal discipline. Under manager Joe Royle, City were promoted at the first attempt, achieved in dramatic fashion in a play - off against Gillingham. A second successive promotion saw City return to the top division, but this proved to have been a step too far for the recovering club, and in 2001 City were relegated once more. Kevin Keegan replaced Royle as manager in the close season, and achieved an immediate return to the top division as the club won the 2001 -- 02 Division One championship, breaking club records for the number of points gained and goals scored in a season in the process. The 2002 -- 03 season was the last at Maine Road, and included a 3 -- 1 derby victory over rivals Manchester United, ending a run of 13 years without a derby win. City also qualified for European competition for the first time in 25 years. In the 2003 close season, the club moved to the new City of Manchester Stadium. The first four seasons at the stadium all resulted in mid-table finishes. Former England manager Sven - Göran Eriksson became the club 's first manager from overseas when appointed in 2007. After a bright start, performances faded in the second half of the season, and Eriksson was sacked in June 2008. Eriksson was replaced by Mark Hughes two days later on 4 June 2008.
By 2008, the club was in a financially precarious position. Thaksin Shinawatra had taken control of the club a year before, but his political travails saw his assets frozen. Then, in August 2008, the club was purchased by the Abu Dhabi United Group. The takeover was immediately followed by a flurry of bids for high - profile players; the club broke the British transfer record by signing Brazilian international Robinho from Real Madrid for £ 32.5 million. Performances were not a huge improvement on the previous season despite the influx of money however, with the team finishing tenth, although they did well to reach the quarter - finals of the UEFA Cup. During the summer of 2009, the club took transfer spending to an unprecedented level, with an outlay of over £ 100 million on players Gareth Barry, Roque Santa Cruz, Kolo Touré, Emmanuel Adebayor, Carlos Tevez and Joleon Lescott. In December 2009, Mark Hughes -- who had been hired shortly before the change in ownership but was originally retained by the new board -- was replaced as manager by Roberto Mancini. City finished the season in fifth position in the Premier League, narrowly missing out on a place in the Champions League, and competed in the UEFA Europa League in season 2010 -- 11.
Continued investment in players followed in successive seasons, and results began to match the upturn in player quality. City reached the 2011 FA Cup Final, their first major final in over 30 years, after defeating derby rivals Manchester United in the semi-final, the first time they had knocked their rival out of a cup competition since 1975. They defeated Stoke City 1 -- 0 in the final, securing their fifth FA Cup, the club 's first major trophy since winning the 1976 League Cup. In the same week, the club qualified for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1968 with a 1 -- 0 Premier League win over Tottenham Hotspur. On the last day of the 2010 -- 11 season, City passed Arsenal for third place in the Premier League, thereby securing qualification directly into the Champions League group stage.
Strong performances continued to follow in the 2011 -- 12 season, with the club beginning the following season in commanding form, including beating Tottenham 5 -- 1 at White Hart Lane and humbling Manchester United by a 6 -- 1 scoreline in United 's own stadium. Although the strong form waned halfway through the season, and City at one point fell eight points behind their arch rivals with only six games left to play, a slump by United allowed the blue side of Manchester to draw back level with two games to go, setting up a thrilling finale to the season with both teams going into the last day equal on points. Despite City only needing a home win against a team in the relegation zone, they fell a goal behind by the end of normal time, leading some of United 's players to finish their game celebrating in the belief that they had won the league. Two goals in injury time -- including one scored almost five minutes after normal time had elapsed -- resulted in an almost - literal last - minute title victory, City 's first in 44 years, and became only the fifth team to win the Premier League since its creation in 1992. In the aftermath that followed, the event was described by media sources from the UK and around the world as the greatest moment in Premier League history. The game was also notable for former player Joey Barton 's sending off, where he committed three separate red card - able incidents on three different players in the space of only a couple of seconds, resulting in a 12 - match ban.
The following season City failed to capitalise on the gains made in the first two full seasons of Mancini 's reign. While City rarely seemed likely to drop below second in the table, they posed little title challenge all season. In the Champions League, the club was eliminated at the group stage for a second successive season, while a second FA Cup final in three seasons ended in a 1 -- 0 defeat to relegated Wigan Athletic. Mancini was dismissed two days later, ostensibly as he had failed to reach his targets for the season, but BBC Sports Editor David Bond reported he had been sacked for his poor communication and relationships with players and executives. In his place was appointed the Chilean Manuel Pellegrini. In Pellegrini 's first season, City won the League Cup and regained the Premier League title on the last day of the season.
Manchester City won the 2017 - 18 Premier League title. The club had the highest point total in Premier League history.
L1 = Level 1 of the football league system; L2 = Level 2 of the football league system; L3 = Level 3 of the football league system.
Manchester City 's home colours are sky blue and white. Traditional away kit colours have been either maroon or (from the 1960s) red and black; however, in recent years several different colours have been used. The origins of the club 's home colours are unclear, but there is evidence that the club has worn blue since 1892 or earlier. A booklet entitled Famous Football Clubs -- Manchester City published in the 1940s indicates that West Gorton (St. Marks) originally played in scarlet and black, and reports dating from 1884 describe the team wearing black jerseys bearing a white cross, showing the club 's origins as a church side. The red and black away colours used infrequently yet recurrently come from former assistant manager Malcolm Allison, who believed that adopting the colours of A.C. Milan would inspire City to glory. Allison 's theory worked, with City winning the 1969 FA Cup Final, 1970 League Cup Final and the 1970 European Cup Winners ' Cup Final in red and black stripes as opposed to the club 's home kit of sky blue.
City have previously worn three other badges on their shirts, prior to their current badge which was implemented in 2016. The first, introduced in 1970, was based on designs which had been used on official club documentation since the mid-1960s. It consisted of a circular badge which used the same shield as the current badge, inside a circle bearing the name of the club. In 1972, this was replaced by a variation which replaced the lower half of the shield with the red rose of Lancashire. On occasions when Manchester City plays in a major cup final, the usual badge has not been used; instead shirts bearing a badge of the arms of the City of Manchester are used, as a symbol of pride in representing the city of Manchester at a major event. This practice originates from a time when the players ' shirts did not normally bear a badge of any kind, but has continued throughout the history of the club. For the 2011 FA Cup Final, City used the usual badge with a special legend, but the Manchester coat of arms was included as a small monochrome logo in the numbers on the back of players ' shirts.
A new club badge was adopted in 1997, as a result of the previous badge being ineligible for registration as a trademark. This badge was based on the arms of the city of Manchester, and consisted of a shield in front of a golden eagle. The eagle is an old heraldic symbol of the city of Manchester; a golden eagle was added to the city 's badge in 1958 (but has since been removed), representing the growing aviation industry. The shield features a ship on its upper half representing the Manchester Ship Canal, and three diagonal stripes in the lower half symbolise the city 's three rivers -- the Irwell, the Irk and the Medlock. The bottom of the badge bears the motto "Superbia in Proelio '', which translates as "Pride in Battle '' in Latin. Above the eagle and shield are three stars, which are purely decorative.
On 15 October 2015, following years of criticism from the fans over the design of the 1997 badge, the club announced they intended to carry out a fan consultation on whether to disregard the club badge and institute a new design. After the consultation, the club announced in late November 2015 the current club badge would be replaced in due course by a new version which would be designed in the style of the older, circular variants. A design purporting to be the new badge was unintentionally leaked two days early prior to the official unveiling on 26 December 2015 by the IPO when the design was trademarked on 22 December. The new design was officially unveiled at the club 's home match on 26 December against Sunderland.
Manchester City 's shirts have been sponsored by Etihad Airways since 2009. Previous sponsors have been Saab (1982 -- 84), Philips (1984 -- 87), Brother (1987 -- 99), Eidos (1999 -- 2002), First Advice (2002 -- 04), and Thomas Cook (2004 -- 07). Their kits have been manufactured by Nike since 2013. Prior manufacturers have been Umbro (1974 -- 97, 2009 -- 13), Kappa (1997 -- 99), Le Coq Sportif (1999 -- 2003, 2007 -- 09), and Reebok (2003 -- 07).
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Since 2003, Manchester City have not issued the squad number 23. It was retired in memory of Marc - Vivien Foé, who was on loan to the club from Lyon at the time of his death on the field of play while playing for Cameroon in the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Source:
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Manchester City F.C. Hall of Fame, and are listed according to the year of their induction:
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the English Football Hall of Fame (a.k.a. the National Football Museum Hall of Fame) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories:
Last updated: 1 May 2014. Source: list of NFM Hall of Fame inductees
The following former Manchester City players and managers are inductees in the Scottish Football Hall of Fame (a.k.a. the Scottish Football Museum Hall of Fame) and are listed according to the year of their induction within the various categories:
Last updated: 30 March 2011. Source: list of SFM Hall of Fame inductees
The following former Manchester City players are inductees in the Welsh Sports Hall of Fame and are listed according to the year of their induction:
Since moving to the City of Manchester Stadium, Manchester City 's average attendances have been in the top six in England, usually in excess of 40,000. Even in the late 1990s, when the club were relegated twice in three seasons and playing in the third tier of English football (then Division Two, now Football League One), home attendances were in the region of 30,000, compared to an average for the division of fewer than 8,000. Research carried out by Manchester City in 2005 estimates a fanbase of 886,000 in the United Kingdom and a total in excess of 2 million worldwide, although since the purchase of the club by Sheikh Mansour and the club 's recent trophies, that figure has ballooned to many times that size.
Manchester City 's officially recognised supporters club is the Manchester City FC Supporters Club (1949), formed from a merger of two existing organisations in 2010: the Official Supporters Club (OSC) and the Centenary Supporters Association (CSA). There have been several fanzines published by supporters; the longest running is King of the Kippax and it is the only one still published. The City fans ' song of choice is a rendition of "Blue Moon '', which despite its melancholic theme is belted out with gusto as though it were a heroic anthem. City supporters tend to believe that unpredictability is an inherent trait of their team, and label unexpected results "typical City ''. Events that fans regard as "typical City '' include City 's being the only reigning English champions ever to be relegated (in 1938), the only team to score and concede over 100 goals in the same season (1957 -- 58), or the more recent example that City were the only team to beat Chelsea in the 2004 -- 05 Premier League, yet in the same season City were knocked out of the FA Cup by Oldham Athletic, a team two divisions lower.
Manchester City 's biggest rivalry is with neighbours Manchester United, against whom they contest the Manchester derby. Before the Second World War, when travel to away games was rare, many Mancunian football fans regularly watched both teams even if considering themselves "supporters '' of only one. This practice continued into the early 1960s but as travel became easier, and the cost of entry to matches rose, watching both teams became unusual and the rivalry intensified. A common stereotype is that City fans come from Manchester proper, while United fans come from elsewhere. A 2002 report by a researcher at Manchester Metropolitan University found that while it was true that a higher proportion of City season ticket holders came from Manchester postcode areas (40 % compared to United 's 29 %), there were more United season ticket holders, the lower percentage being due to United 's higher overall number of season ticket holders (27,667 compared to City 's 16,481). The report noted that since the compiling of data in 2001, the number of both City and United season ticket holders had risen; expansion of United 's ground and City 's move to the City of Manchester Stadium have caused season ticket sales to increase further. Man City also has a rivalry with that of Everton F.C.
In the late 1980s, City fans started a craze of bringing inflatable objects to matches, primarily oversized bananas. One disputed explanation for the craze is that in a match against West Bromwich Albion chants from fans calling for the introduction of Imre Varadi as a substitute mutated into "Imre Banana ''. Terraces packed with inflatable - waving supporters became a frequent sight in the 1988 -- 89 season as the craze spread to other clubs (inflatable fish were seen at Grimsby Town), with the phenomenon reaching a peak at City 's match at Stoke City on 26 December 1988, a match declared by fanzines as a fancy dress party. In 2010, City supporters adopted an exuberant dance, dubbed The Poznań, from fans of Polish club Lech Poznań.
The holding company of Manchester City F.C., Manchester City Limited, is a private limited company, with approximately 54 million shares in issue. The club has been in private hands since 2007, when the major shareholders agreed to sell their holdings to UK Sports Investments Limited (UKSIL), a company controlled by former Thailand prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra. UKSIL then made a formal offer to buy the shares held by several thousand small shareholders.
Prior to the Thaksin takeover, the club was listed on the specialist independent equity market PLUS (formerly OFEX), where it had been listed since 1995. On 6 July 2007, having acquired 75 % of the shares, Thaksin de-listed the club and re-registered it as a private company. By August UKSIL had acquired over 90 % of the shares, and exercised its rights under the Companies Act to "squeeze out '' the remaining shareholders, and acquire the entire shareholding. Thaksin Shinawatra became chairman of the club and two of Thaksin 's children, Pintongta and Oak Chinnawat also became directors. Former chairman John Wardle stayed on the board for a year, but resigned in July 2008 following Nike executive Garry Cook 's appointment as executive chairman in May. The club made a pre-tax loss of £ 11m in the year ending 31 May 2007, the final year for which accounts were published as a public company.
Thaksin 's purchase prompted a period of transfer spending at the club, spending in around £ 30 million, whereas over the previous few seasons net spending had been among the lowest in the division. A year later, this investment was itself dwarfed by larger sums. On 1 September 2008, Abu Dhabi - based Abu Dhabi United Group Investment and Development Limited completed a takeover of Manchester City. The deal, worth a reported £ 200 million, was announced on the morning of 1 September. It sparked various transfer "deadline - day '' rumours and bids such as the club 's attempt to gazump Manchester United 's protracted bid to sign Dimitar Berbatov from Tottenham Hotspur for a fee in excess of £ 30 million. Minutes before the transfer window closed, the club signed Robinho from Real Madrid for a British record transfer fee of £ 32.5 million. The wealth of the new owners meant that in the summer of 2009, the club was able to finance the purchase of several experienced international players prior to the new season, spending more than any other club in the Premier League.
Created in the 2013 -- 14 season to manage the global footballing interests of Abu Dhabi United Group, the City Football Group (CFG) is an umbrella corporation owning stakes in a network of global clubs for the purposes of resource sharing, academy networking and marketing. Through the City Football Group, City owns stakes in a number of clubs:
The City of Manchester Stadium in east Manchester, known as the Etihad Stadium since 2011 for sponsorship reasons, is on a 200 - year lease from Manchester City Council. It has been City 's home since the end of the 2002 -- 03 season, when the club moved from Maine Road. Before moving to the stadium, Manchester City spent in excess of £ 30 million to convert it to football use. The pitch was lowered, adding another tier of seating around it, and a new North Stand built. The inaugural match at the new stadium was a 2 -- 1 win over Barcelona in a friendly match. A 7,000 seat third tier on the South Stand was completed in time for the start of the 2015 -- 16 football season. Current capacity stands at 55,097. A North Stand third tier has planning approval and work on it is expected to begin by 2017, increasing capacity to around 61,000.
After playing home matches at five stadiums between 1880 and 1887, the club settled at Hyde Road Football Stadium, its home for 36 years. A fire destroyed the Main Stand in 1920, and the club moved to the 84,000 capacity Maine Road three years later. Maine Road, nicknamed the "Wembley of the North '' by its designers, hosted the largest - ever crowd at an English club ground when 84,569 attended an FA Cup tie against Stoke City on 3 March 1934. Though Maine Road was redeveloped several times over its 80 - year lifespan, by 1995 its capacity was restricted to 32,000, prompting the search for a new ground which culminated in the move to the City of Manchester Stadium in 2003.
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who won the miss usa miss universe pageant | Olivia Culpo - wikipedia
Olivia Frances Culpo (born May 8, 1992) is an American actress, model, television presenter, cellist and beauty queen who won the Miss Universe 2012 pageant, representing her home country of United States. She previously won the Miss Rhode Island USA competition, which was the first pageant she entered. She went on to be crowned Miss USA, then Miss Universe. She is the first winner from the United States to be named Miss Universe since Brook Lee in 1997.
Culpo was born in Cranston, Rhode Island, one of five children of Peter and Susan Culpo. She has two older siblings, Pete and Aurora, and two younger, Gus and Sophie. Their restaurateur father co-owns Boston businesses including Parish Café and The Lower Depths Tap Room. Raised in the Edgewood neighborhood of Cranston, Rhode Island, she is of Italian descent with some Irish ancestry from her mother 's side.
Culpo attended St. Mary Academy -- Bay View, and later, Boston University. In 2010, she was signed by the Boston modeling agency Maggie, Inc. She began studying cello in the second grade, and played the instrument in the Rhode Island Philharmonic Youth Orchestra, the Rhode Island Philharmonic Chamber Ensemble, the Bay View Orchestra, and the Rhode Island All - State Orchestra. She attended the Brevard Music Center, in Brevard, North Carolina, for two summers, and has performed with the Boston Accompanietta. In 2017, she opened a restaurant with her family in Rhode Island.
After winning the 2012 Miss Rhode Island USA competition, the first pageant she entered, she went on to win the Miss USA 2012 pageant on June 3, 2012.
On July 6, 2012, the city of Cranston, Rhode Island held a homecoming celebration honoring Culpo for her pageant win. At an outdoor ceremony held at Cranston City Hall, Cranston Mayor Allan Fung presented Culpo with the key to the city.
Culpo represented the United States at the Miss Universe 2012 pageant that was held on December 19, 2012 in Las Vegas, Nevada. She won the competition and was crowned Miss Universe 2012, becoming the eighth representative from the United States to win the title and the first since 1997. Culpo also became the first Rhode Islander to win the Miss Universe title. She succeeded outgoing titleholder Leila Lopes from Angola.
In January 2013, Culpo visited Indonesia for three weeks and helped crown the winner of Puteri Indonesia 2013 on February 1 in Jakarta. She also visited Yogyakarta, Surabaya and Bali during her visit. In Jakarta, Culpo hosted a discussion with young Indonesians for the United Nations Population Fund on HIV and youth prevention at the United States Embassy 's cultural center @ America.
On August 25, 2013, Cranston 's city council approved a resolution adding Culpo 's name to Albert Avenue, which runs the length between Broad Street and Narragansett Boulevard in Edgewood.
On September 10, 2013, Culpo walked in the Sherri Hill fashion show held at the Trump Tower. Culpo was in India from September 27 until October 6. During her visit, she reportedly ran into trouble after doing a commercial photoshoot at the Taj Mahal. On November 9, 2013, she crowned Gabriela Isler of Venezuela as her successor.
During her reign, Culpo traveled to Indonesia, Russia, Ecuador, Morocco, The Bahamas, Canada, England, India, and numerous trips around the United States.
Culpo will appear in the 2018 Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. She has also modeled for L'Oreal and Kipling.
Miss Universe Olivia Culpo
Miss World Yu Wenxia
Miss International Ikumi Yoshimatsu
Miss Earth Tereza Fajksová
Miss Universe Olivia Culpo
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why is cost-benefit analysis considered a utilitarian model of evaluation | Cost -- benefit analysis - wikipedia
Cost -- benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit costs analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach to estimate the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives (for example in transactions, activities, functional business requirements or projects investments); it is used to determine options that provide the best approach to achieve benefits while preserving savings. The CBA is also defined as a systematic process for calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a decision, policy (with particular regard to government policy) or (in general) project.
Broadly, CBA has two main purposes:
CBA is related to (but distinct from) cost - effectiveness analysis. In CBA, benefits and costs are expressed in monetary terms, and are adjusted for the time value of money, so that all flows of benefits and flows of project costs over time (which tend to occur at different points in time) are expressed on a common basis in terms of their net present value.
Closely related, but slightly different, formal techniques include cost - effectiveness analysis, cost -- utility analysis, risk -- benefit analysis, economic impact analysis, fiscal impact analysis, and social return on investment (SROI) analysis.
Cost -- benefit analysis is often used by organizations to appraise the desirability of a given policy. It is an analysis of the expected balance of benefits and costs, including an account of foregone alternatives and the status quo. CBA helps predict whether the benefits of a policy outweigh its costs, and by how much relative to other alternatives, so that one can rank alternate policies in terms of the cost -- benefit ratio. Generally, accurate cost -- benefit analysis identifies choices that increase welfare from a utilitarian perspective. Assuming an accurate CBA, changing the status quo by implementing the alternative with the lowest cost -- benefit ratio can improve Pareto efficiency. While CBA can offer a well - educated estimate of the best alternative -- perfect appraisal of all present and future costs and benefits is difficult --, perfection in terms of economic efficiency and social welfare are not guaranteed.
The following is a list of steps that comprise a generic cost -- benefit analysis.
CBA attempts to measure the positive or negative consequences of a project, which may include:
A similar breakdown is employed in environmental analysis of total economic value. Both costs and benefits can be diverse. Financial costs tend to be most thoroughly represented in cost - benefit analyses due to relatively abundant market data. The net benefits of a project may incorporate cost savings or public willingness to pay compensation (implying the public has no legal right to the benefits of the policy) or willingness to accept compensation (implying the public has a right to the benefits of the policy) for the welfare change resulting from the policy. The guiding principle of evaluating benefits is to list all (categories of) parties affected by an intervention and add the (positive or negative) value, usually monetary, that they ascribe to its effect on their welfare.
The actual compensation an individual would require to have their welfare unchanged by a policy is inexact at best. Surveys (stated preference techniques) or market behavior (revealed preference techniques) are often used to estimate the compensation associated with a policy. Stated preference technique is a direct way of assessing willingness to pay. Because it involves asking people directly to indicate their willingness to pay for some environmental feature, or some outcome that is closely connected to the state of the environment. However, survey respondents often have strong incentives to misreport their true preferences and market behavior does not provide any information about important non-market welfare impacts. Revealed preference technique is an indirect approaches to individual willingness to pay. People make market choices among certain items that have different characteristics related to the environment, they reveal the value they place on these environmental factors.
One controversy is valuing a human life, e.g. when assessing road safety measures or life - saving medicines. However, this can sometimes be avoided by using the related technique of cost - utility analysis, in which benefits are expressed in non-monetary units such as quality - adjusted life years. For example, road safety can be measured in terms of cost per life saved, without formally placing a financial value on the life. However, such non-monetary metrics have limited usefulness for evaluating policies with substantially different outcomes. Additionally, many other benefits may accrue from the policy, and metrics such as ' cost per life saved ' may lead to a substantially different ranking of alternatives than traditional cost -- benefit analysis. See also: Statistical murder
Another controversy is valuing the environment, which in the 21st century is typically assessed by valuing ecosystem services to humans, such as air and water quality and pollution. Monetary values may also be assigned to other intangible effects such as business reputation, market penetration, or long - term enterprise strategy alignment.
CBA usually tries to put all relevant costs and benefits on a common temporal footing using time value of money calculations. This is often done by converting the future expected streams of costs and benefits into a present value amount using a discount rate. Empirical studies and a technical framework suggest that in reality, people do discount the future like this.
The choice of discount rate is subjective. A smaller rate values future generations equally with the current generation. Larger rates (e.g. a market rate of return) reflects humans ' present - bias or hyperbolic discounting -- valuing money that they will receive in the near future much more than money they will get in a distant period of time. The choice makes a large difference in assessing interventions with long - term effects. One example of this issue is the equity premium puzzle, which suggests that long - term returns on equities may be higher than they should be, after controlling for risk and uncertainty. If so, market rates of return should not be used to determine the discount rate, as this would have the effect of undervaluing the distant future (e.g. climate change).
Risk associated with project outcomes is usually handled using probability theory. This can be factored into the discount rate (to have uncertainty increasing over time), but is usually considered separately. Particular consideration is often given to agents ' risk aversion -- preferring a situation with less uncertainty to one with higher uncertainty, even if the latter has a higher expected return. In such a context, expected return calculations provide biased estimates of cost - benefits for a project as they fail to account for differences in the degree of uncertainty.
Uncertainty in CBA parameters (as opposed to risk of project failure etc.) can be evaluated using a sensitivity analysis, which shows how results respond to parameter changes. Alternatively a more formal risk analysis can be undertaken using Monte Carlo simulations.
The concept of CBA dates back to an 1848 article by Jules Dupuit and was formalized in subsequent works by Alfred Marshall. The Corps of Engineers initiated the use of CBA in the US, after the Federal Navigation Act of 1936 effectively required cost -- benefit analysis for proposed federal waterway infrastructure. The Flood Control Act of 1939 was instrumental in establishing CBA as federal policy; it demanded that "the benefits to whomever they accrue (be) in excess of the estimated costs. ''
The application for broader public policy started from the work of Otto Eckstein, who in 1958 laid out a welfare economics foundation for CBA and its application for water resource development. Over the 1960s, CBA was applied in the US for water quality, recreation travel, and land conservation. During this period, the concept of option value was developed to represent the non-tangible value of preserving resources such as national parks.
CBA was later expanded to address both intangible and tangible benefits of public policies relating to mental illness, substance abuse, college education, and chemical waste policies. In the US, the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 first required the application of CBA for regulatory programs, and since then, other governments have enacted similar rules. Government guidebooks for the application of CBA to public policies include the Canadian guide for regulatory analysis, Australian guide for regulation and finance, US guide for health care programs, and US guide for emergency management programs.
CBA application for transport investment started in the UK with the M1 motorway project, and was later applied on many projects including London Underground 's Victoria line. Later, the New Approach to Appraisal (NATA) was introduced by the then Department for Transport, Environment and the Regions. This presented cost -- benefit results and detailed environmental impact assessments in a balanced way. NATA was first applied to national road schemes in the 1998 Roads Review but subsequently rolled out to all transport modes. As of 2011 it was a cornerstone of transport appraisal in the UK and is maintained and developed by the Department for Transport.
The EU 's ' Developing Harmonised European Approaches for Transport Costing and Project Assessment ' (HEATCO) project, part of its Sixth Framework Programme, reviewed transport appraisal guidance across EU member states and found that significant differences exist between countries. HEATCO 's aim was to develop guidelines to harmonise transport appraisal practice across the EU.
Transport Canada promoted the use of CBA for major transport investments with the 1994 issuance of its Guidebook.
In the US, both federal and state transport departments commonly apply CBA, using a variety of available software tools including HERS, BCA.Net, StatBenCost, Cal - BC, and TREDIS. Guides are available from the Federal Highway Administration, Federal Aviation Administration, Minnesota Department of Transportation, California Department of Transportation (Caltrans), and the Transportation Research Board Transportation Economics Committee.
The increased usage of CBA in the US regulatory process is often associated with President Ronald Reagan 's administration. Though the use of CBA in US policy making dating back many decades, Reagan 's Executive Order 12291 mandated the use of CBA in the regulatory process. Reagan campaigned on a deregulation platform, and once he took office in 1981 quickly issued this EO, which vested the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) with the authority to review agency regulations and required federal agencies to produce regulatory impact analyses when the annual impact could be estimated over $100 M. Shortly thereafter, in the 1980s, academic and institutional critiques of CBA started to emerge. The three main criticisms were:
These criticisms continued through the 1990s under the Clinton administration, who furthered the anti-regulatory environment through his Executive Order 12866. EO 12866 changed some of Reagan 's language, requiring benefits to justify, rather than exceed costs, and added "reduction of discrimination or bias '' as one of the benefits to be analyzed. Criticisms of aspects of CBA, including uncertainty valuations, discounting future values, and the calculation of risk, were used to argue that CBA should play no part in the regulatory process. The use of CBA in the regulatory process continues today under the Obama administration, though the debate over its practical and objective value continues. Some analysts oppose the use of CBA in policy making, while those in favor of its use favor improvements to the analysis and calculations.
The value of a cost -- benefit analysis depends on the accuracy of the individual cost and benefit estimates. Comparative studies indicate that such estimates are often flawed, preventing improvements in Pareto and Kaldor - Hicks efficiency. Causes of these inaccuracies include:
Interest groups may attempt to include or exclude significant costs from an analysis to influence the outcome.
In the case of the Ford Pinto (where, because of design flaws, the Pinto was liable to burst into flames in a rear - impact collision), the company 's decision was not to issue a recall. Ford 's cost -- benefit analysis had estimated that based on the number of cars in use and the probable accident rate, deaths due to the design flaw would cost it about $49.5 million to settle wrongful death lawsuits versus recall costs of $137.5 million. Ford overlooked (or considered insignificant) the costs of the negative publicity that would result, which forced a recall and damaged sales.
In health economics, some analysts think cost -- benefit analysis can be an inadequate measure because willingness - to - pay methods of determining the value of human life can be influenced by income level. They support use of variants such as cost -- utility analysis, QALY and DALY to analyze the effects of health policies.
For some environmental effects cost - benefit analysis can be substituted with cost - effectiveness analysis. This is especially true when there is only one type of physical outcome that is sought, such as the reduction of energy use by increasing energy efficiency. Using cost - effectiveness analysis is less laborious and time - consuming as it does not involve the monetization of outcomes, which can be difficult in some cases.
In environmental and occupational health regulation, it has been argued that if modern cost -- benefit analyses had been applied prospectively to decisions such as whether to mandate the removal of lead from gasoline, block the construction of two proposed dams just above and below the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River, and regulate workers ' exposure to vinyl chloride, these measures would not have been implemented even though they are considered to be highly successful in retrospect. The Clean Air Act has been cited in retrospective studies as a case where benefits exceeded costs, but the knowledge of the benefits (attributable largely to the benefits of reducing particulate pollution) was not available until many years later.
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who plays young lucy in 13 going on 30 | 13 Going on 30 - wikipedia
13 Going on 30 (released as Suddenly 30 in some countries) is a 2004 American romantic comedy - drama fantasy film written by Josh Goldsmith and Cathy Yuspa and directed by Gary Winick. Starring Jennifer Garner, the film was produced by Revolution Studios for Columbia Pictures, and was released on April 23, 2004. It follows a 13 - year - old girl who dreams of being popular. During her birthday party, she is humiliated by classmates and wishes that she was thirty years old. When she eventually does emerge, she finds herself five days shy of her 30th birthday, uncertain how she got there.
The film received generally positive reviews from critics, with many praising Garner 's performance and its nostalgic environment. It was also praised for its humorous plot and self - empowering message. The film was also a commercial success, earning $22 million in its first week and grossing over $96 million, becoming one of the year 's biggest - selling DVD rental titles. Its soundtrack features songs spanning from the 1980s to the 2000s, with a range of hits from famous recording artists such as Billy Joel, Madonna, Michael Jackson, Pat Benatar and Whitney Houston. Additionally, the soundtrack charted inside the top 50 on the US Billboard 200 chart. Jennifer Garner 's acting earned her nominations from both the MTV Movie Awards and the Teen Choice Awards, and the film was also re-released in DVD in 2006 as "Fun and Flirty Edition '', and on Blu - Ray in 2009.
On May 26, 1987, Jenna Rink, a gawky girl, yearns to be popular, but the only way she can get the ruling clique - the "Six Chicks, '' led by the arrogant Lucy "Tom - Tom '' Wyman - to attend her upcoming 13th birthday party is by doing their homework. Jenna 's best friend, the geeky boy Matty Flamhaff, (with the nickname of Beaver because he looks like the star of Leave It to Beaver) arrives early to the party to give her a bright pink, dream dollhouse that he built for her. He sprinkles his second gift, a packet of glittery "magic wishing dust, '' on its roof.
The Six Chicks soon show up with the cutest boys in class and make Jenna play "Seven Minutes in Heaven ''. While Jenna waits, blindfolded, in a dark closet, thinking a popular boy she has a crush on is about to enter, the Six Chicks vanish with all the boys, half the food and Jenna 's completed homework. It 's Matt who walks into the closet, to Jenna 's horror. She locks herself in the closet and cries, wishing to be 30; above her, the glittering wishing dust from the dollhouse gently rains down.
The next morning, Jenna awakens in a gleaming Fifth Avenue apartment. Jenna 's dream has come true: It is now 2004, and Jenna, at first utterly baffled, particularly by the handsome hunk in her shower, realises she 's magically turned 30 overnight, with no idea of what happened in the intervening seventeen years.
Jenna discovers that she works for Poise, her favourite fashion magazine. Tough - as - nails Lucy is her co-editor and best friend, but the magazine itself is in serious trouble, having been scooped by a rival magazine named Sparkle so often that the editor - in - chief believes someone inside Poise is tipping them off. Jenna, freaking out like the frightened teen she still is, wants only to find Matty. She gets his address and races down to the Village where the now - grown Matt (Mark Ruffalo) is a struggling photographer. To her confusion, he 's distant and cold, and ca n't even fill Jenna on much of her missing past, because she became head of the "Six Chicks, '' and never spoke to Matt again. She even became Prom Queen - and Lucy, her only friend, is actually the original "Tom - Tom '' after plastic surgery.
While delighting in her freedom and great clothes, Jenna stumbles through a grown - up world, learning enough of life to advise other 13 - year - olds whom she actually prefers to hang with. But her slowly - emerging past reveals she was nothing like the sweet, shy girl she 'd been the day before: this grown - up Jenna stole ideas, refuses to speak to her parents, and has office sex with the husband of a co-worker. After Jenna overhears her supposed best friend Lucy badmouthing her, in a plan to save the magazine behind her back, she resolves to fix the sins of the past she ca n't remember.
She returns to her hometown in New Jersey and weeps in the same basement closet. Her parents find her there, and they hug. She gets back in touch with Matt, gingerly apologises and hires him to do the photography on her own new plans for Poise, which is a huge break for him. Even though Matt has a fiancée in Chicago who 's eager for him to move there, Jenna and Matt begin to fall for each other.
Everyone loves Matt 's photos and Jenna 's new plans to save the magazine, but when Sparkle shows up yet again with this exact material, including Matt 's own photographs, and with Lucy as their new head, Poise folds. Outraged, Jenna confronts Lucy for stealing, but Lucy scornfully tells her that Jenna was the one sabotaging her own magazine all along; Lucy merely found out about it and did the same thing.
Matt, wounded by what he thought was Jenna 's betrayal of him, is getting married the next day. Jenna rushes out to the leafy suburb on his wedding day, hoping to convince Matt that she was n't the person she 'd seemed to be, that he 'd marry her if he could see who she really was, but Matt, already in his tux, says the past ca n't come back and hands Jenna her pink homemade dollhouse, which he 'd kept all these years. While the wedding begins in the background, Jenna leaves in tears, closing her eyes and clinging to the dollhouse -- on which a few bits of wishing dust still remain.
When Jenna opens her eyes, she 's back in 1987, on that same 13th birthday night with a second chance. This time, when Matt finds her huddled alone in the closet, she kisses him. They run upstairs together, bumping into Tom - Tom on the way, Jenna rips up the homework in Tom - Tom 's hands and Jenna and Matt run out of the house, emerging as a wedding couple on the other side of the door, and, as credits roll, they 're moving into a bright pink house just like the dollhouse that started it all.
In October 2002, American director Gary Winick was in negotiations to direct 13 Going on 30. It was also announced that Susan Arnold and Donna Arkoff Roth were producing the project with the writers ' manager, Gina Matthews. In May 13, 2003, it was reported that filming for the movie was underway in Los Angeles on Revolution Studios. It was filmed in Los Angeles, New York City, and South Pasadena, California. Interiors shots were filmed in Los Angeles. The crew moved to New York City where they shot exteriors for 17 days. Principal photography took place from May to November 2003. Written by Josh Goldsmith and Cathy Yuspa, the script was "polished '' by Niels Mueller (who lost an initial writing credit in a subsequent dispute arbitrated by the Writers Guild of America).
American actress Jennifer Garner was cast for the movie 's lead role. In order to film the picture, Garner shot it while on break from filming her TV series Alias. Gwyneth Paltrow, Hilary Swank, and Renée Zellweger were all considered for the part played by Garner. Judy Greer was cast to play Lucy, Garner 's best friend; Kathy Baker and Phil Reeves were invited to be Garner 's mother and father, respectively. Later, Andy Serkis was selected to play Garner 's boss; while Samuel Ball was announced as Garner 's boyfriend. Christa B. Allen, who portrays 13 - year - old Jenna, would later "reprise '' her role as a younger version of Jennifer Garner by portraying the teenaged version of Jenny Perotti in Ghosts of Girlfriends Past. In October 2016 it was announced 13 Going on 30 is going to Broadway in late 2017.
The 13 Going on 30 soundtrack was released on April 20, 2004 from Hollywood Records. The album mostly contains music from the 1980s, but there is a handful of songs performed by contemporary artists, such as Lillix and Liz Phair. It was released on April 20, 2004 by Hollywood Records.
The songs "Breathe '' by Michelle Branch and "Iris '' by the Goo Goo Dolls were featured in promotional trailers, but were not featured in the movie or on the soundtrack.
The film opened on April 23, 2004, with an initial box office take of US $ 22 million in its first weekend, debuting at number 2, almost tied with Denzel Washington 's thriller Man on Fire. In its second week, it dropped to number 3, earning US $10 million. In its third week, it fell to number 5, earning US $5.5 million. In its fourth week, it took sixth place with an estimated $4.2 million. In its fifth week, it only fell to number 7, with an estimated $2.5 million. In its sixth week, the film fell to number 9, earning $1 million. It ended with nearly $60 million at the domestic box office. The same picture became one of the five biggest DVD rentals of the year, with over $57 million in rentals alone according to the Internet Movie Database. The film 's success on DVD granted it a re-release (The Fun and Flirty Edition) in 2006 with special packaging. The picture grossed $96,455,697, going on to become one of the year 's biggest DVD rentals and sellers. The Blu - ray version of 13 Going on 30 was released on January 20, 2009.
The film received an approval rating of 65 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 158 reviews. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a very positive review with a grade of "A - '', writing "13 Going on 30 is the rare commercial comedy that leaves you entranced by what can happen only in the movies. '' Gleiberman also praised Jennifer Garner 's performance, writing: "She cuts out all traces of adult consciousness, of irony and flirtation and manipulation, reducing herself to a keen, goggle - eyed earnestness that 's utterly beguiling. '' Joe Leydon of Variety also praised her performance, writing "Garner throws herself so fully and effectively into the role that in a few key scenes, she vividly conveys Jenna 's high spirits and giddy pleasure through the graceful curling of her toes. '' Leydon praised the director Gary Winick for "bringing a fresh spin to most of the script 's cliches and emphasizing nuggets of emotional truth provided by Goldsmith and Yuspa. '' Wesley Morris of the Boston Globe wrote that "The movie is tailor - made for women who openly lust for dream houses, dream jobs, and dream hubbies. '' He also wrote that "the best stuff involves the childhood preamble. (The young actors playing Jenna, Matt, and Lucy are terrific.) Those moments feel painfully, comically true. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film 3 out of 4 stars, commenting, "This romantic comedy is intended as a cautionary fairy tale. The silly humor works with the movie 's gentle message of self - empowerment and avoids sappiness in a tender interlude where the adult Jenna returns to her childhood home. Amusing, charming and pleasantly nostalgic, 13 Going on 30 should fall easily onto moviegoers ' wish lists. '' It is written: "This shameless rip - off of the Tom Hanks Classic Big is weak, but predictable and is sparked by the excellent performance of Jennifer Garner ''.
Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times wrote: "The performances give the movie more flavor and life than the situation does; it often feels like prechewed Bubble Yum. The message of the plot is that a lack of sophistication is the key to success, even at a fashion magazine that attracts readers through sexy exhibitionism. The movie would have shown some daring savvy if it had played more with the role - playing aspect of fashion spreads. Instead it is content to eat its retro snack cake and have it, too. '' Andrea Gronvall of the Chicago Reader wrote that "The formula works, thanks in large part to star Jennifer Garner, who 's so radiant theaters should be stocking sunblock. Underlying the shenanigans and the pop - psychology moral -- self - love is a prerequisite for true love -- there 's a touching wistfulness about roads not taken. '' Jorge Morales of The Village Voice commented: "The thirtysomething in me was all, gag me with a spoon, but the kid in me was like, this movie 's rad to the max. ''
Garner was nominated for MTV movie and Teen Choice awards for her role as Jenna Rink.
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on which side did arabia and egypt fight | Egypt -- Saudi Arabia relations - Wikipedia
Egypt -- Saudi Arabia relations are the relations between the Arab Republic of Egypt and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Historically, they could also be considered as extending several centuries back to the relations between earlier regimes in Egypt -- the highly autonomous Egypt Eyalet in the Ottoman Empire and the Kingdom of Egypt -- and the earlier manifestations of Saudi / Wahhabi power in the Arabian Peninsula (Emirate of Diriyah).
Saudi Arabia and Egypt are both highly influential countries in the Arab world, with Egypt being the most populous Arab country and Saudi Arabia being a member of the G20.
According to a 2013 Pew global opinion poll, 78 % of Egyptians express a favourable view of Saudi Arabia, with 19 % expressing an unfavourable view.
Between 1811 and 1818 Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, governor of Egypt, led a campaign against the Emirate of Diriyah -- as the First Saudi State was known -- on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan. Ibrahim conquered Hejaz and Nejd and brought that first Saudi state to an end.
In the years immediately after the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 relations between Egypt and Saudi Arabia were cordial, driven by mutual suspicion of the Hashemites reigning in Jordan and (especially) Iraq at the time, and continuing from an anti-Hashemite alliance formed by King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia, King Farouk of Egypt and President Shukri al - Quwatli of Syria after the foundation of the Arab League in 1945. Subsequently, Nasser and King Saud of Saudi Arabia co-operated to limit the reach of the Baghdad Pact, which they felt was designed to increase the influence of Hashemite Iraq. As a result, the two countries signed a bilateral military pact in 1955, and worked to successfully prevent Jordan from joining the Baghdad Pact. Egypt came to have extensive involvement in the Saudi army, economy and education system. However the alliance was undermined by Saudi anxieties about the Egyptian government 's promotion of anti-monarchical forces in the Arab World (including the uncovering of an Egyptian - style Saudi Free Officers Movement and increasing labour unrest), Egypt 's increasing shift towards the Soviet Union, and efforts by Iraq and its western allies including the United States to drive a wedge between the two countries. By 1958 this deterioration in the relationship had led to King Saud offering a bribe of £ 1.9 million to Abdel Hamid al - Sarraj, the head of Syrian intelligence at the time and later Vice-President of the United Arab Republic, to secure the assassination of Nasser.
Thus under President Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt, backed by the Soviet Union, came to represent the Non-Aligned Movement and pan-Arabism, and was a nominal advocate of secularism and republicanism. The Saudis by contrast were strong supporters of absolute monarchy and Islamist theocracy, and were generally close to the governments of the United Kingdom and United States. This meant that the Saudi - Egyptian rivalry was one of the many threads of the Arab Cold War, which was manifested for example in the North Yemen Civil War, in which a Nasserist military junta headed by Abdullah as - Sallal overthrew the pro-Saudi Yemeni monarchy.
Egypt was also opposed by Saudi Arabia when it became the first Arab country to make peace with Israel. However relations between Egypt and Saudi Arabia warmed considerably during Sadat 's rule, with the Saudis playing a key role in persuading Sadat to carry out the expulsion of 20,000 Soviet military advisers from Egypt in 1972. The Saudis also doubled the amount of money they sent to Egypt in subsidies in the early 1970s to $200 million a year, bought French Mirage fighter jets on the Egyptians ' behalf to reduce their reliance on Soviet military technology, and offered low - interest loans to Egypt. In 1973 The Egyptian and Saudi governments also co-ordinated the Yom Kippur War with the OAPEC oil embargo against Israel 's western allies, leading to the 1973 oil crisis.
Unlike the situation at the time of Nasser, Mubarak 's Egypt -- a conservative dictatorship closely allied with the United States -- no longer represented an ideological or political polar opposite to Saudi Arabia. Nevertheless, there remained a rivalry between the two countries, both aspiring to preeminence in the Arab World in general and among the Arab allies of the US in particular. This rivalry manifested itself, for example, when U.S. President Barack Obama made a major tour of the Middle East in 2009, soon after assuming power. The Saudis resented Obama 's choice of Cairo as the venue for making a key policy speech, and State Department officials made an effort to mollify them by following up the Cairo speech with a high - profile Presidential visit to the Saudi capital.
During the 2011 Egyptian revolution, Saudi King Abdullah expressed support for Hosni Mubarak. "No Arab or Muslim can tolerate any meddling in the security and stability of Arab and Muslim Egypt by those who infiltrated the people in the name of freedom of expression, exploiting it to inject their destructive hatred. As they condemn this, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and its people and government declares it stands with all its resources with the government of Egypt and its people. '' He condemned the "people who tried to destabilise the security and stability of Egypt. ''
After the 2011 Egyptian revolution, relations between the two countries greatly deteriorated.
On 9 April 2011, hundreds of Egyptians gathered at the Saudi embassy in Cairo to protest mistreatment of Umrah pilgrims by Saudi Arabian Airlines and King Abdulaziz International Airport authorities in Jeddah. They wanted the Saudi ambassador, Hisham Nazer, to exit the country immediately. The protesters argued that the airport did not arrange enough flights back to Egypt in time for Eid ul - Fitr after thousands were stranded in the country. They also expressed disgust over how Saudi Arabian Airlines officials treated pilgrims at the airport, and protested that Saudi officials had meddled in Egyptian affairs during the revolution.
On 28 April 2012, Saudi Arabia announced the closure of its Cairo embassy and its consulates in Alexandria and Suez, following Egyptian protests over the detention of the Egyptian lawyer Ahmed al - Gizawi in Saudi Arabia.
Earlier in April 2012, al - Gizawi was detained shortly after his arrival in Saudi Arabia which some believe was because he defamed King Abdullah by filing a lawsuit in a South Cairo court against Saudi monarch King Abdullah on behalf of Egyptian citizens held without charge in Saudi prisons. Saudi authorities said he was arrested at the King Abdulaziz International Airport near Jeddah on 17 April for possession of 21,000 Xanax anti-anxiety pills, which are banned in the country. They expressed doubt that he intended to go on a pilgrimage, as he was not wearing the typical white pilgrim dress (Ihram). According to his wife, he was sentenced in absentia to a year in prison and 20 lashes after he arrived for a pilgrimage (Umrah).
An estimated 1,000 Egyptian protesters demonstrated in front of the Saudi embassy in Cairo on 27 April, demanding the release of al - Gizawi and of the other Egyptians held in Saudi jails. Following the protests Saudi authorities announced the closure of the Saudi embassy and other consulates in Egypt. Egypt 's head of military council, Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, said Egypt is working to heal the rift with Saudi Arabia over the surprise decision. Observers said that it is the worst fall - out in relations between the two countries since Saudi Arabia severed its ties with Egypt in 1979.
Soon after the embassy incident, Saudi Arabia announced that they would return ambassador Ahmad Abdulaziz Kattan and his envoy to Egypt after feverish efforts by Egyptian politicians, fearing the loss of aid, to gain back Saudi favor. King Abdullah said that he could "not allow this passing crisis to go on for long ''.
On 10 May 2012, ambassador Kattan announced that the kingdom agreed to provide US $500 million in aid to Egypt and will deposit an additional US $1 billion at the country 's central bank as part of the $2.7 billion support package they had agreed in 2011. Saudi Arabia will also export $250 million worth of butane to Egypt, which has faced ongoing shortages of the fuel, as well as US $200 million to help small and mid-sized firms. The donation was part of a move by multiple Gulf states to send a large aid package to Egypt.
Egyptian President Muhammad Morsi 's first official visit was to Saudi Arabia in July 2012, although he was the presidential candidate of the Muslim Brotherhood, whose views are not fully aligned with those of the Saudi government. Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi stated that Saudi Arabia is a pragmatic country and that whoever the president of Egypt is, Saudi government is aware of the fact that it has to maintain good relations with this country.
Saudi Arabia supported the 2013 Egyptian coup d'état and the subsequent military rule in Egypt.
In April 2016 King Salman of Saudi Arabia made a five - day visit to Egypt, during which the two countries signed economic agreements worth approximately $25 billion and also made an agreement to "return '' Tiran and Sanafir, two Egyptian - administered islands in the Gulf of Aqaba, to Saudi control. The announcement of the transfer of the islands provoked a backlash in Egypt, in both social media and traditional media, including outlets which had been firmly supportive of the Egyptian president Abdel Fattah el - Sisi.
Recently, ties between the two countries have become strained over differing stances on the Syrian Civil War and the very limited involvement of Egypt in the Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen.
Over the issue between Saudi Arabia and Egypt on Sanafir and Tiran, talks between Yitzhak Molcho from Israel and Sameh Shoukry, the Foreign Minister of Egypt, were leaked according to the Middle East Monitor. The Muslim Brotherhood is linked to the "Middle East Monitor ''. The Middle East Eye leaked the audio. Muslim Brotherhood supporters are connected to the "Middle East Eye ''. Eric Trager noted that the tape was leaked by an agency run by the Muslim Brotherhood.
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why is there a shortage of water in africa | Water scarcity in Africa - wikipedia
Water scarcity or lack of safe drinking water is one of the world 's leading problems affecting more than 1.1 billion people globally, meaning that one in every six people lacks access to safe drinking water. The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation set up by the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children 's Fund (UNICEF) defines safe drinking water as "water with microbial, chemical and physical characteristics that meets WHO guidelines or national standards on drinking water quality. '' Hydrologists generally assess water scarcity by looking at a population - to - water equation that treats 1,700 cubic meters per person as the national threshold for meeting water requirements for agricultural and industrial production, energy, and the environment. Availability below the threshold of 1,000 cubic meters represents a state of "water scarcity '', while anything below 500 cubic meters represents a state of "absolute scarcity ''.
As of 2006, one third of all nations suffered from clean water scarcity, but Sub-Saharan Africa had the largest number of water - stressed countries of any other place on the planet and of an estimated 800 million people who live in Africa, 300 million live in a water stressed environment. According to findings presented at the 2012 Conference on "Water Scarcity in Africa: Issues and Challenges '', it is estimated that by 2030, 75 million to 250 million people in Africa will be living in areas of high water stress, which will likely displace anywhere between 24 million and 700 million people as conditions become increasingly unlivable.
The most immediately apparent impact of water scarcity in Africa is on the continent 's health. With a complete lack of water, humans can only live up to 3 to 5 days on average. This often forces those living in water deprived regions to turn to unsafe water resources, which, according to the World Health Organization, contributes to the spread of waterborne diseases including typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery and diarrhea, and to the spread of diseases such as malaria whose vectors rely on such water resources, and can lead to diseases such as trachoma, plague, and typhus. Additionally, water scarcity causes many people to store water within the household, which increases the risk of household water contamination and incidents of malaria and dengue fever spread by mosquitoes. These waterborne diseases are not usually found in developed countries because of sophisticated water treatment systems that filter and chlorinate water, but for those living with less developed or non-existent water infrastructure, natural, untreated water sources often contain tiny disease - carrying worms and bacteria. Although many of these waterborne sicknesses are treatable and preventable, they are nonetheless one of the leading causes of disease and death in the world. Globally, 2.2 million people die each year from diarrhea - related disease, and at any given time fifty percent of all hospital beds in the world are occupied by patients suffering from water - related diseases. Infants and children are especially susceptible to these diseases because of their young immune systems, which lends to elevated infant mortality rates in many regions of Africa. Water scarcity has a big impact on hygiene.
When infected with these waterborne diseases, those living in African communities suffering from water scarcity can not contribute to the community 's productivity and development because of a simple lack of strength. Additionally, individual, community and governmental economic resources are sapped by the cost of medicine to treat waterborne diseases, which takes away from resources that might have potentially been allocated in support of food supply or school fees. Also, in term of governmental funding, the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) estimates that in Sub-Saharan Africa, treatment of diarrhea due to water contamination consumes 12 % of the country 's health budget. With better water conditions, the burden on healthcare would be less substantial, while a healthier workforce would stimulate economic growth and help alleviate the prevalence of poverty.
The Human Development Report reports that human use of water is mainly allocated to irrigation and agriculture. In developing areas, such as those within Europe, agriculture accounts for more than 80 % of water consumption. This is due to the fact that it takes about 3,500 liters of water to produce enough food for the daily minimum of 3,000 calories, and food production for a typical family of four takes a daily amount of water equivalent to the amount of water in an Olympic - sized swimming pool. Because the majority of Africa remains dependent on an agricultural lifestyle and 80 % to 90 % of all families in rural Africa rely upon producing their own food, water scarcity translates to a loss of food security. At this point, with less than a third of the continent 's potential using irrigation most of the rural African communities are not tapping into their irrigation potential, and according to the UN Economic Commission for Africa and New Partnership for Africa 's Development, "irrigation is key to achieving increased agricultural production that is important for economic development and for attaining food security ''. The doubling of Africa 's irrigated land is currently high on many political agendas, which can potentially be addressed through markets, commodity selection, ownership, land tenure, reliable water storage, and international agreements.
But for many regions, there is a lack of financial and human resources to support infrastructure and technology required for proper crop irrigation. Because of this, the impact of droughts, floods, and desertification is greater in terms of both African economic loss and human life loss due to crop failure and starvation. Additionally, lack of water causes many Africans to use wastewater for crop growth, causing a large number of people to consume foods that can contain chemicals or disease - causing organisms transferred by the wastewater. Thus, for the extremely high number of African areas suffering from water scarcity issues, investing in development means sustainably withdrawing from clean freshwater sources, ensuring food security by expanding irrigation areas, and effectively managing the effects of climate change.
African women and men 's divergent social positions lead to differences in water responsibilities, rights, and access, and so African women are disproportionally burdened by the scarcity of clean drinking water. In most African societies, women are seen as the collectors, managers, and guardians of water, especially within the domestic sphere that includes household chores, cooking, washing, and child rearing. Because of these traditional gender labor roles, women are forced to spend around sixty percent of each day collecting water, which translates to approximately 200 million collective work hours by women globally per day and a decrease in the amount of time available for education. Water scarcity exacerbates this issue, as indicated by the correlation of decrease in access to water with a decrease in combined primary, secondary, and tertiary enrollment of women.
For African women, their daily role in clean water retrieval often means carrying the typical jerrycan that can weigh over 40 pounds when full for an average of six kilometers each day. This has health consequences such as permanent skeletal damage from carrying heavy loads of water over long distances each day, which translates to a physical strain that contributes to increased stress, increased time spent in health recovery, and decreased ability to not only physically attend educational facilities, but also mentally absorb education due to the effect of stress on decision - making and memory skills. Also, in terms of health, access to safe and clean drinking water leads to greater protection from water - borne illnesses which increases women 's capabilities to attend school.
The detriment water scarcity has on educational attainment for women, in turn, affects the social and economic capital of women in terms of leadership, earnings, and working opportunities. As a result of this, many women are unable to hold professional employment. The lost number of potential school days and education hinders the next generation of African women from breaking out of the cycle of unequal opportunity for gainful employment, which serves to perpetuate the prevalence of unequal opportunity for African women and adverse effects associated with lacking income from gainful employment. Thus, improved access to water influences women 's allocation of time, level of education, and as a result their potential for higher wages associated with recognized and gainful employment.
In addition, the issue of water scarcity in Africa prevents many young children, especially girls, from attending school and receiving an education. They are expected to not only aid their mothers in water retrieval but to also help with the demands of household chores that are made more time - intensive because of a lack of readily available water. Furthermore, a lack of clean water means the absence of sanitary facilities and latrines in schools, and so once puberty hits, this has a more serious impact on female children. In terms of lost educational opportunity, it is estimated that this would result in 272 million more school attendance days per year if adequate investment were made in drinking water and sanitation.
For parents, an increase in access to reliable water resources reduces vulnerability to shocks, which allows for increased livelihood security and for families to allocate a greater portion of their resources to care for their children. This means improved nutrition for children, a reduction in school days missed due to health issues, and greater flexibility to spend resources on providing for the direct costs associated with sending children to school. And if families escape forced migration due to water scarcity, children 's educational potential is even further improved with better stability and uninterrupted school attendance.
Poverty is directly related to the accessibility of clean drinking water - without it, the chances of breaking out of the poverty trap are extremely slim. This concept of a "water poverty trap '' was developed by economists specifically observing sub-Saharan Africa and refers to a cycle of financial poverty, low agricultural production, and increasing environmental degradation. In this negative feedback loop, this creates a link between the lack of water resources with the lack of financial resources that affect all societal levels including individual, household, and community. Within this poverty trap, people are subjected to low incomes, high fixed costs of water supply facilities, and lack of credit for water investments, which results in a low level of investment in water and land resources, lack of investment in profit - generating activities, resource degradation, and chronic poverty. Compounding on this, in the slums of developing countries, poor people typically pay five to ten times more per unit of water than do people with access to piped water because of issues -- including the lack of infrastructure and government corruption -- which is estimated to raise the prices of water services by 10 % to 30 %.
So, the social and economic consequences of a lack of clean water penetrate into realms of education, opportunities for gainful employment, physical strength and health, agricultural and industrial development, and thus the overall productive potential of a community, nation, and / or region. Because of this, the UN estimates that Sub-Saharan Africa alone loses 40 billion potential work hours per year collecting water.
The explosion of populations in developing nations within Africa combined with climate change is causing extreme strain within and between nations. In the past, countries have worked to resolve water tensions through negotiation, but there is predicted to be an escalation in aggression over water accessibility.
Africa 's susceptibility to potential water - induced conflict can be separated into four regions: the Nile, Niger, Zambezi, and Volta basins. Running through Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan, the Nile 's water has the potential to spark conflict and unrest. In the region of the Niger, the river basin extends from Guinea through Mali and down to Nigeria. Especially for Mali -- one of the world 's poorest countries -- the river is vital for food, water and transportation, and its over usage is contributing to an increasingly polluted and unusable water source. In southern Africa, the Zambezi river basin is one of the world 's most over-used river systems, and so Zambia and Zimbabwe compete fiercely over it. Additionally, in 2000, Zimbabwe caused the region to experience the worst flooding in recent history when the country opened the Kariba Dam gates. Finally, within the Volta river basin, Ghana is dependent on its hydroelectric output but plagued by regular droughts which affect the production of electricity from the Akosombo Dam and limit Ghana 's ability to sustain economic growth. Paired with the constraints this also puts on Ghana 's ability to provide power for the area, this could potentially contribute to regional instability.
At this point, federal intelligence agencies have issued the joint judgment that in the next ten years, water issues are not likely to cause internal and external tensions that lead to the intensification war. But if current rates of consumption paired with climatic stress continue, levels of water scarcity in Africa are predicted by UNECA to reach dangerously high levels by 2025. This means that by 2022 there is the potential for a shift in water scarcity 's potential to contribute to armed conflict. Based on the classified National Intelligence Estimate on water security, requested by Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and completed in Fall 2011, after 2022 water will be more likely to be used as a weapon of war and potential tool for terrorism, especially in North Africa. On World Water Day, the State Department stated that water stress, "will likely increase the risk of instability and state failure, exacerbate regional tensions and distract countries from working with the United States on important policy objectives. '' Specifically referring to the Nile in Egypt, Sudan, and nations further south, the report predicts that upstream nations will limit access to water for political reasons and that terrorists may target water - related infrastructures, such as reservoirs and dams, more frequently. Because of this, the World Economic Forum 's 2011 Global Risk Report has included water as one of the world 's top five risks for the first time. Help the ones in need. think about the ones who are in need.
According to the Africa Partnership Forum, "Although Africa is the continent least responsible for climate change, it is particularly vulnerable to the effects, '' and the long - term impacts include, "changing rainfall patterns affecting agriculture and reducing food security; worsening water security; decreasing fish resources in large lakes due to rising temperature; shifting vector - borne diseases; rising sea level affecting low - lying coastal areas with large populations; and rising water stress ''.
More specifically, the Human Development Report predicts warming paired with 10 % less rainfall in interior regions of Africa, which will be amplified by water loss due to water loss increase from rising temperature. This warming will be greatest over the semi-arid regions of the Sahara, along the Sahel, and interior areas of southern Africa. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports that climate change in Africa has manifested itself in more intense and longer droughts in the subtropics and tropics, while arid or semi-arid areas in northern, western, eastern, and parts of southern Africa are becoming drier and more susceptible to variability of precipitation and storms.
The Human Development Report goes on to that explain that because of Africa 's dependence on rain - fed agriculture, widespread poverty, and weak capacity, the water issues caused by climate change impact the continent much more violently compared to developed nations that have the resources and economic diversity to deal with such global changes. This heightened potential for drought and falling crop yields will most likely lead to increased poverty, lower incomes, less secure livelihoods, and an increased threat of chronic hunger for the poorest people in sub-Saharan Africa. Overall this means that water stress caused by changing amounts of precipitation is particularly damaging to Africa and thus climate change is one of the major obstacles the continent must face when trying to secure reliable and clean sources of water.
Water scarcity is both a natural and human - made phenomenon. It is thus essential to break it down into two general types: Economic scarcity and physical scarcity. Economic scarcity refers to the fact that finding a reliable source of safe water is time consuming and expensive. Alternatively, physical scarcity is when there simply is not enough water within a given region.
The 2006 United Nations Economic Commission for Africa estimates that 300 million out of the 800 million who live on the African continent live in a water - scarce environment. Specifically in the very north of Africa, as well the very south of Africa, the rising global temperatures accompanying climate change have intensified the hydrological cycle that leads to drier dry seasons, thus increasing the risk of more extreme and frequent droughts. This significantly impacts the availability, quality and quantity of water due to reduced river flows and reservoir storage, lowering of water tables and drying up of aquifers in the northern and southern regions of Africa.
Included in the category of physical scarcity is the issue of overexploitation. This is contributing to the shrinking of many of Africa 's great lakes, including the Nakivale, Nakuru, and Lake Chad, which has shrunk to 10 % of its former volume. In terms of policy, the incentives for overuse are among the most damaging, especially concerning ground water extraction. For ground water, once the pump is installed, the policy of many countries is to only constrain removal based on the cost of electricity, and in many cases subsidize electricity costs for agricultural uses, which damages incentives to conserve such resources. Additionally, many countries within Africa set the cost of water well below cost - recovery levels, thus discouraging efficient usage and threatening sustainability.
The majority of Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from economic scarcity because of the population 's lack of the necessary monetary means to utilize adequate sources of water. Both political reasons and ethnic conflict have contributed to this unequal distribution of resources. Out of the two forms of water scarcity, economic scarcity can be addressed quickly and effectively with simple infrastructure to collect rainwater from roofs and dams, but this requires economic resources that many of these areas lack due to an absence of industrial development and widespread poverty.
Northern Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa are progressing towards the Millennium Development Goal on water at different paces. While Northern Africa has 92 % safe water coverage, Sub-Saharan Africa remains at a low 60 % of coverage -- leaving 40 % of the 783 million people in that region without access to clean drinking water.
Some of these differences in clean water availability can be attributed to Africa 's extreme climates. Although Sub-Saharan Africa has a plentiful supply of rainwater, it is seasonal and unevenly distributed, leading to frequent floods and droughts. Additionally, prevalent economic development and poverty issues, compounded with rapid population growth and rural - urban migration have rendered Sub-Saharan Africa as the world 's poorest and least developed region. Thus, this poverty constrains many cities in this region from providing clean water and sanitation services and preventing the further deterioration of water quality even when opportunities exist to address these water issues. Additionally, the rapid population growth leads to an increased number of African settlements on flood - prone, high - risk land.
To adequately address the issue of water scarcity in Africa, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa emphasizes the need to invest in the development of Africa 's potential water resources to reduce unnecessary suffering, ensure food security, and protect economic gains by effectively managing droughts, floods, and desertification. Some suggested and ongoing efforts to achieve this include an emphasis on infrastructural implementations and improvements of wells, rainwater catchment systems, and clean - water storage tanks.
Efforts made by the United Nations in compliance with the Millennium Development Goals have targeted water scarcity not just for Africa, but globally. The compiled list includes eight international development goals, seven of which are directly impacted by water scarcity. Access to water affects poverty, food scarcity, educational attainment, social and economic capital of women, livelihood security, disease, and human and environmental health. Because addressing the issue of water is so integral to reaching the MDGs, one of the sub-goals includes halving the proportion of the globe 's population without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015. In March 2012, the UN announced that this goal has been met almost four years in advance, suggesting that global efforts to reduce water scarcity are on a successful trend.
As one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, the United States plays an integral role in promoting solutions to aid with clean water scarcity. One of many efforts include USAID 's WASH - the WASH for Life partnership with the Gates Foundation - that works to promote water, sanitation, and hygiene. With this, the U.S. "will identify, test, and scale up evidence - based approaches for delivering these services to people in some of the poorest regions ''. Additionally, in March 2012, Hillary Clinton announced the U.S. Water Partnership, which will bring together people from the private sector, the philanthropic community, non-governmental organizations, academics, experts, and the government in an attempt to look for system - wide solutions. The technologies and ability to tackle the issue of water scarcity and cleanliness are present, but it is highly a matter of accessibility. Thus, the partnership will aim at making these solutions available and obtainable at a local level.
In addition to the role the United States, the United Nations, and other international governmental bodies, a number of charitable organizations work to provide clean water in Africa and elsewhere around the world. These charities are based on individual and group donations, which are then invested in a variety of methods and technologies to provide clean water.
The more basic solutions to help provide Africa with drinkable and usable water include well - digging, rain catchment systems, de-worming pills, and hand pumps, but high demand for clean water solutions has also prompted the development of some key creative solutions as well.
Some non-profit organizations have focused on the aspect of drinking water contamination from sewage waste by installing cost - effective and relatively maintenance - free toilets, such as Drop In The Bucket 's "Eco-sanitation Flush Toilet '' or Pump Aid 's "Elephant Toilet ''. The Elephant Toilet uses community - sourced resources in construction to build a relatively simple waste disposal mechanism that separates solids from liquids to promote faster decomposition and lower the impact on ground water. In comparison, the Eco-Sanitation Flush Toilet also uses no power of any kind, but actually treats sewage rather than just storing it so that the toilet 's output is only water. Both solutions are then simple for residents of African communities to maintain and have a notable impact on the cleanliness of local water sources.
Other solutions to clean water scarcity issues have focused on innovative pump systems, including hand - pumps, Water for People 's "Play Pumps '', and Pump Aid 's "Elephant Pumps ''. All three designs are built to aid communities in drawing clean water from wells. The hand pump is the most basic and simple to repair, with replacement parts easily found. Using a more creative approach, Play Pumps combine child 's play with clean water extraction through the use of playground equipment, called a roundabout. The idea behind this is as children play on the roundabout, water will simultaneously be pumped from a reservoir tank to either toilets, hand - washing stations, or for drinking water. Some downsides to the PlayPump, though, are its inability to address situations of physical water scarcity and the danger of exploitation when children 's play is equated with pumping water. Alternatively, Elephant Pumps are simple hand water pumps. After a well is prepared, a rope - pump mechanism is installed that is easy to maintain, uses locally sourced parts, and can be up and running in the time span of about a week. The Elephant Pump can provide 250 people with 40 litres of clean water per person per day.
Moving beyond sanitary waste disposal and pumps, clean water technology can now be found in the form of drinking straw filtration. Used as solution by Water Is Life, the straw is small, portable, and costs USD $10 per unit. The filtration device is designed to eliminate waterborne diseases, and as a result, provide safe drinking water for one person for one year.
Overall, a wide range of cost - effective, manageable, and innovative solutions are available to help aid Africa in producing clean, disease - free water. Ultimately what it comes down to is using technology appropriate for each individual community 's needs. For the technology to be effective, it must conform to environmental, ethical, cultural, social, and economic aspects of each Africa community. Additionally, state governments, donor agencies, and technological solutions must be mindful of the gender disparity in access to water so as to not exclude women from development or resource management projects. If this can be done, with sufficient funding and aid to implement such technologies, it is feasible to eliminate clean water scarcity for the African continent by the Millennium Development Goal deadline of 2015.
Africa is home to both the largest number of water - scarce countries out of any region, as well as home to the most difficult countries to reach in terms of water aid. The prevalence of rural villages traps many areas in what the UN Economic Commission for Africa refers to as the "Harvesting Stage '', which makes water - scarce regions difficult to aid because of a lack of industrial technology to make solutions sustainable. In addition to the geographic and developmental limiting factors, a number of political, economic reasons also stand in the way of ensuring adequate aid for Africa. Politically, tensions between local governments versus foreign non-governmental organizations impact the ability to successfully bring in money and aid - workers. Economically, urban areas suffer from extreme wealth gaps in which the overwhelming poor often pay four to ten times more for sanitary water than the elite, hindering the poor from gaining access to clean water technologies and efforts. As a result of all these factors, it is estimated that fifty percent of all water projects fail, less than five percent of projects are visited, and less than one percent have any long term monitoring.
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john cusack movie about the end of the world | 2012 (film) - wikipedia
2012 is a 2009 American epic disaster film directed by Roland Emmerich, and stars John Cusack, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Amanda Peet, Oliver Platt, Thandie Newton, Danny Glover and Woody Harrelson. The film was produced by Centropolis Entertainment and distributed by Columbia Pictures.
Filming, originally planned for Los Angeles, began in Vancouver in August 2008. The plot follows novelist Jackson Curtis as he attempts to bring his family to safety amid a worldwide geological disaster. The film refers to Mayanism and the 2012 phenomenon in its portrayal of cataclysmic events.
After a lengthy advertising campaign which included the creation of a website from its main character 's point of view and a viral marketing website on which filmgoers could register for a lottery number to save them from the ensuing disaster, 2012 was released internationally on November 13, 2009. Critics gave the film mixed reviews, praising its special effects and dark tone relative to Emmerich 's other work and criticizing its screenplay and length. It was a commercial success and one of 2009 's highest - grossing films.
In 2009, American geologist Adrian Helmsley visits astrophysicist Satnam Surtani in India and learns that neutrinos from a huge solar flare are heating Earth 's core. Helmsley presents his information to White House Chief of Staff Carl Anheuser, who brings him to the president.
In 2010, during a chaotic mass protest in Vancouver, U.S. President Thomas Wilson and other world leaders begin a secret project to ensure humanity 's survival. China and the G8 nations begin building nine arks, each capable of carrying 100,000 people, in the Himalayas near Cho Ming, Tibet. Nima, a Buddhist monk, is evacuated and his brother Tenzin joins the ark project. Funding is raised by selling tickets at € 1 billion per person. By 2011, articles of value are moved to the arks with the help of art expert and First Daughter Laura Wilson.
In 2012, struggling Los Angeles science - fiction writer Jackson Curtis is a chauffeur for Russian billionaire Yuri Karpov. Jackson 's former wife (Kate) and their children (Noah and Lilly) live with Kate 's boyfriend, plastic surgeon and pilot Gordon Silberman. Jackson takes Noah and Lilly camping in Yellowstone National Park. When they find an area fenced off by the Army, Jackson and his children climb over the fence. They are caught and brought to the geologist Adrian, who has read Jackson 's books. After they are released they meet Charlie Frost, who hosts a radio show from the park. After Jackson and his children leave, Adrian learns that the Earth is about to undergo drastic changes in a few hours, earlier than expected, with only four of the arks completed.
That night, after the military evacuates Yellowstone, Jackson watches Charlie 's video of Charles Hapgood 's theory that polar shifts, Earth crust displacement and the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar predict a 2012 phenomenon. According to Charlie, anyone who attempted to inform the public was killed, including Jackson 's NASA contact. After Jackson and his children return home, he delivers Yuri 's sons Alec and Oleg to Santa Monica Airport. Realizing that Charlie was right, Jackson rents a plane and rescues his family as the Earth - crust displacement begins, causing a 10.9 magnitude earthquake, and they escape from LA by air as the city is destroyed and sinks into the Pacific Ocean.
They fly to Yellowstone to retrieve a map from Charlie with the arks ' location. As they leave, the Yellowstone Caldera erupts; Charlie stays behind to cover the eruption and is killed. The group lands in Las Vegas to find a larger plane and meet Yuri, his twin sons Alec and Oleg, his girlfriend Tamara and their pilot Sasha. Sasha finds an Antonov An - 500 and pilots it with Gordon, and they leave just as the Yellowstone ash cloud consumes Vegas.
Adrian, Carl and Laura fly to the arks on Air Force One. Knowing that his daughter will survive, President Wilson remains in Washington D.C. to address the nation for the last time before. He, along with millions of people, die in earthquakes and tsunamis worldwide. With the presidential line of succession gone, Carl assumes the position of acting commander - in - chief.
The group arrives in China. Everyone except Sasha escapes on a Bentley Continental Flying Spur stored in the cargo hold just before the plane runs out of fuel. Sasha is killed when the plane crashes, and the others are spotted by Chinese Air Force helicopters. Yuri and his sons, possessing tickets, are brought to the arks and the Curtis family, Tamara and Gordon are left behind. On Ark 4, the American ark, Adrian is contacted by Satnam, who tells that he is stuck on the Nampan Plateau with his entire family as the airlift meant for them never came, with a massive tsunami coming from the east, killing Satnam himself, his entire family and all the evacuees around them. Enraged, Adrian estimates that the wave will hit the arks in 28 minutes. The remaining group consisting of Jackson, Tamara, Noah, Lilly, Gordon and Kate, gets picked up by Nima and brought to the arks with his grandparents. With Tenzin 's help they stow away on Ark 4. Due to the lack of time, Carl wants to leave immediately, but Adrian manages to use Satnam 's death to convince the world leaders to let the people outside in.
As the wave breaches the Himalayas and approaches the site, an impact driver lodges in the ark - door gears, keeping a boarding gate open and preventing the ship 's engines from starting. In the ensuing chaos where many people attempt to board the ships, Yuri, Tamara and Gordon are killed, Tenzin is injured, Ark 4 begins filling with water and is set adrift after Air Force One crashes into one of its supports, while also causing it to skim the hull of Ark 6 before drifting off. With Jackson and Noah 's help, the crew of the Ark manages to regain control of the Ark narrowly before it fatally smashes into Mount Everest.
Jackson is reunited with his family and reconciles with Kate. Twenty - seven days later, as the waters recede, the arks approach the Cape of Good Hope, where the Drakensberg (now the tallest mountain range on Earth) is emerging. Adrian and Laura begin a relationship, and Jackson and Kate rekindle their own romance.
An alternate ending appears in the film 's DVD version. After Captain Michaels (the Ark 4 captain) announces that they are heading for the Cape of Good Hope, Adrian receives a phone call. He answers the call, and is shocked to recognize the voice as his father 's (Harry). Harry tells Adrian that he, his friend Tony (whose left arm is in a sling) and several others survived the megatsunami and are shipwrecked on an island. Adrian informs Captain Michaels of this and the Ark heads for them. Kate thanks Laura for taking care of Lilly, and Laura tells Jackson that she enjoyed his book. Jackson returns Noah 's cell phone, which he recovered during the Ark 4 flood. Lilly says that she sees an island, and the ark finds the shipwrecked Genesis and her survivors on a beach.
Graham Hancock 's Fingerprints of the Gods was listed in 2012 's credits as the film 's inspiration, and Emmerich said in a Time Out interview: "I always wanted to do a biblical flood movie, but I never felt I had the hook. I first read about the Earth 's Crust Displacement Theory in Graham Hancock 's Fingerprints of the Gods. '' He and composer - producer Harald Kloser worked closely together, co-writing a spec script (also entitled 2012) which was marketed to studios in February 2008. A number of studios heard a budget projection and story plans from Emmerich and his representatives, a process repeated by the director after Independence Day (1996) and The Day After Tomorrow (2004).
Later that month, Sony Pictures Entertainment received the rights to the spec script. Planned for distribution by Columbia Pictures, 2012 cost less than its budget; according to Emmerich, the film was produced for about $200 million.
Filming, originally scheduled to begin in Los Angeles in July 2008, began in Kamloops, Savona, Cache Creek and Ashcroft, British Columbia. With a Screen Actors Guild strike looming, the film 's producers made a contingency plan to salvage it. Uncharted Territory, Digital Domain, Double Negative, Scanline, and Sony Pictures Imageworks were hired to create 2012 's computer - animated visual effects.
The film depicts the destruction of several cultural and historical icons around the world. Emmerich said that the Kaaba was considered for selection, but Kloser was concerned about a possible fatwā against him.
2012 was marketed by the fictional Institute for Human Continuity, featuring a book by Jackson Curtis (Farewell Atlantis), streaming media, blog updates and radio broadcasts from zealot Charlie Frost on his website, This Is The End. On November 12, 2008, the studio released the first trailer for 2012. With a tsunami surging over the Himalayas and a purportedly - scientific message that the world would end in 2012, the trailer 's message was that international governments were not preparing their populations for the event. The trailer ended with a suggestion to viewers to "find out the truth '' by entering "2012 '' on a search engine. The Guardian called the film 's marketing "deeply flawed '', associating it with "websites that make even more spurious claims about 2012 ''.
The studio introduced a viral marketing website operated by the Institute for Human Continuity, where filmgoers could register for a lottery number to be part of a small population which would be rescued from the global destruction. David Morrison of NASA, who received over 1,000 inquiries from people who thought the website was genuine, condemned it. "I 've even had cases of teenagers writing to me saying they are contemplating suicide because they do n't want to see the world end '', Morrison said. "I think when you lie on the internet and scare children to make a buck, that is ethically wrong. '' Another marketing website promoted Farewell Atlantis, the fictional novel about the events of 2012.
Comcast organized a "roadblock campaign '' to promote the film in which a two - minute scene was broadcast on 450 American commercial television networks, local English - language and Spanish - language stations, and 89 cable outlets during a ten - minute window between 10: 50 and 11: 00 pm Eastern and Pacific Time on October 1, 2009. The scene featured the destruction of Los Angeles and ended with a cliffhanger, with the entire 5: 38 clip available on Comcast 's Fancast website. According to Variety, "The stunt will put the footage in front of 90 % of all households watching ad - supported TV, or nearly 110 million viewers. When combined with online and mobile streams, that could increase to more than 140 million ''.
The film 's score was composed by Harald Kloser and Thomas Wander. Singer Adam Lambert contributed a song to the film, "Time for Miracles '', and expressed his gratitude in an MTV interview. The 24 - song soundtrack includes "Fades Like a Photograph '' by Filter and "It Ai n't the End of the World '' by George Segal and Blu Mankuma. The trailer track was "Master of Shadows '' by Two Steps From Hell.
2012 was released to cinemas on November 13, 2009 in Sweden, Canada, Denmark, Mexico, India, the United States, and Japan. According to the studio, the film could have been completed for a summer release but the delay allowed more time for production.
The DVD and Blu - ray versions were released on March 2, 2010. The two - disc Blu - ray edition includes over 90 minutes of features, including Adam Lambert 's music video for "Time for Miracles '' and a digital copy for PSP, PC, Mac, and iPod. A 3D version was released in Cinemex theaters in Mexico in February 2010.
2012 grossed $166.1 million in North America and $603.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $769.7 million against a production budget of $200 million, making it the first film to gross over $700 million worldwide without crossing $200 million domestically. Worldwide, it was the fifth - highest - grossing 2009 film and the fifth - highest - grossing film distributed by Sony - Columbia, (behind Sam Raimi 's Spider - Man trilogy and Skyfall). 2012 is the second - highest - grossing film directed by Roland Emmerich, behind Independence Day (1996). It earned $230.5 million on its worldwide opening weekend, the fourth - largest opening of 2009 and for Sony - Columbia.
2012 ranked number one on its opening weekend, grossing $65,237,614 on its first weekend (the fourth - largest opening for a disaster film). Outside North America it is the 28th - highest - grossing film, the fourth - highest - grossing 2009 film, and the second - highest - grossing film distributed by Sony - Columbia, after Skyfall. 2012 earned $165.2 million on its opening weekend, the 20th - largest overseas opening. Its largest opening was in France and the Maghreb ($18.0 million). In total earnings, the film 's three highest - grossing territories after North America were China ($68.7 million), France and the Maghreb ($44.0 million), and Japan ($42.6 million).
2012 received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 39 % based on 238 reviews with an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Roland Emmerich 's 2012 provides plenty of visual thrills, but lacks a strong enough script to support its massive scope and inflated length. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score 49 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert praised 2012, giving it 3 ⁄ stars out of 4 and saying that it "delivers what it promises, and since no sentient being will buy a ticket expecting anything else, it will be, for its audiences, one of the most satisfactory films of the year ''. Ebert and Claudia Puig of USA Today called the film the "mother of all disaster movies ''. But Peter Travers of Rolling Stone compared it to Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen: "Beware 2012, which works the dubious miracle of almost matching Transformers 2 for sheer, cynical, mind - numbing, time - wasting, money - draining, soul - sucking stupidity. ''
North Korea reportedly banned the possession or viewing of 2012. The year was the 100th anniversary of the birth of the nation 's founder, Kim Il - sung, and was designated as "the year for opening the grand gates to becoming a rising superpower ''; a film depicting the year negatively was deemed offensive by the North Korean government. Several people in North Korea were reportedly arrested for possessing (or viewing) imported copies of 2012 and charged with "grave provocation against the development of the state ''.
In 2010 Entertainment Weekly reported a planned spin - off television series, 2013, which would have been a sequel to the film. 2012 executive producer Mark Gordon told the magazine, "ABC will have an opening in their disaster - related programming after Lost ends, so people would be interested in this topic on a weekly basis. There 's hope for the world despite the magnitude of the 2012 disaster as seen in the film. After the movie, there are some people who survive, and the question is how will these survivors build a new world and what will it look like. That might make an interesting TV series. '' However, plans were later canceled for budgetary reasons. It would have been Emmerich 's third film to spawn a spin - off; the first was Stargate (followed by Stargate SG - 1, Stargate Infinity, Stargate Atlantis, Stargate Universe), and the second was Godzilla (followed by the animated Godzilla: The Series).
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who sang saved by the bell theme song | Saved by the Bell - wikipedia
Saved by the Bell is an American television sitcom that aired on NBC from 1989 to 1993. A reboot of the Disney Channel series Good Morning, Miss Bliss, the show follows a group of friends and their principal. Primarily focusing on lighthearted comedic situations, it occasionally touches on serious social issues, such as drug use, driving under the influence, homelessness, remarriage, death, women 's rights, and environmental issues. The series starred Mark - Paul Gosselaar, Dustin Diamond, Lark Voorhies, Dennis Haskins, Tiffani - Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, and Mario Lopez.
The show spawned two spin - off series: Saved by the Bell: The College Years (1993 -- 1994), a primetime series that follows several of the characters to college, and Saved by the Bell: The New Class (1993 -- 2000), a Saturday morning series that follows a new group of students at Bayside High School. The series also spawned two TV movies, Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style in 1992 and Saved by the Bell: Wedding in Las Vegas in 1994.
Saved by the Bell, which pre-dates the enforcement of the 1990 Children 's Television Act, has since been classified as educational and informational. The show was named one of the "20 Best School Shows of all Time '' by AOL TV.
In casting Good Morning, Miss Bliss, Peter Engel knew the success of the show would not hinge on Miss Bliss herself, but on her students. Engel particularly envisioned one character, Zack Morris, who "would be that incorrigible kid who could lie to your face, letting you know very well that he 's lying, and make you love him for it all the same. '' Engel insisted that the show could not go on without Zack Morris, but he turned out to be one of the most difficult characters to cast. Engel 's casting director, Shana Landsburg, finally happened across fourteen - year old Mark - Paul Gosselaar and was immediately struck by the teen 's charisma, charm, and good looks. After a quick read - through, Gosselaar was immediately given the role.
After casting Zack Morris, the next character sought after was Morris 's nerdy friend, Samuel "Screech '' Powers. Gosselaar was asked to read through the script with a number of kids, and a second audition was scheduled for finalists. It was Gosselaar himself who insisted that Dustin Diamond was right for the part as he believed Diamond was Screech in real life. After reading through the script, Diamond was given the part, although Engel later found out that he had misread his head shot and Diamond was considerably younger than the rest of the cast -- a fact that, had he been aware, might have prevented Engel from casting him.
Lisa Turtle was originally conceived as a rich Jewish princess from Long Island, spoiled, materialistic, and obsessed with shopping. While still casting from the role, African - American actress Lark Voorhies was brought into Engel 's office, and he immediately knew she was perfect for the role despite the fact that it meant rewriting the character.
The school principal, Mr. Gerald Belding, as originally conceived on Good Morning, Miss Bliss, was an older, humorless man, and was played in the 1987 pilot by character actor Oliver Clark. After the show was retooled for Disney Channel, the character 's first name was changed to Richard and he was recast, with Dennis Haskins ultimately winning the role. Mr. Belding was rewritten to be significantly younger and to have a much different sense of humor
When Good Morning, Miss Bliss was retooled as Saved by the Bell, four actors and their respective characters from the original series were brought over to the new series: Gosselaar, Diamond, Voorhies, and Haskins. The rest of the cast was fired, and Engel sought to replace them with new characters who would complement the old ones.
The first of the new characters, A.C. Slater, was conceived as a young John Travolta type who would be an army brat and wear a leather jacket. He was originally conceived of as Italian - American. However, when all efforts to cast the character were unsuccessful, Engel asked that the part be opened up to other races. Two days later, Mario Lopez, a dancer and drummer of Latino descent from Kids Incorporated auditioned for the role. Lopez was, by far, the best actor who auditioned, and was cast.
For Kelly Kapowski, the love interest of both Zack and Slater, producers were able to narrow the field down to three actresses: Tiffani - Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, and Jennie Garth. Engel had originally met Thiessen in 1988 while casting for Good Morning, Miss Bliss and was impressed with how much her acting had improved. He wanted her for the role, believing she had the perfect all - American girl appeal for the role, while others felt that Berkley, as the more experienced actress, would be a more reliable choice. Ultimately, Engel convinced the others after a read - through with Lopez, and Thiessen received the role.
Engel and the other producers did not want to lose Berkley, however, as she was the strongest actress they 'd seen during casting. Berkley originally auditioned for the role of Karen, a love - interest of Zack 's on Good Morning, Miss Bliss, but lost the role because she was so much taller than Gosselaar at the time. Engel believed that, now that her height was more even with the rest of the cast, she could be perfect. They were not having much luck in casting the third new character, Jessie Spano, who was conceived as a strong, feminist activist and a straight - A student, so Engel suggested offering the role to Berkley, who gladly accepted it.
Rounding out the new cast was real - life magician Ed Alonzo as Max, the owner of the gang 's frequent cafe hangout, The Max, who frequently performed magic tricks. Alonzo 's role, however, would ultimately only last through the end of the first season, and he left after a single guest appearance during season two.
In 1992, Saved by the Bell unexpectedly received an order for an additional eleven episodes to be shot after the graduation episode. However, Thiessen and Berkley had already decided to leave the show. Though producers knew they could n't replace Kelly and Jessie, they also knew they could n't leave Lisa as the only girl on the show. A new character, Tori Scott, was created as a cool but pretty biker girl who would also serve as a love interest for Zack and also act as a nemesis for him initially. Leanna Creel was cast for the part. Rather than develop a second new character, the producers decided to rely more on minor recurring characters such as Ginger, Ox, and Big Pete.
In 1986, Brandon Tartikoff, then - president of NBC, asked Peter Engel to develop the pilot for a new prime time series, Good Morning, Miss Bliss Tartikoff had been inspired by his sixth grade teacher, Miss Bliss, and had long wanted to make a show about someone like her. The series would focus on Miss Carrie Bliss, a recently married sixth grade teacher at the fictional John F. Kennedy Junior High School in Indianapolis. Though Sandy Duncan was originally considered for the titular role, the series ultimately became a vehicle for former British child star Hayley Mills. Veteran writer Sam Bobrick was brought on to write the episode and the cast included future stars Jonathan Brandis, Brian Austin Green, and Jaleel White.
The pilot aired on June 11, 1987, but NBC had decided not to pick up the series even before it was shown. Tartikoff did n't want to give up on the show, though, and made a deal with the Disney Channel to air thirteen episodes of the series in prime time. If the initial order did well, Disney was prepared to order an additional seven - seven. The show was completely retooled, with Mills the sole remaining cast member from the pilot. Miss Bliss 's class was changed from the sixth grade to the eight grade, and the kids would be more central to the story.
Good Morning, Miss Bliss aired from 1988 to 1989. However, the show failed to pick up a following and did poorly in the ratings. By the time the last episode aired, Disney had already decided against ordering more.
Tartikoff felt there had been strong elements to Good Morning, Miss Bliss and wanted to try the show again with a different time slot and a different approach. The elements featuring the kids had been well - received, so Tartikoff wanted to drop Miss Bliss from the show altogether and focus entirely on the teens. NBC had been losing the high end of their animated audience, kids from ten to twelve, so the idea was to create a live action comedy to air on Saturday mornings, a new idea at the time.
Engel was skeptical of the new format at first, and did not want to make children 's programming. However, his wife convinced him that making the show would be a worthwhile endeavor, and he soon told Tartikoff he would do the show. Engel felt, however, that Indianapolis was not exciting as a location, and moved the show to a semi-fictional part of Los Angeles, "the Palisades. '' The main locations of the show would be the teenager 's school, Bayside High, and The Max, a fictional eatery they frequent. In addition, they would film before a live studio audience.
The majority of the cast was replaced, and Tartikoff gave a seven episode commitment for the show. In a meeting with Engel and Tartikoff, senior producer Tom Tenowich suggested the name Saved by the Bell. Though Engel hated the name, Tartikoff loved it. The name stuck, and filming commenced, with the first episode, "Dancing to the Max, '' airing in prime time on August 20, 1989.
In 1992, NBC approved the production of a feature - length made - for - television Saved by the Bell film to air in prime time. Titled Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style, the film followed the six teenagers from the show as they vacationed in Hawaii with Kelly 's grandfather, Harry Bannister (Dean Jones). They soon discover Mr. Belding also happens to be there, and the seven are caught up in a plan to save Harry 's resort from a greedy developer.
The film was written by Bennet Tramer and directed by Don Barnhart. Due to budget constraints, the much of the film was shot in Santa Monica, with only location shots that could not easily be faked were shot in Hawaii. The shooting schedule in Hawaii turned out to be massive, even after Engel and Barnhart scouted the location. Real - life lifeguards were hired as extras during beach scenes to ensure the safety of the cast.
Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style was ultimately successful in the ratings, and ultimately paved the way for Saved by the Bell: The College Years airing in prime time.
Following the cancellation of Saved by the Bell: The College Years on a cliffhanger in 1994, NBC President Warren Littlefield commissioned a second Saved by the Bell film to both conclude the story started in the final episode of Saved by the Bell: The College Years in which Zack and Kelly become engaged, and acts as a series finale for the original Saved by the Bell. The story features Zack, Kelly, Slater, Screech, and Lisa travelling to Las Vegas so Zack and Kelly can elope after their parents disapprove of their impending marriage.
The show was popular enough to justify two spin - offs, both of which premiered in 1993.
Following the conclusion of Saved by the Bell, an idea came out of a focus group for Saved by the Bell: The New Class, in addition to creating a new cast of characters, to continue the story of the original Saved by the Bell cast. The new show aired in prime time and feature only Zack, Slater, and Screech from the original cast attending the fictional California University and living in a suite with a new cast of girls. Kelly later joined the cast after the pilot.
Although ratings started out promising, they quickly plateaued against the competition of Full House and Rescue 911, two well - established, popular shows in prime time. Saved by the Bell: The College Years was ultimately cancelled after only one season of nineteen episodes. The events of the final episode would lead directly into the second Saved by the Bell film: Saved by the Bell: Wedding in Las Vegas.
In 1993, NBC decided it wanted to extend the Saved by the Bell franchise with a new show, Saved by the Bell: The New Class. Also set at Bayside, the show would follow a new cast of characters as they navigate their high school years. Reprising his role from the original series was Dennis Haskins, once again as their principal, Mr. Belding. Following the cancellation of Saved by the Bell: The College Years in 1994, Peter Engel asked Dustin Diamond to reprise his role as Samuel "Screech '' Powers, who was returning to Bayside on a work - study program as Mr. Belding 's administrative assistant.
Saved by the Bell: The New Class ran for seven seasons and 143 episodes, from 1993 to 2000. The cast was constantly revolving, with Haskins as the only constant throughout all seven seasons. By the end of the series, the show had run out of ideas. The show was not generally well - received, and some today believe that it failed to recapture the charm of the original series.
On April 9, 2006, Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim announced that Saved by the Bell would air at midnight as a two - week special starting April 17. On April 19, 2006, Adult Swim also posted on their website that Saved by the Bell was back in production. A week later, the announcement was exposed as a joke.
On March 27, 2009, NBC 's Late Night with Jimmy Fallon launched a campaign to get the cast on board for a Saved by the Bell reunion. Fans signed an online petition and pledged their support for the cast to reunite on the show. Dennis Haskins, Lark Voorhies, Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley, and Mark - Paul Gosselaar agreed to a reunion. Gosselaar reprised his role as Zack Morris in a skit on Late Night on June 8, 2009, while promoting his then current TNT drama, Raising the Bar. The spoof interview closed with a performance of "Friends Forever, '' originally by Zack Attack, where Zack played guitar and sang with backing from Fallon 's house band, The Roots. Tiffani Thiessen posted a parody video to the website Funny or Die, where she claimed she was too busy to join the reunion.
The cast reunited in August 2009 for a photo shoot in People Magazine. Diamond was not invited to participate in the photo shoot because of poor relationships with the rest of the cast. Diamond 's image was also edited out of the 1989 cast photo that was used on the cover inset of an issue of People Magazine to show how the cast looked 20 years later.
The cast convened again when Haskins, Diamond, Gosselaar, Voorhies, and Lopez did their own voices in a Saved by the Bell Saw parody, called "Sawed by the Bell '', on "Boo Cocky '', a season three episode of Robot Chicken. Gosselaar also provided audio commentary for the episode on the DVD.
On February 4, 2015, the cast appeared on a skit on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon while episodes of the program were taped in Los Angeles. Haskins, Gosselaar, Lopez, Berkley and Thiessen all participated, though Voorhies and Diamond did not, with Thiessen 's real - life pregnancy, Lopez 's involvement with Dancing with the Stars and Berkley 's film Showgirls the targets of some of the humor.
The theme song for Saved by the Bell was written by composer Scott Gayle against the implicit instructions of Engel. Though Engel had not been able to keep the show from being named Saved by the Bell, he was determined to prevent the phrase from showing up in the theme. He gave explicit orders to his team of composers that he would not accept any theme that referenced the title, and the group agreed to leave out the phrase.
A week later, Engel listened to the first four composers and, though they followed his instructions, the songs were flat and nothing special. Gayle played his song next and, though he explicitly violated Engel 's instructions, Engel could n't help but admit it was the best and perfect for the show. Engel would later comment that he was glad Gayle had not followed his instructions.
Lionsgate Home Entertainment released all four seasons of Saved By The Bell, broken into five seasons (season 4 split in two) on DVD in Region 1. However, the episodes on these and all subsequent releases are the edited versions as used in syndication, with scenes cut for time. Lionsgate released the two feature - length TV movies on DVD, in Region 1, on August 7, 2007. On March 13, 2012, Lionsgate (distributed by Alliance Films) released Saved By The Bell: The Complete Collection on DVD in Canada. The 13 - disc set features all 86 episodes of the series as well as the two reunion tele - films.
On November 5, 2013, Lionsgate released a complete - series set in the United States. It does not contain the reunion movies but does include some bonus commentaries.
In Region 2, Fabulous Films has released all 5 seasons on DVD in the UK.
Contender Entertainment Group released the 2 reunion tele - films on DVD in the UK in 2004.
In Region 4, Shock Entertainment released Season One on DVD in Australia on February 10, 2010.
In - depth Documentary Focusing on Series Phenomenon
2 Saved By The Bell Movies
It 's Alright: Back To The Bell
Selected Episodes Commentaries
In - depth Documentary Focusing On Series Phenomenon
A CD and cassette tape soundtrack was released on April 11, 1995. It contained songs used throughout the series. The track listing is as follows:
There have 21 novelizations based on the show, released by the publisher Boxtree Ltd, all written by Beth Cruise. The books all feature the main cast and have the same storylines that relate to the main - plots in the TV shows.
Several unofficial books relating to the show have also been published.
In 1992, Harvey Comics published a short - lived Saved by the Bell Comic series. Seven issues were released, including a Christmas and a Summer special. The comic was generally not well - received, with comic book critic Matt D. Wilson saying "its character likenesses for the show 's starts were rough at best. ''
In 2014, Lion Forge Comics announced that its new all - ages imprint, ROAR Comics, would publish a new Saved by the Bell comic. Set initially during the gang 's freshman year of high school, the comic serves as a modern update to the classic series. It premiered in March 2014 alongside ROAR 's adaptation of Punky Brewster.
In 2009, Dustin Diamond published an inside story of the show 's cast and crew from his point of view, entitled Behind the Bell. The book paints an unflattering portrait of many of Diamond 's colleagues and their alleged backstage behavior. Some of Diamond 's claims have been refuted by colleagues and questioned by critics. Diamond also alleges in the book that he had sex with 2,000 women, one of them being NBC 's Vice President of children 's programming, Linda Mancuso, who was 18 years his senior. Diamond later disclaimed responsibility for much of the book 's content, blaming his ghostwriter for fabricating salacious stories.
The Unauthorized Saved by the Bell Story aired on Lifetime on September 1, 2014.
In September 2013, Bayside! The Musical! The unauthorized parody of Saved by the Bell opened at NYC 's Theatre 80. Bayside! The Musical! was named a New York Times Critics ' Pick. Bayside! The Musical! was written and directed by Bob and Tobly McSmith, the same creative team behind Showgirls! The Musical! In contrast to the wholesome nature of Saved by the Bell, Bayside! The Musical! contains strong language and adult situations throughout. The show 's run has been extended 6 times.
Bayside! originally debuted in 2005 under the title Bayside! The UnMusical! The following year a sequel was produced called Bayside 2! Electric Screechio The show then took several years off, reopening in 2012 at NYC 's Kraine Theatre with a revamped script and new cast Following the success of Showgirls! The Musical! the show 's creators Bob and Tobly McSmith revisited their script and reworked it from the ground up.
The show has had appearances from original Saved by the Bell cast members such as Dustin Diamond and Dennis Haskins.
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where was kenny chesney anything but mine filmed | Anything but Mine - wikipedia
"Anything but Mine '' is a song written by Scooter Carusoe and recorded by American country music artist Kenny Chesney. It was released in January 2005 as the fifth single from his 2004 album When the Sun Goes Down. The song reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs in April 2005.
The song is a mid-tempo ballad in which the narrator recalls a teen - aged encounter with a female, during a late summer vacation in a beach town. In the chorus, he explains that although he has to leave the next day to his home in Cleveland (not the city in Ohio, but rather the one in Tennessee), he still tells her, "I do n't see how you could ever be anything but mine ''. The radio edit features an abridged intro and outro, while the album version features a false ending, followed by another repetition of the chorus run through a vocal filter.
Scooter Carusoe, the writer of this song, also co-wrote Chesney 's 2008 Number One hit "Better as a Memory '' with Lady Goodman.
The video, directed by Shaun Silva, was shot in Malibu, California and Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. Chesney and the band were filmed in Myrtle Beach at Family Kingdom Amusement Park, in front of a ride called, "The Hurricane, '' and the Myrtle Beach Pavilion, The scenes featuring surfer Amy Cobb as "Mary '' were shot on the California coast & also in Myrtle Beach. Sonny Miller, who also shot the film "Blue Crush, '' was employed for the underwater and surfing scenes in California.
"Anything but Mine '' debuted at number 52 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart for the week of January 1, 2005.
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what was part of both the articles of confederation and the constitution | Articles of Confederation - wikipedia
The Articles of Confederation, formally the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement among the 13 original states of the United States of America that served as its first constitution. Its drafting by a committee appointed by the Second Continental Congress began on July 12, 1776, and an approved version was sent to the states for ratification on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. A guiding principle of the Articles was to preserve the independence and sovereignty of the states. The federal government received only those powers which the colonies had recognized as belonging to king and parliament.
The Articles formed a war - time confederation of states, with an extremely limited central government. While unratified, the document was used by the Congress to conduct business, direct the American Revolutionary War, conduct diplomacy with foreign nations, and deal with territorial issues and Native American relations. The adoption of the Articles made few perceptible changes in the federal government, because it did little more than legalize what the Continental Congress had been doing. That body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation; but Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same.
As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing American states, delegates discovered that the limitations placed upon the central government rendered it ineffective at doing so. As the government 's weaknesses became apparent, especially after Shays ' Rebellion, individuals began asking for changes to the Articles. Their hope was to create a stronger national government. Initially, some states met to deal with their trade and economic problems. However, as more states became interested in meeting to change the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. It was quickly realized that changes would not work, and instead the entire Articles needed to be replaced. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the President), courts, and taxing powers.
The political push to increase cooperation among the then - loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin 's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. The Articles of Confederation would bear some resemblance to it. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen and others would weaken, particularly the degree of deserved loyalty to the crown. With civil disobedience resulting in coercive, and what the colonials perceived as intolerable acts of Parliament, and armed conflict resulting in dissidents being proclaimed rebels and outside the King 's protection, any loyalty remaining shifted toward independence and how to achieve it. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government that would run the American Revolutionary War and gain the colonies their collective independence.
It was an era of constitution writing -- most states were busy at the task -- and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution, even though other nations did not. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments.
To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations '' demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain in particular could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto '' which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "(t) he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations. ''
Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances '' and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states ' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league '' among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.
On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee met repeatedly, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. There were long debates on such issues as sovereignty, the exact powers to be given the confederate government, whether to have a judiciary, and voting procedures. The final draft of the Articles was prepared in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777, after a year of debate. In practice, the Articles were in use beginning in 1777; the final draft of the Articles served as the de facto system of government used by the Congress ("the United States in Congress assembled '') until it became de jure by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the Congress of the Confederation. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national government. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the United States government. It was made capable of making war and peace, negotiating diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and deciding disputes between the states, including their additional and contested western territories. Article XIII stipulated that "their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state '' and "the Union shall be perpetual ''.
John Dickinson 's and Benjamin Franklin 's handwritten drafts of the Articles of Confederation are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC.
The Articles were created by delegates from the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a need to have "a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States. '' After the war, nationalists, especially those who had been active in the Continental Army, complained that the Articles were too weak for an effective government. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived.
In 1788, with the approval of Congress, the Articles were replaced by the United States Constitution and the new government began operations in 1789.
Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles of Confederation in 1777:
Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...
The document could not become officially effective until it was ratified by all 13 states. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; the thirteenth state to ratify was Maryland on February 2, 1781. A ceremonial confirmation of this thirteenth, final ratification took place in the Congress on March 1, 1781, at high noon. Twelve states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. Maryland, however, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland legislature became satisfied that they would follow through, and voted to ratify. The various states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates:
The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The preamble declares that the states "agree to certain articles of Confederation and perpetual Union. '' What follows here summarizes the purpose and content of each of the thirteen articles.
While still at war with Britain, the revolution 's leaders were divided between forming a national government with powers either strong and centralized (the "federalists ''), or strictly limited (the "anti federalists ''). The Continental Congress compromised by dividing sovereignty between the states and the central government, with a unicameral legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. It empowered Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, but provided no mechanism to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, or even food.
The Treaty of Paris (1783), which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because several state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature to ratify it. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. In September 1783, George Washington complained that Congress was paralyzed. Many revolutionaries had gone to their respective home countries after the war, and local government and self - rule seemed quite satisfactory.
The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the Continental Army, and allowed the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war - making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:
George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.
The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783 -- 84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote:
The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign... It is a favorite toast in the army, "A hoop to the barrel '' or "Cement to the Union ''.
As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution. ''
Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had Navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.
The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788 the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state 's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States ' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.
Even after peace had been achieved in 1783, the weakness of the Confederation government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1789, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote to James Monroe, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod. ''
Furthermore, the Jay -- Gardoqui Treaty with Spain in 1789 also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty -- which was never ratified due to its immense unpopularity -- the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation 's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil -- forts which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris (1783) was superseded by the implementation of Jay 's Treaty in 1795 under the new U.S. Constitution.
Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government 's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures.
Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions. '' Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity. '' He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent '' or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith. '' The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them.
Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states ' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention.
Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long - lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and provided the basis for the rest of American continental expansion through the 19th Century.
The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now - familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler - farmers.
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. While it did n't happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in said territory would never be slave states.
No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada '' in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved.
The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation, but granted to the Congress -- the only federal institution -- little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president and no national court. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast - growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control.
By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786 -- 87, Shays ' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government.
The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental ''. Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone.
When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports.
By 1787 Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population.
The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington 's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like - minded nationalists, won Washington 's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long - term crisis.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress.
The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.
On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also did n't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.
After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina 's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778.
The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims.
On February 2, 1781, the much - awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills '' was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation '' and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next. '' The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state.
Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.
The signers and the states they represented were:
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts Bay
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations
South Carolina
Virginia
Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.
John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution).
The following list is of those who led the Congress of the Confederation under the Articles of Confederation as the Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the successor President of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress.
For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see President of the Continental Congress.
Images of an original draft of the Articles of Confederation stored at the United States National Archive.
Preamble through Article V, ¶ 1
Article V, ¶ 2 through Article VI
Article VII through Article IX, ¶ 2
Article IX, ¶ 2 through ¶ 5
Article IX, ¶ 5 through Article XIII, ¶ 2
Article XIII, ¶ 2 through signatures
On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following James Madison 's recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce interstate conflict. At what came to be known as the Annapolis Convention, the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in Philadelphia in May 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention. '' Although the states ' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed - door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, describes the change this way:
The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.
In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays ' Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.
Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:
Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government '' proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire '' that, in the time - honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.
Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.
Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war - weary populace. '' The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation 's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.
When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state, '' much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.
Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges. ''
According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously:
(T) he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.
On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity:
The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.
The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection... has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation. '' Nevertheless, it is an interesting historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding.
Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states - parties did not have to comply with the Articles ' unanimous consent rule ''. In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.
On July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire 's all - important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable '' to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation '' only, but not "under the Constitution ''.
By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and select a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day the new government would take over and the government under the Articles of Confederation would come to an end. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.
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can you use huggies little swimmers as regular diapers | Swim diaper - wikipedia
A swim diaper is a diaper that is made for those who have incontinences and is to be worn underneath a bathing suit, or as a bathing suit. Swim diapers serve the purpose of containing fecal waste.
Swim diapers can be reusable and disposable. They are not intended to be absorbent. Typically, it is assumed that a swim diaper should be absorbent, or contain urine, like a regular diaper. However, the purpose of a swim diaper is only to contain solid waste; the lack of absorbency prevents the swim diaper from swelling up with water.
Often reusable swim diapers are lined with a fiber which encourages the solid waste to cling to the fiber without an absorbency layer. A snug fit in the legs and waist are key to function. Brands such as Splash About and The Honest Co use tightly knit polyester or neoprene as their material. The disadvantages of a reusable swim diaper is that they must be washed to be reused. On the other hand, a disposable swim diaper is only partially biodegradable and repeated purchases may cost more than reuse. One brand of disposable swim diapers is Little Swimmers, marketed under the Kimberly - Clark Huggies brand. Procter & Gamble produces the rival brand Pampers Splashers. Both are sold in three sizes: small (16 -- 26 lb or 7 -- 12 kg), medium (24 -- 34 lb or 11 -- 15 kg) and large (over 32 lb or 14 kg+). Due to their design for swimwear, they are not as absorbent and not intended for regular diapering.
Some public pools require swim diapers for use by young children and the incontinent out of hygiene concerns. For the same reason, other pools do not allow swim diapers at all. Sick children who are not potty - trained and do not wear swim diapers may be responsible for the transmission of e. coli from fecal matter.
When not used properly, or when using inferior products, health experts caution that swim diapers may not protect pool water against communicable diseases, such as norovirus.
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who presides over the texas house of representatives | Texas House of Representatives - wikipedia
Majority
Minority
The Texas House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Texas Legislature. It consists of 150 members who are elected from single - member districts for a term of 2 years. As of the 2010 Census, each member represents an average of 167,637 people. There are no term limits, with the most senior member, Tom Craddick, having been elected in 1968.
The House meets at the State Capitol in Austin.
The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and highest - ranking member of the House. The Speaker 's duties include maintaining order within the House, recognizing members during debate, ruling on procedural matters, appointing members to the various committees and sending bills for committee review. The Speaker pro tempore is primarily a ceremonial position, but does, by long - standing tradition, preside over the House during its consideration of local and consent bills.
Unlike other state legislatures, the House rules do not formally recognize majority or minority leaders. The unofficial leaders are the Republican Caucus Chairman and the Democratic House Leader, both of whom are elected by their respective caucuses.
The Speaker of the House of Representatives has duties as a presiding officer as well as administrative duties. As a presiding officer, the Speaker must enforce, apply, and interpret the rules of the House, call House members to order, lay business in order before the House and receive propositions made by members, refer proposed legislation to a committee, preserve order and decorum, recognize people in the gallery, state and hold votes on questions, vote as a member of the House, decide on all questions to order, appoint the Speaker Pro Tempore and Temporary Chair, adjourn the House in the event of an emergency, postpone reconvening in the event of an emergency, and sign all bills, joint resolutions, and concurrent resolutions. The administrative duties of the Speaker include having control over the Hall of the House, appointing chair, vice-chair, and members to each standing committee, appointing all conference committees, and directing committees to make interim studies.
The Chief Clerk is the head of the Chief Clerk 's Office which maintains a record of all authors who sign legislation, maintains and distributes membership information to current house members, and forwards copies of legislation to house committee chairs. The Chief Clerk is the primary custodian of all legal documents within House. Additional duties include keeping a record of all progress on a document, attesting all warrants, writs, and subpoenas, receiving and filing all documents received by the house, and maintaining the electronic information and calendar for documents. When there is a considerable update of the electronic source website, the Chief Clerk is also responsible for noticing House members via email.
In addition to these committees, there are also six joint committees composed of members of both the State House and Senate:
On May 14, 2007, CBS Austin affiliate KEYE reported on multiple voting by representatives during House floor sessions. The report noted how representatives register votes for absent members on the House 's automated voting machines. Each representative would vote for the nearest absent members (apparently regardless of party affiliation). This practice was in direct violation of a Rule of the House; however, no representative had ever been disciplined for the practice in the almost 70 years since the rule was adopted. Speaker Craddick, responsible for enforcement of House Rules, issued a statement that discipline for violations of the rule is left to the individual members.
Chaos erupted in the Texas House of Representatives on Friday, May 25, 2007, when Rep. Fred Hill, R - Richardson, attempted to offer a motion to remove Tom Craddick as Speaker and have the House elect a new speaker. Craddick (also a Republican) refused to allow him to make the motion. The attempts to oust Craddick continued through the weekend as other Republicans made additional motions, which were also disallowed.
The last time a Texas House speaker was removed by a vote of his fellow members was in 1871, when the House adopted a resolution removing Speaker Ira Evans. The Republican House majority removed Evans because he was seen as cooperating too much with Democrats on an elections bill. While Craddick 's close allies say the 2007 attempt to remove Craddick was just an effort by Democrats to gain greater control of the Legislature before the legislative and congressional redistricting process of 2011, Rep. Byron Cook, R - Corsicana, says the fight was about Craddick consolidating power with lobbyists and using campaign contributions to maintain control in the House: "This is about the convergence of money and power and influence, '' Cook said.
In January 2009, Craddick lost the Speaker 's chair after a challenge from Joe Straus.
On June 20, 2013 Byron Cook served as chairman of the House State Affairs Committee hearing on Texas State House Bill 60. Cook 's stance was for the passing of the bill and during the hearing he interrupted a testimony, saying "Some of us do (adopt children). '' At 12: 00 AM on June 21, Cook decided to close the hearing prematurely. Cook 's explanation for breaching Texas State Legislature operating procedures was that the testimonies being heard had become repetitive. Twenty - four minutes later, Cook became personally offended by a testimony, ordering the cameras to be shut off and leaving the room of committee members and witnesses. Approximately 20 minutes afterwards, Cook was persuaded by colleagues to resume the hearing and continued listening to testimonies until he prematurely closed the hearing at 1: 30 AM.
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what is significance of tropic movement in plants | Tropism - wikipedia
A tropism (from Greek τρόπος, tropos, "a turning '') is a biological phenomenon, indicating growth or turning movement of a biological organism, usually a plant, in response to an environmental stimulus. In tropisms, this response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus (as opposed to nastic movements which are non-directional responses). Viruses and other pathogens also affect what is called "host tropism '', "tissue tropism '', or "cell tropism '', or in which case tropism refers to the way in which different viruses / pathogens have evolved to preferentially target specific host species, specific tissue, or specific cell types within those species. Tropisms are usually named for the stimulus involved (for example, a phototropism is a reaction to sunlight) and may be either positive (towards the stimulus) or negative (away from the stimulus).
Tropisms occur in four sequential steps. First, there is a perception to a stimulus, which is usually beneficiary to the plant. Next, signal transduction occurs. This leads to auxin redistribution at the cellular level and finally, the growth response occurs.
Tropisms are typically associated with plants (although not necessarily restricted to them). Where an organism is capable of directed physical movement (motility), movement or activity in response to a specific stimulus is more likely to be regarded by behaviorists as a taxis (directional response) or a kinesis (non-directional response).
In English, the word tropism is used to indicate an action done without cognitive thought: However, "tropism '' in this sense has a proper, although non-scientific, meaning as an innate tendency, natural inclination, or propensity to act in a certain manner towards a certain stimulus.
In botany, the Cholodny -- Went model, proposed in 1927, is an early model describing tropism in emerging shoots of monocotyledons, including the tendencies for the stalk to grow towards light (phototropism) and the roots to grow downward (gravitropism). In both cases the directional growth is considered to be due to asymmetrical distribution of auxin, a plant growth hormone.
in plants (and bacteria)
in viruses
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lps is found in the capsule of gram-negative bacteria | Bacterial capsule - wikipedia
The bacterial capsule is a very large structure of many bacteria. It is a polysaccharide layer that lies outside the cell envelope, and is thus deemed part of the outer envelope of a bacterial cell. It is a well - organized layer, not easily washed off, and it can be the cause of various diseases.
The capsule -- which can be found in both gram negative and gram - positive bacteria -- is different to the second lipid membrane -- bacterial outer membrane, which contains lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins and is found only in gram - negative bacteria. When the amorphous viscid secretion (that makes up the capsule) diffuses into the surrounding medium and remains as a loose undemarcated secretion, it is known as slime layer.
It usually consists of polysaccharides, but can be composed of other materials such as polypeptide D - glutamic acid in B. anthracis, and peptidoglycan and muramic acid found in E. coli bacterial capsule. Because most capsules are so tightly packed, they are difficult to stain because most standard stains can not adhere to the capsule. For examination under the microscope, the bacteria and their background are stained darker than the capsule, which does n't stain. When viewed, bacterial cells as well as the surface they are on, are stained dark, while the capsule remains pale or colorless and appears as a ring, or halo, around the cell.
The capsule is considered a virulence factor because it enhances the ability of bacteria to cause disease (e.g. prevents phagocytosis). The capsule can protect cells from engulfment by eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages. A capsule - specific antibody may be required for phagocytosis to occur. Capsules also contain water which protects the bacteria against desiccation. They also exclude bacterial viruses and most hydrophobic toxic materials such as detergents. Immunity to one capsule type does not result in immunity to the other types. Capsules also help cells adhere to surfaces.
The capsule is found most commonly among gram - negative bacteria:
However, some gram - positive bacteria may also have a capsule:
The yeast Cryptococcus neoformans, though not a bacterium, has a similar capsule.
Capsules too small to be seen with an ordinary microscope, such as the M protein of Streptococcus pyogenes, are called microcapsules.
Vaccination using capsular material is effective against some organisms (e.g., H. influenzae type b, S. pneumoniae, and N. meningitidis). However, polysaccharides are not highly antigenic, especially in children, so many capsular vaccines contain polysaccharides conjugated with protein carriers, such as the tetanus toxoid or diphtheria toxoid. This stimulates a much more robust immune response.
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which presidential ticket was the first to use the internet in a national campaign | Barack Obama presidential campaign, 2008 - wikipedia
Illinois State Senator U.S. Senator from Illinois
44th President of the United States
Policies
Appointments
First term
Second term
Post-Presidency
The 2008 presidential campaign of Barack Obama, then junior United States Senator from Illinois, was announced on February 10, 2007 in Springfield, Illinois. After winning a majority of delegates in the Democratic primaries of 2008, on August 23, leading up to the convention, the campaign announced that Senator Joe Biden of Delaware would be the Vice Presidential nominee. At the 2008 Democratic National Convention on August 27, Barack Obama was formally selected as the Democratic Party nominee for President of the United States in 2008. He was the first African American in history to be nominated on a major party ticket.
On November 4, 2008, Obama defeated the Republican nominee, Senator John McCain of Arizona, making him the President - elect and the first African American elected President. He was the third sitting U.S. Senator, after Warren G. Harding and John F. Kennedy, to be elected President. Upon the vote of the Electoral College on December 15, 2008, and the subsequent certification thereof by a Joint Session of the United States Congress on January 8, 2009, Barack Obama was elected President of the United States and Joe Biden Vice President of the United States, with 365 of 538 electors.
On June 3, 2008, after the Montana and South Dakota primaries, he secured enough delegates to clinch the nomination of the Democratic Party for President of the United States. His opponent in the general election, Republican John McCain, passed the delegate threshold to become the apparent nominee of his party on March 4. On June 7, Hillary Clinton, Obama 's remaining opponent in the quest for the Democratic nomination, conceded defeat and urged her supporters to back Obama. After a June 26 dinner at which Obama encouraged his fundraisers to donate to Clinton 's debt - saddled campaign, Obama and Clinton ran their first post-primary event together in Unity, New Hampshire, on June 27. Over the first two weeks of July, the campaign ran a heavier schedule of fundraising events, drawing from former donors to Clinton 's campaign. Obama strategically had pictures made with financial experts Warren Buffett and Paul Volcker so the public would perceive him as having inside knowledge of Wall Street.
Obama 's vice presidential running mate had been a subject of speculation since the end of the primaries. As of August 2008, some of the most popular choices for VP included, but were not limited to, Clinton, Biden, Indiana Senator Evan Bayh, Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius, Virginia Governor Tim Kaine, retired General and former Secretary of State Colin Powell, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson, and retired General Wesley Clark.
On August 21, 2008, Obama announced that he had made a selection for the VP spot, but would not reveal until August 23 who it was. Obama 's campaign encouraged supporters to sign up for a text messaging system that would alert them the moment he announced his choice. On August 22, KMBC News of Kansas City spotted bumper stickers of an Obama / Bayh ' 08 ticket that were being printed in Lenexa, Kansas. Three sources close to a local printing plant reported that such material was being produced. The image of the bumper sticker circulated on the internet. However, NBC News later quoted sources stating that Bayh had been informed by Obama 's campaign that he was not the pick. According to an Associated Press report that same evening, Joe Biden was selected as Obama 's candidate. The Associated Press report was confirmed several hours later, on August 23, on his official campaign website and by a mass text message to supporters. Obama selected Biden to be vice president for three reasons: he could relate to blue - collar Americans (i.e. he is originally from Pennsylvania -- arguably a blue - collar state); he has a multitude of connections on Capitol Hill; and he has more personal connections in foreign policy than Obama.
In July 2008 Obama traveled to Kuwait, Afghanistan, Iraq, Jordan, the West Bank, Israel, Germany, France, and Britain. During the course of this trip he met with assorted international leaders, including President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan, Prime Minister Nouri al - Maliki of Iraq, King Abdullah II of Jordan, Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas, Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert, Chancellor Angela Merkel of Germany, President Nicolas Sarkozy of France, and Prime Minister Gordon Brown of the United Kingdom, as well as former British Prime Minister Tony Blair and Conservative opposition leader David Cameron.
On July 24, 2008 he gave a speech at the Victory Column in Berlin before a crowd of estimated 200,000 to 240,000 people.
There were three presidential debates between Obama and McCain. No third party candidates or Independent candidates were offered an invitation to join in any of the debates, as Obama and McCain were the only candidates on the ballot in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. The Commission on Presidential Debates proposed, and the candidates agreed, that two of three 90 - minute debates would be in an informal, seated, talk show format, while the third would be in a town hall format that allowed both candidates to walk around.
On June 4, John McCain proposed a series of ten joint town hall meetings with Obama, at which the two could engage each other. Obama first agreed in principle to the notion, but later rejected McCain 's proposal, offering instead one town - hall event on the Independence Day holiday and four traditional debate - style joint appearances. Hank Paulson, President Bush 's Treasury Secretary, said Obama 's comprehension of the financial crisis compared to McCain 's was as broad as "night and day ''. McCain 's confidence vastly lowered when Obama questioned his ideas on the financial crisis in a meeting on September 25 at the White House with Bush and other congressmen. McCain did not have suggestions regarding what he would do to fix the economy, particularly Henry Paulson 's $700 billion three - page bank recovery plan (TARP). Neither McCain nor Bush had read it. Obama 's confidence escalated from that point. This was the turning point of the campaign.
On September 15, 2008 financial services firm Lehman Brothers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, setting off a series of events leading to a 4.4 % Dow Jones loss, at the time the largest drop by points in a single day since the days following the attacks on September 11, 2001. That stock market loss was subsequently exceeded by an even larger − 7.0 % plunge on September 29, 2008.
On September 24, 2008, after the onset of the 2008 financial crisis, McCain announced that he was suspending his campaign to return to Washington to help craft a $700 billion bailout package for the troubled financial industry, and he stated that he would not debate Obama until Congress passed the bailout bill. Despite this decision, McCain was portrayed as not playing a significant role in the negotiations for the first version of the bill, which fell short of passage in the House. He eventually decided to attend the first presidential debate on September 26, despite Congress ' lack of immediate action on the bill. His ineffectiveness in the negotiations and his reversal in decision to attend the debates were seized upon to portray McCain as erratic in his response to the economy. Days later, a second version of the original bailout bill was passed by both the House and Senate, with Obama, his vice presidential running mate Joe Biden, and McCain all voting for the measure (Hillary Clinton would as well).
The Civil Forum on the Presidency was the venue of back - to - back interviews of U.S. presidential candidates John McCain and Barack Obama by pastor Rick Warren on August 16, 2008, at Saddleback Church in Lake Forest, California.
Following his victory, Obama gave his victory speech at Grant Park in his home city of Chicago on November 4, 2008, before an estimated crowd of 240,000. Viewed on television and the Internet by millions of people around the globe, Obama 's speech focused on the major issues facing the United States and the world, all echoed through his campaign slogan of change. He also mentioned his grandmother, who had died two nights earlier.
The Obama campaign 's fundraising broke previous records for presidential primary and general campaigns, and has changed expectations for future presidential elections. The campaign avoided using public campaign funds, raising all of its money privately from individual donors. By the general election the campaign committee raised more than $650 million for itself, and coordinated with both the Democratic National Committee (DNC) and at least 18 state - level Democratic committees to create a joint - fundraising committee to raise and split tens of millions of dollars more.
Post-election fundraising continued for the separate transition administration, called the Obama - Biden Transition Project, and also the separate inaugural ceremonies and celebrations committee.
According to reports filed with the Federal Election Commission, Obama 's campaign raised more money in the first quarter of 2008 ($133,549,000) than it had raised in all of 2007 ($103,802,537). The campaign had a relatively small total of $21.9 million in May, but went on to raise $52 million in June, after Obama had secured the nomination.
On June 19, Obama was the first major - party presidential candidate to turn down public financing for a general election campaign since the system was created in the aftermath of Watergate. Obama was expected to raise $265 million between the time of the announcement and election day. By rejecting the funds in favor of private donations, the campaign was in a position to outspend John McCain prior to the election. Had he signed on to the plan, the campaign would only have been able to spend $84.1 million between the party convention in August and the general election in November.
Obama explained his decision to opt out of the public financing system, saying, "public financing of presidential elections as it exists today is broken, and we face opponents who 've become masters at gaming this broken system. '' Critics of the decision argued that the decision contradicted earlier statements that he would attempt to reach agreement with McCain to obtain public financing, and asserted that Obama 's campaign was receiving as much support from unregulated 527 groups as McCain 's.
On September 4, 2008, the Obama campaign announced they raised $10 million in the 24 - hour period after Republican Vice Presidential nominee Sarah Palin 's acceptance speech. The RNC reported raising $1 million in the same period.
On October 19, 2008, Obama 's campaign announced a record fundraising total of $150 million for September 2008. This exceeded the campaign 's single - month record ($66 million) for August 2008.
The campaign raised much of its cash in small donations over the internet, with about half of its intake coming in increments of less than $200. Both major party campaigns screened regularly for patterns of abuse and returned or rejected donations in excess of legal limits, from overseas, from untraceable addresses, or from fraudulent names. After some criticism of the Obama campaign on conservative blogs, the Republican National Committee asked the Federal Election Commission to investigate the Obama campaign 's screening practices.
Obama 's campaign is notable for its extensive use of a logo. The logo, consisting of a circle, with the center suggesting a sun rising over fields in the colors of the American flag, was designed by a team at Chicago design firm Sender LLC. "We were looking at the "o '' of his name and had the idea of a rising sun and a new day, '' according to Sol Sender, now a strategist at VSA Partners. "The sun rising over the horizon intended to evoked a new sense of hope. ''
Obama 's campaign used the slogan "Change we can believe in '' and the chant "Yes We Can ''. The latter slogan is shared with the United Farm Workers and associated with its founder César Chávez and is well known amongst Latinos in its Spanish form Sí se puede. The "Change we can believe in '' has been used in parodies both during and since the campaign. John McCain attempted to criticize Obama by enumerating various controversial policy positions he allegedly took and proclaiming "that 's not change we can believe in '' alongside a banner proclaiming McCain as "a leader we can believe in ''. Since the campaign it has been used to parody campaigns against incumbents as being "change you ca n't believe in '' such as by British blog LeftFootForward against David Cameron or by the Economist against the People 's Democratic Party of Tajikistan.
The "hope '' poster was an iconic image of Barack Obama designed by artist Shepard Fairey. It consisted of a stylized stencil portrait of Obama in solid red, white (actually beige) and (pastel and dark) blue. Either the words "progress '', "hope '', or "change '' were under the image of Obama (in some versions other words were used). It was created and distributed widely -- as a digital image, on posters and other paraphernalia -- during the 2008 election season. Initially it was distributed independently but with the approval of the official Obama campaign. The image became one of the most widely recognized symbols of Obama 's campaign message, spawning many variations and imitations, including some commissioned by the campaign itself. In January 2009, after Obama had won the election, Fairey 's mixed - media stenciled portrait version of the image was acquired by the Smithsonian Institution for its National Portrait Gallery.
The signature campaign typeface was Gotham, typically using capital letters with occasional use of the script Snell Roundhand. Gotham was designed in 2000 by Jonathan Hoefler and Tobias Frere - Jones, originally for GQ magazine. Prior to Gotham, the campaign used the typeface Gill Sans in upper case and lower case. Another Hoefler and Frere - Jones font, Requiem, was used for the campaign logo.
U2 's "City of Blinding Lights '' was often played in anticipation of Obama 's speeches during campaign events. Bruce Springsteen 's "The Rising '' was also played heavily during his campaign rallies. Stevie Wonder 's Signed, Sealed, Delivered I 'm Yours was frequently played immediately after Obama 's speeches. Barack Obama personally asked Joss Stone in August to write and record his presidential campaign song, reportedly due to the fact that she appeals across racial boundaries. Ben Harper 's "Better Way '' was also played at a few events throughout the campaign. Furthermore, Obama 's candidacy inspired artists to create more unsolicited music and music videos than any other candidate in American political history. Examples include "Yes We Can '' by will.i.am, of the band The Black Eyed Peas; "Make it to the Sun '' by Ruwanga Samath and Maxwell D; Barack Obama '' by JFC; and "Unite the Nation '' by the Greek - American hip hop group Misa / Misa.
Obama was particularly noted for his use of the Internet to rally supporters and make his policies known. He is the first US president to have effectively used the internet and social media for successful political outcomes. His successful presidential campaign raised the bar and are now presidential standards.
"The integration of technology into the process of field organizing... is the success of the Obama campaign, '' says Sanford Dickert, who worked as John Kerry 's chief technology officer for the 2004 campaign. "But the use of technology was not the end - all and be-all in this cycle. Technology has been a partner, an enabler for the Obama campaign, bringing the efficiencies of the internet into the real - world problems of organizing people in a distributed, trusted fashion. ''
Obama 's campaign was further strengthened by his opponent John McCain 's comparatively limited use of the Internet. McCain did not have the organization of Obama 's campaign, nor did he spend a comparable amount of money on this portion of the campaign. Both opportune timing and usage of online campaigning gave Obama significant advantage over McCain.
Through forums and social websites such as MySpace and Facebook, Obama built relationships with his supporters, and would - be supporters. He developed an upfront, personable and face - to - face quality that gave his supporters a sense of security and trust, which inspired them to rally others in their local communities. The supporters of Obama themselves formed a nationwide community.
All of his policies were made available online, and updates were sent to the subscribers of his political party via email and text message, ultimately making him the most technologically savvy candidate to date, increasing his popularity among youth voters.
In early 2007, the Obama campaign launched a social - networking site called my.barackobama.com, or MyBO for short, and recruited 24 - year - old Facebook co-founder Chris Hughes to help develop the platform and their social networking strategy. MyBo became the hub of the campaign 's online efforts to organize supporters.
The nationwide community provided useful and effective tools, such as the Neighbor - to - Neighbor tool, allowing supporters to reach a large number of people in a short time in their own community, which in turn led to campaign rallying for more Obama support. An unprecedented communication strategy was the "online call tool ''. Over one million calls were made from residential, personal laptops and desktops. Online communication led to Obama supporters engaging in social activities such as signmaking and door - to - door petitioning for Obama support, as well as simply discussing their opinions about policies and issues they supported along with Obama. As described by campaign adviser Steve Spinner, the campaign grew "from zero to 700 employees in a year and raised $200 million. That 's a super-high - growth, fast - charging operation. ''
In 2008, campaign staffers stationed in the long - shot battle ground state of Georgia, reinvented the tedious, messy process of reporting and aggregating nightly data and intelligence upward through the campaign apparatus -- making the organizing work of vast Obama field infrastructure more immediately measurable. NationalField became an internal social network within the field organization, used to monitor the daily activities of the sprawling grassroots effort. It allowed staff to share what they were working on and benchmark themselves against other staffers. Unlike a standard social graph, where all users have access to all information, NationalField was based on a hierarchical social graph where the higher level you were in the organization, the broader your view of the information below you.
The platform closely reflected the team - building model of the Obama Campaign, often associated with organizer and Harvard professor Marshall Ganz in that it was an intensely structured a social network.
After trailing Republicans for many election cycles in their use of micro-targeting, the 2008 Obama campaign was the first Democratic presidential campaign to benefit from the existence of a national voter file. In 2007, DNC chairman Howard Dean centralized data collection and management by hiring the Voter Activation Network and creating the database Votebuilder. Votebuilder created a web - based interface for the database and permitted the Obama campaign to give neighborhood - level volunteers access to the registered voter list for their area of responsibility.
In October 2008, Obama was voted Advertising Age magazine 's "Marketer of the Year '' by members of the Association of National Advertisers for the campaign, surpassing Apple and Zappos.com. In a post-election analysis of the campaign, the magazine lauded its "understanding of ground - level marketing strategies and tactics, everything from audience segmentation and database management to the creation and maintenance of online communities. ''
The Obama web campaign used consumer marketing to target individuals with customized information to their predicted interests. Political communication to viewers was based on data collected about them. This data was collected by volunteers, surveys on the website and records of consumption habits. Website surveys took a short amount of time to fill out and the company used A / B testing to determine which forms converted most effectively, led by the team 's Director of Analytics Dan Siroker. More detailed surveys were requested and received through email. Records of consumption habits helped the campaign make predictions about people based on statistical models. People received messages tailored close to their beliefs. Marketing based on consumer data also enabled effective grassroots organizing through the website. Data gathered from the website indicated who the most dedicated constituents were; the website tracked how often a person visited and when. The campaign team then targeted and encouraged activists in contested, winnable areas, such as through the website program Neighbor - to - neighbor.
Soon after becoming the presumptive nominee, Obama began a biographical commercial campaign emphasizing his patriotism. The advertisements ran in 18 states, including traditionally Republican Alaska and North Carolina. Between June 6 and July 26, Obama 's campaign spent $27 million on advertisements, against McCain and Republican National Committee 's combined total of $24.6 million.
In a September 15, 2008 interview with Good Morning America, Obama stated, "If we 're going to ask questions about, you know, who has been promulgating negative ads that are completely unrelated to the issues at hand, I think I win that contest pretty handily. '' What he apparently meant was that McCain had put out more negative ads.
On October 29 at 8: 00 pm EDT, the Obama campaign 's 30 - minute infomercial "American Stories, American Solutions '' was simulcast on NBC, CBS, Fox, Univision, MSNBC, BET and TV One, focusing on a wide range of issues including health care and taxation. The infomercial then showed an Obama speech live from Florida. Fox asked for the second part of Game Five of the 2008 World Series to be delayed by 15 minutes in order to show the commercial, and that request was granted. ABC was the only major US network not to show the ad after being indecisive during the initial approach and the Obama campaign later declined the offer. The Obama ad got 30.1 million viewers across networks compared to ABC 's Pushing Daisies which garnered 6.3 million viewers. Prior to this, the last presidential candidate to purchase a half - hour ad was H. Ross Perot, who ran as an independent candidate in 1992. The Obama campaign also bought a channel on Dish Network to screen Obama ads 24 / 7. Wyatt Andrews reported on a "Reality Check '' on the CBS Evening News the next day with doubts over the factual accuracy of some of the promises Obama made in the advertisement, given the government 's enormous financial deficit.
On June 12, 2008, the Obama campaign launched a website to counter what the campaign described as smears by his opponents. The site provided responses to issues brought up about the candidate, such as:
Originally started by American - Israelis in late May, the "Israel for Obama '' campaign aimed to refute the allegations made against Obama concerning Israel and the Jewish community. This was done by gaining endorsements from Israel. When he took a Middle East trip from Afghanistan to Iraq, Jordan and finally to Israel, they organized a small "Israel for Obama '' rally for him.
Ira Forman, executive director of the National Jewish Democratic Council stated that "The Democratic operation in the Jewish community was more extensive than I 've seen in 35 years, '' The chairman of the campaign in Israel, Yeshiyah Amariel, and others such as the Jewish Alliance for Change and the Jewish Council for Education & Research used YouTube to release video endorsements from officials and normal people in Israel for Obama and his positions (such as "Israelis for Obama '' and "right man for the job. '') In the closing weeks of the election the campaign used support from Israelis to fight the smears spread online by bloggers. Its success caused the polls of Jewish support for Obama to increase so that by the time of the Nov. 4 election, according to exit polls, 77 % of the voting American Jewish community voted for Obama over the 23 % that were for John McCain.
Obama has taken positions on many national, political, economic and social issues, either through public comments or his senatorial voting record. Since announcing his presidential campaign in February 2007, Obama emphasized withdrawing American troops from Iraq, increasing energy independence (that includes New Energy For America plan), decreasing the influence of lobbyists, and promoting universal health care as top national priorities.
The day after Obama 's acceptance speech at the Democratic National Convention, Obama 's Republican opponent, Arizona Senator John McCain, announced his selection of Alaska Governor Sarah Palin as his running mate. Almost immediately, the Obama / Biden ticket plunged in the polls: in a Gallup poll of likely voters, the McCain / Palin ticket gained a 10 - point lead. The erosion of support for the Obama / Biden ticket was especially pronounced among white women who had previously shown strong support for Hillary Clinton. However, Obama regained and maintained the national poll average after September 19.
A RealClearPolitics average of 14 national polls taken between October 29 and November 2 showed an average 7.3 % lead for Obama over McCain. Obama 's highest support in the polling average was 8.2 % on October 14. Among individual polls tracked by RealClearPolitics, Obama 's highest support was recorded in a Newsweek poll conducted between June 18 and June 19 and a Pew Research poll conducted between October 23 and October 26 showing a 15 % lead.
Gallup conducted weekly polls of registered voters to measure support among the candidates. The final poll conducted between October 27 and November 2 showed 24 % of pure Independents supporting Obama, trailing the 32 % who favored McCain. Obama 's Independent support peaked at 33 % the week of October 6 -- 12.
A RealClearPolitics average of four national polls measuring favorable / unfavorable opinions taken between October 28 and November 2 showed an average 55.5 % favorable rating and 39.8 % unfavorable rating. Obama 's highest ratings in the polling average were 61.2 % favorable and 32.5 % unfavorable on July 8.
As of November 3, 2008, one day before the election, the RealClearPolitics electoral map excluding toss up states showed 278 electoral votes for Obama / Biden, an electoral majority, and 132 electoral votes for opponents McCain / Palin. Including toss up states, the Obama / Biden ticket led with 338 votes.
On November 4, 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States, sparking many celebrations in the United States and around the world. He gained almost 53 % of the popular vote and 365 electoral votes. The popular vote percentage was the best showing for any presidential candidate since George H.W. Bush in 1988. His 365 electoral votes was the best showing since Bill Clinton had 379 in 1996. He won Colorado, Nevada, Virginia, Indiana, Florida, Ohio, and North Carolina, all states that were won by President George W. Bush in 2004. In addition, he became the first Democratic candidate to win one of Nebraska 's electoral votes since the state decided to split their electoral votes. He was the first candidate to be elected President without winning Missouri since 1956. Obama also received more total votes than any Presidential candidate in history, totaling well over 69 million votes.
63 % of Americans who met the voting requirements voted, the highest percentage in fifty years. Obama won the moderate vote 60 -- 39 and the independent vote 52 -- 44.
Joe Biden also made history by becoming the first Roman Catholic to be elected Vice President. In addition, he is the longest - serving Senator to become Vice President, having served in the United States Senate for the 36 years prior to the election. Biden also won reelection to the Senate, but served only briefly in the 111th Congress before resigning to take his place as vice president.
On January 8, 2009, the joint session of the U.S. Congress, chaired by Vice President Cheney as President of the Senate and Nancy Pelosi as Speaker of the House, announced and certified the votes of the Electoral College for the 2008 presidential election. From the electoral votes of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, Vice President Cheney declared 365 electoral votes for both Barack Obama of the state of Illinois and Joseph Biden of the state of Delaware and 173 electoral votes for both John McCain of the state of Arizona and Sarah Palin of the state of Alaska. Based on the results of the electoral vote count, Vice President Cheney declared officially that Obama was elected as President of the United States and Biden was elected as Vice President of the United States.
Over 25 % of the electorate was of a race besides Caucasian, a first for America.
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is there a second season of doctor thorne | Doctor Thorne (tv series) - Wikipedia
Doctor Thorne is a 2016 three - part television drama adaptation of the Anthony Trollope novel Doctor Thorne scripted by Julian Fellowes for ITV. Mary Thorne, penniless and with undisclosed parentage, grows up under the guardianship of her uncle Doctor Thorne. She spends much of her formative years in the company of the Gresham family at Greshamsbury Park estate. As they close on the world of adult cares and responsibilities, the past starts to impinge and the financial woes of the Gresham family threaten to tear relationships apart.
Sir Roger Scatcherd trumps the opposition at the election hustings, but collapses from the ravages on his health due to excessive drink. He is cared for by Doctor Thorne and Mary. More comes to light about her background and Sir Roger grasps the truth. Louis Scatcherd, Roger 's son, is sent for although he clearly cares little for his father, only his money. Doctor Thorne learns that Louis has romantic aspirations regarding his niece and is revolted by the idea.
Frank 's mother, Lady Arabella, along with her sister - in - law, persuade Mary to release Frank from their engagement. The line she spins is that to hold on to Frank would be selfish and against Frank 's best interests.
Response from the critics seems to have been mixed, muted, subdued, or downright critical. Even those who were predisposed to like aspects of the adaptation were not without points of issue. The Telegraph initially registered a largely positive opening assessment, although it also had some criticisms. By the end of the series its review was more mixed, yet it wanted more episodes anyway.
The series has been picked up in the US by the Weinstein Company which owns the licence for North America. The series was made available on Amazon Prime on 20 May 2016.
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what is the speed of the earth's orbit around the sun | Earth 's orbit - wikipedia
Earth 's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi). Earth 's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet 's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1 ° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day. Earth 's orbital speed averages about 30 km / s (108,000 km / h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet 's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counter clockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus ' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution '' resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus 's groundbreaking book... had been (printed) over a century earlier, (the Dutch mapmaker) Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world. ''
Because of Earth 's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun 's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth 's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth 's axial tilt) results in the seasons.
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth 's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun -- and the equinoxes -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit where the Earth 's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23. The effect of the Earth 's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth 's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth -- Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9 % in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon. This is the maximal distance at which the Earth 's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth 's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis -- nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis -- farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23. The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth 's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs '' of stability for the Solar System. By most predictions, Earth 's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.
In 1989, Jacques Laskar 's work indicated that the Earth 's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years ' time. Modeling the Solar System is subject to the n - body problem.
Media related to Earth 's orbit at Wikimedia Commons
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when is season 5 episode 6 of power coming out | List of Power episodes - wikipedia
Power is an American television drama broadcast on Starz created by Courtney A. Kemp. The series follows James St. Patrick (played by Omari Hardwick), nicknamed "Ghost '', owner of a popular New York City nightclub, and a major player in one of the city 's biggest illegal drug networks. He struggles to balance these two lives, and the balance topples when he realizes he wants to leave the drug ring in order to support his legitimate business, and commit to his mistress. The series premiered on June 7, 2014. As of September 9, 2018, 49 episodes of Power have aired. The fifth season of Power premiered on July 1, 2018. Power has also been renewed for a sixth season.
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what type of earthquake caused the tsunami in japan | 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami - Wikipedia
The 2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Tōhoku (東北 地方 太平洋 沖 地震, Tōhoku - chihō Taiheiyō Oki Jishin) was a magnitude 9.0 -- 9.1 (M) undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan that occurred at 14: 46 JST (05: 46 UTC) on Friday 11 March 2011, with the epicentre approximately 70 kilometres (43 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku and the hypocenter at an underwater depth of approximately 29 km (18 mi). The earthquake is often referred to in Japan as the Great East Japan Earthquake (東日本 大震災, Higashi nihon daishinsai) and is also known as the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, and the 3.11 earthquake. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since modern record - keeping began in 1900. The earthquake triggered powerful tsunami waves that reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhoku 's Iwate Prefecture, and which, in the Sendai area, traveled up to 10 km (6 mi) inland. The earthquake moved Honshu (the main island of Japan) 2.4 m (8 ft) east, shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in), increased earth 's rotational speed by 1.8 μs per day, and generated infrasound waves detected in perturbations of the low - orbiting GOCE satellite. Initially, the earthquake caused sinking of part of Honshu 's Pacific coast by up to roughly a metre, but after about three years, the coast rose back and kept on rising to exceed the original height of the coast.
The latest report from the Japanese National Police Agency report confirms 15,895 deaths, 6,156 injured, and 2,539 people missing across twenty prefectures, and a report from 2015 indicated 228,863 people were still living away from their home in either temporary housing or due to permanent relocation. A March 2018 agency report listed 121,776 buildings totally collapsed, with a further 280,923 buildings "half collapsed '', and another 726,574 buildings partially damaged. The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in north - eastern Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse. Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan. '' Around 4.4 million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5 million without water.
The tsunami caused nuclear accidents, primarily the level 7 meltdowns at three reactors in the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant complex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents. Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactors suffered explosions due to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure resulting from the loss of electrical power. Residents within a 20 km (12 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and a 10 km (6.2 mi) radius of the Fukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plant were evacuated.
Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US $14.5 to $34.6 billion. The Bank of Japan offered ¥ 15 trillion (US $183 billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions. The World Bank 's estimated economic cost was US $235 billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in history.
The 9.1 - magnitude (M) undersea megathrust earthquake occurred on 11 March 2011 at 14: 46 JST (05: 46 UTC) in the north - western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32 km (20 mi), with its epicenter approximately 72 km (45 mi) east of the Oshika Peninsula of Tōhoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes. The earthquake was initially reported as 7.9 M by the USGS before it was quickly upgraded to 8.8 M, then to 8.9 M, and then finally to 9.0 M. On 11 July 2016, the USGS further upgraded the earthquake to 9.1. Sendai was the nearest major city to the earthquake, 130 km (81 mi) from the epicenter; the earthquake occurred 373 km (232 mi) from Tokyo.
The main earthquake was preceded by a number of large foreshocks, with hundreds of aftershocks reported. One of the first major foreshocks was a 7.2 M event on 9 March, approximately 40 km (25 mi) from the epicenter of 11 March earthquake, with another three on the same day in excess of 6.0 M. Following the main earthquake on 11 March, a 7.4 M aftershock was reported at 15: 08 JST (6: 06 UTC), succeeded by a 7.9 M at 15: 15 JST (6: 16 UTC) and a 7.7 M at 15: 26 JST (6: 26 UTC). Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 M or greater have occurred since the initial quake, including one on 26 October 2013 (local time) of magnitude 7.1 M. Aftershocks follow Omori 's law, which states that the rate of aftershocks declines with the reciprocal of the time since the main quake. The aftershocks will thus taper off in time, but could continue for years.
This megathrust earthquake was a recurrence of the mechanism of the earlier 869 Sanriku earthquake, which has been estimated as having a magnitude of at least 8.4 M, which also created a large tsunami that inundated the Sendai plain. Three tsunami deposits have been identified within the Holocene sequence of the plain, all formed within the last 3,000 years, suggesting an 800 to 1,100 year recurrence interval for large tsunamigenic earthquakes. In 2001 it was reckoned that there was a high likelihood of a large tsunami hitting the Sendai plain as more than 1,100 years had then elapsed. In 2007, the probability of an earthquake with a magnitude of M 8.1 -- 8.3 was estimated as 99 % within the following 30 years.
This earthquake occurred where the Pacific Plate is subducting under the plate beneath northern Honshu. The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9 cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu 's underlying plate, building large amounts of elastic energy. This motion pushes the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip - rupture event. The break caused the sea floor to rise by several metres. A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 500 km (310 mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the plate boundary and subduction zone in the area of the Honshu rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8.5 M; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists. The hypocentral region of this earthquake extended from offshore Iwate Prefecture to offshore Ibaraki Prefecture. The Japanese Meteorological Agency said that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500 km (310 mi) and a width of 200 km (120 mi). Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events. Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck the Sanriku Coast region in 1896 and in 1933.
The source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west, north, and south. From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0.5 -- 0.8 in the source area and the seismic moment, it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260 -- 880 years, which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data. The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93 % of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011. Hence, earthquakes with magnitudes about 7 since 1926 in this area only had released part of the accumulated energy. In the area near the trench, the coupling coefficient is high, which could act as the source of the large tsunami.
Most of the foreshocks are interplate earthquakes with thrust - type focal mechanisms. Both interplate and intraplate earthquakes appeared in the aftershocks offshore Sanriku coast with considerable proportions.
The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on the Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale in Kurihara, Miyagi Prefecture. Three other prefectures -- Fukushima, Ibaraki and Tochigi -- recorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations in Iwate, Gunma, Saitama and Chiba Prefecture measured a lower 6, recording an upper 5 in Tokyo.
In Russia, the main shock could be felt in Yuzhno - Sakhalinsk (MSK 4) and Kurilsk (MSK 4). The aftershock at 06: 25 UTC could be felt in Yuzhno - Kurilsk (MSK 5) and Kurilsk (MSK 4).
The surface energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake was calculated to be at 1.9 × 10 joules, which is nearly double that of the 9.1 M 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that killed 230,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year. The seismic moment (M), which represents a physical size for the event, was calculated by the USGS at 3.9 × 10 joules, slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake.
Japan 's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated a peak ground acceleration of 2.99 g (29.33 m / s). The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7 g, in Miyagi Prefecture, 75 km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16 g.
Portions of northeastern Japan shifted by as much as 2.4 metres (7 ft 10 in) closer to North America, making some sections of Japan 's landmass wider than before. Those areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts. A 400 - kilometre (250 mi) stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6 metres (2 ft 0 in), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land. One early estimate suggested that the Pacific plate may have moved westward by up to 20 metres (66 ft), and another early estimate put the amount of slippage at as much as 40 m (130 ft). On 6 April the Japanese coast guard said that the quake shifted the seabed near the epicenter 24 metres (79 ft) and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi Prefecture by 3 metres (9.8 ft). A report by the Japan Agency for Marine - Earth Science and Technology, published in Science on 2 December 2011, concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and the Japan Trench moved 50 metres (160 ft) east - southeast and rose about 7 metres (23 ft) as a result of the quake. The report also stated that the quake had caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area.
The Earth 's axis shifted by estimates of between 10 cm (4 in) and 25 cm (10 in). This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including the length of a day, the tilt of the Earth, and the Chandler wobble. The speed of the Earth 's rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8 microseconds due to the redistribution of Earth 's mass. The axial shift was caused by the redistribution of mass on the Earth 's surface, which changed the planet 's moment of inertia. Because of conservation of angular momentum, such changes of inertia result in small changes to the Earth 's rate of rotation. These are expected changes for an earthquake of this magnitude. The earthquake also generated infrasound waves detected by perturbations in the orbit of the GOCE satellite, which thus serendipitously became the first seismograph in orbit.
Soil liquefaction was evident in areas of reclaimed land around Tokyo, particularly in Urayasu, Chiba City, Funabashi, Narashino (all in Chiba Prefecture) and in the Koto, Edogawa, Minato, Chūō, and Ōta Wards of Tokyo. Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1,046 other buildings were damaged to varying degrees. Nearby Haneda Airport, built mostly on reclaimed land, was not damaged. Odaiba also experienced liquefaction, but damage was minimal.
Shinmoedake, a volcano in Kyushu, erupted three days after the earthquake. The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake. In Antarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused the Whillans Ice Stream to slip by about 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in).
The first sign international researchers had that the earthquake caused such a dramatic change in the Earth 's rotation came from the United States Geological Survey which monitors Global Positioning Satellite stations across the world. The Survey team had several GPS monitors located near the scene of the earthquake. The GPS station located nearest the epicenter moved almost 4 m (13 ft). This motivated government researchers to look into other ways the earthquake may have had large scale effects on the planet. Calculations at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory determined that the Earth 's rotation was changed by the earthquake to the point where the days are now 1.8 microseconds shorter.
Japan experienced over 1,000 aftershocks since the earthquake, with 80 registering over magnitude 6.0 M and several of which have been over magnitude 7.0 M.
A magnitude 7.4 M at 15: 08 (JST), 7.9 M at 15: 15 and a 7.7 M quake at 15: 26 all occurred on 11 March.
A month later, a major aftershock struck offshore on 7 April with a magnitude of 7.1 M. Its epicenter was underwater, 66 km (41 mi) off the coast of Sendai. The Japan Meteorological Agency assigned a magnitude of 7.4 M, while the U.S. Geological Survey lowered it to 7.1 M. At least four people were killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power to Higashidōri Nuclear Power Plant and Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant.
Four days later on 11 April, another magnitude 7.1 M aftershock struck Fukushima, causing additional damage and killing a total of three people.
On 7 December 2012 a large aftershock of magnitude 7.3 M caused a minor tsunami, and again on 26 October 2013 small tsunami waves were recorded after a 7.1 M aftershock.
As of 16 March 2012 aftershocks continued, totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4.0; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days showed over 20 events.
As of 11 March 2016 there had been 869 aftershocks of 5.0 M or greater, 118 of 6.0 M or greater, and 9 over 7.0 M as reported by the Japanese Meteorological Agency.
The number of aftershocks was associated with decreased health across Japan.
One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, the Earthquake Early Warning system, which includes more than 1,000 seismometers in Japan, sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions. It is believed that the early warning by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) saved many lives. The warning for the general public was delivered about 8 seconds after the first P wave was detected, or about 31 seconds after the earthquake occurred. However, the estimated intensities were smaller than the actual ones in some places, especially in Kanto, Koshinetsu, and Northern Tōhoku regions where the populace warning did not trigger. According to the JMA Meteorological Research Institute (ja), reasons for the underestimation include a saturated magnitude scale when using maximum amplitude as input, failure to fully take into account the area of the hypocenter, and the initial amplitude of the earthquake being less than that which would be predicted by an empirical relationship.
There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes. Such discrepancies in the warning were attributed by the JMA to the system 's inability to distinguish between two different earthquakes that happened at around same time, as well as to the reduced number of reporting seismometers due to power outages and connection fails. The system 's software was subsequently modified to handle this kind of situation.
An upthrust of 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26 ft) along a 180 kilometres (110 mi) wide seabed at 60 kilometres (37 mi) offshore from the east coast of Tōhoku resulted in a major tsunami that brought destruction along the Pacific coastline of Japan 's northern islands. Thousands of lives were lost and entire towns were devastated. The tsunami propagated throughout the Pacific Ocean region reaching the entire Pacific coast of North and South America from Alaska to Chile. Warnings were issued and evacuations were carried out in many countries bordering the Pacific. Although the tsunami affected many of these places, the heights of the waves were minor. Chile 's Pacific coast, one of the furthest from Japan at about 17,000 kilometres (11,000 mi) away, was struck by waves 2 metres (6.6 ft) high, compared with an estimated wave height of 38.9 metres (128 ft) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Japan.
The tsunami warning issued by the Japan Meteorological Agency was the most serious on its warning scale; it was rated as a "major tsunami '', being at least 3 metres (9.8 ft) high. The actual height prediction varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 6 metres (20 ft) high. The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561 square kilometres (217 sq mi) in Japan.
The earthquake took place at 14: 46 JST (UTC 05: 46) around 67 kilometres (42 mi) from the nearest point on Japan 's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30 minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline. Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15: 55 JST, a tsunami was observed flooding Sendai Airport, which is located near the coast of Miyagi Prefecture, with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland. The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by an NHK News helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it. A 4 - metre - high (13 ft) tsunami hit Iwate Prefecture. Wakabayashi Ward in Sendai was also particularly hard hit. At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave.
Like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. Entire towns were destroyed in tsunami - hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing in Minamisanriku; one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.
Among several factors causing the high death toll from the tsunami, one was the unexpectedly large size of the water surge. The tsunami walls in several of the affected cities had been constructed to protect against tsunamis of much lower heights. Also, many people who were caught in the tsunami thought that they were located on high enough ground to be safe. According to the conclusions of a special committee on disaster prevention, which had been designated by the Japanese government, the tsunami protection policy had been intended to deal with only those tsunamis that had been scientifically proved to occur repeatedly; the committee therefore advised that in the future the policy should be changed to protect against the highest possible tsunami. Because tsunami walls had been overtopped by this tsunami, the committee also suggested that, besides constructing tsunami walls to a height that can protect against relatively frequent tsunamis, it is still necessary to teach citizens who are protected by tsunami walls how to evacuate if a largest scale tsunami should strike those places.
Large parts of Kuji and the southern section of Ōfunato including the port area were almost entirely destroyed. Also largely destroyed was Rikuzentakata, where the tsunami was three stories high. Other cities destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami include Kamaishi, Miyako, Ōtsuchi, and Yamada (in Iwate Prefecture), Namie, Sōma, and Minamisōma (in Fukushima Prefecture) and Shichigahama, Higashimatsushima, Onagawa, Natori, Ishinomaki, and Kesennuma (in Miyagi Prefecture). The most severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670 - kilometre - long (420 mi) stretch of coastline from Erimo, Hokkaido, in the north to Ōarai, Ibaraki, in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake. Near Ōarai, people captured images of a huge whirlpool that had been generated by the tsunami. The tsunami washed away the sole bridge to Miyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island 's 900 residents. A 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high tsunami hit Chiba Prefecture about 21⁄2 hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities such as Asahi.
On 13 March 2011, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3 metres (9.8 ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14: 46 JST:
Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3 metres (3 ft 3 in to 9 ft 10 in) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that "At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites. '' The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15: 12 to 15: 21, between 26 and 35 minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunami waves.
JMA also reported offshore tsunami height recorded by telemetry from moored GPS wave - height meter buoys as follows:
On 25 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI) reported tsunami height by visiting the port sites as follows:
The tsunami at Ryōri Bay (綾里 湾), Ōfunato reached a height of 40.1 metres (132 ft) (run - up elevation). Fishing equipment was scattered on the high cliff above the bay. At Tarō, Iwate, the tsunami reached a height of 37.9 metres (124 ft) up the slope of a mountain some 200 metres (660 ft) away from the coastline. Also, at the slope of a nearby mountain from 400 metres (1,300 ft) away at Aneyoshi fishery port (姉 吉 漁港) of Omoe peninsula (重茂 半島) in Miyako, Iwate, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology found estimated tsunami run up height of 38.9 metres (128 ft). This height is deemed the record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that exceeds 38.2 metres (125 ft) from the 1896 Meiji - Sanriku earthquake. It was also estimated that the tsunami reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in Miyako in Tōhoku 's Iwate Prefecture. The inundated areas closely matched those of the 869 Sanriku tsunami.
A Japanese government study found that 58 % of people in coastal areas in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures heeded tsunami warnings immediately after the quake and headed for higher ground. Of those who attempted to evacuate after hearing the warning, only five percent were caught in the tsunami. Of those who did n't heed the warning, 49 % were hit by the water.
Delayed evacuations in response to the warnings had a number of causes. The tsunami height that had been initially predicted by the tsunami warning system was lower than the actual tsunami height; this error contributed to the delayed escape of some residents. The discrepancy arose as follows: In order to produce a quick prediction of a tsunami 's height and thus to provide a timely warning, the initial earthquake and tsunami warning that was issued for the event was based on a calculation that requires only about 3 minutes. This calculation is, in turn, based on the maximum amplitude of the seismic wave. The amplitude of the seismic wave is measured using the JMA magnitude scale, which is similar to Richter magnitude scale. However, these scales "saturate '' for earthquakes that are above a certain magnitude (magnitude 8 on the JMA scale); that is, in the case of very large earthquakes, the scales ' values change little despite large differences in the earthquakes ' energy. This resulted in an underestimation of the tsunami 's height in initial reports. Problems in issuing updates also contributed to delays in evacuations. The warning system was supposed to be updated about 15 minutes after the earthquake occurred, by which time the calculation for the moment magnitude scale would normally be completed. However, the strong quake had exceeded the measurement limit of all of the teleseismometers within Japan, and thus it was impossible to calculate the moment magnitude based on data from those seismometers. Another cause of delayed evacuations was the release of the second update on the tsunami warning long after the earthquake (28 minutes, according to observations); by that time, power failures and similar circumstances reportedly prevented the update from reaching some residents. Also, observed data from tidal meters that were located off the coast were not fully reflected in the second warning. Furthermore, shortly after the earthquake, some wave meters reported a fluctuation of "20 centimetres (7.9 in) '', and this value was broadcast throughout the mass media and the warning system, which caused some residents to underestimate the danger of their situation and even delayed or suspended their evacuation.
In response to the aforementioned shortcomings in the tsunami warning system, JMA began an investigation in 2011 and updated their system in 2013. In the updated system, for a powerful earthquake that is capable of causing the JMA magnitude scale to saturate, no quantitative prediction will be released in the initial warning; instead, there will be words that describe the situation 's emergency. There are plans to install new teleseismometers with the ability to measure larger earthquakes, which would allow the calculation of a quake 's moment magnitude scale in a timely manner. JMA also implemented a simpler empirical method to integrate, into a tsunami warning, data from GPS tidal meters as well as from undersea water pressure meters, and there are plans to install more of these meters and to develop further technology to utilize data observed by them. To prevent under - reporting of tsunami heights, early quantitative observation data that are smaller than the expected amplitude will be overridden and the public will instead be told that the situation is under observation. About 90 seconds after an earthquake, an additional report on the possibility of a tsunami will also be included in observation reports, in order to warn people before the JMA magnitude can be calculated.
Shortly after the earthquake, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and announcements for locations in the Pacific. At 07: 30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean. Russia evacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of the Kuril Islands. The United States National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas in most of California, all of Oregon, and the western part of Alaska, and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all of Washington and British Columbia, Canada. In California and Oregon, up to 2.4 - metre - high (7.9 ft) tsunami surges hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US $10 million in damage. In Curry County, Oregon $7 million in damage occurred including the destruction of 1,100 metres (3,600 ft) of docks at the Brookings harbor; the county has received over $1 million in FEMA emergency grants. Surges of up to 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) hit Vancouver Island in Canada prompting some evacuations, and causing boats to be banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following the wave strike, leaving many island residents in the area without means of getting to work.
In the Philippines, waves up to 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in) high hit the eastern seaboard of the country. Some houses along the coast in Jayapura, Indonesia were destroyed. Authorities in Wewak, East Sepik, Papua New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city 's Boram Hospital before it was hit by the waves, causing an estimated US $4 million in damage. Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at US $3 million, with damage to private properties, including resort hotels such as Four Seasons Resort Hualalai, estimated at tens of millions of dollars. It was reported that a 1.5 - metre - high (4.9 ft) wave completely submerged Midway Atoll 's reef inlets and Spit Island, killing more than 110,000 nesting seabirds at the Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. Some other South Pacific countries, including Tonga and New Zealand, and U.S. territories American Samoa and Guam, experienced larger - than - normal waves, but did not report any major damage. However, in Guam some roads were closed off and people were evacuated from low - lying areas.
Along the Pacific Coast of Mexico and South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage. Peru reported a wave of 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) and more than 300 homes damaged. The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses, with waves of up to 3 metres (9.8 ft). In the Galápagos Islands, 260 families received assistance following a 3 metres (9.8 ft) surge which arrived 20 hours after the earthquake, after the tsunami warning had been lifted. There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities.
After a 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) high surge hit Chile, it was reported that the reflection from those surges traveled back across the Pacific, causing 30 -- 60 centimetres (12 -- 24 in) surge in Japan, 47 -- 48 hours after the earthquake, according to observation from multiple tide station (ja), including in Onahama, Owase, and Kushimoto.
The tsunami broke icebergs off the Sulzberger Ice Shelf in Antarctica, 13,000 kilometres (8,100 mi) away. The main iceberg measured 9.5 by 6.5 kilometres (5.9 mi × 4.0 mi) (approximately the area of Manhattan Island) and about 80 metres (260 ft) thick. A total of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi; 31,000 acres) of ice broke away.
As of April 2012, wreckage from the tsunami spread around the world, including a soccer ball which was found in Alaska and a Japanese motorcycle found in British Columbia, Canada.
The Geospatial Information Authority of Japan reported land subsidence based on the height of triangulation stations in the area measured by GPS as compared to their previous values from 14 April 2011.
Scientists say that the subsidence is permanent. As a result, the communities in question are now more susceptible to flooding during high tides.
In Japan, the National Police Agency has confirmed 15,895 deaths, 6,156 injured, and 2,539 people missing across twenty prefectures. In addition, some three thousands extra death have been identified as "earthquake - related death '', bringing the total number of death caused by the disaster to 19,575 as of 2017 September.
Of the 13,135 fatalities recovered by 11 April 2011, 12,143 or 92.5 % died by drowning. Victims aged 60 or older accounted for 65.2 % of the deaths, with 24 % of total victims being in their 70s. As of March 2012, Japanese police data showed that 70 % of the 3,279 still missing were aged 60 or over, all found, including 893 in their 70s and 577 in their 80s. Of the total confirmed victims, 14,308 drowned, 667 were crushed to death or died from internal injuries, and 145 perished from burns.
"Earthquake - related death '' is defined as cases where the earthquake did not directly kill those people, however it act as a contributory factor that indirectly caused their death, for the purpose of relief fund distribution. Some of the most widely reported reason for these deaths include "Physical and mental fatigue caused by life in temporary shelter '', "Physical and mental fatigue caused by evacuation '', "Delayed treatment due to the inoperative of hospital '', "Physical and mental fatigue caused by stress from the earthquake and tsunami ''. A few cases of suicide are also included. Most of these deaths occurred during the first six months after the earthquake and the number dropped thereafter, but as time has passed, the number has continued to increase. Most of these deaths occurred in Fukushima prefecture, where the prefecture government has suggested that they could be due to evacuations caused by the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. These indirect casualties have already resulted in more deaths than the number of people killed directly by earthquake and tsunami within the Fukushima prefecture.
Save the Children reports that as many as 100,000 children were uprooted from their homes, some of whom were separated from their families because the earthquake occurred during the school day. 236 children were orphaned in the prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi and Fukushima by the disaster; 1,580 children lost either one or both parents, 846 in Miyagi, 572 in Iwate, and 162 in Fukushima. The quake and tsunami killed 378 elementary, middle - school, and high school students and left 158 others missing. One elementary school in Ishinomaki, Miyagi, Okawa Elementary, lost 74 of 108 students and 10 of 13 teachers and staff.
The Japanese Foreign Ministry has confirmed the deaths of nineteen foreigners. Among them are two English teachers from the United States affiliated with the Japan Exchange and Teaching Program; a Canadian missionary in Shiogama; and citizens of China, North and South Korea, Taiwan, Pakistan and the Philippines.
By 9: 30 UTC on 11 March, Google Person Finder, which was previously used in the Haitian, Chilean, and Christchurch, New Zealand earthquakes, was collecting information about survivors and their locations.
Japanese funerals are normally elaborate Buddhist ceremonies that entail cremation. The thousands of bodies, however, exceeded the capacity of available crematoriums and morgues, many of them damaged, and there were shortages of both kerosene -- each cremation requires 50 litres -- and dry ice for preservation. The single crematorium in Higashimatsushima, for example, could only handle four bodies a day, although hundreds were found there. Governments and the military were forced to bury many bodies in hastily dug mass graves with rudimentary or no rites, although relatives of the deceased were promised that they would be cremated later.
Noted individual fatalities within Japan included 103 - year - old Takashi Shimokawara, holder of the world athletics records in the men 's shot put, discus throw and javelin throw for the over-100s age category. He was killed by the earthquake and tsunami at Kamaishi, Iwate.
As of 27 May 2011, three Japan Ground Self - Defense Force members had died while conducting relief operations in Tōhoku. As of March 2012, the Japanese government had recognized 1,331 deaths as indirectly related to the earthquake, such as caused by harsh living conditions after the disaster. As of 30 April 2012, 18 people had died and 420 had been injured while participating in disaster recovery or clean - up efforts.
The tsunami is reported to have caused several deaths outside Japan. One man was killed in Jayapura, Papua, Indonesia after being swept out to sea. A man who is said to have been attempting to photograph the oncoming tsunami at the mouth of the Klamath River, south of Crescent City, California, was swept out to sea. His body was found on 2 April along Ocean Beach in Fort Stevens State Park, Oregon, 330 miles (530 km) to the north.
The degree and extent of damage caused by the earthquake and resulting tsunami were enormous, with most of the damage being caused by the tsunami. Video footage of the towns that were worst affected shows little more than piles of rubble, with almost no parts of any structures left standing. Estimates of the cost of the damage range well into the tens of billions of US dollars; before - and - after satellite photographs of devastated regions show immense damage to many regions. Although Japan has invested the equivalent of billions of dollars on anti-tsunami seawalls which line at least 40 % of its 34,751 km (21,593 mi) coastline and stand up to 12 m (39 ft) high, the tsunami simply washed over the top of some seawalls, collapsing some in the process.
Japan 's National Police Agency said on 3 April 2011, that 45,700 buildings were destroyed and 144,300 were damaged by the quake and tsunami. The damaged buildings included 29,500 structures in Miyagi Prefecture, 12,500 in Iwate Prefecture and 2,400 in Fukushima Prefecture. Three hundred hospitals with 20 beds or more in Tōhoku were damaged by the disaster, with 11 being completely destroyed. The earthquake and tsunami created an estimated 24 -- 25 million tons of rubble and debris in Japan.
An estimated 230,000 automobiles and trucks were damaged or destroyed in the disaster. As of the end of May 2011, residents of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures had requested deregistration of 15,000 vehicles, meaning that the owners of those vehicles were writing them off as unrepairable or unsalvageable.
All of Japan 's ports were briefly shut down after the earthquake, though the ones in Tokyo and southwards soon re-opened. Fifteen ports were located in the disaster zone. The north eastern ports of Hachinohe, Sendai, Ishinomaki and Onahama were destroyed, while the Port of Chiba (which serves the hydrocarbon industry) and Japan 's ninth - largest container port at Kashima were also affected, though less severely. The ports at Hitachinaka, Hitachi, Soma, Shiogama, Kesennuma, Ofunato, Kamashi and Miyako were also damaged and closed to ships. All 15 ports reopened to limited ship traffic by 29 March 2011. A total of 319 fishing ports, about 10 % of Japan 's fishing ports, were damaged in the disaster. Most were restored to operating condition by 18 April 2012.
The Port of Tokyo suffered slight damage; the effects of the quake included visible smoke rising from a building in the port with parts of the port areas being flooded, including soil liquefaction in Tokyo Disneyland 's parking lot.
The Fujinuma irrigation dam in Sukagawa ruptured, causing flooding and washing away five homes. Eight people were missing and four bodies were discovered by the morning. Reportedly, some locals had attempted to repair leaks in the dam before it completely failed. On 12 March 252 dams were inspected and it was discovered that six embankment dams had shallow cracks on their crests. The reservoir at one concrete gravity dam suffered a small non-serious slope failure. All damaged dams are functioning with no problems. Four dams within the quake area were unreachable. When the roads clear, experts will be dispatched to conduct further investigations.
In the immediate aftermath of the calamity, at least 1.5 million households were reported to have lost access to water supplies. By 21 March 2011, this number fell to 1.04 million.
According to the Japanese trade ministry, around 4.4 million households served by Tōhoku Electric Power (TEP) in northeastern Japan were left without electricity. Several nuclear and conventional power plants went offline after the earthquake, reducing TEPCO 's total capacity by 21 GW. Rolling blackouts began on 14 March due to power shortages caused by the earthquake. The Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO), which normally provides approximately 40 GW of electricity, announced that it could only provide about 30 GW. This was because 40 % of the electricity used in the greater Tokyo area was supplied by reactors in the Niigata and Fukushima prefectures. The reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi and Fukushima Dai - ni plants were automatically taken offline when the first earthquake occurred and sustained major damage related to the earthquake and subsequent tsunami. Rolling blackouts of approximately three hours were experienced throughout April and May while TEPCO scrambled to find a temporary power solution. The blackouts affected Tokyo, Kanagawa, Eastern Shizuoka, Yamanashi, Chiba, Ibaraki, Saitama, Tochigi, and Gunma prefectures. Voluntary reduced electricity use by consumers in the Kanto area helped reduce the predicted frequency and duration of the blackouts. By 21 March 2011, the number of households in the north without electricity fell to 242,927.
Tōhoku Electric Power was not able to provide the Kanto region with additional power, because TEP 's power plants were also damaged in the earthquake. Kansai Electric Power Company (Kepco) can not share electricity, because its system operates at 60 hertz, whereas TEPCO and TEP operate their systems at 50 hertz; this is due to early industrial and infrastructure development in the 1880s that left Japan without a unified national power grid. Two substations, one in Shizuoka Prefecture and one in Nagano Prefecture, were able to convert between frequencies and transfer electricity from Kansai to Kanto and Tōhoku, but their capacity to do so is limited to 1 GW. With the damage to so many power plants, it may be years before a long - term solution can be found.
In an effort to help alleviate the shortage, three steel manufacturers in the Kanto region contributed electricity produced by their in - house conventional power stations to TEPCO for distribution to the general public. Sumitomo Metal Industries could produce up to 500 MW, JFE Steel 400 MW, and Nippon Steel 500 MW of electric power Auto and auto parts makers in Kanto and Tōhoku agreed in May 2011 to operate their factories on Saturdays and Sundays and close on Thursdays and Fridays to assist in alleviating the electricity shortage during the summer of 2011. Additionally, the public and other companies were also encouraged to conserve electricity in the 2011 summer months (Setsuden).
The expected electricity crisis in 2011 summer have been successfully prevented thanks to all the setsuden measures, peak electricity consumption recorded by TEPCO during the period was 49.22 GW, which is 10.77 GW (18 %) lower than the peal consumption in the previous year. The overall electricity consumption during the entire July and August was also 14 % less than the previous year. The peak electricity consumption within TEP 's area was 12.46 GW during the 2011 summer, 3.11 GW (20 %) less than the peak consumption in the previous year, and the overall consumption have been reduced by 11 % in July with 17 % in August compared to previous year. Japanese government continue to ask the public to conserve electricity for several years until year 2016, when it predicted that the supply will be sufficient to meet demand, thanks to the deepening of the mindset to conserve electricity among corporate and general public, addition of new electricity providers due to the electricity liberalization policy, increased output from renewable energy as well as fossil fuel power stations, as well as sharing of electricity between different electricity companies.
A 220,000 - barrel (35,000 m) - per - day oil refinery of Cosmo Oil Company was set on fire by the quake at Ichihara, Chiba Prefecture, to the east of Tokyo. It was extinguished after ten days, injuring six people, and destroying storage tanks. Others halted production due to safety checks and power loss. In Sendai, a 145,000 - barrel (23,100 m) - per - day refinery owned by the largest refiner in Japan, JX Nippon Oil & Energy, was also set ablaze by the quake. Workers were evacuated, but tsunami warnings hindered efforts to extinguish the fire until 14 March, when officials planned to do so.
An analyst estimates that consumption of various types of oil may increase by as much as 300,000 barrels (48,000 m) per day (as well as LNG), as back - up power plants burning fossil fuels try to compensate for the loss of 11 GW of Japan 's nuclear power capacity.
The city - owned plant for importing liquefied natural gas in Sendai was severely damaged, and supplies were halted for at least a month.
In addition to refining and storage, several power plants were damaged. These include Sendai # 4, New - Sendai # 1 and # 2, Haranomachi # 1 and # 2, Hirono # 2 and # 4 and Hitachinaka # 1.
The Fukushima Daiichi, Fukushima Daini, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant and Tōkai nuclear power stations, consisting of a total eleven reactors, were automatically shut down following the earthquake. Higashidōri, also on the northeast coast, was already shut down for a periodic inspection. Cooling is needed to remove decay heat after a Generation II reactor has been shut down, and to maintain spent fuel pools. The backup cooling process is powered by emergency diesel generators at the plants and at Rokkasho nuclear reprocessing plant. At Fukushima Daiichi and Daini, tsunami waves overtopped seawalls and destroyed diesel backup power systems, leading to severe problems at Fukushima Daiichi, including three large explosions and radioactive leakage. Subsequent analysis found that many Japanese nuclear plants, including Fukushima Daiichi, were not adequately protected against tsunamis. Over 200,000 people were evacuated.
7 April aftershock caused the loss of external power to Rokkasho Reprocessing Plant and Higashidori Nuclear Power Plant but backup generators were functional. Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost 3 of 4 external power lines and temporarily lost cooling function in its spent fuel pools for "20 to 80 minutes ''. A spill of "up to 3.8 litres '' of radioactive water also occurred at Onagawa following the aftershock.
A report by the IAEA in 2012 found that the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant, the closest nuclear plant to the epicenter of the 2011 earthquake and tsunami, had remained largely undamaged. The plant 's 3 reactors automatically shut down without damage and all safety systems functioned as designed. The plant 's 14 - metre - high (46 ft) seawall successfully withstood the tsunami.
Europe 's Energy Commissioner Günther Oettinger addressed the European Parliament on 15 March, explaining that the nuclear disaster was an "apocalypse ''. As the nuclear crisis entered a second month, experts recognized that Fukushima Daiichi is not the worst nuclear accident ever, but it is the most complicated. Nuclear experts stated that Fukushima will go down in history as the second - worst nuclear accident ever... while not as bad as Chernobyl disaster, worse than Three Mile Island accident. It could take months or years to learn how damaging the release of dangerous isotopes has been to human health and food supplies, and the surrounding countryside.
Later analysis indicated three reactors at Fukushima I (Units 1, 2, and 3) had suffered meltdowns and continued to leak coolant water, and by summer the Vice-minister for Economy, Trade and Industry, the head of the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency, and the head of the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, had lost their jobs.
Japan declared a state of emergency following the failure of the cooling system at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, resulting in the evacuation of nearby residents. Officials from the Japanese Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency reported that radiation levels inside the plant were up to 1,000 times normal levels, and that radiation levels outside the plant were up to 8 times normal levels. Later, a state of emergency was also declared at the Fukushima Daini nuclear power plant about 11 km (6.8 mi) south. This brought the total number of problematic reactors to six.
It was reported that radioactive iodine was detected in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi, Gunma, Tokyo, Chiba, Saitama, and Niigata, and radioactive caesium in the tap water in Fukushima, Tochigi and Gunma. Radioactive caesium, iodine, and strontium were also detected in the soil in some places in Fukushima. There may be a need to replace the contaminated soil. Many radioactive hotspots were found outside the evacuation zone, including Tokyo. Food products were also found contaminated by radioactive matter in several places in Japan. On 5 April 2011, the government of the Ibaraki Prefecture banned the fishing of sand lance after discovering that this species was contaminated by radioactive caesium above legal limits. As late as July 2013 slightly elevated levels of radioactivity were found in beef on sale at Tokyo markets.
A fire occurred in the turbine section of the Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant following the earthquake. The blaze was in a building housing the turbine, which is sited separately from the plant 's reactor, and was soon extinguished. The plant was shut down as a precaution.
On 13 March the lowest - level state of emergency was declared regarding the Onagawa plant as radioactivity readings temporarily exceeded allowed levels in the area of the plant. Tōhoku Electric Power Co. stated this may have been due to radiation from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accidents but was not from the Onagawa plant itself.
As a result of 7 April aftershock, Onagawa Nuclear Power Plant lost 3 of 4 external power lines and lost cooling function for as much as 80 minutes. A spill of a couple of litres of radioactive water occurred at Onagawa.
The number 2 reactor at Tōkai Nuclear Power Plant was shut down automatically. On 14 March it was reported that a cooling system pump for this reactor had stopped working; however, the Japan Atomic Power Company stated that there was a second operational pump sustaining the cooling systems, but that two of three diesel generators used to power the cooling system were out of order.
None of Japan 's commercial wind turbines, totaling over 2300 MW in nameplate capacity, failed as a result of the earthquake and tsunami, including the Kamisu offshore wind farm directly hit by the tsunami.
Japan 's transport network suffered severe disruptions. Many sections of Tōhoku Expressway serving northern Japan were damaged. The expressway did not reopen to general public use until 24 March 2011. All railway services were suspended in Tokyo, with an estimated 20,000 people stranded at major stations across the city. In the hours after the earthquake, some train services were resumed. Most Tokyo area train lines resumed full service by the next day -- 12 March. Twenty thousand stranded visitors spent the night of 11 -- 12 March inside Tokyo Disneyland.
A tsunami wave flooded Sendai Airport at 15: 55 JST, about 1 hour after the initial quake, causing severe damage. Narita and Haneda Airport both briefly suspended operations after the quake, but suffered little damage and reopened within 24 hours. Eleven airliners bound for Narita were diverted to nearby Yokota Air Base.
Various train services around Japan were also canceled, with JR East suspending all services for the rest of the day. Four trains on coastal lines were reported as being out of contact with operators; one, a four - car train on the Senseki Line, was found to have derailed, and its occupants were rescued shortly after 8 am the next morning. Minami - Kesennuma Station on the Kesennuma Line was obliterated save for its platform; 62 of 70 (31 of 35) JR East train lines suffered damage to some degree; in the worst - hit areas, 23 stations on 7 lines were washed away, with damage or loss of track in 680 locations and the 30 - km radius around the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant unable to be assessed.
There were no derailments of Shinkansen bullet train services in and out of Tokyo, but their services were also suspended. The Tōkaidō Shinkansen resumed limited service late in the day and was back to its normal schedule by the next day, while the Jōetsu and Nagano Shinkansen resumed services late on 12 March. Services on Yamagata Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 31 March.
Derailments were minimized because of an early warning system that detected the earthquake before it struck. The system automatically stopped all high - speed trains, which minimized the damage.
The Tōhoku Shinkansen line was worst hit, with JR East estimating that 1,100 sections of the line, varying from collapsed station roofs to bent power pylons, will need repairs. Services on the Tōhoku Shinkansen partially resumed only in Kantō area on 15 March, with one round - trip service per hour between Tokyo and Nasu - Shiobara, and Tōhoku area service partially resumed on 22 March between Morioka and Shin - Aomori. Services on Akita Shinkansen resumed with limited numbers of trains on 18 March. Service between Tokyo and Shin - Aomori was restored by May, but at lower speeds due to ongoing restoration work; the pre-earthquake timetable was not reinstated until late September.
The rolling blackouts brought on by the crises at the nuclear power plants in Fukushima had a profound effect on the rail networks around Tokyo starting on 14 March. Major railways began running trains at 10 -- 20 minute intervals, rather than the usual 3 -- 5 minute intervals, operating some lines only at rush hour and completely shutting down others; notably, the Tōkaidō Main Line, Yokosuka Line, Sōbu Main Line and Chūō - Sōbu Line were all stopped for the day. This led to near - paralysis within the capital, with long lines at train stations and many people unable to come to work or get home. Railway operators gradually increased capacity over the next few days, until running at approximately 80 % capacity by 17 March and relieving the worst of the passenger congestion.
Cellular and landline phone service suffered major disruptions in the affected area. Immediately after the earthquake cellular communication was jammed across much of Japan due to a surge of network activity. On the day of the quake, American broadcaster NPR was unable to reach anyone in Sendai with working phone or Internet. Internet services were largely unaffected in areas where basic infrastructure remained, despite the earthquake having damaged portions of several undersea cable systems landing in the affected regions; these systems were able to reroute around affected segments onto redundant links. Within Japan, only a few websites were initially unreachable. Several Wi - Fi hotspot providers reacted to the quake by providing free access to their networks, and some American telecommunications and VoIP companies such as AT&T, Sprint, Verizon, T - Mobile and VoIP companies such as netTALK and Vonage have offered free calls to (and in some cases, from) Japan for a limited time, as did Germany 's Deutsche Telekom.
Matsushima Air Field of the Japan Self - Defense Force in Miyagi Prefecture was struck by the tsunami, flooding the base and resulting in damage to all 18 Mitsubishi F - 2 fighter jets of the 21st Fighter Training Squadron. 12 of the aircraft were scrapped, while the remaining 6 were slated for repair at a cost of 80 billion yen ($1 billion), exceeding the original cost of the aircraft.
JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) evacuated the Tsukuba Space Center in Tsukuba, Ibaraki. The Center, which houses a control room for part of the International Space Station, was shut down and some damage was reported. The Tsukuba control center resumed full operations for the space station 's Kibo laboratory and the HTV cargo craft on 21 March 2011.
754 cultural properties were damaged across nineteen prefectures, including five National Treasures (at Zuigan - ji, Ōsaki Hachiman - gū, Shiramizu Amidadō, and Seihaku - ji); 160 Important Cultural Properties (including at Sendai Tōshō - gū, the Kōdōkan, and Entsū - in, with its western decorative motifs); one hundred and forty - four Monuments of Japan (including Matsushima, Takata - matsubara, Yūbikan, and the Site of Tagajō); six Groups of Traditional Buildings; and four Important Tangible Folk Cultural Properties. Stone monuments at the UNESCO World Heritage Site: Shrines and Temples of Nikkō were toppled. In Tokyo, there was damage to Koishikawa Kōrakuen, Rikugien, Hamarikyū Onshi Teien, and the walls of Edo Castle. Information on the condition of collections held by museums, libraries and archives is still incomplete. There was no damage to the Historic Monuments and Sites of Hiraizumi in Iwate Prefecture, and the recommendation for their inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage List in June was seized upon as a symbol of international recognition and recovery.
The aftermath of the earthquake and tsunami included both a humanitarian crisis and a major economic impact. The tsunami resulted in over 340,000 displaced people in the Tōhoku region, and shortages of food, water, shelter, medicine, and fuel for survivors. In response the Japanese government mobilized the Self - Defence Forces (under Joint Task Force -- Tōhoku, led by Lieutenant General Eiji Kimizuka), while many countries sent search and rescue teams to help search for survivors. Aid organizations both in Japan and worldwide also responded, with the Japanese Red Cross reporting $1 billion in donations. The economic impact included both immediate problems, with industrial production suspended in many factories, and the longer term issue of the cost of rebuilding which has been estimated at ¥ 10 trillion ($122 billion). In comparison to the 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake, the East Japan earthquake brought serious damage to an extremely wide range.
The aftermath of the twin disasters also left Japan 's coastal cities and towns with nearly 25 million tons of debris. In Ishinomaki alone, there were 17 trash collection sites 180 metres (590 ft) long and at least 4.5 metres (15 ft) high. An official in the city 's government trash disposal department estimated that it would take three years to empty these sites.
In April 2015, authorities off the coast of Oregon discovered debris that is thought to be from a boat destroyed during the tsunami. Cargo contained yellowtail jack fish, a species that lives off the coast of Japan, still alive. KGW estimates that more than 1 million tons of debris still remain in the Pacific Ocean.
According to Japan 's foreign ministry, 116 countries and 28 international organizations offered assistance. Japan specifically requested assistance from teams from Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, and the United States.
Japan 's national public broadcaster, NHK, and Japan Satellite Television suspended their usual programming to provide ongoing coverage of the situation. Other nationwide Japanese and international TV networks also broadcast uninterrupted coverage of the disaster. Ustream Asia broadcast live feeds of NHK, Tokyo Broadcasting System, Nippon TV, Fuji TV, TV Asahi, TV Tokyo, Tokyo MX, TV Kanagawa, and CNN on the Internet starting on 12 March 2011. YokosoNews, an Internet webcast in Japan, dedicated its broadcast to the latest news gathered from Japanese news stations, translating them in real time to English.
It was noted that the Japanese news media has been at times overly cautious to avoid panic and reliance on confusing statements by experts and officials.
In this national crisis, the Japanese government provided Japanese Sign Language (JSL) interpreting at the press conferences related to the earthquake and tsunami. Television broadcasts of the press conferences of Prime Minister Naoto Kan and Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano included simultaneous JSL interpreters standing next to the Japanese flag on the same platform.
According to Jake Adelstein, most Japanese media accepted and parroted the misinformation put out by the Japanese government and TEPCO about the unfolding Fukushima nuclear crisis. Notable exceptions, according to Adelstein, were newspapers Sankei Shimbun and Chunichi Shimbun which questioned the accuracy of the information coming from the government and TEPCO. Because of the unquestioning nature of most Japanese media to hold to the "party line '', many Japanese mid-level officials and experts spoke to foreign media to get their opinions and observations publicized.
Atsushi Funahashi, director of Nuclear Nation notes that "when the overseas media was calling Fukushima a ' meltdown, ' the Japanese government and media waited two months before admitting it. ''
Nine days after the earthquake hit, a visualization and sonification were uploaded to YouTube allowing listeners to hear the earthquake as it unfolded in time. Two days of seismic activity made available by the IRIS Consortium were compressed into two minutes of sound. The large number of views made the video one of the most popular examples of sonification on the web.
Also, following the earthquake, for the first time in Japanese history, the Emperor addressed the nation in a pre-recorded television broadcast.
Seismologists anticipated a very large quake would strike in the same place as the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake -- in the Sagami Trough, southwest of Tokyo. The Japanese government had tracked plate movements since 1976 in preparation for the so - called Tokai earthquake, predicted to take place in that region. However, occurring as it did 373 km (232 mi) north east of Tokyo, the Tōhoku earthquake came as a surprise to seismologists. While the Japan Trench was known for creating large quakes, it had not been expected to generate quakes above an 8.0 magnitude. The Headquarters For Earthquake Research Promotion setup by Japanese government have then reassessed the long term risk of trench - type earthquakes around Japan, and it was announced in November 2011 that, combining with researches on 869 Sanriku earthquake, an earthquake similar to this one (with a magnitude of M 8.4 -- 9.0) would take place in the area between off the coast of Pacific side of the Northeast Japan in an average of every 600 years intervals (See also Seismicity of the Sanriku coast), and it is also assessed that a tsunami - earthquake with a tsunami magnitude scales (Mt) between 8.6 and 9.0 (Similar to 1896 Sanriku earthquake, the Mt for the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake is 9.1 -- 9.4) will have a 30 % chance to occur within 30 years.
The quake gave scientists the opportunity to collect a large amount of data so as to model in great detail the seismic events that took place. This data is expected to be used in a variety of ways, providing as it does unprecedented information about how buildings respond to shaking, and other effects. Gravimetric data from the quake has been used to create a model for increased warning time compared to seismic models, as gravity fields travel faster than seismic waves.
Researchers have also analysed the economic effects of this earthquake and have developed models of the nationwide propagation via interfirm supply networks of the shock originated in Tōhoku region.
Researchers soon after the full extent of the disaster was known launched a project to gather all digital material relating to the disaster into an online searchable archive to form the basis of future research into the events during and after the disaster. The Japan Digital Archive is presented in English and Japanese and is hosted at the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies at Harvard University in Boston, Massachusetts. Some of the first research to come from the archive was a 2014 paper from the Digital Methods Initiative in Amsterdam about patterns of Twitter usage around the time of the disaster.
After the 2011 disaster the UNISDR, United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, held its World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Tohoku in March 2015, which produced the Sendai Framework document to guide efforts by international development agencies to act before disasters instead of reacting to them after the fact. At this time Japan 's Disaster Management Office (Naikakufu Bosai Keikaku) published a bi-lingual guide in Japanese and English, Disaster Management in Japan, to outline the several varieties of natural disaster and the preparations being made for the eventuality of each. In the fall of 2016 Japan 's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Resilience (NIED; Japanese abbreviation, Bosai Kaken; full name Bousai Kagaku Gijutsu Kenkyusho) launched the online interactive "Disaster Chronology Map for Japan, 416 -- 2013 '' (map labels in Japanese) to display in visual form the location, disaster time, and date across the islands.
An expedition named Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project have been conducted in year 2012 -- 2013 to drill oceanfloor boreholes through the fault - zone of the earthquake and gathered important data about the rupture mechanism and physical properties of the fault that caused the huge earthquake and tsuanmi which devastated much of northeast Japan.
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what role did mel brooks play in young frankenstein | Young Frankenstein - wikipedia
Young Frankenstein is a 1974 American comedy horror film directed by Mel Brooks and starring Gene Wilder as the title character, a descendant of the infamous Dr. Victor Frankenstein. The supporting cast includes Teri Garr, Cloris Leachman, Marty Feldman, Peter Boyle, Madeline Kahn, Kenneth Mars, Richard Haydn and Gene Hackman. The screenplay was written by Wilder and Brooks.
The film is an affectionate parody of the classic horror film genre, in particular the various film adaptations of Mary Shelley 's novel Frankenstein produced by Universal in the 1930s. Most of the lab equipment used as props was created by Kenneth Strickfaden for the 1931 film Frankenstein. To help evoke the atmosphere of the earlier films, Brooks shot the picture entirely in black and white, a rarity in the 1970s, and employed 1930s ' style opening credits and scene transitions such as iris outs, wipes, and fades to black. The film also features a period score by Brooks ' longtime composer John Morris.
A critical favourite and box office smash, Young Frankenstein ranks No. 28 on Total Film magazine 's readers ' "List of the 50 Greatest Comedy Films of All Time '', No. 56 on Bravo TV 's list of the "100 Funniest Movies '', and No. 13 on the American Film Institute 's list of the 100 funniest American movies. In 2003, it was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant '' by the United States National Film Preservation Board, and selected for preservation in the Library of Congress National Film Registry. On its 40th anniversary, Brooks considered it by far his finest (though not his funniest) film as a writer - director.
Dr. Frederick Frankenstein (Gene Wilder) is a lecturing physician at an American medical school and engaged to the tightly wound socialite Elizabeth (Madeline Kahn). He becomes exasperated when anyone brings up the subject of his grandfather Victor Frankenstein (German / ˈfrankenʃtaɪn /, in English traditionally / ˈfrænkenstaɪn /), the infamous mad scientist; to dissociate himself from his forebear, Frederick insists that his surname is pronounced / ˈfrankenstiːn /. When a solicitor informs him that he has inherited his family 's estate in Transylvania after the death of his great - grandfather, the Baron Beaufort von Frankenstein, Frederick travels to Europe to inspect the property. At the Transylvania train station, he is met by a hunchbacked, bug - eyed servant named Igor (Marty Feldman), and a lovely young personal assistant named Inga (Teri Garr).
Upon arrival at the estate, Frederick meets the forbidding housekeeper Frau Blücher (Cloris Leachman). Upon discovering the secret entrance to his grandfather 's laboratory and reading his private journals, Frederick is so captivated that he decides to resume his grandfather 's experiments in re-animating the dead. He and Igor steal the corpse of a recently executed criminal, and Frederick sets to work experimenting on the large corpse. Matters go awry when Igor is sent to steal the brain of a deceased revered historian, Hans Delbrück; startled by lightning, he drops and ruins Delbrück 's brain. Taking a second brain, Igor returns with a brain labeled "Do Not Use This Brain! Abnormal '', which Frederick unknowingly transplants into the corpse.
Soon, Frederick is ready to re-animate his creature (Peter Boyle), who is eventually brought to life by electrical charges during a lightning storm. The creature takes its first halting steps, but, frightened by Igor lighting a match, he attacks Frederick and must be sedated. Meanwhile, the townspeople are uneasy at the possibility of Frederick continuing his grandfather 's work, unaware of the creature 's existence; most concerned is Inspector Kemp (Kenneth Mars), a one - eyed police official with a prosthetic arm, whose German accent is so thick that even his own countrymen can not understand him. Kemp visits the doctor and subsequently demands assurance that he will not create another monster. Upon returning to the lab, Frederick discovers Blücher setting the creature free. After she reveals the monster 's love of violin music and her own romantic relationship with Frederick 's grandfather, the creature is enraged by sparks from a thrown switch and escapes from the Frankenstein castle.
While roaming the countryside, the monster has frustrating encounters with a young girl and a blind hermit (Gene Hackman). Frederick recaptures the monster and locks the two of them in a room, where he calms the monster 's homicidal tendencies with flattery and fully acknowledges his own heritage, shouting out emphatically, "My name is Frankenstein! ''. Frederick offers the sight of "The Creature '' following simple commands to a theater full of illustrious guests. The demonstration continues with Frederick and the monster launching into the musical number "Puttin ' On the Ritz ''. However, the routine ends disastrously when a stage light explodes and frightens the monster, who becomes enraged and charges into the audience, where he is captured and chained by police. Back in the laboratory, Inga attempts to comfort Frederick and the two wind - up sleeping together on the suspended reanimation table.
The monster escapes when Frederick 's fiancee Elizabeth arrives unexpectedly for a visit, taking Elizabeth captive as he flees. Elizabeth falls in love with the creature due to his inhuman stamina and his enormous penis (referred to as Schwanstücker or Schwanzstück). The townspeople hunt for the monster. Desperate to get the creature back, Frederick plays the violin to lure his creation back to the castle and recaptures him. Just as the Kemp - led mob storms the laboratory, Frankenstein transfers some of his stabilizing intellect to the creature who, as a result, is able to reason with and placate the mob. Elizabeth marries the now erudite and sophisticated monster -- with her hair styled identically to that of the female creature from the Bride of Frankenstein, while Inga joyfully learns what her new husband Frederick got in return during the transfer procedure -- the monster 's Schwanzstücker.
After several box office failures (which included now - cult classics The Producers and Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory), Gene Wilder finally hit box office success with a pivotal role in the 1972 Woody Allen film Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * (* But Were Afraid to Ask). It was around that time that Wilder began toying around with an idea for an original story involving the grandson of Victor Frankenstein inheriting his grandfather 's mansion and his research.
Wilder had played around with screenwriting earlier in his career, writing a few unmade screenplays that were, by his own admission, not very good (the story idea of one of those early screenplays would form the basis of his 2007 novel My French Whore.) While writing his story, he was approached by his agent (and future film mogul) Mike Medavoy who suggested he make a film with Medavoy 's two new clients, actor Peter Boyle and comedian Marty Feldman. Wilder mentioned his Frankenstein idea, and within a few days, sent Medavoy four pages of his idea (the entire Transylvania train station scene, which he had started writing after seeing Feldman on Dean Martin 's Comedy World.)
It was Medavoy who suggested that Wilder talk to Mel Brooks about directing. Wilder had already talked to Brooks about the idea early on. After he wrote the two - page scenario, he called Brooks, who told him that it seemed like a "cute '' idea but showed little interest. Though Wilder believed that Brooks would not direct a film that he did not conceive, he again approached Brooks a few months later, when the two of them were shooting Blazing Saddles.
In a 2010 interview with Los Angeles Times, Mel Brooks discussed how the film came about:
I was in the middle of shooting the last few weeks of Blazing Saddles somewhere in the Antelope Valley, and Gene Wilder and I were having a cup of coffee and he said, I have this idea that there could be another Frankenstein. I said, "Not another! We 've had the son of, the cousin of, the brother - in - law. We do n't need another Frankenstein. '' His idea was very simple: What if the grandson of Dr. Frankenstein wanted nothing to do with the family whatsoever. He was ashamed of those wackos. I said, "That 's funny. ''
In a 2016 interview with Creative Screenwriting, Brooks elaborated on the writing process. He recalled,
Little by little, every night, Gene and I met at his bungalow at the Bel Air Hotel. We ordered a pot of Earl Grey tea coupled with a container of cream and a small kettle of brown sugar cubes. To go with it we had a pack of British digestive biscuits. And step - by - step, ever so cautiously, we proceeded on a dark narrow twisting path to the eventual screenplay in which good sense and caution are thrown out the window and madness ensues.
Unlike his previous and subsequent films, Brooks did not appear onscreen as himself in Young Frankenstein, though he recorded several voice parts and portrayed a German villager in one short scene. In 2012, Brooks explained why:
I was n't allowed to be in it. That was the deal Gene Wilder had. He (said), "If you 're not in it, I 'll do it. '' (Laughs.) He (said), "You have a way of breaking the fourth wall, whether you want to or not. I just want to keep it. I do n't want too much to be, you know, a wink at the audience. I love the script. '' He wrote the script with me. That was the deal. So I was n't in it, and he did it.
Mel Brooks wanted at least $2.3 million dedicated to the budget, whereas Columbia Pictures decided that $1.7 million had to be enough. Brooks instead went to 20th Century Fox for distribution, after they agreed to a higher budget. Fox would later sign both Wilder and Brooks to five year contracts at the studio.
While shooting, the cast ad - libbed several jokes used in the film. Cloris Leachman improvised a scene in which Frau Blücher offers "varm milk '' and Ovaltine to Dr. Frankenstein, while Marty Feldman surreptitiously moved his character 's hump from shoulder to shoulder until someone noticed it, and the gag was added to the film, as "Did n't you used to have that on the other side? '', an elaboration / follow - up to an earlier joke where Dr. Frankenstein offers his cosmetic services and is met with the response "What hump? ''
In one of the scenes of a village assembly, one of the authority figures says that they already know what Frankenstein is up to based on five previous experiences. On the DVD commentary track, Mel Brooks says this is a reference to the first five Universal films. In the Gene Wilder DVD interview, he says the film is based on Frankenstein (1931), Bride of Frankenstein (1935), Son of Frankenstein (1939) and The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942).
Young Frankenstein was first released onto DVD November 3, 1998. The film was released onto DVD the second time on September 5, 2006. The film then released on DVD the third time on September 9, 2014 as a 40th anniversary edition along with the Blu - ray.
ABC Records released the soundtrack on LP on December 15, 1974. On April 29, 1997, One Way Records reissued it on CD. There are pieces of dialogue by the actors as well as background and incidental music on the disc. The LP and disc are now out of print and command a very high price on Internet auction sites when available.
Track listing
Brooks adapted the film into a musical of the same name which premiered in Seattle at the Paramount Theatre and ran from August 7 to September 1, 2007. The musical opened on Broadway at the Foxwoods Theatre (then the Hilton Theatre) on November 8, 2007 and closed on January 4, 2009. It was nominated for three Tony Awards, and starred Tony winner Roger Bart, two - time Tony winner Sutton Foster, Tony & Olivier winner Shuler Hensley, two - time Emmy winner Megan Mullally, three - time Tony nominee Christopher Fitzgerald, and two - time Tony & Emmy winner Andrea Martin.
Nominations
Cloris Leachman was nominated as a lead despite Madeline Kahn having far more screen time.
Wins
In 2011, ABC aired a primetime special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, that counted down the best movies chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People. Young Frankenstein was selected as the No. 4 Best Comedy.
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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eric hobsbawm the age of total war summary | The Age of Extremes - wikipedia
The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century, 1914 -- 1991 is a book by Eric Hobsbawm, published in 1994. In it, Hobsbawm comments on what he sees as the disastrous failures of state socialism, capitalism, and nationalism; he offers an equally skeptical take on the progress of the arts and changes in society in the latter half of the twentieth century.
Hobsbawm calls the period from the start of World War I to the fall of the so - called Soviet bloc "the short twentieth century '', to follow on "the long 19th century '', the period from the start of the French Revolution in 1789 to the start of World War I in 1914, which he covered in an earlier trilogy of histories (The Age of Revolution: Europe, 1789 - 1848, The Age of Capital: 1848 -- 1875, The Age of Empire: 1875 -- 1914). In the United States, the book was published with the subtitle A History of the World, 1914 -- 1991 (ISBN 978 - 0 - 679 - 73005 - 7).
Hobsbawm points out the abysmal record of recent attempts to predict the world 's future. "The record of forecasters in the past thirty or forty years, whatever their professional qualification as prophets, has been so spectacularly bad that only governments and economic research institutes still have, or pretend to have, much confidence in it. '' He quotes President Calvin Coolidge, in a message to Congress on December 4, 1928, on the eve of the Great Depression, as saying "The country can regard the present with satisfaction and anticipate the future with optimism. ''
Speaking of the future himself, Hobsbawm largely confines himself to predicting continued turmoil: "The world of the third millennium will therefore almost certainly continue to be one of violent politics and violent political changes. The only thing uncertain about them is where they will lead, '' and expressing the view that "If humanity is to have a recognizable future, it can not be by prolonging the past or the present. ''
In one of his few more concrete predictions, he writes that "Social distribution and not growth would dominate the politics of the new millennium. ''
The Russian Revolution of 1917 was not the revolution of the most advanced capitalist societies predicted by Karl Marx. As Hobsbawm puts it, "Capitalism had proved far easier to overthrow where it was weak or barely existed than in its heartlands. '' Even within Russia, Hobsbawm doubts the ostensibly "progressive '' effects of the revolution: "What remained (after revolution and civil war) was a Russia even more firmly anchored in the past... (W) hat actually governed the country was an undergrowth of smaller and larger bureaucracy, on average even less educated and qualified than before. ''
It is a central thesis of Hobsbawm 's book that, from the start, State Socialism betrayed the socialist and internationalist vision it claimed to uphold. In particular, State Socialism always dispensed with the democratic element of the socialist vision: "Lenin... concluded from the start that the liberal horse was not a runner in the Russian revolutionary race. '' This anti-liberalism ran deep. In 1933, with Benito Mussolini firmly in control of Italy, "Moscow insisted that the Italian communist leader P. Togliatti withdraw the suggestion that, perhaps, social - democracy was not the primary danger, at least in Italy. ''
As for support for international revolution, "The communist revolutions actually made (Yugoslavia, Albania, later China) were made against Stalin 's advice. The Soviet view was that, both internationally and within each country, post-war politics should continue within the framework of the all - embracing anti-fascist alliance... There is no doubt that Stalin meant all this seriously, and tried to prove it by dissolving the Comintern in 1943, and the Communist Party of the United States in 1944. "(T) he Chinese Communist regime, though it criticized the USSR for betraying revolutionary movements after the break between the two countries, has no comparable record of practical support for Third World liberation movements. ''
On the other hand, he is no friend of the Maoist doctrine of perpetual revolution: "Mao was fundamentally convinced of the importance of struggle, conflict and high tension as something that was not only essential to life but prevented the relapse into the weaknesses of the old Chinese society, whose very insistence on unchanging permanence and harmony had been its weakness. '' Hobsbawm draws a straight line from this belief to the disastrous Great Leap Forward and the subsequent Chinese famine of 1959 -- 1961.
Socialism, Hobsbawm argues, ultimately fell because, eventually, "... hardly anyone believed in the system or felt any loyalty to it, not even those who governed it. ''
Hobsbawm has very mixed feelings about the end of the nineteenth - century imperial order, largely because he is no happier with the nation - states that replaced the empires. "(World War I)... had made the habitual and sensible process of international negotiation suspect as ' secret diplomacy '. This was largely a reaction against the secret treaties arranged among the Allies during the war... The Bolsheviks, discovering these sensitive documents in the Tsarist archives, had promptly published them for the world to read. ''
"The botched peace settlements after 1918 multiplied what we, at the end of the twentieth century, know to be the fatal virus of democracy, namely the division of the body of citizens exclusively along ethnic - national or religious lines. '' "The reductio ad absurdum of... anti-colonialist logic was the attempt by an extremist Jewish fringe group in Palestine to negotiate with the Germans (via Damascus, then under the Vichy French) for help in liberating Palestine from the British, which they regarded as the top priority for Zionism. (A militant of the group involved in this mission eventually became prime minister of Israel: Yitzhak Shamir.) ''
None of this throws Hobsbawm into the embrace of free - market capitalism: "Those of us who lived through the years of the Great Slump still find it almost impossible to understand how the orthodoxies of the pure free market, then so obviously discredited, once again came to preside over a global period of depression in the late 1980s and 1990s, which once again, they were equally unable to understand or to deal with. ''
"As it happened, the regimes most deeply committed to laissez - faire economics were also sometimes, and notably in the case of Reagan 's United States and Thatcher 's Britain, profoundly and viscerally nationalist and distrustful of the outside world. The historian can not but note that the two attitudes are contradictory. '' He points up the irony that "(T) he most dynamic and rapidly growing economy of the globe after the fall of Soviet socialism was that of Communist China, leading Western business - school lectures and the authors of management manuals, a flourishing genre of literature, to scan the teachings of Confucius for the secrets of entrepreneurial success. ''
Ultimately, in world terms, he sees capitalism being just as much of a failure as state socialism: "The belief, following neoclassical economics, that unrestricted international trade would allow the poorer countries to come closer to the rich, runs counter to historical experience as well as common sense. (The examples of successful export - led Third World industrialization usually quoted -- Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea -- represent less than two percent of the Third World population). '' (brackets in the original)
Denying fascism 's claim to philosophical respectability, Hobsbawm writes: "Theory was not the strong point of movements devoted to the inadequancies of reason and rationalism and the superiority of instinct and will '', and further on the same page: "Mussolini could have readily dispensed with his house philosopher, Giovanni Gentile, and Hitler probably neither knew nor cared about the support of the philosopher Heidegger. '' Instead, he claims, the popular appeal of fascism lay with its claims to technocratic achievement: "Was not the proverbial argument in favour of fascist Italy that ' Mussolini made the trains run on time '? ''
He also writes: "Would the horror of the holocaust be any less if historians concluded that it exterminated not six millions but five or even four? ''
Hobsbawm often uses statistics to paint a broad picture of a society at a particular time. With reference to the contemporary United States (at the time of writing) he points out, "In 1991, 58 per cent of all black families in the United States were headed by a single woman and 70 per cent of all children were born to single mothers, '' and "In 1991 15 per cent of what was proportionally the largest prison population in the world -- 426 prisoners per 100,000 population -- were said to be mentally ill. ''
He finds damning statistics to back up his claim of the total failure of state socialism to promote the general welfare: "In 1969, Austrians, Finns and Poles could expect to die at the same average age (70.1 years) but in 1989, Poles had a life expectancy about four years shorter than Austrians and Finns, '' "... The great (Chinese) famine of 1959 - 61, probably the greatest famine of the twentieth century: According to official Chinese statistics, the country 's population in 1959 was 672.07 millions. At the natural growth rate of the preceding seven years, which was at least 20 per thousand per year, one would have expected the Chinese population in 1961 to have been 699 millions. In fact it was 658.59 millions or forty millions less than might have been expected. ''
Similarly, "Brazil, a monument to social neglect, had a GNP per capita almost two - and - a-half as large as Sri Lanka in 1939, and over six times as large at the end of the 80s. In Sri Lanka, which had subsidized basic foodstuffs and given free education and health care until the later 1970s, the average newborn could expect to live several years longer than the average Brazilian, and to die as an infant at about half the Brazilian rate in 1969, at a third of the Brazilian rate in 1989. The percentage of illiteracy in 1989 was about twice as great in Brazil as on the Asian island. ''
Hobsbawm writes on Post-war modernist art practice:
Hobsbawm also comments on popular culture, a subject he has left alone in other books. He writes, "Buddy Holly, Janis Joplin, Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones, Bob Marley, Jimi Hendrix and a number of other popular divinities fell victim of a life - style designed for early death. What made such deaths symbolic was that youth, which they represented, was impermanent by definition. '' Of these, Joplin 's and Hendrix 's deaths were drug - related; Jones 's may have been (the coroner 's verdict was "death by misadventure ''; there has been much controversy surrounding the events leading to his death); Holly died in a plane crash and Marley of cancer.
However, he does use youth culture as a lens to view the changes in the late - twentieth - century social order:
Hobsbawm goes on to write that "The cultural revolution of the latest twentieth century can thus best be understood as the triumph of the individual over society, or rather, the breaking of the threads which in the past had woven human beings into social textures '' and evokes this as paralleling Margaret Thatcher 's claim that ' There is no society, only individuals '.
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the seven deadly sins the ten commandments episode 22 | List of the Seven Deadly Sins episodes - wikipedia
The Seven Deadly Sins is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Nakaba Suzuki. The series follows Elizabeth, the third princess of the Kingdom of Liones, who is in search of the Seven Deadly Sins, a group of former Holy Knights who were disbanded after the kingdom was overthrown. She enlists the help of Meliodas and Hawk, the captain of the Seven Deadly Sins and his talking pet pig, to assemble the remaining members of the Seven Deadly Sins and take back the kingdom from the Holy Knights. The series debuted on MBS and other Japan News Network stations on October 5, 2014. A second season of the anime series was confirmed on September 27, 2015, and aired on January 13, 2018.
An original video animation (OVA) titled "Ban 's Additional Chapter '' (バン の 番外 編, Ban no Bangai - hen) was included with the limited edition of volume 15 of the manga, released on June 17, 2015. A second OVA composed of nine humorous shorts was shipped with the limited edition of the sixteenth volume of the manga, released on August 12, 2015.
The first The Seven Deadly Sins anime series was licensed for English release by Netflix as its second exclusive anime, following their acquisition of Knights of Sidonia. All 24 episodes were released on November 1, 2015 in both subtitled or English dub formats. The Signs of Holy War arc of the series, labeled as Season 2, was added to the service on February 17, 2017.
The show 's first opening theme song is "Netsujō no Spectrum '' (熱情 の スペクトラム, Netsujō no Supekutoramu, "Spectrum of Passion '') performed by Ikimono - gakari for the first twelve episodes and the second opening theme is "Seven Deadly Sins '' performed by Man with a Mission, while the first ending theme titled "7 - Seven '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, the second ending theme from episode thirteen onwards is "Season '' the major label debut of Alisa Takigawa.
The Seven Deadly Sins: Revival of The Commandments first opening theme song titled "Howling '' is a collaboration between Flow and Granrodeo, and first ending theme song is "Beautiful '' performed by Anly. The second opening theme titled "Ame ga Furu kara, Niji ga Deru '' (雨 が 降る から 虹 が 出る) by Sky Peace and second ending theme titled "Chikai '' (誓い) by Sora Amamiya.
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reception and medical center in lake butler florida | Reception and Medical Center - wikipedia
The Reception and Medical Center is a state prison and hospital for men located in Lake Butler, Union County, Florida. The facility was founded in 1968 as an intake and processing point for all male state prisoners, and a secure medical facility.
As of 2016 the facility can house a maximum of 1503 prisoners with a range of security levels. The nearby Reception and Medical Center, West Unit houses another 1148.
In April 2015 two correctional officers and a third former officer were charged in a scheme to murder a former inmate, in retaliation for a fight in the RMC the previous year. All three officers were linked to the Traditional American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan.
Coordinates: 29 ° 59 ′ 21 '' N 82 ° 21 ′ 30 '' W / 29.989089 ° N 82.358287 ° W / 29.989089; - 82.358287
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who are the original avengers in the mcu | List of Avengers members - wikipedia
The Avengers are a series of fictional superhero teams that have starred in The Avengers and related comic book series published by Marvel Comics. Over the years, the teams have featured a rotating lineup composed of a large number of characters. Characters listed in bold are the current members of the team.
All of these members helped form the team in The Avengers # 1 (September 1963).
formerly Donald Blake / Sigurd Jarlson / Jake Olsen, Odinson
Avengers members recruited by Hawkeye as the West Coast Avengers chair.
The New Avengers were formed due to a mass break - out at the super villain prison The Raft.
The New Avengers became a splinter group that chose not to comply with federal superhuman registration, as opposed to the governmental - sanctioned team presented in Mighty Avengers then Dark Avengers. The Mighty Avengers after the Dark Avengers launch was an international agency sanctioned team.
Characters who have officially joined the Avengers after the events of Dark Reign and Siege.
After the Fear Itself event, the lineup of the Avengers teams was shifted by Captain America during the Shattered Heroes storyline.
After the Avengers vs. X-Men event, members from both Avengers and X-Men teams were shifted by Captain America during the Marvel NOW! storyline.
Characters that joined the team during the Infinity event.
Heroes that have been granted honorary status during their lifetime or posthumously for acts of great courage and / or sacrifice.
A group of superheroes from the 31st century, the Guardians of the Galaxy time traveled to the 20th century in vol. 1 # 168 (February 1978) and served as honorary members during the Korvac saga.
A group of teenage heroes modeled after the Avengers, the surviving Young Avengers were awarded honorary membership following the "Children 's Crusade '' storyline.
The Avengers promoted several senior Academy students to "Avengers Third Grade '', as part of a plan to eventually award them full Avengers membership.
As revealed in New Avengers # 10 (March 2011).
A group of heroes independently formed their own branch of Avengers, as Great Lakes Avengers, in West Coast Avengers vol. 2 # 46 (July 1989), with no official status. Later known as the Lightning Rods (after the Thunderbolts during Heroes Reborn), they eventually switched their name back. In the GLA Misassembled miniseries, the team was contacted by the Maria Stark Foundation and forced to change their name. They chose the Great Lakes X-Men. In The Thing # 8, they changed their name again to the Great Lakes Champions. Since the Civil War, the team has been known as the Great Lakes Initiative. In the new ongoing Great Lakes Avengers series, the team was made official members of the Avengers due to a legal technicality. A few issues later, their membership was revoked.
Justice and other former members of the New Warriors eventually left The Initiative to form Counter Force, with the purpose of ensuring that The Initiative stayed true to their goal of training new and undeveloped superhumans. After Camp Hammond was shut down, Tigra and Gauntlet joined the New Warriors who had left the Initiative, and they formed the Avengers Resistance, with the specific purpose of exposing the criminal deeds of Norman Osborn.
During the AXIS storyline, Magneto assembles an unnamed group consisting of Absorbing Man, Carnage, Deadpool, Doctor Doom, Enchantress, Hobgoblin, Jack O'Lantern V, Loki, Mystique and Sabretooth to combat the Red Skull. When the Red Skull was defeated, the villains went their separate ways, but were inverted due the spell cast by Scarlet Witch and Doctor Doom. The inverted villains were reassembled by Steve Rogers when he noticed something was wrong with the Avengers and X-Men to assemble an effective resistance against the heroes after the other Avengers - with the exception of Spider - Man and Nova - were captured, naming the new team the Astonishing Avengers. During the subsequent fight, Carnage sacrifices himself to prevent the inverted X-Men detonating a ' gene bomb ' that would have killed every non-mutant in the blast radius, with the fight concluding with the rest of the ' Astonishing Avengers ' - with the exception of Sabretooth, who was protected by a shield generated by Iron Man - being returned to normal. However, the team left a video message claiming responsibility for the heroes ' actions while corrupted before they returned to their own villainous ways, identifying themselves as the ' Axis of Evil ', allowing the Avengers and X-Men to rebuild their reputations.
During the Secret Empire storyline, the Hydra regime has their own Avengers, consisting of Odinson, Deadpool, Scarlet Witch, Vision, Taskmaster, Black Ant, and Superior Octopus. However, Odinson only served on this team because he was psychologically broken due to his current state of unworthiness prompting him to side with Rogers after his old ally still proved capable of lifting his hammer, while Scarlet Witch was possessed by Chthon and the Vision was being controlled by an A.I. Virus placed in him by Arnim Zola. In the final stand, Odinson returned to his old allies as he recognized that Rogers had gone too far, while the Vision 's daughter Viv and Brother Voodoo restored the Vision and the Witch to normal respectively. While Deadpool defected, Taskmaster and Black Ant turning against Hydra in exchange for future amnesty.
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when did the government change daylight savings time | Daylight saving time in the United states - Wikipedia
Daylight saving time in the United States is the practice of setting the clock forward by one hour during the warmer part of the year, so that evenings have more daylight and mornings have less. Most areas of the United States observe daylight saving time (DST), the exceptions being Arizona (except for the Navajo, who do observe daylight saving time on tribal lands), Hawaii, and the overseas territories of American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 established the system of uniform Daylight Saving Time throughout the US.
In the U.S., daylight saving time starts on the second Sunday in March and ends on the first Sunday in November, with the time changes taking place at 2: 00 a.m. local time. With a mnemonic word play referring to seasons, clocks "spring forward, fall back '' -- that is, in springtime the clocks are moved forward from 2: 00 a.m. to 3: 00 a.m. and in fall they are moved back from 2: 00 a.m. to 1: 00 a.m. Daylight saving time lasts for a total of 34 weeks (238 days) every year, about 65 % of the entire year.
The following table lists recent past and near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the United States:
Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. His essay, "An Economical Project for Diminishing the Cost of Light '', written to the editor of The Journal of Paris, observed that Parisians could save on candles by getting out of bed earlier in the morning, making use of the natural morning light instead. Franklin 's suggestion seems to have been more of a joke than a real proposal, and nothing came of it.
During World War I, in an effort to conserve fuel, Germany began observing DST on May 1, 1916. The rest of Europe soon followed. The plan was not adopted in the United States until the Standard Time Act of March 19, 1918, which confirmed the existing standard time zone system and set summer DST to begin on March 31, 1918 (reverting October 27). The idea was unpopular and Congress abolished DST after the war, overriding President Woodrow Wilson 's veto. DST became a local option and was observed in some states until World War II, when President Franklin Roosevelt instituted year - round DST, called "War Time '', on February 9, 1942. It lasted until the last Sunday (the 30th) in September 1945. After 1945 many states and cities east of the Mississippi River (and mostly north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers) adopted summer DST.
From 1945 to 1966 there was no federal law on daylight saving time, so localities could choose when it began and ended or drop it entirely. As of 1954, only California and Nevada had statewide DST west of the Mississippi, and only a few cities between Nevada and St. Louis. In the 1964 Official Railway Guide, 21 of the 48 contiguous states had no DST anywhere.
By 1962, the transportation industry found the lack of consistency confusing enough to push for federal regulation. The result was the Uniform Time Act of 1966 (P.L. 89 - 387). Beginning in 1967, the act mandated standard time within the established time zones and provided for advanced time: clocks would be advanced one hour beginning at 2: 00 a.m. on the last Sunday in April and turned back one hour at 2: 00 a.m. on the last Sunday in October. States were allowed to exempt themselves from DST as long as the entire state did so. If a state chose to observe DST, the time changes were required to begin and end on the established dates. In 1967, Arizona and Michigan became the first states to exempt themselves from DST (Michigan would begin observing DST in 1972). In 1972, the act was amended (P.L. 92 - 267), allowing those states split between time zones to exempt either the entire state or that part of the state lying within a different time zone. The newly created Department of Transportation (DOT) was given power to enforce the law. As of 2014, the following states and territories are not observing DST: Arizona, Hawaii, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
During the 1973 oil embargo by the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), in an effort to conserve fuel, Congress enacted a trial period of year - round DST (P.L. 93 - 182), beginning January 6, 1974, and ending April 27, 1975. The trial was hotly debated. Those in favor pointed to increased daylight hours in the summer evening: more time for recreation, reduced lighting and heating demands, reduced crime, and reduced automobile accidents. The opposition was concerned about children leaving for school in the dark. The act was amended in October 1974 (P.L. 93 - 434) to return to standard time for the period beginning October 27, 1974, and ending February 23, 1975, when DST resumed. When the trial ended in 1975, the country returned to observing summer DST (with the aforementioned exceptions).
The DOT, evaluating the plan of extending DST into March, reported in 1975 that "modest overall benefits might be realized by a shift from the historic six - month DST (May through October) in areas of energy conservation, overall traffic safety and reduced violent crime. '' However, DOT also reported that these benefits were minimal and difficult to distinguish from seasonal variations and fluctuations in energy prices.
Congress then asked the National Bureau of Standards (NBS, today NIST) to evaluate the DOT report. Its report, "Review and Technical Evaluation of the DOT Daylight Saving Time Study '' (April 1976), found no significant energy savings or differences in traffic fatalities. It did find statistically significant evidence of increased fatalities among school - age children in the mornings during the four - month period January -- April 1974 as compared with the same period (non-DST) of 1973. NBS stated that it was impossible to determine, what, if any, of this increase was due to DST. When this data was compared between 1973 and 1974 for the months of March and April, no significant difference was found in fatalities among school - age children in the mornings.
In 1986 Congress enacted P.L. 99 - 359, amending the Uniform Time Act by changing the beginning of DST to the first Sunday in April and having the end remain the last Sunday in October. These start and end dates were in effect from 1987 to 2006. The time was adjusted at 2: 00 a.m. local time.
By the Energy Policy Act of 2005, daylight saving time (DST) was extended in the United States beginning in 2007. As from that year, DST begins on the second Sunday of March and ends on the first Sunday of November. In years when April 1 falls on Monday through Wednesday, these changes result in a DST period that is five weeks longer; in all other years the DST period is instead four weeks longer. In 2008 daylight saving time ended at 2: 00 a.m. DST (0200) (1: 00 a.m. ST) on Sunday, November 2, and in 2009 it began at 2: 00 a.m. (3: 00 a.m. DST) on Sunday, March 8.
Under Section 110 of the Act, the U.S. Department of Energy was required to study the impact of the 2007 DST extension no later than nine months after the change took effect. The report, released in October 2008, reported a nationwide electricity savings of 0.03 % for the year of 2007.
An October 2008 study conducted by the University of California at Santa Barbara for the National Bureau of Economic Research found that the 2006 DST adoption in Indiana increased energy consumption in Indiana by an average of 1 %. Although consumption for lighting dropped as a result of the DST adoption, consumption for heating and cooling increased by 2 % to 4 %. The cost to the average Indiana household of the DST adoption was determined to be $3.29 per year, for an aggregate cost of $1.7 million to $5.5 million per year.
The United States Chamber of Commerce has praised the extension of daylight 's saving under the 2005 law, which increased the amount of shopping and commerce from after work in evenings. In the golf industry, the group has noted exceptional increase in revenue of "$200 million in additional sales of golf clubs and greens fees ''. The extension of Daylight 's Saving has also had a notable impact on Halloween and candy sales. Wyoming Senator Michael Enzi and Michigan Representative Fred Upton advocated the extension from October into November especially to allow children to go trick - or - treating in more daylight. In some areas, the extension of daylight saving time in March and November has pushed back sunrise to as late as 8: 30 am.
Under the Standard Time Act of 1918, as amended by the Uniform Time Act of 1966, moving a state or an area within a state from one time zone to another requires a regulation issued by DOT. The governor or state legislature may initiate a request for the state or any part of the state; the highest elected officials in the county may make a request for that county. The standard in the statute for such decisions is the convenience of commerce in that area. The convenience of commerce is defined broadly to consider such circumstances as the shipment of goods within the community; the origin of television and radio broadcasts; the areas where most residents work, attend school, worship, or receive health care; the location of airports, railway, and bus stations; and the major elements of the community 's economy.
After receiving a request for altering a time zone, DOT determines whether it meets the requirement of minimum statutory criteria before issuing a notice of proposed rulemaking, soliciting public comment and scheduling a public hearing. Usually the hearing is held in the area requesting the change so that all affected parties can be represented. After the close of the comment period, the comments are reviewed and appropriate final action taken. If the Secretary agrees that the statutory requirement has been met, the change is instituted, usually at the next changeover to or from DST.
Under the Uniform Time Act, moving an area on or off DST is accomplished through legal action at the state level. Some states require legislation while others require executive action such as a governor 's executive order. Information on procedures required in a specific state may be obtained from that state 's legislature or governor 's office. Although it may exempt itself, if a state decides to observe DST, the dates of observance must comply with federal legislation.
Alaska observes DST. Due to its high latitude, Alaska has nearly round - the - clock daylight during summer, and DST is seen by some Alaskans as unnecessary and a nuisance. Another issue is that the Alaskan mainland 's single time zone, which approximates solar time in the capital, Juneau, leads to a large disparity between civil time and solar time for much of the state, with solar noon occurring as late as 2: 10 p.m. in the population centers of Anchorage and Fairbanks, and as late as 3: 23 p.m. in places such as Nome. In Fairbanks, for example, sunset occurs well after civil midnight in the summer. Others argue that ending daylight saving time will place Alaska as much as five hours from Eastern Daylight Time, making coordination of travel and phone conversations more difficult.
In March 2015 the Alaska Senate passed a bill, introduced by state senator Anna MacKinnon, to end daylight saving time. The Alaska House formed a sub-committee that was due to look into the issue during the 2016 legislative session.
Arizona observed DST in 1967 under the Uniform Time Act because the state legislature did not enact an exemption statute that year. In March 1968 the DST exemption statute was enacted and the state of Arizona has not observed DST since 1967. This is in large part due to an effort to conserve energy. Phoenix and Tucson are among the hottest U.S. metropolitan areas during the summer, resulting in more power usage from air conditioning units and evaporative coolers in homes and businesses. An extra hour of sunlight while people are active would cause people to run their cooling systems longer, thereby using more energy.
The Navajo Indian Reservation extends into Utah and New Mexico and does observe daylight saving time. The Hopi Reservation is entirely within the state of Arizona and is an enclave within the Navajo Indian Reservation, but does not observe DST.
California voters passed Proposition 12 in 1949, approving DST in the state. In February 2017, California Assembly member Kansen Chu introduced A.B. 807, proposing to enable the legislature to eliminate DST in the state, or, if federal law allows, to adopt DST for the entire year. However, Chu later shelved his bill in September 2017.
Daylight saving time is less useful in Florida compared to other states because its southern location leads to less variations in day length between winter and summer. Without DST, Miami, for instance, would experience similar sunrise and sunset times throughout the year to cities including Honolulu or Hong Kong, which have both abandoned DST for decades. There is opposition to DST in Florida. State senator Bill Posey introduced a bill in March 2008 to abolish daylight time in the state and keep Florida on year - round standard time. Because Florida straddles two time zones, the Florida legislature has the option of returning all or part of the state to standard time along time zone boundaries (i.e. placing the portion of the state in the Eastern time zone on standard time, while leaving the portion in the Central time zone on DST, so that the whole state had a common time). There are currently no states that keep daylight saving time year round.
On March 6, 2018, the Florida Senate approved the "Sunshine Protection Act '' which would put Florida on permanent Daylight Saving Time year round, and Governor Rick Scott signed it March 23. Congress would need to amend the existing 1966 federal law to allow the change.
Hawaii has never observed daylight saving time under the Uniform Time Act, having opted out of the Act 's provisions in 1967.
Because of Hawaii 's tropical latitude, there is not a large variation in daylight length between winter and summer. Advancing the clock in Hawaii would make sunrise times close to 7: 00 a.m. even in June. Most of the inhabited islands are located close to the west end of the Hawaii - Aleutian time zone, but Oahu, Kauai, and Niihau are located more than 7 degrees west of the Hawaii - Aleutian time zone 's meridian and should, theoretically, be located in the next time zone to the west. (Until about 1946 Hawaiian standard time was based on longitude 157.5 degrees west rather than 150 degrees.)
On April 26, 1933, the Territorial Legislature enacted a bill placing Hawaii on daylight saving time from the last Sunday in April (April 30 in that year) to the last Sunday in September, but the law was repealed three weeks later on May 21, 1933. During World War II between February 9, 1942 and September 30, 1945, Hawaiian Standard Time was advanced one hour to so - called "Hawaiian War Time, '' effectively placing the territory on year - round daylight saving time.
From 1970 until 2006, most of Indiana in the Eastern Time Zone did not observe daylight saving time, but the entire state started to do so in April 2006 after eight counties in western Indiana were shifted from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone. One goal for observing DST was to get more Indiana counties observing the same time zone; formerly, 77 counties observed EST, 5 observed EST / EDT (the EDT usage being unofficial only), and 10 observed CST / CDT. As of 2016, Indiana has 12 counties observing Central Daylight Time while the remaining 80 counties observe Eastern Daylight Time. Those counties observing CST are in two groups: one near or in the Chicago metropolitan area, and the other around Evansville in the southwest corner of the state.
In 1967, the Michigan Legislature adopted a statute, Act 6 of the Public Acts of 1967, exempting the state from the observance of DST. The exemption statute was suspended on June 14, 1967, however, when the referendum was invoked. From June 14, 1967 until the last Sunday in October 1967, Michigan observed DST, and did so in 1968 as well. The exemption statute was submitted to the voters at the General Election held in November 1968, and, in a close vote, the exemption statute was sustained. As a result, Michigan did not observe DST in 1969, 1970, 1971, or 1972. (Radio station CKLW in Windsor, Ontario, just across the river from Detroit, was popular on both sides of the border and would often give both times on the air, e.g. "It 's 4: 30 in Detroit and 5: 30 in Windsor! '') In November 1972, an initiative measure, repealing the exemption statute, was approved by the voters. Michigan again observed DST in 1973, and has continued to do so since then.
The vast majority of Michigan is in the Eastern Time Zone. Only the Upper Peninsula counties that border Wisconsin (Gogebic, Iron, Dickinson, and Menominee) are in the Central Time Zone.
In 2015, the Nevada Senate passed Nevada Assembly Joint Resolution 4, which urged Congress to enact legislation allowing individual states to establish daylight saving time as the standard time in their respective states throughout the calendar year. This would mean that Nevada is on the same time as Arizona all year, but would be an hour ahead of California in the winter. The United States Congress has not yet enacted any enabling legislation in this regard.
In 2015, Rep. Elizabeth Scott (R - Monroe) filed a House bill to end DST in Washington, and a companion bill was filed in the Senate. She told a House committee that the semiannual time switches are not only inconvenient but lead to health problems and accidents due to lost sleep. She added that the bill to drop daylight saving time would reduce heart attacks, car wrecks, and work accidents found to increase with the sleep - schedule disruptions. A different Senate Bill would petition the federal government for year - round DST. The bills were defeated.
All U.S. insular territories with civilian government (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) lie in the tropics and do not observe DST.
While neighboring Samoa began observing DST in September 2010, the smaller American Samoa can not legally follow because of the DST observation period mandated by the Uniform Time Act. This period is actually wintertime in this Southern Hemisphere territory.
Many computer operating systems (such as Microsoft Windows, Linux, UNIX, and macOS) and programming languages (such as Java, perl, and most shell languages) allow a local time zone setting in the format of (standard time zone abbreviation) (UTC hour difference) (daylight saving time zone abbreviation). This allows programs and programming languages that must do calculations based on local time to more easily calculate differences between local time and UTC, as well as knowing whether calculations should be changed during daylight saving time. For example, a time zone setting of EST5EDT indicates that local time on the computer is 5 hours behind UTC and should be adjusted for daylight saving time.
General topic
Official civil time distribution
Quasi-governmental time distribution systems
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who plays casey on teenage mutant ninja turtles | Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1990 film) - wikipedia
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles is a 1990 American superhero action comedy film directed by Steve Barron, based on the comic book characters of the same name. Released on March 30, 1990, the film presents the origin story of Splinter and the Turtles, the initial meeting between them, April O'Neil and Casey Jones, and their first confrontation with The Shredder and his Foot Clan. The film stars Judith Hoag, Elias Koteas, and the voices of Brian Tochi, Robbie Rist, Josh Pais and Corey Feldman as the four title characters.
When the New York City Police Department is unable to stop a severe crime wave caused by the Foot Clan, four mutated turtles -- Leonardo, Michelangelo, Donatello and Raphael -- come forth to save the city. Under the leadership of mutated rat, Splinter, and together with their new - found allies April O'Neil and Casey Jones, they fight back and take the battle to The Shredder. The film kept very close to the dark feel of the original comics, and is a direct adaptation of the comic book storyline involving the defeat of Shredder, with several elements also taken from the 1987 TV series that was airing at the time, such as April being a news reporter, and the turtles having different - colored masks, as opposed to the uniform red masks of the comic.
The film became the highest - grossing independent film of all time, as well as the ninth - highest - grossing film worldwide of 1990 and the most successful film in the series until the 2014 reboot. It was followed by two sequels, entitled The Secret of the Ooze in 1991 and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III in 1993.
As a crime wave rises in New York City, Channel 3 news reporter April O'Neil talks about rumors of young children and teenagers being reported as the majority of the thieves, connecting it to a rumored Foot Clan, which originated in Japan. On an ordinary night, she comes across thieves stealing from a news van and is attacked. She is rescued and one of her rescuers leaves behind a sai when the police arrive to collect the tied up criminals. In the storm sewers, four anthropomorphic turtles return to their underground home and meet with their master Splinter, who advises them to remain hidden from the world and work only in the shadow. Raphael admits he lost his weapon, and when the others order pizza he leaves in disguise to see a movie. After leaving the movie, he encounters Casey Jones who tries to exact justice on a pair of muggers by beating them with sporting implements. After a brief stand off between the two, Casey takes off into the city and Raphael loses his temper. Returning home, Splinter confronts Raphael about his temper.
April is attacked in the subway by members of the Foot, after spouting rumors of them on television. She is knocked unconscious while trying to fend them off but is saved by Raphael, who takes her back to their home. After reviving her, Splinter explains their origins and introduces her to Raphael, Michelangelo, Donatello and Leonardo. Unfortunately, Raphael had been followed by a member of the Foot. After the turtles take April home, and spend some time over pizza, they return to find their home ransacked and Splinter missing. With nowhere else to turn, they return to April 's apartment. The next morning, April 's supervisor Charles Pennington and his son Danny arrive; Charles chides April on her behavior with police chief Sterns and advises her to be careful, while Danny catches a glimpse of Michaelangelo, garnering his suspicions. Later, Charles confronts Danny for being arrested for stealing and Danny runs away into the subway. He escapes to a warehouse on Lairdman Island, the hideout for the teenaged thieves of the Foot. It is revealed that Splinter is there, held prisoner by The Shredder, who acts as a surrogate father to the outcast teenagers. His second - in - command is Tatsu. Danny gives The Shredder his information on the Turtles.
After a heated argument between Leonardo and Raphael, Raphael goes up to the roof of April 's building and is attacked by dozens of Foot Clan members. The fight moves into the building, where April and the others are attacked after Raphael is thrown down a skylight window. The numbers cause the floor to give way, and they continue their battle in the basement. After Foot reinforcements arrive, overwhelming the turtles, Casey appears, having seen Raphael earlier on the roof and he helps even the odds. In the melee, with Raphael in a coma, the building catches fire, forcing the Turtles to escape. Retreating to an abandoned farm April 's family owns, April learns that Charles has fired her from the TV station. Raphael awakens from his coma and makes amends with Leonardo. The four of them train. After receiving visions from Splinter, Leonardo and the rest decide it is time to return to the city. Meanwhile, Danny encounters Splinter, whose kindness casts doubts on his decision to betray the Turtles. He goes to hide in the Turtles ' den, and is there when they return. In the night, Danny slips away, followed by Casey who discovers the thieves ' hideout. Danny meets with Splinter again, who tells him the story of his master who was killed by a man named Oroku Saki, whom he and Splinter realize was The Shredder himself 15 years prior. Danny grasps how insane The Shredder truly is after learning his past, but he inadvertently alerts him that the turtles have returned. The Shredder sends his men to raid the turtles ' home, but the Foot are ambushed as the group has already anticipated their attack.
Casey and Danny free Splinter, and after Casey defeats Shredder 's second in command Tatsu, they convince the teens to follow them and teach them the error of their ways. They return to the city as the Turtles face off against Shredder, who outmatches them. The Shredder taunts the Turtles, saying he killed Splinter, causing Leonardo to attack Shredder. Shredder disarms Leonardo, threatening to impale him with his spear unless the Turtles drop their weapons. The Turtles do so, but Shredder plans on killing Leonardo anyway. Before he can do so, he is distracted by Splinter, allowing Leonardo to escape. Splinter then faces Shredder, revealing that he was Hamato Yoshi 's pet rat who disfigured Oroku Saki after the latter killed Hamato. Vengeful, Shredder charges Splinter with his spear but he falls over the ledge of the roof after Splinter vaults him with a nunchaku. Splinter tries to spare him, but Shredder attacks, forcing the rat to let go, and he falls into a garbage truck. Casey turns on the trash compactor and crushes Shredder.
The police arrive and arrest the defeated Foot Ninjas. April is reinstated by Charles, with better perks, to cover the story. Danny reunites with his father who is overjoyed to see him, and they have reconciled. Casey and April meet, and she tells him to kiss her, which he obliges, much to the cheering from the Turtles.
Skeet Ulrich and Scott Wolf appear uncredited as members of the Foot.
NOTE: All four actors who played the in - suit Turtles also appeared in cameos as minor characters, with David Forman (Leonardo) as a gang member, Michelan Sisti (Michaelangelo) as a pizza delivery man, Leif Tilden (Donatello) as a messenger of The Foot and Josh Pais (Raphael) as a passenger in a taxi. Pais was the only actor to portray a Turtle on screen and provide his voice.
The film 's budget was $13.5 million. Much of the production took place in North Carolina, with a couple of location shoots in New York City during the summer of 1989 to capture famous landmark areas, such as Times Square, the Empire State Building, and the Hudson River. Filming in North Carolina took place at the North Carolina Film Studios, where New York rooftop sets were created. Production designer Roy Forge Smith and his art director, Gary Wissner, went to New York City four months prior to filming and took still photographs of rooftops and other various locations. While in NYC, Smith and Wissner were allowed to explore an abandoned Brooklyn subway line, as they could not gain access to a city sewer, but the structure of the subway had the same principle as a sewer. They also went to a water tunnel which had large pipes running through it.
After design sketches were created, the construction team used the studios ' backlot to create some of the sets. There were problems with the manholes that led to the Turtles ' home, in that an eight - foot square room had to be constructed beneath them, but found water at about five - feet, and thus had to pour concrete into the underground rooms to keep the water out. In order to make the sewer authentic, a tide - mark was given, and it was covered with brick, plaster and stucco paint to give the walls a realistic look. The Turtles themselves were created by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop in London. Jim Henson said that the creatures were the most advanced that he had ever worked with. The creatures were first made out of fiberglass, and then remolded out of clay. They were produced as molds to cast the whole body in foam rubber latex. The work at the Shop was completed within 18 weeks.
Many major studios, such as Walt Disney Pictures, Columbia Pictures, MGM / UA, Orion Pictures, Paramount (whose parent company Viacom would acquire the TMNT property in 2009), and Warner Bros. turned down the film for distribution; they were worried that despite the popularity of the cartoon and the toy line, the film could potentially be a box office disappointment, like Masters of the Universe was just a couple years prior. The film finally found distribution roughly halfway through the initial production, via the then small and independent production company New Line Cinema, which at that point had been known for distributing low budget B movies and arthouse fare.
Live Entertainment Inc. announced that the film would go to VHS via its Family Home Entertainment label on October 4, 1990. The suggested price was $24.99 per cassette. Pizza Hut engaged in a $20 million marketing campaign tied into the film (despite the fact that Domino 's Pizza was used as product placement in the film itself). Items included advertising in print, radio and television, and several rebate coupons.
The UK version removed Eastern fighting weapons like the nunchaku, using alternate shots of Michaelangelo in order to conceal his nunchaku weapon, or omitting the show - off duel between Michaelangelo and a member of the Foot clan. Also, the scene of Shredder in the garbage shred was heavily edited and the Turtle Power song was edited to change the word ' ninja ' to ' hero ' as per the UK TV series. The unedited version was released on DVD in 2004 in the UK.
The German theatrical voice - dubbed version is identical to the UK version, i.e. it omits the usage of the nunchaku. Furthermore, the German dubbing audio track contains several "cartoon - like '' sounds in order to soften the violence of the fight scenes. Although the German dub of the film was released with unedited pictures on DVD, the German dub audio version with the "funny noises '' was still kept, because they were permanently merged into the German voice - dubbing audio.
On the film 's initial release, Owen Gleiberman, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the movie an F rating, finding that none of the four turtles or Splinter had any personality, and felt that a young audience might enjoy the film, noting that the reviewer might have "gone for it too had I been raised on Nintendo games and the robotic animation that passes for entertainment on today 's Saturday - morning TV. '' Kim Newman wrote in the Monthly Film Bulletin that he found the characters reminiscent of the early ' 70s Godzilla film series, describing the turtles as "loveable monsters in baggy foam rubber suits '' who "befriended lost children and smashed things up in orgies of destruction that somehow never hurt anyone, '' and that the Turtles "drop the occasional teenage buzzword but are never remotely convincing as teenagers, mutants, ninjas or turtles, leaving them stranded on the screen as big green Muppets with different coloured headbands. '' Variety, the New York Times, and the Monthly Film Bulletin all noted the Asian villains of the film; Variety described "overtones of racism in its use of Oriental villains '', while the Times ' Janet Maslin stated "The story 's villainous types are Asian, and the film plays the yellow - peril aspects of this to the hilt. '' Newman noted a racist joke in April O'Neil's response to the Foot Clan, "What 's the matter, did I fall behind on my Sony payments? '', finding that the film expressed a "resentment of Japan 's economic strength even while the film is plundering Japan 's popular culture. '' Roger Ebert commented that there is "no racism '' in the film.
Maslin of The New York Times criticized the cinematography, stating that it was so "poorly photographed that the red - masked turtle looks almost exactly like the orange - masked one. '' Variety described the film as "visually rough around the edges... sometimes sluggish in its plotting '' Ebert stated that the "most interesting part of the film for a non-Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle fan is the production design '', which he described as a "low - rent version of Batman or Metropolis. ''
Both Gleiberman and Maslin praised the work of Jim Henson 's Creature Shop, with Maslin stating "without which there would have been no film at all ''. Variety praised the film 's tongue - in - cheek humor and the "amusingly outlandish '' martial arts sequences. Ebert concluded that the film is "nowhere near as bad as it might have been, and probably is the best possible Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtle movie. It supplies, in other words, more or less what Turtle fans will expect. ''
The film opened in North America on March 30, 1990, coming in at # 1 at the box office over the weekend, with more than $25 million. The film turned out to be a huge success at the box office, eventually making over $135 million in North America, and over $66 million outside North America, for a worldwide total of over $200 million, making it the ninth highest - grossing film of 1990 worldwide. The film was also nominated for awards by The Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy and Horror Films.
In 1990, the film was released to VHS and reached No. 4 in the home video market. The film was released to DVD in Region 1 on September 3, 2002; it includes only minor special features, such as a trailer and interactive menus. The film was also released in the MiniDVD format.
On August 11, 2009, the film was included in a special 25th anniversary box set (25th anniversary of the original comic book, not the movie), released to both DVD and Blu - Ray formats. It also contained Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III, and 2007 's animated release, TMNT. No additional features, other than theatical trailers, were included.
In Germany, however, a "Special Edition '' was released on March 12, 2010 with additional features, including an audio commentary by director Steve Barron, an alternate ending, and alternate takes from the original German release, where Michelangelo 's nunchaku had been edited out.
Warner Home Video released the film along with Secret of the Ooze and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III as part of a "Triple Feature '' on Blu - ray in June 2012, minus the fourth film TMNT. Warner Home Video released the film separately on Blu - ray on December 18, 2012.
Following the huge success of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles at the box office, several sequels were created. A year later, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze was released in theaters, and was a commercial success. In 1993, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles III was released in theaters, to a smaller box office take. After a 14 - year absence from theaters, a fourth film, TMNT, was released in 2007, though unlike the first three, this was a CGI animated film. Seven years later, a reboot, also with the title Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, was released in 2014, and a sequel titled Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: Out of the Shadows was released in theaters on June 3, 2016.
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what is found in the central canal of the spinal cord | Central canal - wikipedia
The central canal, also known as ependymal canal, is the cerebrospinal fluid - filled space that runs longitudinally through the length of the entire spinal cord. The central canal is continuous with the ventricular system of the brain. The fourth ventricle narrows at a region called the obex to become the central canal of the spinal cord. The central canal helps to transport nutrients to the spinal cord as well as protect it by cushioning the impact of a force when the spine is affected
The central canal represents the adult remainder of the central cavity of the neural tube. It generally occludes (closes off) with age.
Syringomyelia is a disease caused by the occlusion of the central canal. Occlusions of the central canal typically occur at the lower cervical and upper thoracic levels. This typically damages white matter fibers that cross in anterior white commissure, leading to the loss of temperature, pain, and motor function at the affected levels on contralateral sides.
The terminal ventricle (ventriculus terminalis, fifth ventricle or ampulla caudalis) is the widest part of the central canal of the spinal cord that is located at or near the conus medullaris. It was described by Stilling in 1859 and Krause in 1875. Krause introduced the term fifth ventricle after observation of normal ependymal cells. The central canal expands as a fusiform terminal ventricle, and approximately 8 -- 10 mm in length in the conus medullaris (or conus terminalis). Although the terminal ventricle is visible in the fetus and children, it is usually absent in adults.
Sometimes, the terminal ventricle is observed by MRI or Sonography in children less than 5 years old. An MRI scan can be particularly helpful in its detection.
In pathological conditions, an MRI is useful at the level of the conus medullaris. Findings may be related to the following:
In some cases, the terminal ventricle may cause clinical symptoms due to its expansion.
Throughout the cervical and thoracic regions the central canal is situated in the anterior third of the spinal cord; in the lumbar enlargement it is near the middle, and in the conus medullaris it approaches the posterior surface. It is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, and lined by ciliated, columnar epithelium, outside of which is an encircling band of gelatinous substance, the substantia gelatinosa centralis (or central gelatinous substance of spinal cord). This gelatinous substance consists mainly of neuroglia, but contains a few nerve cells and fibers; it is traversed by processes from the deep ends of the columnar ciliated cells which line the central canal.
It should not be confused with the Substantia gelatinosa of Rolando, which is located more dorsally.
This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)
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how many seasons are there of make it or break it | List of make it or Break it episodes - wikipedia
Make It or Break It is an American television drama series which premiered on June 22, 2009 on ABC Family. Set in the world of elite gymnastics, the series follows a group of teen Olympic hopefuls as they train and prepare for their day in the spotlight. The show was picked up for an additional 10 episodes on July 27, 2009, which started airing on January 4, 2010, bringing the number of episodes in the first season to 20.
On January 12, 2010, ABC Family announced that the show was picked up for a second season, which premiered on June 28, 2010 at 10 p.m. ET. Starting on July 13, 2010, new episodes followed Pretty Little Liars. The second mid-season finale aired on August 31, 2010 and the second half of Season 2 premiered on March 28, 2011 and ended on May 23, 2011. It was announced via Twitter from Executive Producer Holly Sorensen that the series is cancelled. The series finale aired on May 14, 2012.
A total of 48 episodes of Make It or Break It have been produced and aired over three seasons, between June 22, 2009 and May 14, 2012.
Romance is in the air at The Rock for the gymnasts and the parents as Valentine 's Day arrives, and Summer suggests to Sasha that they should hold a Valentine 's mixer at the gym. He reluctantly agrees to this, but disapproves when Summer asks to hold a lecture about abstinence to the gymnasts. Sasha tells Kaylie that in order to reach the needed height for her Double Arabian to beat international competitors, she needs to improve her strength. Nicky offers to help her, and the two arrive early to the gym to practice. To secure Carter 's heart for her own, Lauren tries to get Nicky and Kaylie together, and insists to Payson that the two have feelings for each other. One night, Carter catches Steve with a woman when they stumble up into the attic he is residing. At school, Payson receives a Valentine 's rose from who she believes is Ike, but later learns was from Heather, the school 's perky over-achiever who causes Payson 's pessimistic mindset to change. Tired of Ike 's negative attitude, Payson ends her friendship with him, realizing that the world is full of so many opportunities other than gymnastics. Meanwhile, Summer returns to the gym one night after it closes to continue to press Sasha to let her do the talk, and explains that although she believes in abstinence she has needs herself, too. Amidst her arguing, Sasha kisses her. Sasha lets Summer do her speech because he said if he could lose control then it is bound to happen to the gymnasts. Emily is distraught she has not heard from Damon in days, and finds him in prison. Damon tells Razor that he had bought a mixer he had not known was stolen to record his own songs, and Razor reluctantly bails him out from jail. Razor and Damon are heading to Razor 's car after Razor bails Damon out, when Emily appears and confronts Damon. Without letting him explain, Emily breaks up with Damon. Meanwhile, as they are about to leave the gym, Kaylie tells Nicky that although they have had their moments, she values her friendship with Payson too much than to put it at risk by being involved with him. Nicky tells her that the drama at The Rock is too much for him to handle, and that he has been recruited by Denver, and has decided go there. Later on, Payson invites her new friend Heather and the girls to her house for a sleepover, and her mother is glad that she is finally adapting to being a normal teenager. Kim then gets a phone call from Sasha about a doctor who can operate on Payson 's back with an experimental procedure and allow her to return to gymnastics.
The girls raise the bar with their training in preparation for a competition against the Chinese team, but troubles at home and confidence issues plague them. Meanwhile, the moms hold a fund - raiser at the pizza shack to cover the Chinese team 's travel expenses. But Summer finds out that Sasha has not invited the Chinese yet so she struggles with keeping it from the moms due to them thinking she can not keep a secret. Summer thinks of giving up her position as The Rock 's manager when she goes to confront Sasha, he kisses her. Payson 's family is in debt because of the surgery, so the Rock girls decide to make sure the Keelers win the 10,000 dollars in bingo. After steamrolling the American National Team at the meet in Beijing, The Chinese Team agrees to a meet at The Rock despite Ellen Beals ' trying to put a stop to it. Kaylie thinks about forgiving Carter and kisses him at the Pizza Shack. Leo returns and has his eye on Emily, while Damon is jealous that he will lose her forever. He then goes back to the recording studio to become "that guy '' for Emily. After having the chance to start training, Payson is afraid because she wonders if she might break her back again. Payson is told that she is allowed to train, but she decides not to tell anyone yet.
The National Gymnastics Organization tells Sasha that he is not allowed to coach Kaylie, Lauren, or Emily, and Steve, as new President of the Parents Board, suspends him from The Rock. Summer almost forgets her commitment to abstinence before marriage, but Sasha refuses to let her change her beliefs for him. While scouting for dancers for his music video with his agent, Damon bumps into Chloe who has taken a job as a bartender in a strip club. She informs him of Emily 's legal troubles. Emily 's court date and World Team trials conflict, so Damon calls his stepdad, with whom he has a very rough relationship, to see if he can help. His stepfather, Walter, says that he can and gets Emily a new court date, but the judge calls The Rock, and Ellen Beals convinces him not to move it. Emily does not realize this, and goes to World Team trials thinking the court date has been changed. Austin goes to Ronnie and Alex with his concerns that Kaylie has anorexia and should not be competing, but when he declares he is crazy about her, Alex chucks him out the house refusing to believe there is anything wrong with his daughter. Steve finally tells Lauren that Leslie really did love her and that he was the one who kept her from going to Nationals. Sasha 's father, Dmitri, goes to the World Trials to coach the Rock girls. Sasha asks Payson if she is ready to embrace her destiny as a gymnast and then takes her to the trials and makes the judges see Payson, the artistic gymnast opposed to the power gymnast that she once was. While she performs, he cries, incredibly proud of her. Cops show up at the trials to arrest Emily for not going to court, and Damon convinces them to let her finish her audition before taking her away. Kaylie collapses during her beam routine & is taken to the hospital. In the end, Lauren, Emily, and, by a surprise vote, Payson all make the World Team. Payson is incredibly excited but is disappointed to see that Sasha left before hearing the results. Kaylie 's position on the team will be decided after doctors examine her to see if she is healthy enough to continue; if she is not, she loses her spot on the World Team and the National Team. Summer gets back together with Steve and is last seen with him and Lauren having dinner. She realizes she can not love a man who does not share her beliefs, and decides she does not have any feelings for Sasha anymore. Emily is seen in jail with Chloe and Damon. Payson is seen getting a letter from Sasha. Kaylie is seen in the hospital with Austin. The last shot is of Sasha driving away in his truck with his trailer attached to the back.
After the Rock 's embarrassing lost to Pinewood, the lowest ranked team in the country, Payson, Emily, and Lauren are headed to compete in Hungary with a more stern Darby as their coach. Steve warns Darby that everyone is going to be watching her and if she appears unable to handle the girls, the NGO will take action. Payson notices Sasha 's unsigned release papers waiting to be mailed to him in Romania. Damon visits Emily before the girls leave for the meet and Emily questions Damon about his relationship with Kaylie after she witnessed the two singing together on stage. Emily is also annoyed that Damon did not tell her about Chloe working at the strip club. Emily decides it is too much and breaks up with Damon. While on the plane, Payson fed up with Darby, tells the girls she is going to get Sasha back as their coach. Payson initiates a plan in which the girls ditch Darby at the airport during their layover and they catch another flight to Romania. While in Romania, Emily drinks an energy drink and Payson reminds her that she should n't be drinking energy drinks due to how many banned substances they contain and could possibly cause her to fail a drug test. The girls find Sasha working in a bar, and he refuses to return at first but later gives in after Payson stubbornly stays behind to wait for him, returning his Olympic gold medal and telling him she only wanted it because it stood for him never giving up. He later shows up at their hotel room at 3: 04 in the morning, telling them they needed to prove they wanted him back, but yes, he would return. Payson and Emily squeal in happiness after he shuts the door. Payson looks particularly relieved. Kaylie and Damon become closer as they discuss Kaylie 's eating disorder, Emily, and music. Sasha returns to the meet in Hungary to coach the girls and Darby is not happy, but Mr. Tanner agrees with the girls, Sasha is the better coach. After the meet, the International chairman approaches Emily and Sasha with a concern regarding her test. When Emily tries to defend her test by stating that she did not know about the substances in her energy drink beforehand, the Chairman informs her that her test did not reveal banned substances, but rather that she is pregnant.
Emily goes to the doctors and finds out that she is six weeks pregnant. The doctor says she would not be able to do gymnastics anymore as it can cause harm to the baby. Chloe talks to her about the possibility of an abortion and Sasha pressures Emily to make a decision about her future. Kaylie and Damon record a song for his album as that was the only song the record company liked. They get caught up in the moment and kiss but Kaylie regrets it and runs out of the studio. Lauren puts pressure on Steve to propose to Summer. He agrees but when he asks Summer, she says she needs time to think about it. Summer visits Sasha to see if there 's still anything left between them but they get into an argument about abortion when she is told about Emily 's pregnancy. Summer then accepts Steve 's proposal. Marcus arrives at The Rock to tell Emily she has made it to the World Team but she now has to deal with her pregnancy. Payson approaches Emily and Emily tells her that she 's pregnant. Payson gets angry at Emily and tells her that not only did she ruin her life, but also the dreams of her teammates. Emily feels she deserves some support and goes to Damon. He is upset that he got Emily pregnant but Emily tells him that they can live the happy ending they wanted that they were going to postpone after the Olympics. Kaylie goes to Emily 's house to tell her about the kiss between her and Damon. Emily shuts down and runs away to Las Vegas to live with her godmother. The Rock girls try to confront Emily but realize she has already left. They then go to the site of the old gymnastics camp and camp out with their parents. Steve and Summer look extremely happy together. Kaylie tells the other girls that she is ready to start training again. Lauren expresses understanding towards Emily 's situation, saying it 's not a bad thing to want a child that will love you forever. Payson regrets yelling at Emily, saying that there is nothing in the world like a gymnastics team. They also find out Sasha has been named as the National Team Coach going to Worlds. He hugs all the girls and looks very happy as well.
Sheila, Kelly Parker 's mother, continues to have an overbearing presence at the Rock including blaming her daughter for allowing Kaylie to land the Healthy Bar endorsement deal. Sheila tells Kelly that she must expose Kaylie 's anorexia now that Kaylie has made the World Team. Sasha continues to work with Lauren on beam and load her routine with high skill moves. Lauren agrees to trust Sasha. Marcus tells Kim that the video of Payson kissing Sasha was sent to the NGO anonymously. The unedited version shows that Sasha pushed Payson away. Kelly overhears Kaylie telling the press that Kelly Parker should be the team captain because she is the current world champ and has more gold medals than anyone else. Kelly is surprised by the class act Kaylie is. The Healthy Bar representatives presents Kaylie and her parents with their endorsement deal for a fit young woman who cares about good nutrition. Kaylie, having kept her anorexia a secret, struggles with being dishonest and misrepresenting such a campaign. Sheila seeks help to expose Kaylie 's condition from Ellen Beals who has come back to exonerate herself from being investigated for the Payson / Sasha video scandal. Payson shares with Kaylie that her parents ca n't afford to come to Worlds and are in heavy debt. Kaylie comes up with the perfect idea for Payson to be the spokesperson for Healthy Bar instead of herself. Max agrees to work on a presentation to convince the Healthy Bar reps that Payson is their girl. At the Tanner party, Max runs to seclusion after Lauren throws herself on him sexually and Payson admits that she might be in love with him. When Austin finds Max, he 's drunk and overwhelmed. Max kisses Austin and tells him he is bisexual. Ellen Beals reveals that she is being accused of the Payson / Sasha video, and tells Lauren she will never sell her out but will "return the favor. '' Lauren is forced to tell Summer the truth about the video when Ellen Beals tips Summer to ask Steve who sent the training cam video to the NGO. Realizing that Steve and Lauren have been keeping this horrible secret all along, Summer refuses to have anything to do with either of them ever again. A devastated Lauren leaves with Max to talk about Summer 's reaction, and while talking their car is hit by a SUV. While Lauren ends up fine, Max is injured.
Lauren and Max suffered a car accident, where Lauren was left with scratches, while Max had a concussion and a broken collar bone. Lauren then called for Summer and refers to her in the hospital as her mom. When Lauren comes to see Max, Max thought that Lauren was Payson. They then went to Rio to compete in the World Championships, where they are to compete against favorites China and Russia and their starters Genji Cho and Ivanka Kirilenko. At the qualifications where the top four teams advance to the finals. Lauren, Payson and Kaylie all performed poorly, as Kelly barely saved them in uneven bars as they placed fourth in the qualifying round. After their disappointing performance, Sasha orders the four girls to resolve their issues. Kelly admits she was jealous of the support the Rock girls have for each other and that they are a real team. Kelly then stated that her Mom gave up her scholarship eligibility when she was 9 and that she is jealous that Payson 's mother agonized over sponsorship. Lauren then said that to Payson that Max loves her and not Lauren. Kaylie then announced to the press that she did not have an ACL injury but anorexia, with the support of her team but with the disapproval of the NGO. Lauren before doing her beam then admitted to Sasha that it was her that leaked the photo of Sasha and Payson kissing. Sasha then said that he forgives and cares for Lauren, which helped Lauren to flourish in beam and put them in fourth. Payson then injures her left leg after her first vault, knowing that she can not perform on floor, she chose to perform her second vault, which she landed on one leg with Nadia Comăneci stating that it was the first time since Kerri Strug in 1996, Payson 's vault placed them in second. Kelly then withdrew from her position as Payson 's replacement on floor for Kaylie. USA then came from behind to win the Gold from China. After the meet, Max said to Payson that he might be in love with her. Austin told the media he is in love with Kaylie, and they kiss. In the end, Kaylie, Payson, and Lauren are holding hands as they stand together, staring at the scoreboard.
The series was renewed for a third season on September 16, 2011. It premiered on March 26, 2012.
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how many credits for bachelor's degree in computer science | Bachelor of Computer Science - wikipedia
The Bachelor of Computer Science or Bachelor of Science in Computer Science (abbreviated BCompSc or BCS or BS CS or B.Sc. CS) is a type of bachelor 's degree, usually awarded after three or four years of collegiate study in computer science, but possibly awarded in fewer years depending on factors such as an institution 's course requirements and academic calendar. In some cases it can be awarded in five years. In general, computer science degree programs emphasize the mathematical and theoretical foundations of computing.
The same core curriculum may, depending on the school, result in other degrees, including:
In many post-secondary institutions, an Honors Bachelor of Computer Science degree has been introduced as an upgrade to the regular bachelor 's program and usually requires at least one additional year of study.
Because computer science is a wide field, courses required to earn a bachelor of computer science degree vary. A typical list of course requirements includes topics such as:
Some schools may place more emphasis on mathematics and require additional courses such as:
Beyond the basic set of computer science courses, students can typically choose additional courses from a variety of different fields, such as:
Some schools allow students to specialize in a certain area of computer science.
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who wrote like i'm going to lose you | Like I 'm Gonna Lose You - wikipedia
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Meghan Trainor for her first studio album Title (2015). The song features American singer John Legend. It was written by Trainor, Justin Weaver, and Caitlyn Smith, and produced by Chris Gelbuda and Trainor. Released by Epic Records on June 23, 2015, as Trainor 's fourth and final single from the album, it is a soul song. Lyrically, it is an optimistic and inspiring love song with a theme of fatalism and conveys the message to not take time with loved ones for granted.
The song topped the Australian singles chart for four consecutive weeks and reached number one in New Zealand for three weeks. The song peaked at number eight on both the Billboard Hot 100, and the Canadian Hot 100, becoming Trainor 's third top 10 single in both countries. The song 's music video was directed by Constellation Jones and released on July 9, 2015. It depicts Trainor and Legend singing in the candlelight as it rains outside. Trainor promoted "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' in a number of appearances, including live performances at the 2015 American Music Awards and on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon. It was also performed at Trainor 's That Bass Tour and MTrain Tour (2015).
-- Trainor on the song 's conception in an interview with Digital Spy
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was written by Meghan Trainor, Justin Weaver, and Caitlyn Smith. It was composed as a demo "years ago '', but Trainor was at first hesitant to show the song to her record label during the recording of her debut album, Title (2015).
At the request of Trainor 's uncle, Burton Toney, her management listened to the track. Trainor recalls one of her managers being brought to tears by the song, resulting in the decision to include it on the album. The song was produced by Trainor and Chris Gelbuda, who she had first met in 2011 at a music conference in Colorado. They later co-wrote Sabrina Carpenter 's "Ca n't Blame a Girl for Trying ''. During their recording of the track "3am '' for Title, Trainor told Gelbuda about "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '', a reggae song which she felt was a poor fit for the album. The pair brainstormed, with Gelbuda playing various melodies on a guitar, resulting in a change in sound and tempo. "She dug it and it just worked. We built the track together, she sang the vocals, and I worked at it for weeks, '' Gelbuda recalls. They recorded "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' in 2014 at The Green Room, Gelbuda 's home studio, in East Nashville, Tennessee. Trainor and Gelbuda performed all of the track 's instrumentation, production, and programming.
Initially intended to be a solo recording, L.A. Reid sent it to John Legend, who shares the same management as Trainor. Legend said, "I love this: I want to be a part of it ''. Trainor announced her collaboration with Legend in an interview with MTV News at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in September 2014. His vocal was recorded as a duet with Trainor 's by Jason Agel at Germano Studios in New York City, with the assistance of Kenta Yonesaka. "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larabee North Studios in Universal City, California and mastered by Dave Kutch at The Mastering Palace in New York City. Gelbuda describes it as "classic and jazzy '' and "a big departure from everything she 's done ''.
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' is a retro style soul ballad. It features Trainor 's soprano vocals in a duet with Legend, and includes additional background vocals by Trainor and Gelbuda. The track comprises minimal harmonies and instrumental accompaniment, showcasing Trainor and Legend 's vocals at its forefront. Critics noted the song as a more earnest, tender, and subdued sound compared Trainor 's other material. The track is set in the time signature of time, with a slow tempo of 72 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of C major and has a sequence of C -- F / C -- C -- Em -- Am -- F -- C / E -- Dm -- F / G as its chord progression.
Characterized as a love song with a lyrical theme of fatalism, "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' channels anxiety about losing someone into determination to make the most of every moment. According to Gelbuda, the track is about not taking time with loved ones for granted.
Rolling Stone writer Chuck Arnold called the song "finger - snapping balladry '' and likened it to duets by Marvin Gaye and Tammi Terrell. Melanie J. Sims of the Associated Press felt that "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was the most refreshing track on Title, writing "Not only is it a nice change of pace sonically, but in a rare moment, the track gives Trainor 's vocals the main stage, without a catchy hook or quirky production yanking away the spotlight ''. Similarly, Elysa Gardener of USA Today wrote: "Trainor is at her most appealing when she does n't try to be sly or subversive. Her yearning soprano is a perfect match for guest John Legend 's silky voice and presence on ' Like I 'm Gonna Lose You ' ''. Glenn Gamboa of Newsday called the song "classic - sounding '' and said that it would "stick with Trainor throughout her sure - to - be-lengthy career ''. Martin Townsend of the Daily Express named "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '', along with "Walkashame '', as the album 's best tracks. Virgin Media 's Ian Gittins opined that the song manifested Trainor 's vocal prowess.
In a mixed review, The Daily Telegraph 's Helen Brown opined that the ballad was formulaic, but complimented Legend 's sincerity of tone. Daily News writer Jim Farber commented that the track "played to the smarm of Legend '', and further added, "Trainor can turn earnest -- not always in a good way ''. Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe wrote, "When (Trainor) steps away from pastiche, she struggles; John Legend comes through loud and clear on boilerplate ballad ' Like I 'm Gonna Lose You, ' while she could be anybody at all ''. Billboard writer Carl Wilson shared the views of Farber and Hirsh, and said that Legend 's vocal added "deeper textures to an otherwise static (song) ''.
"Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' debuted at number 63 on the Canadian Hot 100 and number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles charts issued for January 31, 2015. The song later re-entered US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles at a new peak of number 10 for the chart dated June 6, 2015. For the chart dated July 25, 2015, the track debuted on the Hot 100 at number 95. On the week charting October 3, 2015, the song charted at number 45 and steadily rose to a peak position of number 18 on November 6, and later reached a new peak of number 8, on the issue dated 12 December, thus becoming Trainor 's third and Legend 's second top - 10 single. It also peaked at number one on the Adult Top 40 chart.
In Australia, "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' debuted at number 80 on the Australian Singles Chart issued for June 8, 2015. It climbed 61 positions to number 19 the following week, marking Trainor fifth consecutive top - 20 hit in the country. The following week, it ascended to number five, finally hitting the number one position on the chart the following week. It stayed at number one for a total of four weeks. In New Zealand, the song debuted on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 26 on the chart dated June 29, 2015. In its second week, the song dropped to number 32, before rising to number 13 the following week. After four weeks on the chart, the song was certified gold and reached number one, marking Trainor 's third number - one hit and fifth top - 10 hit. It gave Legend his first number - one single in the country and his second top - 10.
On June 18, 2015, Trainor confirmed that the shooting for the "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' music video had begun. She premiered the music video in Times Square on July 9, 2015. Trainor released the videos behind the scenes on July 21, 2015.
In the video, directed by Constellation Jones, Trainor is singing amid candlelight in a darkened building as it rains outside. As the video continues, different aspects of love are shown in the rain: a mother and child, romantic couples, and friendships, braving their way through the same rainy night.
The music video on YouTube has more than 470 million views as of August 2018.
Trainor performed "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' during her That Bass Tour as a duet with either Matt Prince or George Sheppard of Sheppard at selected dates. At the tour 's date in Birmingham on April 11, 2015, Trainor was joined by Nathan Sykes for a duet of the song. In a review of Sykes and Trainor 's rendition, Noelle Devolle of Seventeen said, "It goes without saying that these two are pretty much cementing themselves as the new King and Queen of doo - wop and soul, and they need to collaborate ''.
Trainor and Legend 's first performance together of "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' was at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards on May 17, 2015. According to Hugh McIntyre of Forbes, the rendition was widely applauded. It was the third most - tagged performance of the night on Shazam. William Gruger of Billboard wrote, "It 's notable that Shazam was so popular with the slow, ballad - oriented tracks, which suggested that they were some of the most engaging moments of the evening ''. The performance spurred a 45 % increase in Title 's unit sales in the United States, helping it rise seven positions to number five on the Billboard 200 that week. Trainor climbed from number seven to number four on the Billboard Artist 100 as a result. Joe Lynch of Billboard described the rendition as "one of the night 's quiet victories: Not a show - stopper, but a performance that stuck with you ''. Trainor and Legend sang "Like I 'm Gonna Lose You '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on May 21, 2015. She performed the track solo in a set for The Today Show on May 22, 2015, along with "Dear Future Husband '', "All About That Bass '' and "Lips Are Movin ''. An a cappella rendition of the song by Trainor and Legend premiered on May 27, 2015, by Entertainment Weekly, as part of Pop TV 's "Massive Musical Mash - Up ''. Trainor also performed along with Legend on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on October 14, 2015. Trainor performed the song on the American Music Awards of 2015 on November 22, 2015, in a medley with Charlie Puth 's collaboration "Marvin Gaye ''.
Girl group Fifth Harmony, with whom Trainor previously collaborated on their debut album Reflection, covered the song at the 2016 Billboard Women in Music ceremony, at which Trainor was supposed to perform but was unable to due to her vocal cords being damaged. The performance was one of the group 's last with their original lineup, before member Camila Cabello left the group in December of the same year. Trainor praised the group 's performance via social media after the ceremony.
Credits and personnel adapted from Title album liner notes.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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who exposed the plight of the urban poor | Rerum novarum - wikipedia
Rerum novarum (from its first two words, Latin for "of revolutionary change ''), or Rights and Duties of Capital and Labor, is an encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on 15 May 1891. It was an open letter, passed to all Catholic Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops and bishops, that addressed the condition of the working classes.
It discussed the relationships and mutual duties between labor and capital, as well as government and its citizens. Of primary concern was the need for some amelioration of "The misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class. '' It supported the rights of labor to form unions, rejected socialism and unrestricted capitalism, whilst affirming the right to private property.
Rerum Novarum is considered a foundational text of modern Catholic social teaching. Many of the positions in Rerum novarum were supplemented by later encyclicals, in particular Pius XI 's Quadragesimo anno (1931), John XXIII 's Mater et magistra (1961), and John Paul II 's Centesimus annus (1991).
The first draft and content of the encyclical was written by Tommaso Maria Zigliara, professor from 1870 to 1879 at the College of Saint Thomas, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Zigliara, a member of seven Roman congregations including the Congregation for Studies, was a co-founder of the Academia Romano di San Tommaso in 1870. Zigliara 's fame as a scholar at the forefront of the Thomist revival at the time of his rectorship of the College of St. Thomas after 1873 was widespread in Rome and elsewhere. "Zigliara also helped prepare the great encyclicals Aeterni Patris and Rerum novarum and strongly opposed traditionalism and ontologism in favor of the moderate realism of Aquinas. ''
Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler and Cardinal Henry Edward Manning were also influential in its composition.
Rerum novarum is subtitled "On the Conditions of Labor ''. In this document, Pope Leo XIII articulated the Catholic Church 's response to the social conflict that had risen in the wake of capitalism and industrialization and that had led to the rise of socialism and communism as ideologies.
The Pope declared that the role of the State is to promote social justice through the protection of rights, while the Church must speak out on social issues in order to teach correct social principles and ensure class harmony (rather than class conflict). He restated the Church 's long - standing teaching regarding the crucial importance of private property rights, but recognized, in one of the best - known passages of the encyclical, that the free operation of market forces must be tempered by moral considerations:
Let the working man and the employer make free agreements, and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well - behaved wage - earner. If through necessity or fear of a worse evil the workman accept harder conditions because an employer or contractor will afford him no better, he is made the victim of force and injustice.
Rerum novarum is remarkable for its vivid depiction of the plight of the nineteenth - century urban poor and for its condemnation of unrestricted capitalism. Among the remedies it prescribed were the formation of trade unions and the introduction of collective bargaining, particularly as an alternative to state intervention.
Although the Encyclical follows the lines of the traditional teaching concerning the rights and duties of property and the relations of employer and employee, it applies the old doctrines specifically to modern conditions. Leo first quotes Thomas Aquinas in affirming that private property is a fundamental principle of natural law. He then quotes Gregory the Great regarding its proper use: "'' He that hath a talent, let him see that he hide it not; he that hath abundance, let him quicken himself to mercy and generosity; he that hath art and skill, let him do his best to share the use and the utility hereof with his neighbor. '' Liberalism also affirms the right to private property, but socialism and communism do not.
Rerum novarum also recognized that the poor have a special status in consideration of social issues: the modern Catholic principle of the "preferential option for the poor '' and the notion that God is on the side of the poor were expressed in this document.
As a framework for building social harmony, the pope proposed the idea of rights and duties. For example, workers have rights to a fair wage and reasonable working conditions, but they also have duties to their employers; likewise employers have rights and also have duties to their workers. Some of the duties of workers are:
Some of the duties of employers are:
The Church by reminding workers and employers of their rights and duties can help to form and activate people 's conscience. However, the pope also recommended that civil authorities take a role in protecting workers ' rights and in keeping the peace. The law should intervene no further than is necessary to stop abuses. In many cases, governments had acted solely to support the interests of businesses, while suppressing workers attempting to organize unions to achieve better working conditions.
The encyclical mentions several fundamental principles to guide relationships between Capital and Labor.
Leo states that, "... according to natural reason and Christian philosophy, working for gain is creditable, not shameful, to a man, since it enables him to earn an honorable livelihood. '' He maintains that a person 's dignity derives from the fact that he / she is created in the image of God and endowed with free will and an immortal soul.
Guidelines to maintain the respect and dignity of the person in the workplace would therefore indicate:
The pope specifically mentioned work in the mines, and outdoor work in certain seasons, as dangerous to health and requiring additional protections. He condemned the use of child labor as interfering with education and the development of children.
Fair wages are defined in Rerum novarum as at least a living wage, but Leo recommended paying more than that: enough to support the worker, his wife and family, with a little savings left over so that the worker can improve his condition over time. He also preferred that women work at home.
Without recommending one form of government over another, Leo put forth some principles for the appropriate role of the State in good government. The primary purpose of a State is to provide for the common good. All people have equal dignity regardless of social class, and a good government protects the rights and cares for the needs of all its members, both rich and poor. Leo also pointed out that everyone is in some way a contributor to the common good and everyone 's contribution is important.
Pope Leo XIII points out that no one should be forced to share his goods, as that would be stealing, however, when one is blessed with material wealth, one should use this to benefit as many others as possible. The Catechism of the Catholic Church lists three principal aspects of the common good: 1) respect for the human person and his rights; 2) social well - being and development; and 3) peace, which is "the stability and security of a just order. ''
Pope Leo strongly criticized socialism in that it seeks to replace the rights and duties of parents, families and communities with the supervision of the state. The civil government should not intrude into and exercise control over the family, the basic building block of society. However, if a family finds itself in exceeding distress due to illness, injury, or natural disaster it is right that extreme necessity be met by public aid, since each family is a part of the commonwealth. By the same token, if within a household there occur grave disturbance of mutual rights, public authority should intervene to force each party to yield to the other its proper due. They should only intervene when a family or community is unable or unwilling to fulfill their rights and duties in regard to its members.
Rerum novarum strongly asserts the right to own private property, including land, as a principle of natural law.
Private ownership, as we have seen, is the natural right of man, and to exercise that right, especially as members of society, is not only lawful, but absolutely necessary. "It is lawful, '' says St. Thomas Aquinas, "for a man to hold private property; and it is also necessary for the carrying on of human existence. ''
The right to own property does not mean absolute freedom in the use of money, but carries responsibilities with it. Leo encouraged the wealthy to meet their own needs, the needs of their families, and to maintain a "becoming '' standard of living. But they have a responsibility to give alms from what is left over. This is not a law, but a moral obligation.
Whoever has received from the divine bounty a large share of temporal blessings, whether they be external and material, or gifts of the mind, has received them for the purpose of using them for the perfecting of his own nature, and, at the same time, that he may employ them, as the steward of God 's providence, for the benefit of others.
Leo emphasized the dignity of the poor and working classes.
As for those who possess not the gifts of fortune, they are taught by the Church that in God 's sight poverty is no disgrace, and that there is nothing to be ashamed of in earning their bread by labor.
God Himself seems to incline rather to those who suffer misfortune; for Jesus Christ calls the poor "blessed ''; (Matt. 5: 3) He lovingly invites those in labor and grief to come to Him for solace; (Matt. 11: 28) and He displays the tenderest charity toward the lowly and the oppressed.
The richer class have many ways of shielding themselves, and stand less in need of help from the State; whereas the mass of the poor have no resources of their own to fall back upon, and must chiefly depend upon the assistance of the State. And it is for this reason that wage - earners, since they mostly belong in the mass of the needy, should be specially cared for and protected by the government.
This principle of the preferential option for the poor was developed more fully in writings of later popes.
Leo distinguished the larger, civil society (also called the commonwealth, or public society), and smaller, private societies which exist within it. The civil society exists to protect the common good and preserve the rights of all equally. Private societies are diverse and exist for various purposes within the civil society. Trade unions are one type of private society, and a special focus of this encyclical: "The most important of all are workingmen 's unions, for these virtually include all the rest... it were greatly to be desired that they should become more numerous and more efficient. '' Other examples of private societies are families, business partnerships, and religious orders.
Leo strongly supported the right of private societies to exist and self - regulate:
Private societies, then, although they exist within the body politic, and are severally part of the commonwealth, can not nevertheless be absolutely, and as such, prohibited by public authority. For, to enter into a "society '' of this kind is the natural right of man; and the State has for its office to protect natural rights, not to destroy them...
The State should watch over these societies of citizens banded together in accordance with their rights, but it should not thrust itself into their peculiar concerns and their organization, for things move and live by the spirit inspiring them, and may be killed by the rough grasp of a hand from without.
Leo supported unions, yet opposed at least some parts of the then emerging labor movement. He urged workers, if their union seemed on the wrong track, to form alternative associations.
Now, there is a good deal of evidence in favor of the opinion that many of these societies are in the hands of secret leaders, and are managed on principles ill - according with Christianity and the public well - being; and that they do their utmost to get within their grasp the whole field of labor, and force working men either to join them or to starve.
He deplored situations where governments suppressed religious orders and other Catholic organizations.
Paragraph 19:
The great mistake made in regard to the matter now under consideration is to take up with the notion that class is naturally hostile to class, and that the wealthy and the working men are intended by nature to live in mutual conflict. So irrational and so false is this view that the direct contrary is the truth. Just as the symmetry of the human frame is the result of the suitable arrangement of the different parts of the body, so in a State is it ordained by nature that these two classes should dwell in harmony and agreement, so as to maintain the balance of the body politic. Each needs the other: capital can not do without labor, nor labor without capital. Mutual agreement results in the beauty of good order, while perpetual conflict necessarily produces confusion and savage barbarity. Now, in preventing such strife as this, and in uprooting it, the efficacy of Christian institutions is marvellous and manifold. First of all, there is no intermediary more powerful than religion (whereof the Church is the interpreter and guardian) in drawing the rich and the working class together, by reminding each of its duties to the other, and especially of the obligations of justice. Paragraph 19.
Paragraph 20:
Of these duties, the following bind the proletarian and the worker: fully and faithfully to perform the work which has been freely and equitably agreed upon; never to injure the property, nor to outrage the person, of an employer; never to resort to violence in defending their own cause, nor to engage in riot or disorder; and to have nothing to do with men of evil principles, who work upon the people with artful promises of great results, and excite foolish hopes which usually end in useless regrets and grievous loss. The following duties bind the wealthy owner and the employer: not to look upon their work - people as their bondsmen, but to respect in every man his dignity as a person ennobled by Christian character. They are reminded that, according to natural reason and Christian philosophy, working for gain is creditable, not shameful, to a man, since it enables him to earn an honorable livelihood; but to misuse men as though they were things in the pursuit of gain, or to value them solely for their physical powers -- that is truly shameful and inhuman. Again justice demands that, in dealing with the working man, religion and the good of his soul must be kept in mind. Hence, the employer is bound to see that the worker has time for his religious duties; that he be not exposed to corrupting influences and dangerous occasions; and that he be not led away to neglect his home and family, or to squander his earnings. Furthermore, the employer must never tax his work people beyond their strength, or employ them in work unsuited to their sex and age. His great and principal duty is to give every one what is just. Doubtless, before deciding whether wages are fair, many things have to be considered; but wealthy owners and all masters of labor should be mindful of this -- that to exercise pressure upon the indigent and the destitute for the sake of gain, and to gather one 's profit out of the need of another, is condemned by all laws, human and divine. To defraud any one of wages that are his due is a great crime which cries to the avenging anger of Heaven. "Behold, the hire of the laborers... which by fraud has been kept back by you, crieth; and the cry of them hath entered into the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. '' Lastly, the rich must religiously refrain from cutting down the workmen 's earnings, whether by force, by fraud, or by usurious dealing; and with all the greater reason because the laboring man is, as a rule, weak and unprotected, and because his slender means should in proportion to their scantiness be accounted sacred. Were these precepts carefully obeyed and followed out, would they not be sufficient of themselves to keep under all strife and all its causes? Paragraph 20.
Paragraph 22:
Therefore, those whom fortune favors are warned that riches do not bring freedom from sorrow and are of no avail for eternal happiness, but rather are obstacles; that the rich should tremble at the threatenings of Jesus Christ -- threatenings so unwonted in the mouth of our Lord (10) and that a most strict account must be given to the Supreme Judge for all we possess. Paragraph 22.
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when did telephone numbers change to 6 digits | History of telephone numbers in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom have a structure that reflects their historical demands, starting from many independent companies to a system that supports many different services including cellular phones which were never initially envisaged.
The telephone service in the United Kingdom was originally provided by private companies and local councils. But by 1912 -- 13 all except the telephone service of Kingston upon Hull and Guernsey had been bought out by the Post Office. The Post Office also operated telephone services in Jersey until 1923 and the Isle of Man until 1969 when the islands took over responsibility for their own postal and telephone services -- although the Isle of Man system remained part of British Telecom until 1987.
Post Office Telecommunications was reorganised in 1980 -- 81 as British Telecommunications (British Telecom, or BT), and was the first major nationalised industry to be privatised by the Conservative government. The Hull Telephone Department was itself reconstituted as Kingston Communications, in 1987; it was sold by Hull City Council in the late 1990s and celebrated its centenary in 2004.
In November 1922 the General Post Office decided to adopt the Strowger system from the various systems it had tried and it was to include "Directors '' in the exchanges in London. Demonstration models of the "Director '' exchange were shown by manufacturer ATM of Liverpool as part of the Post Office exhibits at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley in 1924 and 1925. However, it was not until 1927 that the first "Director '' telephone exchange was brought into service in Holborn, London and rolled out progressively across Greater London. A 3 digit code, represented by letters, identified the local exchange. Director schemes were gradually introduced in the other major cities of the UK -- Birmingham, Edinburgh (although a relatively small city, it obtained seven - figure dialling for political reasons), Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester.
Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) was introduced in 1958 to allow a caller to call another telephone directly instead of via a manual telephone exchange operator. Uniform exchange codes, usually called STD codes, were allocated for every exchange in the country, progressively as STD was rolled out. This process was not completed until 1979.
The original concept was for STD to be a nationwide Director system, and in common with the Director system, the exchange codes were originally assigned based on two letters of the respective place 's name and the corresponding numbers on a telephone dial. For example Aylesbury was given the STD code 0AY6, where the letter A can be found on the number 2 and the letter Y on the number 9. The letter O became a zero, such as for Bournemouth: 0BO2 where BO = 20. Originally, where a place 's name began with the letter "O '' the code would begin with two zeros, such as Oxford: 0OX2 where OX = 09. These codes starting with "00 '' were later reallocated, freeing the prefix 00 for use by calls to the Republic of Ireland, to radiophones and to premium rate numbers.
Within a single code group area there would usually be multiple exchange buildings in various locations. The smaller exchanges might have only a few hundred lines with three - digit subscriber numbers, e.g. 200 -- 499. Larger exchanges might have a few thousand lines with four - digit subscriber numbers, e.g. 2000 -- 5999, or five - digit subscriber numbers, e.g. 20000 -- 49999.
Population growth over the next few decades meant there was a need for more lines. This would see an exchange with existing three - digit numbers open one or more new ranges with four - digit local numbers (e.g. 5000 - 6999), and exchanges with existing four - digit numbers open one or more new ranges with five - digit local numbers (e.g. 60000 -- 69999).
Since number ranges were being reused in each local exchange within a group, a series of short codes was devised to allow dialling from one local exchange to another at the cheapest ' local ' call rate without the need to dial the full STD code which would almost invariably attract one of the higher ' STD ' call rates based on distance. These short codes usually began with a 7, 8 or 9. The code was often only two or three digits, but might be up to five digits long.
The last digit of this short code would usually also feature as extra digits on the end of the main STD code in order to differentiate each satellite exchange within a group when dialling from another STD code area. In written form these area codes were split after the third digit to highlight this satellite exchange numbering.
e.g. for 0799, Saffron Walden (SW)
As time wore on and number shortages became more acute, local numbers were gradually converted to five - figure or six - figure numbers, and the STD code changed to the (0xxx) format. In many cases the initial digits of the new local number would be formed from digits previously at the end of the old STD code e.g. Newport (079 982) 5678 became Saffron Walden (0799) 825678, nowadays (01799) 825678. The local number would be padded with extra fixed digits (if needed) to make up the new total length e.g. Clavering (079 985) 345 became Saffron Walden (0799) 850345, nowadays (01799) 850345. In some cases the initial digits were changed e.g. Radwinter (079 987) 456 became Saffron Walden (0799) 500456, nowadays (01799) 500456.
Post 2000, only a dozen places have long STD codes with five - digit local numbers. One area with a long STD code retains four - digit local numbering. Long STD codes are rare. Many people are not familiar with the (0xx xx), nowadays (01xx xx) format; or the now discontinued (0xx xxx) format, and often omit the space in written form.
The director areas used a shorter area code, usually in the form 0x1 (01 for London) with a 7 - digit local subscriber number. These were:
The codes 071, 081, and 091 were reserved for later expansion, with the former two eventually being temporarily allocated to London (see below).
Within the director areas, the first three digits of the seven digit subscriber number would relate to the local telephone exchange on which the number could be found. These were usually three - digit letter codes, based on the first three letters of the exchange name e.g. within the Liverpool director area, a number on the Anfield telephone exchange would be dialled as ANField xxxx. Within the London director area, a number on the Frobisher telephone exchange would be dialled as FRObisher xxxx.
After the introduction of STD, but before the advent of all - figure dialling, to call a number on an exchange in a director area, the number would be dialled as follows, for example, 051 ANF 1234. After the advent of all - figure dialling the number would be 051 263 1234.
In 1968, area codes beginning 00 were changed.
Codes beginning 00 were also used for premium rate numbers or as a short code for dialling calls to various places in the Republic of Ireland over the next few decades.
The use of names was intended to provide a mnemonic for the exchange in the same way as for the Director system, but as more and more places were given STD codes the mnemonic link became more and more obscure, and this system became unworkable. Also, international direct dialling was being introduced and as other countries (such as the USA) had different assignments of letters to digits the opportunity for confusion existed.
An earlier modification to get round this problem for European dialling was the addition of the letter Q to the digit 0, which previously represented only the letter O. This was because some French exchanges had alphabetic codes including Q, but in the event France moved to all - digit codes before direct dialling from the UK was introduced.
The use of alphabetic exchange (area) codes was abandoned in the UK in 1966 in favour of all figure numbering. As such about 60 % of current area codes are still based on the original alphabetic STD.
Around 1982, the 091 code was also brought into use:
Until the mid-1980s freephone numbers could be accessed only by ringing the operator on 100 and asking to be connected, e.g. Freephone 8963 for BT customer service. Later on, the 0800 code came into use for freephone services. These numbers often had only 8 digits, e.g. 0800 1111 for ChildLine.
From around 1980, calls to Radiophones could also be direct dialled.
These covered only a small part of the country. The 0035 and 0038 codes were added later.
In the 1980s, these other allocations were also in use:
Until the late 1980s, calls to major towns and cities in the Republic of Ireland could also be made using short codes starting with 000:
and
This was discontinued in the late 1980s, so that all calls to the Republic of Ireland from the UK had to be dialled in the normal international format using the international access code (initially 010 until 1995, and then 00) and country code (353).
Calls could also be made using the full international dialling code since the introduction of International Direct Dialling.
While most of the Republic of Ireland could be direct dialled, a small number of rural areas did not have an automated telephone service until the 1980s. As a result, calls from the UK to these areas had to be made through the BT operator who connected the calls to their Irish counterpart for completion. Unlike other international calls, these were handled by the BT national operator, in the same way as UK operator calls. This service was withdrawn at noon on 28 May 1987 when the last manual exchange in Ireland, at Mountshannon, County Clare, was switched over to an Alcatel E10 digital exchange. This completed Telecom Éireann 's (now called eircom) rural digitalisation project.
Although full international dialling is now used, calls from Northern Ireland landlines to landlines in the Republic are charged at UK national or local rates, and calls from Great Britain to the Republic are charged at a special "Republic of Ireland '' rate, higher than inland rates, but lower than those for elsewhere in Western Europe. Additionally, calls to Northern Ireland from the Republic of Ireland can be made without an international access code, but instead replacing the British 028 prefix not with the conventional international prefix 00 44 28 but with a shorter Irish 048 area code which specifically covers Northern Ireland. For example, calling Belfast from London would be 028 9xxx xxxx while calling Belfast from Dublin would be 048 9xxx xxxx. However, it is also possible to make calls using the normal international 00 44 28 xxxx xxxx format. In both cases, calls are charged at a much lower rate than calls to Britain. In recent years, these arrangements are becoming less relevant as customers in both countries have access to a wide range of telephone service providers, cable telephony services, mobile operators and alternative services based on VoIP. Some providers include unlimited calls to the UK or Republic of Ireland (and many other countries) in various bundled packages.
In Northern Ireland, many of the area codes were created as "mixed '' areas. There were a number of code changes within Northern Ireland over the years with some exchanges swapping to different area codes.
In 1993, further changes were made throughout Northern Ireland in preparation for PhONEday in 1995. Many of the changes were eliminating 3 - digit and 4 - digit subscriber numbers in rural exchanges by adding extra digits; the table below shows the end result. The system of "mixed '' areas remained in place.
The prefixes listed in the table below were introduced at various times from the early 1980s to the mid-1990s. The details and timeline of these allocations is complex.
0459, 0802, 0831, 0839, 0860, 0881, 0891, 0893, 0897, 0898, 0921, 0941, 0961, 0979, 0987, 0998 and 0999 had never been used for geographic area codes, so could be used for non-geographic and mobile services as soon as the need arose. Those codes, if used, have since migrated to various 07, 08 and 09 ranges in the Big Number Change.
Other codes had multiple uses over the years. Edinburgh stopped using 0500 and moved to 031 (0131 after PhONEday). Some years later, 0500 was used for Mercury Freephone services.
Langholm was moved from 0541 to the new 038 73 "mixed '' area (0138 73 after PhONEday). 0541 5 was then re-allocated as the National Rate non-geographic code for C&WC AreaCall which then became 0870 15 in the Big Number Change.
Hornsea was moved from 0401 to join with the existing Patrington allocation at 0964 (01964 after PhONEday). This created the 0964 Hornsea and Patrington ELNS area. 0401 later went on to be used for Cellnet mobile until moving to 07701 in the Big Number Change.
Some prefixes had dual usage when no longer used for geographic area codes. In the former Basildon 0374 area code, the 0374 5 number block was used for National Rate calls while the rest of the 0374 range was used for Vodafone mobile phones. Likewise, in the former Weardale 0956 area code the 0956 7 block was used for personal numbering and the rest of 0956 was used for One - to - One mobile telephones.
The area codes 0921, 0987, 0998 and 0999 were never used., the last of which due to possible confusion with the 999 emergency number.
Rapid expansion of mobile and premium rate services quickly depleted the number of available area codes. By the early 1990s it was also becoming more difficult to remember the various codes that might cost a lot more to call than a local or national call, and many consumers were caught out with larger than expected bills. A more long - term solution would need to be found as it was clear that mobile usage in particular was going to push demand for new codes even further in the coming years.
With growth in second phone lines, direct dial - in (DDI) lines, fax machines and multiple telecoms operators during the 1980s the demand for telephone numbers exceeded the available number ranges. A number of changes were to be made to the UK numbering plan. All these stages were planned out in one exercise in the early 1980s, though the exact dates for each stage was decided later.
The first major change was in May 1990, when the London 01 area code was replaced with 071 and 081. Local numbers remained seven digits long. Exchanges in central London used the 071 code. The remaining exchanges now used the 081 code and formed a ring around the 071 area. Although this effectively doubled the available numbers from eight to sixteen million, it was not to be the last change for the capital.
This change freed up the entire 01 code range for the next step of the plan: converting all geographic area codes to 01. That operation would then free up the whole of the 02 to 09 range for a future re-organisation of some geographic and all mobile and non-geographic numbers. Most areas would see two code changes over the next decade, whilst London would have a total of three. It would be a decade before this inner / outer London split was eventually nullified.
Consumers were already becoming confused as to what they would be charged for any particular call, with for example (0404) xxxxx being a call to Honiton in Devon and (0403) xxxxxx being a much more expensive call to a mobile phone. The situation in the early 1990s was as follows:
The next few changes would fix these problems.
The longest telephone numbers in use until now had been 9 digits long (not including the 0 trunk code), e.g. 051 234 5678, 0303 456789, 03873 56789, 0800 445566. The long term plan is for migration to 10 digit numbering in the UK and in 1991 this started with new 0800 numbers being allocated with 10 digits.
With multiple operators joining the market, administration was passed to an independent regulator. Oftel took over administration of the UK 's telephone numbers from BT in 1994.
On "PhONEday '', 16 April 1995, the digit "1 '' was inserted into all UK geographic area codes, including those in the director, all - figure dialling, ELNS and mixed areas. Under the new changes, for example, Inner London 's 071 became 0171; Outer London 's 081 became 0181. A small selection of the codes that changed are shown in the table below:
This was done with a view to reorganising the numbering plan at a later date, so that the first and second digits would indicate the type of service called:
Five new area codes were introduced for cities that were running low on phone numbers -- and a digit was prepended to each existing local number.
Most of the initial local number ranges created by PhONEday were exhausted within just a few years. New local numbers then began to be allocated with a different initial digit. For example, in Sheffield (0114) when the 2xx xxxx numbers were exhausted, new numbers (other than old recycled ones) then began to be issued from the 3xx xxxx range. Similarly, newly allocated numbers in Leeds (0113), Leicester (0116) and Bristol (0117) also came from the 3xx xxxx range, but in Nottingham (0115), the new numbers instead came from the 8xx xxxx range.
Less than a decade later, further new ranges were opened in most of these areas, but this time new Reading and Leicester numbers are in the 4xx xxxx range, new Bristol numbers are in the 2xx xxxx range, new Nottingham numbers are in the 7xx xxxx range and new Leeds numbers are in the 4xx xxxx and 8xx xxxx ranges. Since then, other ranges have been opened in these areas. See table above for further details.
The international access code also changed on "PhONEday '', from 010 to 00 thus meeting the international call prefix standard set by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
In 1995, the United Kingdom adopted the pan-European 112 emergency services number. This new number runs alongside the existing 999 number, first introduced in 1937.
Reading numbers endured two changes in a very short time. PhONEday, on 16 April 1995, changed the area code from 0734 to 01734, and then almost a year later, on 8 April 1996, it changed again to (0118). At that time, local numbers were changed from six to seven digits by inserting a 9 in front of the old local number. Parallel running of the old numbering was withdrawn on 9 January 1998.
Around this time, some new number ranges were already being allocated and used for mobile phone numbers. These new ranges already fitted into the new numbering scheme of 07xxx xxxxxx. The rest of the older mobile phone numbers, those already in use for many years (and at that time, both one - digit shorter, and having codes scattered throughout the 03 to 09 range) would be brought into this 07x numbering scheme a few years later, both by changing the code to the 07x range, and by adding another digit.
In 1995, the 070 prefix began to be allocated for personal numbers (PNS). These new numbers had 10 digits.
New numbers at 070 107x xxxx were held aside in order for FleXtel personal numbers at 0956 7xxxxx to migrate in the forthcoming Big Number Change in 2000.
The geographic area codes 0700 to 0709 had only recently been moved to 01700 to 01709 on PhONEday. New 070 personal number allocations had to be chosen carefully such that mis - dialled calls for old pre-PhONEday geographic numbers would fail to connect rather than connect the caller to a user of a new personal number. Oftel identified old (070x) xx geographic number ranges that had not been used before and re-allocated those first.
For example, The Welwyn Garden City (0707) 4x range (now 01707 4x) had never been used, so 070 74xx quickly came into use for personal numbering in 1996. However, the (0707) 3x range (now 01707 3x) had been in use within Welwyn Garden City, and these numbers remained protected by Oftel for a number of years. The 070 73xx range of numbers finally came into use for personal numbering in 2007.
070 numbers initially allowed revenue share. These numbers are easy to mistake for mobile phone numbers and many scams developed. Oftel consulted on various proposals. Eventually revenue share was banned on these lines and they also fell under the jurisdiction of ICSTIS (nowadays PhonepayPlus), the premium rate services regulator.
Geographic numbers had been moved to begin 01 in the PhONEday changes in 1995. Pre-existing mobile phone, non-geographic, premium rate and pager services continued to use the same 9 - digit 02xx xxxxxx to 09xx xxxxxx numbers as before. It would be several more years before these would add a digit to become 10 - digit numbers and move to the 07, 08 and 09 ranges in the Big Number Change in 2000 - 2001.
From May 1997, new mobile phone services started using numbers beginning 077, 078 or 079 re-using area codes recently vacated by 9 - digit geographic numbers. These new mobile numbers have 10 digits.
BT Cellnet started with 07801 xxxxxx, 07803 xxxxxx, 07808 xxxxxx and 07809 xxxxxx. Vodafone started with 07771 xxxxxx and 07775 xxxxxx in May 1997. One2One started using 07804 xxxxxx and 07806 xxxxxx numbers in May 1995. 07xxx codes for new allocations by operators have been issued by Oftel since May 1997. It would be another few years before older BT Cellnet 0802 xxxxxx numbers were converted to 07802 xxxxxx, Vodafone 0370 xxxxxx numbers were converted to 07770 xxxxxx and One2One 0961 xxxxxx numbers were converted to 07961 xxxxxx in the Big Number Change.
Pre-existing pager numbers were already scattered under various codes in the 02xx to 09xx range and had 9 digits. Several services used non-standard 01 numbers. These would all eventually be moved to 076 codes and to 10 digits in the Big Number Change in 2000.
From 1998 onwards, new pager numbers began to be issued in parts of the 076 range. These new numbers had 10 digits.
Various parts of the 076 range were set aside for pager number migration in the forthcoming Big Number Change in 2000.
The number range 07624 xxxxxx was set aside for mobile telephones in the Isle of Man. This would also come into use as a part of the Big Number Change.
The initial plan for the new "08 '' number range was such that rates charged to people calling an 08 telephone number would be made more clear by linking the cost of the call to the second digit of the National Significant Number. Numbers starting 080 would be free (except from mobile phones), while 082 would be cheaper than 089.
In 1997, Oftel released 10 - digit numbers beginning 0808 designated as freephone services. These calls are free only from a landline or public payphone.
Both BT and Mercury issued only 10 - digit freephone numbers to users after 1997. With the market opened up to competition, many other companies also allocated these numbers to users.
Usage of pre-existing 10 - and 9 - digit 0800 numbers and pre-existing 9 - digit 0500 numbers continued as before.
Additionally, numbers in the range 0808 80x xxxx are reserved for not - for - profit helplines and as such are usually free to call from most mobile telephones. A number of other numbers can also called for free from mobiles, but this varies by network.
From 1996 onwards, Oftel brought various new 10 - digit non-geographic 0845 and 0870 numbers into use.
Only certain sub-parts of each code were made available for immediate use. Numbers at 0845 7, 0845 9, 0870 1, 0870 4, 0870 5 and other ranges were set aside for numbers such as 0345, 0374, 0541, 0645 and 0990 that would be migrating from 9 - digits to 10 - digits and to these two 08xx codes in the forthcoming Big Number Change in 2000.
In these early days, the price for calling 0845 numbers from landlines was tied to BT 's price for calls to local geographic numbers. Similarly, the price for calling 0870 numbers from landlines was tied to BT 's price for national calls to geographic numbers.
These are detailed as extra entries within the PhONEday section above.
In 2000, Oftel started allocating 055 numbers for corporate numbering. These numbers have 10 digits. Uptake of these numbers has been low.
055 114x xxxx numbers have been used for the BT Broadband Voice service since December 2003, one of their bigger customers being Abbey (now Santander) bank.
In 2000, Oftel started allocating non-geographic 0844 and 0871 revenue - share numbers. These numbers have 10 digits. Initially, uptake of these numbers was low, but increased dramatically from 2005 onwards.
These numbers look similar to 0845 and 0870 numbers but are often charged at a different rate. From their inception until around 2005, call costs from landlines looked like this:
The call price for 0844 and 0871 numbers from a BT landline is the revenue - share premium and no additional markup, by regulation. From landlines other than BT, the call price for 0844 and 0871 numbers is usually higher than from BT landlines as those other operators add their own unregulated markup on top of the revenue share.
From mobiles, 080 numbers cost from 10 to 30 pence per minute and calls to 084 and 087 numbers cost up to 50 pence per minute at that time. The revenue share is only a small proportion of the cost billed to callers when using a mobile.
After 2005, most landline providers no longer differentiated between local and national calls, charging a single geographic rate for calling 01 and 02 numbers nationwide. Many landline providers also started offering inclusive call bundles for 01 and 02 numbers and by 2011 the vast majority of landline phone users were on this type of deal. Bundled minutes from mobiles include 01, 02 and 07 numbers. Bundles effectively make all calls to 01 and 02 numbers "free '' for very many people. Since 2005, it has been illegal to describe 084 numbers as "local rate '' or "lo - call '' or 087 numbers as "national rate ''.
A small number of landline providers and a smaller number of mobile providers have allowed 0870 (and a few landline providers have also allowed 0845) numbers to be used in inclusive minutes bundles. However, 0844 and 0871 numbers are never inclusive. From landlines, 084 and 087 numbers cost anything up to 20 pence per minute. From mobile phones, 084 and 087 numbers cost anything up to 45 pence per minute. The price includes a revenue - share "premium '' or "service charge '' of up to 5 pence per minute for 0844 numbers and up to 10 pence per minute for 0871 numbers. The premium is passed on to the terminating telecoms company.
Due to persistent abuse of 0871 numbers these have been under the remit of PhonepayPlus (previously known as ICSTIS) since 2009.
In 2013 / 2014, the Consumer Rights Directive will make 084, 087 and other numbers charged at above geographic rate, illegal to use for customer service and complaints lines.
In 2001, additional premium rate numbers in the 091x range started to be allocated. Initially just 0911, but latterly also 0912 and 0913.
09 numbers were regulated first by ICSTIS and then after 2007 by PhonepayPlus.
Until 2002, the domestic directory enquiries service within the UK had been reached by dialling 192 from a landline. The service had been run solely by BT. In December 2002, the market was opened up by Oftel for new providers to run additional directory enquiries services in competition. BT 's 192 service moved to 118 500, and dialling 192 ceased working in August 2003. New providers used 118 118, 118 247, 118 855 and many others. Nowadays there are more than a hundred such providers and more than 130 different tariffs.
As with 09xx premium rate numbers, the usage of 118 xxx directory enquiry numbers was regulated by ICSTIS (later PhonepayPlus).
In 2003, the 0908 number range came into use, as 0909 was now almost fully allocated.
In 2003, Oftel published a proposal to create a National Telephone Numbering Plan. This draft plan proposed changing the names of many areas from whatever name BT had previously used. Following responses from BT, C&W and others, the final plan was published with a number of amendments incorporated, followed by a minor revision a few weeks later. A few months later, the data and the responsibility for maintaining it was passed to Ofcom.
Ofcom 's data is contained in two files: the NTNP PDF file (updated several times per year) and the SABC CSV file for electronic download (published weekly). Although the data in these files should be identical, there have been and still are very many differences between them.
In one background document from 2004, Ofcom states that In order to conform to the National Telephone Numbering Plan (NTNP), the names of the following Geographic Area Codes have changed - 1248, 1268, 1275, 1276, 1291, 1293, 1306, 1322, 1327, 1334, 1344, 1354, 1356, 1375, 1384, 1394, 1425, 1438, 1442, 1451, 1454, 1461, 1470, 1471, 1477, 1478, 1485, 1488, 1489, 1491, 1543, 1561, 1562, 1582, 1588, 1598, 1661, 1668, 1675, 1680, 1681, 1684, 1688, 1689, 1695, 1707, 1720, 1727, 1737, 1744, 1753, 1770, 1784, 1806, 1821, 1856, 1870, 1877, 1883, 1885, 1889, 1895, 1908, 1920, 1922, 1926, 1928, 1932, 1952, 1953, 1963, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1992.
However, several of the above area codes did not see any name change. It had been proposed to change some names but in the end either the original BT name continued to be used or a completely new name suggested by either BT or C&W, or by both, was adopted. The Ofcom proposal also contained a large number of spelling mistakes in the proposed area code names. Some of those errors were rectified within weeks or months, while others have still not been fixed eight years later. Additionally, several other areas changed their name after suggestions by BT and / or C&W, although Ofcom originally had no plans to change them. There are also several areas which changed name but are not listed above. Additionally some names were changed in one Ofcom document but were not updated in the other Ofcom document until several years later. Some have still not been updated or corrected.
Nine more place names were fixed in a reissued NTNP PDF document in mid-December 2011.
In 2003, the Office of Telecommunications (Oftel) was disbanded and replaced with the Office of Communications (Ofcom).
In 2004, Ofcom allocated the remaining number ranges within the 14 existing ELNS areas.
In 2004, Ofcom allocated the remaining number ranges within the existing 18 "mixed '' areas.
In 2004, Ofcom started allocating 056 numbers for VoIP services. Soon after, VoIP services also appeared on geographic 01 and 02 numbers. Uptake of 056 numbers remains low. These numbers have 10 digits.
These are detailed as extra entries within the Big Number Change section above.
Some years earlier, 092x to 099x had been designated "broadband services ''. With changes in technology, this allocation had never been used. It was removed from the plan in 2005.
With calls for premium rate adult services to be more clearly defined and separated from other premium rate services, the 0908 and 0909 codes were to be no longer issued for new services. Instead, the new 098x range would be used, initially 0982 but latterly also 0983, 0984 and 0989.
Some companies had attempted to avoid restrictions placed on Premium Rate Services by instead running adult services on various 070, 0871 and other number ranges. Regulations were eventually drafted to force these services to use only the designated 098x (and pre-existing 0908 and 0909) numbers.
Due to concerns raised by patients having to pay unfair costs when calling NHS services by telephone, the usage of 0870 non-geographic numbers was banned by the Department of Health in 2005. At that time, 0870 numbers often cost more to call than geographic 01 and 02 numbers and were not usually included in bundled minutes. Around 400 GP surgeries used 0870 numbers and were also coming under greater scrutiny with a few reverting to geographic numbers.
Many of these services quickly moved to 0845 or 0844 revenue share numbers as they were not specifically banned, even though they also cost more to call than 01 and 02 numbers and in many cases cost more to call than 0870 numbers. The tendency to unlawfully refer to 084x numbers as ' local rate ' or ' lo - call ' numbers hid the true cost of calling them, compared to the price for calling geographic numbers. One supplier of surgery telephone systems opted to use 0844 revenue share numbers paying the surgery 2p / min from the 5p / min "premium '' paid by callers. Contravening ASA advice, surgeries were told that 0844 numbers were "lo - call '' numbers and subsequent tariff comparisons ignored both packages with inclusive minutes and users with mobile phones.
In December 2006, Lord Norman Warner sent a letter to all Primary Care Trust Chief Executives drawing attention to the Central Office of Information guidance on telephone numbering, which suggested that healthcare providers consider adopting an 03 telephone number so that people "do not have to pay over the odds to contact their local services ''. Very few took notice. In July and November 2007, two Early Day Motions were signed by numerous MPs calling for GPs to no longer use 0844 and other such expensive telephone numbers.
In recent years, there has been much discussion in the media about the use of 0844 numbers in the healthcare sector, mainly due to the costs incurred by people who have to dial these numbers as the primary form of contact with their local healthcare services, especially when calling from mobiles.
The issue was debated in Parliament in early 2008. The BMA recommended that GPs publish call costs for 0844 numbers in surgeries. Former Health Secretary Alan Johnson has publicly advocated the use of 03 numbers. By early 2008 there were already more than 800 GPs in England using 0844 telephone numbers.
The Department of Health started investigating the use of 084 numbers in the NHS in March 2008 Phone supplier NEG stated their belief that 0844 numbers would not be banned.
In 2008, Leicester City NHS Trust looked into their usage of telephone numbers and revealed a complex set of issues to be solved, some of which were fixed later in the year. Enfield Primary Care Trust wrote to all 62 surgeries in the borough warning them that it does not approve of them using premium rate 0844 numbers. It was revealed that Mid-Yorkshire hospital trust had made more than £ 80,000 from use of a 0844 telephone number in two years.
The Department of Health published a consultation at the end of 2008 calling for views on the usage of 084 numbers in the NHS which received more than 3000 responses. In response, the British Medical Association (BMA) stated "GP practices using 084 telephone numbers must be allowed to serve out the terms of their contracts with telephone suppliers if the government decides to ban them from the NHS, '' as many had already mistakenly signed up to long contracts for 0844 numbers. Ofcom recommended the 03 option. In 2009, Heart of Birmingham Primary Care Trust moved 22 GPs to new 0345 numbers.
Although 0870 numbers were banned in 2005, even as late as 2010 there were NHS bodies only now just getting around to complying with that ban.
In 2006, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA) started taking action against companies that falsely represent that "084 numbers are ' local rate ' (sic) or ' lo - call ' (sic) calls '' or "087 numbers are ' national rate ' (sic) calls ''. By this time, most operators no longer offered a "local call '' rate, instead charging all calls to 01 and 02 numbers at the same rate, whatever the distance.
After 2005, several operators also offered 01, 02 and the newly created 03 numbers as "free minutes '' within an "evening and weekend '' calls bundle or within an "anytime '' calls bundle. As 084 and 087 numbers were not usually included in any such bundle, costing up to 20p / min from landlines and up to 41p / min from mobiles, describing these numbers as anything other than "chargeable with an additional service charge '' (or "premium '' by another name) is a misleading price indication. In comparison, for many callers, calls to 01, 02 and 03 numbers had effectively become "free ''.
As a result of ever increasing mobile phone ownership, and especially the introduction of mobile broadband in the UK, the 075xx number range was opened in October 2006. This joined the existing 07624, 077xx, 078xx and 079xx ranges.
In 2006, the new 101 number for non-emergency calls to the police began trials in several areas with a call cost of 10 pence per call. The number was adopted nationally in 2011 / 2012. Calls now cost 15 pence per call from landlines and mobiles.
In February 2007, Ofcom announced the 03 range of numbers was being brought into use and the first numbers were issued in May. Although allocated as non-geographic, these were to be charged at the same rate as geographic 01 and 02 numbers from both landline and mobile and were also to be included within "free minutes '' bundles for subscribers with a call package. Further details are in the 03 numbers section above.
In May 2007, Ofcom allocated the first 0872 numbers. These follow on from the earlier 0871 code which was now fully allocated.
In November 2007, the first 0843 numbers were allocated. These follow on from the earlier, and now fully allocated, 0844 code.
These are used for revenue share services and are generally not included in bundled minutes from either mobiles or landlines. From landlines these numbers cost anything up to 20 pence per minute and from mobile phones anything up to 45 pence per minute. The price includes a revenue - share "premium '' or "service charge '' of up to 5 pence per minute for 0843 numbers and up to 10 pence per minute for 0872 numbers. The premium is passed on to the terminating telecoms company.
Ofcom also indicated that 0842 and 0873 will follow on from these allocations at a later date.
Due to continued misuse of the 0871 and 0872 number ranges, ICSTIS consulted on additional regulation in 2006 and announced in 2007 that both number ranges were to be regulated from 2008. After some delay they were eventually taken into the jurisdiction of PhonepayPlus in 2009. PhonepayPlus replaced ICSTIS in 2007.
In 2008, a new area code was created for Ebbsfleet. Adjacent area codes no longer had enough projected spare capacity for the new development to use, so 01987 was allocated.
Ofcom had previously considered that personal numbers should migrate to 06, to replace the 070 prefix that is sometimes confused with mobile phone numbers. There is no cap on retail caller charges. Ofcom wanted 070 and 06 numbers to have a price cap, and 07 numbers to be used exclusively for mobile phones.
Companies such as Hospedia (formerly Patientline) use 070 personal numbers. After an in - depth study to better understand the market, Ofcom has changed its mind and is now proposing to drop the 060 migration concept and decided that the forced migration to 060 is no longer seen to be objectively justifiable. Premium rate and other such services were also banned from using 070 numbers.
In 2009, Ofcom introduced the first harmonised European numbers for harmonised services of social value, and additional numbers were allocated in 2010.
As a result of ever increasing mobile phone and mobile broadband ownership, the 074xx number range was opened in July 2009. This joined the existing 075xx, 07624, 077xx, 078xx and 079xx ranges.
After a sustained period of abuse, revenue share was removed from 0870 and 070 numbers. Prices for calling 0870 numbers from landlines fell and some landline providers started to allow calls to 0870 numbers to appear within call - plan inclusive minutes. Revenue - share continued on 0843, 0844, 0845, 0871 and 0872 numbers.
It was anticipated that 0845 numbers would also lose their revenue share, leading BT to prematurely include these numbers within call plans. Ofcom changed their mind and the status of 0845 numbers was n't changed. Instead, in 2010 to 2012, Ofcom eventually consulted on re-organisation of the whole of the 084 and 087 number ranges.
After ICSTIS consultation in 2006 and 2007 numbers beginning 0871 (and 0872) began to be regulated by PhonepayPlus, the premium rate services regulator from 1 August 2009. This brings regulation in line with existing 09xx premium rate services, 070 personal numbers and 118 xxx directory enquiries. ICSTIS became PhonepayPlus on 15 October 2007. 0871 and 0872 numbers retained their revenue - share status.
It had been widely reported in 2009 that 084 numbers were to be banned from the NHS. In December 2009, the Department of Health published directions to NHS bodies concerning the cost of telephone calls made by patients to the NHS: "An NHS body must not enter into, renew or extend a contract or other arrangement for telephone services unless it is satisfied that, having regard to the arrangement as a whole, persons will not pay more to make relevant calls to the NHS body then they would to make equivalent calls to a geographic number. '' This reiterated the "free at the point of delivery '' principle of the NHS and the direction applied to all NHS bodies.
The accompanying letter introduced ambiguity: "These Directions do not prohibit an organisation from using specific number ranges for the purpose of contacting NHS services. Organisations remain free to use non-geographical number ranges such as 084, providing that patients are not charged more than the equivalent cost of calling a geographical number to do so. '' Simple inspection of the call price lists for all major landline and mobile telephone service providers readily confirmed that 0844 numbers always cost more than 01 and 02 numbers. From this, it is clear that only 01, 02 and 03 numbers can be used by NHS bodies.
The GP committee of the BMA (British Medical Association) advised that NEG (Network Europe Group, a supplier of telephone switchboard equipment to GPs and a reseller of the telephone lines and numbers that GPs use) had assured both the BMA and the Department of Health that 0844 numbers were "local rate '' calls charged at rates less than geographic calls, and that GPs could continue using them as long as each GP obtained that assurance from NEG. However, NEG does not have any patients as customers nor does NEG set the prices for calls that patients make, nor does it send out bills to patients, so any such assurance is worthless. Patients are billed by BT, Sky, Virgin, Vodafone, O2, Orange, T - Mobile, and others, and all of those charge more for calling 0844 numbers than for calling 01, 02 and 03 numbers.
With widespread abuse of non-geographic numbers continuing unabated, Ofcom started a long series of consulatations in April 2010. Also in April 2010, the Department of Health introduced new GMS (General Medical Services) contracts so that GPs would now also be covered by the earlier direction. From this point on, the more than 6500 GP surgeries in England and Wales were banned from using phone numbers that "cost more than calling a geographic number '', and given one year to comply. The GMS contract variation was needed as GPs are not NHS bodies, rather independent contractors.
Questions were asked in the Scottish Parliament in June 2010.
A year after the GMS contract variation came into effect, many GPs were continuing to use 0844 numbers in defiance of the ban. In March and May 2011, more than 1300 GP surgeries were still using the banned 0844 (and 0845 / 0870) numbers. It was becoming clear that local decision makers (i.e. PCTs and GPs) had failed to understand the 0844 revenue share mechanism as well as the price regulations that apply uniquely to BT and make their call rates atypical when compared to other providers. At least one PCT claimed that they did not know what patients were paying for calls and further claimed that they had no way of finding out, seemingly unaware that every telecoms supplier publishes a detailed price list on their respective websites.
NEG continued to issue a revised version of their "letter of compliance '', assuring GPs that calling 0844 numbers does not cost more than calling 01 and 02 numbers. In July 2011, the BMA advocated that GPs should only consider the call costs for patients calling from BT (British Telecommunications PLC) landlines using tariffs without "inclusive '' call allowances. The BMA advised that GPs should not consider the price of calls for patients calling from landlines other than BT, nor those with inclusive allowances or using mobile phones. This advice directly contradicted the statement recently made in Parliament: "It is absolutely clear that there is no distinction between landlines, mobiles or payphones. The directions are very clear that patients should not expect to be charged any more. ''
PCTs (Primary Care Trusts), en masse, had seemingly misunderstood the regulations or had been misled by the incorrect advice spread by NEG and the BMA as by November 2011 more than 1400 GPs were using the "banned '' numbers.
Protests against the use of 0844 numbers were growing. There are even cases of GPs changing to 0844 numbers a year after the ban started.
Only a small number of GPs had complied with the ban. Various GPs using 0844 numbers attempted to justify their position based on demonstratably false information. In some areas, patients took it upon themselves to find and publish geographic numbers for GPs continuing to flout the 0844 ban.
In January 2012, a parliamentary debate took place where it was confirmed that users "should not pay more than a geographic rate call '' and it was clarified that this applies to "both landlines and mobiles ''. Additionally, "bundled '' or "free minutes '' should also count. The reference provides some additional commentary on the major points.
A month later, the Department of Health issued further guidance on the use of 084 numbers in the NHS confirming that GPs should consider "all means of telephoning the practice -- including from payphones, mobile phones and landlines '' which the BMA disputed. 0844 numbers were mentioned again in a parliamentary debate in March 2012 when the Secretary of State Andrew Lansley confirmed: "We have made it very clear that GPs should not be using 0844 numbers for that purpose and charging patients for them. '' A small number of surgeries have since complied with the regulation by moving to 01 or 02 numbers but most have not done so. In 2012, NEG issued several revised documents claiming compliance using non-typical tariffs as a basis for comparison and ignoring bundled minutes and again in 2013.
The Northern Ireland Assembly debated the issue in May 2012 where it was disclosed that 23 of Northern Ireland 's 355 GP surgeries use an 0844 number. A briefing note was produced within, and for the usage of, UK government. This covered some of the history relating to the issue. Campaigners had already produced a simplified timeline. In their response to an ongoing Ofcom consultation on simplifying non-geographic numbers, NEG said "Under the proposed new structure, Ofcom expects call cost descriptions to follow the format: ' This call will cost you X pence per minute plus your phone company 's access charge. ' We do not believe that it is appropriate for a patient to receive the Service Charge information advised by OFCOM when they contact their surgery as this will only seek to alarm them, and perpetuate the myth that all calls (to 084 numbers) are more costly. ''
In order to comply, GPs should be using numbers that begin 01, 02 or 03 and should not be using numbers that begin 070, 084, 087 or 09. The 034 and 037 ranges are reserved specifically for 084 and 087 migration. GPs using 084 and 087 numbers can migrate to the equivalent 034 or 037 version of their number without ending their phone service contracts. Alternatively they can move to brand new 030 or 033 numbers or to a geographic 01 or 02 number. Only a few GPs and NHS services have chosen 03 numbers even though this should be the most obvious solution since 03 numbers allow the same call queueing and call management facilities as 084 and 087 numbers while costing the same as 01 and 02 numbers for all callers.
In spite of the ban on 0844 numbers in the NHS since April 2010, more GPs continue to sign up to use them however PhonepayPlus has also taken an interest in extending regulations that already cover 09 and 087 numbers -- as used for premium rate chat lines, competitions and phone - in voting systems -- to also cover 084 numbers.
Multiple PCTs have failed to enforce the terms of the April 2010 variations to the GMS contract and many GPs continue to use the banned numbers. At least one surgery with an 0844 contract and with considerable time remaining time before it ends has adopted Skype as an alternative method of contacting the surgery. Some surgeries have two telephone numbers: one a premium rate 0844 number with a higher level of service and the other a standard geographic 01 or 02 number with a lower level of service, thereby creating a two - tier system for accessing the NHS services.
Almost three years after the ban, some GPs within the constituencies of government ministers continue to use 0844 numbers. In the South - East of England, usage of 0844 numbers continues unabated. In any case, in 2013 the Consumer Rights Directive will soon make it illegal to use 084 and 087 numbers, or any number that "costs more than geographic rate '', for customer services and complaints. Where contracts are ending, GPs often choose to return to using 01 and 02 numbers even though 03 numbers cost the same for all callers.
In 2010, 111 was introduced on a trial basis for non-urgent calls to the NHS. The scheme is planned to roll out nationally in 2013 and at that time may replace the currect NHS Direct 0845 46 47 line (in England and Wales) and the NHS 24 08454 24 24 24 line (in Scotland).
Extra capacity assigned in late 2010, following consultation.
In the other 01x1 area codes, only (0121) 8xx, (0121) 9xx, (0131) 9xx and (0161) 5xx have yet to be allocated. 0171 and 0181 are no longer in use and 0101 and 0111 have never been allocated.
In November 2010, Ofcom proposed to abandon renumbering in areas running short of capacity and instead provide extra capacity by starting to use local numbers beginning ' 0 ' and ' 1 ', and removing the option of dialling locally using just the subscriber number. Once the supply of new numbers released by this measure is exhausted Ofcom propose introducing additional, overlay area codes to run in tandem with current codes. It is anticipated that the overlay codes would not be required before 2022.
By way of an Erratum to the National Telephone Numbering Plan, Ofcom started the lengthy process of correcting some very old errors for nine area code names in December 2011.
Some of these errors first appeared in the 2003 version of the number plan while others can also be found in older data originally produced by Oftel several years before.
As noted on Ofcom 's site, the name changes still have to go through a formal consultation process, even though they are only correcting obvious spelling, hyphenation and capitalisation mistakes.
The corrections are as follows:
In November 2012, local dialling was removed for calls within the 01202 area allowing subscriber numbers beginning 0 or 1 to be issued locally and buying more time before an additional area code or code change is required.
After initial consultation in 2010 and 2012, in April 2013 Ofcom published the final consultation on proposals to re-arrange the 080, 084 and 087 non-geographic allocations in 2014.
The 0870 range is to regain its revenue share status. Where users of 0870 numbers can not justify revenue share they are advised to move to their reserved matching 0370 number. The workings of the 0845 range will broadly align with how 0844 and 0843 revenue share numbers already work.
Changes in how call costs for 084 and 087 non-geographic calls should in future be communicated to callers were announced. The callers phone line provider has to list a single Access Charge per tariff for the 084, 087, 09 and 118 non-geographic number ranges and the called party has to display the single Service Charge (or "premium '') details for their non-geographic number.
Calls to the ' free to caller ' 080 range will be made free from mobile telephones, not just from landlines.
Once the final announcements are made by Ofcom in the summer of 2013, the changes will have an 18 - month transition period before coming into effect.
In October 2014 certain area codes required the full area code even when dialing local numbers. The areas affected were:
The change was in response to a lack of free numbers in these areas. By requiring the area code for all local calls, Ofcom are able to allocate numbers starting with 1 or 0. This increases the number of telephone numbers available without requiring a number change.
On 1 July 2015, Ofcom made a number of changes to the way phone calls to UK service numbers would be charged. The cost of calls made to service numbers is now split into two parts: an access charge and a service charge. Under the new legislation, which was promoted by an information campaign entitled UK Calling, call charges must be clearly stated on all materials that advertise a service number. The 1 July changes also saw ' freephone numbers ' 0800 and 0808 become free to call from both mobiles and landlines. Meanwhile, 0500 numbers remain chargeable as previously from mobiles (free from landlines, also as previously). Plans are afoot to migrate these to 08085 numbers in mid-2017, whereupon they will become free from mobiles.
Area codes for mobile phone, local rate, premium rate and other such special numbers originally used ordinary looking area codes in the 02xx to 09xx range. In the early 1980s only a few such codes were in use. Rapid expansion of these services in the late 1980s required many new codes, but there were a diminishing number of codes available for use. In order to free up space for these services, 30 geographic ABC area codes with low number use were condensed into 14 ABC ranges such that each numeric area code would cover multiple charge groups (these migration figures do not include the similar 091 area code changes).
Numbers in Barrow - in - Furness already used (0229) 2 and (0229) 5. Millom used the separate 0657 area code. Millom numbers were transferred to the 0229 area code. Millom numbers would begin (0229) 3 and (0229) 7 and have 6 digits.
Under the new "ELNS '' (Extended Linked Numbering Scheme) arrangement, two charge groups now share the same area code and the leading digit of the local number indicates which charge group the number belongs to. The new area code retains both of the old area code names. A diagram showing the principle is shown on page 9 of Oftel 's telephone numbering guide and these areas are shown in the table below. Some ELNS areas combined three charge groups. Calls within the area code do not require the area code to be dialled, this is true even for calls between the charge groups.
Of the 16 area codes freed up for alternative use in the 1980s, at least 11 were re-used for other services. For example, the 0401 area code was re-allocated to Cellnet mobile services. Five of the area codes remained unused. In 1995, the PhONEday changes for geographic numbers solved the number shortage problem for mobile and non-geographic services by freeing up the whole 07, 08 and 09 range for their use from 2000 onwards.
On PhONEday in 1995, 0229 became 01229 and 0964 became 01964 and these codes are still in use today. The remainder of the "ELNS '' area code allocations and their history are detailed in the table below.
The Cellnet mobile 0401 allocation stayed in use for about a decade before these numbers were transferred to the 07701 range in the Big Number Change in 2000. Nowadays all 16 of the area codes freed up in the 1980s (albeit now with a 1 prefix, e.g. 0401 is now 01401) remain unused and are available for future geographic expansion.
Area codes for mobile phone, local rate, premium rate and other such special numbers originally used ordinary looking area codes in the 02xx to 09xx range. In the early 1980s only a few such codes were in use. Rapid expansion of these services in the late 1980s required many new codes, but there were a diminishing number of codes available for use. In order to free up space for these services, 17 geographic ABC area codes with low number use were condensed into 6 ABC ranges under a "mixed '' scheme.
Numbers in Dumfries already used (0387) 2 and (0387) 5. Numbers in Langholm were 4 or 5 digits long and used the 0541 area code. Langholm numbers were changed to 5 digits and transferred to the newly created 03873 area code.
Under the new "mixed '' arrangement, although 0387 and 03873 shared the same ABC digits, they were treated as completely separate area codes. All calls from one area to the other require the area code to be dialled. Local numbers in Dumfries can not begin with a "3 ''.
Of the 11 area codes freed up for alternative use in the 1980s, only 5 were actually re-used for other services. For example, the 0541 area code was re-allocated to C&WC Area Call services. Six of the area codes remained unused. In 1995, the PhONEday changes for geographic numbers solved the number shortage problem for mobile and non-geographic services by freeing up the whole 07, 08 and 09 range for their use from 2000 onwards.
On PhONEday in 1995, 0387 became 01387 and 03873 became 013873 and these codes are still in use today. The remainder of the "mixed '' area code allocations and their history are detailed in the table below.
The C&WC 0541 allocation stayed in use for more than a decade before these numbers were transferred to the 0870 1 range in the Big Number Change in 2000. Nowadays all 11 of the area codes freed up in the 1980s (albeit now with a 1 prefix, e.g. 0541 is now 01541) remain unused and are available for future geographic expansion.
The short number 0845 1888 was set aside in March 1998 for trials of the new NHS direct service with calls charged at the "local rate ''. At a later date, the number was changed to 0845 46 47.
After the migration of geographic 0xxx area codes to new 01xxx codes on PhONEday (also 0xx → 01xx and 0xxxx → 01xxxx of course), some of the old area codes had started to be re-used for other purposes. For example, 0870 (Isle of Benbecula, Outer Hebrides) had been moved to 01870 and now 0870 started to be re-used for non-geographic services. Oftel had to issue a warning to operators to remove their "this number has changed, please redial inserting a one after the initial zero '' messages that had been applied on PhONEday so that callers could get through to the new non-geographic numbers.
With the diverse usage and pricing of similar looking codes there could easily be a nasty shock when the bill arrived. Office phone systems could be set to block various premium rate prefixes, but it was important to regularly review and update the list. For those that did not, problems accessing some numbers were beginning to develop. The 0930 code was mainly used for premium rate services, but 0930 7xxxxx was used by One2One for mobile telephone services. Some people found that calls to all 0930 numbers were barred and hence also those mobile phones. To overcome this, the 0961 7xxxxx range was mirrored on to 0930 7xxxxx. These were all 9 - digit numbers.
From 1998 onwards, 090x numbers with 10 digits started coming into use for premium rate services. As with 084 and 087 numbers, certain small number blocks within the 090x range were set aside for migration of old premium rate codes in the forthcoming Big Number Change.
The 09 number range was originally subdivided as follows:
From 23 August 1999, Oftel added the 0905 range as by then 0906 was almost fully allocated.
Announced in November 1997 and issued from February 1998 onwards the 0820 range was designated "internet for schools ''.
As the number of lines in use continued to grow, some areas became close to full capacity. In the late - 1990s, Ofcom signalled a number of areas of concern.
Of these, only Coventry was immediately addressed - by migration to the 024 code and eight digit subscriber numbers in the Big Number Change in 2000. The Bournemouth, Aberdeen, Brighton, Bradford and Middlesbrough (as well as Milton Keynes, despite not being initially highlighted in the report) areas were later addressed in 2012 and 2014 by requiring 11 - digit dialling for local calls (see the 2012 and 2014 local number dialling sections below), as an interim measure until shorter area codes and 8 digit local numbers are introduced.
The 092x to 099x range was designated "broadband services ''.
The allocation was never used and eventually removed from the plan in 2005.
Calls between nearby exchanges could previously be dialled using a "short code '', often beginning 7, 8 or 9. With rising demand for more subscriber numbers, these codes were scrapped in the late 1990s. After a short delay, 6 - digit subscriber numbers beginning 7 or 8 began to be issued in these 01xxx areas, and with 5 - digits in 01xxxx areas. In the mid - and late - 2000s, some of these areas also started issuing subscriber numbers beginning 9.
On 22 April 2000 the second phase of the plan came into operation, dubbed the "Big Number Change ''. With 02x area codes freed up by the previous reorganisation, they could be re-used. These areas had already had a code change (to insert a "1 '') five years earlier as a part of PhONEday. The Big Number Change altered the area codes again, as well as making the local number two digits longer (London: one digit longer).
Although Southampton and Portsmouth are one code from a code structure and local dialling point of view, calls between them are not treated as local calls for pricing purposes.
It is planned that the new codes will eventually cover a larger area than at present. For example, although (029) currently covers just the Cardiff area, it may in the future cover all of Wales.
The code for Northern Ireland is (028). The transition codes for Northern Ireland are shown below. These can be accessed from the Republic of Ireland using either the domestic code 048, or the international prefix 00 44 28.
The prefixes for existing numbers in Northern Ireland are split up into seven groups, roughly based upon the county in which the main exchange is based. The initial digit of each phone number is based on the designated county -- for example, the first county alphabetically is County Antrim so numbers in this county start with 2. The next county is County Armagh so numbers here start with 3. One exception to this is the Greater Belfast area, initial digit 9, which is extended to include each adjacent former STD code area, including the towns of Bangor, (County Down) (91), Lisburn (92), Carrickfergus (93), Antrim (94) and Saintfield (97). The encompassed former STD codes at some points extend to over 20 miles from Belfast itself. There is a much more complete list in the Big Number Change article.
In addition, mobile and pager numbers were all moved into the 07xxx range. Pagers moved into 076xx, while personal numbers moved to 070. Mobile phone numbers moved into the 077xx, 078xx and 079xx ranges (and more recently, 075xx and 074xx have also been brought into use).
The exception to this was Manx Telecom mobile phone numbers, where the code became 07624 in order to match the 01624 used for landlines.
In addition, lower and higher rate non-geographic numbers (previously called lo - call or local - rate and national - rate numbers, though these terms are no longer recommended to be used as they can be misleading) migrated to 08xx and premium rate numbers migrated to 09xx.
A summary of the migration path for the existing mobile and pager codes, as they were at the time, is shown below:
The number change meant that London returned to a single area code again (as in the old 01 days), with no "inner / outer '' split. Existing London numbers acquired the prefixes 7 or 8, but from that point on (020) 7xxx xxxx and (020) 8xxx xxxx numbers were assigned or reused anywhere in the London area covered by the single (city - wide) 020 code.
From June 2005 the regulator, Ofcom, ceased to allocate new number blocks to suppliers in the 7xxx xxxx and 8xxx xxxx ranges. From this date onwards all number allocations were in the 3xxx xxxx range and can be used anywhere in the London 020 area. Although new blocks of 7xxx xxxx and 8xxx xxxx range numbers are no longer being allocated to suppliers, those that have not yet exhausted their existing blocks are able to continue to issue and re-issue them to their customers.
Numbers in the 020 0xxx xxxx and 020 1xxx xxxx number ranges have also been made available. However, these numbers can not be dialled without the 020 code and are called "national dialling only '' numbers. A small number of these blocks are used by numbers migrated from old 0171 - 0xx xxxx, 0171 - 1xx xxxx, 0181 - 0xx xxxx, and 0181 - 1xx xxxx "national dialling only '' numbers. They are mainly used as termination points for non-geographic numbers, and for various alarm and other automated systems where the actual telephone number itself is never called.
It is a common misconception that London still has more than one area code (i.e. "0207 '', "0208 '' and even "0203 '', which was the pre-1995 code for Coventry). This is incorrect in the sense that omitting the "0207 '' or "0208 '' (area) code will give a local number that can not be connected as it is missing the first digit. Therefore, writing a London number as 020x xxx xxxx is incorrect and can lead to confusion when attempting to dial it.
The misconception of area code and number separation is also seen in other areas of the country where the area code length was reduced in the Big Number Change such as Coventry being written as 02476 xxxxxx, whereas the correct number sequence is (024) 76xx xxxx (Coventry now has some (024) 77xx xxxx and (024) 75xx xxxx numbers) and Cardiff being written as 02920 xxxxxx whereas the correct number sequence is (029) 20xx xxxx (Cardiff now has some (029) 21xx xxxx and (029) 22xx xxxx numbers).
Likewise in Portsmouth, numbers are being incorrectly written as 02392 xxxxxx, whereas the correct number sequence is (023) 92xx xxxx (Portsmouth now has some (023) 93xx xxxx numbers).
This also occurs in some areas of Northern Ireland, that previously had 5 - digit and 6 - digit local numbers like in Banbridge (previously (018206) xxxxx), where numbers are still erroneously written as 028406 xxxxx instead of (028) 406x xxxx. Locals still misquote the area code as 028406, even now, some twelve years after the change. The same occurs in formerly six - digit code areas, such as Lisburn (previous (01846) xxxxxx) continues to frequently appear as 02892 xxxxxx instead of the correct form (028) 92xx xxxx.
This is also seen in the earlier PhONEday areas, such as in Sheffield, for (0114) 2xx xxxx numbers, where these are often seen written as 01142 xxxxxx or are missing the leading digit 2 when abbreviated (751234 instead of 275 1234 for example). This is a particular problem now that (0114) 3xx xxxx local numbers are being issued.
It also affects Reading numbers where these are still being written as 01189 xxxxxx, whereas the correct number sequence is (0118) 9xx xxxx. Now that Reading has some (0118) 3xx xxxx and (0118) 4xx xxxx numbers mis - dialling also occurs when people prefix 3xx xxxx and 4xx xxxx numbers with 01189 instead of just 0118.
In all of these areas, the result of the confusion is that callers are adding an incorrect area code to numbers allocated within the new local number ranges, and that then results in a mis - dialled call.
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where was the australian of the year born | List of Australian of the Year award recipients - wikipedia
The Australian of the Year Award is given annually on Australia Day. The announcement of the award has become a major public event in Australia, and is televised nationwide. The award "offers an insight into Australian identity, reflecting the nation 's evolving relationship with world, the role of sport in Australian culture, the impact of multiculturalism, and the special status of Australia 's Indigenous people ''. The award is unique in that it is sponsored by a national government and commands broad public support.
The following is a list of the recipients of the Australian of the Year award.
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during the process of translation what is produced | Protein biosynthesis - wikipedia
Protein synthesis is the process whereby biological cells generate new proteins; it is balanced by the loss of cellular proteins via degradation or export. Translation, the assembly of amino acids by ribosomes, is an essential part of the biosynthetic pathway, along with generation of messenger RNA (mRNA), aminoacylation of transfer RNA (tRNA), co-translational transport, and post-translational modification. Protein biosynthesis is strictly regulated at multiple steps. They are principally during transcription (phenomena of RNA synthesis from DNA template) and translation (phenomena of amino acid assembly from RNA).
The cistron DNA is transcribed into the first of a series of RNA intermediates. The last version is used as a template in synthesis of a polypeptide chain. Protein will often be synthesized directly from genes by translating mRNA. However, when a protein must be available on short notice or in large quantities, a protein precursor is produced. A proprotein is an inactive protein containing one or more inhibitory peptides that can be activated when the inhibitory sequence is removed by proteolysis during posttranslational modification. A preprotein is a form that contains a signal sequence (an N - terminal signal peptide) that specifies its insertion into or through membranes, i.e., targets them for secretion. The signal peptide is cleaved off in the endoplasmic reticulum. Preproproteins have both sequences (inhibitory and signal) still present.
In protein synthesis, a succession of tRNA molecules charged with appropriate amino acids are brought together with an mRNA molecule and matched up by base - pairing through the anti-codons of the tRNA with successive codons of the mRNA. The amino acids are then linked together to extend the growing protein chain, and the tRNAs, no longer carrying amino acids, are released. This whole complex of processes is carried out by the ribosome, formed of two main chains of RNA, called ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and more than 50 different proteins. The ribosome latches onto the end of an mRNA molecule and moves along it, capturing loaded tRNA molecules and joining together their amino acids to form a new protein chain.
Protein biosynthesis, although very similar, is different for prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Phenomena of RNA synthesis from DNA template In transcription an mRNA chain is generated, with one strand of the DNA double helix in the genome as a template. This strand is called the template strand. Transcription can be divided into 3 stages: initiation, elongation, and termination, each regulated by a large number of proteins such as transcription factors and coactivators that ensure that the correct gene is transcribed.
Transcription occurs in the cell nucleus, where the DNA is held. The DNA structure of the cell is made up of two helixes made up of sugar and phosphate held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases of opposite strands. The sugar and the phosphate in each strand are joined together by stronger phosphodiester covalent bonds. The DNA is "unzipped '' (disruption of hydrogen bonds between different single strands) by the enzyme helicase, leaving the single nucleotide chain open to be copied. RNA polymerase reads the DNA strand from the 3 - prime (3 ') end to the 5 - prime (5 ') end, while it synthesizes a single strand of messenger RNA in the 5 ' - to - 3 ' direction. The general RNA structure is very similar to the DNA structure, but in RNA the nucleotide uracil takes the place that thymine occupies in DNA. The single strand of mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores, and migrates into the cytoplasm.
The first product of transcription differs in prokaryotic cells from that of eukaryotic cells, as in prokaryotic cells the product is mRNA, which needs no post-transcriptional modification, whereas, in eukaryotic cells, the first product is called primary transcript, that needs post-transcriptional modification (capping with 7 - methyl - guanosine, tailing with a poly A tail) to give hnRNA (heterogeneous nuclear RNA). hnRNA then undergoes splicing of introns (noncoding parts of the gene) via spliceosomes to produce the final mRNA.
Phenomena of amino acid assembly from RNA. The synthesis of proteins from RNA is known as translation. In eukaryotes, translation occurs in the cytoplasm, where the ribosomes are located. Ribosomes are made of a small and large subunit that surround the mRNA. In translation, messenger RNA (mRNA) is decoded to produce a specific polypeptide according to the rules specified by the trinucleotide genetic code. This uses an mRNA sequence as a template to guide the synthesis of a chain of amino acids that form a protein. Translation proceeds in four phases: activation, initiation, elongation, no and termination (all describing the growth of the amino acid chain, or polypeptide that is the product of translation).
In activation, the correct amino acid (AA) is joined to the correct transfer RNA (tRNA). While this is not, in the technical sense, a step in translation, it is required for translation to proceed. The AA is joined by its carboxyl group to the 3 ' OH of the tRNA by an ester bond. When the tRNA has an amino acid linked to it, it is termed "charged ''. Initiation involves the small subunit of the ribosome binding to 5 ' end of mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF), other proteins that assist the process. Elongation occurs when the next aminoacyl - tRNA (charged tRNA) in line binds to the ribosome along with GTP and an elongation factor. Termination of the polypeptide happens when the A site of the ribosome faces a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA). When this happens, no tRNA can recognize it, but releasing factor can recognize nonsense codons and causes the release of the polypeptide chain. The capacity of disabling or inhibiting translation in protein biosynthesis is used by some antibiotics such as anisomycin, cycloheximide, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, streptomycin, erythromycin, puromycin, etc.
Events that occur during or following biosynthesis include proteolysis, post-translational modification and protein folding. Proteolysis may remove N - terminal, C - terminal or internal amino - acid residues or peptides from the polypeptide. The termini and side - chains of the polypeptide may be subjected to post-translational modification. These modifications may be required for correct cellular localisation or the natural function of the protein. During and after synthesis, polypeptide chains often fold to assume, so called, native secondary and tertiary structures. This is known as protein folding and is typically required for the natural function of the protein.
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who sings i'm not talking bout moving in | I 'd really love to see you tonight - wikipedia
"I 'd Really Love to See You Tonight '' is a song written by Parker McGee and was a hit by England Dan & John Ford Coley from their 1976 album Nights Are Forever. It eventually peaked at # 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart for two weeks, behind Wild Cherry 's "Play That Funky Music '' and # 1 on the Easy Listening chart. Billboard ranked it as the # 21 song for 1976. It reached # 26 in the official UK chart
Dan Seals, the "England Dan '' half of the duo, re-recorded the song in 1995 in an acoustic country music style.
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who has the greatest political power in iran | Politics of Iran - wikipedia
The politics of Iran take place in a framework of a theocracy in a format of syncretic politics that is guided by a repressive, non-secular Islamic ideology. The December 1979 constitution, and its 1989 amendment, define the political, economic, and social order of the Islamic Republic of Iran, declaring that Shia Islam of the Twelver school of thought is Iran 's official religion.
Iran has an elected president, parliament (or Majlis), "Assembly of Experts '' (which elects the Supreme Leader), and local councils. According to the constitution all candidates running for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council before being elected.
In addition, there are representatives elected from appointed organizations (usually under the Supreme Leader 's control) to "protect the state 's Islamic character ''.
The early days of the revolutionary government were characterized by political tumult. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage and kept captive for 444 days because of support of the American Government to the King of Iran (Shah of Iran). The eight - year Iran -- Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. By mid-1982, a succession of power struggles eliminated first the center of political spectrum and then the Republicans leaving the revolutionary leader Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters in power.
Iran 's post-revolution challenges have included the imposition of economic sanctions and suspension of diplomatic relations with Iran by the United States because of the hostage crisis, political support to Iraq and other acts of terrorism that the U.S. government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring. Emigration has lost Iran millions of entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople and their capital. '' For this and other reasons Iran 's economy has not prospered. Poverty rose in absolute terms by nearly 45 % during the first 6 years since Iraqi invasion on Iran started and per capita income has yet to reach pre-revolutionary levels when Iraqi invasion ended in 1988.
The Islamic Republic Party was Iran 's ruling political party and for years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. After the war, new reformist / progressive parties had started to form. The country had no functioning political parties until the Executives of Construction Party formed in 1994 to run for the fifth parliamentary elections, mainly out of executive body of the government close to the then - president Akbar Hashemi - Rafsanjani. After the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard - liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of many other groups, including hard - liners. After the war ended in 1988, reformist and progressive candidates won four out of six presidential elections in Iran and Right - wing nationalist party of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad won twice.
The Iranian Government is opposed by several Militias, including the Mojahedin - e-Khalq, the People 's Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party. For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran.
The Supreme Leader of Iran is the head of state and highest ranking political and religious authority in the Islamic Republic of Iran (above the President). The armed forces, judicial system, state television, and other key governmental organizations are under the control of the Supreme Leader. There have been only two Supreme Leaders since the founding of the Islamic Republic, and the current leader (Ali Khamenei), has been in power since 1989. His powers extend to issuing decrees and making final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning of population growth, the amount of transparency in elections in Iran, and who is to be fired and reinstated in the Presidential cabinet. This compares against America 's Supreme Court, who are also selected not elected, serve for life, and have supreme moral and judicial authority over other parts of the government.
The Supreme Leader is appointed and supervised by the Assembly of Experts. However, all candidates to the Assembly of Experts, the President and the Majlis (Parliament), are selected by the Guardian Council, half of whose members are selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran. Also, all directly - elected members after the vetting process by the Guardian Council still have to be approved by the Supreme Leader. As such, the Assembly has never questioned the Supreme Leader.
The Guardian Council is an appointed and constitutionally mandated 12 - member council with considerable power. It approves or vetoes legislative bills from the Islamic Consultative Assembly (the Iranian Parliament), and approves or forbids candidates seeking office to the Assembly of Experts, the Presidency and the parliament, Six of the twelve members are Islamic faqihs (expert in Islamic Law) selected by the Supreme Leader of Iran, and the other six are jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial system (who is also appointed by the Supreme Leader),, and approved by the Iranian Parliament.
These are the most recent elections that have taken place.
Active student groups include the pro-reform "Office for Strengthening Unity '' and "the Union of Islamic Student Societies ';
The military and the Corps of the Guardians (often mistranslated as guards) of the Islamic Revolution (or Sepaah in Persian meaning the Corps) are charged with defending Iran 's borders and Baseej (Persian for Mobilization) militia are charged with maintaining both external and internal security.
Iran 's fiscal year goes from 21 to 20 March of the following year.
Iran has two types of budget:
Iran 's budget is established by the Management and Planning Organization of Iran and then proposed by the government to the parliament / Majlis. Once approved by Majlis, the bill still needs to be ratified by the Guardian Council. The bill will be sent back to the parliament for amendments if it is voted down by the Guardian Council. The Expediency Council acts as final arbiter in any dispute.
Following annual approval of the government 's budget by Majlis, the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money and Credit Council (MCC) for approval. Thereafter, major elements of these policies are incorporated into the five - year economic development plan. The 5 - year plan is part of "Vision 2025 '', a strategy for long - term sustainable growth.
A unique feature of Iran 's economy is the large size of the religious foundations (called Bonyads) whose combined budgets make up more than 30 % that of the central government.
Setad, another organization worth more than $95 billion, has been described as "secretive '' and "little known ''. It is not overseen by the Iranian Parliament, as that body voted in 2008 to "prohibit itself from monitoring organizations that the supreme leader controls, except with his permission ''. It is, however, an important factor in the Supreme Leader 's power, giving him financial independence from parliament and the national budget.
The National Development Fund of Iran (NDFI) does not depend on Iran 's budget. But according to the Santiago Principles, NDFI must coordinate its investment decisions and actions with the macro-economic and monetary policies of the government of Iran.
Officials in Iran estimate that Iran 's annual oil and gas revenues could reach $250 billion by 2015 once the current projects come on stream.
In 2004, about 45 percent of the government 's budget came from exports of oil and natural gas revenues, although this varies with the fluctuations in world petroleum markets and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Overall, an estimated 50 percent of Iran 's GDP was exempt from taxes in FY 2004.
As of 2010, oil income accounts for 80 % of Iran 's foreign currency revenues and 60 % of the nation 's overall budget. Any surplus revenues from the sale of crude oil and gas are to be paid into the Oil Stabilization Fund (OSF). The approved "total budget '', including state owned commercial companies, was $295 billion for the same period.
The Government seeks to increase the share of tax revenue in the budget through the implementation of the economic reform plan through more effective tax collection from businesses.
As of 2016, the formula set by law is that, for sales of oil at or below the budget 's price assumption, 14.5 % remains with the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), 20 % goes to the National Development Fund (NDF), 2 % goes to deprived and oil - producing provinces, and 63.5 % goes to the government treasury.
Because of changes in the classification of budgetary figures, comparison of categories among different years is not possible. However, since the Revolution the government 's general budget payments have averaged:
For a breakdown of expenditures for social and economic purposes, see attached chart.
In FY 2004, central government expenditures were divided as follows:
Among current expenditures, wages and salaries accounted for 36 percent; subsidies and transfers to households accounted for 22 percent (not including indirect subsidies). Earmarked expenditures totaled 13 percent of the central government total. Between FY 2000 and FY 2004, total expenditures and net lending accounted for about 26 percent of GDP. According to the Vice President for Parliamentary Affairs, Iran 's subsidy reforms would save 20 percent of the country 's budget.
According to the head of the Department of Statistics of Iran, if the rules of budgeting were observed in this structure, the government could save at least 30 to 35 percent on its expenses.
In 2013 Iran 's external debts stood at $7.2 billion compared with $17.3 billion in 2012. Meanwhile, Iran 's banks and financial institutions total claims on the public sector (government and governmental institutions) amounted to 929 trillion IRR ($34.8 billion) in 2014, which must be reduced according to the IMF. IMF estimates that public debt could be as high as 40 % of GDP once government arrears to the private sector are recognized.
Money flow chart.
Iran 's balance of payment (2003 - 2007)
Iran 's total debt service as percent of exports of goods services and income increased sixfold between 1990 and 1997
Iran 's oil vs non-oil real GDP growth projections.
Military expenditures (% GDP)
US dollar / Iranian rial exchange rate (2003 - 2014 est.)
Oil and gas production (1970 - 2030 est.)
Iranian budget process.
(realized)
(2007 -- 08)
(approved budget)
(realized)
(realized)
Notes: 1) Since 2002, the latest International Monetary Fund Guidelines on government financial statistics have been used as a model to prepare annual budgetary acts. Accordingly, revenues are classified into "taxes and other revenues '', and "oil sales '' which had earlier been classified as revenue are now referred to as "transfer of capital assets ''. 2) In 2007 / 08, it includes budget supplement at Rls. 9,500 billion. 3) The government budget does not include state revenues and expenses derived from state owned commercial entreprises. 4) The government budget does not account for subsidies paid to state owned commercial enterprise. See also Subsidy reform plan. 5) Excluding special revenues and expenditures and the figure for transparency in the price (subsidy) of energy bearers. 6) For "Total Government Budget '' (including state owned commercial companies), see Statistical Center of Iran. 7) Hidden spending and liability not included.
In Iran 's state budget for the Iranian calendar year 1388 (2009 -- 2010), of the $102 billion earmarked for government spending,
Oil revenues are calculated based on the average price of $37.50 per barrel at the US Dollar conversion rate of 9,500 Rials. Iran balances its external accounts around $75 per barrel.
The budget for Iranian year 1389 (2010 -- 2011), which starts on 21 March, amounts to $368.4 bn, representing an increase of 31 per cent on the previous year and is based on a projected oil price of $60 a barrel compared with just $37.50 last year.
The public budget was $165 billion (1,770 trillion rials) in Iranian year 2011 - 2012. The Iranian Parliament also approved a total budget of $500 billion (5,170 trillion rials) that factors in $54 billion from price hikes and subsidy cuts and aside from the government (or public budget) also includes spending for state - owned companies. The budget is based on an oil price of $80 per barrel. The value of the US dollar is estimated at IRR 10,500 for the same period. the 2011 - total budget shows a 45 - percent increase compared with that of 2011 which stood at $368 billion.
The proposed budget for 2011 -- 2012 amounts to 5.1 quadrillion rials (approximately $416 billion). The funding for running the government has been decreased by 5.6 percent and the government 's tax revenues have been envisaged to rise by 20 percent. The defense budget shows an increase of 127 percent. The government also is seeking higher sums for development, research, and health projects. Approved budget of 5,660 trillion Rials $477 billion is based on an oil price of $85 per barrel and the average value of the U.S. dollar for the fiscal year has been projected to be 12,260 rials, allowing the government to gain $53.8 billion from subsidy cut. The approved total state budget figure shows an 11 % increase in Rial terms, in comparison to the previous year 's budget. Of this amount, $134 billion relates to the government 's general budget and the remaining $343 billion relates to state - owned companies and organizations. Of the $134 billion for the government 's general budget, $117 billion relates to operating expenditure and $17 billion is for infrastructure developments. The government 's general budget for 2012 -- 13 shows a 3.5 % decline in comparison to the previous year, while the budget for state - owned companies and organisations has risen by 18.5 %. Revenues from crude oil make up 37 % of the state 's total revenues in the budget. Revenues from taxes have been projected at 458 trillion Rials ($37 billion), which shows a 10 % increase year - on - year. In the first half of 2012, Iran announced in Majlis that it has taken in only 25 % of its budgeted annual revenue. According to Apicorp, Iran needs oil to average $127 a barrel in 2012 for its fiscal budget to break even.
In May 2013, the Iranian parliament approved a 7.27 - quadrillion - rial (about $593 billion) national budget bill for 2013 -- 14. The new national budget has forecast a 40 % drop in oil revenues compared to the previous year 's projected figure. The bill has set the price of oil at $95 per barrel, based on the official exchange rate of 12,260 rials for a U.S. dollar, which has been fixed by the Central Bank of Iran. The budget law also includes income of 500 trillion Rials from the subsidies reform plan. Out of this amount, 410 trillion Rials is allocated for direct cash handouts to those eligible who have registered and for social funds.
Iran 's earmarked government spending for the year starting in March 2014 at $75 billion, calculated on an open - market exchange rate, with an overall / "total '' budget ceiling estimated at about $265 billion. The draft budget estimates oil exports at about 1.1 million barrels per day (bpd). The 2014 budget assumes an average oil price of $100 per barrel, inflation at 21 %, GDP growth at 3 % and the official USD / IRR exchange rate at 26,000 Iranian rials. The budget bill permits the government to use more than $35 billion in foreign finance. Capital expenditure is set to rise by 9.7 %. The administration has set the goal of 519 trillion rials, (about $20.9 billion) government 's income from implementation of the subsidy reform plan in budget bill and will be likely forced to double fuel prices. In February 2014, Parliament approved a total budget bill worth 7,930 trillion rials ($319 billion at the official exchange rate). The International Monetary Fund has estimated Iran needs an oil price above $130 a barrel to balance its 2015 - state budget; Brent crude was below $80 a barrel in November 2014. The IMF estimated in October 2014 that Iran would run a general government deficit of $8.6 billion in 2015, at the official exchange rate, to be compensated by drawing on the National Development Fund.
Iran 's 2015 proposed budget is nearly $300 billion. The overall / "total '' budget shows a 4 % growth compared with the 2014 budget. The budget assumes that the country exports 1 million barrels per day of crude oil and 0.3 million barrels per day of gas condensates at an average price of $72 per barrel of crude. The official exchange rate is projected to be on average 28,500 USD / IRR. Dependency on oil exports in this overall budget bill has dropped to 25 % (down from over 30 % of government revenues in 2014.) The plan is to increase taxation on large organizations by reducing tax evasion / exemption. The Iranian state is the biggest player in the economy, and the annual budget strongly influences the outlook of local industries and the stock market. The 2015 budget is not expected to bring much growth for many of the domestic industries. An average oil price of $50 for the coming year would result in a deficit of $7.5 billion. The government can lower this deficit by increasing the official exchange rate but this will trigger higher inflation. The proposed expenses are $58 billion including $39 billion is salary and pension payments to government employees. Proposed development expenditure amounts to $17 billion. R&D 's share in the GNP is at 0.06 % (where it should be 2.5 % of GDP) and industry - driven R&D is almost non ‐ existent.
Proposed government budget is 9.52 - quadrillion Iranian rials (about 262 billion US dollars). Assumptions made in the budget are $50 billion in foreign investment and foreign loans, 5 - 6 % GDP growth and 11 % inflation. Sixty - five percent of the budget is to be financed through taxation and the remaining 35 % from oil sales, based on 2.25 million barrels of oil sales per day, an average oil price of 40 dollars a barrel and US dollar - Iranian rial exchange rate at 29,970.
According to the sixth five - year development plan (2016 - 2021), the subsidy reform plan is to continue until 2021.
An amendment to the budget was passed in August 2016. This amendment allows the government to issue debt based instruments and the use of forex reserves in an attempt to clear its debt to the private sector, including contractors, banks and insurers.
According to the constitution, the Guardian Council oversees and approves electoral candidates for most national elections in Iran. The Guardian Council has 12 members, six clerics, appointed by the Supreme Leader and six jurists, elected by the Majlis from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System, who is appointed by the Supreme Leader. According to the current law, the Guardian Council approves the Assembly of Experts candidates, who in turn supervise and elect the Supreme Leader.
The reformists say this system creates a closed circle of power. Iranian reformists, such as Mohammad - Ali Abtahi have considered this to be the core legal obstacle for the reform movement in Iran.
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when did nigeria become a member of oic | Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation - wikipedia
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation founded in 1969 has 57 members, 56 of which are also member states of the United Nations. Some, especially in West Africa, are -- though with large Muslim populations -- not necessarily Muslim majority countries. A few countries with significant Muslim populations, such as Russia and Thailand, sit as Observer States, while others, such as India and Ethiopia, are not members.
The collective population of OIC member states is over 1.6 billion as of 2011.
Syria has one self - declared autonomous region:
Suspended in August 2012 during the Syrian civil war.
Transcontinental country in Europe and Asia, classified as West Asian countries by the United Nations Statistics Division: Azerbaijan
and Brčko District, a self - governing administrative unit. Was given an invitation in 2013 by the OIC to join as a full member.
Russia effectively administers Crimea as two federal subjects:
The Treaty on Accession of the Republic of Crimea to Russia was signed between representatives of the Republic of Crimea (including Sevastopol, with which the rest of Crimea briefly unified) and the Russian Federation on 18 March 2014 to lay out terms for the immediate admission of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol as federal subjects of Russia and part of the Russian Federation. It was ratified by the Federal Assembly by March 21.
Transcontinental countries in Europe and Asia, classified as Eastern European countries by the United Nations Statistics Division: Russia
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what two countries were involved in the battle of midway | Battle of Midway - wikipedia
Pacific Fleet
Combined Fleet
Southeast Asia
Burma
Southwest Pacific
North America
Japan
Manchuria
The Battle of Midway was a decisive naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II which occurred between 4 and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The United States Navy under Admirals Chester Nimitz, Frank Jack Fletcher, and Raymond A. Spruance defeated an attacking fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy under Admirals Isoroku Yamamoto, Chuichi Nagumo, and Nobutake Kondo near Midway Atoll, inflicting devastating damage on the Japanese fleet that proved irreparable. Military historian John Keegan called it "the most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare. ''
The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor, sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific War and thus ensure Japanese dominance in the Pacific. Luring the American aircraft carriers into a trap and occupying Midway was part of an overall "barrier '' strategy to extend Japan 's defensive perimeter, in response to the Doolittle air raid on Tokyo. This operation was also considered preparatory for further attacks against Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii itself.
The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly, American cryptographers were able to determine the date and location of the planned attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to prepare its own ambush. There were seven aircraft carriers involved in the battle and all four of Japan 's large fleet carriers -- Akagi, Kaga, Soryu and Hiryu, part of the six - carrier force that had attacked Pearl Harbor six months earlier -- and a heavy cruiser were sunk, while the U.S. lost only the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer.
After Midway and the exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan 's capacity to replace its losses in materiel (particularly aircraft carriers) and men (especially well - trained pilots and maintenance crewmen) rapidly became insufficient to cope with mounting casualties, while the United States ' massive industrial and training capabilities made losses far easier to replace. The Battle of Midway, along with the Guadalcanal Campaign, is widely considered a turning point in the Pacific War.
After expanding the war in the Pacific to include Western outposts, the Japanese Empire had attained its initial strategic goals quickly, taking the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia); the latter, with its vital oil resources, was particularly important to Japan. Because of this, preliminary planning for a second phase of operations commenced as early as January 1942.
There were strategic disagreements between the Imperial Army (IJA) and Imperial Navy (IJN), and infighting between the Navy 's GHQ and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto 's Combined Fleet, and a follow - up strategy was not formed until April 1942. Admiral Yamamoto finally succeeded in winning the bureaucratic struggle with a thinly veiled threat to resign, after which his plan for the Central Pacific was adopted.
Yamamoto 's primary strategic goal was the elimination of America 's carrier forces, which he regarded as the principal threat to the overall Pacific campaign. This concern was acutely heightened by the Doolittle Raid on 18 April 1942, in which 16 U.S. Army Air Forces B - 25 Mitchell bombers launched from USS Hornet bombed targets in Tokyo and several other Japanese cities. The raid, while militarily insignificant, was a shock to the Japanese and showed the existence of a gap in the defenses around the Japanese home islands as well as the accessibility of Japanese territory to American bombers.
This, and other successful hit - and - run raids by American carriers in the South Pacific, showed that they were still a threat, although seemingly reluctant to be drawn into an all - out battle. Yamamoto reasoned that another air attack on the main U.S. Naval base at Pearl Harbor would induce all of the American fleet to sail out to fight, including the carriers. However, considering the increased strength of American land - based air power on the Hawaiian Islands since the December 7 attack the previous year, he judged that it was now too risky to attack Pearl Harbor directly.
Instead, Yamamoto selected Midway, a tiny atoll at the extreme northwest end of the Hawaiian Island chain, approximately 1,300 miles (1,100 nautical miles; 2,100 kilometres) from Oahu. This meant that Midway was outside the effective range of almost all of the American aircraft stationed on the main Hawaiian islands. Midway was not especially important in the larger scheme of Japan 's intentions, but the Japanese felt the Americans would consider Midway a vital outpost of Pearl Harbor and would therefore be compelled to defend it vigorously. The U.S. did consider Midway vital: after the battle, establishment of a U.S. submarine base on Midway allowed submarines operating from Pearl Harbor to refuel and re-provision, extending their radius of operations by 1,200 miles (1,900 km). In addition to serving as a seaplane base, Midway 's airstrips also served as a forward staging point for bomber attacks on Wake Island.
Typical of Japanese naval planning during World War II, Yamamoto 's battle plan for taking Midway (named Operation MI) was exceedingly complex. It required the careful and timely coordination of multiple battle groups over hundreds of miles of open sea. His design was also predicated on optimistic intelligence suggesting that USS Enterprise and USS Hornet, forming Task Force 16, were the only carriers available to the U.S. Pacific Fleet. During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, USS Lexington had been sunk and USS Yorktown suffered considerable damage such that the Japanese believed she too had been lost. However, following hasty repairs at Pearl Harbor, Yorktown sortied and would go on to play a critical role in the discovery and eventual destruction of the Japanese fleet carriers at Midway. Finally, much of Yamamoto 's planning, coinciding with the general feeling among the Japanese leadership at the time, was based on a gross misjudgment of American morale, which was believed to be debilitated from the string of Japanese victories in the preceding months.
Yamamoto felt deception would be required to lure the U.S. fleet into a fatally compromised situation. To this end, he dispersed his forces so that their full extent (particularly his battleships) would be concealed from the Americans prior to battle. Critically, Yamamoto 's supporting battleships and cruisers trailed Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier force by several hundred miles. They were intended to come up and destroy whatever elements of the U.S. fleet might come to Midway 's defense once Nagumo 's carriers had weakened them sufficiently for a daylight gun battle; this tactic was typical of the battle doctrine of most major navies at the time.
What Yamamoto did not know was that the U.S. had broken the main Japanese naval code (dubbed JN - 25 by the Americans), divulging many details of his plan to the enemy. His emphasis on dispersal also meant none of his formations were in a position to support each other. For instance, despite the fact that Nagumo 's carriers were expected to carry out strikes against Midway and bear the brunt of American counterattacks, the only warships in his fleet larger than the screening force of twelve destroyers were two Kongō - class fast battleships, two heavy cruisers, and one light cruiser. By contrast, Yamamoto and Kondo had between them two light carriers, five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and two light cruisers, none of which would see action at Midway. The light carriers of the trailing forces and Yamamoto 's three battleships were unable to keep pace with the carriers of the Kido Butai and so could not have sailed in company with them. The distance between Yamamoto and Kondo 's forces and Nagumo 's carriers had grave implications during the battle: the invaluable reconnaissance capability of the scout planes carried by the cruisers and carriers, as well as the additional antiaircraft capability of the cruisers and the other two battleships of the Kongō - class in the trailing forces, was denied to Nagumo.
In order to obtain support from the Imperial Japanese Army for the Midway operation, the Imperial Japanese Navy agreed to support their invasion of the Aleutian Islands. The IJA wished to occupy the western Aleutians to place the Japanese home islands out of range of U.S. land - based bombers based in Alaska. The Japanese operations in the Aleutian Islands (Operation AL) removed yet more ships that could otherwise have augmented the force striking Midway. Whereas many earlier historical accounts considered the Aleutians operation as a feint to draw American forces away, early twenty - first century research has suggested that AL was intended to be launched simultaneously with the attack on Midway. A one - day delay in the sailing of Nagumo 's task force resulted in Operation AL beginning a day before the Midway attack.
To do battle with an enemy expected to muster four or five carriers, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas, needed every available U.S. flight deck. He already had Vice Admiral William Halsey 's two - carrier (Enterprise and Hornet) task force at hand, though Halsey was stricken with severe dermatitis and had to be replaced by Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey 's escort commander. Nimitz also hurriedly recalled Rear Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher 's task force, including the carrier Yorktown, from the South West Pacific Area.
Despite estimates that Yorktown, damaged in the Battle of the Coral Sea, would require several months of repairs at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, her elevators were intact and her flight deck largely so. The Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard worked around the clock, and in 72 hours she was restored to a battle - ready state, judged good enough for two or three weeks of operations, as Nimitz required. Her flight deck was patched, and whole sections of internal frames were cut out and replaced. Repairs continued even as she sortied, with work crews from the repair ship USS Vestal, herself damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor six months earlier, still aboard.
Yorktown 's partially depleted air group was rebuilt using whatever planes and pilots could be found. Scouting Five (VS - 5) was replaced with Bombing Three (VB - 3) from USS Saratoga. Torpedo Five (VT - 5) was also replaced by Torpedo Three (VT - 3.) Also Fighting Three (VF - 3) was reconstituted to replace VF - 42 with sixteen pilots from VF - 42 and eleven pilots from VF - 3 with Lieutenant Commander John S. "Jimmy '' Thach in command. Some of the aircrew were inexperienced, which may have contributed to an accident in which Thach 's executive officer Lt Cmndr Donald Lovelace was killed. Despite efforts to get Saratoga (which had been undergoing repairs on the American West Coast) ready for the coming engagement, the need to resupply and assemble sufficient escorts meant she was not able to reach Midway until after the battle.
On Midway, by 4 June the USN had stationed four squadrons of PBYs -- 31 aircraft in total -- for long - range reconnaissance duties, and 6 brand - new Grumman TBF Avengers, the latter a detachment from Hornet 's VT - 8. The Marine Corps stationed 19 Douglas SBD Dauntless, 7 F4F - 3 Wildcats, 17 Vought SB2U Vindicators, and 21 Brewster F2A Buffalos. The USAAF contributed a squadron of 17 B - 17 Flying Fortresses and 4 Martin B - 26 Marauders equipped with torpedoes: in total 126 aircraft. Although the F2As and SB2Us were already obsolete, they were the only aircraft available to the Marine Corps at the time.
During the Battle of the Coral Sea one month earlier, the Japanese light carrier Shōhō had been sunk and the fleet carrier Shōkaku was severely damaged by three bomb hits, and was in drydock for months of repair. Although the fleet carrier Zuikaku escaped the battle undamaged, she had lost almost half her air group, and was in port in Kure awaiting replacement planes and pilots. That there were none immediately available is attributable to the failure of the IJN crew training program, which already showed signs of being unable to replace losses. Instructors from the Yokosuka Air Corps were employed in an effort to make up the shortfall.
Historians Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully believe that by combining the surviving aircraft and pilots from Shōkaku and Zuikaku, it is likely that Zuikaku could have been equipped with almost a full composite air group. They also note that doing so would have violated Japanese carrier doctrine, which stressed that carriers and their airgroups must train as a single unit (in contrast, American air squadrons were considered interchangeable between carriers). In any case, the Japanese apparently made no serious attempt to get Zuikaku ready for the forthcoming battle.
Thus, Carrier Division 5, consisting of the two most advanced aircraft carriers of the Kido Butai, would not be available, which meant that Vice-Admiral Nagumo had only two thirds of the fleet carriers at his disposal: Kaga and Akagi forming Carrier Division 1 and Hiryū and Sōryū as Carrier Division 2. This was partly due to fatigue; Japanese carriers had been constantly on operations since 7 December 1941, including raids on Darwin and Colombo. Nonetheless, the First Carrier Strike Force sailed with 238 available aircraft on the four carriers (60 on Akagi, 74 on Kaga (B5N2 squadron oversized), 57 on Hiryu and 57 on Soryu).
The main Japanese carrier - borne strike aircraft were the D3A1 "Val '' dive bomber and the B5N2 "Kate '', which was used either as a torpedo bomber or as a level bomber. The main carrier fighter was the fast and highly maneuverable A6M "Zero ''. For a variety of reasons, production of the "Val '' had been drastically reduced, while that of the "Kate '' had been stopped completely and, as a consequence, there were none available to replace losses. In addition, many of the aircraft being used during the June 1942 operations had been operational since late November 1941 and, although they were well - maintained, many were almost worn out and had become increasingly unreliable. These factors meant all carriers of the Kido Butai had fewer aircraft than their normal complement, with few spare aircraft or parts stored in the carriers ' hangars.
In addition, Nagumo 's carrier force suffered from several defensive deficiencies which gave it, in Mark Peattie 's words, a "' glass jaw ': it could throw a punch but could n't take one. '' Japanese carrier anti-aircraft guns and associated fire control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies which limited their effectiveness. The IJN 's fleet combat air patrol (CAP) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system, including a lack of radar. Poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP. The carriers ' escorting warships were deployed as visual scouts in a ring at long range, not as close anti-aircraft escorts, as they lacked training, doctrine, and sufficient anti-aircraft guns.
Japanese strategic scouting arrangements prior to the battle were also in disarray. A picket line of Japanese submarines was late getting into position (partly because of Yamamoto 's haste), which let the American carriers reach their assembly point northeast of Midway (known as "Point Luck '') without being detected. A second attempt at reconnaissance, using four - engine H8K "Emily '' flying boats to scout Pearl Harbor prior to the battle and detect whether the American carriers were present, part of Operation K, was thwarted when Japanese submarines assigned to refuel the search aircraft discovered that the intended refueling point -- a hitherto deserted bay off French Frigate Shoals -- was now occupied by American warships, because the Japanese had carried out an identical mission in March. Thus, Japan was deprived of any knowledge concerning the movements of the American carriers immediately before the battle.
Japanese radio intercepts did notice an increase in both American submarine activity and message traffic. This information was in Yamamoto 's hands prior to the battle. Japanese plans were not changed; Yamamoto, at sea in Yamato, assumed Nagumo had received the same signal from Tokyo, and did not communicate with him by radio, so as not to reveal his position. These messages were, contrary to earlier historical accounts, also received by Nagumo before the battle began. For reasons which remain unclear, Nagumo did not alter his plans or take additional precautions.
Admiral Nimitz had one critical advantage: US cryptanalysts had partially broken the Japanese Navy 's JN - 25b code. Since early 1942, the US had been decoding messages stating that there would soon be an operation at objective "AF ''. It was initially not known where "AF '' was, but Commander Joseph Rochefort and his team at Station HYPO were able to confirm that it was Midway: Captain Wilfred Holmes devised a ruse of telling the base at Midway (by secure undersea cable) to broadcast an uncoded radio message stating that Midway 's water purification system had broken down. Within 24 hours, the code breakers picked up a Japanese message that "AF was short on water. '' No Japanese radio operators who intercepted the message seemed concerned that the Americans were broadcasting uncoded that a major naval installation close to the Japanese threat ring was having a water shortage, which could have tipped off Japanese intelligence officers that it was a deliberate attempt at deception.
HYPO was also able to determine the date of the attack as either 4 or 5 June, and to provide Nimitz with a complete IJN order of battle.
Japan had a new codebook, but its introduction had been delayed, enabling HYPO to read messages for several crucial days; the new code, which would take several days to be cracked, came into use on 24 May, but the important breaks had already been made.
As a result, the Americans entered the battle with a very good picture of where, when, and in what strength the Japanese would appear. Nimitz knew that the Japanese had negated their numerical advantage by dividing their ships into four separate task groups, all too widely separated to be able to support each other. This dispersal resulted in few fast ships being available to escort the Carrier Striking Force, reducing the number of anti-aircraft guns protecting the carriers. Nimitz calculated that the aircraft on his three carriers, plus those on Midway Island, gave the U.S. rough parity with Yamamoto 's four carriers, mainly because American carrier air groups were larger than Japanese ones. The Japanese, by contrast, remained mainly unaware of their opponent 's true strength and dispositions even after the battle began.
At about 09: 00 on 3 June, Ensign Jack Reid, piloting a PBY from U.S. Navy patrol squadron VP - 44, spotted the Japanese Occupation Force 500 nautical miles (580 miles; 930 kilometres) to the west - southwest of Midway. He mistakenly reported this group as the Main Force.
Nine B - 17s took off from Midway at 12: 30 for the first air attack. Three hours later, they found Tanaka 's transport group 570 nautical miles (660 miles; 1,060 kilometres) to the west.
Under heavy anti-aircraft fire, they dropped their bombs. Although their crews reported hitting 4 ships, none of the bombs actually hit anything and no significant damage was inflicted. Early the following morning, the Japanese oil tanker Akebono Maru sustained the first hit when a torpedo from an attacking PBY struck her around 01: 00. This was the only successful air - launched torpedo attack by the U.S. during the entire battle.
At 04: 30 on 4 June, Nagumo launched his initial attack on Midway itself, consisting of 36 Aichi D3A dive bombers and 36 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers, escorted by 36 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters. At the same time, he launched his 8 search aircraft (one from the heavy cruiser Tone launched 30 minutes late). Japanese reconnaissance arrangements were flimsy, with too few aircraft to adequately cover the assigned search areas, laboring under poor weather conditions to the northeast and east of the task force. As Nagumo 's bombers and fighters were taking off, 11 PBYs were leaving Midway to run their search patterns. At 05: 34, a PBY reported sighting 2 Japanese carriers and another spotted the inbound airstrike 10 minutes later.
Midway 's radar picked up the enemy at a distance of several miles, and interceptors were scrambled. Unescorted bombers headed off to attack the Japanese carriers, their fighter escorts remaining behind to defend Midway. At 06: 20, Japanese carrier aircraft bombed and heavily damaged the U.S. base. Midway - based Marine fighters led by Major Floyd B. Parks, which included 6 F4Fs and 20 F2As, intercepted the Japanese and suffered heavy losses, though they managed to destroy 4 B5Ns, as well as a single A6M. Within the first few minutes, 2 F4Fs and 13 F2As were destroyed, while most of the surviving U.S. planes were damaged, with only 2 remaining airworthy. American anti-aircraft fire was intense and accurate, destroying 3 additional Japanese aircraft and damaging many more.
Of the 108 Japanese aircraft involved in this attack, 11 were destroyed (including 3 that ditched), 14 were heavily damaged, and 29 were damaged to some degree. The initial Japanese attack did not succeed in neutralizing Midway: American bombers could still use the airbase to refuel and attack the Japanese invasion force, and most of Midway 's land - based defenses were intact. Japanese pilots reported to Nagumo that a second aerial attack on Midway 's defenses would be necessary if troops were to go ashore by 7 June.
Having taken off prior to the Japanese attack, American bombers based on Midway made several attacks on the Japanese carrier force. These included 6 Grumman Avengers, detached to Midway from Hornet 's VT - 8 (Midway was the combat debut of both VT - 8 and the TBF); Marine Scout - Bombing Squadron 241 (VMSB - 241), consisting of 11 SB2U - 3s and 16 SBDs, plus 4 USAAF B - 26s of the 18th Reconnaissance and 69th Bomb Squadrons armed with torpedoes, and 15 B - 17s of the 31st, 72nd, and 431st Bomb Squadrons. The Japanese repelled these attacks, losing 3 fighters while destroying 5 TBFs, 2 SB2Us, 8 SBDs, and 2 B - 26s. Among the dead was Major Lofton R. Henderson of VMSB - 241, killed while leading his inexperienced Dauntless squadron into action. The main airfield at Guadalcanal was named after him in August 1942.
One B - 26, after being seriously damaged by anti-aircraft fire, made a suicide run on Akagi. Making no attempt to pull out of its run, the aircraft narrowly missed crashing directly into the carrier 's bridge, which could have killed Nagumo and his command staff. This experience may well have contributed to Nagumo 's determination to launch another attack on Midway, in direct violation of Yamamoto 's order to keep the reserve strike force armed for anti-ship operations.
In accordance with Japanese carrier doctrine at the time, Admiral Nagumo had kept half of his aircraft in reserve. These comprised two squadrons each of dive bombers and torpedo bombers. The dive bombers were as yet unarmed. The torpedo bombers were armed with torpedoes should any American warships be located.
At 07: 15, Nagumo ordered his reserve planes to be re-armed with contact - fused general purpose bombs for use against land targets. This was a result of the attacks from Midway, as well as of the morning flight leader 's recommendation of a second strike. Re-arming had been underway for about 30 minutes when, at 07: 40, the delayed scout plane from Tone signaled that it had sighted a sizable American naval force to the east, but neglected to describe its composition. Later evidence suggests Nagumo did not receive the sighting report until 08: 00.
Nagumo quickly reversed his order to re-arm the bombers with general purpose bombs and demanded that the scout plane ascertain the composition of the American force. Another 20 -- 40 minutes elapsed before Tone 's scout finally radioed the presence of a single carrier in the American force. This was one of the carriers from Task Force 16. The other carrier was not sighted.
Nagumo was now in a quandary. Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, leading Carrier Division 2 (Hiryū and Sōryū), recommended that Nagumo strike immediately with the forces at hand: 18 Aichi D3A1 dive bombers each on Sōryū and Hiryū, and half the ready cover patrol aircraft. Nagumo 's opportunity to hit the American ships was now limited by the imminent return of his Midway strike force. The returning strike force needed to land promptly or it would have to ditch into the sea. Because of the constant flight deck activity associated with combat air patrol operations during the preceding hour, the Japanese never had an opportunity to position ("spot '') their reserve planes on the flight deck for launch.
The few aircraft on the Japanese flight decks at the time of the attack were either defensive fighters or, in the case of Sōryū, fighters being spotted to augment the Combat Air Patrol. Spotting his flight decks and launching aircraft would have required at least 30 minutes. Furthermore, by spotting and launching immediately, Nagumo would be committing some of his reserve to battle without proper anti-ship armament, and likely without fighter escort; indeed, he had just witnessed how easily unescorted American bombers had been shot down.
Japanese carrier doctrine preferred the launching of fully constituted strikes rather than piecemeal attacks. Without confirmation of whether the American force included carriers (not received until 08: 20), Nagumo 's reaction was doctrinaire. In addition, the arrival of another land - based American air strike at 07: 53 gave weight to the need to attack the island again. In the end, Nagumo decided to wait for his first strike force to land, then launch the reserve, which would by then be properly armed with torpedoes.
In the final analysis, it made no difference; Fletcher 's carriers had launched their planes beginning at 07: 00 (with Enterprise and Hornet having completed launching by 07: 55, but Yorktown not until 09: 08), so the aircraft that would deliver the crushing blow were already on their way. Even if Nagumo had not strictly followed carrier doctrine, he could not have prevented the launch of the American attack.
The Americans had already launched their carrier aircraft against the Japanese. Fletcher, in overall command aboard Yorktown, and benefiting from PBY sighting reports from the early morning, ordered Spruance to launch against the Japanese as soon as was practical, while initially holding Yorktown in reserve in case any other Japanese carriers were found.
Spruance judged that, though the range was extreme, a strike could succeed and gave the order to launch the attack. He then left Halsey 's Chief of Staff, Captain Miles Browning, to work out the details and oversee the launch. The carriers had to launch into the wind, so the light southeasterly breeze would require them to steam away from the Japanese at high speed. Browning therefore suggested a launch time of 07: 00, giving the carriers an hour to close on the Japanese at 25 knots (46 km / h; 29 mph). This would place them at about 155 nautical miles (287 km; 178 mi) from the Japanese fleet, assuming it did not change course. The first plane took off from Spruance 's carriers Enterprise and Hornet a few minutes after 07: 00. Fletcher, upon completing his own scouting flights, followed suit at 08: 00 from Yorktown.
Fletcher, along with Yorktown 's commanding officer, Captain Elliott Buckmaster, and their staffs, had acquired first - hand experience in organizing and launching a full strike against an enemy force in the Coral Sea, but there was no time to pass these lessons on to Enterprise and Hornet which were tasked with launching the first strike. Spruance ordered the striking aircraft to proceed to target immediately, rather than waste time waiting for the strike force to assemble, since neutralizing enemy carriers was the key to the survival of his own task force.
While the Japanese were able to launch 108 aircraft in just seven minutes, it took Enterprise and Hornet over an hour to launch 117. Spruance judged that the need to throw something at the enemy as soon as possible was greater than the need to coordinate the attack by aircraft of different types and speeds (fighters, bombers, and torpedo bombers). Accordingly, American squadrons were launched piecemeal and proceeded to the target in several different groups. It was accepted that the lack of coordination would diminish the impact of the American attacks and increase their casualties, but Spruance calculated that this was worthwhile, since keeping the Japanese under aerial attack impaired their ability to launch a counterstrike (Japanese tactics preferred fully constituted attacks), and he gambled that he would find Nagumo with his flight decks at their most vulnerable.
American carrier aircraft had difficulty locating the target, despite the positions they had been given. The strike from Hornet, led by Commander Stanhope C. Ring, followed an incorrect heading of 265 degrees rather than the 240 degrees indicated by the contact report. As a result, Air Group Eight 's dive bombers missed the Japanese carriers. Torpedo Squadron 8 (VT - 8, from Hornet), led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron, broke formation from Ring and followed the correct heading. The 10 F4Fs from Hornet ran out of fuel and had to ditch.
Waldron 's squadron sighted the enemy carriers and began attacking at 09: 20, followed at 09: 40 by VT - 6 from Enterprise, whose Wildcat fighter escorts lost contact, ran low on fuel, and had to turn back. Without fighter escort, all 15 TBD Devastators of VT - 8 were shot down without being able to inflict any damage. Ensign George H. Gay, Jr. was the only survivor of the 30 aircrew of VT - 8. VT - 6 lost 10 of its 14 Devastators, and 10 of 12 Devastators from Yorktown 's VT - 3 (who attacked at 10: 10) were shot down with no hits to show for their effort, thanks in part to the abysmal performance of their unimproved Mark 13 torpedoes. Midway was the last time the TBD Devastator was used in combat.
The Japanese combat air patrol, flying Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros, made short work of the unescorted, slow, under - armed TBDs. A few TBDs managed to get within a few ship - lengths range of their targets before dropping their torpedoes -- close enough to be able to strafe the enemy ships and force the Japanese carriers to make sharp evasive maneuvers -- but all of their torpedoes either missed or failed to explode. Remarkably, senior Navy and Bureau of Ordnance officers never questioned why half a dozen torpedoes, released so close to the Japanese carriers, produced no results. The abysmal performance of American torpedoes in the early months of the war became a scandal. Torpedo after torpedo either missed by running directly under the target, prematurely exploded, or struck targets with textbook right angle hits (sometimes with an audible clang) and failed to explode.
Despite their failure to score any hits, the American torpedo attacks achieved three important results. First, they kept the Japanese carriers off balance and unable to prepare and launch their own counterstrike. Second, the poor control of the Japanese combat air patrol (CAP) meant they were out of position for subsequent attacks. Third, many of the Zeros ran low on ammunition and fuel. The appearance of a third torpedo plane attack from the southeast by VT - 3 from Yorktown at 10: 00 very quickly drew the majority of the Japanese CAP to the southeast quadrant of the fleet. Better discipline, and the employment of a greater number of Zeroes for the CAP might have enabled Nagumo to prevent (or at least mitigate) the damage caused by the coming American attacks.
By chance, at the same time VT - 3 was sighted by the Japanese, three squadrons of SBDs from Enterprise and Yorktown were approaching from the southwest and northeast. The Yorktown squadron (VB - 3) had flown just behind VT - 3, but elected to attack from a different course. The two squadrons from Enterprise (VB - 6 and VS - 6) were running low on fuel because of the time spent looking for the enemy. Air Group Commander C. Wade McClusky, Jr. decided to continue the search, and by good fortune spotted the wake of the Japanese destroyer Arashi, steaming at full speed to rejoin Nagumo 's carriers after having unsuccessfully depth - charged U.S. submarine Nautilus, which had unsuccessfully attacked the battleship Kirishima. Some bombers were lost from fuel exhaustion before the attack commenced.
McClusky 's decision to continue the search and his judgment, in the opinion of Admiral Chester Nimitz, "decided the fate of our carrier task force and our forces at Midway... '' All three American dive - bomber squadrons (VB - 6, VS - 6 and VB - 3) arrived almost simultaneously at the perfect time, locations and altitudes to attack. Most of the Japanese CAP was focusing on the torpedo planes of VT - 3 and were out of position, armed Japanese strike aircraft filled the hangar decks, fuel hoses snaked across the decks as refueling operations were hastily being completed, and the repeated change of ordnance meant that bombs and torpedoes were stacked around the hangars, rather than stowed safely in the magazines, making the Japanese carriers extraordinarily vulnerable.
Beginning at 10: 22, the two squadrons of Enterprise 's air group split up with the intention of sending one squadron each to attack Kaga and Akagi. A miscommunication caused both of the squadrons to dive at the Kaga. Recognizing the error, Lieutenant Richard Halsey Best and his two wingmen were able to pull out of their dives and, after judging that Kaga was doomed, headed north to attack Akagi. Coming under an onslaught of bombs from almost two full squadrons, Kaga sustained four or five direct hits, which caused heavy damage and started multiple fires. One of the bombs landed near the bridge, killing Captain Jisaku Okada and most of the ship 's senior officers. Lieutenant Clarence E. Dickinson, part of McClusky 's group, recalled:
We were coming down in all directions on the port side of the carrier... I recognized her as the Kaga; and she was enormous... The target was utterly satisfying... I saw a bomb hit just behind where I was aiming... I saw the deck rippling and curling back in all directions exposing a great section of the hangar below... I saw (my) 500 - pound bomb hit right abreast of the (carrier 's) island. The two 100 - pound bombs struck in the forward area of the parked planes...
Several minutes later, Best and his two wingmen dived on the Akagi. Mitsuo Fuchida, the Japanese aviator who had led the attack on Pearl Harbor, was on the Akagi when it was hit, and described the attack:
A look - out screamed: "Hell - Divers! '' I looked up to see three black enemy planes plummeting towards our ship. Some of our machineguns managed to fire a few frantic bursts at them, but it was too late. The plump silhouettes of the American Dauntless dive - bombers quickly grew larger, and then a number of black objects suddenly floated eerily from their wings.
Although Akagi sustained only one direct hit (almost certainly dropped by Lieutenant Commander Best), it proved to be a fatal blow: the bomb struck the edge of the mid-ship deck elevator and penetrated to the upper hangar deck, where it exploded among the armed and fueled aircraft in the vicinity. Nagumo 's chief of staff, Ryūnosuke Kusaka, recorded "a terrific fire... bodies all over the place... Planes stood tail up, belching livid flames and jet - black smoke, making it impossible to bring the fires under control. '' Another bomb exploded under water very close astern; the resulting geyser bent the flight deck upward "in grotesque configurations '' and caused crucial rudder damage.
Simultaneously, Yorktown 's VB - 3, commanded by Max Leslie, went for Sōryū, scoring at least three hits and causing extensive damage. Some of Leslie 's bombers did not have bombs as they were accidentally released when the pilots attempted to use electrical arming switches. Nevertheless, Leslie and others still dove, strafing carrier decks and providing cover for those who had bombs. Gasoline ignited, creating an "inferno, '' while stacked bombs and ammunition detonated. VT - 3 targeted Hiryū, which was hemmed in by Sōryū, Kaga, and Akagi, but achieved no hits.
Within six minutes, Sōryū and Kaga were ablaze from stem to stern, as fires spread through the ships. Akagi, having been struck by only one bomb, took longer to burn, but the resulting fires quickly expanded and soon proved impossible to extinguish; she too was eventually consumed by flames and had to be abandoned. All three carriers remained temporarily afloat, as none had suffered damage below the waterline, other than the rudder damage to Akagi caused by the near miss close astern. Despite initial hopes that Akagi could be saved or at least towed back to Japan, all three carriers were eventually abandoned and scuttled.
Hiryū, the sole surviving Japanese aircraft carrier, wasted little time in counterattacking. Hiryū 's first attack wave, consisting of 18 D3As and 6 fighter escorts, followed the retreating American aircraft and attacked the first carrier they encountered, Yorktown, hitting her with three bombs, which blew a hole in the deck, snuffed out her boilers, and destroyed one anti-aircraft mount. The damage also forced Admiral Fletcher to move his command staff to the heavy cruiser Astoria. Repair teams were able to temporarily patch the flight deck and restore power to several boilers within an hour, giving her a speed of 19 knots (35 km / h; 22 mph) and enabling her to resume air operations. Thirteen Japanese dive bombers and three escorting fighters were lost in this attack (two escorting fighters turned back early after they were damaged attacking some of Enterprise 's SBDs returning from their attack on the Japanese carriers).
Approximately one hour later, Hiryū 's second attack wave, consisting of ten B5Ns and six escorting A6Ms, arrived over Yorktown; the repair efforts had been so effective that the Japanese pilots assumed that Yorktown must be a different, undamaged carrier. They attacked, crippling Yorktown with two torpedoes; she lost all power and developed a 23 - degree list to port. Five torpedo bombers and two fighters were shot down in this attack.
News of the two strikes, with the mistaken reports that each had sunk an American carrier, greatly improved Japanese morale. The few surviving aircraft were all recovered aboard Hiryū. Despite the heavy losses, the Japanese believed that they could scrape together enough aircraft for one more strike against what they believed to be the only remaining American carrier.
Late in the afternoon, a Yorktown scout aircraft located Hiryū, prompting Enterprise to launch a final strike of 24 dive bombers (including 6 SBDs from VS - 6, 4 SBDs from VB - 6, and 14 SBDs from Yorktown 's VB - 3). Despite Hiryū being defended by a strong cover of more than a dozen Zero fighters, the attack by Enterprise and orphaned Yorktown aircraft launched from Enterprise was successful: four bombs (possibly five) hit Hiryū, leaving her ablaze and unable to operate aircraft. Hornet 's strike, launched late because of a communications error, concentrated on the remaining escort ships, but failed to score any hits.
After futile attempts at controlling the blaze, most of the crew remaining on Hiryū were evacuated and the remainder of the fleet continued sailing northeast in an attempt to intercept the American carriers. Despite a scuttling attempt by a Japanese destroyer that hit her with a torpedo and then departed quickly, Hiryū stayed afloat for several more hours, being discovered early the next morning by an aircraft from the escort carrier Hōshō and prompting hopes she could be saved, or at least towed back to Japan. Soon after being spotted, Hiryū sank. Rear - Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi, together with the ship 's captain, Tomeo Kaku, chose to go down with the ship, costing Japan perhaps its best carrier officer.
As darkness fell, both sides took stock and made tentative plans for continuing the action. Admiral Fletcher, obliged to abandon the derelict Yorktown and feeling he could not adequately command from a cruiser, ceded operational command to Spruance. Spruance knew the United States had won a great victory, but he was still unsure of what Japanese forces remained and was determined to safeguard both Midway and his carriers. To aid his aviators, who had launched at extreme range, he had continued to close with Nagumo during the day and persisted as night fell.
Finally, fearing a possible night encounter with Japanese surface forces, and believing Yamamoto still intended to invade, based in part on a misleading contact report from the submarine Tambor, Spruance changed course and withdrew to the east, turning back west towards the enemy at midnight. For his part, Yamamoto initially decided to continue the engagement and sent his remaining surface forces searching eastward for the American carriers. Simultaneously, he detached a cruiser raiding force to bombard the island. The Japanese surface forces failed to make contact with the Americans because Spruance had decided to briefly withdraw eastward, and Yamamoto ordered a general withdrawal to the west. It was fortunate Spruance did not pursue, for had he come in contact with Yamamoto 's heavy ships, including Yamato, in the dark and considering the Japanese Navy 's superiority in night - attack tactics at the time, there is a very high probability his cruisers would have been overwhelmed and his carriers sunk.
Spruance failed to regain contact with Yamamoto 's forces on 5 June, despite extensive searches. Towards the end of the day he launched a search - and - destroy mission to seek out any remnants of Nagumo 's carrier force. This late afternoon strike narrowly missed detecting Yamamoto 's main body and failed to score hits on a straggling Japanese destroyer. The strike planes returned to the carriers after nightfall, prompting Spruance to order Enterprise and Hornet to turn on their lights to aid the landings.
At 02: 15 on the night of 5 / 6 June, Commander John Murphy 's Tambor, lying 90 nautical miles (170 km; 100 mi) west of Midway, made the second of the submarine force 's two major contributions to the battle 's outcome, although its impact was heavily blunted by Murphy himself. Sighting several ships, neither Murphy nor his executive officer, Edward Spruance (son of Admiral Spruance), could identify them. Uncertain of whether they were friendly or not and unwilling to approach any closer to verify their heading or type, Murphy decided to send a vague report of "four large ships '' to Admiral Robert English, Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet (COMSUBPAC). This report was passed on by English to Nimitz, who then sent it to Spruance. Spruance, a former submarine commander, was "understandably furious '' at the vagueness of Murphy 's report, as it provided him with little more than suspicion and no concrete information on which to make his preparations. Unaware of the exact location of Yamamoto 's "Main Body '' (a persistent problem since the time PBYs had first sighted the Japanese), Spruance was forced to assume the "four large ships '' reported by Tambor represented the main invasion force and so he moved to block it, while staying 100 nautical miles (190 km; 120 mi) northeast of Midway.
In reality, the ships sighted by Tambor were the detachment of four cruisers and two destroyers Yamamoto had sent to bombard Midway. At 02: 55, these ships received Yamamoto 's order to retire and changed course to comply. At about the same time as this change of course, Tambor was sighted and during maneuvers designed to avoid a submarine attack, the heavy cruisers Mogami and Mikuma collided, inflicting serious damage on Mogami 's bow. The less severely damaged Mikuma slowed to 12 knots (22 km / h; 14 mph) to keep pace. Only at 04: 12 did the sky brighten enough for Murphy to be certain the ships were Japanese, by which time staying surfaced was hazardous and he dived to approach for an attack. The attack was unsuccessful and at around 06: 00 he finally reported two westbound Mogami - class cruisers, before diving again and playing no further role in the battle. Limping along on a straight course at 12 knots -- roughly one - third their top speed -- Mogami and Mikuma had been almost perfect targets for a submarine attack. As soon as Tambor returned to port, Spruance had Murphy relieved of duty and reassigned to a shore station, citing his confusing contact report, poor torpedo shooting during his attack run, and general lack of aggression, especially as compared to Nautilus, the oldest of the 12 boats at Midway and the only one which had successfully placed a torpedo on target (albeit a dud).
Over the following two days, several strikes were launched against the stragglers, first from Midway, then from Spruance 's carriers. Mikuma was eventually sunk by Dauntlesses, while Mogami survived further severe damage to return home for repairs. The destroyers Arashio and Asashio were also bombed and strafed during the last of these attacks. Captain Richard E. Fleming, a U.S. Marine Corps aviator, was killed while executing a glide bomb run on Mikuma and was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
Meanwhile, salvage efforts on Yorktown were encouraging, and she was taken in tow by USS Vireo. In the late afternoon of 6 June, the Japanese submarine I - 168, which had managed to slip through the cordon of destroyers (possibly because of the large amount of debris in the water), fired a salvo of torpedoes, two of which struck Yorktown. There were few casualties aboard, since most of the crew had already been evacuated, but a third torpedo from this salvo struck the destroyer USS Hammann, which had been providing auxiliary power to Yorktown. Hammann broke in two and sank with the loss of 80 lives, mostly because her own depth charges exploded. With further salvage efforts deemed hopeless, the remaining repair crews were evacuated from Yorktown, which sank just after 05: 00 on 7 June.
By the time the battle ended, 3,057 Japanese had died. Casualties aboard the four carriers were: Akagi: 267; Kaga: 811; Hiryu: 392; Soryu: 711 (including Captain Yanagimoto, who chose to remain on board); a total of 2,181. The heavy cruisers Mikuma (sunk; 700 casualties) and Mogami (badly damaged; 92) accounted for another 792 deaths.
In addition, the destroyers Arashio (bombed; 35) and Asashio (strafed by aircraft; 21) were both damaged during the air attacks which sank Mikuma and caused further damage to Mogami. Floatplanes were lost from the cruisers Chikuma (3) and Tone (2). Dead aboard the destroyers Tanikaze (11), Arashi (1), Kazagumo (1) and the fleet oiler Akebono Maru (10) made up the remaining 23 casualties.
At the end of the battle, the U.S. lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. 307 Americans had been killed, including Major General Clarence L. Tinker, Commander, 7th Air Force, who personally led a bomber strike from Hawaii against the retreating Japanese forces on 7 June. He was killed when his aircraft crashed near Midway Island.
After winning a clear victory, and as pursuit became too hazardous near Wake, American forces retired. Spruance once again withdrew to the east to refuel his destroyers and rendezvous with the carrier Saratoga, which was ferrying much - needed replacement aircraft. Fletcher transferred his flag to Saratoga on the afternoon of 8 June and resumed command of the carrier force. For the remainder of that day and then 9 June, Fletcher continued to launch search missions from the three carriers to ensure the Japanese were no longer advancing on Midway. Late on 10 June a decision was made to leave the area and the American carriers eventually returned to Pearl Harbor.
Historian Samuel E. Morison noted in 1949 that Spruance was subjected to much criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese, thus allowing their surface fleet to escape. Clay Blair argued in 1975 that had Spruance pressed on, he would have been unable to launch his aircraft after nightfall, and his cruisers would have been overwhelmed by Yamamoto 's powerful surface units, including Yamato. Furthermore, the American air groups had suffered considerable losses, including most of their torpedo bombers. This made it unlikely that they would be effective in an airstrike against the Japanese battleships, even if they had managed to catch them during daytime. Also, by this time Spruance 's destroyers were critically low on fuel.
On 10 June, the Imperial Japanese Navy conveyed to the military liaison conference an incomplete picture of the results of the battle. Chūichi Nagumo 's detailed battle report was submitted to the high command on 15 June. It was intended only for the highest echelons in the Japanese Navy and government, and was guarded closely throughout the war. In it, one of the more striking revelations is the comment on the Mobile Force Commander 's (Nagumo 's) estimates: "The enemy is not aware of our plans (we were not discovered until early in the morning of the 5th at the earliest). '' In reality, the whole operation had been compromised from the beginning by Allied code - breaking efforts.
The Japanese public and much of the military command structure were kept in the dark about the extent of the defeat: Japanese news announced a great victory. Only Emperor Hirohito and the highest Navy command personnel were accurately informed of the carrier and pilot losses. Consequently, even the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) continued to believe, for at least a short time, that the fleet was in good condition.
On the return of the Japanese fleet to Hashirajima on 14 June the wounded were immediately transferred to naval hospitals; most were classified as "secret patients '', placed in isolation wards and quarantined from other patients and their own families to keep this major defeat secret. The remaining officers and men were quickly dispersed to other units of the fleet and, without being allowed to see family or friends, were shipped to units in the South Pacific, where the majority died in battle. None of the flag officers or staff of the Combined Fleet were penalized, with Nagumo later being placed in command of the rebuilt carrier force.
As a result of the defeat, new procedures were adopted whereby more Japanese aircraft were refueled and re-armed on the flight deck, rather than in the hangars, and the practice of draining all unused fuel lines was adopted. The new carriers being built were redesigned to incorporate only two flight deck elevators and new firefighting equipment. More carrier crew members were trained in damage - control and firefighting techniques, although the losses later in the war of Shōkaku, Hiyō, and especially Taihō suggest that there were still problems in this area.
Replacement pilots were pushed through an abbreviated training regimen in order to meet the short - term needs of the fleet. This led to a sharp decline in the quality of the aviators produced. These inexperienced pilots were fed into front - line units, while the veterans who remained after Midway and the Solomons campaign were forced to share an increased workload as conditions grew more desperate, with few being given a chance to rest in rear areas or in the home islands. As a result, Japanese naval air groups as a whole progressively deteriorated during the war while their American adversaries continued to improve.
Three U.S. airmen, Ensign Wesley Osmus, a pilot from Yorktown; Ensign Frank O'Flaherty, a pilot from Enterprise; and Aviation Machinist 's Mate Bruno F. (or P.) Gaido, the radioman - gunner of O'Flaherty's SBD, were captured by the Japanese during the battle. Osmus was held on Arashi; O'Flaherty and Gaido on the cruiser Nagara (or destroyer Makigumo, sources vary); all three were interrogated, and then killed by being tied to water - filled kerosene cans and thrown overboard to drown. The report filed by Nagumo tersely states of Ensign Osmus, "He died on 6 June and was buried at sea ''; O'Flaherty and Gaido 's fates were not mentioned in Nagumo 's report. The execution of Ensign Wesley Osmus in this manner was apparently ordered by Arashi 's captain, Watanabe Yasumasa (if Watanabe had survived the war, rather than having died when the destroyer Numakaze sank in December 1943, he would have likely been tried as a war criminal).
Two enlisted men from Mikuma were rescued from a life raft on 9 June by USS Trout and brought to Pearl Harbor. After receiving medical care, at least one of these sailors cooperated during interrogation and provided intelligence. Another 35 crewmen from Hiryu were taken from a lifeboat by USS Ballard on 19 June after being spotted by an American search plane. They were brought to Midway and then transferred to Pearl Harbor on USS Sirius.
The Battle of Midway has often been called "the turning point of the Pacific ''. It was the Allies ' first major naval victory against the Japanese, won despite the Japanese Navy having more forces and experience than its American counterpart. Had Japan won the battle as thoroughly as the U.S. did, it might have been able to conquer Midway Island. Saratoga would have been the only American carrier in the Pacific, with no new ones being completed before the end of 1942. While the U.S. would probably not have sought peace with Japan as Yamamoto hoped, his country might have revived Operation FS to invade and occupy Fiji and Samoa; attacked Australia, Alaska, and Ceylon; or even attempted to conquer Hawaii.
Although the Japanese continued to try to secure more territory, and the U.S. did not move from a state of naval parity to one of supremacy until after several more months of hard combat, Midway allowed the Allies to switch to the strategic initiative, paving the way for the landings on Guadalcanal and the prolonged attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign. Midway allowed this to occur before the first of the new Essex - class fleet carriers became available at the end of 1942. The Guadalcanal Campaign is also regarded by some as a turning point in the Pacific War.
Some authors have stated that heavy losses in carriers and veteran aircrews at Midway permanently weakened the Imperial Japanese Navy. Parshall and Tully have stated that the heavy losses in veteran aircrew (110, just under 25 % of the aircrew embarked on the four carriers) were not crippling to the Japanese naval air corps as a whole; the Japanese navy had 2,000 carrier - qualified aircrew at the start of the Pacific war. The loss of four large fleet carriers and over 40 % of the carriers ' highly trained aircraft mechanics and technicians, plus the essential flight - deck crews and armorers, and the loss of organizational knowledge embodied in such highly trained crews, were still heavy blows to the Japanese carrier fleet. A few months after Midway, the JNAF sustained similar casualty rates in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, and it was these battles, combined with the constant attrition of veterans during the Solomons campaign, which were the catalyst for the sharp downward spiral in operational capability.
After the battle, Shōkaku and Zuikaku were the only large carriers of the original Pearl Harbor strike force left for offensive actions. Of Japan 's other carriers, Taihō, which was not commissioned until early 1944, would be the only fleet carrier worth teaming with Shōkaku and Zuikaku; Ryūjō and Zuihō were light carriers, while Jun'yō and Hiyō, although technically classified as fleet carriers, were second - rate ships of comparatively limited effectiveness. In the time it took Japan to build three carriers, the U.S. Navy commissioned more than two dozen fleet and light fleet carriers, and numerous escort carriers. By 1942 the United States was already three years into a shipbuilding program mandated by the Second Vinson Act, intended to make the navy larger than all the Axis navies combined, plus the British and French navies, which it was feared might fall into Axis hands.
Both the United States and Japan accelerated the training of aircrew, but the United States had a more effective pilot rotation system, which meant that more veterans survived and went on to training or command billets, where they were able to pass on lessons they had learned in training, instead of remaining in combat, where errors were more likely to be fatal. By the time of the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, the Japanese had nearly rebuilt their carrier forces in terms of numbers, but their planes, many of which were obsolescent, were largely flown by inexperienced and poorly trained pilots.
Midway showed the worth of pre-war naval cryptanalysis and intelligence - gathering. These efforts continued and were expanded throughout the war in both the Pacific and Atlantic theaters. Successes were numerous and significant. For instance, cryptanalysis made possible the shooting down of Admiral Yamamoto 's airplane in 1943.
The Battle of Midway redefined the central importance of air superiority for the remainder of the war when the Japanese suddenly lost their four main aircraft carriers and were forced to return home. Without any form of air superiority, the Japanese never again launched a major offensive in the Pacific.
Because of the extreme depth of the ocean in the area of the battle (more than 17,000 ft or 5,200 m), researching the battlefield has presented extraordinary difficulties. On 19 May 1998, Robert Ballard and a team of scientists and Midway veterans from both sides located and photographed Yorktown. The ship was remarkably intact for a vessel that had sunk in 1942; much of the original equipment and even the original paint scheme were still visible.
Ballard 's subsequent search for the Japanese carriers was unsuccessful. In September 1999, a joint expedition between Nauticos Corp. and the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office searched for the Japanese aircraft carriers. Using advanced renavigation techniques in conjunction with the ship 's log of the submarine USS Nautilus, the expedition located a large piece of wreckage, subsequently identified as having come from the upper hangar deck of Kaga. The main wreck of Kaga has yet to be located.
Chicago Municipal Airport, important to the war effort in World War II, was renamed Chicago Midway International Airport (or simply Midway Airport) in 1949 in honor of the battle.
Waldron Field, an outlying training landing strip at Corpus Christi NAS, as well as Waldron Road leading to the strip, was named in honor of John C. Waldron, the commander of USS Hornet 's Torpedo Squadron 8. Yorktown Boulevard leading away from the strip was named for the U.S. carrier sunk in the battle.
Henderson Field (Guadalcanal) was named in honor of United States Marine Corps Major Lofton Henderson, who was the first Marine aviator to perish during the battle.
An escort carrier, USS Midway (CVE - 63) was commissioned on 17 August 1943. She was renamed St. Lo on 10 October 1944 to clear the name Midway for a large fleet aircraft carrier, USS Midway (CV - 41), which was commissioned on 10 September 1945, eight days after the Japanese surrender, and is now docked in San Diego, California, as the USS Midway Museum.
On 13 September 2000, Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt designated the lands and waters of Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge as the Battle of Midway National Memorial.
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who made it through on americas got takent | America 's Got Talent - Wikipedia
America 's Got Talent (sometimes abbreviated as AGT) is an American reality television series on the NBC television network, and part of the global Got Talent franchise. It is a talent show that features singers, dancers, magicians, comedians, and other performers of all ages competing for the advertised top prize of one million dollars. The show debuted in June 2006 for the summer television season. From season three (2008) onwards, the prize includes the one million dollars, payable in a financial annuity over 40 years, and a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip. Among its significant features is that it gives an opportunity to talented amateurs or unknown performers, with the results decided by an audience vote. The format is a popular one and has often been reworked for television in the United States and the United Kingdom.
This incarnation was created by Simon Cowell, and was originally due to be a 2005 British series called Paul O'Grady 's Got Talent but was postponed due to O'Grady's acrimonious split with broadcaster ITV (later launching as Britain 's Got Talent in 2007). Therefore, the U.S. version became the first full series of the franchise.
The original judging panel consisted of David Hasselhoff, Brandy Norwood, and Piers Morgan. Sharon Osbourne replaced Norwood in season two (2007), and Howie Mandel replaced Hasselhoff in season five (2010). Howard Stern replaced Morgan in season seven (2012). Mel B replaced Osbourne in season eight (2013), while Heidi Klum joined as a fourth judge. Simon Cowell replaced Stern in season eleven (2016). Regis Philbin was the original host (season one), followed by Jerry Springer for two seasons (2007 -- 2008), followed by Nick Cannon for eight seasons (2009 -- 2016). Supermodel and host Tyra Banks replaced Cannon for the twelfth season (2017).
On August 2, 2016, NBC renewed the series for a twelfth season, which premiered on May 30, 2017. The season concluded on September 20, 2017.
Starting with the tenth season, each of the main judges invited a guest judge to join the judging panel for one night during the Judge Cuts stage of the competition. The guest judges had the ability to employ the golden buzzer to bypass the other judges and advance an act to the live shows. The first guest judge, Neil Patrick Harris, appeared at the invitation of Howard Stern in episode eight of season ten, which aired on July 14, 2015. Michael Bublé appeared at the invitation of Heidi Klum in episode nine of season ten, which aired on July 21, 2015. Marlon Wayans appeared at the invitation of Howie Mandel in episode ten of season ten, which aired on July 28, 2015. Piers Morgan appeared at the invitation of Mel B in episode eleven of season ten, which aired on August 4, 2015. Beginning with the eleventh season the guest judges were announced without any indication if they were invited by one of the regular judges. This continued into the twelfth season when the guest judges were announced by NBC through various outlets.
The general selection process of the show begins with separate producers ' auditions held in various cities across the United States, some of which host only the producers ' auditions, and some of which also host judges ' auditions held in theaters. This round is held several months before the judges ' audition. Acts that have made it through the producers ' audition then audition in front of the judges and a live audience.
Following the producers ' auditions, acts audition in front of (as of 2013) four celebrity judges. These auditions are held in theaters in various cities nationally and are later televised. Judges may individually register their disapproval of an act by pressing a red buzzer, which lights up their corresponding X above the stage. Any performer who receives X 's (3 in seasons 1 to 7, or 4 from season 8 onwards) from the judges must stop performing and is eliminated. Since season three (2008), large audiences have also been a factor in the judging process, as their reaction to an act 's performance may swing or influence a judge 's vote. If an act receives three or more "yes '' votes, they advance to the next round of competition. However, in the majority of seasons, several acts do not perform in the second round and are immediately sent home by the judges without a second performance.
Introduced in season nine, the "Golden Buzzer '' is located on the center of the judges ' desk and may be used once per season by each judge. In season 9, a judge could press the golden buzzer to save an act from elimination, regardless of the number of X 's earned from the other judges. Starting in season 10 and onward, any act that receives a golden buzzer advances directly to the live show; and in season 11, the hosts also were given the power to use the golden buzzer. The golden buzzer is also used in the Judge Cuts format.
From season two (2007) to season eight (2013), Las Vegas Week has been an intermediary televised taped round between the auditions and the live shows. This round takes place in a notable venue on the Las Vegas Strip. Names for this round in previous seasons have included "Las Vegas Callbacks '' and "Vegas Verdicts ''. The Las Vegas round generally consists of acts performing a second time for the judges (except for season four in 2009), who then pick select acts to move on to the live shows. An act eliminated in Las Vegas Week is not completely excluded from the live show competition, as several seasons have featured contestants being brought back from this round as "wild card '' acts.
Prior to the inclusion of this round, the judges would have a list containing a number of acts which advanced past the auditions during each live show. The judges would then pick ten acts from that group each week, leaving several acts without the chance to perform.
In season nine (2014), acts went to New York instead of Las Vegas to determine a place in the live shows.
From season five (2010) to season seven (2012), acts who did not attend live auditions could instead submit a taped audition online via YouTube. Acts from the online auditions were then selected to compete in front of the judges and a live audience during the "live shows '' part of the season, prior to the semi-finals. The most successful act of the YouTube auditions was Jackie Evancho, who went on to place second in season five.
Before the inclusion of this round, the show had a separate audition episode in seasons three and four (2008 -- 2009) for contestants who posted videos on MySpace.
During the live shows, a group of acts ranging from only a Top 20 (season two), to as many as 60, compete for viewers ' and judges ' votes. In the first season, the judges could not end an act 's performance, but could either "check '' or "X '' the performance during their critique. Since season two (2007), judges have been able to end an act 's performance early, and the "check '' was removed. Generally, acts each perform first in a live round consisting of a series of quarterfinals. In seasons with YouTube auditions, the round of live judging of YouTube finalists takes place then, as part of these quarterfinals. Then there may be additional shows for "Wild Card '' acts -- acts that one or more of the judges select to be given one more chance for audience vote despite previous elimination. From these shows, the existing group is narrowed through votes by the public and / or the judges (depending on the season). Acts then move on to a semifinal round, and even further rounds (such as a "Top 8 '' or a "Top 10 '', depending on the season) through a series of weekly shows, which trim the number of acts down each time based on a public vote. In the majority of seasons, judges have had no vote from the semifinals. All these rounds culminate in a live final, which has consisted of anywhere from four to ten acts throughout the seasons. The act with the most votes is declared the winner, given $1 million, and, since season three (2008), a chance to headline a show on the Las Vegas Strip.
During seasons one through six (2006 -- 11), the live shows were filmed at Stage 36 of CBS Television City in Los Angeles. In season seven (2012), the live shows were held at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. From seasons eight through ten (2013 -- 15), live performances were held at Radio City Music Hall in New York. From season eleven (2016) onwards the live shows are being held at the Dolby Theatre.
For seasons five through eight (2010 -- 13), the show also made the winner the headline act of a national tour with runners up following the final show, stopping in 25 cities. For season nine, however (2014), there was no tour; two shows were held in Las Vegas for the winner and some of the runner - up acts. (See # America 's Got Talent Live, below.)
In May 2006, NBC announced the new show. The audition tour took place in June. Auditions were held in the following locations: Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. Some early ads for the show implied that the winning act would also headline a show at a casino, possibly in Las Vegas; however, this was replaced with a million dollars due to concerns of minors playing in Las Vegas, should one become a champion. More than 12 million viewers watched the series premiere (which is more than American Idol got during its premiere in 2002). The two - hour broadcast was the night 's most - watched program on U.S. television and the highest - rated among viewers aged 18 to 49 (the prime - time audience that matters most to advertisers), Nielsen Media Research reported.
On the season finale, there was an unaired segment that was scheduled to appear after Aly & AJ. The segment featured Tom Green dressing in a parrot costume and squawking with a live parrot to communicate telepathically. Green then proceeded to fly up above the audience, shooting confetti streamers out of his costume onto the crowd below.
In season one, the show was hosted by Regis Philbin and judged by actor David Hasselhoff, singer Brandy Norwood, and journalist Piers Morgan.
The winner of the season was 11 - year - old singer Bianca Ryan, and the runners - up were clogging group All That and musical group The Millers.
After initially announcing in June 2006 that season two would premiere in January 2007 and would air at 8 pm on Sunday nights, with no separate results show, the network changed that, pushing the show back to the summer, where the first season had enjoyed great success. This move kept the show out of direct competition with American Idol, which had a similar premise and was more popular.
In AGT 's place, another reality - based talent show, Grease: You 're The One That I Want, began airing on Sunday nights in the same time slot on NBC beginning in January. In March, NBC announced that Philbin would not return as host of the show, and that Jerry Springer would succeed him as host, with Sharon Osbourne (formerly a judge on Cowell 's UK show The X Factor) succeeding Brandy Norwood as a judge.
The season finale was shown Tuesday, August 21, with the winner being Terry Fator, a singing impressionist ventriloquist. The runner - up was singer Cas Haley.
Season three premiered on June 17, 2008. Auditions took place in Charlotte, Nashville, Orlando, New York, Dallas, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Chicago from January to April. A televised MySpace audition also took place.
Season three differed from the previous two in many ways. Auditions were held in well - known theaters across the nation, and a new title card was introduced, featuring the American flag as background. The X 's matched the ones on Britain 's Got Talent as did the judges ' table. Like the previous season, the Las Vegas callbacks continued, but there were forty acts selected to compete in the live rounds, instead of twenty. This season also contained several results episodes, but not on a regular basis. The show took a hiatus for two - and - a-half weeks for the 2008 Summer Olympics, but returned with the live rounds on August 26.
Neal E. Boyd, an opera singer, was named the winner on October 1. Eli Mattson, a singer and pianist, was runner - up.
Season four premiered on Tuesday, June 23, 2009. It was the first to be broadcast in high definition. Auditions for this season were held in more than nine major cities including New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, D.C., Atlanta, Miami, Tacoma, Boston, and Houston. Los Angeles auditions kicked off the January 29 -- 31 tour at the Los Angeles Convention Center, followed by the February 7 -- 8 Atlanta auditions. New York and Miami auditions were held during March. Tacoma auditions were held April 25 and 26. In addition to live auditions and the ability to send in a home audition tape, season four offered the opportunity for acts to upload their video direct to NBC.com/agt with their registration. This year 's host was Nick Cannon. Jerry Springer said that he could not return as host due to other commitments.
The audition process in season four was the same as the previous season, but the ' Las Vegas Callbacks ' was renamed ' Vegas Verdicts '. This was the first season since season one where results episodes lasted one hour on a regular basis. The title card this year featured bands of the American flag and stars waving around the America 's Got Talent logo.
On September 16, country music singer Kevin Skinner was named the season 's winner. The grand prize was $1 million and a 10 - week headline show at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip. The runner - up was Bárbara Padilla, an opera singer.
For season five, the network had considered moving the show to the fall, after rival series So You Think You Can Dance transferred from the summer to fall season in 2009. NBC ultimately decided to keep Talent a summer show.
Open auditions were held in the winter to early spring of 2010 in Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, New York, Orlando, and Portland (Oregon). Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Atlanta and Philadelphia. For the first time, online auditions were also held via YouTube.
David Hasselhoff left to host a new television show and was replaced by comedian and game show host Howie Mandel. This made Piers Morgan the only original judge left in the show. The show premiered Tuesday, June 1, 2010, at 8 pm ET. Afterward, Talent resumed the same time slot as the previous season.
On September 15, singer Michael Grimm was named the winner. He won a $1 million prize and a chance to perform at the Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, as well as headline the 25 - city America 's Got Talent Live Tour along with runner - up Jackie Evancho, Fighting Gravity, Prince Poppycock, and the other top ten finalists.
Season six premiered on Tuesday, May 31, 2011, with a two - hour special. Piers Morgan and Sharon Osbourne continued as judges after taking jobs on Piers Morgan Tonight and The Talk, respectively. On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on July 27, 2010, Morgan officially stated that he had signed a three - year contract to stay on Talent.
The show held televised auditions in Los Angeles, New York, Minneapolis, Atlanta, Seattle, and Houston. Non-televised producers ' auditions were also held in Denver and Chicago. Previews of auditions were shown during NBC 's The Voice premiere on April 26. Online auditions via YouTube were also held for the second time in the show 's run, beginning on May 4. Finalists for this audition circuit competed live on August 9.
On Wednesday, September 14, Landau Eugene Murphy, Jr., a Frank Sinatra - style singer, was named the winner. Dance group Silhouettes was runner - up.
Season seven premiered on May 14, 2012. The first round of auditions, which are judged by producers, were held in New York, Washington, D.C., Tampa, Charlotte, Austin, Anaheim, St. Louis, and San Francisco from October 2011 to February 2012. The show began its live theater performances at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark on February 27.
Piers Morgan did not return as a judge for season seven, due to his work hosting CNN 's Piers Morgan Tonight, and he was replaced by Howard Stern. Since Stern hosts his SiriusXM radio show in New York City, the live rounds of the show were moved to nearby Newark, New Jersey. In December 2011, Simon Cowell, the show 's executive producer, announced that the show would be receiving a "top - to - bottom makeover '', confirming that there would be new graphics, lighting, theme music, show intro, logo, and a larger live audience at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark. On July 2, at the first live performance show of the season, their new location and stage were unveiled in a two - and - a-half - hour live special. A new set was also unveiled with a revised judges ' desk and a refreshed design of the "X ''.
On August 6, Sharon Osbourne announced that she would leave America 's Got Talent after the current season, in response to allegations that her son Jack Osbourne was discriminated against by the producers of the upcoming NBC program Stars Earn Stripes.
On September 13, Olate Dogs were announced the winner of the season, becoming the show 's first completely non-singing act to win the competition and also the first non-solo act to win. Comedian Tom Cotter finished as the runner - up.
Season eight of AGT premiered on Tuesday, June 4, 2013. The new season was announced in a promotional video shown during a commercial break for season seven 's second live show. Sharon Osbourne initially stated that she would not return for the season, but later said that she was staying with the show "for now. '' Osbourne confirmed that she would be leaving the show after a feud with NBC on August 6, 2012.
On February 20, 2013, it was announced that one of the Spice Girls members, Mel B (Melanie Brown), would replace Sharon Osbourne as the third judge. Entertainment Weekly also reported at the same time that NBC was looking at a possible fourth judge to be added. On March 3, it was announced that supermodel Heidi Klum would be joining the show as the new fourth judge.
An Audition Cities poll for the season was announced on July 11, 2012. The first batch of Audition Cities were announced as Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland (Oregon), New Orleans, Birmingham, Memphis, Nashville, Savannah, Raleigh, Norfolk, San Antonio, New York, Columbus (Ohio), and Chicago. This season, the auditions traveled to more cities than ever before. America 's Got Talent moved its live shows to Radio City Music Hall in New York for season eight. Auditions in front of the judges and an audience began taping on March 4. The show traveled to New Orleans, New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Antonio.
On September 18, 2013, martial arts dancer / mime Kenichi Ebina was announced the winner of the season, the first dance act to win the competition. Stand - up comedian Taylor Williamson was the runner - up.
Season nine premiered on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, at 8 pm ET. The producers ' auditions began on October 26, 2013, in Miami. Other audition sites included Atlanta, Baltimore, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Los Angeles, and New York. Contestants could also submit a video of their audition online. Auditions in front of the judges were held February 20 -- 22 at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center in Newark, which also hosted the live shows during season seven. Judges ' auditions were held in New York City at Madison Square Garden from April 3 to 6 and in Los Angeles at the Dolby Theatre from April 21 to 26.
The live shows return to Radio City Music Hall on July 29. There was also a new twist in the show, where "Judgment Week '' was held in New York City instead of Las Vegas. Judgment Week was originally intended to be held in front of a live studio audience, but after three acts performed, the producers scrapped the live audience concept. This season also came with the addition of a "Golden Buzzer, '' which was unveiled on that same year 's Britain 's Got Talent. Each judge can press the buzzer only once each season that can save an act, typically used when there is a tie.
For this season, contestants were invited to submit a video of their performance to The Today Show website throughout June, and the top three entrants performed their acts on The Today Show on July 23, 2014. The performer with the most votes, Cornell Bhangra, filled the 48th spot in the quarterfinals.
On September 17, magician Mat Franco was announced the winner of the season, the first magic act to win the competition. Singer Emily West was the runner - up.
Season ten premiered on May 26, 2015. Producer auditions began on November 2, 2014, in Tampa. Other audition sites included Nashville, Richmond (Virginia), New York, Chicago, St. Louis, San Antonio, Albuquerque, San Francisco, Seattle, Boise, Las Vegas, and Los Angeles. Online submissions were also accepted.
Howard Stern rumored on his radio show on October 1, 2014, that he might not return, but announced on December 8 that he would return for the upcoming season. Nick Cannon returned for his seventh season as host. On February 9, 2015, Howie Mandel said he would return for season ten and Mel B announced the next day that she would be returning as well. It was revealed on February 11 that Heidi Klum would also be returning.
It was announced on December 4, 2014, that Cris Judd would be named as a dance scout. He previously worked on the show as a choreographer behind the scenes, and on the New Zealand version of Got Talent as a judge.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 2, 2015, at the New Jersey Performing Arts Center. They continued at the Manhattan Center in New York City and the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles. A special "extreme '' audition session was held outside at the Fairplex in Pomona, California, where danger acts performed outside for the judges, who were seated at an outdoor stage.
During NBC 's summer press tour, it was announced that America 's Got Talent would be making their "Golden Buzzer '' more like Britain 's Got Talent where the contestant that gets the buzzer will be sent directly to the live shows. An official trailer for the season was released, which showed that Dunkin Donuts was the show 's official sponsor for the season, with their cups prominently placed on the judges ' desk. Dunkin replaced Snapple, which sponsored the show since season seven.
On June 24, Howard Stern announced on The Howard Stern Show that season ten would be his last season as judge. Stern said, "In all seriousness, I 've told you, I 'm just too f * cking busy... something 's got to give... NBC 's already asked me what my intentions are for next year, whether or not I 'd come back, I kind of have told them I think this is my last season. Not I think, this is my last season ''.
On September 16, Paul Zerdin was announced the winner of the season, making him the second ventriloquist to win. Comedian Drew Lynch was runner - up, and magician mentalist Oz Pearlman was in Third Place.
America 's Got Talent was renewed for an eleventh season on September 1, 2015. The season will have preliminary open call auditions in Detroit, New York, Phoenix, Salt Lake City, Las Vegas, San Jose, San Diego, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Atlanta, Orlando, and Dallas. As in years past, hopeful contestants may also submit auditions online.
On October 22, 2015, it was announced that creator Simon Cowell would replace Howard Stern as a judge for season 11. On January 12, 2016, it was announced that Mel B, Heidi Klum, and Howie Mandel would all return as judges, with Nick Cannon returning as host. The live shows will also move from New York back to Los Angeles, due to Howard Stern 's departure. The live shows will be held at the Dolby Theatre.
Auditions in front of the judges began on March 3, 2016 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Pasadena, California. The season premiered on May 31, 2016.
On September 14, 12 - year - old singer - songwriter and ukulele player, Grace VanderWaal was announced as the winner making it the second time that a female act has won the show since Season 1, and the second child act to win the competition. Magician mentalists The Clairvoyants was runner - up, and magician Jon Dorenbos was in Third Place.
On August 2, 2016, it was announced that host Nick Cannon and all four judges would be returning for season 12. Later that year, on October 4, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through to 2019 (Season 14).
On February 13, 2017, Nick Cannon announced he would not return as host for the twelfth season, citing creative differences between him and executives at NBC. The resignation comes in the wake of news that the network considered firing Cannon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his recent Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon, however, was technically under contract to host and could potentially have been sued by NBC for breach of contract, though this was ultimately considered unlikely. NBC executives did not accept his resignation and had expected Cannon to return, but ultimately began the search for a new host.
NBC announced supermodel Tyra Banks as the new host on March 12, 2017 after Cannon 's departure.
The season premiered on Tuesday, May 30, 2017.
On September 20, Darci Lynne Farmer won the twelfth season, becoming the third ventriloquist, third child act and the third female act to win the competition (second year in a row after VanderWaal 's win in 2016). Child singer Angelica Hale was announced as the runner - up, Ukrainian dance act Light Balance finished in third place, deaf musician Mandy Harvey finished in fourth place and dog act Sara & Hero finished in fifth place.
America 's Got Talent Live is a show on the Las Vegas Strip that features the winner of each season of America 's Got Talent as the main performance.
In 2009, America 's Got Talent Live appeared on the Las Vegas Strip appearing Wednesday through Sunday at the Planet Hollywood Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, in a limited ten - week run from October through January featuring winner Kevin Skinner, runner - up Barbara Padilla and fourth - place finisher The Texas Tenors. It featured the final ten acts which made it to the season four (2009) finale. Jerry Springer emceed, commuting weekly between Stamford, Connecticut, tapings of his self - named show and Las Vegas.
In 2010, on the first live show of season five, the winner headlined America 's Got Talent Live from Caesars Palace Casino and Resort on the Las Vegas Strip, which was part of a 25 - city tour that featured the season 's finalists. Jerry Springer returned as both host of the tour and the headline show.
In 2012, the tour returned, featuring winners Olate Dogs, Spencer Horsman, Joe Castillo, Lightwire Theater, David Garibaldi and his CMYK 's, Jarrett and Raja, Tom Cotter, and other fan favorites.
In 2013, after the success of the 2012 tour, another tour was scheduled, featuring season eight 's winner, Kenichi Ebina, and finalists Collins Key, Jimmy Rose, Taylor Williamson, Cami Bradley, The KriStef Brothers, and Tone the Chiefrocca. Tone hosted the tour.
In 2014, America 's Got Talent Live announced that performances in Las Vegas on September 26 and 27 would feature Taylor Williamson, the season eight (2013) runner - up, and the top finalists for season nine: Mat Franco, Emily West, Quintavious Johnson, AcroArmy, Emil and Dariel, Miguel Dakota, and Sons of Serendip.
In 2015, no tour was held. Instead, three shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas featuring winner Paul Zerdin, runner - up Drew Lynch, and fan favorite Piff the Magic Dragon.
In 2016, four shows were given at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They featured the top two finalists for season 11, Grace VanderWaal and The Clairvoyants, as well as finalist Tape Face.
In 2017, four shows are planned at the Planet Hollywood Resort in Las Vegas. They will feature winner Darci Lynne, runner - up Angelica Hale, third - placed Light Balance, and finalist Preacher Lawson.
NBC broadcast the two - hour America 's Got Talent Holiday Spectacular on December 19, 2016, hosted by Cannon with performances by Grace VanderWaal, Jackie Evancho, Andra Day, Penn & Teller, Pentatonix, Terry Fator, Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, Olate Dogs, Professor Splash, Jon Dorenbos and others, and featuring the Season 11 judges, including Klum, who sang a duet with Season 11 finalist Sal Valentinetti. The special drew 9.5 million viewers.
Since the show began, its ratings have been very high, ranging from 9 million viewers to as many as 16 million viewers, generally averaging around 11 million viewers. The show has also ranked high in the 18 -- 49 demographic, usually rating anywhere from as low as 1.6 to as high as 4.6 throughout its run. Audition shows and performance shows rate higher on average than results shows.
Although the show 's ratings have been high, the network usually keeps the show 's run limited to before the official start of the next television season in the third week of September with some reductions or expansions depending on Olympic years, where finale ratings are usually lower due to returning programming on other networks.
The highest rated season in overall viewers to date is season four (2009). The most - watched episode has been the finale of season five (2010), with 16.41 million viewers. The series premiere and an episode featuring the first part of Las Vegas Week in season six (2011) have each tied for highest rating among adults 18 -- 49, both having a 4.6 rating.
Sales numbers and rankings are U.S. sales only.
Many acts which have competed on America 's Got Talent, but were ultimately eliminated before the final round, have either previously competed on or went on to compete in a number of other reality shows, most notably American Idol and America 's Best Dance Crew.
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on American Idol (AI):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on America 's Best Dance Crew (ABDC):
The following America 's Got Talent (AGT) contestants also appeared on these other shows:
In Indonesia, the eleventh season has currently been broadcast by NET. since October 22, 2016 every Saturday and Sunday at 10 pm WIB. But, since Monday, October 31, in addition to the weekend slot, the show has also been broadcast every Monday to Friday at 5 pm WIB as the replacement of the currently concluded TV drama, the second season of Kesempurnaan Cinta, which was concluded on Friday, October 28, 2016.
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when did the body style change on the toyota highlander | Toyota Highlander - wikipedia
The Toyota Highlander (Japanese: トヨタ ハイランダー, Toyota Hairandā), also known as the Toyota Kluger (Japanese: トヨタ クルーガー, Toyota Kurūgā), is a mid-size crossover SUV produced by Toyota. It is built on the same platform as used on the Toyota Camry, but based on size of the Toyota Avalon chassis.
Announced in April 2000 at the New York Auto Show and arriving in late 2000 in Japan and January 2001 in North America, the Highlander became one of the first car - based mid-size SUV or mid-size crossovers. The Highlander is the crossover counterpart to the more rugged, truck - based midsize 4Runner and became Toyota 's best - selling SUV before being surpassed by the smaller RAV4 in 2006. In Japan, the Kluger is exclusive to dealership network called Toyota NETZ as a larger alternative to the RAV4.
Unable to use the Highlander name in Japan and Australia because of a trademarked Hyundai Terracan trim line, Toyota calls the vehicle the Toyota Kluger (pronounced Klu - ger) there, the name derived from the German word klug, which means clever or wise (klüger being the comparative form).
The Highlander (or Kluger in Japan and Australia) shared a platform with its Lexus RX / Toyota Harrier cousin. It came in five (2001 -- 2007) and seven - seat (2004 -- 2007) configurations and became a sales success for Toyota in a number of markets across the world. The Highlander came standard with front wheel drive and offered all wheel drive (50: 50 front: rear fixed torque split). Unlike Toyota 's own 4Runner and other mid-sized competitors such as the Jeep Grand Cherokee, or Chevrolet TrailBlazer, the Highlander aimed for on - road comfort with its unibody construction and independent rear suspension. Although it was longer than the 1996 -- 2002 4Runner available at the time it was launched, the Highlander was surpassed in length by the redesigned 4Runner in 2002.
The Highlander was available in three trim lines in the United States: the base model, the Sport model, and the Limited model. The base and Limited models were present when the Highlander was initially introduced, while the Sport model was introduced in March 2006. In Japan, it is regarded as a luxury vehicle as the Kluger exceeds Japanese Government regulations regulating engine displacement and exterior dimensions.
In 2004 the wheels on the Limited trim changed from a six - spoke, to a five - spoke alloy. The base - model Highlander wheels also changed from steel - rims to the alloy wheels that were on the 2001 -- 2003 model year Highlander Limited and B - Package. The Sport models had a distinctive grille design, differentiating themselves from the non-Sport models. Wheel styling also serves to differentiate the various models -- the hybrid sports a unique twin - spoke design.
The Kluger was introduced to Australia in October 2003. It was available in three guises: CV, CVX, and Grande. A limited edition CV Sport model was also released in 2006. There was no hybrid model available in Australia. The only engine offered was the 3.3 - liter 3MZ - FE V6. Typical fuel economy using the Australian standard testing regime is 12.3 L / 100 km (23.0 mpg; 19.1 mpg).
Engines:
The 3.0 - liter engine was able to propel the Kluger from 0 -- 60 mph in approximately 8.8 seconds. In 2004 the Kluger was given a new 3.3 - liter V6 engine to compete with the more powerful V6 offerings from its competitors, mainly the Nissan Murano and the Honda Pilot. The larger engine made it possible for the Kluger to reach 0 to 60 mph (97 km / h) in 7.8 seconds.
The Japanese and Australian Kluger was released with a center console integrated with the dashboard, while the North American Highlander initially lacked this integrated center console. The integrated center console was introduced in all U.S. Highlanders and in Canadian Limited Highlanders in 2001, for the 2002 model year, and in all Canadian Highlanders in 2003, for the 2004 model year. However, for these early Highlanders without the integrated center console, a smaller non-integrated stand - alone center console was available as an option, which was installed at the factory or could be installed by the dealer.
In 2003, for the 2004 model year, in addition to the 3.3 - liter engine, V6 - powered models were equipped with a new five - speed automatic transmission, replacing the four - speed automatic transmission, while the inline - four models continued to use the old four - speed. This year also saw the introduction of the optional third row seat allowing for two additional passengers. The center console, which was previously exclusive to the top trim level, is now standard across all trims. The unibody was slightly modified behind the second row seats to include a depression in the trunk floor able to accommodate the optional third row seating. On models without third row seating, this depression was turned into a storage compartment (prior to 2004 the spare tire was accessible from inside the vehicle where the third row seating would subsequently be located; beginning in 2004 the spare tire is accessible from underneath the vehicle). Subtle changes to the front grille, front and rear bumpers, headlights and taillights (LED taillights on later hybrid models) round - out the major changes for the 2003 mid-cycle refresh.
In 2005, for the 2006 model year, Highlanders sold in Canada are offered only in a V6 all - wheel drive configuration. Hybrid models are available with part - time four - wheel drive which Toyota refers to as 4WD - i where the rear wheels are powered by the separate electric motor. This system is intended for use on snow and ice, and is prone to overheating the rear electric motor off - road.
Anti-lock brakes, brake assist and electronic brakeforce distribution were standard, Vehicle Stability Control w / traction control optional on 2001 -- 03 models became standard for 2004 models (Hybrids come standard with VDIM). Also standard for 2004 was a tire pressure monitor. Front seat - mounted side torso airbags were optional on 2001 -- 06 models, while front and second row side curtain airbags were optional on 2004 -- 06 models. Side airbags became standard on 2007 models and the curtain airbags gained a rollover sensor that year as well.
In Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) crash tests the Highlander was rated "Good '' overall in the frontal offset crash test. The IIHS reported the Highlander had one of the lowest driver fatality rates among all vehicles, and amongst SUVs, only the Toyota 4Runner had a lower driver fatality rate. This report looked at 2001 -- 2005 model year vehicles in the US.
Initially, the Kluger was a regular, non-hybrid SUV driven by an internal combustion engine, but later Toyota introduced a hybrid version, the Kluger Hybrid that utilizes the company 's Hybrid Synergy Drive technology combined with the company 's 3MZ - FE 3.3 - liter V6 engine offered in either FWD or AWD trim. The hybrid drivetrain was unveiled at the 2004 North American International Auto Show, and was offered to the public in July 2005 as a 2006 model. The power steering pump, water pump and AC compressor were changed from belt - drive to electrically powered versions. A modified alternator was incorporated into the hybrid system.
In North America, the hybrid version was called the Highlander Hybrid. It was also the first seven - seat hybrid vehicle. With the electric motors providing power including lower speeds overall acceleration is improved particularity at passing speeds. Other additions include Toyota 's Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM) system and Electronically Controlled Brake (ECB). The California Air Resources Board gave it a SULEV emission rating. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (revised standards) rated it at 28 mpg (8.4 L / 100 km; 34 mpg) City / 25 mpg (9.4 L / 100 km; 30 mpg) Highway for FWD models and 27 mpg (8.7 L / 100 km; 32 mpg) / 25 mpg (9.4 L / 100 km; 30 mpg) for AWD models. This system is near identical to that of the Lexus RX 400h. All - wheel drive models were rated to tow 3,500 lb (1,600 kg).
Toyota revealed the second - generation Highlander and Highlander Hybrid at the 2007 Chicago Auto Show, with American sales beginning in July and hybrids in late September. But the second - generation Highlander and Highlander Hybrid are not sold in Japan. The five - seat Highlander for the United States and Canada was dropped as the larger Venza replaced it.
Initially the sole powertrain for the 2008 Highlander was a 270 horsepower (201 kW) 3.5 - liter 2GR - FE V6 mated to a five - speed automatic. The four - cylinder model had been discontinued but added again in 2009. While the 3.5 - liter engine has 55 more bhp than the previous 3.3 - liter V6 and dimensional increases along with increased sound proofing added nearly 500 pounds to the vehicle 's curb weight of approximately 4,000 lbs, fuel economy is slightly improved. The EPA estimated fuel economy for front - wheel drive models is at 18 mpg (13 L / 100 km; 22 mpg) city / 24 mpg (9.8 L / 100 km; 29 mpg) highway (last gen: 17 mpg (14 L / 100 km; 20 mpg) city / 23 mpg (10 L / 100 km; 28 mpg) hwy).
For 2009, Toyota again offered a 4 - cylinder for 5 - passenger front - wheel drive models with the all - new ULEV - II certified 2.7 - liter 1AR - FE I4 paired to a six - speed automatic. It generates 187 hp (139 kW) at 5,800 rpm and 186 lb ⋅ ft (252 N ⋅ m) of peak torque at 4,100 rpm on regular 87 octane fuel. The four - cylinder delivers an EPA estimated fuel economy of 20 mpg (12 L / 100 km; 24 mpg) city and 27 mpg (8.7 L / 100 km; 32 mpg) highway. This is better than the previous model 's four - cylinder with 19 mpg (12 L / 100 km; 23 mpg) / 25 mpg (9.4 L / 100 km; 30 mpg).
The same three trim levels were offered (Base, Sport, and Limited) until early 2010 when the SE model replaced the Sport model, buyers are still able to choose between front - drive or all - wheel drive on V6 platforms. Also new is an Electric Power Steering (EPS) system. Sport and Limited models get a standard backup camera using a 3.5 - inch LCD display. Major options include leather seats, heated seats, a touch - screen DVD based navigation system, a new Smart Key System, an upgraded JBL Synthesis stereo, a rear - seat DVD entertainment system with 9 - inch screen, and a towing package that increases towing capacity to 5000 pounds.
The XU40 was initially produced exclusively at the Miyata plant in Miyawaka, Fukuoka, Japan for all global markets beginning in May 2007. Production in China for local sales was started on 25 May 2009 by GAC Toyota in Nansha District, Guangzhou, Guangdong. Toyota had intended on building the Highlander in Blue Springs, Mississippi for the North American market in the 2011 model year. However, the Corolla was built there instead, and the Highlander is being built at Toyota Motor Manufacturing Indiana in Princeton, Indiana, from the 2010 model year onward for a majority of North America, replacing Tundra production. TMMI Highlander production began in October 2009 for gasoline engine models only; hybrids continued to be imported from Japan until the release of the third generation XU50, where all production except for China was consolidated at TMMI.
In Australia, the new generation Kluger was launched in August 2007. There are three grades available, KX - R, KX - S and Grande. All grades are available with either 2WD or AWD. The base model KX - R is also available with either five or seven seats, whilst the latter grades are seven seaters only. Specifications are mostly similar to the US Highlander, sharing the same 3.5 - litre V6 2GR - FE engine and five - speed automatic transmission. However, there are no plans at present to introduce a hybrid version of the Kluger into the Australian market.
In 2010, for the 2011 model year, Toyota made some changes to the Highlander and Highlander Hybrid. While the general design remains similar to the 2010 model, the Highlander 's front end has been significantly revised, now featuring new headlights, a new black with chrome accent rocker panel, and new front grille. The non-hybrid engines for 2011 remain the same, although now the 2.7 - liter four - cylinder engine may be had on the SE trim level, previously only available on the base model. More standard features are now equipped on all trim levels, with the base model receiving front and rear air conditioning, power locks / windows, cruise control, and a multi-function keyless entry control.
Pre-facelift styling
Front
Rear
Post-facelift styling
Front (Kluger KX - S)
Rear (Kluger KX - R)
All models come standard with enhanced Vehicle Stability Control which immediately alters electric powering steering assist w / traction control (hybrids come standard with VDIM), anti-lock brakes, brake assist and electronic brakeforce distribution. Also standard is a tire pressure monitor, a driver 's knee airbag, front seat - mounted side torso airbags, side curtain airbags for all three rows which includes a rollover sensor and active front headrests. Hill Start Assist Control (HAC) is also standard which prevents rolling backwards on slopes, and Downhill Assist Control (DAC) is standard on AWD trims.
The IIHS rates the Highlander "Good '' overall in their frontal offset crash test, and good in all subcategories except for "Head / neck, '' which is rated as "Acceptable. '' And "Good '' overall in the side impact crash test, with "Good '' rating in all nine measured categories. The Highlander is also rated "Good '' in the roof strength test, giving it a "top safety pick '' rating.
In Australasian New Car Assessment Program (ANCAP) testing the Kluger is given a rating but only a rating for pedestrian protection.
The safety and effectiveness of the Highlander / Kluger 's Vehicle Stability Control system has been questioned by some motoring journalists. During testing for Wheels magazine Car of the Year in 2007, the magazine 's editor rolled the vehicle during high - speed gravel road testing. Noting that it was the first such event in the magazine 's 45 - year history, he criticised the vehicle 's stability system stating that "Deficiencies in the Kluger 's ESP contributed to the crash ''. Six of the seven other judges also stated that they felt "the vehicle 's ESP performance was sub-standard '', and remarked that the vehicle was "almost dangerous on dirt (roads) ''. In a written response, Toyota disputed the circumstances of the accident and criticised the testing procedures as "unscientific ''.
The Kluger Hybrid features Toyota 's Hybrid Synergy Drive which continues to allow an electric only powered mode for short distances and speeds. Weight and cost have been improved over the previous hybrid.
The expanded size and new features have led to an increase of 500 pounds to its curb weight. All Highlander Hybrids are all - wheel drive, and the EPA has rated the hybrid at 27 mpg (8.7 L / 100 km; 32 mpg) for the city and 25 mpg (9.4 L / 100 km; 30 mpg) for the highway, same as the previous model. The Highlander 's fuel economy, while better than the Lexus RX 400h 's, lags behind the compact 4cyl Ford Escape Hybrid, which ceased production in 2012, and the latest RX 450h, but still produces significantly fewer emissions than the non-hybrid version with a CARB SULEV rating.
The Highlander Hybrid continues to use the same 3.3 - liter 3MZ - FE V6 (208 hp) offered in AWD from the prior model, net power is 270 hp (201 kW). VDIM and Electronically Controlled Brake remain new features include a driver selectable electric only EV mode (when possible) and another ECON mode which restricts acceleration and minimizes air conditioning during acceleration. The Highlander Hybrid Hybrid uses a 1.9 kWh sealed nickel - metal hydride traction battery.
For the 2011 model year the Highlander Hybrid received styling changes and was upgraded with the 3.5 - liter 2GR - FXE V6 (245 hp), increasing net power by 10 hp (7 kW), and a powertrain similar to the RX450h. The vehicle is now rated at 28 mpg (8 L / 100 km; 34 mpg) for the city, highway and combined cycles.
It was a test vehicle using compressed hydrogen gas, with average fuel economy of 68.3 miles / kg (approximate mpg equivalent).
The vehicle was unveiled in 2007 LA motor show.
The Chinese version of the Highlander (ASU40 / GSU45) was unveiled in 2009 at the 13th Shanghai International Automobile Industry Exhibition.
In mid-2012, Union Motors (Toyota 's Israeli - Market Import Company) announced that it will begin importing the Highlander in late 2012, however, this was delayed to 2013.
On 27 March 2013, Toyota unveiled the third - generation XU50 series Highlander at the New York International Auto Show, with plans to have the vehicle reach dealerships in early 2014. Production began on 5 December. This version is longer and wider than the outgoing generation and its design has changed from its boxy look to one that is similar to other mid-size crossover SUVs.
In addition to the changes, this one will feature seating for eight people with a sliding second - row point of entry that gives it 4.3 inches of added width space, soft - touch materials on the instrument panel, lane - departure warning, pre-collision warning and blind spot monitoring systems. HD Radio and Bluetooth will become a standard on all trims for the US version, which will also come equipped with Toyota 's Entune multimedia system along with a 6.1 - inch touchscreen display audio system. An eight - inch touchscreen system and Toyota 's Entune app suite with 12 JBL speakers will be offered as an optional feature. The three powertrain trims that will be offered include a 2.7 - liter, six - speed automatic, front - wheel drive base model, a 3.5 - liter, six - speed automatic model in both front - or all - wheel drive, and the AWD - only Hybrid trim with a 3.5 - liter V6 mated to an eCVT.
The newest Highlander is also approved for use as a New York City taxicab.
A refreshed 2017 model year Highlander appeared at the March 2016 New York Auto Show with sales starting in the fourth quarter of 2016. In V6 powered models, an eight - speed automatic replaced the six - speeder and the revised V6 engine (now designated 2GR - FKS) added Toyota 's D4 - S direct injection fuel system. The new Highlander has a new fascia with restyled headlights and taillights, new SE grade, and XLE and LE Hybrid grades plus new exterior and interior colors.
Pre-facelift styling
Front (GXL)
Rear (Grande)
Post-facelift styling
Front (GX)
Rear
Toyota set a Highlander sales record in the US in 2017, selling 215,775 Highlanders.
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are any of the members of portugal the man portuguese | Portugal national football team - wikipedia
The Portugal national football team (Portuguese: Seleção Portuguesa de Futebol, pronounced (sɨlɛˈsɐ̃w̃ puɾtuˈgezɐ dɨ futɨˈbɔl)) represents Portugal in international men 's association football competition since 1921. It is controlled by the Portuguese Football Federation, the governing body for football in Portugal.
Portugal 's first participation in a major tournament finals, at the 1966 FIFA World Cup, saw a team featuring famed striker Eusébio finish in third place. The next two times Portugal qualified for the World Cup finals were in 1986 and 2002, going out in the first round both times. Portugal also made it to the semi-finals of the UEFA Euro 1984 final tournament, losing 3 -- 2 after extra time to the hosts and eventual winners France. The team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2000, the 2006 World Cup and Euro 2012, as well as the final of Euro 2004, the latter on home soil. At Euro 2016, Portugal won its first ever major trophy, defeating hosts France 1 -- 0 after extra time, with the winning goal scored by Eder. With the win, Portugal qualified and made its first appearance in the FIFA Confederations Cup held in Russia, where they finished third.
The team 's home stadium is the Estádio Nacional, in Oeiras, although most of their home games are frequently played in other stadia across the country. The current head coach is Fernando Santos and the captain is Cristiano Ronaldo, who holds the team records for most caps and goals.
Portugal was not invited to the 1930 World Cup, which only featured a final stage and no qualification round. The team took part in the 1934 FIFA World Cup qualification, but failed to eliminate their Spanish opponents, aggregating two defeats in the two - legged round, with a 9 -- 0 loss in Madrid and 2 -- 1 loss in Lisbon for an aggregate score of 11 -- 1.
In the 1938 FIFA World Cup qualification, the Seleção played one game against Switzerland in a neutral ground, held in Milan, losing 2 -- 1 against the Swiss, ending qualification prospects. Because of the international conflict due to the World War II, there was no World Cup held until the 1950 competition and subsequently, the national team made very few games against other teams. A 10 -- 0 home friendly defeat against England, two years after the war, was the proof of how the irregularity of the games had taken its effects on the squad; this result still stands as their biggest ever defeat.
On the restart of games, the team was to play a two - legged round against Spain, just like in the 1934 qualification. After a 5 -- 1 defeat in Madrid, they managed to draw in the second game 2 -- 2 and so the qualification ended with a 7 -- 3 aggregate score.
For the qualification of the 1954 World Cup, the team would play Austria. The Austrians won the first game with a humiliating 9 -- 1 result. The best the national team could do was hold the team to a goalless draw in Lisbon, and the round ended with a 9 -- 1 defeat.
In the 1958 qualification, Portugal won a qualification match for the first time, 3 -- 0 at home with Italy. Nevertheless, they finished last in the group stage that also featured Northern Ireland; only the first - placed team, Northern Ireland, would qualify.
The year 1960 was the year that UEFA created the European Football Championship. The first edition was a knock - out tournament, the last four teams participating in final stage that only featured one leg while the older stages had two legs. For the first round, the Seleção das Quinas won 2 -- 0 against East Germany and 3 -- 2 in Porto for the second leg, finishing with a 5 -- 2 two - legged win. The quarter - final opponent was Yugoslavia. Despite winning the first game 2 -- 1, they lost the second leg 5 -- 1 in Belgrade, and lost 6 -- 3 on aggregate.
England and Luxembourg were the 1962 FIFA World Cup qualification adversaries of the national team. Portugal ended second in the group, behind England. Like in the previous World Cup qualification, only the first in the group would qualify.
In the 1964 European Championship. Portugal played against Bulgaria in the first round. The Portuguese lost in Sofia and won in Lisbon. With the round tied 4 -- 4, a replay was needed in a neutral ground. In Rome, Portugal lost 1 -- 0.
In the Euro 1972 qualifiers, Portugal had to win its group that comprised the teams of Belgium, Denmark and Scotland. Portugal finished second to Belgium.
For the 1974 qualification stages, Portugal were unable to defeat Bulgaria (2 -- 2) in the decisive match, thus not qualifying.
Portugal faced tough competition from the strong Poland team for the place in the 1978 World Cup in Argentina. They finished second place, behind Poland.
The national team was put alongside Austria, Belgium, Norway and Scotland to fight for the first spot in the group, which would allow them to go to the final stage of UEFA Euro 1980. Portugal took third place.
For the 1982 qualification, the Portuguese team had to face Israel, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Sweden for the top two group places. Portugal finished in fourth place.
During the qualifying campaign for Euro 1984, Portugal was grouped with Finland, Poland and the Soviet Union. Portugal won the group with a win over the Soviet Union. Portugal ended in Group B, alongside Spain, West Germany and Romania. In the first two matches, they tied 0 -- 0 and 1 -- 1 against West Germany and Spain, respectively. A 1 -- 0 win over Romania gave them second place in the group, to go through to the knockout stage, where they were matched against the hosts, France. The game was tied after 90 minutes and went into extra time; Portugal made the score 2 -- 1, but France scored in the 114th and 119th minutes to eliminate Portugal 3 -- 2 and go through to the final.
For the 1986 tournament, the Seleção played against Czechoslovakia, Malta, Sweden and West Germany for the two spots that would guarantee them a ticket to Mexico. Needing a win in the last game against West Germany in Stuttgart, Portugal won the game to become the first team to beat West Germany at their home ground in an official match. The team exited early in the group stages after a win and two losses. They started with a 1 -- 0 win to England, but later were beaten by Poland and Morocco 1 -- 0 and 3 -- 1 respectively. Their staying in Mexico was marked by the Saltillo affair, where players refused to train in order to win more prizes from the Football Federation.
For the UEFA Euro 1988 the Portuguese team attempted to top their qualifying group in a group with Italy, Malta, Sweden and Switzerland; however, they finished in third.
The 1990 World Cup qualification was in a group along with Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Luxembourg and Switzerland, Portugal fought to get one of the first two spots of the group. Playing at home against Czechoslovakia, the game ended in a 0 -- 0 allowing the East Europeans to get the second place.
During the draws for the Euro 1992 qualifying, the Netherlands, Greece, Finland and Malta were the other teams. The Portuguese ended second behind the Dutch.
For the 1994 World Cup qualification, Portugal played in the same group as Estonia, Italy, Malta, Scotland and Switzerland for the two highest places. They ended in third behind Italy and Switzerland.
Portugal was invited to play at the SkyDome Cup in Toronto, Canada, against Denmark and Canada. With a draw against the Canadians (1 -- 1) and a win against the Danes, Portugal won the trophy.
Portugal qualified for the Euro 1996 after topping their group ahead of Austria, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, the latter finishing as runners - up. At the Euro 1996 final stage, after drawing 1 -- 1 with Denmark, Portugal defeated Turkey 1 -- 0 and Croatia 3 -- 0 to finish first in Group D. In the quarter - finals, they lost 1 -- 0 to Czech Republic. This marked the beginning of the Golden Generation, a group of youngsters who had won the FIFA U-20 World Cup in 1989 and 1991 and were now leading the national senior squad.
Portugal failed to qualify for the 1998 FIFA World Cup. The 1 -- 1 draw against Germany after a controversial decision of sending off Rui Costa by French referee Marc Batta effectively blowed away Portugal 's hope.
In Euro 2000 qualifying, Portugal finished second in their group, one point short of first - placed Romania. However, after finishing as the top runner - up nation in qualifying, Portugal nonetheless secured passage to the tournament final stage. In the final stage, they defeated England 3 -- 2, Romania 1 -- 0 and Germany 3 -- 0 to finish first in Group A, then defeated Turkey in the quarter - finals. In the semi-final against hosts France, Portugal were eliminated in extra time when Zinedine Zidane converted a penalty. Referee Günter Benkö awarded the spot kick for a handball after Abel Xavier blocked a shot. Xavier, Nuno Gomes and Paulo Bento were all given lengthy suspensions for subsequently shoving the referee. The final result was 2 -- 1.
During 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying, Portugal won the group. Several problems and poor judgment decisions occurred during the preparation and tournament itself -- shopping sprees by players were widely reported in the Portuguese press. Questionable managing choices and some amateurism, including the same lack of agreement on prizes. Portugal underachieved and ended third in its group stage, subsequently eliminated. Manager António Oliveira was fired after the World Cup. Portugal entered the tournament as favourites to win Group D. However, they were upset 3 -- 2 by the United States. They then rebounded with a 4 -- 0 smashing of Poland. Needing a draw to advance, they lost the final group game to hosts South Korea.
The next major competition, the UEFA Euro 2004, was held in Portugal. On the preparation, the Football Federation made a contract with Luiz Felipe Scolari to manage the team until the tournament ended. The Portuguese team entered the tournament being a favourite to win it. The host nation lost the first game against Greece 1 -- 2. They got their first win against Russia 2 -- 0 and also beat Spain 1 -- 0. They went on to play against England, in a 2 -- 2 draw that went into penalties, with Portugal winning. Portugal beat the Netherlands 2 -- 1 in the semi-final. They were beaten by Greece 1 -- 0 in the final.
After the tournament ended, a lot of players belonging to the Geração de Ouro (Golden Generation), abandoned their international footballing careers, with only Luís Figo remaining in the team, despite a temporary retirement.
The silver lining for Portugal was the emergence of Cristiano Ronaldo. Ronaldo was selected in the UEFA Euro All Stars Team. While Portugal was playing in the competition, Scolari agreed in a new two - year deal with the Federation.
Portugal finished first in the qualifying round for the 2006 World Cup. Portugal finished first place in Group D of the World Cup, with victories over Angola (1 -- 0), Iran (2 -- 0) and Mexico (2 -- 1). The Netherlands lost to Portugal 1 -- 0 in the Round of 16 in Nuremberg in an acrimonious match marked by 16 yellow cards, with four players sent off. (See the Battle of Nuremberg.) Portugal drew 0 -- 0 after extra-time with England, but won 3 -- 1 on penalties to reach their first World Cup semi-final since 1966. Portugal lost 1 -- 0 against France in the semi-finals. Portugal faced Germany in the third place play - off match in a 3 -- 1 defeat. Ultimately, the team won the "Most Entertaining Team '' award for their play during the World Cup. Once again Scolari was asked to accept a new deal with the Federation that would maintain with as the manager until the end of the next competition.
For Euro 2008 Portugal finished second in qualification behind Poland, and won their first two group games against Turkey and the Czech Republic, although a loss to co-hosts Switzerland set up a quarter - final matchup with Germany which the team lost 2 -- 3. After the tournament, Scolari left to take over at Chelsea.
Portugal came second in the qualifying stages for the 2010 FIFA World Cup under Carlos Quieroz, then beat Bosnia and Herzegovina in a play - off, thereby reaching every tournament in the decade. A 19 - match undefeated streak, in which the team conceded only three goals, ended with a loss to eventual champions Spain in the round of 16, 1 -- 0. Queiroz was later criticised for setting up his team in an overly cautious way. After the World Cup, squad regulars Simão, Paulo Ferreira, Miguel and Tiago all retired from international football. Queiroz was banned from coaching the national team for one month after he tried to block a doping test to the team while preparing for the World Cup, as well as directing insulting words to the testers. In consequence, he received a further six - month suspension. Several media outbursts from Queiroz against the heads of the Portuguese Football Federation followed, which partly prompted his dismissal. Paulo Bento was appointed as his replacement at head coach.
Bento 's team qualified for Euro 2012, They were drawn with Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands in a widely - speculated "group of death ''. They lost their first game 0 -- 1 to Germany, then beat Denmark 3 -- 2. The final group stage match was against the Netherlands. After Van der Vaart had given the Dutch a 1 -- 0 lead, Ronaldo netted twice to ensure a 2 -- 1 victory. Portugal finished second in the group and qualified for the knockout phase. Portugal defeated the Czech Republic 1 -- 0 in the quarter - finals with a header from Ronaldo. The semifinal match was against Spain. The game ended 0 -- 0 and Portugal lost 4 -- 2 on penalties.
In 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifying, Portugal won 4 -- 2 on aggregate in a play - off against Sweden with all four goals being scored by Ronaldo, and was drawn into Group G with the United States, Germany and Ghana. Their first match against the Germans was their worst - ever defeat in a World Cup, a 4 -- 0 loss. They went on to draw 2 -- 2 against the United States and won 2 -- 1 against Ghana. However, the team were eliminated due to inferior goal difference to the Americans.
Portugal began the Euro 2016 qualifiers with a 0 -- 1 home defeat against Albania, which resulted in Bento being dismissed from his managerial post to be replaced by Fernando Santos in September 2014. Nevertheless, the team qualified and were placed in Group F alongside newcomers Iceland, Austria and Hungary. The first match against Iceland was a 1 -- 1 draw with Nani scoring for Portugal. The second match ended goalless against Austria with Ronaldo missing a penalty. The final match of the group stage was against Hungary. Portugal came from behind to end the match 3 -- 3 with a goal from Nani and two from Ronaldo. They moved into the knockout stage as the third - best third place team. Portugal beat Croatia 1 -- 0 in the Round of 16 after a goal from Ricardo Quaresma in extra time. In the quarter - finals, Robert Lewandowski scored in the early minutes but Renato Sanches scored the equaliser in the 33rd to level the match. After the match finished in a 1 -- 1 draw after extra time, Portugal defeated Poland 5 -- 3 on penalties to reach the semi-finals. In the semi-finals they defeated Wales 2 -- 0 in regulation time with goals from Ronaldo and Nani to reach the final at the Stade de France against hosts France. The early stages of the final saw Ronaldo limp off the pitch injured after a challenge from Dimitri Payet. In spite of creating chances, both sides failed to find the net, with the hosts being denied of any goals owing to the brilliance of Portuguese goalkeeper Rui Patrício and a compact defence led by Pepe. After the match ended 0 -- 0 in regulation time, substitute Eder scored the match 's only goal in the 109th minute, sending Portugal to a 1 -- 0 victory after extra time. Ronaldo won the Silver Boot, scoring three goals and creating three assists. They are also the only team to progress to the knock - out stage in all of their (seven) European Championship appearances.
Following their Euro 2016 victory, Portugal participated in the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, where they finished third.
Portugal 's qualifying and friendly matches were broadcast by RTP, and continued to be so until 2017.
The following players were called up for the friendly matches against Egypt on 23 March and the Netherlands on 26 March 2018. Caps and goals are correct as of 26 March 2018 after the game against Netherlands.
The following players have also been called up to the Portugal squad within the last 12 months.
Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury. Preliminary squad. Retired from international football.
Key: GS, Group stage; R16, round of 16; QF, quarter - finals; SF, semi-finals; 3rd, third - place match; FWC, FIFA World Cup; FWC Q, FIFA World Cup qualification; UEFA NL A, UEFA Nations League A; FCC, FIFA Confederations Cup
Champions Runners - up Third place Fourth place
Major:
Minor:
Other:
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who is the district attorney of the united states | United States Attorney - wikipedia
United States Attorneys (also known as chief federal prosecutors and, historically, as United States District Attorneys) represent the United States federal government in United States district courts and United States courts of appeals.
The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings.
There are 93 U.S. Attorney offices located throughout the United States, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands. One U.S. Attorney is assigned to each of the judicial districts, with the exception of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands where a single U.S. Attorney serves both districts. Each U.S. Attorney is the chief federal law enforcement officer within his or her particular jurisdiction, acting under the guidance of the United States Attorneys ' Manual. They supervise district offices with as many as 350 Assistant U.S. Attorneys (AUSAs) and as many as 350 support personnel.
An Assistant United States Attorney (AUSA), or federal prosecutor, is a public official who represents the federal government on behalf of the U.S. Attorney (USA) in criminal prosecutions, and in certain civil cases as either the plaintiff or the defendant. In carrying out their duties as prosecutors, AUSAs have the authority to investigate persons, issue subpoenas, file formal criminal charges, plea bargain with defendants, and grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals.
U.S. Attorneys and their offices are part of the Department of Justice. U.S. Attorneys receive oversight, supervision, and administrative support services through the Justice Department 's Executive Office for United States Attorneys. Selected U.S. Attorneys participate in the Attorney General 's Advisory Committee of United States Attorneys.
The Office of the United States Attorney was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789, along with the office of Attorney General and the United States Marshals Service. The same act also specified the structure of the Supreme Court of the United States and established inferior courts making up the United States Federal Judiciary, including a district court system. Thus, the office of U.S. Attorney is older than the Department of Justice. The Judiciary Act of 1789 provided for the appointment in each judicial district of a "Person learned in the law to act as attorney for the United States... whose duty it shall be to prosecute in each district all delinquents for crimes and offenses cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be concerned... '' Prior to the existence of the Department of Justice, the U.S. Attorneys were independent of the Attorney General, and did not come under the AG 's supervision and authority until 1870, with the creation of the Department of Justice.
The U.S. Attorney is appointed by the President of the United States for a term of four years, with appointments subject to confirmation by the Senate. A U.S. Attorney continues in office, beyond the appointed term, until a successor is appointed and qualified. By law, each United States attorney is subject to removal by the President. The Attorney General has had the authority since 1986 to appoint interim U.S. Attorneys to fill a vacancy.
The governing statute, 28 U.S.C. § 546 provided, up until March 9, 2006:
(c) A person appointed as United States attorney under this section may serve until the earlier of --
(d) If an appointment expires under subsection (c) (2), the district court for such district may appoint a United States attorney to serve until the vacancy is filled. The order of appointment by the court shall be filed with the clerk of the court.
On March 9, 2007, President George W. Bush signed into law the USA PATRIOT Act which amended Section 546 by striking subsections (c) and (d) and inserting the following new subsection:
(c) A person appointed as United States attorney under this section may serve until the qualification of a United States Attorney for such district appointed by the President under section 541 of this title.
This, in effect, extinguished the 120 - day limit on interim U.S. Attorneys, and their appointment had an indefinite term. If the president failed to put forward any nominee to the Senate, then the Senate confirmation process was avoided, as the Attorney General - appointed interim U.S. Attorney could continue in office without limit or further action. Related to the dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy, in March 2007 the Senate and the House voted to overturn the amendments of the USA PATRIOT Act to the interim appointment statute. The bill was signed by President George W. Bush, and became law in June 2007.
Senator Dianne Feinstein (D, California), summarized the history of interim United States Attorney appointments, on March 19, 2007 in the Senate.
When first looking into this issue, I found that the statutes had given the courts the authority to appoint an interim U.S. attorney and that this dated back as far as the Civil War. Specifically, the authority was first vested with the circuit courts in March 1863.
Then, in 1898, a House of Representatives report explained that while Congress believed it was important to have the courts appoint an interim U.S. attorney:
' There was a problem relying on circuit courts since the circuit justice is not always to be found in the circuit and time is wasted in ascertaining his whereabouts. '
Therefore, at that time, the interim appointment authority was switched to the district courts; that is, in 1898 it was switched to the district courts.
Thus, for almost 100 years, the district courts were in charge of appointing interim U.S. attorneys, and they did so with virtually no problems. This structure was left undisturbed until 1986 when the statute was changed during the Reagan administration. In a bill that was introduced by Senator Strom Thurmond, the statute was changed to give the appointment authority to the Attorney General, but even then it was restricted and the Attorney General had a 120 - day time limit. After that time, if a nominee was not confirmed, the district courts would appoint an interim U.S. attorney. The adoption of this language was part of a larger package that was billed as technical amendments to criminal law, and thus there was no recorded debate in either the House or the Senate and both Chambers passed the bill by voice vote.
Then, 20 years later, in March 2006 -- again without much debate and again as a part of a larger package -- a statutory change was inserted into the PATRIOT Act reauthorization. This time, the Executive 's power was expanded even further, giving the Attorney General the authority to appoint an interim replacement indefinitely and without Senate confirmation.
The U.S. Attorney is both the primary representative and the administrative head of the Office of the U.S. Attorney for the district. The U.S. Attorney 's Office (USAO) is the chief prosecutor for the United States in criminal law cases, and represents the United States in civil law cases as either the defendant or plaintiff, as appropriate. However, they are not the only one that can represent the United States in Court. In certain circumstances, using an action called a qui tam, any U.S. citizen, provided they are represented by an attorney, can represent the interests of the United States, and share in penalties assessed against guilty parties.
The U.S. Attorney for the District of Columbia has the additional responsibility of prosecuting local criminal cases in the Superior Court of the District of Columbia, the equivalent of a municipal court for the national capital. The Superior Court is a federal Article I court.
The Executive Office for United States Attorneys (EOUSA) provides the administrative support for the 93 United States Attorneys (encompassing 94 United States Attorneys ' offices, as the Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands has a single U.S. Attorney for both districts), including:
These responsibilities include certain legal, budgetary, administrative, and personnel services, as well as legal education.
The EOUSA was created on April 6, 1953, by Attorney General Order No. 8 - 53 to provide for close liaison between the Department of Justice in Washington, DC, and the 93 U.S. attorneys located throughout the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. It was organized by Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals judge James R. Browning, who also served as its first chief.
Note: Except as indicated parenthetically, the foregoing links are to the corresponding district court, rather than to the U.S. Attorney 's Office.
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the aztec capital of tenochtitlan was modeled after this | Tenochtitlan - wikipedia
Tenochtitlan (Spanish: Tenochtitlan, Spanish pronunciation: (ˈmexiko tenotʃˈtitlan) (listen)), originally known as México - Tenochtitlan (Classical Nahuatl: Mēxihco - Tenōchtitlan (meːˈʃíʔ. ko te. noːt͡ʃ. ˈtí. t͡ɬan)), was a large Mexica city - state on an island in Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico. Founded on June 20, 1325, it was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire in the 15th century until it was captured by the Spanish in 1521.
At its peak, it was the largest city in the Pre-Columbian Americas. It subsequently became a cabecera of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. Today, the ruins of Tenochtitlan are in the historic center of Mexico City.
Tenochtitlan was one of two Nahua āltēpetl (city - states) on the island, the other being Tlatelolco.
Traditionally, the name Tenochtitlan was thought to come from Nahuatl tetl (ˈtetɬ) ("rock '') and nōchtli (ˈnoːtʃtɬi) ("prickly pear '') and is often thought to mean, "Among the prickly pears (growing among) rocks ''. However, one attestation in the late 16th - century manuscript known as "the Bancroft dialogues '' suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.
Tenochtitlan covered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km (3.1 to 5.2 sq mi), situated on the western side of the shallow Lake Texcoco.
At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised both Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. The city extended from north to south, from the north border of Tlatelolco to the swamps, which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location of Avenida Bucareli.
The city was connected to the mainland by causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to defend the city. The city was interlaced with a series of canals, so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or via canoe.
Lake Texcoco was the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in an endorheic basin, Lake Texcoco was brackish. During the reign of Moctezuma I, the "levee of Nezahualcoyotl '' was constructed, reputedly designed by Nezahualcoyotl. Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completed circa 1453. The levee kept fresh spring - fed water in the waters around Tenochtitlan and kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.
Two double aqueducts, each more than 4 km (2.5 mi) long and made of terracotta, provided the city with fresh water from the springs at Chapultepec. This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day; Moctezuma was said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant called copalxocotl (Saponaria americana), and to clean their clothes they used the root of metl (Agave americana). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in a temazcalli, similar to a sauna bath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.
When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.
The city was divided into four zones, or camps; each camp was divided into 20 districts (calpullis, Nahuatl calpōlli); and each calpulli, or ' big house ', was crossed by streets or tlaxilcalli. There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland of Tepeyac, Ixtapalpa, and Tlacopan. Bernal Díaz del Castillo reported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees. The calpullis were divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.
The earliest European images of the city were woodcuts published in Augsburg around 1522.
Each calpulli (from Classical Nahuatl calpōlli, Nahuatl pronunciation: (kaɬˈpoːlːi), meaning "large house '') had its own tiyanquiztli (marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace in Tlatelolco -- Tenochtitlan 's sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city of Salamanca with about 60,000 people trading daily. Bernardino de Sahagún provides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.
In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: the Templo Mayor, which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deity Huitzilopochtli and the Rain God Tlaloc; the temple of Quetzalcoatl; the tlachtli (ball game court) with the tzompantli or rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated to Tonatiuh; the Eagle 's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples.
Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was the cuicalli, or house of the songs, and the calmecac.
The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by the calmimilocatl, a functionary in charge of the city planning.
The palace of Moctezuma II also had two houses or zoos, one for birds of prey and another for other birds, reptiles, and mammals. About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.
There was also a botanical garden and an aquarium. The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed in Texcoco, Chapultepec, Huaxtepec (now called Oaxtepec), and Texcotzingo.
Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification. The complex system involved many social classes. The macehualtin were commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan. The pipiltin were noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island. Cuauhipiltin, or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles. Teteuctin were the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king. Tlacohtin were individuals who chose to enslave themselves to pay back a debt; they were not slaves forever and were not treated as badly as typical slaves seen in other ancient civilizations worldwide. Finally, the pochteca were merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was based on heredity. Pochteca could become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast of Xocotl Huetzi from the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.
Status was displayed by location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs. The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.
Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was the calpolli. Calpolli, meaning ' big house ' is a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.
Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of the Mexica people, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a (Opuntia) cactus.
The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in Lake Texcoco, a vision that is now immortalized in Mexico 's coat of arms and on the Mexican flag. Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using the chinampa system (misnamed as "floating gardens '') for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.
A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged as Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest and most powerful city in Mesoamerica. Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even the Inca Empire.
After a flood of Lake Texcoco, the city was rebuilt under the rule of Ahuitzotl in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.
Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés arrived in Tenochtitlan on November 8, 1519. With an estimated population between 200,000 and 300,000, many scholars believe Tenochtitlan to have been among the largest cities in the world at that time. Compared to the cities of Europe, only Paris, Venice and Constantinople might have rivaled it. It was five times the size of the London of Henry VIII. In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote that Tenochtitlan was as large as Seville or Córdoba. Cortes ' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.
Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000, the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 km (5.2 sq mi), It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.
When Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma II, who precariously ruled over a large empire, chose to welcome Cortés as an honored guest, rather than risk a war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people. Moctezuma may have feared that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoat, because the Spanish arrival coincided with the close of an Aztec calendar cycle consistent with such a return. This claim is found in the Florenino Codex, among other early sources, and accepted as true in many later histories. However, some scholars doubt it.
As Cortés approached Tenochtitlan, the natives celebrated Toxcatl. At this event the most prominent warriors of altepetl would dance in front of a huge statue of Huitzilopochtli. The Spanish leader, Pedro de Alvarado, who was left in charge, worried that the natives planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this was indeed true. There was no proof, however, but Alvarado decided to attack first. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan..
Nobles lined each side of the city 's main causeway, which extended about a league. Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler of Iztapalapa. Cortés dismounted and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.
They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have. He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it.
Since arriving in Tenochtitlan, Cortés faced early trouble. Leaving a post in Vera Cruz, the officer left in charge received a letter from Qualpopoca, the leader of Almería, asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.
When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed. Back in Tenochtitlan, Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him. Though no serious conclusions were reached, this started the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards on a bad note.
Cortés subsequently besieged Tenochtitlan for 75 days, causing a famine, directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city, and began its rebuilding, despite opposition, with a central area designated for Spanish use (the traza). The outer Indian section, now dubbed San Juan Tenochtitlan, continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.. While the people of Tenochtitlan were celebrating the few Spaniards who were not able to escape and were killed, the city was in great ruins.
The people of Tenochtitlan were exposed to diseases. Someone who was exposed would not feel it for the first ten days, then the disease would spread throughout the body, causing many sores, pain in the body and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor obtain food and water. They could n't cook or bury the remaining dead bodies from the conquest. The population of the people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days.
Tenochtitlan 's main temple complex, the Templo Mayor, was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978 -- 1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui. The disc is 3.25 meters in diameter (or 10.5 ft), and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum.
The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally.
Mexico City 's Zócalo, the Plaza de la Constitución, is located at the site of Tenochtitlan 's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern city streets. The Aztec calendar stone was located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters in diameter and weighs over 20 tons. It was once located half - way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of King Axayacatl, the predecessor of Tizoc, and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future.
In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five metres below street level in Mexico City. The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults and a complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.
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which episode of the simpsons does edna die | Alone Again, Natura - Diddily - wikipedia
Shawn Colvin as Rachel Jordan
"Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' is the fourteenth episode of the eleventh season of The Simpsons, and marks the final regular appearance of the character Maude Flanders. In the episode, she is killed in an accident while watching a speedway race, devastating Ned Flanders and prompting Homer to find a new woman for his grieving neighbor. After a series of unsuccessful dates, Ned begins to question his faith in God. However, his faith is restored after hearing the female lead singer of a Christian rock band, played by guest star Shawn Colvin, sing in church. The episode 's title is a parody based upon the song "Alone Again (Naturally) '' by Gilbert O'Sullivan.
The episode was written by Ian Maxtone - Graham and directed by Jim Reardon. Maude was voiced by Marcia Mitzman Gaven while regular voice actor Maggie Roswell had left the show over a pay dispute, but the producers decided to kill off the character to open up for new storylines. Another reason for her death was to increase ratings. The episode was viewed in 10.8 million households during its original broadcast on February 13, 2000, and became the highest - rated show on the Fox network the week it aired.
A commercial for "Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' that aired before the episode was broadcast attracted criticism from many viewers because it appeared the episode would be parodying an incident at Lowe 's Motor Speedway in Charlotte, North Carolina that left three spectators dead. Then - Fox affiliate WCCB in Charlotte, North Carolina refused to show the commercial, but after viewing the episode they came to the conclusion that it was not making fun of the incident. Reviews of "Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' from television critics have been mixed.
On a trip to the bird sanctuary, the Simpson family discovers that a speedway raceway built around the sanctuary is opening that day, to Lisa 's dismay. The family watches from the stand and sees Ned Flanders and his family, who claims to enjoy the high levels of safety the drivers use. Later, a squad of cheerleaders fires free T - shirts from air cannons into the crowd, and Homer rudely demands one. Irritated, Maude leaves to buy hot dogs. The cheerleaders send a full salvo of T - shirts in Homer 's direction, but he bends down at the last second to pick up a bobby pin on the ground. Maude returns at that exact moment, gets hit by the T - shirts and falls over the edge of the bleachers to her death on the parking lot.
Everyone offers their condolences to Ned, and Bart reluctantly plays a Christian video game with Rod and Todd. Homer accompanies Ned back home after the funeral and talks with him later that night when Ned is unable to sleep due to his loneliness and now having to raise his sons alone. To help him get on with his life, Homer secretly makes a videotape of Ned to show to single girls across Springfield. Ned gets to date several women thanks to the tape, including Lindsey Naegle and Edna Krabappel, but none of them are successful.
On a Saturday night, Ned prays to God, but becomes angry when he feels he is not getting any response. The next morning, Ned is still angry and tells his sons he will not be going to church, scaring them. Guilt - ridden, he later rushes to church and upon entering, sees a Christian rock band, Kovenant, performing. He is attracted to the singer, Rachel Jordan, who sings about not losing faith in God because he is always there for people. Inspired by the song, Ned later assists Rachel in loading some equipment onto her truck and confides in her of his loss, with which she sympathizes. He and Rachel become acquainted, but she has to leave for the next stop on the band 's tour, promising to come back and meet up with him afterward.
"Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' was written by Ian Maxtone - Graham and directed by Jim Reardon as part of the eleventh season of the show (1999 -- 2000). When the writing staff conceived the idea for the speedway parts, they were thinking that it would be a great opportunity for them to get several NASCAR drivers to make guest appearances in the episode. However, according to Scully, they could not get a single one because "they were all concerned about the way we were portraying NASCAR ''. Speedway racing is depicted in a negative light in the episode, with an overemphasis on crashes.
The episode features the death of the character Maude Flanders, who had previously been voiced by cast member Maggie Roswell. This kill - off was the result of Roswell leaving The Simpsons in spring 1999 after a pay dispute with the Fox Broadcasting Company, which airs the show. Since 1994, she had been flying between her Denver home and Los Angeles twice a week to record episodes of The Simpsons. She eventually grew tired of this, and the price of plane tickets was constantly increasing. As a result, she asked Fox for a pay raise from $2,000 per episode to $6,000 per episode. However, Fox only offered her a $150 raise, which did not cover the travel costs, so she decided to quit.
Voice actress Marcia Mitzman Gaven was hired to fill in for Roswell 's characters, including Maude in this episode and the earlier episodes of the eleventh season, although the producers decided to kill her off to open up new storylines for the show. Executive producer Mike Scully said it "was a chance for one of our regular characters (Ned Flanders) to face a challenge and grow in a new direction. The idea came up quickly, we all latched on to it, and it just felt right. We did n't want to kill a character for the sake of killing. We wanted it to have consequences for surviving characters to deal with in future episodes. '' Roswell returned to The Simpsons in 2002 after reaching a deal with Fox to record her lines from her home in Denver. Since returning, she has voiced Maude in flashbacks and as a ghost. When asked by The Denver Post on how she thought Ned was doing without Maude, she replied: "OK. But Maude was such a vulnerable character. Maude and Lisa and Marge were the only vulnerable characters, really, everybody else has an edge. So they (the staff) discovered that arc was lost, and now there are a lot of flashbacks with Maude. ''
Scully has noted that "there was a lot of discussion about making sure we (the staff) did deal with some of the emotional ramifications of death (in the episode) and not just make it all joke, joke, joke. But at the same time, we 're a comedy, they 're animated, they 're not real. '' In one of the first scripts for the episode there was a scene in which Rod and Todd discuss their mother 's death. However, according to Maxtone - Graham, the writing staff decided to cut it because "it just never played anything but sad. '' He added that the writers "really wanted to address how (the children) would feel '' but they "could never pull it off without it just being sad. '' Scully has commented that it was a "very sweet scene '' but it was too difficult to "get out of it comedically to the next scene. ''
American musician Shawn Colvin guest starred in the episode as Rachel Jordan, a character that she would later return to voice in the episode "I 'm Goin ' to Praiseland '' (2001) from season twelve. In that episode, she stays at the Flanders ' house with Ned, and leaves briefly after he attempted to mold her in the image of his deceased wife. At the end of the episode, however, she returns and has a date with him. Colvin told the Seattle Post-Intelligencer that being raised in Carbondale, Illinois meant she did not have to do much research for the guest appearance: "It 's just very isolated (in Carbondale). There was church music and that was about it. (...) I did n't have to dig too deep for the role. I suppose the whole ' Simpsons ' thing is kind of like a hick town. '' Colvin has shown a segment of her guest role on The Simpsons during some of her concerts, including one at Cape Cod Melody Tent in 2007. She has also performed the song that she sings in "Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' in concert. The Wisconsin State Journal reported that during her 2001 concert at Barrymore Theatre, the "loudest audience response came after she sang a ditty that she performed as a character on The Simpsons. '' The song, called "He 's the Man '', later appeared on the 2007 soundtrack album The Simpsons: Testify.
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 13, 2000. It tied Dateline NBC for the 17th place (compared the season average of 37) in the ratings for the week of February 7 -- 13, 2000, with a Nielsen rating of 10.7. The episode was the highest - rated show on Fox that week, and was viewed in approximately 10.8 million households.
Scully has admitted that another reason for killing off Maude was to increase ratings for The Simpsons during the February sweeps. To bring in even more viewers for the broadcast, the Simpsons producers chose not to reveal beforehand who the character that would be killed off was to create speculation. Fox also decided not to send out screener tapes to television critics to keep it a secret. However, according to an article in the Contra Costa Times that was published on the day the episode aired, "all the advance rumors suggest that Ned Flanders ' wife, Maude, should watch her back. '' The revelation of the episode 's title, "Alone Again, Natura - Diddly '', was one of the reasons that the media and many people suspected Maude. As The Post-Standard 's William LaRue writes, "diddly '' is the "familiar greeting of Maude 's husband, Ned Flanders. '' Roswell 's announced departure strengthened this suspicion.
The episode has received mixed reviews from television critics. Gregory Hardy of the Orlando Sentinel placed it at number eleven on his list of the show 's fifteen best episodes that target the world of sports. Writing for IGN, Robert Canning gave the episode a 7 out of 10 rating, commenting that he thought the three acts felt disconnected. He wrote: "First Maude dies, then Ned dates and now Ned questions his faith. To me, these three storylines would have been better served had they been the focus of their own individual episodes. '' Canning added that he felt "the episode made a poor choice by rushing through the mourning period and moving right into Ned dating, '' but that "the dating stuff, while, again, feeling hurried, was quite funny, especially Ned 's date with Edna Krabappel. ''
DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented on the episode in a negative way, writing that it was "a harsh and cynical move (to kill off Maude because of Roswell 's departure), though I could forgive the decision if it produced a more satisfying episode. Perhaps the writers made this one super-sincere to counteract the inherent cynicism behind its origins, but the show just seems sappy and lame. '' Winnipeg Free Press columnist Randall King wrote in his review of the eleventh season of The Simpsons that there is "something undeniably funny about having Maude Flanders die by a barrage of T - shirts fired by air cannons at a speedway. But the episode Alone Again Natura - Diddily was proof that the dependably brilliant series could -- and did -- go seriously wrong when it turned 11. Killing off Maude was a sin (...) ''.
Before "Alone Again, Natura - Diddily '' was broadcast, a promotional commercial aired on television that featured, among other things, the announcement that "one of Springfield 's most beloved will die '' and a snippet of a scene from the episode with the character Lenny, sitting in the speedway spectator stand, being hit by a car tire, giving the impression that he would be the one who would die. Many viewers of the commercial, including Speedway Motorsports, Inc. owned Lowe 's Motor Speedway president Jerry Gappens, expressed their concern as it appeared the episode was parodying an actual incident that happened during a speedway race at Lowe 's Motor Speedway in May 1999, in Charlotte, North Carolina, when flying debris in a crash killed three spectators. Gappens said that doing a parody of that was "a real insensitive thing to do, pretty irresponsible. Obviously what might appear funny in L.A. or New York is n't funny here in Charlotte. '' Lowe 's Motor Speedway announced to WSOC - TV 's Channel 9 Eyewitness News on February 7, 2000 that they were thinking of placing a complaint to the Fox Broadcasting Company. WCCB, the then - Fox affiliate in Charlotte, refused to continue showing the commercial for the episode. As a result, Fox distributed a new commercial to the affiliate on February 9 that did not contain the scene with Lenny.
Antonia Coffman, a spokeswoman for The Simpsons, told The Charlotte Observer that "the Lowe 's incident did n't inspire the scene '' and that the episode was not meant to offend anyone. After WCCB had gotten the opportunity to actually see the episode they decided that they would air it, realizing that the original commercial was misleading and that they did not think the episode was making fun of the incident. In the episode, the viewers can see that Lenny tries to get the attention of the cheerleaders by raising his hand so that they aim a T - shirt with the cannon at him. However, he is hit by a car tire instead. Unlike what the commercial implied, Lenny is not killed and is soon back in his seat. WCCB told the Associated Press that their interpretation of the scene was that someone threw the tire to Lenny because he was raising his hand, and that the tire did not actually come from a car crash on the track. Despite this, the affiliate announced that they would start the broadcast of the episode with a message warning viewers of the scene anyway.
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sadie seymour botanical gardens and the kona educational center | Sadie Seymour botanical gardens - Wikipedia
The Sadie Seymour Botanical Gardens (1.5 acres) are nonprofit botanical gardens located on the grounds of the Kona Educational Foundation Center at 76 - 6280 Kuakini Highway, Kailua - Kona, Hawai ʻi island, Hawai ʻi. Coordinates are 19 ° 36 ′ 49.5 '' N 155 ° 58 ′ 6 '' W / 19.613750 ° N 155.96833 ° W / 19.613750; - 155.96833 Coordinates: 19 ° 36 ′ 49.5 '' N 155 ° 58 ′ 6 '' W / 19.613750 ° N 155.96833 ° W / 19.613750; - 155.96833. They are open daily; admission is free, but donations accepted.
Sadie Seymour (1907 -- 1975) founded the outdoor circle to beautify the Kona community. The gardens were designed by landscape architect Scott Seymour on a wedge - shaped plot, and named in honor of his mother. They feature the cultivated plants of Hawai ʻi, arranged in 11 tiers by geographic origin. The first tier contains native Hawaiian plants. Other tiers include Australia, New Zealand, and Indonesia (featuring plants such as cuphea, eucalyptus, and ixora); Indo - Asia (lemon grass, and cinnamon, turmeric, and clove trees); Africa (Bismarckia nobilis); and Central America (calabash).
The grounds also contain an archaeological site called a Heiau, Kealakowa ʻa Heiau ("temple on the way for dragging canoes '' in the Hawaiian Language). This ritual site, built in the time of King ʻUmi a Liloa, was used for construction and blessing of canoes. It can be viewed from the Kona Educational Foundation Center. The site contains a ceremonial platform, an astrological temple, the foundation of a priest 's house, and the foundation of a meeting house. The sacred site is positioned along an ancient trail (Holua Loa means "long slide '') that led from the upland Koa forests on Hualālai down to the royal complex at Holualoa Bay. After a tree was selected in the forest, the log was roughly hewn into the shape of a canoe and dragged down to this area for blessing ceremonies. From here it went down the slide to the water for completion and launching.
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who wrote declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen | Declaration of the rights of Man and of the Citizen - Wikipedia
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French: Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen), passed by France 's National Constituent Assembly in August 1789, is an important document of the French Revolution and in the history of human and civil rights. The Declaration was directly influenced by Thomas Jefferson, working with General Lafayette, who introduced it. Influenced also by the doctrine of "natural right '', the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by the law. It is included in the beginning of the constitutions of both the Fourth French Republic (1946) and Fifth Republic (1958) and is still current. Inspired by the Enlightenment philosophers, the Declaration was a core statement of the values of the French Revolution and had a major impact on the development of freedom and democracy in Europe and worldwide.
The Declaration, together with Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and the United States Bill of Rights, inspired in large part the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
The content of the document emerged largely from the ideals of the Enlightenment. The key drafts were prepared by Lafayette, working at times with his close friend Thomas Jefferson. In August 1789, Honoré Mirabeau played a central role in conceptualizing and drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
The last article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was adopted on 26 August 1789 by the National Constituent Assembly, during the period of the French Revolution, as the first step toward writing a constitution for France. Inspired by the Enlightenment, the original version of the Declaration was discussed by the representatives on the basis of a 24 article draft proposed by the sixth bureau, led by Jérôme Champion de Cicé. The draft was later modified during the debates. A second and lengthier declaration, known as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1793, was written in 1793 but never formally adopted.
The concepts in the Declaration come from the philosophical and political duties of the Enlightenment, such as individualism, the social contract as theorized by the Genevan philosopher Rousseau, and the separation of powers espoused by the Baron de Montesquieu. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration was heavily influenced by the political philosophy of the Enlightenment and principles of human rights as was the U.S. Declaration of Independence which preceded it (4 July 1776).
The declaration is in the spirit of "secular natural law '', which does not base itself on religious doctrine or authority, in contrast with traditional natural law theory, which does.
The declaration defines a single set of individual and collective rights for all men. Influenced by the doctrine of natural rights, these rights are held to be universal and valid in all times and places. For example, "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. '' They have certain natural rights to property, to liberty, and to life. According to this theory, the role of government is to recognize and secure these rights. Furthermore, government should be carried on by elected representatives.
At the time of writing, the rights contained in the declaration were only awarded to men. Furthermore, the declaration was a statement of vision rather than reality. The declaration was not deeply rooted in either the practice of the West or even France at the time. The declaration emerged in the late 18th century out of war and revolution. It encountered opposition as democracy and individual rights were frequently regarded as synonymous with anarchy and subversion. The declaration embodies ideals and aspirations towards which France pledged to struggle in the future.
The Declaration is introduced by a preamble describing the fundamental characteristics of the rights which are qualified as being "natural, unalienable and sacred '' and consisting of "simple and incontestable principles '' on which citizens could base their demands. In the second article, "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man '' are defined as "liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression ''. It called for the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to feudalism and to exemptions from taxation, freedom and equal rights for all "Men '', and access to public office based on talent. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and arbitrary arrests outlawed.
The Declaration also asserted the principles of popular sovereignty, in contrast to the divine right of kings that characterized the French monarchy, and social equality among citizens, "All the citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents, '' eliminating the special rights of the nobility and clergy.
Articles:
Article I -- Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common good.
Article II -- The goal of any political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, safety and resistance against oppression.
Article III -- The principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it.
Article IV -- Liberty consists of doing anything which does not harm others: thus, the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the fruition of these same rights. These borders can be determined only by the law.
Article V -- The law has the right to forbid only actions harmful to society. Anything which is not forbidden by the law can not be impeded, and no one can be constrained to do what it does not order.
Article VI -- The law is the expression of the general will. All the citizens have the right of contributing personally or through their representatives to its formation. It must be the same for all, either that it protects, or that it punishes. All the citizens, being equal in its eyes, are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.
Article VII -- No man can be accused, arrested nor detained but in the cases determined by the law, and according to the forms which it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders, must be punished; but any citizen called or seized under the terms of the law must obey at once; he renders himself culpable by resistance.
Article VIII -- The law should establish only penalties that are strictly and evidently necessary, and no one can be punished but under a law established and promulgated before the offense and legally applied.
Article IX -- Any man being presumed innocent until he is declared culpable if it is judged indispensable to arrest him, any rigor which would not be necessary for the securing of his person must be severely reprimanded by the law.
Article X -- No one may be disturbed for his opinions, even religious ones, provided that their manifestation does not trouble the public order established by the law.
Article XI -- The free communication of thoughts and of opinions is one of the most precious rights of man: any citizen thus may speak, write, print freely, except to respond to the abuse of this liberty, in the cases determined by the law.
Article XII -- The guarantee of the rights of man and of the citizen necessitates a public force: this force is thus instituted for the advantage of all and not for the particular utility of those in whom it is trusted.
Article XIII -- For the maintenance of the public force and for the expenditures of administration, a common contribution is indispensable; it must be equally distributed to all the citizens, according to their ability to pay.
Article XIV -- Each citizen has the right to ascertain, by himself or through his representatives, the need for a public tax, to consent to it freely, to know the uses to which it is put, and of determining the proportion, basis, collection, and duration.
Article XV -- The society has the right of requesting an account from any public agent of its administration.
Article XVI -- Any society in which the guarantee of rights is not assured, nor the separation of powers determined, has no Constitution.
Article XVII -- Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity.
While the French Revolution provided rights to a larger portion of the population, there remained a distinction between those who obtained the political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen and those who did not. Those who were deemed to hold these political rights were called active citizens. Active citizenship was granted to men who were French, at least 25 years old, paid taxes equal to three days work, and could not be defined as servants (Thouret). This meant that at the time of the Declaration only male property owners held these rights. The deputies in the National Assembly believed that only those who held tangible interests in the nation could make informed political decisions. This distinction directly affects articles 6, 12, 14, and 15 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen as each of these rights is related to the right to vote and to participate actively in the government. With the decree of 29 October 1789, the term active citizen became embedded in French politics.
The concept of passive citizens was created to encompass those populations that had been excluded from political rights in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Because of the requirements set down for active citizens, the vote was granted to approximately 4.3 million Frenchmen out of a population of around 29 million. These omitted groups included women, slaves, children, and foreigners. As these measures were voted upon by the General Assembly, they limited the rights of certain groups of citizens while implementing the democratic process of the new French Republic (1792 -- 1804). This legislation, passed in 1789, was amended by the creators of the Constitution of the Year III in order to eliminate the label of active citizen. The power to vote was then, however, to be granted solely to substantial property owners.
Tensions arose between active and passive citizens throughout the Revolution. This happened when passive citizens started to call for more rights, or when they openly refused to listen to the ideals set forth by active citizens. This cartoon clearly demonstrates the difference that existed between the active and passive citizens along with the tensions associated with such differences. In the cartoon, a passive citizen is holding a spade and a wealthy landowning active citizen is ordering the passive citizens to go to work. The act appears condescending to the passive citizen and it revisits the reasons why the French Revolution began in the first place.
Women, in particular, were strong passive citizens who played a significant role in the Revolution. Olympe de Gouges penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in 1791 and drew attention to the need for gender equality. By supporting the ideals of the French Revolution and wishing to expand them to women, she represented herself as a revolutionary citizen. Madame Roland also established herself as an influential figure throughout the Revolution. She saw women of the French Revolution as holding three roles; "inciting revolutionary action, formulating policy, and informing others of revolutionary events. '' By working with men, as opposed to working separate from men, she may have been able to further the fight of revolutionary women. As players in the French Revolution, women occupied a significant role in the civic sphere by forming social movements and participating in popular clubs, allowing them societal influence, despite their lack of direct political influence.
The Declaration recognized many rights as belonging to citizens (who could only be male). This was despite the fact that after The March on Versailles on 5 October 1789, women presented the Women 's Petition to the National Assembly in which they proposed a decree giving women equal rights. In 1790, Nicolas de Condorcet and Etta Palm d'Aelders unsuccessfully called on the National Assembly to extend civil and political rights to women. Condorcet declared that "he who votes against the right of another, whatever the religion, color, or sex of that other, has henceforth abjured his own ''. The French Revolution did not lead to a recognition of women 's rights and this prompted Olympe de Gouges to publish the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in September 1791.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen is modeled on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and is ironic in formulation and exposes the failure of the French Revolution, which had been devoted to equality. It states that:
"This revolution will only take effect when all women become fully aware of their deplorable condition, and of the rights, they have lost in society ''.
The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen follows the seventeen articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen point for point and has been described by Camille Naish as "almost a parody... of the original document ''. The first article of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen proclaims that "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be based only on common utility. '' The first article of Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen replied: "Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights. Social distinctions may only be based on common utility ''.
De Gouges also draws attention to the fact that under French law women were fully punishable, yet denied equal rights, declaring "Women have the right to mount the scaffold, they must also have the right to mount the speaker 's rostrum ''.
The declaration did not revoke the institution of slavery, as lobbied for by Jacques - Pierre Brissot 's Les Amis des Noirs and defended by the group of colonial planters called the Club Massiac because they met at the Hôtel Massiac. Despite the lack of explicit mention of slavery in the Declaration, slave uprisings in Saint - Domingue in the Haitian Revolution took inspiration from its words, as discussed in C.L.R. James ' history of the Haitian Revolution, The Black Jacobins.
Deplorable conditions for the thousands of slaves in Saint - Domingue, the most profitable slave colony in the world, led to the uprisings which would be known as the first successful slave revolt in the New World. Slavery in the French colonies was abolished by the Convention dominated by the Jacobins in 1794. However, Napoleon reinstated it in 1802. In 1804, the colony of Saint - Domingue became an independent state, the Republic of Haiti.
The Declaration has also influenced and inspired rights - based liberal democracy throughout the world. It was translated as soon as 1793 -- 1794 by Colombian Antonio Nariño, who published it despite the Inquisition and was sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years for doing so. In 2003, the document was listed on UNESCO 's Memory of the World register.
According to the preamble of the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic (adopted on 4 October 1958, and the current constitution), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been canceled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the Conseil Constitutionnel ("Constitutional Council of France '') or by the Conseil d'État ("Council of State '').
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what natural boundary lies between thailand and laos | Geography of Myanmar - wikipedia
Myanmar (also known as Burma) is the northwestern-most country of mainland Southeast Asia, bordering China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Laos. It lies along the Indian and Eurasian Plates, to the southeast of the Himalayas. To its west is the Bay of Bengal and to its south is the Andaman Sea. It is strategically located near major Indian Ocean shipping lanes.
Total Land Border Length: 6,522 kilometres (4,053 mi)
Total Land Area: 676,578 square kilometres (261,228 sq mi)
Border Countries:
Bangladesh: 271 kilometres (168 mi), India: 1,468 kilometres (912 mi), China: 2,129 kilometres (1,323 mi), Laos: 238 kilometres (148 mi), Thailand: 2,416 kilometres (1,501 mi)
Total: 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi)
Total water area: 23,070 square kilometres (8,910 sq mi)
Tropical monsoon in the lowlands below 2,000 m (6,562 ft); cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April).
Climate varies in the highlands depending on elevation; subtropical temperate climate at around 2,500 m (8,202 ft), temperate at 3,000 m (9,843 ft), cool, alpine at 3,500 m (11,483 ft) and above the alpine zone, cold, harsh tundra and Arctic climate. The higher elevations are subject to heavy snowfall, especially in the North, and bad weather.
Myanmar is characterised by its central lowlands with the Sittaung Valley and Chindwin Valley and the small mountain ranges of Zeebyu Taungdan, Min - wun Taungdan, Hman - kin Taungdan and Gangaw Taungdan as well as the Bago Yoma (Pegu Range), a relatively low mountain chain between the Irrawaddy and the Sittaung River in central Myanmar. The Central Valley Region is limited by steep, rugged highlands in the North, where ranges at the southern end of the Hengduan System form the border between Myanmar and China. Hkakabo Razi, the country 's highest point at 5,881 m (19,295 ft), is located at the northern end of the country. This mountain is part of a series of parallel ranges that run from the foothills of the Himalaya through the border areas with Assam, Nagaland and Mizoram.
The Arakan Mountains in the west run from Manipur into western Myanmar southwards through Rakhine State almost to Cape Negrais in the shores of the Bay of Bengal. The Arakan Range includes the Naga Hills, the Chin Hills, and the Patkai range which includes the Lushai Hills.
In Eastern Myanmar the highest point of the Shan Hills is 2,563 m high Loi Pangnao, one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia. The Shan Hills form, together with the Karen Hills, Dawna Range and Tenasserim Hills, a natural border with Thailand as well as the Kayah - Karen / Tenasserim moist forests ecoregion which is included in the Global 200 list of ecoregions identified by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) as priorities for conservation. Southern Myanmar consists largely of the western slopes of the Bilauktaung, the highest part of the Tenasserim Range, which extends southwards forming the central range of the Malay Peninsula.
The Irrawaddy, the main river of Burma, flows from north to south through the Central Burma Basin and ends in a wide delta. The Mekong runs from the Tibetan Plateau through China 's Yunnan province and northeastern Burma into Laos.
In the east the Salween and the Sittaung River run along the western side of the Shan Hills and the northern end of the Dawna Range. In the narrow southeastern part of Burma, the Ye, Heinze, Dawei (Tavoy), Great Tenasserim (Tanintharyi) and the Lenya rivers are relatively short and flow into the Andaman Sea. Further south the Kraburi River forms the southern border between Thailand and Burma.
contiguous zone: 24 nmi (27.6 mi; 44.4 km) continental shelf: 200 nmi (230.2 mi; 370.4 km) or to the edge of the continental margin exclusive economic zone: 200 nmi (230.2 mi; 370.4 km)
Natural resources in Myanmar are petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, and hydropower.
Destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts
Deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94 signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html.
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who played king arthur in 1975 monty python and the holy grail | Monty Python and the Holy Grail - wikipedia
Monty Python and the Holy Grail is a 1975 British surreal comedy film concerning the Arthurian legend, written and performed by the Monty Python comedy group (Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, and Michael Palin), and directed by Gilliam and Jones. It was conceived during the hiatus between the third and fourth series of their BBC television series Monty Python 's Flying Circus.
In contrast to the group 's first film, And Now for Something Completely Different, a compilation of sketches from the first two television series, Holy Grail draws on new material. It parodies the legend of King Arthur 's quest to find the Holy Grail. Idle used the film as the basis for the musical Spamalot 30 years later.
Monty Python and the Holy Grail grossed more than any British film exhibited in the US in 1975. The film received a 97 % "Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In the US, the film was selected as the second best comedy of all time in the ABC special Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time; in the UK, readers of Total Film magazine ranked the film the fifth greatest comedy film of all time, and a similar poll of Channel 4 viewers placed the film sixth (2000).
In 932 AD, King Arthur and his squire, Patsy, travel throughout Britain searching for men to join the Knights of the Round Table. In Arthur 's travels, he recruits Sir Bedevere the Wise, Sir Lancelot the Brave, Sir Galahad the Pure, and Sir Robin the Not - Quite - So - Brave - as - Sir - Lancelot, along with their squires and Robin 's troubadours. Arthur leads the men to Camelot, but decide it is "a silly place '' and set off elsewhere. As they turn away, God speaks to them and instruct Arthur to find the Holy Grail.
Arthur and his men search the land for clues to the Grail. They come to a castle occupied by French soldiers who claim to have the Grail but otherwise insult the Englishmen. Arthur and his men come up with a plan to sneak in using a Trojan Rabbit, but they completely mishandle its execution and are forced away. Arthur decides that the knights should go their separate ways to search for clues to the Grail 's location. A modern - day historian being filmed for a documentary and describing the Arthurian legends is abruptly killed by a knight on horseback, triggering a police investigation.
Arthur and Bedevere attempt to satisfy the strange requests of the dreaded Knights Who Say Ni. Sir Robin avoids a fight with the Three - headed Giant by running away while the heads are arguing. Sir Galahad is led by a grail - shaped beacon to Castle Anthrax, populated by women, but to Galahad 's chagrin, he is "rescued '' by Lancelot. Sir Lancelot, after finding a note from Swamp Castle believed to be from a lady being forced to marry against her will, rushes the castle and kills nearly the entire wedding party within, only to discover that the note was sent by an effeminate prince.
Arthur and his knights regroup and are joined by other knights and followers. They meet Tim the Enchanter, who directs them to a cave where the location of the Grail is said to be written, but guarded by the deadly Rabbit of Caerbannog. After the Rabbit kills several of the knights, Arthur uses the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch to destroy the creature. Inside, they find the inscription from Joseph of Arimathea, directing them to the Castle of Aarrgh. They arrive at the Bridge of Death and must answer three questions from the bridge - keeper to pass. Lancelot answers first and correctly, and passes on. Sirs Robin and Galahad fail to answer correctly and are thrown over the bridge, while Arthur tricks the bridge - keeper, allowing him and Bedevere to pass.
When Arthur and Bedevere finish crossing, they can not find Lancelot, unaware he was arrested by modern - day policemen investigating the historian 's death. Arthur and Bedevere find the Castle of Aarrgh, but discover it is occupied by the French. They amass a large army of knights to assault the castle, when suddenly a large police force shows up, arrests Arthur and Bedevere for the historian 's death, and shuts down the film 's production.
Fifteen months before BBC visited the set in December 1974, the Monty Python troupe assembled the first version of the screenplay. When half of the resulting material was set in the Middle Ages, and half was set in the present day, the group opted to focus on the Middle Ages, revolving on the legend of the Holy Grail. By the fourth or fifth version of their screenplay, the story was complete, and the cast joked the fact that the Grail was never retrieved would be "a big let - down... a great anti-climax ''. Graham Chapman said a challenge was incorporating scenes that did not fit the Holy Grail motif.
Neither Terry Gilliam nor Terry Jones had directed a film before, and described it as a learning experience in which they would learn to make a film by making an entire full - length film. The cast humorously described the novice directing style as employing the level of mutual disrespect always found in Monty Python 's work.
Monty Python and the Holy Grail was mostly shot on location in Scotland, particularly around Doune Castle, Glen Coe, and the privately owned Castle Stalker. The many castles seen throughout the film were mainly either Doune Castle shot from different angles or hanging miniatures. There are several exceptions to this: the very first exterior shot of a castle at the beginning of the film is Kidwelly Castle in South Wales, and the single exterior shot of the Swamp Castle during "Tale of Sir Lancelot '' is Bodiam Castle in East Sussex; all subsequent shots of the exterior and interior of those scenes were filmed at Doune Castle. Production designer Julian Doyle recounted that his crew constructed walls in the forest near Doune. Terry Jones later recalled the crew had selected more castles around Scotland for locations, but during the two weeks prior to principal photography, the Scottish Department of the Environment declined permission for use of the castles in its jurisdiction, for fear of damage.
At the start of "The Tale of Sir Robin '', there is a slow camera zoom in on rocky scenery (that in the voice over is described as "the dark forest of Ewing ''). This is actually a still photograph of the Gorge at Mount Buffalo National Park in Victoria, Australia. Doyle stated in 2000 during an interview with Hotdog magazine that it was a still image filmed with candles underneath the frame (to give a heat haze). This was a low - cost method of achieving a convincing location effect.
On the DVD audio commentary, Cleese described challenges shooting and editing Castle Anthrax in "The Tale of Sir Galahad '', with what he felt the most comedic take being unused because an anachronistic coat was visible in it. Castle Anthrax was also shot in one part of Doune, where costume designer Hazel Pethig advised against nudity, dressing the girls in shifts.
In the scene where the knights were combatting the Rabbit of Caerbannog, a real white rabbit was used, switched with puppets for its killings. It was covered with red liquid to simulate blood, though the rabbit 's owner did not want the animal dirty and was kept unaware. The liquid was difficult to remove from the fur. He also stated that he thought that, had they been more experienced in filmmaking, the crew would have just purchased a rabbit instead. Otherwise, the rabbit himself was unharmed. Also, the rabbit - bite effects were done by special puppetry by both Gilliam and SFX technician John Horton.
As chronicled in The Life of Python, The First 20 Years of Monty Python, and The Pythons ' Autobiography, it was revealed that Chapman was suffering from acrophobia, trembling, and bouts of forgetfulness during filming. These were the results of Chapman 's long - standing alcohol addiction, and he decided from that moment on to remain "on an even keel '' while the production continued. Nearly three years after Holy Grail, Chapman vowed to quit drinking altogether (which he successfully achieved in December 1977).
Originally the knight characters were going to ride real horses, but after it became clear that the film 's small budget precluded real horses, the Pythons decided that their characters would mime horse - riding while their porters trotted behind them banging coconut shells together. The joke was derived from the old - fashioned sound effect used by radio shows to convey the sound of hooves clattering. This was later referred to in the German release of the film, which translated the title as Die Ritter der Kokosnuß (' The Knights of the Coconut ').
The opening credits of the film feature pseudo-Swedish subtitles, which soon turn into an appeal to visit Sweden and see the country 's moose. The subtitles are soon stopped, but moose references continue throughout the actual credits until the credits are stopped again and restarted in a different visual style and with references to llamas, animals often mentioned in Flying Circus. The subtitles were written by Michael Palin as a way to "entertain the ' captive ' audience '' at the beginning of the film.
In addition to several songs written by Python regular Neil Innes, several pieces of music were licensed from De Wolfe Music Library. These include:
Monty Python and the Holy Grail had its theatrical debut in the United Kingdom in 3 April 1975, followed by a United States release on 27 April 1975. It was re-released on 14 October 2015 in the United Kingdom.
The film had its television premiere 25 February 1977 on the CBS Late Movie. Reportedly, the Pythons were displeased to discover a number of edits were done by the network to reduce use of profanity and the showing of blood. The troupe pulled back the rights and thereafter had it broadcast in the United States only on PBS and later other channels such as IFC, where it runs uncut.
In Region 1, The Criterion Collection released a laserdisc version of the film featuring audio commentary from directors Jones and Gilliam. In 2001, Columbia Tristar published a two - disc Special Edition DVD. Disc One included two commentary tracks featuring Idle, Palin, and Cleese in the first, and Jones and Gilliam in the second, and "Subtitles for People Who Do n't Like the Film '', consisting of lines taken from William Shakespeare 's Henry IV, Part 2. Disc Two includes Monty Python and the Holy Grail in Lego (also known as Lego Knights or It 's Only a Model), a "brickfilm '' version of the "Camelot Song '' as sung by Lego minifigures. It was created by Spite Your Face Productions on commission from the Lego Group and Python Pictures. The project was conceived by the original film 's respective Producer and Co-Director, John Goldstone and Terry Gilliam. Disc Two also includes two scenes from the film 's Japanese dub, literally translated back into English through subtitles. "The Quest for the Holy Grail Locations '', hosted by Palin and Jones, shows places in Scotland used for the setting titled as "England 932 A.D. '' (as well as the two Pythons purchasing a copy of their own script as a guide). Also included is a who 's who page, advertising galleries and sing - alongs.
A limited - edition DVD release additionally included a copy of the screenplay, a limited - edition film cell / senitype, and limited - edition art cards; however, a few of the bonus features from the Extraordinarily Deluxe Edition were omitted. A 35th anniversary edition on Blu - ray was released in the US on 6 March 2012. Special features include "The Holy Book of Days, '' a second - screen experience that can be downloaded as an app on an iOS device and played with the Blu - ray to enhance its viewing; lost animation sequences with a new intro from animator Terry Gilliam; outtakes; and extended scenes with Python member and the movie 's co-director Terry Jones.
In 2000, readers of Total Film magazine voted Holy Grail the fifth greatest comedy film of all time. The next Python film, Life of Brian, was ranked first. A similar poll of Channel 4 viewers in 2005 placed Holy Grail in sixth (with Life of Brian again topping the list).
In 2005, the film spawned a Tony Award - winning Broadway musical smash hit knockoff, Spamalot. Written primarily by Idle, the show has more of an overarching plot and leaves out certain portions of the movie due to difficulties in rendering certain effects on stage. However, the same gags are there for the majority of the show.
In 2011, an ABC prime - time special, Best in Film: The Greatest Movies of Our Time, counted down the best films chosen by fans based on results of a poll conducted by ABC and People. Holy Grail was selected as the second best comedy after Airplane!.
In 2013, the Pythons lost a legal case to Mark Forstater, the film 's producer, over royalties for the derivative work, Spamalot. They owed a combined £ 800,000 in legal fees and back royalties to Forstater. To help cover the cost of these royalties and fees, the group arranged and performed in a stage show, Monty Python Live (mostly), held at The O2 arena in London in July 2014.
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what is the song one last time about | One Last Time (Ariana Grande song) - wikipedia
"One Last Time '' is a song recorded by American singer Ariana Grande for her second studio album My Everything. It was written by David Guetta, Savan Kotecha, Giorgio Tuinfort, Rami Yacoub, and Carl Falk. The song was produced by the latter two, with Tuinfort serving as a co-producer and Ilya serving both as a co-producer and vocal producer. "One Last Time '' was first released on the iTunes Store on August 22, 2014 as the second promotional single from the album. On February 10, 2015, the song was sent to contemporary hit radio as the fifth and final single from the album. A French version of the song featuring French singer Kendji Girac, alternatively titled "Attends - moi '', was released on February 16, 2015 in France, Belgium and Switzerland. It is also included on the deluxe version of Girac 's debut studio album Kendji (2015). An Italian version of the song featuring Italian rapper Fedez was released on May 26, 2015 only in Italy.
"One Last Time '' is a dance - pop and EDM song. Its instrumentation consists of sampled drums and a synth line. The single reached the top - twenty in twelve countries, including Australia, Canada, France, the United Kingdom and the United States, where it became Grande 's sixth top - twenty single on the US Billboard Hot 100. The single 's peak of number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 ended Grande 's streak of consecutive top ten hits from 2014. It was later certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The song was critically acclaimed by music critics.
The song 's accompanying music video was released on February 15, 2015 and was directed by Max Landis. The music video is visually presented as a found footage, similar to Landis ' previous work. The video faced controversy due to its similarity to the music video for the Australian band SAFIA 's single "You Are the One '', with Grande and Landis being accused of intellectual property theft. Grande promoted the song with a live performance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, the 2015 NBA All - Star Game halftime show, and during her first world tour, The Honeymoon Tour (2015).
Grande re-released "One Last Time '' as a charity single in June 2017, following the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing at her concert. This resulted in the song reaching a new peak of number 2 in the UK Singles Chart following the One Love Manchester concert, as well as reaching a new peak of number 15 in the Irish Singles Chart. Grande will donate all proceeds to the We Love Manchester Emergency Fund to aid the victims of the bombing and their families.
"One Last Time '' was written by the songwriting team Savan Kotecha, Rami Yacoub and Carl Falk, with Dutch producer Giorgio Tuinfort and French DJ David Guetta. Kotecha had already previously collaborated with Grande when producing the first, second, third and fourth single from My Everything. Guetta was working on his album Listen, and while making the album he chose to give "One Last Time '' to Grande, since "(he) had like 120 songs and (was) trying to make an album that ma (de) sense because some of the songs can be great, but that does n't mean that they would fit together. ('' One Last Time '' is) one example, '' he claimed. "One Last Time '' was strongly considered to be My Everything 's lead - single, according to Republic Records ' executive vice president Charlie Walk, however "Problem '' was chosen instead, being the song that best "set the tone for the project. '' Later, "'' Break Free '' felt like summer, '' Walk claimed, while "Bang Bang '' helped usher in Jessie J 's album Sweet Talker, and "fall / winter felt like the best time for "Love Me Harder '', since it 's a heavier, darker record, '' he added.
Before being released as an official single, "One Last Time '' was released for free via iTunes Stores as the album 's second promotional single on August 22, 2014, following "Best Mistake '', which was released on August 12, 2014. Ultimately, "One Last Time '' was released as the album 's fifth and final single, being serviced to rhythmic crossover and contemporary hit radio stations on February 10, 2015 in the US. The song was also released in French as a duet with French singer Kendji Girac, winner of the third season of "The Voice: la plus belle voix ''. The version titled "Attends - moi '' (Wait for Me) was released in Belgium, France and Switzerland on February 16, 2015. It is included on the deluxe version of his debut studio album Kendji (2015). According to Girac, the duet was arranged by his artistic director, since he and Grande share the same music corporation, Universal Music Group. On May 26, 2015, an Italian version of the song featuring Italian rapper Fedez was released in Italy.
The song was re-released in June 2017 as a charity single, with proceeds being donated to the We Love Manchester Emergency Fund.
The song was produced by Falk and Yacoub, co-produced by Tuinfort and Ilya, with vocal production being done by Ilya, Kotecha and Yacoub. "One Last Time '' is a dance - pop and EDM - light song, with a total length of three minutes and seventeen seconds (3: 17). Its instrumentations consist in "pummeling drums and a three - note synth line ''. "One Last Time '' is written in the key of A-flat major, with a moderately fast tempo of 125 beats per minute. Grande 's vocals range from F # 3 to C6. Lyrically, the song is about asking a former lover to spend one last time with you, although he has already moved on and is with someone new. As noted by Jason Lipshut of Billboard, "the downbeat admission of ' I know / that you got everything / But I got nothing here without you ' is the pained sound of a narrator racked with guilt, the chorus sets aside that humiliation and scoops up a sense of hope, '' with the singer pleading, "One last time / I need to be the one who takes you home / One more time / I promise after that, I 'll let you go ''. Rob Copsey of The Official Charts Company noted that the song "reminded him of Swedish 's recording artist, Loreen 's 2012 Eurovision winning song "Euphoria ''.
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic picked the song as one of the album 's highlights, while Jason Lipshut of Billboard praised the track for "demonstrat (ing) Grande 's newfound maturity and ambition. '' Rob Copsey wrote for the Official Charts Company that ' One Last Time ' "suits her better than you 'd think, (with) the singer reign (ing) in her powerful pipes on this breezy and wistful club track. '' while Anne Zaleski of The A.V. Club thought the song "channels a more powerful version of On The 6 - era Jennifer Lopez, '' also calling it an "electronica - dusted (song). '' AXS 's Lucas Villa praised her performance for "exud (ing) sincerity and grace '' and added that "(t) his baby - come - back tune showcases a softer side to the singer that highlights her dulcet vocals. '' FDRMX writer John Mychal Feraren gave "One Last Time '' a rating of 4.2 out of 5 stars, calling it "an excellent addition to her list of hit songs '' and claiming that "its astounding musical production is effortlessly matched by (the) singer 's sultry voice (...) transform (ing) an empty song into a masterpiece. '' PPcorn.com went out to describe the song as "an excellent addition to her list of hit songs '', declaring: "after the lyrical ambivalence of ' Love Me Harder ', here comes a song that actually means something. It 's about admitting your shortcomings in a previous relationship, and trying to make up for it. However, does n't it sound a bit pathetic when your ex-lover tells you, ' Need to be the one who takes you home / One more time / I promise after that, I 'll let you go. ' ''
Mikael Wood, while reviewing the album for Los Angeles Times, called it a "delight (with) surging dance beats, '' while Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner named it a "restrained sibling '' of "Break Free '', having "speckles of electronica to save it from falling into dwindling balladry ''. Jean - Luc Marsh of Pretty Much Amazing noted that the "otherworldly notes that Grande hits on ' One Last Time ' and ' Why Try ' remain standouts several listens through ''. In a similar mode, The National 's Adam Workman claimed Grande is "far more effective when she leaves the musical school of ' why sing one note when you can stretch it out for several bars across three different octaves? ', '' citing the "lower - key '' song as an example. Kathy Iandoli from Idolator labeled it "smooth yet eerily resemble when an adult contemporary artist attempts dance music ''. Nick Levine of Time Out concluded that the song "serves club pop with a side of melancholy ''. In contrast, Evan Sawdey of PopMatters observed that the song "strikes all the dance - pop and EDM - lite poses it needs to without leaving any significant impression afterwards. ''
"One Last Time '' initially debuted at number 11 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, before debuting on the US Billboard Hot 100 at number 80 on the week of February 28, 2015. The following week the song jumped to number 34, while staying behind Grande 's "Love Me Harder ''. It later climbed to number 18, becoming Grande 's fifth consecutive top - twenty single from the same album and sixth overall. The song eventually peaked at number 13, on the week of May 2, 2015, becoming Grande 's first radio promoted song from My Everything to not enter the top ten. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song peaked at number six, also becoming her fifth top 10 single on the Pop charts. As of March 2016, "One Last Time '' had sold 772,000 digital units in the US, and was certified platinum by the RIAA. Similar to the US, the song has also become her fifth top - twenty single in Canada, peaking at number 12.
In Australia, "One Last Time '' debuted on the ARIA Charts on the week of March 8, 2015 at number 27 and went on to reach a peak of number 15 on April 5, 2015, becoming her fifth top 20 single there. Meanwhile, in New Zealand the song debuted at number 32 and a week later it peaked at number 22. It was higher than her previous single, "Love Me Harder '', which peaked at number 28, and "Best Mistake '', which charted at number 29.
In France, both versions of the song charted; the original version of the song reached number 10, becoming her highest charting - single there and her first top - ten single, while the French version, "Attends - moi '' with Kendji Girac, debuted and peaked at number 11, becoming her highest single debut, second highest charting - single and third top - twenty there. In Italy, the song peaked at number 6 on the FIMI Singles Chart, becoming her first top 10 hit in that country, and was certified double platinum by the FIMI.
In the United Kingdom, the song originally peaked at number 24 on the UK Singles Chart in 2015, marking Grande 's fourth top - forty single in the country, following number one singles "Problem '' and "Bang Bang '' as well as top - twenty single "Break Free ''. It was later certified gold by the BPI for reaching 400,000 sales + streaming figures. In the wake of the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing, a resurgence of popularity and meaning for the single came as a homage to the victims of the event. Fans had started a petition to get the song to the top of the charts. The song subsequently rose to number 2 on the UK Singles Chart following the One Love Manchester benefit concert, as well as a new chart peak of number 16 in Ireland, which was topped the week after by a chart move to number 15. It was certified platinum soon after, on June 9, 2017, by the BPI.
In August 2016, Alex Greggs filed a lawsuit against Grande, David Guetta, Rami Yacoub, Carl Falk, Universal Music Group and Republic Records for alleged copyright infringement of the song "Takes All Night '' by Skye Stevens, which Greggs wrote. The lawsuit alleges that the "harmonic background remains the same in both songs for the entire sixteen measures of the chorus... Although the rhythm of the two compositions may differ... there is substantial similarity on the most important rhythmic placement of the pitches on strong melodic and harmonic beats (1 and 3) ''. Greggs is seeking $150,000 per infringement.
Grande came up with the idea of the music video and contacted Max Landis, known for his 2012 film Chronicle. In an interview, Grande explained: "It 's very unique, it 's very different, I called Max (Landis) up and I said ' hey I want to do something that ends exactly like this ' and I described the ending shot to him and then I said I also want it to be (a) one take (music video)... and I want the ending shot to look like this, And I described those two things to him and he 's like, ' wow, that 's ambitious and it 's brave and it 's different, but let 's try it ''. A day later, Grande discussed the video 's concept and said that it was "the coolest concept ever and he killed it and it 's very different. I 'm very nervous about it because it 's so unique and weird and I feel like brave and different, but it 's exciting ''.
The music video was filmed in early January 2015 and it also stars Matt Bennett, who was also Grande 's co-star from the Nickelodeon sitcom Victorious. Max Landis also confirmed that one of the voices of the news reporters in the beginning of the video was actress Elizabeth Gillies, who also co-starred in Victorious with Grande and Bennett. Gillies previously appeared Grande 's music video for her single "Right There '' (2013). Around that time, Max Landis revealed "One Last Time '' as Grande 's next single after tweeting, "Earth will pass catastrophically through the tail of the comet Eurydice in one week. Gather family and lovers close, one... last... time ''. The lyric video for "One Last Time '' was released on Grande 's official Vevo on February 6, 2015, at the same time it was announced that the music video was finished. On February 12, 2015, three days before the release of the music video, Grande released a teaser of the music video via Instagram. The music video was visually presented as a found footage, similar to Landis ' previous work Chronicle. The "One Last Time '' music video was released on February 15, 2015 on Vevo. It surpassed 100 million views on June 8, making it Grande 's sixth Vevo - certified music video after "Love Me Harder ''.
The music video displays news anchor reports about the Earth on course to pass through the tail of a comet named Eurydice, as well as displaying a worldwide panic. The rest of the video then is presented through the use of a handheld video camera. Grande is in a Fiat car as the passenger, with her boyfriend (played by Matt Bennett), who is recording. They are stuck in traffic as they try to leave the city, implied to be Los Angeles, California. While everyone around them is panicking, Grande seems to be calm as she wants to get a closer look at the comet. Impatient, she leaves the car while Bennett tries to stop her, and then follows. They make their way through the crowds, but are stopped by the police who are barricading the street. Meanwhile, the comet erupts in the sky and begins to crash to the ground as the song starts. Grande manages to get through but Bennett is unable to, so he goes through an open ambulance and manages to catch up with her in an alleyway with stairs leading up into an apartment complex. Ariana notices the comet in the sky. The two enter a home of a frightened family and try to leave through the other door, only for the comet to crash into the building, nearly killing both of them. Frightened, the two continue on and enter a room filled with television screens of the comet and an old man sitting at a desk. As the former two of them try to leave, the latter tries to stop them, but they knock him to the ground, and all the screens change to the same countdown timer. Grande and Bennett eventually make their way up the rooftop after subduing the old man again, who had caught up with them. The camera is then set down, and shows the two of them embracing each other one last time until the comet crashes down, destroys everything and leads the Earth to an end.
Ariana Bacle of Entertainment Weekly called the music "very Chronicle '', comparing the video to Max Landis ' previous work. Rachel Paoletta of MTV News describes the music video as "a decidedly darker and more badass video '' compared to her "sexy, sultry, and sandy video for ' Love Me Harder ' ''. She also stated that "Ariana Grande 's new video takes us to the end of the world, and brings us to the edge of our seats ''. In response to similarities between the Grande video and the music video accompanying Australian band SAFIA 's single "You Are the One '', Grande and Landis were accused of intellectual property theft. The controversy centered on similarities in the shared apocalyptic themes and stylistic format (a single, tracking shot) as well as parallels in the beginning of both videos (where a female protagonist exits a vehicle despite the protests of the male driver) and final shot (a lover 's embrace as the world comes to an end around them). Members of the band described the similarities as an instance of when "big labels and / or big film firms steal ideas from small independent creatives who are trying really hard to make something different for a change ''. Despite acknowledging similarities between the two videos, Landis denied that his ideas are stolen from them and commented that both music videos had much in common with a third earlier music video by Perth group Injured Ninja.
Grande performed "One Last Time '' for the first time live on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon on February 1, 2015. She sang the song once more at the NBA All - Star Game halftime show on February 15, 2015 along with her other past hit songs. During "One Last Time '', she introduced the song "with some fluttering notes that eventually congealed into an impressive melisma '', as noted by Billboard 's Jason Lipshut. "One Last Time '' has also been on her setlists for The Honeymoon Tour and the "Dangerous Woman Tour ''. During The Honeymoon Tour in Paris on May 15, 2015, Grande performed the French version of "One Last Time '' with Kendji Girac for the first time.
On June 4, 2017, Grande performed "One Last Time '', joined on - stage by other participating artists, as part of the finale of One Love Manchester, a benefit concert for the victims of the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing.
Credits adapted from My Everything liner notes.
Recording and management
Personnel
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
Since May 9, 2013, RIAA certifications for digital singles include on - demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads.
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the most famous paintings of leonardo da vinci | List of works by Leonardo da Vinci - wikipedia
Leonardo da Vinci (baptised Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci) (pronunciation (help info)), (April 15, 1452 -- May 2, 1519) was one of the leading artists of the High Renaissance. Fifteen works are generally attributed either in whole or in large part to him. Most are paintings on panel, with the remainder being a mural, a large drawing on paper, and two works in the early stages of preparation. The authorship of several paintings traditionally attributed to Leonardo is disputed. Two major works are known only as copies. Works are regularly attributed to Leonardo with varying degrees of credibility. None of Leonardo 's paintings are signed. The attributions here draw on the opinions of various scholars.
The small number of surviving paintings is due in part to da Vinci 's frequently disastrous experimentation with new techniques and his chronic procrastination. Nevertheless, these few works together with his notebooks, which contain drawings, scientific diagrams, and his thoughts on the nature of painting, comprise a contribution to later generations of artists rivalled only by that of his contemporary, Michelangelo.
Paris Manuscript B Folio 80r. A flying machine.
12 volumes labeled from "A '' to "M '', here listed in chronological order.
Folio 93v. Designs for a centrally planned church
Sources for attribution status
Citations
Bibliography
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who sang climb every mountain in the sound of music movie | Climb Ev'ry Mountain - wikipedia
"Climb Ev'ry Mountain '' is a show tune from the 1959 Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The Sound of Music. It is sung at the close of the first act by the Mother Abbess. It is themed as an inspirational piece, to encourage people to take every step towards attaining their dreams.
This song shares inspirational overtones with the song "You 'll Never Walk Alone '' from Carousel. They are both sung by the female mentor characters in the shows, and are used to give strength to the protagonists in the story, and both are given powerful reprises at the end of their respective shows. As Oscar Hammerstein II was writing the lyrics, it developed its own inspirational overtones along the lines of an earlier Hammerstein song, "There 's a Hill Beyond a Hill ''. He felt that the metaphors of climbing mountains and fording streams better fitted Maria 's quest for her spiritual compass. The muse behind the song was Sister Gregory, the head of Drama at Rosary College in Illinois. The letters that she sent to Hammerstein and to Mary Martin, the first Maria von Trapp on Broadway, described the parallels between a nun 's choice for a religious life and the choices that humans must make to find their purpose and direction in life. When she read the manuscript of the lyrics, she confessed that it "drove (her) to the Chapel '' because the lyrics conveyed a "yearning that... ordinary souls feel but can not communicate. ''
Although this song has parallels with "You 'll Never Walk Alone, '' the song shares musical similarities with the song "Something Wonderful '' from The King and I. Both songs are played at a similar broad tempo, and both songs have accompaniments punctuated by heavy chords in the orchestral score.
The song has often been sung by operatically trained voices in professional stage productions. In the original Broadway production it was sung by Patricia Neway, in the original London production it was sung by Constance Shacklock, and in the original Australian production it was sung by Rosina Raisbeck.
In the original stage play, the Mother Abbess sings the song at the end of the first act. When Ernest Lehman wrote the screenplay for the film adaptation, he shifted the scene so that this song would be the first major song of the second act. When Robert Wise and his film crew were filming this scene, Peggy Wood had some reservations about the words, which she felt were too "pretentious. '' So they filmed Peggy Wood in silhouette, against the wall of the set for the Mother Abbess ' office. Peggy Wood 's singing voice is dubbed by Margery MacKay, the wife of the rehearsal pianist Harper MacKay, as Wood was not able to sing the high notes of the song. The last note that the Mother Abbess sings is a F - natural (F5).
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hum dil de chuke sanam salman khan car | Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam - wikipedia
Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (English: I Have Given My Heart Away, Darling) is a 1999 Indian Hindi - language romantic drama film directed by Sanjay Leela Bhansali. It was released internationally as Straight From the Heart. The film stars Salman Khan, Ajay Devgn and Aishwarya Rai and is shot at Prag Mahal, Gujarat.
The story is adopted from Maitreyi Devi 's Bengali novel Na Hanyate and is based on a love triangle. It also reflects the influence of the German novella Immensee and the 1943 Nazi - era film based on it, Immensee. It has some inspiration from 1983 movie Woh Saat Din.
It was filmed throughout the Gujarat - Rajasthan border region, in addition to Budapest, Hungary, which was used to represent Italy. The film was premiered in the Indian Panorama section at the 1999 International Film Festival of India. It was remade in Bengali as Neel Akasher Chandni in 2009, with Jeet reprising Salman Khan 's role, Jisshu Sengupta reprising Ajay Devgn 's role, and Koel Mallick reprising Aishwarya Rai 's role.
Nandini (Aishwarya Rai) is the daughter of Pundit Darbar (Vikram Gokhale), a renowned proponent of Indian classical music. It is announced that a young man named Sameer (Salman Khan) will be arriving to stay with the Darbar family, as he wants to grasp the intricacies of Indian classical music under the guidance of the Pundit. He is accommodated in Nandini 's room, causing her to take a dislike to Sameer. At first the two tease and prank one another, but soon enough they fall deeply in love. The two spend romantic moments during several family events, including weddings and festivals.
One day, the pair are caught rehearsing their wedding vows by the Pundit and he is enraged since he has already planned Nandini 's wedding with Vanraj (Ajay Devgn), who had fallen in love with her during her cousin Anu 's (Sheeba Chaddha) wedding. Sameer is banished from the household and the Pundit quits singing since he believes Nandini has brought shame to the family. Sameer is asked never to meet Nandini again. Although he eventually leaves for Italy, he writes letters to Nandini asking her to join him, but his letters do not reach her. After a futile suicide attempt, Nandini reluctantly weds Vanraj. He tries to consummate their marriage on their wedding night, but Nandini is disgusted by his approach and acts coldly towards him. He asks her for an explanation but she chooses to remain silent.
Nandini finally receives Sameer 's letters and Vanraj walks in on her reading them. He is enraged and initially decides to return her to her parents, but soon realizes that since she is in love with another man, the right thing to do would be to unite the pair. Vanraj seeks his parents ' consent, which they give after disagreeing at first. Nandini and Vanraj arrive in Italy but come up against dead ends searching for Sameer. During their search, they are mobbed and Nandini is shot in the arm. Moved by Vanraj 's gentleness and affection towards her, Nandini begins to warm up to him. Eventually they are able to locate Sameer through his mother (Helen), and Vanraj dutifully arranges for their meeting on the night of Sameer 's debut concert. He then bids goodbye to Nandini and walks away heartbroken.
Upon meeting Sameer, she apologises to him and tells him that she has come to love Vanraj. She reflects on the unwavering love and devotion that Vanraj has showered upon her throughout their relationship, and realises that Vanraj is her true soul mate. Sameer realizes that she does n't have that love for him which he saw in her long back. Heartbroken, Sameer lets her to go back to Vanraj which she readily accepts and Sameer breaks down after she leaves and his mother consoles him. She runs back to him and he tells her that he can not live without her. Vanraj adorns a mangala sutra around her neck and they embrace each other with fireworks in the background.
In 2000, Video - sound company in the United States, released the official DVD edition of the film with a "making of '' segment. The main feature was presented in an aspect ratio of 1.85 and the original Dolby Digital 5.1 mix.
The second release was by Digital Entertainment Inc. This was a collectors ' edition two - disc set, filled with supplementary features. These included:
Shemaroo and Eros International released single - disc editions in the India market, sans supplementary features.
The movie was released under its English title Straight From The Heart. This DVD was released by Pathfinder Home Entertainment, which was a port of the Digital Entertainment Inc. edition, sans supplementary features.
Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam was well received by most critics -- especially for its emotional content, cinematography and music -- as well as the performances of the lead actors and a surprising performance by guest star Helen.
Anupama Chopra said "this three - hour spectacular is stuffed with songs, romance, comedy, devotional material, and color - soaked dance numbers that are huge even by Hindi standards. '' Michael Dequina writing for TheMovieReport.com said of the three leads "Rai, in a luminous, award - winning performance (largely considered her big dramatic breakthrough -- and justifiably so), fills in the conflicted emotional shades that Khan fails to bring with his one - dimensional presence; and Devgn 's soulful subtlety does its job in suggesting Sameer to be a more formidable romantic adversary than viewers would see him as being. '' The reviewer for Filmfare felt it was a "once in a decade type of extravaganza '' and wrote, "Cinematographically, the movie is flawless and by virtue of this fact alone, a must - see. It aims at capturing poetry on screen without becoming pretentious. The music by Ismail Darbari is simply enchanting. The film juxtaposes Indian thematic content with exotic foreign locales. ''
Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam was a Hit at the Indian box office, becoming the third highest grossing of the Bollywood films of 1999 with ₹ 200 million. It also did well in the foreign box office with ₹ 85 million.
The music was composed by Ismail Darbar with lyrics by Mehboob and sung by Kavita Krishnamurthy, Alka Yagnik, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan, Hariharan, Vinod Rathod, Sultan Khan, Shankar Mahadevan, KK and others. It received nine Filmfare Awards nominations in the music and singing categories and produced some winners as well. Vikas Bhatnagar of Planet Bollywood gave the soundtrack a perfect 10 out of 10 stars and said it has "cemented it 's (sic) place in the history books of greatest ever Hindi soundtracks. ''
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jenna the real world go big or go home | Real World: Go Big or Go home - wikipedia
Real World: Go Big or Go Home is the thirty - first season of MTV 's reality television series Real World, which focuses on a group of diverse strangers living together for several months in a different city each season, as cameras document their lives and interpersonal relationships. It is the fourth season to be filmed in the Mountain States region of the United States, specifically in Nevada after The Real World: Las Vegas (2011).
The season featured a total of eight (initially seven) people who lived in a penthouse suite in Downtown Las Vegas and follows a twist from the previous two seasons. Las Vegas was first reported as the location for the 31st season by the website DTLV.com on September 15, 2015. It is the third season of Real World to be filmed in Las Vegas and the ninth season to take place in a city that had hosted a previous season, following the twelfth and twenty - fifth seasons, which aired in 2002 -- 03 and 2011, respectively. Production began on October 9, 2015, and concluded on December 16, 2015 totaling up to 70 days of filming.
On January 13, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that the season will be titled Go Big or Go Home. An additional twist is that it features the cast members performing Road Rules - type missions in order to remain on the show. Unlike Road Rules, some missions will be individual - based, some will involve a portion of the group, and some will be team - based. The season premiered on March 17, 2016, and concluded on May 26, 2016, with the season finale, consisting of 12 episodes; it is the first season of the series to premiere simultaneously on MTV and the MTV app 's livestream.
On this season, all cast members will undergo missions to stay in the house (either by an individual, some or all), similar to the missions based on Road Rules. If one cast member chose not to do the mission, they will be forced to leave the group.
Beginning in the 28th season, certain jobs in the area were approved by production that the cast had the liberty to apply for independently if desired. Kailah and Chris worked at Downtown Podcast in Downtown Las Vegas, but this went unaired.
In contrast to the previous two seasons in Las Vegas, which were filmed in 2002 -- 03 at the Palms Casino Resort and in 2011 at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino, the residence for this season was in a converted penthouse suite at Gold Spike in Downtown Las Vegas.
This was the fifth season of Real World to feature a roster of eight roommates living together. The season started with seven cast members until the additional roommate was introduced in the ninth episode.
Additional missions Fear, Yes, Speed, and Fall also took part but were not aired. Fear required Kailah to be in a cave of bats, Speed involved the cast driving rally trucks, Yes required Chris to say yes to what his roommates asked of him for the day, and Fall required the cast to rappel down a cliff. Fall did not include CeeJai and Jenna as both had been removed from the show by the time of the mission. Fall can be seen in the season 's trailer.
Challenge in bold indicates that the contestant was a finalist on The Challenge.
Coordinates: 36 ° 10 ′ 15.5 '' N 115 ° 08 ′ 25.6 '' W / 36.170972 ° N 115.140444 ° W / 36.170972; - 115.140444
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what is the average yearly rainfall in north carolina | Climate of North Carolina - wikipedia
North Carolina 's climate varies from the Atlantic coast in the east to the Appalachian Mountain range in the west. The mountains often act as a "shield '', blocking low temperatures and storms from the Midwest from entering the Piedmont of North Carolina. Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), except in the higher elevations of the Appalachians which have a subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cfb). For most areas in the state, the temperatures in July during the daytime are approximately 90 ° F (32 ° C). In January the average temperatures range near 50 ° F (10 ° C). (However, a polar vortex or "cold blast '' can significantly bring down average temperatures, seen in the winters of 2014 and 2015.)
There is an average of forty - five inches of rain a year (fifty in the mountains). July storms account for much of this precipitation. As much as 15 % of the rainfall during the warm season in the Carolinas can be attributed to tropical cyclones. Mountains usually see some snow in the fall and winter. Moist winds from the southwest drop an average of 80 inches (2,000 mm) of precipitation on the western side of the mountains, while the northeast - facing slopes average less than half that amount.
Snow in North Carolina is seen on a regular basis in the mountains. North Carolina averages 5 inches (130 mm) of snow a year. However, this also varies greatly across the state. Along the coast, most areas register less than 2 inches (51 mm) per year while the state capital, Raleigh averages 7.5 inches (190 mm). Farther west in the Piedmont - Triad, the average grows to approximately 9 inches (230 mm). The Charlotte area averages approximately 6.5 inches (170 mm). The mountains in the west act as a barrier, preventing most snowstorms from entering the Piedmont. When snow does make it past the mountains, it is usually light and is seldom on the ground for more than two or three days. However, several storms have dropped 18 inches (460 mm) or more of snow within normally warm areas. The 1993 Storm of the Century that lasted from March 11 to March 15 affected locales from Canada to Central America, and brought a significant amount of snow to North Carolina. Newfound Gap received more than 36 inches (0.91 m) of snow with drifts more than 5 feet (1.5 m), while Mount Mitchell measured over 4 feet (1.2 m) of snow with drifts to 14 feet (4.3 m). Most of the northwestern part of the state received somewhere between 2 feet (0.61 m) an 3 feet (0.91 m) of snow.
Another significant snowfall hit the Raleigh area in January 2000 when more than 20 inches (510 mm) of snow fell. There was also a heavy snowfall totaling 18 inches (460 mm) that hit the Wilmington area on December 22 - 23, 1989. This storm affected only the Southeastern US coast, as far south as Savannah, GA, with little to no snow measured west of I - 95. Most big snows that impact areas east of the mountains come from extratropical cyclones which approach from the south across Georgia and South Carolina and move off the coast of North or South Carolina. These storms typically throw Gulf or Atlantic moisture over cold Arctic air at ground level, usually propelled southward from Arctic high pressure over the Northeastern or New England states. If the storms track sufficiently far to the east, snow will be limited to the eastern part of the state (as with the December 22 - 23, 1989 storm). If the cyclones travel close to the coast, warm air will get pulled into eastern North Carolina due to increasing flow off the milder Atlantic Ocean, bringing a rain / snow line well inland with heavy snow restricted to the Piedmont, foothills and mountains, as with the January 22, 1987 storm. If the storm tracks inland into eastern North Carolina, the rain / snow line ranges between Raleigh and Greensboro.
Located along the Atlantic Coast, North Carolina is no stranger to hurricanes. Many hurricanes that come up from the Caribbean Sea make it up the coast of eastern America, passing by North Carolina.
On October 15, 1954, Hurricane Hazel struck North Carolina, at that time it was a category 4 hurricane within the Saffir - Simpson Hurricane Scale. Hazel caused significant damage due to its strong winds. A weather station at Oak Island reported maximum sustained winds of 140 miles per hour (230 km / h), while in Raleigh winds of 90 miles per hour (140 km / h) were measured. The hurricane caused 19 deaths and significant destruction. One person at Long Beach claimed that "of the 357 buildings that existed in the town, 352 were totally destroyed and the other five damaged ''. Hazel was described as "the most destructive storm in the history of North Carolina '' in a 1989 report.
In 1996, Hurricane Fran made landfall in North Carolina. As a category 3 hurricane, Fran caused a great deal of damage, mainly through winds. Fran 's maximum sustained wind speeds were 115 miles per hour (185 km / h), while North Carolina 's coast saw surges of 8 feet (2.4 m) to 12 feet (3.7 m) above sea level. The amount of damage caused by Fran ranged from $1.275 to $2 billion in North Carolina.
Heavy rains accompany tropical cyclones and their remnants which move northeast from the Gulf of Mexico coastline, as well as inland from the western subtropical Atlantic ocean. Over the past 30 years, the wettest tropical cyclone to strike the coastal plain was Hurricane Floyd of September 1999, which dropped over 24 inches (610 mm) of rainfall north of Southport. Unlike Hazel and Fran, the main force of destruction was from precipitation. Before Hurricane Floyd reached North Carolina, the state had already received large amounts of rain from Hurricane Dennis less than two weeks before Floyd. This saturated much of the Eastern North Carolina soil and allowed heavy rains from Hurricane Floyd to turn into floods. Over 35 people died from Floyd. In the mountains, Hurricane Frances of September 2004 was nearly as wet, bringing over 23 inches (580 mm) of rainfall to Mount Mitchell.
In most years, the greatest weather - related economic loss incurred in North Carolina is due to severe weather spawned by summer thunderstorms. These storms affect limited areas, with their hail and wind accounting for an average annual loss of over US $5 million.
North Carolina averages 31 tornadoes a year with May seeing the most tornadoes on average a month with 5. June, July and August all have an average of 3 tornadoes with an increase to 4 average tornadoes a month in September. It is through September and into early November when North Carolina can typically expect to see that smaller, secondary, severe weather season. While severe weather season is technically from March through May, tornadoes have touched down in North Carolina in every month of the year. (1). On November 28, 1988, an early morning F4 tornado smashed across northwestern Raleigh, continuing 84 miles further, killing 4 and injuring 157 (http://www4.ncsu.edu/~nwsfo/storage/cases/19881128/).
In winter, North Carolina is somewhat protected by the Appalachian Mountains to the west. Cold fronts from Canada are typically reduced in intensity by the mountains. However, occasionally cold air can move from the north or northeast, east of the Appalachian Mountains, from Arctic high pressure systems that settle over the Northeastern or New England states. Other polar and Arctic outbreaks can cross the mountains and force temperatures to drop to about 12 ° F (− 11 ° C) in central North Carolina. Still, temperatures below zero degrees Fahrenheit are extremely rare outside of the mountains. The coldest ever recorded temperature in North Carolina was − 34 ° F (− 37 ° C) on January 21, 1985, at Mount Mitchell. The winter temperatures on the coast are milder due to the warming influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream. The average ocean temperature in Southport in January is still higher than the average ocean temperature in Maine during July. Snow is common in the mountains, although many ski resorts use snowmaking equipment to make sure there is always snow on their land. North Carolina 's relative humidity is highest in the winter.
Tornadoes are most likely in the spring. Major tornado outbreaks affected parts of eastern North Carolina on March 28, 1984, and April 16, 2011. The month of May experiences the greatest rise in temperatures. During the spring, there are warm days and cool nights in the Piedmont. Temperatures are somewhat cooler in the mountains and warmer, particularly at night, near the coast. North Carolina 's humidity is lowest in the spring.
North Carolina experiences high summer temperatures. Sometimes, cool, dry air from the north will invade North Carolina for brief periods of time, with temperatures quickly rebounding. It remains colder at high elevations, with the average summer temperature in Mount Mitchell lying at 68 ° F (20 ° C). Morning temperatures are on average 20 ° F (12 ° C) lower than afternoon temperatures, except along the Atlantic Coast. The largest economic loss from severe weather in North Carolina is due to severe thunderstorms in the summer, although they usually only hit small areas. Tropical cyclones can impact the state during the summer as well. Fogs are also frequent in the summer.
Fall is the most rapidly changing season temperature wise, especially in October and November. Tropical cyclones remain a threat until late in the season. The Appalachian Mountains are frequently visited at this time of year, due to the leaves changing color in the trees.
During El Niño events, winter and early spring temperatures are cooler than average with above average precipitation in the central and eastern parts of the state and drier weather in the western part. La Niña usually brings warmer than average temperatures with above average precipitation in the western part of the state while the central and coastal regions stay drier than average.
The water on North Carolina 's shores have risen 2 inches (50 mm) but the reason is heavily discussed. Temperatures in North Carolina have risen too. Over the last 100 years, the average temperature in Chapel Hill has gone up 1.2 ° F (0.7 ° C) and precipitation in some parts of the state has increased by 5 percent.
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which of the following defines privileged access by britain | Parliamentary privilege - wikipedia
Parliamentary privilege is a legal immunity enjoyed by members of certain legislatures, in which legislators are granted protection against civil or criminal liability for actions done or statements made in the course of their legislative duties. It is common in countries whose constitutions are based on the Westminster system. A similar mechanism is known as parliamentary immunity.
In the United Kingdom, it allows members of the House of Lords and House of Commons to speak freely during ordinary parliamentary proceedings without fear of legal action on the grounds of slander, contempt of court or breaching the Official Secrets Act. It also means that members of Parliament can not be arrested on civil matters for statements made or acts undertaken as an MP within the grounds of the Palace of Westminster, on the condition that such statements or acts occur as part of a proceeding in Parliament -- for example, as a question to the Prime Minister in the House of Commons. This allows Members to raise questions or debate issues which could slander an individual, interfere with an ongoing court case or threaten to reveal state secrets, such as in the Zircon affair or several cases mentioned by the Labour MP Tam Dalyell.
There is no immunity from arrest on criminal grounds, nor does the civil privilege entirely extend to the devolved administrations in Scotland or Wales. A consequence of the privilege of free speech is that legislators in Westminster systems are forbidden by conventions of their House from uttering certain words, or implying that another member is lying. (See unparliamentary language.)
The rights and privileges of members are overseen by the powerful Committee on Standards and Privileges. If a member of the House is in breach of the rules then he / she can be suspended or even expelled from the House. Such past breaches have included giving false evidence before a committee of the House and the taking of bribes by members.
Similar rights apply in other Westminster system countries such as Canada and Australia. In the United States, the Speech or Debate Clause in Article One of the United States Constitution provides for a similar privilege, and many state constitutions provide similar clauses for their state legislatures.
Parliamentary privilege is controversial because of its potential for abuse; a member can use privilege to make damaging allegations that would ordinarily be discouraged by defamation laws, without first determining whether those allegations have a strong foundation. A member could, even more seriously, undermine national security and / or the safety of an ongoing military or covert operation or undermine relations with a foreign state by releasing sensitive military or diplomatic information.
The ancient and undoubted rights and privileges of the Commons are claimed by the Speaker at the beginning of each new Parliament. The privileges are only codified in Erskine May 's Parliamentary Practice and the House itself is the only judge of its own privileges. Most of those specifically claimed are practically obsolete, but others remain very real:
Privileges not specifically mentioned:
There is an absolute common law privilege for papers circulated among MPs by order of the House (Lake v. King (1667) 1 Saunders 131). This is extended to all papers published under the House 's authority, and to correct copies by the Parliamentary Papers Act 1840. The Act also extends qualified privilege to extracts.
In addition to applying to members ' speech within the chamber, parliamentary privilege also applies to select committees. Written and oral evidence given to, and published by these committees is also subject to the same absolute privilege as parliamentary papers. This means that any evidence given by a witness to a select committee may not be used against them or any other person in a court of law, whether for civil or criminal proceedings. This privilege only applies, however, if the committee has formally accepted it as evidence and does not apply to materials published before they were given to the committee.
In Canada, the Senate and House of Commons and provincial legislative assemblies follow the definition of parliamentary privilege offered by the British parliamentary authority, Erskine May 's Treatise on The Law, Privileges, Proceedings and Usage of Parliament, which defines parliamentary privilege as "the sum of the peculiar rights enjoyed by each House collectively as a constituent part of the High Court of Parliament, and by Members of each house individually, without which they could not discharge their function... the privileges of Parliament are rights which are absolutely necessary for the due execution of its powers. They are enjoyed by individual Members, because the House can not perform its functions without unimpeded use of the service of its Members, and by each House for the protection of its members and the vindication of its own authority and dignity. '' Parliamentary privilege can therefore be claimed by Members individually or by the House collectively.
The rule for when parliamentary privilege applies is that it can not exceed the powers, privileges and immunities of the imperial parliament as it stood in 1867, when the first constitution was written.
Individual parliamentary privileges include:
Collective parliamentary privileges include:
The Supreme Court of Canada has previously dealt with the question of parliamentary privilege in New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia (Speaker of the House of Assembly). In that case, the Court made these observations about parliamentary privilege:
"Privilege '' in this context denotes the legal exemption from some duty, burden, attendance or liability to which others are subject. It has long been accepted that in order to perform their functions, legislative bodies require certain privileges relating to the conduct of their business. It has also long been accepted that these privileges must be held absolutely and constitutionally if they are to be effective; the legislative branch of our government must enjoy a certain autonomy which even the Crown and the courts can not touch.
The privileges attaching to colonial legislatures arose from common law. Modelled on the British Parliament, they were deemed to possess such powers and authority as are necessarily incidental to their proper functioning. These privileges were governed by the principle of necessity rather than by historical incident, and thus may not exactly replicate the powers and privileges found in the United Kingdom.
Recent cases of parliamentary privilege in Canada adjudicated by the courts include:
In 1904, the Parliament of Western Australia imprisoned John Drayton for three weeks for a breach of parliamentary privilege.
In 1955, a newspaper proprietor Raymond Fitzpatrick and his editor Frank Browne were jailed by the Australian House of Representatives for three months for what the House considered a gross breach of parliamentary privilege. The public and most commentators, then and since, felt the punishment far outweighed the crime.
Helen Suzman, a member of the liberal elite born to Lithuanian Jewish parents, used parliamentary privilege in her anti-apartheid campaigning. Helen Suzman reported during a 1994 interview that she was able to get around state of emergency rules applied against press reporting of violence in the country by asking questions in parliament about the subjects that the press were forbidden from talking about. South African legislation allowed anything said in parliament to be published in spite of emergency legislation. She commented on the hypocrisy of anti-apartheid campaigners criticising her for fighting apartheid from the inside in this way, yet publishing information revealed by her by means of parliamentary privilege. (1) (2)
This privilege was considered in the South Australian Industrial Relations Court in the case of Kosmas v Legislative Council (SA) and Others (2007) SAIRC 86. The Court found that employment statutes apply to the Parliament and therefore employees can seek judicial relief for matters such as unfair dismissal or workers compensation.
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why does the u.s supreme court have only limited jurisdiction | Judicial review in the United States - wikipedia
In the United States, judicial review is the ability of a court to examine and decide if a statute, treaty or administrative regulation contradicts or violates the provisions of existing law, a State Constitution, or ultimately the United States Constitution. While the U.S. Constitution does not explicitly define a power of judicial review, the authority for judicial review in the United States has been inferred from the structure, provisions, and history of the Constitution.
Two landmark decisions by the U.S. Supreme Court served to confirm the inferred constitutional authority for judicial review in the United States: In 1796, Hylton v. United States was the first case decided by the Supreme Court involving a direct challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress, the Carriage Act of 1794 which imposed a "carriage tax ''. The Court engaged in the process of judicial review by examining the plaintiff 's claim that the carriage tax was unconstitutional. After review, the Supreme Court decided the Carriage Act was constitutional. In 1803, Marbury v. Madison was the first Supreme Court case where the Court asserted its authority for judicial review to strike down a law as unconstitutional. At the end of his opinion in this decision, Chief Justice John Marshall maintained that the Supreme Court 's responsibility to overturn unconstitutional legislation was a necessary consequence of their sworn oath of office to uphold the Constitution as instructed in Article Six of the Constitution.
As of 2014, the United States Supreme Court has held 176 Acts of the U.S. Congress unconstitutional.
Before the Constitutional Convention in 1787, the power of judicial review had been exercised in a number of states. In the years from 1776 to 1787, state courts in at least seven of the thirteen states had engaged in judicial review and had invalidated state statutes because they violated the state constitution or other higher law. These state courts treated state constitutions as statements of governing law to be interpreted and applied by judges. These courts reasoned that because their state constitution was the fundamental law of the state, they must apply the state constitution rather than an act of the legislature that was inconsistent with the state constitution.
These state court cases involving judicial review were reported in the press and produced public discussion and comment. At least seven of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, including Alexander Hamilton and Edmund Randolph, had personal experience with judicial review because they had been lawyers or judges in these state court cases involving judicial review. Other delegates referred to some of these state court cases during the debates at the Constitutional Convention. The concept of judicial review therefore was familiar to the framers and to the public before the Constitutional Convention.
The text of the Constitution does not contain a specific reference to the power of judicial review. Rather, the power to declare laws unconstitutional has been deemed an implied power, derived from Article III and Article VI.
The provisions relating to the federal judicial power in Article III state:
The Supremacy Clause of Article VI states:
The power of judicial review has been implied from these provisions based on the following reasoning. It is the inherent duty of the courts to determine the applicable law in any given case. The Supremacy Clause says "(t) his Constitution '' is the "supreme law of the land. '' The Constitution therefore is the fundamental law of the United States. Federal statutes are the law of the land only when they are "made in pursuance '' of the Constitution. State constitutions and statutes are valid only if they are consistent with the Constitution. Any law contrary to the Constitution is void. The federal judicial power extends to all cases "arising under this Constitution. '' As part of their inherent duty to determine the law, the federal courts have the duty to interpret and apply the Constitution and to decide whether a federal or state statute conflicts with the Constitution. All judges are bound to follow the Constitution. If there is a conflict, the federal courts have a duty to follow the Constitution and to treat the conflicting statute as unenforceable. The Supreme Court has final appellate jurisdiction in all cases arising under the Constitution, so the Supreme Court has the ultimate authority to decide whether statutes are consistent with the Constitution.
During the debates at the Constitutional Convention, the Founding Fathers made a number of references to the concept of judicial review. The greatest number of these references occurred during the discussion of the proposal known as the Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan included a "council of revision '' that would have examined proposed new federal laws and would have accepted or rejected them, similar to today 's presidential veto. The "council of revision '' would have included the President along with some federal judges. Several delegates objected to the inclusion of federal judges on the council of revision. They argued the federal judiciary, through its power to declare laws unconstitutional, already had the opportunity to protect against legislative encroachment, and the judiciary did not need a second way to negate laws by participating in the council of revision. For example, Elbridge Gerry said federal judges "would have a sufficient check against encroachments on their own department by their exposition of the laws, which involved a power of deciding on their constitutionality. In some states the judges had actually set aside laws, as being against the constitution. This was done too with general approbation. '' Luther Martin said: "(A) s to the constitutionality of laws, that point will come before the judges in their official character. In this character they have a negative on the laws. Join them with the executive in the revision, and they will have a double negative. '' These and other similar comments by the delegates indicated that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review.
Other delegates argued that if federal judges were involved in the law - making process through participation on the council of revision, their objectivity as judges in later deciding on the constitutionality of those laws could be impaired. These comments indicated a belief that the federal courts would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional.
At several other points in the debates at the Constitutional Convention, delegates made comments indicating their belief that under the Constitution, federal judges would have the power of judicial review. For example, James Madison said: "A law violating a constitution established by the people themselves, would be considered by the Judges as null & void. '' George Mason said that federal judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. '' However, Mason added that the power of judicial review is not a general power to strike down all laws, but only ones that are unconstitutional:
But with regard to every law however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course.
In all, fifteen delegates from nine states made comments regarding the power of the federal courts to review the constitutionality of laws. All but two of them supported the idea that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Some delegates to the Constitutional Convention did not speak about judicial review during the Convention, but did speak about it before or after the Convention. Including these additional comments by Convention delegates, scholars have found that twenty - five or twenty - six of the Convention delegates made comments indicating support for judicial review, while three to six delegates opposed judicial review. One review of the debates and voting records of the convention counted as many as forty delegates who supported judicial review, with four or five opposed.
In their comments relating to judicial review, the framers indicated that the power of judges to declare laws unconstitutional was part of the system of separation of powers. The framers stated that the courts ' power to declare laws unconstitutional would provide a check on the legislature, protecting against excessive exercise of legislative power.
Judicial review was discussed in at least seven of the thirteen state ratifying conventions, and was mentioned by almost two dozen delegates. In each of these conventions, delegates asserted that the proposed Constitution would allow the courts to exercise judicial review. There is no record of any delegate to a state ratifying convention who indicated that the federal courts would not have the power of judicial review.
For example, James Wilson asserted in the Pennsylvania ratifying convention that federal judges would exercise judicial review: "If a law should be made inconsistent with those powers vested by this instrument in Congress, the judges, as a consequence of their independence, and the particular powers of government being defined, will declare such law to be null and void. For the power of the Constitution predominates. Anything, therefore, that shall be enacted by Congress contrary thereto will not have the force of law. ''
In the Connecticut ratifying convention, Oliver Ellsworth likewise described judicial review as a feature of the Constitution: "This Constitution defines the extent of the powers of the general government. If the general legislature should at any time overleap their limits, the judicial department is a constitutional check. If the United States go beyond their powers, if they make a law which the Constitution does not authorize, it is void; and the judicial power, the national judges, who, to secure their impartiality, are to be made independent, will declare it to be void. ''
During the ratification process, supporters and opponents of ratification published pamphlets, essays, and speeches debating various aspects of the Constitution. Publications by over a dozen authors in at least twelve of the thirteen states asserted that under the Constitution, the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. There is no record of any opponent to the Constitution who claimed that the Constitution did not involve a power of judicial review.
After reviewing the statements made by the founders, one scholar concluded: "The evidence from the Constitutional Convention and from the state ratification conventions is overwhelming that the original public meaning of the term ' judicial power ' (in Article III) included the power to nullify unconstitutional laws. ''
The Federalist Papers, which were published in 1787 -- 1788 to promote ratification of the Constitution, made several references to the power of judicial review. The most extensive discussion of judicial review was in Federalist No. 78, written by Alexander Hamilton, which clearly explained that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review. Hamilton stated that under the Constitution, the federal judiciary would have the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Hamilton asserted that this was appropriate because it would protect the people against abuse of power by Congress:
Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental...
(A) ccordingly, whenever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will be the duty of the Judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and disregard the former...
(T) he courts of justice are to be considered as the bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroachments.
In Federalist No. 80, Hamilton rejected the idea that the power to decide the constitutionality of an act of Congress should lie with each of the states: "The mere necessity of uniformity in the interpretation of the national laws, decides the question. Thirteen independent courts of final jurisdiction over the same causes, arising upon the same laws, is a hydra in government, from which nothing but contradiction and confusion can proceed. '' Consistent with the need for uniformity in interpretation of the Constitution, Hamilton explained in Federalist No. 82 that the Supreme Court has authority to hear appeals from the state courts in cases relating to the Constitution.
The arguments against ratification by the Anti-Federalists agreed that the federal courts would have the power of judicial review, though the Anti-Federalists viewed this negatively. Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus '', stated:
The first Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789, establishing the lower federal courts and specifying the details of federal court jurisdiction. Section 25 of the Judiciary Act provided for the Supreme Court to hear appeals from state courts when the state court decided that a federal statute was invalid, or when the state court upheld a state statute against a claim that the state statute was repugnant to the Constitution. This provision gave the Supreme Court the power to review state court decisions involving the constitutionality of both federal statutes and state statutes. The Judiciary Act thereby incorporated the concept of judicial review.
Between the ratification of the Constitution in 1788 and the decision in Marbury v. Madison in 1803, judicial review was employed in both the federal and state courts. A detailed analysis has identified thirty - one state or federal cases during this time in which statutes were struck down as unconstitutional, and seven additional cases in which statutes were upheld but at least one judge concluded the statute was unconstitutional. The author of this analysis, Professor William Treanor, concluded: "The sheer number of these decisions not only belies the notion that the institution of judicial review was created by Chief Justice Marshall in Marbury, it also reflects widespread acceptance and application of the doctrine. ''
Several other cases involving judicial review issues reached the Supreme Court before the issue was definitively decided in Marbury in 1803.
In Hayburn 's Case, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 408 (1792), federal circuit courts held an act of Congress unconstitutional for the first time. Three federal circuit courts found that Congress had violated the Constitution by passing an act requiring circuit court judges to decide pension applications, subject to the review of the Secretary of War. These circuit courts found that this was not a proper judicial function under Article III. These three decisions were appealed to the Supreme Court, but the appeals became moot when Congress repealed the statute while the appeals were pending.
In an unreported Supreme Court decision in 1794, United States v. Yale Todd, the Supreme Court reversed a pension that was awarded under the same pension act that had been at issue in Hayburn 's Case. The Court apparently decided that the act designating judges to decide pensions was not constitutional because this was not a proper judicial function. This apparently was the first Supreme Court case to find an act of Congress unconstitutional. However, there was not an official report of the case and it was not used as a precedent.
Hylton v. United States, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 171 (1796), was the first case decided by the Supreme Court that involved a challenge to the constitutionality of an act of Congress. It was argued that a federal tax on carriages violated the constitutional provision regarding "direct '' taxes. The Supreme Court upheld the tax, finding it was constitutional. Although the Supreme Court did not strike down the act in question, the Court engaged in the process of judicial review by considering the constitutionality of the tax. The case was widely publicized at the time, and observers understood that the Court was testing the constitutionality of an act of Congress. Because it found the statute valid, the Court did not have to assert that it had the power to declare a statute unconstitutional.
In Ware v. Hylton, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 199 (1796), the Supreme Court for the first time struck down a state statute. The Court reviewed a Virginia statute regarding pre-Revolutionary war debts and found that it was inconsistent with the peace treaty between the United States and Great Britain. Relying on the Supremacy Clause, the Court found the Virginia statute invalid.
In Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 U.S. (3 Dall.) 378 (1798), the Supreme Court found that it did not have jurisdiction to hear the case because of the jurisdiction limitations of the Eleventh Amendment. This holding could be viewed as an implicit finding that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which would have allowed the Court jurisdiction, was unconstitutional in part. However, the Court did not provide any reasoning for its conclusion and did not say that it was finding the statute unconstitutional.
In Cooper v. Telfair, 4 U.S. (4 Dall.) 14 (1800), Justice Chase stated: "It is indeed a general opinion -- it is expressly admitted by all this bar and some of the judges have, individually in the circuits decided, that the Supreme Court can declare an act of Congress to be unconstitutional, and therefore invalid, but there is no adjudication of the Supreme Court itself upon the point. ''
In 1798, the Kentucky and Virginia legislatures passed a series of resolutions asserting that the states have the power to determine whether acts of Congress are constitutional. In response, ten states passed their own resolutions disapproving the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. Six of these states took the position that the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional lies in the federal courts, not in the state legislatures. For example, Vermont 's resolution stated: "It belongs not to state legislatures to decide on the constitutionality of laws made by the general government; this power being exclusively vested in the judiciary courts of the Union. ''
Thus, five years before Marbury v. Madison, a number of state legislatures stated their understanding that under the Constitution, the federal courts possess the power of judicial review.
The Supreme Court 's landmark decision regarding judicial review is Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803). Marbury was the first Supreme Court decision to strike down an act of Congress as unconstitutional. Chief Justice John Marshall wrote the opinion for a unanimous Court.
The case arose when William Marbury filed a lawsuit seeking an order (a "writ of mandamus '') requiring the Secretary of State, James Madison, to deliver to Marbury a commission appointing him as a justice of the peace. Marbury filed his case directly in the Supreme Court, invoking the Court 's "original jurisdiction '', rather than filing in a lower court.
The constitutional issue involved the question of whether the Supreme Court had jurisdiction to hear the case. The Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court original jurisdiction in cases involving writs of mandamus. So, under the Judiciary Act, the Supreme Court would have had jurisdiction to hear Marbury 's case. However, the Constitution describes the cases in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction, and does not include mandamus cases. The Judiciary Act therefore attempted to give the Supreme Court jurisdiction that was not "warranted by the Constitution. ''
Marshall 's opinion stated that in the Constitution, the people established a government of limited powers: "The powers of the Legislature are defined and limited; and that those limits may not be mistaken or forgotten, the Constitution is written. '' The limits established in the Constitution would be meaningless "if these limits may at any time be passed by those intended to be restrained. '' Marshall observed that the Constitution is "the fundamental and paramount law of the nation '', and that it can not be altered by an ordinary act of the legislature. Therefore, "an act of the Legislature repugnant to the Constitution is void. ''
Marshall then discussed the role of the courts, which is at the heart of the doctrine of judicial review. It would be an "absurdity '', said Marshall, to require the courts to apply a law that is void. Rather, it is the inherent duty of the courts to interpret and apply the Constitution, and to determine whether there is a conflict between a statute and the Constitution:
So, if a law be in opposition to the Constitution, if both the law and the Constitution apply to a particular case, so that the Court must either decide that case conformably to the law, disregarding the Constitution, or conformably to the Constitution, disregarding the law, the Court must determine which of these conflicting rules governs the case. This is of the very essence of judicial duty.
If, then, the Courts are to regard the Constitution, and the Constitution is superior to any ordinary act of the Legislature, the Constitution, and not such ordinary act, must govern the case to which they both apply...
Marshall stated that the courts are authorized by the provisions of the Constitution itself to "look into '' the Constitution, that is, to interpret and apply it, and that they have the duty to refuse to enforce any laws that are contrary to the Constitution. Specifically, Article III provides that the federal judicial power "is extended to all cases arising under the Constitution. '' Article VI requires judges to take an oath "to support this Constitution. '' Article VI also states that only laws "made in pursuance of the Constitution '' are the law of the land. Marshall concluded: "Thus, the particular phraseology of the Constitution of the United States confirms and strengthens the principle, supposed to be essential to all written Constitutions, that a law repugnant to the Constitution is void, and that courts, as well as other departments, are bound by that instrument. ''
Marbury long has been regarded as the seminal case with respect to the doctrine of judicial review. Some scholars have suggested that Marshall 's opinion in Marbury essentially created judicial review. In his book The Least Dangerous Branch, Professor Alexander Bickel wrote:
Other scholars view this as an overstatement, and argue that Marbury was decided in a context in which judicial review already was a familiar concept. These scholars point to the facts showing that judicial review was acknowledged by the Constitution 's framers, was explained in the Federalist Papers and in the ratification debates, and was used by both state and federal courts for more than twenty years before Marbury, including the Supreme Court in Hylton v. United States. One scholar concluded: "(B) efore Marbury, judicial review had gained wide support. ''
Marbury was the point at which the Supreme Court adopted a monitoring role over government actions. After the Court exercised its power of judicial review in Marbury, it avoided striking down a federal statute during the next fifty years. The court would not do so again until Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857).
However, the Supreme Court did exercise judicial review in other contexts. In particular, the Court struck down a number of state statutes that were contrary to the Constitution. The first case in which the Supreme Court struck down a state statute as unconstitutional was Fletcher v. Peck, 10 U.S. (6 Cranch) 87 (1810).
In a few cases, state courts took the position that their judgments were final and were not subject to review by the Supreme Court. They argued that the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the authority to review state court decisions. They asserted that the Judiciary Act of 1789, which provided that the Supreme Court could hear certain appeals from state courts, was unconstitutional. In effect, these state courts were asserting that the principle of judicial review did not extend to allow federal review of state court decisions. This would have left the states free to adopt their own interpretations of the Constitution.
The Supreme Court rejected this argument. In Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, 14 U.S. (1 Wheat.) 304 (1816), the Court held that under Article III, the federal courts have jurisdiction to hear all cases arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, and that the Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction in all such cases, whether those cases are filed in state or federal courts. The Court issued another decision to the same effect in the context of a criminal case, Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264 (1821). It is now well established that the Supreme Court may review decisions of state courts that involve federal law.
The Supreme Court also has reviewed actions of the federal executive branch to determine whether those actions were authorized by acts of Congress or were beyond the authority granted by Congress.
Judicial review is now well established as a cornerstone of constitutional law. As of 2016, the United States Supreme Court had held unconstitutional some 180 Acts of the U.S. Congress.
Although judicial review has now become an established part of constitutional law in the United States, there are some who disagree with the doctrine.
At the Constitutional Convention, neither proponents nor opponents of judicial review disputed that any government based on a written constitution requires some mechanism to prevent laws that violate that constitution from being made and enforced. Otherwise, the document would be meaningless, and the legislature, with the power to enact any laws whatsoever, would be the supreme arm of government (the British doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty). The delegates at the Convention differed with respect to the question of whether Congress or the judiciary should make determinations regarding constitutionality of statutes. Hamilton addressed this in Federalist No. 78, in which he explained the reasons that the federal judiciary has the role of reviewing the constitutionality of statutes:
Since the adoption of the Constitution, some have argued that the power of judicial review gives the courts the ability to impose their own views of the law, without an adequate check from any other branch of government. Robert Yates, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention from New York, argued during the ratification process in the Anti-Federalist Papers that the courts would use the power of judicial review loosely to impose their views about the "spirit '' of the Constitution:
In 1820, Thomas Jefferson expressed his opposition to the doctrine of judicial review:
In 1861, Abraham Lincoln touched upon the same subject, during his first inaugural address:
Lincoln was alluding here to the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford, in which the Court had struck down a federal statute for the first time since Marbury v. Madison.
It has been argued that the judiciary is not the only branch of government that may interpret the meaning of the Constitution. Article VI requires federal and state officeholders to be bound "by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution. '' It has been argued that such officials may follow their own interpretations of the Constitution, at least until those interpretations have been tested in court.
Some have argued that judicial review is unconstitutional based on two arguments. First, the power of judicial review is not expressly delegated to the courts in the Constitution. The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states (or to the people) those powers not delegated to the federal government. The second argument is that the states alone have the power to ratify changes to the "supreme law '' (the U.S. Constitution), and that the states should play some role in interpreting its meaning. Under this theory, allowing only federal courts to definitively conduct judicial review of federal law allows the national government to interpret its own restrictions as it sees fit, with no meaningful input from the ratifying power.
In the United States, unconstitutionality is the only ground for a federal court to strike down a federal statute. Justice Washington, speaking for the Marshall Court, put it this way in an 1829 case:
If a state statute conflicts with a valid federal statute, then courts may strike down the state statute as an unstatutable violation of the Supremacy Clause. But a federal court may not strike down a statute absent a violation of federal law or of the federal Constitution.
Moreover, a suspicion or possibility of unconstitutionality is not enough for American courts to strike down a statute. Alexander Hamilton explained in Federalist 78 that the standard of review should be "irreconcilable variance '' with the Constitution. Anti-federalists agreed that courts would be unable to strike down federal statutes absent a conflict with the Constitution. For example, Robert Yates, writing under the pseudonym "Brutus '', asserted that "the courts of the general government (will) be under obligation to observe the laws made by the general legislature not repugnant to the constitution. ''
These principles -- that federal statutes can only be struck down for unconstitutionality and that the unconstitutionality must be clear -- were very common views at the time of the framing of the Constitution. For example, George Mason explained during the constitutional convention that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as Judges to give it a free course. ''
For a number of years, the courts were relatively deferential to Congress. Justice Washington put it this way, in an 1827 case: "It is but a decent respect to the wisdom, integrity, and patriotism of the legislative body, by which any law is passed, to presume in favor of its validity, until its violation of the Constitution is proved beyond a reasonable doubt. ''
Although judges usually adhered to this principle that a statute could only be deemed unconstitutional in case of a clear contradiction until the twentieth century, this presumption of constitutionality weakened somewhat during the twentieth century, as exemplified by the Supreme Court 's famous footnote four in United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938), which suggested that statutes may be subjected to closer scrutiny in certain types of cases. Nevertheless, the federal courts have not departed from the principle that courts may only strike down statutes for unconstitutionality.
Of course, the practical implication of this principle is that a court can not strike down a statute, even if it recognizes that the statute is obviously poorly drafted, irrational, or arises from legislators ' corrupt motives, unless the flaw in the statute rises to the level of a clear constitutional violation. In 2008, Justice John Paul Stevens reaffirmed this point in a concurring opinion: "(A) s I recall my esteemed former colleague, Thurgood Marshall, remarking on numerous occasions: ' The Constitution does not prohibit legislatures from enacting stupid laws. ' ''
In the federal system, courts may only decide actual cases or controversies; it is not possible to request the federal courts to review a law without at least one party having legal standing to engage in a lawsuit. This principle means that courts sometimes do not exercise their power of review, even when a law is seemingly unconstitutional, for want of jurisdiction. In some state courts, such as the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, legislation may be referred in certain circumstances by the legislature or by the executive for an advisory ruling on its constitutionality prior to its enactment (or enforcement).
The U.S. Supreme Court seeks to avoid reviewing the Constitutionality of an act where the case before it could be decided on other grounds, an attitude and practice exemplifying judicial restraint. Justice Brandeis framed it thus (citations omitted):
Although the Supreme Court continues to review the constitutionality of statutes, Congress and the states retain some power to influence what cases come before the Court. For example, the Constitution at Article III, Section 2, gives Congress power to make exceptions to the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has historically acknowledged that its appellate jurisdiction is defined by Congress, and thus Congress may have power to make some legislative or executive actions unreviewable. This is known as jurisdiction stripping.
Another way for Congress to limit judicial review was tried in January 1868, when a bill was proposed requiring a two - thirds majority of the Court in order to deem any Act of Congress unconstitutional. The bill was approved by the House, 116 to 39. That measure died in the Senate, partly because the bill was unclear about how the bill 's own constitutionality would be decided.
Many other bills have been proposed in Congress that would require a supermajority in order for the justices to exercise judicial review. During the early years of the United States, a two - thirds majority was necessary for the Supreme Court to exercise judicial review; because the Court then consisted of six members, a simple majority and a two - thirds majority both required four votes. Currently, the constitutions of two states require a supermajority of supreme court justices in order to exercise judicial review: Nebraska (five out of seven justices) and North Dakota (four out of five justices).
The procedure for judicial review of federal administrative regulation in the United States is set forth by the Administrative Procedure Act although the courts have ruled such as in Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents that a person may bring a case on the grounds of an implied cause of action when no statutory procedure exists.
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i got brand new pair of roller skates song | Brand New key - wikipedia
"Brand New Key '' is a pop song written and sung by folk music singer Melanie. Initially a track of Melanie 's album Gather Me, produced by Melanie 's husband, Peter Schekeryk, it was known also as "The Rollerskate Song '' due to its chorus. It was her greatest success, scoring No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart during December 1971 and January 1972. Billboard ranked it as the No. 9 song of 1972. It also scored No. 1 in Canada and Australia and No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was featured in the 1997 movie Boogie Nights as well as the 2010 movie Jackass 3D and an episode of Helix.
The song is sung from the viewpoint of a girl with roller skates trying to attract the attention of a boy.
In an interview with Examiner.com, Melanie described what she claimed was the inspiration for the song: "I was fasting with a 27 - day fast on water. I broke the fast and went back to my life living in New Jersey and we were going to a flea market around six in the morning. On the way back... and I had just broken the fast, from the flea market, we passed a McDonald 's and the aroma hit me, and I had been a vegetarian before the fast. So we pulled into the McDonald 's and I got the whole works... the burger, the shake, and the fries... and no sooner after I finished that last bite of my burger... that song was in my head. The aroma brought back memories of roller skating and learning to ride a bike and the vision of my dad holding the back fender of the tire. And me saying to my dad... ' You 're holding, you 're holding, you 're holding, right? ' Then I 'd look back and he was n't holding and I 'd fall. So that whole thing came back to me and came out in this song. ''
Many listeners detect sexual innuendo in the lyrics, with the key in its lock thought to symbolize sexual intercourse, or in phrases such as "I go pretty far '' and "I 've been all around the world ''. Another common viewpoint on the song, is that the song is clearly an innocent reflection upon the typical workings of a child 's mind regarding their possessions (In this case, quad skates and the associated key essential for tightening / loosening a locking clamp on the skates).
Melanie has acknowledged the possibility of detecting sexual innuendo in the song, without confirming or denying the intent:
(The song), "Brand New Key '', I wrote in about fifteen minutes one night. I thought it was cute; a kind of old thirties tune. I guess a key and a lock have always been Freudian symbols, and pretty obvious ones at that. There was no deep serious expression behind the song, but people read things into it. They made up incredible stories as to what the lyrics said and what the song meant. In some places, it was even banned from the radio.
My idea about songs is that once you write them, you have very little say in their life afterward. It 's a lot like having a baby. You conceive a song, deliver it, and then give it as good a start as you can. After that, it 's on its own. People will take it any way they want to take it.
Melanie 's version is heard in the 1997 music Boogie Nights as Dirk Diggler (Mark Wahlberg) has his "audition '' with Rollergirl (Heather Graham) in front of Jack Horner (Burt Reynolds). The song is also played in Jackass 3 - D during the "Bungee Boogie '' stunt skit (in which the cast members use bungee cords, skateboards and a ramp to slingshot into a kiddie pool). On April 4, 2016, Jimmy Fallon lip synced the song during a "Lip Sync Battle '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, while he competed with actress Melissa McCarthy.
On the October 17, 2016, episode of singing competition television show The Voice, Team Miley (Cyrus) contestants Darby Walker and Karlee Metzger performed the song in a battle round. Despite coaches Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, and Alicia Keys all preferring Metzger 's vocal performance, Cyrus chose to name Walker the winner of the battle. Shortly after, Metzger was stolen onto Team Blake, saving her from elimination.
The original version appears in season one of the FX show The Bridge, as the character Daniel Frye flushes his supply of drugs and alcohol.
The original version also appears in the 2016 Hallmark TV movie: "Signed sealed delivered from the heart ''.
During the 16th Season of American Idol, contestant Maddie Poppe performed the song during the Top 24 elimination round.
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how many origins have qld won in a row | State of Origin series - wikipedia
The State of Origin series is the annual best - of - three rugby league football match series between two Australian state representative sides, the New South Wales Blues and the Queensland Maroons.
Referred to as Australian sport 's greatest rivalry, the State of Origin series is one of Australia 's premier sporting events, attracting huge television audiences and usually selling out the stadiums in which the games are played. It is regularly described as being the pinnacle of rugby league, even in comparison with international competitions.
Players are selected to represent the Australian state in which they played their first senior rugby league game, hence the name ' state of origin '. Prior to 1980 players were only selected for interstate matches on the basis of where they were playing their club football at the time. In both 1980 and 1981 there were two interstate matches under the old selection rules and one experimental "State of Origin '' match. From 1982 onwards a best - of - three match series has been played around the middle of the rugby league season for the State of Origin shield. During the early years, the results were extraordinarily even. However, since 2006, Queensland has won every series except in 2014.
Since the 1908 establishment of rugby league in Australia, the sport 's two major states, New South Wales and Queensland, have played representative matches against each other which have continued into the "state of origin '' era which began in the 1980s. The two states ' teams are frequently referred to as the Blues and Maroons, reflecting the respective colours of their jerseys. These were the colours of the Australia national rugby league team 's jersey until the adoption of the green and gold. The Blues team is administered by the New South Wales Rugby League and the Maroons by the Queensland Rugby League. The New South Wales team are sometimes referred to by the nickname "Cockroaches '' and the Queensland team as "Cane Toads '', due to a marketing campaign used in the 1980s where the respective teams were caricatured as such.
Whilst other Australian states also have representative rugby league teams, they have not competed in State of Origin.
The first calls for a state of origin selection policy in interstate rugby football came before the schism between the union and league codes eventuated in Australia. In 1900 a journalist known as ' The Cynic ' wrote in The Referee that star rugby player and recent immigrant to Queensland, Stephen Spragg, should be able to play for his home state of New South Wales.
Since the beginning of Australian rugby league in 1908, an interstate competition between New South Wales and Queensland has been conducted from time to time. Until 1982 each team drew its players from the clubs based in that state. No consideration was given to the origins of the players themselves.
The first of these interstate games was played at Sydney 's Agricultural Ground on 11 July 1908, before Queensland had even commenced its club competition. New South Wales easily accounted for Queensland in a 43 -- 0 victory. The local media were unimpressed.
The interstate series was dominated by New South Wales, apart from a golden period for Queensland in the 1920s. From 1922 to 1925 Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 times in 12 matches. At the end of the 1925 season a Kangaroo team was to be picked for touring Great Britain. Instead of announcing an Australian team dominated by Queenslanders, the Australian Rugby League Board of Control informed the media that the Rugby Football League had decided that the Kiwis would provide stronger opposition, and that there would be no Australian tour. The period spanning 1922 to 1929 saw no Australian team play in Great Britain, the only such hiatus outside the two World Wars.
The New South Wales dominance of interstate football increased after 1956 when gaming machines were legalised for all registered clubs in New South Wales. This provided New South Wales football clubs with a revenue source unmatched by Queensland clubs. From this time on an increasing number of Queensland players moved to the much stronger Sydney competition, becoming ineligible for Queensland state selection. Paul Hogan famously told a Queensland Rugby League gathering in 1977 that "every time Queensland produces a good footballer, he finishes up being processed through a New South Wales poker machine. ''
Prior to 1956, NSW had won 75 % and Qld only 25 % of series played. From 1956 -- 1981, NSW dominance soared even higher and Qld wins dwindled to only 3.8 % with only 1 series win, in 1959.
By the 1970s the prestige of interstate matches had been seriously downgraded. Matches were played mid-week, so as not to interfere with the Sydney club competition, and the small crowds in New South Wales were hosted at suburban grounds. Interstate football reached its nadir in 1977 when the New South Wales Rugby Football League (NSWRFL) declined to host the Queensland team, and both interstate games were played in Queensland.
Former Queensland captain and Australian vice-captain Jack Reardon, who had later become a journalist, was the first to suggest that Sydney - based Queenslanders should be available for selection to represent their state.
Brisbane Courier - Mail reporter Hugh Lunn, Barry Maranta (the future co-founder of the Brisbane Broncos) and Maranta 's business partner Wayne Reid played a part in persuading QRL chairman Ron McAullife that the concept could be used in rugby league. Lunn told McAullife that "you can take the Queenslander out of Queensland, Ron, but you ca n't take the Queensland out of the Queenslander. '' McAuliffe was initially sceptical. "What if we recall our boys from Sydney to play, and we are beaten. Where would we go from there? '' Reid spoke to NSWRFL president Kevin Humphreys and suggested that a one - off state of origin match could be used as a Test Match selection trial.
New South Wales clubs were reticent in their support of the concept and set two conditions:
Three Sydney clubs remained opposed to the plan: St. George Dragons, South Sydney Rabbitohs and Eastern Suburbs Roosters. As these clubs were refusing to release players, Humphreys threatened to make the game an official Australian Rugby League trial, which would make release mandatory. The clubs backed down.
After Queensland lost the first two interstate matches in 1980 (35 -- 3 and 17 -- 7, the second game in front of only 1,638 Sydneysiders) it was announced that a ' state of origin ' match would take place on 8 July at Lang Park in Brisbane. The New South Wales media gave both the event, and Queensland 's chance of winning it, little credence, calling the game a "three day wonder ''. Australia 's 1978 captain Bob Fulton called the match "the non-event of the century ''. Ron MacAullife however, was now committed to the concept and vigorously promoted the match. Thousands of tickets were sold before the game had been officially sanctioned. Although interstate matches in Brisbane had still been well attended (24,653 had attended the opening match of the 1979 series), few expected the sell - out crowd of 33,210 Queensland rugby league fans, delighted to see their heroes in the likes of Arthur Beetson representing their home state for the first time ever. Queensland convincingly beat New South Wales 20 -- 10.
I was strongly against such a match, but last night 's gripping clash showed that such a fixture would be a welcome addition to the League program.
In 1981 the first two interstate matches were again played under the old selection rules. As New South Wales won the first two matches in the series, state of origin selection rules were used once more in the third match. Although New South Wales ran out to an early 15 -- 0 lead in the game, Queensland rallied to win 22 -- 15.
The interest generated by the experimental state of origin matches of 1980 and 1981 and the potential for financial rewards were enough to convince the authorities to play all three games under state of origin rules the following year.
The State of Origin format is the only possible way to allow the interstate series to survive.
Despite the Maroons ' success so far in the State of Origin experiments, the New South Wales media dismissed the seriousness of the Queensland threat to the Blues ' long - held dominance in series wins. Queensland however, under the leadership of immortal captain Wally Lewis, was inspired by this, and for the first three State of Origin series Queensland won 2 matches to 1.
However, in 1985, under the leadership of captain Steve Mortimer, New South Wales won the deciding match in front of 29,068 spectators at the Sydney Cricket Ground, claiming the series for the first time. The following year the Blues were able to go one better and complete the first state of origin whitewash, taking the series 3 -- 0.
Barry Gomersall, from Sarina, Queensland (1945 -- 2007) was notorious for his refereeing of nine State of Origin matches between 1982 and 1988. Queensland rugby league team won seven of those matches, leading to accusations of bias and match - fixing. Gomersall himself did little to disassociate himself from those claims, famously referring to the only two matches under his control won by New South Wales rugby league team; "Surely anyone 's entitled to two bad games ''. Queenslanders, on the other hand, were generally of the view that Sydney referees were no more to be relied on to give unbiased rulings in the games they controlled.
After Queensland had won the 1987 series 2 -- 1, a fourth game was played at Long Beach, California to showcase rugby league to the American public.
In Origin: Rugby League 's Greatest Contest 1980 -- 2002 (2003) Queensland writer Jack Gallaway tells a story:
In 1987 the Australian Rugby League (ARL), New South Wales Rugby League and Queensland Rugby League agreed that the match would only count towards the players ' individual statistics. On 15 July 2003 the Australian Rugby League (whose primary members are originally from the New South Wales Rugby League) announced that the fourth 1987 game was to be classified as an official match, and that a win in the state of origin match on 16 July 2003 would take New South Wales into the overall lead.
ARL and NSWRL chief executive Geoff Carr said: "There had been some debate over whether the Origin fixture... in 1987 was counted as an official match but a search of ARL records has confirmed the status conferred on that clash by the game 's governing body at the time. In announcing the match in Big League in April 1987, Ken Arthurson, the ARL 's chief executive in 1987, was quoted as saying ' It 's an exciting experiment but the match is n't and wo n't be billed as an exhibition match '. ''
After the controversy of the match played in the United States, the Queensland halves pairing of Allan Langer and Wally Lewis led the Maroons in their 3 -- 0 series wins in both 1988 and 1989. The rise of the Canberra Raiders in the then Winfield Cup club competition produced for the Blues the formidable halves combination of Ricky Stuart and Laurie Daley who brought New South Wales back from defeat with two wins in the opening games of the 1990 series. It was evident that as the rivalry between the two states grew, the Origin matches had become much more physical forward orientated game than the open running play seen in earlier series.
As the great Queensland players from the 1980s began to retire from the game, the Maroons struggled with a team of fresh faces and considerable inexperience. The 1992, 1993 and 1994 series all went to NSW as the talent and experience of Blues players such as Brett Mullins, Daley and Stuart in the backs and Benny Elias and Bradley Clyde in the forwards gave the Blues the edge when the games were on the line. It was n't until the upheaval of the Super League war in 1995 that the Maroons were able to again clinch a series.
A main cause for concern for Queensland was the fact that the Brisbane Broncos, its players and many other Queenslanders were not aligned with the ARL prohibiting any players signed with the Super League to play for the Maroons. Despite this the Queenslanders won the 1995 series 3 -- 0 in a shocking white - wash. The 1996 series saw the off - field contract dramas put aside as all players were allowed, regardless of contract, state of origin selection. Having the majority of the Queenslanders back did n't help the Maroons though as the Blues 1996 white - wash with a 3 -- 0 series win of their own.
The Australian game divided in 1997 into two competitions, one run by the ARL and one by the News Limited - owned Super League, and an interstate series was played in each. Under the Super League banner there was a Tri-Origin series with a New Zealand side added to the competition. The ARL meanwhile stuck to its traditional format. The teams were selected using origin rules, and New South Wales and Queensland met twice. These matches do not count towards the official state of origin record. As with the premiership, players were spread between two representative tournaments as well.
The competitions merged again in 1998 as the current National Rugby League, and the series that year proved to be enthralling as both sides won a game each away from home, setting up a decider at the Sydney Football Stadium where 39,000 fans witnessed the visiting Queenslanders take the series 2 -- 1. The end of the decade saw a dramatic series with each side taking one game each and game three ending in a draw. Queensland were awarded the series as at the time the previous winners retained the interstate honours.
The early to mid-2000s saw New South Wales starting to assert its traditional interstate dominance, causing some critics (who?) to question the future of State of Origin. However, this imbalance tipped in the third and deciding game of the 2006 State of Origin series, which is seen as the starting point of Queensland 's unprecedented dynasty. Queensland followed by winning the 2007 series, as well as the 2008 series, which made Queensland 's streak three series in a row. New South Wales won Game 1 on 21 May 2008, however Queensland won Game 2 on 11 June 2008, and Game 3 on 2 July 2008. Queensland continued to follow this up by winning the first two games of the 2009 series becoming the first state to win four series in a row.
Queensland won its historic, record breaking, fifth consecutive Origin series with a 23 -- 18 win in the third and final match of the State of Origin, 2010. This was the first Queensland team to win all three consecutive State of Origin Games in 15 years. Queensland full back Billy Slater won man of the match in the third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series in 2010.
The 2010 State of Origin series was also the second televised program in Australia to be shot in 3D 1080i DVB - T as well as being simultaneously broadcast in regular 576i and 1080i DVB - T and PAL.
In the first game of the 2011 series Queensland defeated New South Wales 16 -- 12. In the second game of the 2011 series New South Wales defeated Queensland 18 -- 8. Queensland won the series 34 -- 24 in the 2011 decider in what was Queensland captain Darren Lockyer 's 36th and final game. Cameron Smith won man of the match in both the first and third game and was awarded the Wally Lewis Medal as Man of the Series.
In 2012, then NRL CEO David Gallop introduced the Under - 20s State of Origin for Toyota Cup players which saw New South Wales winning. Queensland went on to win an historic 7th series win in 2012, winning the final game by 1 point.
In 2013, New South Wales defeated Queensland 14 to 6 in game 1, Queensland defeated New South Wales 26 to 6 in game 2, while in game 3 Queensland defeated New South Wales 12 to 10 to take out the overall Origin title for the eighth consecutive time. The 2013 series set a new State of Origin television ratings record for a whole series since the 2001 introduction of the ratings system.
In 2014, New South Wales defeated Queensland 12 - 8 in the first game of the series, and 6 - 4 in the second. In the third game Queensland defeated New South Wales 32 - 8 after scoring the first try of the game in the 37th minute, with Queensland leading 6 - 2 in the first half. This gave the Blues the first series win in 8 years.
In 2015, Queensland defeated New South Wales 11 - 10 in game 1 played in Sydney, New South Wales defeated Queensland 26 - 18 in game 2 played in Melbourne, Queensland defeated New South Wales 52 - 6 in game 3 played in Brisbane, winning the series 2 - 1.
In 2016, Queensland defeated New South Wales 6 - 4 in game 1 and clinched the series with a 26 - 16 win in the second match. New South Wales closed off the series with a 18 - 14 win over Queensland.
In 2017, New South Wales won Game 1, 28 - 4 sparking the New South Wales media to start proclaiming the beginning of the Blues Dynasty. Queensland won Game 2, 18 - 16 after making changes to the team with the returning Billy Slater and Johnathan Thurston, who kicked the winning goal for Queensland. Thurston injured his shoulder in the 30th minute of the match, essentially disabling it as he played out the whole match. Thurston was later ruled out for the rest of the year after scans revealed his shoulder needed a reconstruction, ending his representative career as he announced 2017 would be his last representative year. In Game 3, New South Wales went in with an unchanged lineup for all three games, the first to do so since 1996. Queensland dominated the Blues, winning 22 - 6, with Queensland Winger Dane Gagai winning the Wally Lewis Medal for Best Player in the series. It also had Johnathan Thurston raise the Origin Shield with Queensland Captain Cameron Smith, before being chaired off the ground by his teammates, ending Thurston 's representative career on a high note.
In 2013, each individual game in the series drew a higher Australian television audience than any other sporting event. In recent years the series has gained popularity outside of New South Wales and Queensland, with games played in Melbourne drawing record crowds for rugby league and local television ratings comparable to those of some Victorian AFL matches. Internationally, the series is televised in 91 countries, and is a national obsession in Papua New Guinea, occasionally sparking riots, violence and deaths. It also draws a strong following in neighbouring New Zealand.
Within Australia, Nine Network is the main broadcaster for the series, with replays airing on Fox Sports. The series is also broadcast on radio by ABC Grandstand.
Setanta Sports broadcasts live matches in Asia. In the United States, Fox Soccer televised all matches live using the Nine feed since 2011, with the coverage moving to Fox Sports 2 when Fox Soccer was discontinued in August 2013. Premier Sports broadcasts live coverage of State of Origin in the UK.
Another twist on the coverage was Roy and HG 's State of Origin commentary on Australian youth radio network Triple J. This broadcast was presented by the characters "Rampaging '' Roy Slaven and HG Nelson (played by John Doyle and Greig Pickhaver), who commentated the game with a unique comedic style. Roy and HG 's broadcasts began in the late 1980s, and continued until 2008. Roy and HG moved from Triple J to radio network Triple M in 2009, at which point the duo ceased their State of Origin commentary.
Under State of Origin rules players were previously selected for the state in which they first played senior (or registered) rugby league. In 2012, the NSWRL, CRL, QRL and ARLC agreed on new criteria in determining Origin eligibility, to encompass other factors, such as place of birth. Players must also be eligible to represent Australia at international level.
From time to time the selection of players under the State of Origin rules creates controversy. Since 1980, Queensland has completed just the 7 series with a team completely made up of players of a Queensland birth, while for New South Wales the total is only 6. However, place of birth has only been a relevant factor in eligibility since 2012.
An issue of contention has been the selection of players such as Peter Sterling, Ken Nagas, James McManus, Israel Folau and Greg Inglis. Folau was born and raised in New South Wales but is eligible to play for Queensland as he played his first senior rugby league match in Queensland. Ken Nagas was born and raised in Queensland but decided to play for New South Wales, Peter Sterling was born in Toowoomba, Queensland and raised in Wagga Wagga, Newcastle & Sydney, all in New South Wales, while McManus was born in Scotland and was raised in the Northern Territory, but was ruled eligible to play for New South Wales in the 2009 series.
The selection of Greg Inglis by Queensland was disputed. The Queensland Rugby League selected him based on the fact that either Wavell State High School or Brisbane Norths was Inglis ' first senior football, making him eligible for both states per the rules at the time. However Inglis had previously played for Hunter Sports High School in Newcastle, New South Wales, in the Arrive Alive Cup; considered to be a senior competition. Hunter Sports High coach Steve Dunn said "there was some talk the other day that he was actually brought to Queensland before his 16th birthday but I was coach of the team. He played for us at 16, he 's a Blue ''. The controversy led to the creation of the "That 's In Queensland '' viral video.
Due to the clarification of selection rules the Sims brothers are eligible for different States. Tariq and Ashton are eligible for New South Wales while Korbin Sims is eligible for Queensland. Previously father and son combinations, such as Steve and Mat Rogers have represented different states. This duo was especially notable because Mat was born in New South Wales and played for Queensland while Steve was born in Queensland and played for New South Wales. Steve Rogers played his first senior game of rugby league for the Southport Tigers on Queenslands Gold Coast
Foreign born players have also represented each state. New Zealand has had several players, such as Brad Thorn, Ben Te'o, Craig Smith, Willie Mason, Tonie Carroll, James Tamou and Karmichael Hunt play Origin. Tamou 's selection by New South Wales in 2012 was controversial as he was born in Palmerston North and played for the Junior Kiwis, lived in New Zealand until he moved to Sydney when he was 13 and was included in the New Zealand Kiwis training squad for the 2011 Four Nations. Both Hunt and Tamou played for Australia before being selected for State of Origin. Other players, such as Sam Kasiano and Jason Taumalolo are also eligible, creating concern in the New Zealand Rugby League. Apart from representing Queensland, Brad Thorn is also a dual rugby international, having played international rugby league for Australia, and international rugby union for the All Blacks.
Papua New Guinea - born Adrian Lam and Fijian - born Lote Tuqiri, Akuila Uate and Petero Civoniceva have also played Origin. Benny Elias was born in Lebanon and has played for and captained NSW. Mario Fenech was born in Malta and has played for NSW. The most recent case of a foreign born player being selected was the selection of former Samoan international, Ben Te'o, by Queensland in game three of the 2012 season.
A report into eligibility based on a player 's birth state showed; "Of the 18 series that QLD has won, it had the greater percentage of non-State (born) players in its side on 14 of those occasions -- revealing a 77.8 % dependency. Of the 13 series that NSW has won, on five of those occasions it had the higher percentage of non-State (born) players across the series -- revealing a 38.5 % dependency. ''
Of the 36 full series played, Queensland have won 21, New South Wales 13, with 2 series drawn (Queensland retained the Shield on both occasions as the previous year 's winner). With the addition of three one - off games that were played in 1980, 1981 and 1987, the total number of games played is 108. Queensland have won 58, New South Wales have won 48, with 2 matches being drawn.
The series of 1999 and 2002 are considered drawn series, as both New South Wales and Queensland won a single game of each 3 match series, with the final game concluding in a draw. At that time there was no overtime rule to break the deadlock, and by the same set of rules, Queensland retained the shield as they were the previous holders, but did not win the series. Due to controversy around the second drawn series, and the rule awarding the series champions to Queensland, the rules were subsequently changed to rule out drawn matches and series. Equal points at the close of full - time are now resolved with the golden point method.
From 1992 to 2003 the Wally Lewis Medal was awarded by the Queensland Rugby League for the Queensland player of the series. Since 2003 it has been awarded to the player of the series, irrespective of state. The following players have been awarded the Wally Lewis Medal for player of the series. Cameron Smith has won the medal a record four times.
The award was originally a Queensland only award from Lewis ' retirement in 1992 until 2003, where the best player of the series could win the award, regardless of their state. The Ron McAuliffe Medal replaced the Wally Lewis Medal as the Queensland exclusive award.
These records that are about to be shown are mainly about the stadium 's and players of the game. All this info can be found at http://afltables.com/rl/soo/records.html.
The Under 20s State of Origin has only had six seasons so far (2012 to 2017) with only one game a year, instead of three. New South Wales has won all of them. They play for the Darren Lockyer Shield.
The Women 's State of Origin is the Women 's rugby league version of the game, and has been running since 1999. The players play for the Nellie Doherty Cup. Furthermore, the current record for series won in the competition rests with Queensland, who won every series from 1999 - 2014, a better straight record than their male counterparts.
Queensland: 1808 Points
New South Wales: 1842 Points
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when does the playclock start in the nfl | Play clock - wikipedia
A play clock, also called a delay - of - game timer, is a countdown clock intended to speed up the pace of the game, and hopefully the scoring, in American football and Canadian football. The offensive team must put the ball in play by either snapping the ball during a scrimmage down or kicking the ball during a free kick down before the time expires, or else they will be assessed a 5 - yard delay of game (American football) or time count (Canadian football; that code 's "delay of game '' is a different infraction) penalty. If a visible clock is not available or not functioning, game officials on the field will use a stopwatch or other similar device to enforce the rule.
In all levels of Canadian football, the offensive team must run a play within 20 seconds of the referee whistling the play in; in amateur American football, teams have 25 seconds from the time the ball is declared ready for play. In the NFL, teams have 40 seconds timed from the end of the previous down. Before 2008, in college football, the play clock was 25 seconds after the ball was set, but the clock was not stopped for the ball to be set unless the previous play resulted in a stoppage of the clock. Now, the same intervals as the NFL are used, with minor differences for the final two minutes of each half. Various professional leagues have used their own standards; the XFL, for instance, used a 35 - second play clock to encourage faster play.
Also in the Canadian Football League, a time count is enforced differently at certain points of the game. If the time count occurs before the three - minute mark of a half, the penalty is five yards and the down is repeated. In the final three minutes, the penalty is a loss of down on first and second down or 10 yards, with the down repeated, on third down. If the referee deems a time count committed on third down in the last three minutes of a half to be deliberate, he also has the right to require the offensive team to put the ball in play legally within 20 seconds or else forfeit possession. (Time counts during convert attempts, during which the ball is live but the clock does not run, are 5 - yard penalties with the down repeated at all times in the game.)
In the strategy of clock management, a team can slow the pace of a game by taking the maximum amount of time allotted between plays. A team wishing to do so would wait to snap the ball until there is one second left on the play clock.
In many football games, the play clock is managed by the back judge who is positioned behind the defense and faces the quarterback. When the play clock counts down to 5 seconds remaining, some back judges will raise their arm over their head to warn the quarterback, and rotate their arm downward to their leg, counting down the final seconds. A penalty flag for delay is thrown afterward. The infraction typically results in a five - yard penalty.
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when did drinking age change to 21 in ny | Alcohol laws of New York - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of New York are among the most lenient of any state in the Atlantic Northeast of the United States, but they remain considerably more restrictive than those of Louisiana, Missouri (see alcohol laws of Missouri), Nevada, Illinois, New Mexico, and Arizona.
The New York State Liquor Authority (NYSLA) and its agency arm, the Division of Alcoholic Beverage Control (DABC), were established under New York State Law in 1934 to "regulate and control the manufacture and distribution within the state of alcoholic beverages for the purpose of fostering and promoting temperance in their consumption and respect for and obedience to law. '' The SLA is also authorized by statute to "determine whether public convenience and advantage will be promoted by the issuance of licenses to traffic in alcoholic beverages... and to carry out the increase or decrease in the number thereof and the location of premises licensed... in the public interest. ''
In New York, for the purposes of state law, there are only four hours out of each day of the week (with the exception of Sunday) in which alcohol may not be served: 4: 00 a.m. to 8: 00 a.m. This was designed to accommodate New York City nightlife as well as late night workers statewide in general. Some upstate areas such as Buffalo, Albany, and Saratoga Springs retain the 4am closing time although individual counties are free to set an earlier "last call. '' In Binghamton, this is at 3: 00 a.m.; in Syracuse, Plattsburgh, Oneonta, and Rochester, bars close at 2: 00 a.m.; and Elmira, Geneva, and Ithaca, have some of the earliest closing times in the state at 1 a.m. For a complete list of closing hours by county, see http://www.sla.ny.gov/provisions-for-county-closing-hours.
The SLA does not permit establishments to allow patrons to "B.Y.O.B. '' if the establishment does not have a license or permit to sell alcoholic beverages. The only exception to this rule is that establishments with fewer than 20 seats can permit B.Y.O.B. However, the SLA does not have authority to take any direct action against an establishment that is not licensed with the SLA, unless the establishment is then or will be in the future applying for a liquor license.
Research has been conducted into the association between closing times and crime in New York. Counties with later closing times tend to have greater rates of violent crime (except gun violence), but not non-violent crime. This was true even after adjusting for socio - demographic factors.
Only liquor stores may obtain a license to sell liquor for off - premises consumption. Grocery and drug stores may obtain a license to sell beer alone or beer and "wine products '', such as wine coolers (but not wine). Minors visiting a liquor store must be accompanied by an adult at all times; a violation can lead to the owner or manager being charged with second - degree unlawfully dealing with a minor, a Class B misdemeanor.
Until the mid-2000s, sales of beer for off - premises consumption were prohibited statewide before noon on Sundays, a remnant of a royal decree during the Colonial era, and between 3 -- 6 a.m. any day. Changes to the law made in the last years of Governor George Pataki 's administration loosened those restrictions, and now beer sales are only prohibited from 3 -- 8 a.m. Sundays. Counties are free to adjust those hours in either direction, all the way to midnight and noon, and allow 24 - hour beer sales on other days of the week.
The law also changed for liquor stores. They may now open on Sundays. (although not before noon) They must still remain closed on Christmas, all day.
A few years after those changes, Governor David Paterson sought to allow supermarkets to sell wine as well. He argued that the increase in excise taxes collected would help the state close its budget deficit. The proposed law aroused so much opposition from liquor store owners that it was never voted on by either house of the New York State Legislature.
A provision unique to New York requires that every license to sell wine or spirits at retail for off - premises consumption be held by a single individual who lives within a few miles of the store and holds no other such licenses in the state. It was intended to prevent any chain liquor stores from doing business in the state, and none have ever done so. However, some proprietors open other stores in the names of their family members while maintaining complete control over the other establishments. Collaboration is n't only limited to families, for example, Premier Group in western New York has three locations each individually owned and operated.
There are no dry counties in New York as they are not allowed to make that decision. However, individual cities and towns may. In the case of towns, the decision would also be binding on any villages within them, or the parts of villages within them. Cities and towns may become totally dry, forbidding any on - or off - premises alcohol sales, or partially dry by forbidding one or the other or applying those prohibitions only to beer or to wine and spirits.
Currently there are 8 dry towns in the state, all in lightly populated rural areas upstate:
Ten towns forbid on - premises consumption but allow off - premises; four allow both only at a hotel open year - round. Seventeen disallow only special on - premises consumption. The town of Spencer in Tioga County allows only off - premises and special on - premises consumption. Williamson, in Wayne County, bans on - premises sale of beer at race tracks, outdoor athletic fields and sports stadia where admission is charged. In all, there are 39 partially dry towns.
In response to the National Minimum Drinking Age Act in 1984, which reduced by up to 10 % the federal highway funding of any state which did not have a minimum purchasing age of 21, the New York Legislature raised the drinking age from 19 to 21, effective December 1, 1985. (The drinking age had been 18 for many years before the first raise on December 4th, 1982, to 19.) Persons under 21 are prohibited from purchasing alcohol or possessing alcohol with the intent to consume, unless the alcohol was given to that person by their parent or legal guardian. There is no law prohibiting where people under 21 may possess or consume alcohol that was given to them by their parents. Persons under 21 are prohibited from having a blood alcohol level of 0.02 % or higher while driving.
Like every other state in the United States, driving under the influence is a crime in New York, and is subject to a great number of regulations outside of the state 's alcohol laws. New York 's maximum blood alcohol level for driving is 0.08 % for persons over the age of 21 and there is a "zero tolerance '' policy for persons under 21. Minors caught with any alcohol in the blood (defined legally as 0.02 % or more, presumably to avoid false positives) are subject to license revocation for 6 months or more. Other penalties for drunken driving include fines, license suspension / revocation, and possible imprisonment, and in some cases the implementation of an ignition interlock device. A lesser charge, driving with ability impaired (DWAI), may apply when a driver 's BAC exceeds 0.05 %.
Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county - based closing times for on - premises licensed venues. Requirements for ignition interlock device 's for first - time DWI offending introduced with Leandra 's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses.
New York State has no law against being intoxicated from alcohol in public, but there is a law prohibiting other substances. Any person found under the influence of a substance other than alcohol in public who is endangering themselves and others is guilty under the New York State Penal Code. This also applies to those found under the influence and bothering others or damaging public or private property.
Drinking in public was outlawed in New York City by Ed Koch in 1979. The law was originally pitched as targeting antisocial derelicts congregating in parks and on sidewalks, with Frederick E. Samuel, one of the measure 's proponents in the New York City Council, stating "We do not recklessly expect the police to give a summons to a Con Ed worker having a beer with his lunch ''. By the end of the year similar laws had spread to municipalities in Westchester County. In March 2016, drinking in public in Manhattan was decriminalized.
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who sings the song stuck in the middle with you | Stuck in the Middle with You - wikipedia
"Stuck in the Middle with You '' (sometimes known as "Stuck in the Middle '') is a song written by Gerry Rafferty and Joe Egan and originally performed by their band Stealers Wheel.
"Stuck in the Middle '' was released on Stealers Wheel 's 1972 eponymous debut album. Gerry Rafferty provided the lead vocals, with Joe Egan singing harmony. It was produced by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller. Rafferty 's lyrics are a dismissive tale of a music industry cocktail party written and performed as a pastiche of Bob Dylan.
The band was surprised by the single 's chart success. The single sold over one million copies, eventually peaking at number 6 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, number 8 in the UK, and number 2 in Canada.
The band appeared playing the song on BBC 's Top of the Pops on 18 May 1973.
The video portrays the band performing in a corner of a large, empty building. Their performance is intercut with shots of Egan (who is miming to the by - then - departed Rafferty 's vocal track, although Gerry Rafferty did not die until January, 2011) at a small banquet table with a number of garishly - dressed and made - up supper guests. These include an actual clown, a bespectacled bowler - hatted gent devouring spaghetti and a lavishly dressed woman eating cream cakes and grapes. The clown, who has difficulty eating a plastic chicken, continually squeezes Egan out whenever he tries to take food from the table. The guitar solo is played on a guitar played flat with an empty beer bottle used as a slide. Eventually, the other band members appear, driving off the strange characters so that Egan can sit down at last.
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Leif Garrett released a version of the song on his 1980 album, Ca n't Explain.
The song is used in Quentin Tarantino 's 1992 debut film Reservoir Dogs, during the scene in which the character Mr. Blonde (played by Michael Madsen) taunts and tortures bound policeman Marvin Nash (Kirk Baltz) while singing and dancing to the song. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Tarantino recalled
"That was one of those things where I thought (the song) would work really well, and (during) auditions, I told the actors that I wanted them to do the torture scene, and I 'm gon na use ' Stuck in the Middle With You, ' but they could pick anything they wanted, they did n't have to use that song. And a couple people picked another one, but almost everyone came in with ' Stuck in the Middle With You, ' and they were saying that they tried to come up with something else, but that 's the one. The first time somebody actually did the torture scene to that song, the guy did n't even have a great audition, but it was like watching the movie. I was thinking, ' Oh my God, this is gon na be awesome! ' ''
American baroque pop band San Fermin performed a version of the song in July 2015 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series.
In one episode of the show Malcolm in the Middle, Hal is shown listening to the song on a record as various events occur around him.
A cover by Grace Potter is the opening theme of Netflix series Grace & Frankie.
In an episode of It 's Always Sunny in Philadelphia titled "Charlie Catches a Leprechaun, '' Charlie re-enacts the scene from Reservoir Dogs in the basement while the song plays.
An episode of Supernatural is titled "Stuck in the Middle (With You), '' in which the characters re-enact a scene from Reservoir Dogs.
A disco cover version by Louise was a chart hit in 2001.
Alternative rock band Lazlo Bane covered the song for their 2007 cover album Guilty Pleasures. Their version was used in the 2014 film Let 's Be Cops and released on the soundtrack album.
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who did cristiano ronaldo used to play for | Cristiano Ronaldo - wikipedia
Portuguese professional footballer
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Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro GOIH, ComM (Portuguese pronunciation: (kɾiʃ'tjɐnu ʁuˈnaɫdu); born 5 February 1985) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a forward for Spanish club Real Madrid and the Portugal national team. Often considered the best player in the world and widely regarded as one of the greatest of all time, Ronaldo has four FIFA Ballon d'Or awards, the most for a European player, and is the first player in history to win four European Golden Shoes. He has won 24 trophies in his career, including five league titles, four UEFA Champions League titles and one UEFA European Championship. A prolific goalscorer, Ronaldo holds the records for most official goals scored in the top five European leagues (370), the UEFA Champions League (111) and the UEFA European Championship (29), as well as the most goals scored in a UEFA Champions League season (17). He has scored more than 600 senior career goals for club and country.
Born and raised on the Portuguese island of Madeira, Ronaldo was diagnosed with a racing heart at age 15. He underwent an operation to treat his condition, and began his senior club career playing for Sporting CP, before signing with Manchester United at age 18 in 2003. After winning his first trophy, the FA Cup, during his first season in England, he helped United win three successive Premier League titles, a UEFA Champions League title, and a FIFA Club World Cup. By age 22, he had received Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year nominations and at age 23, he won his first Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year awards. In 2009, Ronaldo was the subject of the most expensive association football transfer when he moved from Manchester United to Real Madrid in a transfer worth € 94 million (£ 80 million).
In Spain, Ronaldo has won 13 trophies, including two La Liga titles, two Copa del Rey titles, three Champions League titles and two UEFA Super Cups. After joining Real Madrid, Ronaldo finished runner - up for the Ballon d'Or three times, behind Lionel Messi, his perceived career rival, before winning back - to - back Ballons d'Or in 2013 and 2014. He has scored a record 32 La Liga hat - tricks, including a record - tying eight hat - tricks in the 2014 -- 15 season and is the only player to reach 30 league goals in six consecutive La Liga seasons. In 2014, Ronaldo became the fastest player in history to reach 200 La Liga goals, which he achieved in 178 matches. In 2015, he became the club 's all - time leading goalscorer. In 2016, Ronaldo won his fourth Ballon d'Or by a record voting margin after sealing La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th European title, and winning Euro 2016.
A Portuguese international, Ronaldo was named the best Portuguese player of all - time by the Portuguese Football Federation in 2015. Ronaldo made his senior international debut in August 2003, at age 18. He is Portugal 's most capped player of all - time with over 140 caps, and has participated in seven major tournaments. He is Portugal 's all - time top goalscorer. He scored his first international goal at Euro 2004 and helped Portugal reach the final. He took over full captaincy in July 2008, leading Portugal to their first - ever triumph in a major tournament by winning Euro 2016, and received the Silver Boot as the second - highest goalscorer of the tournament. One of the most marketable sportsmen, he was ranked the world 's highest - paid athlete by Forbes in 2016 and 2017, as well as the world 's most famous athlete by ESPN in 2016 and 2017.
Ronaldo was born in São Pedro, Funchal, and grew up in the Funchal parish of Santo António, as the youngest child of Maria Dolores dos Santos Aveiro, a cook, and José Dinis Aveiro, a municipal gardener and a part - time kit man. His second given name, "Ronaldo '', was chosen after then - U.S. president Ronald Reagan. He has one older brother, Hugo, and two older sisters, Elma and Liliana Cátia. His great - grandmother on his father 's side, Isabel da Piedade, was from São Vicente, Cape Verde. Ronaldo grew up in a Catholic and impoverished home, sharing a room with his brother and sisters.
As a child, Ronaldo played for amateur team Andorinha from 1992 to 1995, where his father was the kit man, and later spent two years with Nacional. In 1997, aged 12, he went on a three - day trial with Sporting CP, who signed him for a fee of £ 1,500. He subsequently moved from Madeira to Alcochete, near Lisbon, to join Sporting 's other youth players at the club 's football academy. By age 14, Ronaldo believed he had the ability to play semi-professionally, and agreed with his mother to cease his education in order to focus entirely on football. While popular with other students at school, he had been expelled after throwing a chair at his teacher, who he said had "disrespected '' him. However, one year later, he was diagnosed with a racing heart, a condition that could have forced him to give up playing football. He underwent an operation in which a laser was used to cauterise the affected area of his heart; discharged from hospital hours after the procedure, he resumed training only a few days later.
At age 16, Ronaldo was promoted from Sporting 's youth team by first - team manager László Bölöni, who was impressed with his dribbling. He subsequently became the first player to play for the club 's under - 16, under - 17 and under - 18 teams, the B team, and the first team, all within one season. A year later, on 7 October 2002, Ronaldo made his debut in the Primeira Liga, against Moreirense, and scored two goals in their 3 -- 0 win. Over the course of the 2002 -- 03 season, his representatives suggested the player to Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier and Barcelona president Joan Laporta. Manager Arsène Wenger, who was interested in signing the winger, met with him at Arsenal 's grounds in November to discuss a possible transfer.
Ronaldo came to the attention of Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson in August 2003, when Sporting defeated United 3 -- 1 at the inauguration of the Estádio José Alvalade in Lisbon. His performance impressed the Manchester United players, who urged Ferguson to sign him. Ferguson himself considered the 18 - year - old "one of the most exciting young players '' he had ever seen. A decade after his departure from the club, in April 2013, Sporting honoured Ronaldo by selecting him to become their 100,000 th member.
Ronaldo became Manchester United 's first - ever Portuguese player when he signed before the 2003 -- 04 season. His transfer fee of £ 12.24 million made him, at the time, the most expensive teenager in English football history. Although he requested the number 28, his number at Sporting, he received the number 7 shirt, which had previously been worn by such United players as George Best, Eric Cantona and David Beckham. Wearing the number 7 became an extra source of motivation for Ronaldo. A key element in his development during his time in England proved to be his manager, Alex Ferguson, of whom he later said, "He 's been my father in sport, one of the most important and influential factors in my career. ''
Ronaldo made his debut in the Premier League in a 4 -- 0 home victory over Bolton Wanderers on 16 August 2003, receiving a standing ovation when he came on as a 60th - minute substitute for Nicky Butt. His performance earned praise from George Best, who hailed it as "undoubtedly the most exciting debut '' he had ever seen. Ronaldo scored his first goal for Manchester United with a free - kick in a 3 -- 0 win over Portsmouth on 1 November. Three other league goals followed in the second half of the campaign, the last of which came against Aston Villa on the final day of the season, a match in which he also received his first red card. Ronaldo ended his first season in English football by scoring the opening goal in United 's 3 -- 0 victory over Millwall in the FA Cup final, earning his first trophy.
At the start of 2005, Ronaldo played two of his best matches of the 2004 -- 05 season, producing a goal and an assist against Aston Villa and scoring twice against rivals Arsenal. After scoring four goals in United 's run to the FA Cup final, he played the full 120 minutes of the decisive match against Arsenal, which ended in a goalless draw, and scored his attempt in the lost penalty shootout. Ronaldo scored three braces during the next campaign, the 2005 -- 06 season, scoring two goals each against Bolton Wanderers, Fulham, and Portsmouth. He scored Manchester United 's 1000th Premier League goal on 29 October, their only strike in a 4 -- 1 loss to Middlesbrough. Midway through the season, in November, he signed a new contract which extended his previous deal by two years to 2010. Ronaldo won his second trophy in English football, the Football League Cup, after scoring the third goal in United 's 4 -- 0 final victory over Wigan Athletic.
During his third season in England, Ronaldo was involved in several incidents. He had a one - match ban imposed on him by UEFA for a "one - fingered gesture '' towards Benfica fans, and was sent off in the Manchester derby -- a 3 -- 1 defeat -- for kicking Manchester City 's former United player Andy Cole. Ronaldo clashed with a teammate, striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, who took offence at the winger 's showboating style of play. Following a training ground fight in January 2006, the two again fought in May, with Van Nistelrooy telling Ronaldo to "go crying to your daddy '', a reference to Ronaldo 's relationship with assistant manager Carlos Queiroz. Van Nistelrooy was left on the substitutes ' bench for the final game of the season against Charlton Athletic -- a 4 -- 0 victory in which Ronaldo scored his ninth league goal. Following the 2006 FIFA World Cup, in which he was involved in an incident where club teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off, Ronaldo publicly asked for a transfer, lamenting the lack of support he felt he had received from the club over the incident. United, however, denied the possibility of him leaving the club.
Although his World Cup altercation with Rooney resulted in Ronaldo being booed throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, it proved to be his breakout year, as he broke the 20 - goal barrier for the first time and won his first Premier League title. An important factor in this success was his one - to - one training by first - team coach René Meulensteen, who taught him to make himself more unpredictable, improve his teamwork, call for the ball, and capitalise on goalscoring opportunities rather than waiting for the chance to score the aesthetically pleasing goals for which he was already known. His upturn in form was showcased in November when he received a standing ovation from a section of Blackburn Rovers supporters as he was substituted. He scored three consecutive braces at the end of December, against Aston Villa -- a victory which put United on top of the league -- Wigan Athletic, and Reading. Ronaldo was named the Premier League Player of the Month in November and December, becoming only the third player to receive consecutive honours.
At the quarter - final stage of the 2006 -- 07 UEFA Champions League, Ronaldo scored his first - ever goals in the competition, finding the net twice in a 7 -- 1 victory over Roma. He subsequently scored four minutes into the first semi-final leg against Milan, which ended in a 3 -- 2 win, but was marked out of the second leg as United lost 3 -- 0 at the San Siro. He also helped United reach the FA Cup final, putting them 2 -- 1 up against Watford, but the decisive match against Chelsea ended in a 1 -- 0 defeat. Ronaldo scored the only goal in the Manchester derby on 5 May 2007 -- his 50th goal for the club -- as Manchester United claimed their first Premier League title in four years. As a result of his performances, he amassed a host of personal awards for the season. He won the Professional Footballers ' Association 's Player 's Player, Fans ' Player, and Young Player of the Year awards, as well as the Football Writers ' Association 's Footballer of the Year award, becoming the first player to win all four main PFA and FWA honours. His club wages were concurrently upgraded to £ 120,000 a week (£ 31 million total) as part of a five - year contract extension with United.
Ronaldo scored a total of 42 goals in all competitions during the 2007 -- 08 season, his most prolific campaign during his time in England. His first goal of the season came against his former club, Sporting, with a header in the first group match of the Champions League. He missed three matches after headbutting a Portsmouth player at the start of the season, an experience he said taught him not to let opponents provoke him, but still managed to score 13 league goals by the campaign 's midway point. At the end of 2007, Ronaldo was named runner - up to Kaká for the Ballon d'Or, and came third, behind Kaká and Lionel Messi, in the running for the FIFA World Player of the Year award.
Ronaldo scored his first and only hat - trick for Manchester United in a 6 -- 0 win against Newcastle United on 12 January 2008, bringing United up to the top of the Premier League table. A month later, on 19 March, he captained United for the first time in a home win over Bolton, and scored both goals of the match. His second goal was his 33rd of the campaign, which bettered George Best 's total of 32 goals in the 1967 -- 68 season, thus setting the club 's new single - season record by a midfielder. Ronaldo scored his final league goal of the season from the penalty spot in the title decider against Wigan on 11 May, as United claimed a second successive Premier League title. His 31 league goals earned him the Premier League Golden Boot, as well as the European Golden Shoe, which made him the first winger to win the latter award.
In the knockout stage of the Champions League, Ronaldo scored the decisive goal against Lyon, which helped United advance to the quarter - finals 2 -- 1 on aggregate, and, while playing as a striker, scored with a header in the 3 -- 0 aggregate victory over Roma. Despite him missing a penalty in the first leg against Barcelona, United eventually advanced to the final in Moscow, where they faced Chelsea. His opening goal was negated by an equaliser as the match ended in a 1 -- 1 draw, but although his penalty was saved in the shoot - out, Manchester United emerged victorious. As the Champions League top scorer, Ronaldo was named the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year. He additionally received the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year awards for the second consecutive season.
As rumours circulated of Ronaldo 's interest in moving to Real Madrid, United filed a tampering complaint with governing body FIFA over Madrid 's alleged pursuit of their player, but they declined to take action. FIFA president Sepp Blatter asserted that the player should be allowed to leave his club, describing the situation as "modern slavery ''. Despite Ronaldo publicly agreeing with Blatter, he remained at United for another year. Ahead of the 2008 -- 09 season, on 7 July, he underwent ankle surgery, which kept him out of action for 10 weeks. Following his return, he scored his 100th goal in all competitions for United with the first of two free kicks in a 5 -- 0 win against Stoke City on 15 November, which meant he had now scored against all 19 opposition teams in the Premier League at the time. Five days later, he received the third red card of his career when he was sent off against Manchester City. At the close of 2008, Ronaldo helped United win the FIFA Club World Cup in Japan, assisting the final - winning goal against Liga de Quito and winning the Silver Ball in the process. He subsequently became United 's first Ballon d'Or winner since George Best in 1968, and the first Premier League player to be named the FIFA World Player of the Year.
Ronaldo scored his first Champions League goal of the season, and his first since the final against Chelsea, in a 2 -- 0 victory over Inter Milan, sending United into the quarter - finals. His match - winning goal in the second leg against Porto, a 40 - yard strike, earned him the inaugural FIFA Puskás Award, presented by FIFA in recognition of the best goal of the year; he later called it the best goal he had ever scored. He scored twice against Arsenal, including a free kick from 39 yards, as United advanced to the final in Rome, where he made little impact in United 's 2 -- 0 defeat to Barcelona. Ronaldo ended his time in England with nine trophies, as United claimed their third successive Premier League title and a Football League Cup. He finished the campaign with 26 goals in all competitions, 16 goals fewer than the previous season, in four more appearances. His final ever goal for Manchester United came on 10 May 2009 with a free kick in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford.
Ahead of the 2009 -- 10 season, Ronaldo joined Real Madrid for a world record transfer fee at the time, of £ 80 million (€ 94 million). His contract, which ran until 2015, was worth € 11 million per year and contained a € 1 billion buy - out clause. At least 80,000 fans attended his presentation at the Santiago Bernabéu, surpassing the 25 - year record of 75,000 fans who had welcomed Diego Maradona at Napoli. Since club captain Raúl already wore the number 7, the number Ronaldo wore at Manchester United, Ronaldo received the number 9 shirt, which was presented to him by the former Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano.
Ronaldo made his debut in La Liga on 29 August 2009, against Deportivo La Coruña, and scored from the penalty spot in Madrid 's 3 -- 2 home win. He scored in each of his first four league fixtures with the club, the first Madrid player to do so. His first Champions League goals for the club followed with two free kicks in the first group match against Zürich. His strong start to the season, however, was interrupted when he suffered an ankle injury in October while on international duty, which kept him sidelined for seven weeks. A week after his return, he received his first red card in Spain in a match against Almería. Midway through the season, Ronaldo placed second in the running for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, behind Lionel Messi of Barcelona, Madrid 's historic rivals. He finished the campaign with 33 goals in all competitions, including a hat - trick in a 4 -- 1 win against Mallorca on 5 May 2010, his first in the Spanish competition. His first season at Real Madrid ended trophyless.
Following Raúl 's departure, Ronaldo was handed the number 7 shirt for Real Madrid before the 2010 -- 11 season. His subsequent return to his Ballon d'Or - winning form was epitomised when, for the first time in his career, he scored four goals in a single match during a 6 -- 1 rout against Racing Santander on 23 October. His haul concluded a goalscoring run of six consecutive matches -- three in La Liga, one in the Champions League, and two for Portugal -- totalling 11 goals, the most he had scored in a single month. Ronaldo subsequently scored further hat - tricks against Athletic Bilbao, Levante, Villarreal, and Málaga. Despite his performance, he failed to make the podium for the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or at the end of 2010.
During a historical series of four Clásicos against rivals Barcelona in April 2011, Ronaldo scored twice to equal his personal record of 42 goals in all competitions in a single season. Although he failed to find the net during Madrid 's eventual elimination in the Champions League semi-finals, he equalised from the penalty spot in the return league game and scored the match - winning goal in the 103rd minute of the Copa del Rey final, winning his first trophy in Spain. Over the next two weeks, Ronaldo scored another four - goal haul against Sevilla, a hat - trick against Getafe, and a brace of free kicks against Villarreal, taking his league total to 38 goals, which equalled the record for most goals scored in a season held by Telmo Zarra and Hugo Sánchez. His two goals in the last match of the season, against Almería, made him the first player in La Liga to score 40 goals. In addition to the Pichichi Trophy, Ronaldo consequently won the European Golden Shoe for a second time, becoming the first player to win the award in two different leagues. He ended his second season at Real Madrid with a total of 53 goals in all competitions.
During the following campaign, the 2011 -- 12 season, Ronaldo surpassed his previous goalscoring feats to achieve a new personal best of 60 goals across all competitions. His 100th goal for Real Madrid came at Camp Nou in the Supercopa de España, though Barcelona claimed the trophy 5 -- 4 on aggregate. He regained a place on the FIFA Ballon d'Or podium, as runner - up to Messi, after scoring hat - tricks against Real Zaragoza, Rayo Vallecano, Málaga, Osasuna, and Sevilla, the last of which put Madrid on top of the league by the season 's midway point. Despite two goals from Ronaldo, Madrid were subsequently defeated by Barcelona 4 -- 3 on aggregrate in the quarter - finals of the Copa del Rey. He again scored twice, including a penalty, in the Champions League semi-finals against Bayern Munich, resulting in a 3 -- 3 draw, but his penalty kick in the shootout was saved by Manuel Neuer, leading to Madrid 's elimination.
Ronaldo found greater team success in the league, as he helped Real Madrid win their first La Liga title in four years, with a record 100 points. Following a hat - trick against Levante, further increasing Madrid 's lead over Barcelona, he scored his 100th league goal for Madrid in a 5 -- 1 win over Real Sociedad on 24 March 2012, a milestone he reached in just 92 matches across three seasons, breaking the previous club record held by Ferenc Puskás. Another hat - trick in the Madrid derby against Atlético Madrid brought his total to 40 league goals, equalling his record of the previous season. His final league goal of the campaign, against Mallorca, took his total to 46 goals, four short of the new record set by Messi, and earned him the distinction of being the first player to score against all 19 opposition teams in a single season in La Liga.
Ronaldo began the 2012 -- 13 season by lifting the Supercopa de España, his third trophy in Spain. With a goal in each leg by the Portuguese, Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup on away goals following a 4 -- 4 aggregate draw against Barcelona. Although Ronaldo publicly commented that he was unhappy with a "professional issue '' within the club, prompted by his refusal to celebrate his 150th goal for Madrid, his goalscoring rate did not suffer. After netting a hat - trick, including two penalties, against Deportivo La Coruña, he scored his first hat - trick in the Champions League in a 4 -- 1 victory over Ajax. Four days later, he became the first player to score in six successive Clásicos when he hit a brace in a 2 -- 2 draw at Camp Nou. His performances in 2012 again saw Ronaldo voted second in the running for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, finishing runner - up to four - time winner Messi.
Following the 2012 -- 13 winter break, Ronaldo captained Real Madrid for the first time in an official match, scoring a brace to lift 10 - man Madrid to a 4 -- 3 victory over Real Sociedad on 6 January. He subsequently became the first non-Spanish player in 60 years to captain Madrid in El Clásico on 30 January, a match which also marked his 500th club appearance. Three days prior, he had scored his 300th club goal as part of a perfect hat - trick against Getafe. Following hat - tricks against Celta Vigo and Sevilla, he scored his 200th goal for Real Madrid on 8 May in a 6 -- 2 win against Málaga, reaching the landmark in 197 games. He helped Madrid reach the Copa del Rey final by scoring a brace in El Clásico, which marked the sixth successive match at Camp Nou in which he had scored, a Real Madrid record. In the final, he headed the opening goal of an eventual 2 -- 1 defeat to Atlético Madrid, but was shown a straight red card in the 114th minute for violent conduct. Real Madrid also failed to defend their La Liga title, finishing runners up to Barcelona.
In the first knockout round of the Champions League, Ronaldo faced his former club Manchester United for the first time. After scoring the equaliser in a 1 -- 1 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu, he scored the match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory at Old Trafford, his first return to his former home grounds. Ronaldo scored three goals in Madrid 's 5 -- 3 aggregate victory over Galatasaray to see them advance to the semi-finals, He scored Madrid 's only goal in the 4 -- 1 away defeat to Borussia Dortmund, but failed to increase his side 's 2 -- 0 victory in the second leg, as they were eliminated at the semi-final stage for the third consecutive year. Ronaldo had scored 12 goals, finishing as the Champions League top goalscorer for a second time in his career. Accounting for all competitions, he ended the season with a total of 55 goals.
Real Madrid 's failure to win major silverware and reports of division among the players prompted speculation regarding Ronaldo 's future at the club. At the start of the 2013 -- 14 season, however, he signed a new contract that extended his stay by three years to 2018, with a salary of € 17 million net, making him briefly the highest - paid player in football. He was joined at the club by winger Gareth Bale, whose world record transfer fee of € 100 million surpassed the fee Madrid had paid for Ronaldo four years prior. Together with striker Karim Benzema, they formed an attacking trio popularly dubbed "BBC '', an acronym of Bale, Benzema, and Cristiano. After enjoying a strong goalscoring run during the first half of the campaign, Ronaldo suggested that he was in the best form of his career. By late November, he had scored 32 goals from 22 matches played for both club and country, including hat - tricks against Galatasaray, Sevilla, Real Sociedad, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. He ended 2013 with a total of 69 goals in 59 appearances, his highest year - end goal tally. His efforts earned him the FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, for the first time in his career.
Concurrently with his individual achievements, Ronaldo enjoyed his greatest team success in Spain to date, as he helped Real Madrid win La Décima, their tenth European Cup. In the knockout phase of the competition, he scored a brace in each leg of a 9 -- 2 aggregate win against Schalke 04, helping Madrid advance to the quarter - finals. His goal in a 3 -- 0 home win over Borussia Dortmund -- his 100th Champions League match -- took his total for the season to 14 goals, equalling the record Messi had set two years before. After hitting a brace in a 4 -- 0 defeat of Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena, he scored from the penalty spot in the 120th minute of the 4 -- 1 final victory over Atlético Madrid, becoming the first player to score in two European Cup finals for two different winning teams. His overall performance in the final was subdued as a result of patellar tendinitis and related hamstring problems, which had plagued him in the last months of the campaign. Ronaldo played the final against medical advice, later commenting: "In your life you do not win without sacrifices and you must take risks. '' As the Champions League top goalscorer for the third time, with a record 17 goals, he was named the UEFA Best Player in Europe.
In the Copa del Rey, Ronaldo helped Madrid reach the final by scoring a brace of penalties against Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón, the first of which meant he had now scored in every single minute of a 90 - minute football match. His continued issues with his knee and thigh caused him to miss the final, where Real Madrid defeated Barcelona 2 -- 1 to claim the trophy. While Madrid were less successful in La Liga, finishing third, Ronaldo was unmatched as a goalscorer. He scored 31 goals in 30 league games, which earned him the Pichichi and the European Golden Shoe, receiving the latter award jointly with Liverpool striker Luis Suárez. Among his haul was his 400th career goal, in 653 appearances for club and country, which came with a brace against Celta Vigo on 6 January; he dedicated his goals to compatriot Eusébio, who had died two days before. A last - minute, backheeled volley scored against Valencia on 4 May -- his 50th goal in all competitions -- was recognised as the best goal of the season by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional, which additionally named Ronaldo the Best Player in La Liga.
During the next campaign, the 2014 -- 15 season, Ronaldo set a new personal best of 61 goals in all competitions, starting with both goals in Real Madrid 's 2 -- 0 victory over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. He subsequently achieved his best - ever goalscoring start to a league campaign, with a record 15 goals in the first eight rounds of La Liga, including a four - goal haul against Elche and hat - tricks against Deportivo La Coruña and Athletic Bilbao. His record 23rd hat - trick in La Liga, scored against Celta Vigo on 6 December, made him the fastest player to reach 200 goals in the Spanish league, as he reached the milestone in only his 178th game. After lifting the FIFA Club World Cup with Madrid in Morocco, again winning the Silver Ball, Ronaldo received a second successive FIFA Ballon d'Or, joining Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten as a three - time Ballon d'Or winner.
Following the winter break, Ronaldo 's form faltered, concurrently with a decline in performance by his team. A 2 -- 1 defeat against Valencia in the first match of 2015, despite his opening goal, ended Real Madrid 's Spanish record winning streak of 22 matches in all competitions. Their season continued unsuccessfully as they failed to win a major trophy, earning a second - place league finish and a semi-final exit in Europe. In the latter competition, Ronaldo extended his run of scoring away to a record 12 matches with his strike in a 2 -- 0 win against Schalke 04, before hitting a brace in the 3 -- 4 return defeat that allowed Madrid to progress to the quarter - finals. He then scored both of his side 's goals in the semi-finals against Juventus, where Madrid were eliminated 2 -- 3 on aggregate. With 10 goals, he finished the campaign as top scorer for a third consecutive season, alongside Messi and Neymar.
In La Liga, where Madrid finished second, Ronaldo went on a prolific goalscoring run towards the very end of the season. For the first time in his career, he scored five goals in one game, including an eight - minute hat - trick, in a 9 -- 1 rout of Granada on 5 April. His 300th goal for his club followed three days later in a 2 -- 0 win against Rayo Vallecano. Subsequent hat - tricks against Sevilla, Espanyol, and Getafe took his number of hat - tricks for Real Madrid to 31, surpassing Di Stéfano 's club record of 28 trebles. As a result, Ronaldo finished the season with 48 goals, two ahead of his total in the 2011 -- 12 season, despite having missed two matches in February for assaulting a Córdoba player. In addition to a second consecutive Pichichi, he won the European Golden Shoe for a record fourth time.
At the start of his seventh season at Real Madrid, the 2015 -- 16 campaign, Ronaldo became the club 's all - time top scorer, first in the league and then in all competitions. His five - goal haul in a 6 -- 0 away win over Espanyol on 12 September took his tally in La Liga to 230 goals in 203 games, surpassing the club 's previous recordholder, Raúl. A month later, on 17 October, he again surpassed Raúl when he scored the second goal in a 3 -- 0 defeat of Levante at the Bernabéu to take his overall total for the club to 324 goals. Ronaldo also became the all - time top scorer in the Champions League with a hat - trick in the first group match against Shakhtar Donetsk, having finished the previous season level with Messi on 77 goals. A brace against Malmö FF, scoring in a 2 -- 0 away win on 30 September, saw him reach the milestone of 500 career goals for both club and country. He subsequently became the first player to score double figures in the competition 's group stage, setting the record at 11 goals, including another four - goal haul against Malmö.
Despite finishing runner - up to Messi for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, Ronaldo received criticism for his form and performances against top teams, with 14 of his goals coming against Espanyol and Malmö. However, during the second half of the season, his form gradually improved. By scoring four goals in a 7 -- 1 home win over Celta de Vigo on 5 March 2016, Ronaldo arrived at 252 goals in La Liga to become the competition 's second - highest scorer in history behind Messi. After netting the match - winning goal for 10 - man Madrid in a 2 -- 1 Clásico victory on 2 April, he scored a hat - trick against VfL Wolfsburg to send his club into the Champions League semi-finals despite a 2 -- 0 first - leg defeat. The treble took his tally in the competition to 16 goals, making him the top scorer for the fourth consecutive season and the fifth overall. Suffering apparent fitness issues, Ronaldo gave a poorly - received performance in the final against Atlético Madrid, in a repeat of the 2014 final, though his penalty in the subsequent shoot - out secured La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th victory. For the sixth successive year, he ended the season having scored more than 50 goals across all competitions. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award for a second time.
Ronaldo missed Real Madrid 's first three matches of the 2016 - 17 season, including the 2016 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla, as he continued to rehabilitate the knee injury he suffered against France in the final of Euro 2016. On 6 November 2016, Ronaldo signed a new contract which will keep him until 2021 with Madrid. On 19 November, he scored a hat - trick in a 3 -- 0 away win against Atlético Madrid, making him the all - time top - scorer in the Madrid derby with 18 goals. On 15 December 2016, Ronaldo scored his 500th club career goal in the 2 -- 0 victory over Club América in the semi-finals of the FIFA Club World Cup. He then scored a hat - trick in the 4 -- 2 win over Japanese club Kashima Antlers in the final. Ronaldo finished the tournament as top scorer with four goals and was also named the best player of the tournament. He won the Ballon d'Or for a fourth time and the inaugural Best FIFA Men 's Player, a revival of the old - style FIFA World Player of the Year, largely owing to his success with Portugal in winning Euro 2016.
In Real Madrid 's 3 -- 2 away win against Villarreal on 27 February 2017, Ronaldo overtook Hugo Sánchez as the most prolific penalty - kick scorer in La Liga history. As a result of the penalty scored by Ronaldo, Real Madrid reached its 5,900 th goal in the history of the league and became the first team to do so. On 12 April 2017, in the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League quarter - final against Bayern Munich, Ronaldo scored two goals in a 2 -- 1 away win to give Madrid the win and the lead going into the second leg. The two goals saw him make history in becoming the first player to reach 100 goals in UEFA club competition. During the second leg of the quarter - finals, Ronaldo scored a perfect hat - trick and reached his 100th UEFA Champions League goal, becoming the first player to do so as Real Madrid again defeated Bayern 4 -- 2 after extra-time. On 2 May 2017, Ronaldo scored another hat - trick in the following Champions League match, as Real defeated Atlético Madrid 3 -- 0 in the semi-final first leg. His hat - trick made him the first player to reach 50 goals in the knockout stage of the competition.
On 17 May, Ronaldo overtook Jimmy Greaves as the all - time top - scorer in the top five European leagues, scoring a brace against Celta de Vigo. He finished the season with 42 goals in all competitions as he helped Madrid to win their first La Liga title since 2012 and the first team to win back - to - back finals in the Champions League era; the first to win consecutive European titles in the competition since Milan in 1989 and 1990, when the tournament was known as the European Cup. In the 2017 final, he scored two goals in the victory against Juventus and became the top goalscorer for the fifth - straight season, and sixth overall, with 12 goals, while also becoming the first person to score in three finals in the Champions League era as well as reaching his 600th senior career goal. Real Madrid 's title was its 12th, also known as La Duodécima, extending its record, and its third in four years.
At the start of the 2017 -- 18 season, Ronaldo scored Madrid 's second goal in a 3 -- 1 Supercopa de España first - leg victory over Barcelona at Camp Nou. Having received a yellow card for taking his top off during his goal celebrations, he was sent off for a second yellow card offence minutes later before he shoved the referee lightly to depict his dissatisfaction. He was handed a five - match ban following the game. In his 400th game for Real Madrid, Ronaldo scored two goals against Borussia Dortmund in the Champions league, taking his tally to 411 goals. On 23 October, Ronaldo claimed his fifth FIFA Player of the Year award by receiving The Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year.
A Portuguese international, Ronaldo began his youth career in 2001. Apart from the under - 15 team, he also represented the under - 17, under - 20, under - 21, and under - 23 national sides, amassing 34 youth caps and scoring 18 goals overall. He represented his country at the 2002 UEFA European Under - 17 Football Championship, where they failed to progress past the group stage. Ronaldo also featured in the Olympic squad at the 2004 Summer Olympics, scoring one goal in the tournament, though the team was eliminated in the first round, finishing bottom of their group with three points after 4 -- 2 defeats to eventual semi-finalists Iraq and quarter - finalists Costa Rica.
At age 18, Ronaldo earned his first senior cap in a 1 -- 0 victory over Kazakhstan on 20 August 2003. He was subsequently called up for UEFA Euro 2004, held in his home country, and scored his first international goal in a 2 -- 1 group stage loss to eventual champions Greece. After converting his penalty in a shootout against England at the quarter - final stage, he helped Portugal reach the final by scoring the opening goal in a 2 -- 1 win over the Netherlands, but the crucial last match ended in a 0 -- 1 defeat. He was featured in the team of the tournament, having provided two assists in addition to his two goals.
Ronaldo was the second - highest scorer in the European qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup with seven goals. During the tournament, he scored his first World Cup goal against Iran with a penalty kick in Portugal 's second match of the group stage. In the quarter - finals against England, his Manchester United teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off for stamping on Portugal defender Ricardo Carvalho. Although the referee later clarified that the red card was only due to Rooney 's infraction, the English media speculated that Ronaldo had influenced his decision by aggressively complaining, after which he was seen in replays winking at Portugal 's bench following Rooney 's dismissal. Ronaldo was subsequently booed during their 1 -- 0 semi-final defeat to France. FIFA 's Technical Study Group overlooked him for the tournament 's Best Young Player award, citing his behaviour as a factor in the decision.
One day after his 22nd birthday, Ronaldo captained Portugal for the first time in a friendly game against Brazil on 6 February 2007, as requested by Portuguese Football Federation president Carlos Silva, who had died two days earlier. Ahead of Euro 2008, he was given the number 7 shirt for the first time. While he scored eight goals in the qualification, the second - highest tally, he scored just one goal in the tournament, netting the second goal of their 3 -- 1 win in the group stage match against the Czech Republic, where he was named man of the match. Portugal were eliminated in the quarter - finals with a 3 -- 2 loss against eventual finalists Germany.
After Portugal 's unsuccessful performance in the European Championship, Luiz Felipe Scolari was replaced as coach by Carlos Queiroz, formerly the assistant manager at United. Queiroz made Ronaldo the squad 's permanent captain in July 2008. Ronaldo failed to score a single goal in the qualification for the 2010 World Cup, as Portugal narrowly avoided a premature elimination from the tournament with a play - off victory over Bosnia. At the group stage of the World Cup, he was named man of the match in all three matches against Côte d'Ivoire, North Korea, and Brazil. His only goal of the tournament came in their 7 -- 0 rout of North Korea, which marked his first international goal in 16 months. Portugal 's World Cup ended with a 1 -- 0 loss against eventual champions Spain in the round of 16.
Ronaldo scored seven goals in the qualification for Euro 2012, including two strikes against Bosnia in the play - offs, to send Portugal into the tournament, where they were drawn in a "group of death ''. After the opening 0 -- 1 defeat to Germany, he also failed to score in the 3 -- 2 win against Denmark, missing two clear one - on - one chances. He redeemed himself in the last group match against the Netherlands, where he scored twice to secure a 2 -- 1 victory, and the quarter - finals against the Czech Republic, scoring a header to give his team a 1 -- 0 win. He was named man of the match against both opponents. After the semi-finals against Spain ended scoreless, with Ronaldo having sent three shots over the bar, Portugal were eliminated in the penalty shootout. Ronaldo did not take a penalty as he had been slated to take the unused fifth, a decision that drew criticism. As the joint top scorer with three goals, alongside five other players, he was again included in the team of the tournament.
During the qualification for the 2014 World Cup, Ronaldo scored a total of eight goals. A qualifying match on 17 October 2012, a 1 -- 1 draw against Northern Ireland, earned him his 100th cap. His first international hat - trick also came against Northern Ireland, when he found the net three times in a 15 - minute spell of a 4 -- 2 qualifying victory on 6 September 2013. After Portugal failed to qualify during the regular campaign, Ronaldo scored all four of the team 's goals in the play - offs against Sweden, which ensured their place at the tournament. His hat - trick in the second leg took his international tally to 47 goals, equalling Pauleta 's record. Ronaldo subsequently scored twice in a 5 -- 1 friendly win over Cameroon on 5 March 2014 to become his country 's all - time top scorer.
Ronaldo took part in the tournament despite suffering from patellar tendinitis and a related thigh injury, potentially risking his career. Ronaldo later commented: "If we had two or three Cristiano Ronaldos in the team I would feel more comfortable. But we do n't. '' Despite ongoing doubts over his fitness, being forced to abort practice twice, Ronaldo played the full 90 minutes of the opening match against Germany, though he was unable to prevent a 4 -- 0 defeat. After assisting an injury - time 2 -- 2 equaliser against the United States, he scored a late match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory over Ghana. His 50th international goal made him the first Portuguese to play and score in three World Cups. Portugal were eliminated from the tournament at the close of the group stage on goal difference.
Ronaldo scored five goals, including a hat - trick against Armenia, in the qualification for Euro 2016. With the only goal in another victory over Armenia on 14 November 2014, he reached 23 goals in the European Championship, including qualifying matches, to become the competition 's all - time leading goalscorer. At the start of the tournament, however, Ronaldo failed to convert his chances in Portugal 's draws against Iceland and Austria, despite taking a total of 20 shots on goal. In the latter match, he overtook Luís Figo as his nation 's most capped player with his 128th international appearance, which ended scoreless after he missed a penalty in the second half. With two goals and an assist in the last match of the group stage, a 3 -- 3 draw against Hungary, Ronaldo became the first player to score in four European Championships, having made a record 17 appearances in the tournament. Though placed third in their group behind Hungary and Iceland, his team qualified for the knockout round as a result of the competition 's newly expanded format.
In Portugal 's first knockout match, Ronaldo 's only attempt on goal was parried by Croatia 's goalkeeper into the path of Ricardo Quaresma, whose finish then secured a 1 -- 0 victory late in extra time. After his team progressed past Poland on penalties, Ronaldo became the first player to participate in three European Championship semi-finals; he scored the opening goal and assisted a second in a 2 -- 0 win against Wales, equalling Michel Platini as the competition 's all - time top scorer with 9 goals. In the final against hosts France, Ronaldo was forced off after just 25 minutes following a challenge from Dimitri Payet; after multiple treatments and attempts to play on, he was stretchered off the pitch and replaced by Quaresma. During extra time, substitute Eder scored in the 109th minute to earn Portugal a 1 -- 0 victory. As team captain, Ronaldo later lifted the trophy in celebration of his country 's first - ever triumph in a major tournament. He was awarded the Silver Boot as the joint second - highest goalscorer, with three goals and three assists, and was named to the team of the tournament for the third time in his career.
Following the Euro 2016 success, Ronaldo scored four goals against Andorra in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers on 8 October 2016. His four goals against a nine - man team marked the highest amount of goals he has scored in an international match. On 13 November, Ronaldo scored two goals (while also missing a penalty) in another qualifier against Latvia, which ended in a 4 -- 1 home victory; these goals brought his international tally to 68 goals, putting level with Gerd Müller and Robbie Keane as the fourth - highest European international goalscorer of all - time. He played his first professional match on his home island of Madeira on 28 March 2017 at the age of 32, opening a 2 -- 3 friendly defeat to Sweden at the Estádio dos Barreiros; with the goal, he tied with Miroslav Klose on 71 goals as the third - highest scoring European in international football.
In Portugal 's opening match of the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup against Mexico on 17 June, Cristiano Ronaldo set - up Quaresma 's opening goal in a 2 -- 2 draw. Three days later, he scored in a 1 -- 0 win over hosts Russia. On 24 June, he scored from a penalty in a 4 -- 0 win over New Zealand, which saw Portugal top their group and advance to the semi-finals of the competition; with his 75th international goal, Ronaldo also equalled Sándor Kocsis as the second - highest European international goalscorer of all time, behind only Ferenc Puskás. He was named man of the match in all three of Portugal 's group matches. Ronaldo left the competition early. After Chile defeated Portugal 3 -- 0 on penalties in the semi-finals, he was allowed to return home to be with his newborn children. Therefore, he missed Portugal 's third - place play - off match in which Portugal defeated Mexico 2 -- 1 after extra time.
On 31 August 2017, Ronaldo scored a hat - trick in a 5 -- 1 win in a World Cup qualifier over the Faroe Islands, which saw him overtake Pelé and equal Hussein Saeed as the joint - fifth - highest goalscorer in international football, with 78 goals. These goals brought his tally in the 2018 World Cup qualifiers to 14, equalling Predrag Mijatović 's record for most goals in a single UEFA senior men 's qualifying campaign, and also saw him break the record for the most goals scored in a single European qualifying group, overtaking the previous record of 13 goals set by David Healy and Robert Lewandowski; Ronaldo 's hat - trick took his World Cup qualifying goals total to 29, making him the highest scorer in European World Cup qualifiers, ahead of Andriy Shevchenko, and the highest goalscorer in World Cup qualifying and finals matches combined, with 32 goals, ahead of Miroslav Klose.
A versatile attacker, Ronaldo is capable of playing on either wing as well as through the centre of the pitch, and, while ostensibly right - footed, is very strong with both feet. He ranks among the world 's fastest footballers, both with and without the ball. Tactically, Ronaldo has undergone several evolutions throughout his career. While at Sporting and during his first season at Manchester United, he was typically deployed as a traditional winger on the right side of midfield, where he regularly looked to deliver crosses into the penalty area. In this position, he was able to use his pace and acceleration, agility, and technical skills to take on opponents in one - on - one situations. Ronaldo became noted for his dribbling and flair, often displaying an array of tricks and feints, such as the step overs that became his trademark.
As Ronaldo matured, he underwent a major physical transformation, developing a muscular body type that allows him to retain possession of the ball. His strength, combined with his elevation and height of 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in), awarded him an edge in winning aerial challenges for balls; consequently, many of his goals have been headers. Concurrently with his increased stamina and work - rate, his goalscoring ability improved drastically on the left wing, where he was given the positional freedom to move into the centre to finish attacks. He also increasingly played a creative role for his team, participating in build - up plays courtesy of his good vision and passing ability.
In his final seasons at United, Ronaldo played an even more attacking and central role, functioning both as a striker and as a supporting forward, or even as an attacking midfielder on occasion. He developed into a prolific goalscorer, capable of finishing well both inside the penalty area and from distance with an accurate and powerful shot. An accurate penalty kick taker, he also became a set piece specialist, renowned for his powerful, bending free kicks, though his ability in this regard deteriorated later on in his career.
At Real Madrid, he continued to play a more offensive role, while his creative and defensive duties became more limited. Initially deployed as a centre - forward, he was later moved back onto the left wing, though in a free tactical role, allowing him to drift into the centre at will. Madrid 's counter-attacking style of play allowed him to become a more efficient and consistent player, as evidenced by his record - breaking goalscoring feats. From 2013 onwards, he effectively adapted his style to the physical effects of ageing with increasingly reduced off - the - ball movement and general involvement, instead focusing on short - distance goalscoring.
Ronaldo is widely regarded as one of the two best players of his generation, alongside Lionel Messi, and as one of the best players to ever play the game. Acclaimed for his prolific and consistent goalscoring ability, he is considered a decisive player, who stands out in games and who can be a game changer. Ronaldo is noted for his work ethic and dedication to improvement on the training pitch. His drive and determination to succeed are fuelled by a desire to carve his name in history alongside football players such as Pelé and Diego Maradona.
Ronaldo has at times been criticised for diving when tackled, about which his Madrid teammate Sergio Ramos responded after a 3 -- 1 victory over Barcelona in the Spanish Super Cup: "He was a long way from me. I think it was a moment of play that unbalanced him and he did n't feign anything, ''. Despite his talent, he was also occasionally criticised early in his career by manager Alex Ferguson, teammates and the media for being a selfish or overly flamboyant player.
Earlier in his career, Ronaldo had also been described as having an "arrogant image '' on the pitch, with Ronaldo stating that he had become a "victim '', because of how he was portrayed in the media. He is often seen moaning, gesticulating and scowling while trying to inspire his team to victory, with Ronaldo insisting that his competitive nature should not be mistaken for arrogance. His managers, teammates and various journalists have commented that this reputation has caused an unfair image of him. In 2014, Ronaldo told France Football that he had made a "mistake '' when he said in 2011, "People are jealous of me as I am young, handsome and rich '', adding that he had matured since then and fans understood him better.
Both players have scored in at least two UEFA Champions League finals and have regularly broken the 50 - goal barrier in a single season. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to argue who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Borg -- McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One motor racing.
Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two, while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes depicted as an arrogant and theatrical showoff, while Messi is portrayed as a shy, humble character.
In a 2012 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry, saying "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '', while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United, Alex Ferguson, opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi himself denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''. Responding to the claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented, "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating; "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing. '' Representing archrivals Barcelona and Real Madrid, the two players face each other at least twice every season in the world 's biggest club game, El Clásico, which had a global audience of 400 million viewers in March 2014.
In a debate at Oxford Union in October 2013, when asked whether FIFA president Sepp Blatter preferred Messi or Ronaldo, Blatter paid tribute to the work ethic of the Argentine before taking a swipe at Ronaldo, claiming "one of them has more expenses for the hairdresser than the other ''. Real Madrid demanded -- and promptly received -- a full apology, and the Portuguese issued his own riposte with a mock - salute celebration after scoring a penalty against Sevilla, after Blatter had described him as a "commander '' on the pitch.
Forbes has twice ranked Ronaldo first on their list of the world 's highest - paid football players; his combined income from salaries, bonuses and non-football earnings was $73 million in 2013 -- 14 and $79 million in 2014 -- 15. The latter earnings saw him listed behind only boxer Floyd Mayweather, Jr. on the magazine 's list of The World 's Highest - Paid Athletes. In 2016, he became the first footballer to top the Forbes list of highest - earning athletes, with a total income of $88 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. He topped the list for the second straight year with earnings of $93 million in 2016 -- 17. Ronaldo is one of the world 's most marketable athletes: SportsPro rated him the fifth most marketable athlete in 2012, and eighth most marketable athlete in 2013, with Brazilian footballer Neymar topping both lists. Sports market research company Repucom named Ronaldo the most marketable and most recognised football player in the world in May 2014. He was additionally named in the 2014 Time 100, Time 's annual list of the most influential people in the world. ESPN named Ronaldo the world 's most famous athlete in 2016 and 2017.
As his reputation grew from his time at Manchester United, Ronaldo signed many sponsorship deals for consumer products, including e.g. sportswear (he wears Nike Mercurial Vapor CR7 boots), soft drinks, clothing, automotive lubricants, financial services, electronics, computer video games, and much more.
Ronaldo has established a strong online presence; the most popular sportsperson on social media, he counted 158 million total followers across Facebook, Twitter and Instagram by June 2015. As of June 2015, he has the world 's biggest Facebook fanbase with 103 million followers: he became the first sportsperson to reach 50 million followers in August 2010, and in October 2014, he became the first sportsperson, and the second person after Shakira, to reach 100 million followers. By June 2017, Ronaldo had 277 million followers across social media. His sponsors earned $936 million in media value across his social media accounts between June 2016 to June 2017. Ronaldo has released two mobile apps: in December 2011, he launched an iPhone game called Heads Up with Cristiano, created by developer RockLive, and in December 2013, he launched Viva Ronaldo, a dedicated social networking website and mobile app. Computer security company McAfee produced a 2012 report ranking footballers by the probability of an internet search for their name leading to an unsafe website, with Ronaldo 's name first on the list.
Ronaldo 's life and person have been the subject of several works. His autobiography, titled Moments, was published in December 2007. His sponsor Castro produced the television film Ronaldo: Tested to the Limit, in which he is physically and mentally tested in several areas; his physical performance was consequently subject to scrutiny by world media upon the film 's release in September 2011. Cristiano Ronaldo: The World at His Feet, a documentary narrated by the actor Benedict Cumberbatch, was released via Vimeo in June 2014. A documentary film about his life and career, titled Ronaldo, was released worldwide on 9 November 2015. Directed by BAFTA - winner Anthony Wonke, the film is produced and distributed by Universal Pictures, while Asif Kapadia is the executive producer.
In December 2013, Ronaldo opened a museum, Museu CR7, in his hometown of Funchal, Madeira, to house trophies and memorabilia of his life and playing career. At a ceremony held at the Belém Palace in January 2014, President of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva raised Ronaldo to the rank of Grand Officer of the Order of Prince Henry, "to distinguish an athlete of world renown who has been a symbol of Portugal globally, contributing to the international projection of the country and setting an example of tenacity for future generations ''. A bronze statue of Ronaldo, designed by artist Ricardo Madeira Veloso, was unveiled in Funchal on 21 December 2014.
In June 2010, during the build - up to the World Cup, Ronaldo became the fourth footballer -- after Steven Gerrard, Pelé and David Beckham -- to be represented as a waxwork at Madame Tussauds London. Another waxwork of him was presented at the Madrid Wax Museum in December 2013. In June 2015, astronomers led by David Sobral from Lisbon and Leiden discovered a galaxy which they named CR7 (Cosmos Redshift 7) in tribute to Cristiano Ronaldo in reference to his CR7 mantle (his initials and shirt number). On 23 July 2016, following Portugal 's triumph at Euro 2016, Madeira Airport in Funchal was renamed the Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport. The unveiling of the rebranded terminal took place on 29 March 2017, which included a bust of his head being presented. Neither the bust nor the name change were unanimous, actually far form a consensus, as the former was ridicularized by Saturday Night Live 's character Cecilia Giminez portrayed by comedian and actress Kate McKinnon, with the latter being subject to much debate and controversy locally by politicians and citizens who even started a petition against the move.
Ronaldo 's father, José Dinis Aveiro, died of an alcoholism - related liver condition at age 52 in September 2005 when Ronaldo was 20. Ronaldo has said that he does not drink alcohol, and he received libel damages over a Daily Mirror article that reported him drinking heavily in a nightclub while recovering from an injury in July 2008.
Ronaldo became father to a son in June 2010. Ronaldo announced that he had full custody. Ronaldo has never publicly revealed the identity of his son 's mother. In June 2017, Ronaldo confirmed on Facebook that he had become the father to twins. In July 2017, he confirmed that he was expecting his fourth child with girlfriend Georgina Rodriguez.
Television footage of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami showed an eight - year - old boy survivor named Martunis wearing a number 7 Portuguese football shirt who was stranded for 19 days after his family was killed. Following this, Ronaldo visited Aceh, Indonesia, to raise funds for rehabilitation and reconstruction. After accepting undisclosed damages from a libel case against The Sun newspaper in 2008, Ronaldo donated the damages to a charity in Madeira. In 2009, Ronaldo donated £ 100,000 to the hospital that saved his mother 's life in Madeira following her battle with cancer, so that they could build a cancer centre on the island. In support of the victims of the 2010 Madeira flood, Ronaldo pledged to play in a charity match in Madeira between Primeira Liga club Porto and players from Madeiran - based clubs Marítimo and Nacional.
In 2012, Ronaldo and his agent paid for specialist treatment for a nine - year - old Canarian boy with apparently terminal cancer. In November 2012, Ronaldo sold the golden boot he had won in 2011 for € 1.5 million and gave the money to fund schools for children in Gaza. In December 2012, Ronaldo joined FIFA 's ' 11 for Health ' programme to raise awareness amongst kids of how to steer clear of conditions including drug addiction, HIV, malaria and obesity.
In January 2013, Ronaldo became Save the Children 's new Global Artist Ambassador, in which he hopes to help fight child hunger and obesity. In March, Ronaldo agreed to be the ambassador for The Mangrove Care Forum in Indonesia, an organisation aiming to raise awareness of mangrove conservation.
In November 2014, Ronaldo appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Neymar, Gareth Bale, Xavi and Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up eleven messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it. He was named the world 's most charitable sportsperson in 2015. In June 2016, Ronaldo donated the entirety of his € 600,000 Champions League bonus after Real Madrid won the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League.
In August 2016, Ronaldo launched CR7Selfie, a selfie app for charity to help Save the Children that lets participants take a selfie with him in one of several different outfits and poses. In the app, fans can select from among 68 photos of Ronaldo in different outfits and poses, and scroll through 39 filters to apply to their selfies.
Ronaldo is known as a fashion icon, and is a lucrative spokesperson sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, perfume and cosmetics manufacturers, hair stylists, exercise promoters, and spa and recreation companies. One example is a line of fragrances called Legacy.
He opened his first fashion boutique under the name "CR7 '' (his initials and shirt number) on the island of Madeira, Portugal in 2006. Ronaldo expanded his business with a second clothes boutique in Lisbon in 2008.
In partnership with Scandinavian manufacturer JBS Textile Group and the New York fashion designer Richard Chai, Ronaldo co-designed a range of underwear and sock line, released in November 2013. He later expanded his CR7 fashion brand by launching a line of premium shirts and shoes by July 2014. In June 2015, Ronaldo announced that he would be releasing his own fragrance by the end of the year, in a partnership with Eden Parfums.
In 2017, Ronaldo was charged with fraudulently evading almost € 15million in tax between 2011 and 2014, a claim which he denies. As of September 2017 the court case is ongoing.
In April 2017, a story was published by Der Spiegel based on leaked documents provided by Football Leaks relating to an alleged rape by Ronaldo, stating that the alleged assault occurred in 2009 but that a legal agreement and accompanying non-disclosure agreement was entered into, resulting in the alleged charges being dropped. Ronaldo 's agent Jorge Mendes denied the claims labelling them ' journalistic fiction ', with the player stating it was consensual sex. Der Spiegel published a further story in response to the denial, alleging that text messages sent by Ronaldo showed that he was aware of the legal negotiations.
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who was declared the leader of the 1857 revolt | Indian rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia
British victory
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India between 1857 -- 58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The event is known by many names, including the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and India 's First War of Independence.
The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company 's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40 miles northeast of Delhi (now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels ' defeat in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities formally to have ended until 8 July 1859.
The Indian rebellion was fed by resentment that had emerged from British rule, including invasive British - style social reforms, harsh land taxes, summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes,, and broader scepticism about the improvements brought about by British rule. Many Indians did rise against the British, but many others fought for the British, and the majority remained seemingly compliant to British rule. Violence, which sometimes betrayed exceptional cruelty, was inflicted on both sides; on British officers and civilians (including women and children) by the rebels, and on the rebels and their supporters (sometimes including entire villages) by British reprisals. The cities of Delhi and Lucknow were laid waste in the fighting and the British retaliation.
After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi, whose 81 - year - old Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was declared the Emperor of Hindustan. Soon, the rebels also captured large tracts of the North - Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). The East India Company 's response came rapidly as well. With help from reinforcements, Kanpur was retaken by mid-July 1857, and Delhi by the end of September. Even so, it then took the remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 for the rebellion to be suppressed in Jhansi, Lucknow, and especially the Awadh countryside. Other regions of Company controlled India -- the Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency and the Madras Presidency -- remained largely calm. In the Punjab, the Sikh princes crucially helped the British by providing both soldiers and support. The large princely states, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion, serving the British, in the Governor - General Lord Canning 's words, as "breakwaters in a storm. ''
In some regions, most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence and power. However, the rebel leaders proclaimed no articles of faith that presaged a new political system. Even so, the rebellion proved to be an important watershed in Indian - and British Empire history. It led to the dissolution of the East India Company, and forced the British to reorganize the army, the financial system, and the administration in India, through the passage of the Government of India Act 1858. India was thereafter administered directly by the British government in the new British Raj. On 1 November 1858, Queen Victoria issued a proclamation to Indians, which while lacking the authority of a constitutional provision, promised rights similar to those of other British subjects. In the following decades, when admission to these rights was not always forthcoming, Indians were to pointedly refer to the Queen 's proclamation in growing avowals of a new nationalism.
Although the British East India Company had established a presence in India as far back as 1612, and earlier administered the factory areas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in eastern India. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar, when the East India Company army defeated Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. After his defeat, the emperor granted the Company the right to the "collection of Revenue '' in the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha, known as "Diwani '' to the Company. The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; later, the Anglo - Mysore Wars (1766 -- 1799) and the Anglo - Maratha Wars (1772 -- 1818) led to control of even more of India.
In 1806, the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
After the turn of the 19th century, Governor - General Wellesley began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories. This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princely states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Punjab, North - West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo - Sikh War in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the 1846 Treaty of Amritsar to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo - Nepalese War of 1814 -- 16 and brought the defeated Gurkhas under British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. For practical purposes, the Company was the government of much of India.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 occurred as the result of an accumulation of factors over time, rather than any single event.
The sepoys were Indian soldiers who were recruited into the Company 's army. Just before the rebellion, there were over 300,000 sepoys in the army, compared to about 50,000 British. The forces were divided into three presidency armies: Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. The Bengal Army recruited higher castes, such as Rajputs and Bhumihar, mostly from the Awadh and Bihar regions, and even restricted the enlistment of lower castes in 1855. In contrast, the Madras Army and Bombay Army were "more localized, caste - neutral armies '' that "did not prefer high - caste men. '' The domination of higher castes in the Bengal Army has been blamed in part for initial mutinies that led to the rebellion.
In 1772, when Warren Hastings was appointed India 's first Governor - General, one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of the Company 's army. Since the sepoys from Bengal -- many of whom had fought against the Company in the Battles of Plassey and Buxar -- were now suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the high - caste rural Rajputs and Bhumihar of Awadh and Bihar, a practice that continued for the next 75 years. However, in order to forestall any social friction, the Company also took action to adapt its military practices to the requirements of their religious rituals. Consequently, these soldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service, considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the army soon came officially to recognise Hindu festivals. "This encouragement of high caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest, even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of their prerogatives. '' Stokes argues that "The British scrupulously avoided interference with the social structure of the village community which remained largely intact. ''
After the annexation of Oudh (Awadh) by the East India Company in 1856, many sepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts, and from the anticipation of any increased land - revenue payments that the annexation might bring about. Other historians have stressed that by 1857, some Indian soldiers, interpreting the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent, were convinced that the Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims to Christianity. Although earlier in the 1830s, evangelicals such as William Carey and William Wilberforce had successfully clamoured for the passage of social reform, such as the abolition of sati and allowing the remarriage of Hindu widows, there is little evidence that the sepoys ' allegiance was affected by this.
However, changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment. As the extent of the East India Company 's jurisdiction expanded with victories in wars or annexation, the soldiers were now expected not only to serve in less familiar regions, such as in Burma, but also to make do without the "foreign service '' remuneration that had previously been their due.
A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the rebellion was the General Service Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856. As noted above, men of the Bengal Army had been exempted from overseas service. Specifically, they were enlisted only for service in territories to which they could march. Governor - General Lord Dalhousie saw this as an anomaly, since all sepoys of the Madras and Bombay Armies and the six "General Service '' battalions of the Bengal Army had accepted an obligation to serve overseas if required. As a result, the burden of providing contingents for active service in Burma, readily accessible only by sea, and China had fallen disproportionately on the two smaller Presidency Armies. As signed into effect by Lord Canning, Dalhousie 's successor as Governor - General, the act required only new recruits to the Bengal Army to accept a commitment for general service. However, serving high - caste sepoys were fearful that it would be eventually extended to them, as well as preventing sons following fathers into an army with a strong tradition of family service.
There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasing number of European officers in the battalions, made promotion slow, and many Indian officers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.
The final spark was provided by the ammunition for the new Enfield P - 53 rifle. These rifles, which fired Minié balls, had a tighter fit than the earlier muskets, and used paper cartridges that came pre-greased. To load the rifle, sepoys had to bite the cartridge open to release the powder. The grease used on these cartridges was rumoured to include tallow derived from beef, which would be offensive to Hindus, and pork, which would be offensive to Muslims. At least one Company official pointed out the difficulties this may cause:
unless it be proven that the grease employed in these cartridges is not of a nature to offend or interfere with the prejudices of caste, it will be expedient not to issue them for test to Native corps.
However, in August 1856, greased cartridge production was initiated at Fort William, Calcutta, following a British design. The grease used included tallow supplied by the Indian firm of Gangadarh Banerji & Co. By January, rumours were abroad that the Enfield cartridges were greased with animal fat.
Company officers became aware of the rumours through reports of an altercation between a high - caste sepoy and a low - caste labourer at Dum Dum. The labourer had taunted the sepoy that by biting the cartridge, he had himself lost caste, although at this time such cartridges had been issued only at Meerut and not at Dum Dum. There had been rumours that the British sought to destroy the religions of the Indian people, and forcing the native soldiers to break their sacred code would have certainly added to this rumour, as it apparently did. The Company was quick to reverse the effects of this policy in hopes that the unrest would be quelled.
On 27 January, Colonel Richard Birch, the Military Secretary, ordered that all cartridges issued from depots were to be free from grease, and that sepoys could grease them themselves using whatever mixture "they may prefer ''. A modification was also made to the drill for loading so that the cartridge was torn with the hands and not bitten. This however, merely caused many sepoys to be convinced that the rumours were true and that their fears were justified. Additional rumours started that the paper in the new cartridges, which was glazed and stiffer than the previously used paper, was impregnated with grease. In February, a court of inquiry was held at Barrackpore to get to the bottom of these rumours. Native soldiers called as witnesses complained of the paper "being stiff and like cloth in the mode of tearing '', said that when the paper was burned it smelled of grease, and announced that the suspicion that the paper itself contained grease could not be removed from their minds.
The civilian rebellion was more multifarious. The rebels consisted of three groups: the feudal nobility, rural landlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse, which refused to recognise the adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept East India Company supremacy if her adopted son was recognised as her late husband 's heir. In other areas of central India, such as Indore and Saugar, where such loss of privilege had not occurred, the princes remained loyal to the Company, even in areas where the sepoys had rebelled. The second group, the taluqdars, had lost half their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation of Oudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, and paradoxically, in part because of ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant opposition from the peasant farmers, many of whom joined the rebellion, to the great dismay of the British. It has also been suggested that heavy land - revenue assessment in some areas by the British resulted in many landowning families either losing their land or going into great debt to money lenders, and providing ultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the Company, were particular objects of the rebels ' animosity. The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even in areas of north - central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relatively prosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a Company irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut, where the upheaval began, stayed relatively calm throughout.
Charles Canning, the Governor - General of India during the rebellion.
Lord Dalhousie, the Governor - General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse.
Lakshmibai, the Rani of Maratha - ruled Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.
Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor, crowned Emperor of India, by the Indian troops, he was deposed by the British, and died in exile in Burma
"Utilitarian and evangelical - inspired social reform '', including the abolition of sati and the legalisation of widow remarriage were considered by many -- especially the British themselves -- to have caused suspicion that Indian religious traditions were being "interfered with '', with the ultimate aim of conversion. Recent historians, including Chris Bayly, have preferred to frame this as a "clash of knowledges '', with proclamations from religious authorities before the revolt and testimony after it including on such issues as the "insults to women '', the rise of "low persons under British tutelage '', the "pollution '' caused by Western medicine and the persecuting and ignoring of traditional astrological authorities. European - run schools were also a problem: according to recorded testimonies, anger had spread because of stories that mathematics was replacing religious instruction, stories were chosen that would "bring contempt '' upon Indian religions, and because girl children were exposed to "moral danger '' by education.
The justice system was considered to be inherently unfair to the Indians. The official Blue Books, East India (Torture) 1855 -- 1857, laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and 1857, revealed that Company officers were allowed an extended series of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimes against Indians.
The economic policies of the East India Company were also resented by many Indians.
Each of the three "Presidencies '' into which the East India Company divided India for administrative purposes maintained their own armies. Of these, the Army of the Bengal Presidency was the largest. Unlike the other two, it recruited heavily from among high - caste Hindus and comparatively wealthy Muslims. The Muslims formed a larger percentage of the 18 irregular cavalry units within the Bengal army, whilst Hindus were mainly to be found in the 84 regular infantry and cavalry regiments. The sepoys were therefore affected to a large degree by the concerns of the landholding and traditional members of Indian society. In the early years of Company rule, it tolerated and even encouraged the caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army, which recruited its regular soldiers almost exclusively amongst the landowning Brahmins and Rajputs of the Bihar and Awadh regions. These soldiers were known as Purbiyas. By the time these customs and privileges came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta from the 1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status and were extremely sensitive to suggestions that their caste might be polluted.
The sepoys also gradually became dissatisfied with various other aspects of army life. Their pay was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta or bhatta) for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions ''. The junior European officers became increasingly estranged from their soldiers, in many cases treating them as their racial inferiors. In 1856, a new Enlistment Act was introduced by the Company, which in theory made every unit in the Bengal Army liable to service overseas. Although it was intended to apply only to new recruits, the serving sepoys feared that the Act might be applied retroactively to them as well. A high - caste Hindu who travelled in the cramped conditions of a wooden troop ship could not cook his own food on his own fire, and accordingly risked losing caste through ritual pollution.
Several months of increasing tensions coupled with various incidents preceded the actual rebellion. On 26 February 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment became concerned that new cartridges they had been issued were wrapped in paper greased with cow and pig fat, which had to be opened by mouth thus affecting their religious sensibilities. Their Colonel confronted them supported by artillery and cavalry on the parade ground, but after some negotiation withdrew the artillery, and cancelled the next morning 's parade.
On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore parade ground, near Calcutta, 29 - year - old Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI, angered by the recent actions of the East India Company, declared that he would rebel against his commanders. Informed about Pandey 's behaviour Sergeant - Major James Hewson went to investigate, only to have Pandey shoot at him. Hewson raised the alarm. When his adjutant Lt. Henry Baugh came out to investigate the unrest, Pandey opened fire but hit Baugh 's horse instead.
General John Hearsey came out to the parade ground to investigate, and claimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy ''. He ordered the Indian commander of the quarter guard Jemadar Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. The quarter guard and other sepoys present, with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey. Shaikh Paltu restrained Pandey from continuing his attack.
After failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, Mangal Pandey tried to take his own life, by placing his musket to his chest and pulling the trigger with his toe. He managed only to wound himself. Court - martialled on 6 April, he was hanged two days later.
The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on 22 April. The regiment was disbanded and stripped of its uniforms because it was felt that it harboured ill - feelings towards its superiors, particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was promoted to the rank of havildar in the Bengal Army, but was murdered shortly before the 34th BNI dispersed.
Sepoys in other regiments thought these punishments were harsh. The demonstration of disgrace during the formal disbanding helped foment the rebellion in view of some historians. Disgruntled ex-sepoys returned home to Awadh with a desire for revenge.
During April, there was unrest and fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. At Ambala in particular, which was a large military cantonment where several units had been collected for their annual musketry practice, it was clear to General Anson, Commander - in - Chief of the Bengal Army, that some sort of rebellion over the cartridges was imminent. Despite the objections of the civilian Governor - General 's staff, he agreed to postpone the musketry practice and allow a new drill by which the soldiers tore the cartridges with their fingers rather than their teeth. However, he issued no general orders making this standard practice throughout the Bengal Army and, rather than remain at Ambala to defuse or overawe potential trouble, he then proceeded to Simla, the cool "hill station '' where many high officials spent the summer.
Although there was no open revolt at Ambala, there was widespread arson during late April. Barrack buildings (especially those belonging to soldiers who had used the Enfield cartridges) and European officers ' bungalows were set on fire.
At Meerut, a large military cantonment, 2,357 Indian sepoys and 2,038 British soldiers were stationed along with 12 British - manned guns. The station held one of the largest concentrations of British troops in India and this was later to be cited as evidence that the original rising was a spontaneous outbreak rather than a pre-planned plot.
Although the state of unrest within the Bengal Army was well known, on 24 April Lieutenant Colonel George Carmichael - Smyth, the unsympathetic commanding officer of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry, ordered 90 of his men to parade and perform firing drills. All except five of the men on parade refused to accept their cartridges. On 9 May, the remaining 85 men were court martialled, and most were sentenced to 10 years ' imprisonment with hard labour. Eleven comparatively young soldiers were given five years ' imprisonment. The entire garrison was paraded and watched as the condemned men were stripped of their uniforms and placed in shackles. As they were marched off to jail, the condemned soldiers berated their comrades for failing to support them.
The next day was Sunday. Some Indian soldiers warned off - duty junior European officers that plans were afoot to release the imprisoned soldiers by force, but the senior officers to whom this was reported took no action. There was also unrest in the city of Meerut itself, with angry protests in the bazaar and some buildings being set on fire. In the evening, most European officers were preparing to attend church, while many of the European soldiers were off duty and had gone into canteens or into the bazaar in Meerut. The Indian troops, led by the 3rd Cavalry, broke into revolt. European junior officers who attempted to quell the first outbreaks were killed by the rebels. European officers ' and civilians ' quarters were attacked, and four civilian men, eight women and eight children were killed. Crowds in the bazaar attacked off - duty soldiers there. About 50 Indian civilians, some of them officers ' servants who tried to defend or conceal their employers, were killed by the sepoys. some under, While the action of the sepoys in freeing their 85 imprisoned comrades appears to have been spontaneous, some civilian rioting in the city was reportedly encouraged by kotwal (local police commander) Dhan Singh Gurjar
Some sepoys (especially from the 11th Bengal Native Infantry) escorted trusted British officers and women and children to safety before joining the revolt. Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur, where they found refuge with the Nawab.
The British historian Philip Mason notes that it was inevitable that most of the sepoys and sowars from Meerut should have made for Delhi on the night of 10 May. It was a strong walled city located only forty miles away, it was the ancient capital and present seat of the Mughal Emperor and finally there were no British troops in garrison there in contrast to Meerut. No effort was made to pursue them.
Early on 11 May, the first parties of the 3rd Cavalry reached Delhi. From beneath the windows of the King 's apartments in the palace, they called on him to acknowledge and lead them. Bahadur Shah did nothing at this point, apparently treating the sepoys as ordinary petitioners, but others in the palace were quick to join the revolt. During the day, the revolt spread. European officials and dependents, Indian Christians and shop keepers within the city were killed, some by sepoys and others by crowds of rioters.
There were three battalion - sized regiments of Bengal Native Infantry stationed in or near the city. Some detachments quickly joined the rebellion, while others held back but also refused to obey orders to take action against the rebels. In the afternoon, a violent explosion in the city was heard for several miles. Fearing that the arsenal, which contained large stocks of arms and ammunition, would fall intact into rebel hands, the nine British Ordnance officers there had opened fire on the sepoys, including the men of their own guard. When resistance appeared hopeless, they blew up the arsenal. Six of the nine officers survived, but the blast killed many in the streets and nearby houses and other buildings. The news of these events finally tipped the sepoys stationed around Delhi into open rebellion. The sepoys were later able to salvage at least some arms from the arsenal, and a magazine two miles (3 km) outside Delhi, containing up to 3,000 barrels of gunpowder, was captured without resistance.
Many fugitive European officers and civilians had congregated at the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge north of Delhi, where telegraph operators were sending news of the events to other British stations. When it became clear that the help expected from Meerut was not coming, they made their way in carriages to Karnal. Those who became separated from the main body or who could not reach the Flagstaff Tower also set out for Karnal on foot. Some were helped by villagers on the way; others were killed.
The next day, Bahadur Shah held his first formal court for many years. It was attended by many excited sepoys. The King was alarmed by the turn events had taken, but eventually accepted the sepoys ' allegiance and agreed to give his countenance to the rebellion. On 16 May, up to 50 Europeans who had been held prisoner in the palace or had been discovered hiding in the city were killed by some of the King 's servants under a peepul tree in a courtyard outside the palace.
The news of the events at Delhi spread rapidly, provoking uprisings among sepoys and disturbances in many districts. In many cases, it was the behaviour of British military and civilian authorities themselves which precipitated disorder. Learning of the fall of Delhi by telegraph, many Company administrators hastened to remove themselves, their families and servants to places of safety. At Agra, 160 miles (260 km) from Delhi, no less than 6,000 assorted non-combatants converged on the Fort. The haste with which many civilians left their posts encouraged rebellions in the areas they left, although others remained at their posts until it was clearly impossible to maintain any sort of order. Several were murdered by rebels.
The military authorities also reacted in disjointed manner. Some officers trusted their sepoys, but others tried to disarm them to forestall potential uprisings. At Benares and Allahabad, the disarmings were bungled, also leading to local revolts.
Although rebellion became widespread, there was little unity among the rebels. While Bahadur Shah Zafar was restored to the imperial throne, there was a faction that wanted the Maratha rulers to be enthroned also, and the Awadhis wanted to retain the powers that their Nawab used to have.
There were calls for jihad by Muslim leaders like Maulana Fazl - e-Haq Khairabadi and the millenarian Ahmadullah Shah, which were taken up by Muslims, particularly artisans, which caused the British to think that the Muslims were the main force behind this event. The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, resisted these calls for jihad because, it has been suggested, he feared outbreaks of communal violence. In Awadh, Sunni Muslims did not want to see a return to Shiite rule, so they often refused to join what they perceived to be a Shia rebellion. However, some Muslims, like the Aga Khan I, supported the British. The British rewarded him by formally recognising his title.
Although most of the mutinous sepoys in Delhi were Hindus, a significant proportion of the insurgents were Muslims. The proportion of ghazis grew to be about a quarter of the local fighting force by the end of the siege and included a regiment of suicide ghazis from Gwalior who had vowed never to eat again and to fight until they met certain death at the hands of British troops.
In Thana Bhawan, the Sunnis declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer. In May 1857, the Battle of Shamli took place between the forces of Haji Imdadullah and the British.
The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North - West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the recapture of Delhi. Historian John Harris has asserted that the Sikhs wanted to avenge the annexation of the Sikh Empire eight years earlier by the Company with the help of Purbiyas (' Easterners '), Biharis and those from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh who had formed part of the East India Company 's armies in the First and Second Anglo - Sikh Wars. He has also suggested that Sikhs felt insulted by the attitude of sepoys who, in their view, had beaten the Khalsa only with British help; they resented and despised them far more than they did the British.
The Sikhs feared reinstatement of Mughal rule in northern India because they had been persecuted heavily in the past by the Mughal dynasty.
Sikh support for the British resulted from grievances surrounding sepoys ' perceived conduct during and after the Anglo - Sikh Wars. Firstly, many Sikhs resented that Hindustanis / Purbiyas in service of the Sikh state had been foremost in urging the wars, which lost them their independence. Sikh soldiers also recalled that the bloodiest battles of the war, Chillianwala and Ferozeshah, were won by British troops, and they believed that the Hindustani sepoys had refused to meet them in battle. These feelings were compounded when Hindustani sepoys were assigned a very visible role as garrison troops in Punjab and awarded profit - making civil posts in Punjab.
In 1857, the Bengal Army had 86,000 men, of which 12,000 were European, 16,000 Sikh and 1,500 Gurkha. There were 311,000 native soldiers in India altogether, 40,160 European soldiers and 5,362 officers. Fifty - four of the Bengal Army 's 74 regular Native Infantry Regiments mutinied, but some were immediately destroyed or broke up, with their sepoys drifting away to their homes. A number of the remaining 20 regiments were disarmed or disbanded to prevent or forestall mutiny. In total, only twelve of the original Bengal Native Infantry regiments survived to pass into the new Indian Army. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments mutinied.
The Bengal Army also consisted of 29 irregular cavalry and 42 irregular infantry regiments. Of these, there was a substantial contingent from the recently annexed state of Awadh, which mutinied en masse. Another large contingent from Gwalior also mutinied, even though that state 's ruler supported the British. The remainder of the irregular units were raised from a wide variety of sources and were less affected by the concerns of mainstream Indian society. Some irregular units actively supported the Company: three Gurkha and five of six Sikh infantry units, and the six infantry and six cavalry units of the recently raised Punjab Irregular Force.
On 1 April 1858, the number of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army loyal to the Company was 80,053. However large numbers were hastily raised in the Punjab and North - West Frontier after the outbreak of the Rebellion. The Bombay army had three mutinies in its 29 regiments, whilst the Madras army had none at all, although elements of one of its 52 regiments refused to volunteer for service in Bengal. Nonetheless, most of southern India remained passive, with only intermittent outbreaks of violence. Many parts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty, and were thus not directly under British rule.
Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor of the whole of India. Most contemporary and modern accounts suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers to sign the proclamation against his will. In spite of the significant loss of power that the Mughal dynasty had suffered in the preceding centuries, their name still carried great prestige across northern India. Civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took an oath of allegiance. The emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting imperial status. The adhesion of the Mughal emperor, however, turned the Sikhs of the Punjab away from the rebellion, as they did not want to return to Islamic rule, having fought many wars against the Mughal rulers. The province of Bengal was largely quiet throughout the entire period. The British, who had long ceased to take the authority of the Mughal Emperor seriously, were astonished at how the ordinary people responded to Zafar 's call for war.
Initially, the Indian rebels were able to push back Company forces, and captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, the Central Provinces and the United Provinces. When European troops were reinforced and began to counterattack, the mutineers were especially handicapped by their lack of centralized command and control. Although the rebels produced some natural leaders such as Bakht Khan, whom the Emperor later nominated as commander - in - chief after his son Mirza Mughal proved ineffectual, for the most part they were forced to look for leadership to rajahs and princes. Some of these were to prove dedicated leaders, but others were self - interested or inept.
In the countryside around Meerut, a general Gurjar uprising posed the largest threat to the British. In Parikshitgarh near Meerut, Gurjars declared Choudhari Kadam Singh (Kuddum Singh) their leader, and expelled Company police. Kadam Singh Gurjar led a large force, estimates varying from 2,000 to 10,000. Bulandshahr and Bijnor also came under the control of Gurjars under Walidad Khan and Maho Singh respectively. Contemporary sources report that nearly all the Gurjar villages between Meerut and Delhi participated in the revolt, in some cases with support from Jullundur, and it was not until late July that, with the help of local Jats, the British managed to regain control of the area.
The Imperial Gazetteer of India states that throughout the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Gurjars and Ranghars (Muslim rajpoots) proved the "most irreconcilable enemies '' of the British in the Bulandshahr area.
Mufti Nizamuddin, a renowned scholar of Lahore, issued a Fatwa against the British forces and called upon the local population to support the forces of Rao Tula Ram. Casualties were high at the subsequent engagement at Narnaul (Nasibpur). After the defeat of Rao Tula Ram on 16 November 1857, Mufti Nizamuddin was arrested, and his brother Mufti Yaqinuddin and brother - in - law Abdur Rahman (alias Nabi Baksh) were arrested in Tijara. They were taken to Delhi and hanged. Having lost the fight at Nasibpur, Rao Tula Ram and Pran Sukh Yadav requested arms from Russia, which had just been engaged against Britain in the Crimean War.
The British were slow to strike back at first. It took time for troops stationed in Britain to make their way to India by sea, although some regiments moved overland through Persia from the Crimean War, and some regiments already en route for China were diverted to India.
It took time to organise the European troops already in India into field forces, but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. Two months after the first outbreak of rebellion at Meerut, the two forces met near Karnal. The combined force including two Gurkha units serving in the Bengal Army under contract from the Kingdom of Nepal, fought the main army of the rebels at Badli - ke - Serai and drove them back to Delhi.
The Company established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the Siege of Delhi began. The siege lasted roughly from 1 July to 21 September. However, the encirclement was hardly complete, and for much of the siege the Company forces were outnumbered and it often seemed that it was the Company forces and not Delhi that were under siege, as the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. For several weeks, it seemed likely that disease, exhaustion and continuous sorties by rebels from Delhi would force the Company forces to withdraw, but the outbreaks of rebellion in the Punjab were forestalled or suppressed, allowing the Punjab Movable Column of British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiers under John Nicholson to reinforce the besiegers on the Ridge on 14 August. On 30 August the rebels offered terms, which were refused.
The Jantar Mantar observatory in Delhi in 1858, damaged in the fighting
Mortar damage to Kashmiri Gate, Delhi, 1858
Hindu Rao 's house in Delhi, now a hospital, was extensively damaged in the fighting
Bank of Delhi was attacked by mortar and gunfire
An eagerly awaited heavy siege train joined the besieging force, and from 7 September, the siege guns battered breaches in the walls and silenced the rebels ' artillery. An attempt to storm the city through the breaches and the Kashmiri Gate was launched on 14 September. The attackers gained a foothold within the city but suffered heavy casualties, including John Nicholson. The British commander wished to withdraw, but was persuaded to hold on by his junior officers. After a week of street fighting, the British reached the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar had already fled to Humayun 's tomb. The British had retaken the city.
The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian civilians that had been slaughtered by the rebels. During the street fighting, artillery was set up city 's main mosque, neighbourhoods within range were bombarded; the homes of the Muslim nobility that contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches destroyed.
The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day the British agent William Hodson had his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khazir Sultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr shot under his own authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. On hearing the news Zafar reacted with shocked silence while his wife Zinat Mahal was content as she believed her son was now Zafar 's heir. Shortly after the fall of Delhi, the victorious attackers organised a column that relieved another besieged Company force in Agra, and then pressed on to Cawnpore, which had also recently been retaken. This gave the Company forces a continuous, although still tenuous, line of communication from the east to west of India.
In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore (now Kanpur) rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Wheeler was not only a veteran and respected soldier but also married to a high - caste Indian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordial relations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and took comparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay in supplies and ammunition.
The besieged endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, women and children. On 25 June Nana Sahib made an offer of safe passage to Allahabad. With barely three days ' food rations remaining, the British agreed provided they could keep their small arms and that the evacuation should take place in daylight on the morning of the 27th (the Nana Sahib wanted the evacuation to take place on the night of the 26th). Early in the morning of 27 June, the European party left their entrenchment and made their way to the river where boats provided by the Nana Sahib were waiting to take them to Allahabad. Several sepoys who had stayed loyal to the Company were removed by the mutineers and killed, either because of their loyalty or because "they had become Christian. '' A few injured British officers trailing the column were also apparently hacked to death by angry sepoys. After the European party had largely arrived at the dock, which was surrounded by sepoys positioned on both banks of the Ganges, with clear lines of fire, firing broke out and the boats were abandoned by their crew, and caught or were set on fire using pieces of red hot charcoal. The British party tried to push the boats off but all except three remained stuck. One boat with over a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded, was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. Towards the end rebel cavalry rode into the water to finish off any survivors. After the firing ceased the survivors were rounded up and the men shot. By the time the massacre was over, most of the male members of the party were dead while the surviving women and children were removed and held hostage to be later killed in The Bibighar massacre. Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats: two private soldiers, a lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a first - hand account of his experiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London, 1859).
During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence of any such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded the boats and Tatya Tope raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle, which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi (Bungalow) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it. Some British histories allow that it might well have been the result of accident or error; someone accidentally or maliciously fired a shot, the panic - stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop the massacre.
The surviving women and children were taken to the Nana Sahib and then confined first to the Savada Kothi and then to the home of the local magistrate 's clerk (The Bibigarh) where they were joined by refugees from Fatehgarh. Overall five men and two hundred and six women and children were confined in The Bibigarh for about two weeks. In one week 25 were brought out dead, from dysentery and cholera. Meanwhile, a Company relief force that had advanced from Allahabad defeated the Indians and by 15 July it was clear that the Nana Sahib would not be able to hold Cawnpore and a decision was made by the Nana Sahib and other leading rebels that the hostages must be killed. After the sepoys refused to carry out this order, two Muslim butchers, two Hindu peasants and one of Nana 's bodyguards went into The Bibigarh. Armed with knives and hatchets they murdered the women and children. After the massacre the walls were covered in bloody hand prints, and the floor littered with fragments of human limbs. The dead and the dying were thrown down a nearby well. When the 50 - foot (15 m) deep well was filled with remains to within 6 feet (1.8 m) of the top, the remainder were thrown into the Ganges.
Historians have given many reasons for this act of cruelty. With Company forces approaching Cawnpore and some believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders were ordered. Or perhaps it was to ensure that no information was leaked after the fall of Cawnpore. Other historians have suggested that the killings were an attempt to undermine Nana Sahib 's relationship with the British. Perhaps it was due to fear, the fear of being recognised by some of the prisoners for having taken part in the earlier firings.
Photograph entitled, "The Hospital in General Wheeler 's entrenchment, Cawnpore. '' (1858) The hospital was the site of the first major loss of European lives in Cawnpore
1858 picture of Sati Chaura Ghat on the banks of the Ganges River, where on 27 June 1857 many British men lost their lives and the surviving women and children were taken prisoner by the rebels.
Bibigarh house where European women and children were killed and the well where their bodies were found, 1858.
The Bibighar Well site where a memorial had been built. Samuel Bourne, 1860.
The killing of the women and children hardened British attitudes against the sepoys. The British public was aghast and the anti-Imperial and pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their allies for the rest of the conflict. Nana Sahib disappeared near the end of the Rebellion and it is not known what happened to him.
Other British accounts state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibighar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specifically by Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers, commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked and murdered the local European population. On this pretext, Neill ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned and their inhabitants to be killed by hanging. Neill 's methods were "ruthless and horrible '' and far from intimidating the population, may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt.
Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on 26 September and was never called to account for his punitive measures, though contemporary British sources lionised him and his "gallant blue caps ''. When the British retook Cawnpore, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibighar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor. They then hanged or "blew from the cannon '', the traditional Mughal punishment for mutiny, the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed the sepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledged by Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.
Very soon after the events in Meerut, rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern - day Uttar Pradesh), which had been annexed barely a year before. The British Commissioner resident at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. The Company forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels ' assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, defended by John Eardley Inglis, numbers of Company forces were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants.
On 25 September, a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by Sir James Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way from Cawnpore to Lucknow in a brief campaign, in which the numerically small column defeated rebel forces in a series of increasingly large battles. This became known as ' The First Relief of Lucknow ', as this force was not strong enough to break the siege or extricate themselves, and so was forced to join the garrison. In October another, larger, army under the new Commander - in - Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on 18 November, they evacuated the defended enclave within the city, the women and children leaving first. They then conducted an orderly withdrawal, firstly to Alambagh 4 miles (6.4 km) north where a force of 4,000 were left to construct a fort, then to Cawnpore, where they defeated an attempt by Tatya Tope to recapture the city in the Second Battle of Cawnpore.
In March 1858, Campbell once again advanced on Lucknow with a large army, meeting up with the force at Alambagh, this time seeking to suppress the rebellion in Awadh. He was aided by a large Nepalese contingent advancing from the north under Jang Bahadur. Campbell 's advance was slow and methodical, with a force under General Outram crossing the river on cask bridges on 4 March to enable them to fire artillery in flank, the forces drove the large but disorganised rebel army from Lucknow with the final fighting shooting on 21 March, there were few casualties to his own troops. This nevertheless allowed large numbers of the rebels to disperse into Awadh, and Campbell was forced to spend the summer and autumn dealing with scattered pockets of resistance while losing men to heat, disease and guerrilla actions.
Jhansi was a Maratha - ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. When the Raja of Jhansi died without a biological male heir in 1853, it was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor - General of India under the doctrine of lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi protested against the denial of rights of their adopted son. When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of Company officials and their families took refuge in Jhansi Fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. However, when they left the fort they were massacred by the rebels over whom the Rani had no control; the Europeans suspected the Rani of complicity, despite her repeated denials.
By the end of June 1857, the Company had lost control of much of Bundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan. The Bengal Army units in the area, having rebelled, marched to take part in the battles for Delhi and Cawnpore. The many princely states that made up this area began warring amongst themselves. In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi against the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha.
On 3 February, Sir Hugh Rose broke the 3 - month siege of Saugor. Thousands of local villagers welcomed him as a liberator, freeing them from rebel occupation.
In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi. The Company forces captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise.
After being driven from Jhansi and Kalpi, on 1 June 1858 Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. This might have reinvigorated the rebellion but the Central India Field Force very quickly advanced against the city. The Rani died on 17 June, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior, probably killed by a carbine shot from the 8th King 's Royal Irish Hussars according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. The Company forces recaptured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her last battle, she was compared to Joan of Arc by some commentators.
Colonel Henry Marion Durand, the then - Company resident at Indore, had brushed away any possibility of uprising in Indore. However, on 1 July, sepoys in Holkar 's army revolted and opened fire on the pickets of Bhopal Cavalry. When Colonel Travers rode forward to charge, Bhopal Cavalry refused to follow. The Bhopal Infantry also refused orders and instead levelled their guns at European sergeants and officers. Since all possibility of mounting an effective deterrent was lost, Durand decided to gather up all the European residents and escape, although 39 European residents of Indore were killed.
What was then referred to by the British as the Punjab was a very large administrative division, centered on Lahore. It included not only the present - day Indian and Pakistani Punjabi regions but also the North West Frontier districts bordering Afghanistan
Much of the region had been the Sikh Empire, ruled by Ranjit Singh until his death in 1839. The kingdom had then fallen into disorder, with court factions and the Khalsa (the Sikh army) contending for power at the Lahore Durbar (court). After two Anglo - Sikh Wars, the entire region was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. In 1857, the region still contained the highest numbers of both European and Indian troops.
The inhabitants of the Punjab were not as sympathetic to the sepoys as they were elsewhere in India, which limited many of the outbreaks in the Punjab to disjointed uprisings by regiments of sepoys isolated from each other. In some garrisons, notably Ferozepore, indecision on the part of the senior European officers allowed the sepoys to rebel, but the sepoys then left the area, mostly heading for Delhi. At the most important garrison, that of Peshawar close to the Afghan frontier, many comparatively junior officers ignored their nominal commander, General Reed, and took decisive action. They intercepted the sepoys ' mail, thus preventing their coordinating an uprising, and formed a force known as the "Punjab Movable Column '' to move rapidly to suppress any revolts as they occurred. When it became clear from the intercepted correspondence that some of the sepoys at Peshawar were on the point of open revolt, the four most disaffected Bengal Native regiments were disarmed by the two British infantry regiments in the cantonment, backed by artillery, on 22 May. This decisive act induced many local chieftains to side with the British.
Jhelum in Punjab saw a mutiny of native troops against the British. Here 35 British soldiers of Her Majesty 's 24th Regiment of Foot (South Wales Borderers) were killed by mutineers on 7 July 1857. Among the dead was Captain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring. To commemorate this event St. John 's Church Jhelum was built and the names of those 35 British soldiers are carved on a marble lectern present in that church.
The final large - scale military uprising in the Punjab took place on 9 July, when most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move to Delhi. They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal British force as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily but unsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across the river but became trapped on an island. Three days later, Nicholson annihilated the 1,100 trapped sepoys in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.
The British had been recruiting irregular units from Sikh and Pakhtun communities even before the first unrest among the Bengal units, and the numbers of these were greatly increased during the Rebellion, 34,000 fresh levies eventually being raised.
At one stage, faced with the need to send troops to reinforce the besiegers of Delhi, the Commissioner of the Punjab (Sir John Lawrence) suggested handing the coveted prize of Peshawar to Dost Mohammed Khan of Afghanistan in return for a pledge of friendship. The British Agents in Peshawar and the adjacent districts were horrified. Referring to the massacre of a retreating British army in 1842, Herbert Edwardes wrote, "Dost Mahomed would not be a mortal Afghan... if he did not assume our day to be gone in India and follow after us as an enemy. Europeans can not retreat -- Kabul would come again. '' In the event Lord Canning insisted on Peshawar being held, and Dost Mohammed, whose relations with Britain had been equivocal for over 20 years, remained neutral.
In September 1858 Rae Ahmed Nawaz Khan Kharal, head of the Khurrul tribe, led an insurrection in the Neeli Bar district, between the Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab rivers. The rebels held the jungles of Gogaira and had some initial successes against the British forces in the area, besieging Major Crawford Chamberlain at Chichawatni. A squadron of Punjabi cavalry sent by Sir John Lawrence raised the siege. Ahmed Khan was killed but the insurgents found a new leader in Mahr Bahawal Fatyana, who maintained the uprising for three months until Government forces penetrated the jungle and scattered the rebel tribesmen.
Kunwar Singh, the 80 - year - old Rajput Zamindar of Jagdispur, whose estate was in the process of being sequestrated by the Revenue Board, instigated and assumed the leadership of revolt in Bihar.
On 25 July, mutiny erupted in the garrisons of Dinapur. Mutinying sepoys from the 7th, 8th and 40th regiments of Bengal Native Infantry quickly moved towards the city of Arrah and were joined by Kunwar Singh and his men. Mr. Boyle, a British railway engineer in Arrah, had already prepared an outbuilding on his property for defence against such attacks. As the rebels approached Arrah, all European residents took refuge at Mr. Boyle 's house. A siege soon ensued -- eighteen civilians and 50 loyal sepoys from the Bengal Military Police Battalion under the command of Herwald Wake, the local magistrate, defended the house against artillery and musketry fire from an estimated 2000 to 3000 mutineers and rebels.
On 29 July 400 men were sent out from Dinapore to relieve Arrah, but this force was ambushed by the rebels around a mile away from the siege house, severely defeated, and driven back. On 30 July, Major Vincent Eyre, who was going up the river with his troops and guns, reached Buxar and heard about the siege. He immediately disembarked his guns and troops (the 5th Fusiliers) and started marching towards Arrah, disregarding direct orders not to do so. On 2 August, some 6 miles (9.7 km) short of Arrah, the Major was ambushed by the mutineers and rebels. After an intense fight, the 5th Fusiliers charged and stormed the rebel positions successfully. On 3 August, Major Eyre and his men reached the siege house and successfully ended the siege.
After receiving reinforcements Major Eyre pursued Kunwar Singh to his palace in Jagdispur, however Singh had left by the time Eyre 's forces arrived. Eyre then proceeded to destroy the palace and the homes of Singh 's brothers.
In September 1857, sepoys took control of the treasury in Chittagong. The treasury remained under rebel control for several days. Further mutinies on 18 November saw the 2nd, 3rd and 4th companies of the 34th Bengal Infantry Regiment storming the Chittagong Jail and releasing all prisoners. The mutineers were eventually suppressed by the Gurkha regiments. The mutiny also spread to Dacca, the former Mughal capital of Bengal. Residents in the city 's Lalbagh area were kept awake at night by the rebellion. Sepoys joined hands with the common populace in Jalpaiguri to take control of the city 's cantonment. In January 1858, many sepoys received shelter from the royal family of the princely state of Hill Tippera.
The interior areas of Bengal proper were already experiencing growing resistance to Company rule due to the Muslim Faraizi movement.
In central and north Gujarat, the rebellion was sustained by land owner Jagirdars, Talukdars and Thakors with the support of armed communities of Bhil, Koli, Pathans and Arabs, unlike the mutiny by sepoys in north India. Their main opposition of British was due to Inam commission. The Bet Dwarka island, along with Okhamandal region of Kathiawar peninsula which was under Gaekwad of Baroda State, saw a revolt by the Vaghers in January 1858 who, by July 1859, controlled that region. In October 1859, a joint offensive by British, Gaekwad and other princely states troops ousted the rebels and recaptured the region.
The authorities in British colonies with an Indian population, sepoy or civilian, took measures to secure themselves against copycat uprisings. In the Straits Settlements, and Trinidad the annual Hosay processions were banned, riots broke out in penal settlements in Burma, and the Settlements, in Penang the loss of a musket provoked a near riot, and security was boosted especially in locations with an Indian convict population.
The war and its aftermath resulted in the deaths of at least 800,000 people during the rebellion and its aftermath including those resulting from famine and disease. Both combatant sides committed huge numbers of atrocities against civilians.
In Oudh alone, 150,000 Indians were estimated to have died during the war, with 100,000 of them being civilians. Places such as Delhi, Allahabad, Kanpur and Lucknow were all met with general massacre after they were recaptured by British forces.
Another notable atrocity was carried out by General Neill who massacred thousands of Indian mutineers and Indian civilians suspected of supporting the rebellion.
The rebels ' murder of women, children and wounded British soldiers at Cawnpore, and the subsequent printing of the events in the British papers, left many British soldiers seeking revenge. As well as hanging mutineers, the British had some "blown from cannon, '' (an old Mughal punishment adopted many years before in India), in which sentenced rebels were tied over the mouths of cannons and blown to pieces when the cannons were fired.
Most of the British press, outraged by the stories of rape and the killings of civilians and wounded British soldiers, did not advocate clemency of any kind. Governor General Canning ordered moderation in dealing with native sensibilities and earned the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning '' from the press and later parts of the British public.
In terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were much higher on the Indian side. A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the Bombay Telegraph and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of the Indian casualties:
... All the city 's people found within the walls of the city of Delhi when our troops entered were bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tell you that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers but residents of the city, who trusted to our well - known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say they were disappointed.
From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the rebellion ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled.
Edward Vibart, a 19 - year - old officer whose parents, younger brothers, and two of his sisters had died in the Cawnpore massacre, recorded his experience:
The orders went out to shoot every soul... It was literally murder... I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, were most painful... Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man 's heart I think who can look on with indifference...
Some British troops adopted a policy of "no prisoners ''. One officer, Thomas Lowe, remembered how on one occasion his unit had taken 76 prisoners -- they were just too tired to carry on killing and needed a rest, he recalled. Later, after a quick trial, the prisoners were lined up with a British soldier standing a couple of yards in front of them. On the order "fire '', they were all simultaneously shot, "swept... from their earthly existence ''.
The aftermath of the rebellion has been the focus of new work using Indian sources and population studies. In The Last Mughal, historian William Dalrymple examines the effects on the Muslim population of Delhi after the city was retaken by the British and finds that intellectual and economic control of the city shifted from Muslim to Hindu hands because the British, at that time, saw an Islamic hand behind the mutiny.
The scale of the punishments handed out by the British "Army of Retribution '' were considered largely appropriate and justified in a Britain shocked by embellished reports of atrocities carried out against British and European civilians by the rebels. Accounts of the time frequently reach the "hyperbolic register '', according to Christopher Herbert, especially in the often - repeated claim that the "Red Year '' of 1857 marked "a terrible break '' in British experience. Such was the atmosphere -- a national "mood of retribution and despair '' that led to "almost universal approval '' of the measures taken to pacify the revolt.
Incidents of rape allegedly committed by Indian rebels against European women and girls appalled the British public. These atrocities were often used to justify the British reaction to the rebellion. British newspapers printed various eyewitness accounts of the rape of English women and girls. One such account was published by The Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10 had been raped by Indian rebels in Delhi. Karl Marx criticized this story as false propaganda, and pointed out that the story was written by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion, with no evidence to support his allegation. Individual incidents captured the public 's interest and were heavily reported by the press. One such incident was that of General Wheeler 's daughter Margaret being forced to live as her captor 's concubine, though this was reported to the Victorian public as Margaret killing her rapist then herself. Another version of the story suggested that Margaret had been killed after her abductor had argued with his wife over her.
During the aftermath of the rebellion, a series of exhaustive investigations were carried out by British police and intelligence officials into reports that British women prisoners had been "dishonored '' at the Bibighar and elsewhere. One such detailed enquiry was at the direction of Lord Canning. The consensus was that there was no convincing evidence of such crimes having been committed, although numbers of European women and children had been killed outright.
The term ' Sepoy ' or ' Sepoyism ' became a derogatory term for nationalists, especially in Ireland.
Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commission assembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli.
The rebellion saw the end of the East India Company 's rule in India. In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. A new British government department, the India Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor - General of India gained a new title, Viceroy of India, and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. Some former East India Company territories, such as the Straits Settlements, became colonies in their own right. The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization. The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.
Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained, though there was a major shift in attitudes. In looking for the causes of the Rebellion the authorities alighted on two things: religion and the economy. On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions, both Hindu and Muslim. On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce free market competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty placing the peasantry at the mercy of merchants and money - lenders. In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in part around a conservative agenda, based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy.
On a political level it was also felt that the previous lack of consultation between rulers and ruled had been another significant factor in contributing to the uprising. In consequence, Indians were drawn into government at a local level. Though this was on a limited scale a crucial precedent had been set, with the creation of a new ' white collar ' Indian elite, further stimulated by the opening of universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, a result of the Indian Universities Act. So, alongside the values of traditional and ancient India, a new professional middle class was starting to arise, in no way bound by the values of the past. Their ambition can only have been stimulated by Queen Victoria 's Proclamation of November 1858, in which it is expressly stated, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the same obligations of duty which bind us to our other subjects... it is our further will that... our subjects of whatever race or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge. ''
Acting on these sentiments, Lord Ripon, viceroy from 1880 to 1885, extended the powers of local self - government and sought to remove racial practices in the law courts by the Ilbert Bill. But a policy at once liberal and progressive at one turn was reactionary and backward at the next, creating new elites and confirming old attitudes. The Ilbert Bill had the effect only of causing a white mutiny and the end of the prospect of perfect equality before the law. In 1886 measures were adopted to restrict Indian entry into the civil service.
The Bengal army dominated the Indian army before 1857 and a direct result after the rebellion was the scaling back of the size of the Bengali contingent in the army. The Brahmin presence in the Bengal Army was reduced because of their perceived primary role as mutineers. The British looked for increased recruitment in the Punjab for the Bengal army as a result of the apparent discontent that resulted in the Sepoy conflict.
The rebellion transformed both the native and European armies of British India. Of the 74 regular Bengal Native Infantry regiments in existence at the beginning of 1857, only twelve escaped mutiny or disbandment. All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments were lost. The old Bengal Army had accordingly almost completely vanished from the order of battle. These troops were replaced by new units recruited from castes hitherto under - utilised by the British and from the minority so - called "Martial Races '', such as the Sikhs and the Gurkhas.
The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, were addressed, and the post-1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular '' system. From 1797 until the rebellion of 1857, each regular Bengal Native Infantry regiment had had 22 or 23 British officers, who held every position of authority down to the second - in - command of each company. In irregular units there were fewer European officers, but they associated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more responsibility was given to the Indian officers.
The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers within India. From 1861 Indian artillery was replaced by British units, except for a few mountain batteries. The post-rebellion changes formed the basis of the military organisation of British India until the early 20th century.
Medals were awarded to members of the British Armed Forces and the British Indian Army during the rebellion. The 182 recipients of the Victoria Cross are listed here.
290,000 Indian Mutiny Medals were awarded. Clasps were awarded for the siege of Delhi and the siege and relief of Lucknow.
A military and civilian decoration of British India, the Indian Order of Merit was first introduced by the East India Company in 1837, and was taken over by the Crown in 1858, following the Indian Mutiny of 1857. The Indian Order of Merit was the only gallantry medal available to Native soldiers between 1837 and 1907.
There is no universally agreed name for the events of this period.
In India and Pakistan it has been termed as the "War of Independence of 1857 '' or "First War of Indian Independence '' but it is not uncommon to use terms such as the "Revolt of 1857 ''. The classification of the Rebellion being "First War of Independence '' is not without its critics in India. The use of the term "Indian Mutiny '' is considered by some Indian politicians as belittling the importance of what happened and therefore reflecting an imperialistic attitude. Others dispute this interpretation.
In the UK and parts of the Commonwealth it is commonly called the "Indian Mutiny '', but terms such as "Great Indian Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Mutiny '', the "Sepoy Rebellion '', the "Sepoy War '', the "Great Mutiny '', the "Rebellion of 1857 '', "the Uprising '', the "Mahomedan Rebellion '', and the "Revolt of 1857 '' have also been used. "The Indian Insurrection '' was a name used in the press of the UK and British colonies at the time.
Adas (1971) examines the historiography with emphasis on the four major approaches: the Indian nationalist view; the Marxist analysis; the view of the Rebellion as a traditionalist rebellion; and intensive studies of local uprisings. Many of the key primary and secondary sources appear in Biswamoy Pati, ed. 1857 Rebellion.
Thomas Metcalf has stressed the importance of the work by Cambridge professor Eric Stokes (1924 -- 1981), especially Stokes ' The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in Colonial India (1978). Metcalf says Stokes undermines the assumption that 1857 was a response to general causes emanating from entire classes of people. Instead, Stokes argues that 1) those Indians who suffered the greatest relative deprivation rebelled and that 2) the decisive factor in precipitating a revolt was the presence of prosperous magnates who supported British rule. Stokes also explores issues of economic development, the nature of privileged landholding, the role of moneylenders, the usefulness of classical rent theory, and, especially, the notion of the "rich peasant. ''
Professor Kim Wagner has the most recent survey of the historiography, and stresses the importance of William Dalrymple 's The Last Mughal: The Fall of a Dynasty, Delhi 1857. Dalrymple was assisted by Mahmood Farooqui, who translated key Urdu and Shikastah sources and published a selection in Besieged: Voices from Delhi 1857. Dalrymple emphasized the role of religion, and explored in detail the internal divisions and politico - religious discord amongst the rebels. He did not discover much in the way of proto - nationalism or any of the roots of modern India in the rebellion. Sabbaq Ahmed has looked at the ways in which ideologies of royalism, militarism, and Jihad influenced the behaviour of contending Muslim factions.
Almost from the moment the first sepoys mutinied in Meerut, the nature and the scope of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been contested and argued over. Speaking in the House of Commons in July 1857, Benjamin Disraeli labelled it a ' national revolt ' while Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister, tried to downplay the scope and the significance of the event as a ' mere military mutiny '. Reflecting this debate, an early historian of the rebellion, Charles Ball, used the word mutiny in his title, but labelled it a ' struggle for liberty and independence as a people ' in the text. Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not, although it is popularly considered to be one in India. Arguments against include:
A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of the above - mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India 's independence. The reasons advanced are:
The Government of India celebrated the year 2007 as the 150th anniversary of "India 's First War of Independence ''. Several books written by Indian authors were released in the anniversary year including Amresh Mishra 's "War of Civilizations '', a controversial history of the Rebellion of 1857, and "Recalcitrance '' by Anurag Kumar, one of the few novels written in English by an Indian based on the events of 1857.
In 2007, a group of retired British soldiers and civilians, some of them descendants of British soldiers who died in the conflict, attempted to visit the site of the Siege of Lucknow. However, fears of violence by Indian demonstrators, supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party, prevented the British visitors from visiting the site. Despite the protests, Sir Mark Havelock was able to make his way past police to visit the grave of his ancestor, General Henry Havelock.
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most goals scored in a hockey game olympics | Ice hockey at the Olympic Games - wikipedia
Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1920. The men 's tournament was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics and was transferred permanently to the Winter Olympic Games program in 1924, in France. The women 's tournament was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics.
The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes. However, the advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. In 1986, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to allow professional athletes to compete in the Olympic Games starting in 1988. The National Hockey League (NHL) was initially reluctant to allow its players to compete because the Olympics are held in the middle of the NHL season, and the league would have to halt play if many of its players participated. Eventually, NHL players were admitted starting in 1998.
From 1924 to 1988, the tournament started with a round - robin series of games and ended with the medal round. Medals were awarded based on points accumulated during that round. In 1992, the playoffs were introduced for the first time since 1920. In 1998, the format of the tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL schedule; a preliminary round was played without NHL players or the top six teams -- Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States -- followed by a final round which included them. The tournament format was changed again in 2006; every team played five preliminary games with the full use of NHL players.
The games of the tournament follow the rules of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), which differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL. The tournament follows the World Anti-Doping Agency 's (WADA) rules on performance - enhancing drugs and the IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool (RTP), a list of top players who are subjected to random in - competition and out - of - competition drug tests. Several players have tested positive for banned substances since the 1972 Winter Olympics.
In the men 's tournament, Canada was the most successful team of the first three decades, winning six of seven gold medals. Czechoslovakia, Sweden and the United States were also competitive during this period and won multiple medals. Between 1920 and 1968, the Olympic hockey tournament was also counted as the Ice Hockey World Championship for that year. The Soviet Union first participated in 1956 and overtook Canada as the dominant international team, winning seven of the nine tournaments in which they participated. The United States won gold medals in 1960 and in 1980, which included their "Miracle on Ice '' upset of the Soviet Union. Canada went 50 years without a gold medal, before winning one in 2002, and following it with back - to - back wins in 2010 and 2014. Other nations to win gold include Great Britain in 1936, the Unified Team in 1992, Sweden in 1994 and 2006 and the Czech Republic in 1998. Other medal - winning nations include Switzerland, Germany, Finland and Russia.
In July 1992, the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event; it was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano. The Nagano Organizing Committee was hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament, but an agreement was reached that limited the field to six teams, and ensured that no additional facilities would be built. The Canadian and American teams have dominated the event, typically losing only to each other. The United States won the first tournament in 1998 and the most recent in 2018. Canada has won all of the other tournaments (2002 -- 2014).
The first Olympic ice hockey tournament took place at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. At the time, organized international ice hockey was still relatively new. The International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the sport 's governing body, was created on 15 May 1908, under the name Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace. At the 1914 Olympic Congress in Paris, ice hockey was added to the list of optional sports that Olympics organizers could include. The decision to include ice hockey for the 1920 Summer Olympics was made in January, three months before the start of the Games. Several occurrences led to the sport 's inclusion in the programme. Five European nations had committed to participating in the tournament and the managers of Antwerp 's Palais de Glace stadium refused to allow the building to be used for figure skating unless ice hockey was included. The IIHF considers the 1920 tournament to be the first Ice Hockey World Championship. From then on, the two events occurred concurrently, and every Olympic tournament until 1968 is counted as the World Championship. The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes, so the players of the National Hockey League (NHL) and other professional leagues were not allowed to play.
The first Winter Olympic Games were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. Chapter 1, article 6, of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as "sports which are practised on snow or ice ''. Ice hockey and figure skating were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics programme. The IOC made the Winter Games a permanent fixture and they were held the same year as the Summer Games until 1992. Following that, further Winter Games have been held on the third year of each Olympiad.
The men 's tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics was organized by a committee that included future IIHF president Paul Loicq. The tournament used the Bergvall System, in which three rounds were played. The first round was an elimination tournament that determined the gold medal winner. The second round consisted of the teams that were defeated by the gold medal winner; the winner of that round was awarded the silver medal. The final round was played between teams that had lost to the gold or silver medal winners; the winner of that round received the bronze medal.
The tournament was played from 23 to 29 April and seven teams participated: Canada, Czechoslovakia, the United States, Switzerland, Sweden, France and Belgium. Canada chose to send the Allan Cup - winning Winnipeg Falcons. The Americans began a tournament to determine their representative team but abandoned it, deciding instead to send an all - star team that included four Canadian - born players. The Swedish team consisted of mostly bandy players, many of whom had only started playing hockey in preparation for the tournament. Canada won all three of the team 's games in the first round and won the gold medal, defeating Sweden in the final and outscoring opponents 27 -- 1. In the two subsequent rounds, the United States and Czechoslovakia won the silver and bronze medals respectively. The Bergvall System was criticized, especially in Sweden, because the Swedish team had to play six games (winning three) while the bronze medal winning Czech team only had to play three (winning one). Erik Bergvall, the creator of the system, stated that it was used incorrectly and that a tournament of all of the losing teams from the first round should have been played for the silver medal. Because of these criticisms, the Bergvall System was not used again for ice hockey.
In 1924, the tournament was played in a round - robin format, consisting of a preliminary round and a medal round. The medals were awarded based on win -- loss records during the medal round. This format was used until 1988, although the number of teams and games played varied slightly. The Toronto Granites, representing Canada, became one of the dominant hockey teams in Olympic history, outscoring opponents 110 -- 3, led by Harry Watson, who scored 36 goals. The United States won silver and Great Britain won bronze. Watson 's 36 goals remains the tournament record for career goals. He also set the record for career points with 36 (assists were not counted at the time), which stood until 2010.
Eleven teams participated in the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland. The Canadian team was given a bye to the medal round and won all of its games by a combined score of 38 -- 0. The Swedish and Swiss teams won their first medals -- silver and bronze respectively -- and a German team participated for the first time, finishing ninth. At the 1932 Winter Olympics, Canada won gold in a tournament that consisted of four teams that played each other twice. Germany won bronze, the nation 's first medal in the sport.
Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch - Partenkirchen, Germany, Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team -- James Foster and Alex Archer -- had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League. The IIHF agreed with Canada, but Great Britain threatened to withdraw the team if the two were barred from competing. To avoid a conflict, Canada withdrew the protest shortly before the Games began. The tournament consisted of four groups and fifteen teams. Great Britain became the first non-Canadian team to win gold; Canada won silver and the United States bronze. World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics.
During the run - up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland, a conflict broke out between two American ice hockey bodies, the American Hockey Association (AHA) and the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU). The AAU, which had run amateur hockey in the United States since 1930, was expelled by the IIHF in 1947 when it refused to support a team composed of players from the AHA. The AAU stated that the AHA players were "openly paid salaries ''; at the time, the Olympics were strictly for amateur players. The Swiss Olympic Organizing Committee (SOOC) had accepted the AHA 's application, but Avery Brundage of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) threatened to withdraw the entire American team if the AHA participated in the Olympics. The IIHF countered by threatening to withdraw hockey from the Games if the AHA were banned. The IOC suggested that both American teams be banned but the SOOC rejected this proposal. The IOC decided to switch hockey to an unofficial event but relented when a compromise was reached. The AHA team was allowed to compete but would not be considered an official participant or allowed to win a medal. The AHA team finished fourth in the standings. Both Czechoslovakia and Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other. The gold medal winner was determined by goal difference: Canada won the gold because it had an average of 13.8 goals per game compared to Czechoslovakia 's average of 4.3. Czechoslovakia 's team was quickly improving; it won the 1947 and 1949 World Championships.
At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway, the gold medal was won by Canada 's team for the second consecutive Games. It would be the last time that a Canadian team would win a gold medal in hockey for 50 years. The United States won silver and Sweden won bronze. A team from Finland competed for the first time.
The Soviet Union competed in its first World Championship in 1954, defeating Canada and winning the gold medal. At the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy, the Soviet team went undefeated and won its first gold medal. Canada 's team lost to the Soviets and the United States in the medal round, winning the bronze. The 1960 Winter Olympics, in Squaw Valley, United States, saw the first, and to date only, team from Australia compete in the tournament. Canada, the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games, but were all defeated by the American team, which won all seven games en route to its first Olympic gold medal. Canada won the silver medal and the Soviet Union won the bronze.
At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria, the Soviet team won all seven of its games, earning the gold medal. Canada finished the tournament with five wins and two losses, putting the team in a three - way tie for second place with Sweden and Czechoslovakia. Before 1964, the tie - breaking procedure was based on goal difference in games against teams in the medal round; under that system, Canada would have placed third ahead of the Czechoslovakian team. During the tournament the procedure was changed to take all games into consideration, which meant that the Canadians finished fourth. At the time, the Olympics counted as the World Championships; under their (unchanged) rules, Canada should have received bronze for the World Championships.
The Soviet Union won its third gold medal with a 7 - 1 record in the 1968 Grenoble Olympics. Czechoslovakia and Canada won the silver and bronze medals. It was the last time that the Olympics were counted as the World Championships. In 1970, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition protesting the use of full - time "amateurs '' by the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, and the team did not participate in the 1972 and 1976 Winter Olympics. Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov, Alexander Yakushev, Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov, the Soviet team won gold at both the 1972 Games in Sapporo, Japan and 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck, Austria. In 1971, the United States finished last at the World Championships and was relegated to Pool B. The team qualified for the 1972 Olympics and won silver, making it the first Pool B team to win an Olympic medal. Czechoslovakia won the bronze medal in 1972. In 1976, Czechoslovakia won the silver and West Germany won bronze. Along with Canada, the Swedish team did not participate in the 1976 tournament joining the boycott.
The Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid, New York in 1980. Twelve teams participated in the tournament, including Canada for the first time since 1968. The Soviet Union entered the tournament as favourites and were considered natural rivals with the American team due to the Cold War. The Americans, coached by Herb Brooks and consisting mainly of college students, tied Sweden and scored an upset win over Czechoslovakia in the preliminary round. They advanced to the medal round along with Sweden, Finland and the Soviet Union.
The 22 February medal - round game between the Soviet Union and the United States became famously known as the "Miracle on Ice. '' The Soviets took a 2 -- 1 lead, but the Americans tied the game with one second left in the first period. In the second period, Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak was replaced by Vladimir Myshkin. The Soviets regained the lead early in the second period. However, the Americans kept the game close due to the goaltending of Jim Craig. In the third period, the Americans scored two goals, including the game winner by captain Mike Eruzione with exactly 10 minutes left to give the Americans a 4 -- 3 lead. Craig withstood another series of Soviet shots to preserve the win. In the final seconds of the game, American Broadcasting Company sportscaster Al Michaels delivered his famous line: "Do you believe in miracles? Yes! ''
The final rankings were based on points accumulated in matches against the other teams in the medal round. Despite the common misconception that the Americans won gold the night they beat the Soviets, this did not occur until 24 February when they defeated Finland 4 -- 2 and finished the tournament undefeated. The Soviets finished with silver; Sweden won the bronze. In 2008, the IIHF picked the Miracle on Ice as the top international hockey story of the past 100 years.
At the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union won its sixth gold medal. Czechoslovakia and Sweden won the silver and bronze medals. The 1988 Winter Olympics were held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, where the Soviet team captured its seventh and final gold medal. The Soviets ' last Olympic game was a loss to Finland. The Finnish team was not considered a serious medal contender -- it had competed in the World Championships since 1939 and had not won a single medal. However, Finland upset the Soviets 2 -- 1 and won silver. The IIHF decided to change the tournament format because in several cases, the gold medal winner had been decided before the final day of play. During a congress in 1990, the IIHF introduced a playoff system. The new system was used at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville, France. Preliminary round - robin games were held and followed by an eight - team cup - system style medal round that culminated in a gold medal game.
Before 1989, players who lived in the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and other nations behind the Iron Curtain were not allowed to leave and play in the NHL. Soviet officials agreed to allow players to leave following the 1989 World Championships. Many of the Soviet Union 's top players left to play in the NHL, including the entire "Green Unit '' -- Igor Larionov, Viacheslav Fetisov, Vladimir Krutov, Sergei Makarov and Alexei Kasatonov. The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991. Nine former Soviet states became part of the IIHF and started competing internationally, including Belarus, Kazakhstan, Latvia and Ukraine. At the 1992 Olympics, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine and Uzbekistan competed as one entity, known as the Unified Team. In the final, the Unified Team defeated Canada to win gold while Czechoslovakia won the bronze.
Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in January 1993. The IIHF recognized the Czech Republic as the successor to Czechoslovakia, allowing the team to retain its position in the top World Championship division, while Slovakia started in the lowest division (Pool C) in 1994 and was forced to work its way up. Both nations competed in the tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics, as did Russia. Slovakia and Finland both finished the preliminary round undefeated. Slovakia lost their medal round quarter - final game to Russia 2 -- 3 OT, who later lost to Sweden 3 -- 4 in the semi-final and Finland (who was defeated by Canada in the another semi-final) 0 -- 4 in the bronze medal game. In the gold medal game between Sweden and Canada, both teams finished regulation and overtime play with a 2 -- 2 tie. In the resulting shootout, the first in Olympic competition, both nations scored two goals, which resulted in a sudden death shootout. Peter Forsberg of Sweden scored one of the most famous goals in Olympic history by faking a forehand shot, then sliding a one - handed backhand shot past goaltender Corey Hirsch. Canada 's final shooter Paul Kariya 's shot was saved by Tommy Salo and Sweden won the game and its first gold medal.
In 1995, an agreement to allow NHL players to participate in Olympics was reached between the IOC, IIHF, NHL, and National Hockey League Players ' Association (NHLPA). The format of the 1998 tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL 's schedule. Canada, considered a pre-tournament favourite, was upset in the semi-final round by the Czech Republic and then lost the bronze medal game to Finland. Led by goaltender Dominik Hašek, the Czech team defeated Russia, winning its first gold medal in the sport. Following the tournament, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman commented that it "was what we had predicted and hoped for from a pure hockey perspective, (it was) a wonderful tournament ''.
The next tournament format was hosted at in Salt Lake City, United States. Finnish centre Raimo Helminen became the first ice hockey player to compete in six tournaments. In the quarter - finals, Belarus defeated Sweden in one of the biggest upsets since the Miracle on Ice. The team lost to Canada 7 - 1 in the semi-final and Russia 7 - 2 in the bronze medal game, respectively. The Canadian team rebounded from a disappointing first round and defeated the American team (who eliminated Russia 3 -- 2 in the semi-final) in the gold medal game, winning their first gold medal in 50 years and seventh in men 's hockey overall.
The tournament format was adjusted for 2006. In the semi-finals, Sweden defeated the Czech Republic 7 -- 3, and Finland ousted Russia 4 -- 0. Sweden won the gold medal over Finland 3 -- 2 and the Czech Republic won the bronze medal over Russia 3 -- 0. Three months later, Sweden won the 2006 World Championships and became the first team to win the Olympic and World Championship gold in the same year.
The 2010 Winter Olympics were held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, the first time since NHL players started competing that the Olympics were held in a city with an NHL team. Teemu Selänne of Finland scored his 37th point, breaking the record of 36 first set by Canadian Harry Watson in 1924 and later tied by Vlastimil Bubník of Czechoslovakia, and Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union. Slovakia made the final four for the first time, but lost the bronze medal game to Finland 3 -- 5. In the gold medal game, Canada and the United States ended regulation play with a 2 -- 2 tie, making it only the second Olympic gold medal match to go into overtime. Canadian player Sidney Crosby scored the winning goal 7: 40 into overtime play to give Canada its eighth gold medal in men 's hockey.
The 2014 Winter Olympics were held in Sochi, Russia, and retained the same game format used in Vancouver 2010, while returning to the larger international - sized ice rinks. Slovenia participated for the first time, upsetting Slovakia in the round - robin before losing to Sweden in the quarterfinals 0 -- 5, for its best finish in any international tournament. Latvia upset Switzerland 3 -- 1 in the qualification playoffs, also making it to the Olympic quarterfinals for the first time, where they were narrowly defeated by Canada 2 -- 1. Host nation Russia, considered a pre-tournament favourite, lost 3 -- 1 in the quarterfinals to Finland and finished 5th. Entering the semi-finals undefeated after outscoring opponents 20 -- 6, the United States lost to Canada 0 -- 1, then lost the bronze medal game against Finland 0 -- 5. Teemu Selänne scored six more points in the tournament, was named tournament MVP and boosted his modern - era Olympic career record for points to 43 (24 goals, 19 assists). At the age of 43, he also set records as both the oldest Olympic goal - scorer and oldest Olympic ice hockey medal winner. Canada defeated Sweden 3 -- 0 to win its ninth Olympic gold medal. The team did not trail at any point over the course of the tournament, and became the first back - to - back gold medal winner since the start of NHL participation in 1998, as well as the first team to go undefeated since 1984.
At the 99th IOC Session in July 1992, the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event beginning with the 1998 Winter Olympics as part of their effort to increase the number of female athletes at the Olympics. Women 's ice hockey had not been in the programme when Nagano, Japan had won the right to host the Olympics in June 1991, and the decision required approval by the Nagano Winter Olympic Organizing Committee (NAOOC). The NAOOC was initially hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament and because they felt their team, which had failed to qualify for that year 's World Championships, could not be competitive. According to Glynis Peters, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association 's (CAHA) head of female hockey, "the Japanese would have to finance an entirely new sports operation to bring their team up to Olympic standards in six years, which they were also really reluctant to do. '' In November 1992, the NWOOC and IOC Coordination Committee reached an agreement to include a women 's ice hockey tournament in the programme. Part of the agreement was that the tournament would be limited to six teams, and no additional facilities would be built. The CAHA also agreed to help build and train the Japanese team so that it could be more competitive. The IOC had agreed that if the NAOOC had not approved the event, it would be held at the 2002 Winter Olympics. The format of the first tournament was similar to the men 's: preliminary round - robin games followed by a medal round playoff.
Before 1998, women 's hockey had been dominated by Canada. Canadian teams had won every World Championship up to that point; however, by 1997, the American team had improved and was evenly matched with Canada. In thirteen games played between the two teams in 1997, Canada won seven and the United States won six. The 1998 Olympic tournament also included teams from Finland, Sweden, China and host Japan. Canada and the United States dominated the round - robin portion. In their head - to - head match, the United States overcame a 4 -- 1 deficit to win 7 -- 4. The two teams met in the final, which the United States won 3 -- 1 to become the third American ice hockey team to win Olympic gold. Finland defeated China 4 -- 1 to win the bronze medal.
For the 2002 Winter Olympics, the number of teams was increased to eight with Russia, Germany and Kazakhstan qualifying for the first time. The Canadian and American teams went undefeated in the first round and semi-finals, setting up a gold medal rematch that the Canadian team won 3 -- 2. Following the game, members of the Canadian team accused the Americans of stomping on a Canadian flag in their dressing room, although an investigation later proved the rumour false. The Swedish team won the bronze medal over Finland 2 -- 1, the nation 's first in women 's ice hockey.
In 2006, the American team was upset in the semi-final game, by Sweden 2 -- 3 SO, marking the first time that it had lost to an opponent other than Canada. The upset drew comparisons to the Miracle on Ice from 1980. In the medal games, Canada defeated Sweden 4 -- 1 to claim its second consecutive gold medal, while the Americans beat Finland 4 -- 0 to win the bronze.
In 2010, eight teams participated, including Slovakia for the first time. In the gold medal game, Canada defeated the United States 2 -- 0 to win their third consecutive gold. The Finnish team won the bronze medal over Sweden 3 -- 2 OT, their first since 1998.
At the 2014 Winter Olympics, Canada defeated the United States 3 -- 2, as Marie - Philip Poulin scored at 8: 10 of overtime to win their fourth consecutive gold, rebounding from a two - nothing deficit late in the game. With the win, Canadians Hayley Wickenheiser, Jayna Hefford and Caroline Ouellette became the first athletes to win four ice hockey gold medals. They also joined Soviet biathlete Alexander Tikhonov and German speedskater Claudia Pechstein as the only athletes to win gold medals in four straight Winter Olympics. In the bronze medal game Switzerland beat Sweden 4 -- 3 to win their first women 's medal.
Team USA beat Canada at the 2018 games in Pyeongchang in a shootout to win their first gold medal in 20 years.
The 2022 edition will be played with ten teams.
Since 1976, 12 teams have participated in the men 's tournament, except in 1998 and 2002, when the number was raised to 14. The number of teams has ranged from 4 (in 1932) to 16 (in 1964). After the NHL allowed its players to compete at the 1998 Winter Olympics, the "Big Six '' teams (Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Sweden and the United States) were given automatic qualification and byes to the final round. The number of teams was increased to 14 so that a preliminary round - robin tournament consisting of eight teams could be held. The top two teams from the preliminary round (Belarus and Kazakhstan) joined the "Big Six '' in the finals. A similar system was used in 2002. For the following tournament, the number of teams was lowered to 12 so that all teams played fewer games. Qualification for the men 's tournament at the 2010 Winter Olympics was structured around the 2008 IIHF World Ranking. Twelve spots were made available for teams. The top nine teams in the World Ranking after the 2008 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths. Teams ranked 19th through 30th played in a first qualification round in November 2008. The top three teams from the round advanced to the second qualification round, joined by teams ranked 10th through 18th. The top three teams from this round advanced to the Olympic tournament.
The women 's tournament uses a similar qualification format. The top six teams in the IIHF Women 's World Ranking after the 2008 Women 's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths. Teams ranked 13th and below were divided into two groups for a first qualification round in September 2008. The two group winners advanced to the second qualification round, where the teams ranked seventh through twelfth joined them.
The IIHF lists the following requirements for a player to be eligible to play in international tournaments:
If a player who has never played in an IIHF competition changes their citizenship, they must participate in national competitions in their new country for at least two consecutive years and have an international transfer card (ITC). If a player who has previously played in an IIHF tournament wishes to change their national team, they must have played in their new country for four years. A player can only do this once. The original IOC rules stated that an athlete that had already played for one nation could not later change nations under any circumstances.
Pierre de Coubertin, founder of the IOC, was influenced by the ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools. The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education and there was a prevailing concept of fairness in which practicing or training was considered cheating. As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated. The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism until 1988.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team 's full - time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC. Avery Brundage, president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972, was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together. At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. In response, Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until "open competition '' was instituted. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition '' between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC 's amateur - only policy.
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL - contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters -- one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians -- ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues -- such as the World Hockey Association -- were allowed to play. Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in the Olympic Games starting in 1988.
The NHL decided not to allow all players to participate in 1988, 1992, 1994 and 2018 because the Winter Olympics typically occur in February, during the league 's regular season. To allow participation, the NHL would have been forced to take a break in its schedule.
In 1992, National Basketball Association (NBA) players participated in the 1992 Summer Olympics. The American "Dream Team '' dominated the tournament, and NHL commissioner Gary Bettman (an NBA executive in 1992) commented that the "(NBA) 's worldwide awareness grew dramatically ''. He hoped that NHL participation would "get exposure like the world has never seen for hockey ''. The typical NBA season is held in the winter and spring, so the Summer Olympics do not conflict with the regular season schedule. Bettman "floated a concept of moving hockey to the Summer Games '', but this was rejected because of the Olympic Charter. In March 1995, Bettman, René Fasel, IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch and NHLPA executive director Bob Goodenow met in Geneva, Switzerland. They reached an agreement that allowed NHL players to participate in the Olympics, starting with the 1998 Games in Nagano, Japan. The deal was officially announced by the NHL on 2 October 1995. Bettman said: "We 're doing this to build the game of hockey, pure and simple, we think whatever benefits are recouped, it will end up making this game bigger, stronger and healthier. ''
The 2004 -- 05 NHL season was locked out and eventually cancelled because of a labour dispute between the league and its players. In January 2005, Bettman commented that he was hesitant to allow league participation in the Olympics because he did not like the idea of stopping play mid-season after the cancellation of the previous season. The lockout was resolved in July 2005 and the newly negotiated NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement allowed league participation in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics. Some NHL team owners were against their players participating in the tournament because of concerns about injury or exhaustion. Philadelphia Flyers owner Ed Snider commented that "I 'm a believer in the Olympics and I think it 's good for the NHL to participate, having said that, the people who participate should be the ones who are absolutely healthy. '' Some NHL players used the break as an opportunity to rest and did not participate in the tournament, and several players were injured during the Olympics and were forced to miss NHL games. Bettman said that several format changes were being discussed so that the tournament would be "a little easier for everybody ''.
It was originally thought that for NHL participating in the 2014 Winter Olympics a deal would have to be negotiated between the NHL and NHLPA in the Collective Bargaining Agreement. In January 2013, the NHL and NHLPA agreed on a new Collective Bargaining Agreement. However, the decision on NHL participation at the Olympics was later announced on 19 July 2013. As part of the deal, the NHL will go on break for 17 days during the Olympics and will send 13 on - ice officials to help with the Games. NHL management was hesitant to commit to the tournament; Bettman argued the Olympic break is a "strain on the players, on the schedule and on fans '', adding that "the benefits we get tend to be greater when the Olympics are in North America than when they 're in distant time zones. '' According to Bettman, most of the NHL team owners agree with his position, and feel that the league does not receive enough benefits to justify the schedule break and risk of player injuries. René Fasel wants NHL participation and vowed that he would "work day and night to have NHL players in Sochi ''.
At an October 2008 press conference, then - NHLPA executive director Paul Kelly stated that the players want to return to the Olympics and would try to include the ability in the next agreement. Russian NHL players Alexander Ovechkin and Evgeni Malkin stated that they want to participate in the tournament and would do so without the permission of the NHL, if necessary. Paul Kelly also believed that the NHL 's strained relationship with the Ice Hockey Federation of Russia and the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) could affect participation. In a 2009 interview, KHL president Alexander Medvedev claimed that the unwillingness of NHL officials to immediately commit to the Sochi Games was "an instrument of pressure '' to force a transfer agreement between the two leagues.
A major sticking point over NHL participation has been the insurance of players; for the 2014 Winter Olympics, the IOC paid around US $7 million to insure NHL players participating in the Games. In April 2016, the IOC announced that beginning in 2018, it would no longer cover accommodations, insurance, or travel for NHL players in the Olympics, prompting the IIHF to ask for support from national ice hockey associations and National Olympic Committees to help cover costs; Matti Nurminen of the Finnish Ice Hockey Association argued that it was the responsibility of the event 's organizer to cover costs, and that "In our opinion, the same party should pay the bills, and that 's not us. All the countries replied to the IIHF that they are not willing to pay for the insurance or the travel or any of the other expenses that are related to having the NHL players participate in Pyeongchang. '' The New York Times felt that the removal of this financial support would put NHL participation at Pyeongchang in jeopardy, noting the already - strenuous relationship between the NHL and the IOC; Gary Bettman noted that the NHL does not profit from their presence, adding that "in fact, we kind of disappear for two weeks because historically the IOC has n't even let us join in promoting our participation in the Olympics. ''
On 3 April 2017, the NHL announced that it would not participate in the 2018 Winter Olympics. In that statement, the NHL said that it had been open to hearing from the IOC, the IIHF, and the players ' association on ways to make Olympic participation more attractive to team owners, but no meaningful dialogue on that matter had materialized. As to reasons the Board of Governors might be interested in re-evaluating their strongly held views on the subject, the NHLPA "confirmed that it has no interest or intention of engaging in any discussion that might make Olympic participation more attractive to the Clubs '', and that it would not schedule a break for the Olympics in the 2017 -- 18 season.
At the first tournament in 1920, there were many differences from the modern game: games were played outdoors on natural ice, forward passes were not allowed, the rink (which had been intended to be used only for figure skating) was 56 m × 18 m (165 ft × 58.5 ft) and two 20 - minute periods were played. Each team had seven players on the ice, the extra position being the rover. Following the tournament, the IIHF held a congress and decided to adopt the Canadian rules -- six men per side and three periods of play.
The tournaments follow the rules used by the IIHF. At the 1969 IIHF Congress, officials voted to allow body - checking in all three zones in a rink similar to the NHL. Before that, body - checking was only allowed in the defending zone in international hockey. Several other rule changes were implemented in the early 1970s: players were required to wear helmets starting in 1970, and goaltender masks became mandatory in 1972. In 1992, the IIHF switched to using a playoff system to determine medalists and decided that tie games in the medal round would be decided in a shootout. In 1998, the IIHF passed a rule that allowed two - line passes. Before then, the neutral zone trap had slowed the game down and reduced scoring.
The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL. One difference between NHL and IIHF rules is standard rink dimensions: the NHL rink is narrower, measuring 61 m × 26 m (200 ft × 85 ft), instead of the international size of 61 m × 30.5 m (200 ft × 100 ft) The larger international size allows for a faster and less physical style of play. Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icing is called. In the NHL, a linesman stops play due to icing if a defending player (other than the goaltender) is not behind an attacking player in the race to the end - zone faceoff dots in his defensive zone, in contrast to the IIHF rules in which play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line. The NHL and IIHF also differ in penalty rules. The NHL calls five - minute major penalties for more dangerous infractions of the rules, such as fighting, in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games. This is in contrast to the IIHF rule, by which players who fight are ejected from the game. Beginning with the 2005 -- 06 season, the NHL instituted several new rules. Some were already used by the IIHF, such as the shootout and the two - line pass. Others were not picked up by the IIHF, such as those requiring smaller goaltender equipment and the addition of the goaltender trapezoid to the rink. However, the IIHF did agree to follow the NHL 's zero - tolerance policy on obstruction and required referees to call more hooking, holding, and interference penalties.
Each team is allowed to have between 15 and 20 skaters (forwards and defencemen) and two or three goaltenders, all of whom must be citizens of the nation they play for.
One of the conditions of the NHL 's participation in the Olympics is to include regular NHL referees and linesmen in the tournament, despite the fact that they are American or Canadian, and thus gives the perception of American or Canadian bias in the officiating.
The IIHF follows the World Anti-Doping Agency 's (WADA) regulations on performance - enhancing drugs. The IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool, a list of top players who are subjected to random in - competition and out - of - competition drug tests. According to the WADA, a positive in - competition test results in disqualification of the player and a suspension that varies based on the number of offences. When a player tests positive, the rest of their team is subjected to testing; another positive test can result in a disqualification of the entire team. In 2001, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) pushed for American NHL players who were potential Olympians to be subject to random drug tests. The USOC requires all Olympic - bound athletes to be randomly tested by the United States Anti-Doping Agency, but had exempted NHL players in 1998. The NHL preferred a more uniform method, in which all players would undergo the same number of tests from the WADA. An agreement was reached that the WADA would start testing players after the NHL playoffs were finished.
In late 2005, two NHL players who had been listed as potential Olympians failed drug tests administered by the WADA. American Bryan Berard, who had competed in the 1998 Winter Olympics, tested positive for 19 - Norandrosterone. Canadian José Théodore failed a drug test because he was taking Propecia, a hair loss medication that contains the non-performance - enhancing drug Finasteride. Both players received two - year bans from international competition, although neither had made their team 's final roster. On 6 December 2017 six Russian ice hockey players were disqualified for doping violations. Results of the Russian women 's team at the 2014 Winter Olympics were made void. Two other Russian players, Tatiana Burina and Anna Shukina, were also disqualified ten days later.
Key
Men:
Women:
The following is a list of the on - ice officials for the men 's gold medal game beginning in 1920 and again from 1992 when such game was reintroduced. The editions in which National Hockey League players participated -- from 1998 to 2014 -- were primarily officiated by NHL officials.
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who does the voice for howard's mother on big bang | Carol Ann Susi - wikipedia
Carol Ann Susi (February 2, 1952 -- November 11, 2014) was an American actress. She was known for providing the voice of recurring unseen character Mrs. Wolowitz on the television series The Big Bang Theory.
Susi made her first screen appearance in Kolchak: The Night Stalker. Other television and film credits included: McMillan & Wife, Coyote Ugly, Just Go with It, The Big Bang Theory, Becker, Grey 's Anatomy, That ' 70s Show, Out of Practice, Cats & Dogs, Just Shoot Me, Married... with Children, Night Court, The King of Queens, Death Becomes Her, Seinfeld, The Secret of My Success, My Blue Heaven, and Sabrina, The Teenage Witch. She also had extensive experience in live theatre and voiced a character on the video game installment of CSI: NY.
Carol Ann Susi was born in Brooklyn, of Italian descent. She studied acting at HB Studio in New York City before moving to Los Angeles in the 1970s.
Susi died of cancer on November 11, 2014, in Los Angeles, California, at age 62.
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who is college basketball all time leading scorer | List of NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball career scoring leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, points are the sum of the score accumulated through free throw or field goal. In National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I basketball, where a player 's career is at most four seasons long, it is considered a notable achievement to reach the 1,000 - points scored threshold. In even rarer instances, players have reached the 2,000 - and 3,000 - point plateaus (no player has ever scored 4,000 or more points at the Division I level). The top 25 highest scorers in NCAA Division I men 's basketball history are listed below. The NCAA did not split into its current divisions format until August 1973. From 1906 to 1955, there were no classifications to the NCAA nor its predecessor, the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS). Then, from 1956 to spring 1973, colleges were classified as either "NCAA University Division (Major College) '' or "NCAA College Division (Small College) ''.
Some of the top 25 scorers in Division I history played before the three - point line was officially instituted in 1986 -- 87. All of the players with a dash through the three - point field goals made column were affected by this rule. Hank Gathers of Loyola Marymount is the only three - point shot era player on this list who did not make a single three - point shot. From the 1986 -- 87 season through the 2007 -- 08 season, the three - point perimeter was marked at 19 ft 9 in (6.02 m) for both men 's and women 's college basketball. On May 3, 2007, the NCAA men 's basketball rules committee passed a measure to extend the distance of the men 's three - point line back to 20 ft 9 in (6.32 m); the women 's line would remain at the original distance until it was moved to match the men 's distance effective in 2011 -- 12.
Additionally, several of the players on this list played during an era when college freshmen were ineligible to compete at the varsity level and were forced to participate on either freshman or junior varsity teams. Since freshman and junior varsity points do not count toward official NCAA records, three players -- Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson and Elvin Hayes -- only had three seasons to compile their totals. Larry Bird redshirted (sat out) his freshman year, and therefore, like Maravich, Robertson, and Hayes, his totals also cover only three seasons (though in Bird 's case, unlike the others, it was his own choice not to play a fourth season at the college level). With the added benefits of a three - point line and a full extra year of varsity eligibility, their already - historical statistics would have been much higher. Maravich, a guard from LSU, not only owns the three highest single season averages in Division I history, but also the highest career total. Remarkably, he scored 3,667 points (over 400 more than the next closest player) in a mere 83 games. His record is considered nearly unbreakable; the only player who could have potentially overtaken him as the top scorer in Division I history is Stephen Curry of Davidson, who had scored 2,635 points through his first three seasons of college basketball. However, Curry opted to forgo his final year of NCAA eligibility and moved on to the National Basketball Association (NBA) following his junior season in 2008 -- 09.
Five players on this list are enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Pete Maravich, Oscar Robertson, Elvin Hayes, Larry Bird and David Robinson.
The following list contains current and defunct Division I conferences ' all - time scoring leaders. The "conference founded '' column indicates when each respective conference first began intercollegiate athletic competition, not necessarily when they began basketball. For example, the Great West Conference was established as a football - only conference in 2004 but became an all - sports conference in 2008 (with basketball actually beginning in 2009 -- 10). Also note that some of the schools on this list are no longer in the conference in which they are identified. Utah, for instance, is currently a member of the Pac - 12 Conference, but when Keith Van Horn set the scoring record they were still a member of the Western Athletic Conference. Similarly, BYU is currently in the West Coast Conference, but their final four seasons in the Mountain West Conference were the years in which Jimmer Fredette played at the school and set that conference 's scoring record.
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how did mr krabs and plankton become enemies | Friend or Foe (SpongeBob SquarePants) - wikipedia
"Friend or Foe '' is the first episode of the fifth season and the 81st overall episode of the American animated television sitcom SpongeBob SquarePants. It was written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Mike Mitchell, Steven Banks and Tim Hill, and the animation was directed by supervising director, Alan Smart and Tom Yasumi. Alexander, Cervas and Mitchell also function as storyboard directors. The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 13, 2007.
The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom. In this episode, Mr. Krabs reveals to SpongeBob that he and his business rival Plankton were actually best friends during their childhood. Through a series of flashbacks, Mr. Krabs tells the story of how that friendship deteriorated, the cause of their rivalry, and how the Krabby Patty sandwich was created in the process. The episode became available on DVD on April 17, 2007. "Friend or Foe '' received positive reviews upon release.
Patchy and Potty are working at a restaurant called "Poop Deck, '' hoping to be just like SpongeBob. Patchy has new ideas (he makes three burgers of his own he calls "Buried Treasure '', Walk - the - Plank ", and the "Patchy Patty '') which Potty disagrees with, and after an argument with Potty, Patchy ends their friendship and goes home. He compares himself and Potty to Mr. Krabs and Plankton, starting the SpongeBob Plot.
Later, Potty appears to Patchy and tells him that he is now assistant manager. Potty says that his fancy book smarts got him the promotion and Patchy thinks it 's unfair. When Patchy realizes his food is terrible, Potty tells him that he needs to practice his cooking skills. After a montage of training, Patchy makes his first burger. He tries it and realizes it 's just as bad and has it walk the plank (in other words, throw it into the garbage). Patchy shrugs and says that SpongeBob 's first patty probably did n't go so well. However, Potty shows SpongeBob (as a baby) making his first patty and it 's perfect on the first try.
Potty then scolds Patchy for his unsanitary environment (such as keeping ground beef in an old boot, having rats in the kitchen, not washing his hands after using the bathroom and not wearing a hair net). Fed up with Potty 's criticisms, Patchy starts throwing patties at Potty, but they keep missing, and one eventually hits Mr. Pirateson, the Owner of Poop Deck. Patchy then tells the viewers to watch the rest of the SpongeBob episode while he watches Potty get fired, just as Mr. Pirateson forcefully shouts for Patchy to get in his office.
After the episode is over, Patchy claims he took some time off, but Potty then tells the viewers that Patchy actually got fired, and Patchy gets back at Potty by saying that he got fired too, which is also true (but Potty also got a golden parachute). Patchy then says that they can not replace him, but Potty tells him that they already did. When Patchy finds out that he 's been replaced by a gorilla, he calls it a "smelly, hairy fleabag '', to which the gorilla fiercely responds to by throwing patties at Patchy. The narrator then tell the Viewers to always follow your dreams (unless you 're Patchy), and then the episode ends.
After yet another attack at the Krusty Krab by Plankton, SpongeBob asks Mr. Krabs why they hate each other. Mr. Krabs tells his side of the story, in a series of flashbacks. In the flashback, Mr. Krabs and Plankton were best friends from birth, and did everything together. One day, they get enough money to buy a burger from Stinky 's Burgers, which, despite having horrible food and being located in a landfill, is very popular among the local children due to being the only place in town to get a burger. When Stinky refuses to give them a burger Plankton and Krabs decide to go into the burger business themselves, and create their own burger, but no one wants to try it. They then find out that the local health department closed Stinky 's, so the two open "Plabs Burgers '' at the dump, which the children are now forced to eat at, despite it being even worse than Stinky 's. Plankton says that they are now ruling the children. Mr. Krabs argues that it should be about satisfying the customers, rather than power. Soon they get into an argument, and Krabs is ejected into a dump pile and tells Plankton that he will one day regret this.
Back at the Krusty Krab, Plankton comes in and disagrees with Mr. Krabs ' story and tells SpongeBob his own version. His story is the same as Mr. Krab 's, except that their roles during the fight at the end are reversed, with Krabs wanting to rule the money of the children and when they disagreed shot Plankton out of a straw into the dump. Plankton and Krabs begin arguing about the story, until Karen arrives and tells the real story. In the story, the restaurant initially has no customers, and Old Man Jenkins, an elderly resident and an old friend of Krab 's family, is the first to try their burger, but collapses, having been poisoned by the patty. Krabs and Plankton become angry and accuse each other of tainting the patty. They begin fighting over the recipe, eventually tearing it in two. Their friendship over, Plankton storms out to pursue his own career in food. However, during the struggle, a shelf was knocked down, dumping various ingredients into the patty batter, creating the Krabby Patty recipe, which Krabs is left with. The two go their separate ways, each trying to open their own establishment. Mr. Krabs ' "Krabby Patty '' became a success, while Plankton 's Chum Burger is horrible.
After hearing the story, Plankton and Krabs begin to make up, until Plankton takes the formula from his pocket. Then the two start chasing after each other.
"Friend or Foe '' is a special episode written by Casey Alexander, Zeus Cervas, Mike Mitchell, Steven Banks and Tim Hill, with Alan Smart and Tom Yasumi serving as animation directors. Alexander, Cervas and Mitchell also function as storyboard directors. It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on April 13, 2007, with a TV - Y7 parental rating. On April 2, 2008, Nickelodeon released a preview clip of the episode on TurboNick. Immediately following the episode 's on - air premiere, "Friend or Foe '' was streamed on TurboNick. On April 5, Nick.com launched an online game themed to the special episode called "Friend or Foe Trash Bash. ''
Tom Ascheim, executive vice president and general manager for Nickelodeon Television, said "We are always looking for new ways to tell stories and go beyond the traditional platforms of presenting them to our audience (...) "' Friend or Foe? ' reveals the great back story of the long - standing feud between Mr. Krabs vs. Plankton and we 're offering kids an interactive opportunity to get involved in the story and spirited contest by rooting for one or the other. '' As part of the special programming event, Nickelodeon held "The Friend or Foe - Down '', a convergent contest where two teams of children meet a series of challenges before the episode 's premiere. Team Krabs and Team Plankton each consisted of three children led by team captains and hosts Alexandra Gizela and Jordan Carlos. Each team was infiltrated by a "foe '' who is secretly working for the other team, as they partake in a series of "funny and messy '' physical group challenges refereed by Tom Kenny as Patchy the Pirate.
The episode was later released on the DVD of the same name on April 17, 2007. The DVD featured six other episodes, including "The Original Fry Cook '', "Night Light '', "Rise and Shine '', "Waiting '', "Fungus Among Us '' and "Spy Buddies '', and the original uncut animatic for "Friend or Foe '' and special Plankton and Mr. Krabs photo gallery as bonus features. It was also released on the SpongeBob SquarePants: Season 5, Vol. 1 DVD on September 4, 2007. On September 22, 2009, "Friend or Foe '' was released in the SpongeBob SquarePants: The First 100 Episodes DVD, alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five.
In 2007, Nickelodeon partnered with Stride Rite Corporation to co-sponsor the SpongeBob SquarePants Friend or Foe? network event on Nickelodeon on Friday, April 13. Stride Rite utilized Nickelodeon as the exclusive marketing platform for its SuperBall footwear line, in support of the SpongeBob event. Stride Rite vice president Phil Risinger said "SpongeBob SquarePants Friend or Foe? not only gives the stride rite brand exposure during the highest rated kids ' television show, but creates awareness for SuperBall with kids during our peak spring season. ''
Nickelodeon announced a strategic partnership with Kajeet. Advertising and promotional elements of the partnership include sponsorship of a number of Nickelodeon 's big television events, starting with this episode. To support the SpongeBob SquarePants Friend or Foe? television event, Kajeet and Nickelodeon launched exclusive mobile content related to the episode. Kajeet was also the exclusive sponsor of "Trash Bash ''.
"Friend or Foe '' received mostly positive reviews. Paul Mavis of DVD Talk was positive towards the episode specifically on the live action scenes, writing "Patchy and Potty are always funny, so it 's great to see them slinging hamburgers in honor of their idol, SpongeBob. I particularly liked the gorilla at the end, whipping burgers at Patchy (' You got me right in the buns! '). '' Mavis also praised the episode calling it "brilliant '' because "(Mr.) Krabs and Plankton are strong enough characters, with their own mythology, that they can sustain their very own episode with only a cameo from SpongeBob. '' He also said the episode is "(...) hilarious (I love the fact that it 's a barely disguised version of Rashomon), with an especially funny look at Krabs, Plankton, and even SpongeBob, as babies. ''
David Packard of DVD Verdict said that the live action scenes "add to the silliness. '' He also said "It 's a nice change of pace to see Plankton and Krabs as chums pre-Chum Bucket and finding out what led to their friendship 's eventual demise. Viewers also get to see Mr. Krabs introduced to ' the love of his life ' as he develops the secret formula to the Krabby Patty that Bikini Bottom 's residents know and love today. '' On the DVD, Patrick Cossel of Blogcritics said "Children and adults will laugh out loud at the crazy slapstick antics of the one who lives under the sea. '' He added that "This release is sure to be huge hit for SpongeBob fans everywhere. '' Lesley Aeschliman of Yahoo! Voices was negative on the episode saying "' Friend of Foe? ' just felt like a regular episode that really had no reason to be hyped a special. ''
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who came up with the story of santa claus | Santa Claus - wikipedia
Santa Claus, also known as Saint Nicholas, Kris Kringle, Father Christmas, or simply Santa, is a legendary figure originating in Western Christian culture who is said to bring gifts to the homes of well - behaved ("good '' or "nice '') children on Christmas Eve (24 December) and the early morning hours of Christmas Day (25 December). The modern Santa Claus grew out of traditions surrounding the historical Saint Nicholas (a fourth - century Greek bishop and gift - giver of Myra), the British figure of Father Christmas and the Dutch figure of Sinterklaas (himself also based on Saint Nicholas). Some maintain Santa Claus also absorbed elements of the Germanic god Wodan, who was associated with the pagan midwinter event of Yule and led the Wild Hunt, a ghostly procession through the sky.
Santa Claus is generally depicted as a portly, joyous, white - bearded man -- sometimes with spectacles -- wearing a red coat with white fur collar and cuffs, white - fur - cuffed red trousers, a red hat with white fur and black leather belt and boots and who carries a bag full of gifts for children. This image became popular in the United States and Canada in the 19th century due to the significant influence of the 1823 poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' and of caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast. This image has been maintained and reinforced through song, radio, television, children 's books, films, and advertising.
Santa Claus is said to make lists of children throughout the world, categorizing them according to their behavior ("good '' and "bad '', or "naughty '' and "nice '') and to deliver presents, including toys, and candy to all of the well - behaved children in the world, and coal to all the misbehaved children, on the single night of Christmas Eve. He accomplishes this feat with the aid of his elves, who make the toys in his workshop at the North Pole, and his flying reindeer, who pull his sleigh. He is commonly portrayed as living at the North Pole, and often laughing in a way that sounds like "ho ho ho ''.
Saint Nicholas of Myra was a 4th - century Greek Christian bishop of Myra (now Demre) in Lycia, a province of the Byzantine Empire, now in Turkey. Nicholas was famous for his generous gifts to the poor, in particular presenting the three impoverished daughters of a pious Christian with dowries so that they would not have to become prostitutes. He was very religious from an early age and devoted his life entirely to Christianity. In continental Europe (more precisely the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria, the Czech Republic and Germany) he is usually portrayed as a bearded bishop in canonical robes.
The remains of Saint Nicholas are in Italy. In 1087, the Italian city of Bari mounted an expedition to locate the tomb of the Saint. The reliquary of St. Nicholas was conquered by Italian sailors and his relics were taken to Bari where they are kept to this day. A basilica was constructed the same year to store the loot and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout. Sailors from Bari collected just half of Nicholas ' skeleton, leaving all the minor fragments in the grave. These were collected by Venetian sailors during the First Crusade and taken to Venice, where a church to St. Nicholas, the patron of sailors, was built on the San Nicolò al Lido. This tradition was confirmed in two important scientific investigations of the relics in Bari and Venice, which revealed that the relics in the two Italian cities belong to the same skeleton. Saint Nicholas was later claimed as a patron saint of many diverse groups, from archers, sailors, and children to pawnbrokers. He is also the patron saint of both Amsterdam and Moscow.
During the Middle Ages, often on the evening before his name day of 6 December, children were bestowed gifts in his honour. This date was earlier than the original day of gifts for the children, which moved in the course of the Reformation and its opposition to the veneration of saints in many countries on the 24th and 25th of December. So Saint Nicholas changed to Santa Claus. The custom of gifting to children at Christmas has been propagated by Martin Luther as an alternative to the previous very popular gift custom on St. Nicholas, to focus the interest of the children to Christ instead of the veneration of saints. Martin Luther first suggested the Christkind as the bringer of gifts. But Nicholas remained popular as gifts bearer for the people.
Father Christmas dates back as far as 16th century in England during the reign of Henry VIII, when he was pictured as a large man in green or scarlet robes lined with fur. He typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, bringing peace, joy, good food and wine and revelry. As England no longer kept the feast day of Saint Nicholas on 6 December, the Father Christmas celebration was moved to the 25th of December to coincide with Christmas Day. The Victorian revival of Christmas included Father Christmas as the emblem of ' good cheer '. His physical appearance was variable, with one famous image being John Leech 's illustration of the "Ghost of Christmas Present '' in Charles Dickens 's festive classic A Christmas Carol (1843), as a great genial man in a green coat lined with fur who takes Scrooge through the bustling streets of London on the current Christmas morning, sprinkling the essence of Christmas onto the happy populace.
In the Netherlands and Belgium the character of Santa Claus has to compete with that of Sinterklaas, Santa 's presumed progenitor. Santa Claus is known as de Kerstman in Dutch ("the Christmas man '') and Père Noël ("Father Christmas '') in French. But for children in the Netherlands Sinterklaas remains the predominant gift - giver in December; 36 % of the Dutch only give presents on Sinterklaas evening or the day itself (December 6th), whereas Christmas (December 25th) is used by another 21 % to give presents. Some 26 % of the Dutch population gives presents on both days. In Belgium, Sinterklaas day presents are offered exclusively to children, whereas on Christmas Day, all ages may receive presents. Sinterklaas ' assistants are called "Zwarte Pieten '' (in Dutch, "Pères Fouettard '' in French), so they are not elves. In Switzerland, Pères Fouettard accompanies Père Noël in the French speaking region, while the sinister Schmutzli accompanies Samichlaus in the Swiss German region. Schmutzli carries a twig broom to spank the naughty children.
Prior to Christianization, the Germanic peoples (including the English) celebrated a midwinter event called Yule (Old English geola or giuli). With the Christianization of Germanic Europe, numerous traditions were absorbed from Yuletide celebrations into modern Christmas. During this period, supernatural and ghostly occurrences were said to increase in frequency, such as the Wild Hunt, a ghostly procession through the sky. The leader of the wild hunt is frequently attested as the god Wodan (Norse Odin), bearing (among many names) the names Jólnir, meaning "Yule figure '', and Langbarðr, meaning "long - beard '', in Old Norse.
Wodan 's role during the Yuletide period has been theorized as having influenced concepts of St. Nicholas in a variety of facets, including his long white beard and his gray horse for nightly rides (compare Odin 's horse Sleipnir) or his reindeer in North American tradition. Folklorist Margaret Baker maintains that "the appearance of Santa Claus or Father Christmas, whose day is the 25th of December, owes much to Odin, the old blue - hooded, cloaked, white - bearded Giftbringer of the north, who rode the midwinter sky on his eight - footed steed Sleipnir, visiting his people with gifts. (...) Odin, transformed into Father Christmas, then Santa Claus, prospered with St Nicholas and the Christchild, became a leading player on the Christmas stage. ''
In Finland they still use Joulupukki or the Christmas Goat.
Pre-modern representations of the gift - giver from Church history and folklore, notably St Nicholas (known in Dutch as Sinterklaas), merged with the English character Father Christmas to create the character known to Americans and the rest of the English - speaking world as "Santa Claus '' (a phonetic derivation of "Sinterklaas '').
In the English and later British colonies of North America, and later in the United States, British and Dutch versions of the gift - giver merged further. For example, in Washington Irving 's History of New York (1809), Sinterklaas was Americanized into "Santa Claus '' (a name first used in the American press in 1773) but lost his bishop 's apparel, and was at first pictured as a thick - bellied Dutch sailor with a pipe in a green winter coat. Irving 's book was a lampoon of the Dutch culture of New York, and much of this portrait is his joking invention.
Diary of Dolly Lunt Burge, a Maine native, widow of Thomas Burge, and resident living c. 40 miles southeast of Atlanta near Covington, Georgia. This entry from Mrs. Burge 's diary was five weeks after most of General T. Sherman 's U.S. Army forces had passed on their blackened - earth "march across Georgia '' toward Savanna, after the army 's destruction of Atlanta in mid-November 1864. U.S. Army mop - up companies and stragglers during those intervening weeks continued to "forage '', loot, burn, and liberate slaves, hence, the concern of Mrs. Burge and her household.
In 1821, the book A New - year 's present, to the little ones from five to twelve was published in New York. It contained Old Santeclaus with Much Delight, an anonymous poem describing Santeclaus on a reindeer sleigh, bringing presents to children. Some modern ideas of Santa Claus seemingly became canon after the anonymous publication of the poem "A Visit From St. Nicholas '' (better known today as "The Night Before Christmas '') in the Troy, New York, Sentinel on 23 December 1823; Clement Clarke Moore later claimed authorship, though some scholars argue that Henry Livingston, Jr. (who died nine years before Moore 's claim) was the author. St. Nick is described as being "chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf '' with "a little round belly '', that "shook when he laughed like a bowlful of jelly '', in spite of which the "miniature sleigh '' and "tiny reindeer '' still indicate that he is physically diminutive. The reindeer were also named: Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Dunder and Blixem (Dunder and Blixem came from the old Dutch words for thunder and lightning, which were later changed to the more German sounding Donner and Blitzen).
By 1845 ' Kris Kringle ' was a common variant of Santa in parts of the U.S. A magazine article from 1853, describing American Christmas customs to British readers, refers to children hanging up their stockings on Christmas Eve for ' a fabulous personage ' whose name varies: in Pennsylvania he is usually called ' Krishkinkle ' but in New York he is ' St. Nicholas ' or ' Santa Claus '. The author quotes Moore 's poem in its entirety, saying that its descriptions apply to Krishkinkle too.
As the years passed, Santa Claus evolved in popular culture into a large, heavyset person. One of the first artists to define Santa Claus 's modern image was Thomas Nast, an American cartoonist of the 19th century. In 1863, a picture of Santa illustrated by Nast appeared in Harper 's Weekly.
Thomas Nast immortalized Santa Claus with an illustration for the 3 January 1863 issue of Harper 's Weekly. Santa was dressed in an American flag, and had a puppet with the name "Jeff '' written on it, reflecting its Civil War context. The story that Santa Claus lives at the North Pole may also have been a Nast creation. His Christmas image in the Harper 's issue dated 29 December 1866 was a collage of engravings titled Santa Claus and His Works, which included the caption "Santa Claussville, N.P. '' A color collection of Nast 's pictures, published in 1869, had a poem also titled "Santa Claus and His Works '' by George P. Webster, who wrote that Santa Claus 's home was "near the North Pole, in the ice and snow ''. The tale had become well known by the 1870s. A boy from Colorado writing to the children 's magazine The Nursery in late 1874 said, "If we did not live so very far from the North Pole, I should ask Santa Claus to bring me a donkey. ''
The idea of a wife for Santa Claus may have been the creation of American authors, beginning in the mid-19th century. In 1889, the poet Katharine Lee Bates popularized Mrs. Claus in the poem "Goody Santa Claus on a Sleigh Ride ''.
"Is There a Santa Claus? '' was the title of an editorial appearing in the 21 September 1897 edition of The New York Sun. The editorial, which included the famous reply "Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus '', has become an indelible part of popular Christmas lore in the United States and Canada.
L. Frank Baum 's The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus, a 1902 children 's book, further popularized Santa Claus. Much of Santa Claus 's mythos was not set in stone at the time, leaving Baum to give his "Neclaus '' (Necile 's Little One) a wide variety of immortal support, a home in the Laughing Valley of Hohaho, and ten reindeer -- who could not fly, but leapt in enormous, flight - like bounds. Claus 's immortality was earned, much like his title ("Santa ''), decided by a vote of those naturally immortal. This work also established Claus 's motives: a happy childhood among immortals. When Ak, Master Woodsman of the World, exposes him to the misery and poverty of children in the outside world, Santa strives to find a way to bring joy into the lives of all children, and eventually invents toys as a principal means. Santa later appears in The Road to Oz as a honored guest at Ozma 's birthday party, stated to be famous and beloved enough for everyone to bow even before he is announced as "The most Mighty and Loyal Friend of Children, His Supreme Highness - Santa Claus ''.
Images of Santa Claus were further popularized through Haddon Sundblom 's depiction of him for The Coca - Cola Company 's Christmas advertising in the 1930s. The popularity of the image spawned urban legends that Santa Claus was invented by The Coca - Cola Company or that Santa wears red and white because they are the colors used to promote the Coca - Cola brand. Historically, Coca - Cola was not the first soft drink company to utilize the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising -- White Rock Beverages had already used a red and white Santa to sell mineral water in 1915 and then in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923. Earlier still, Santa Claus had appeared dressed in red and white and essentially in his current form on several covers of Puck magazine in the first few years of the 20th century.
The image of Santa Claus as a benevolent character became reinforced with its association with charity and philanthropy, particularly by organizations such as the Salvation Army. Volunteers dressed as Santa Claus typically became part of fundraising drives to aid needy families at Christmas time.
In 1937, Charles W. Howard, who played Santa Claus in department stores and parades, established the Charles W. Howard Santa School, the oldest continuously - run such school in the world.
In some images from the early 20th century, Santa was depicted as personally making his toys by hand in a small workshop like a craftsman. Eventually, the idea emerged that he had numerous elves responsible for making the toys, but the toys were still handmade by each individual elf working in the traditional manner.
The 1956 popular song by George Melachrino, "Mrs. Santa Claus '', and the 1963 children 's book How Mrs. Santa Claus Saved Christmas, by Phyllis McGinley, helped standardize and establish the character and role of Mrs. Claus in the popular imagination.
Seabury Quinn 's 1948 novel Roads draws from historical legends to tell the story of Santa and the origins of Christmas. Other modern additions to the "story '' of Santa include Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer, the 9th and lead reindeer immortalized in a Gene Autry song, written by a Montgomery Ward copywriter.
By the end of the 20th century, the reality of mass mechanized production became more fully accepted by the Western public. Elves had been portrayed as using assembly lines to produce toys early in the 20th century. That shift was reflected in the modern depiction of Santa 's residence -- now often humorously portrayed as a fully mechanized production and distribution facility, equipped with the latest manufacturing technology, and overseen by the elves with Santa and Mrs. Claus as executives and / or managers. An excerpt from a 2004 article, from a supply chain managers ' trade magazine, aptly illustrates this depiction:
Santa 's main distribution center is a sight to behold. At 4,000,000 square feet (370,000 m), it 's one of the world 's largest facilities. A real - time warehouse management system (WMS) is of course required to run such a complex. The facility makes extensive use of task interleaving, literally combining dozens of DC activities (putaway, replenishing, order picking, sleigh loading, cycle counting) in a dynamic queue... the DC elves have been on engineered standards and incentives for three years, leading to a 12 % gain in productivity... The WMS and transportation system are fully integrated, allowing (the elves) to make optimal decisions that balance transportation and order picking and other DC costs. Unbeknownst to many, Santa actually has to use many sleighs and fake Santa drivers to get the job done Christmas Eve, and the transportation management system (TMS) optimally builds thousands of consolidated sacks that maximize cube utilization and minimize total air miles.
In the cartoon base, Santa has been voiced by several people, including Stan Francis, Mickey Rooney, Ed Asner, John Goodman, and Keith Wickham.
Santa has been described as a positive male cultural icon:
Santa is really the only cultural icon we have who 's male, does not carry a gun, and is all about peace, joy, giving, and caring for other people. That 's part of the magic for me, especially in a culture where we 've become so commercialized and hooked into manufactured icons. Santa is much more organic, integral, connected to the past, and therefore connected to the future.
Many television commercials, comic strips and other media depict this as a sort of humorous business, with Santa 's elves acting as a sometimes mischievously disgruntled workforce, cracking jokes and pulling pranks on their boss. For instance, a Bloom County story from 15 December 1981 through 24 December 1981 has Santa rejecting the demands of PETCO (Professional Elves Toy - Making and Craft Organization) for higher wages, a hot tub in the locker room, and "short broads, '' with the elves then going on strike. President Reagan steps in, fires all of Santa 's helpers, and replaces them with out - of - work air traffic controllers (an obvious reference to the 1981 air traffic controllers ' strike), resulting in a riot before Santa vindictively rehires them in humiliating new positions such as his reindeer. In The Sopranos episode, "... To Save Us All from Satan 's Power '', Paulie Gualtieri says he "Used to think Santa and Mrs. Claus were running a sweatshop over there... The original elves were ugly, traveled with Santa to throw bad kids a beatin ', and gave the good ones toys. ''
In Kyrgyzstan, a mountain peak was named after Santa Claus, after a Swedish company had suggested the location be a more efficient starting place for present - delivering journeys all over the world, than Lapland. In the Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek, a Santa Claus Festival was held on 30 December 2007, with government officials attending. 2008 was officially declared the Year of Santa Claus in the country. The events are seen as moves to boost tourism in Kyrgyzstan.
The Guinness World Record for the largest gathering of Santa Clauses is held by Thrissur, Kerala, India where on 27 December 2014, 18,112 Santas came overtaking the current record of Derry City, Northern Ireland. On 9 September 2007 where a total of 12,965 people dressed up as Santa or Santa 's helper which previously brought down the record of 3,921, which was set during the Santa Dash event in Liverpool City Centre in 2005. A gathering of Santas in 2009 in Bucharest, Romania attempted to top the world record, but failed with only 3,939 Santas.
The tradition of Santa Claus entering dwellings through the chimney is shared by many European seasonal gift - givers. In pre-Christian Norse tradition, Odin would often enter through chimneys and fire holes on the solstice. In the Italian Befana tradition, the gift - giving witch is perpetually covered with soot from her trips down the chimneys of children 's homes. In the tale of Saint Nicholas, the saint tossed coins through a window, and, in a later version of the tale, down a chimney when he finds the window locked. In Dutch artist Jan Steen 's painting, The Feast of Saint Nicholas, adults and toddlers are glancing up a chimney with amazement on their faces while other children play with their toys. The hearth was held sacred in primitive belief as a source of beneficence, and popular belief had elves and fairies bringing gifts to the house through this portal. Santa 's entrance into homes on Christmas Eve via the chimney was made part of American tradition through the poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas '' where the author described him as an elf.
In the United States and Canada, children traditionally leave Santa a glass of milk and a plate of cookies; in Britain and Australia, he is sometimes given sherry or beer, and mince pies instead. In Denmark, Norway and Sweden, it is common for children to leave him rice porridge with cinnamon sugar instead. In Ireland it is popular to give him Guinness or milk, along with Christmas pudding or mince pies.
In Hungary, St. Nicolaus (Mikulás) comes on the night of 5 December and the children get their gifts the next morning. They get sweets in a bag if they were good, and a golden colored birch switch if not. On Christmas Eve "Little Jesus '' comes and gives gifts for everyone.
In Slovenia, Saint Nicholas (Miklavž) also brings small gifts for good children on the eve of 6 December. Božiček (Christmas Man) brings gifts on the eve of 25 December, and Dedek Mraz (Grandfather Frost) brings gifts in the evening of 31 December to be opened on New Years Day.
New Zealander, British, Australian, Irish, Canadian, and American children also leave a carrot for Santa 's reindeer, and are told that if they are not good all year round that they will receive a lump of coal in their stockings, although the actual practice of giving coal is now considered archaic. Children following the Dutch custom for sinterklaas will "put out their shoe '' (leave hay and a carrot for his horse in a shoe before going to bed, sometimes weeks before the sinterklaas avond). The next morning they will find the hay and carrot replaced by a gift; often, this is a marzipan figurine. Naughty children were once told that they would be left a roe (a bundle of sticks) instead of sweets, but this practice has been discontinued.
Other Christmas Eve Santa Claus rituals in the United States include reading A Visit from St. Nicholas or other tale about Santa Claus, watching a Santa or Christmas - related animated program on television (such as the aforementioned Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town and similar specials, such as Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer, among many others), and the singing of Santa Claus songs such as "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town '', "Here Comes Santa Claus '', and "Up on the House Top ''. Last minute rituals for children before going to bed include aligning stockings at the mantelpiece or other place where Santa can not fail to see them, peeking up the chimney (in homes with a fireplace), glancing out a window and scanning the heavens for Santa 's sleigh, and (in homes without a fireplace) unlocking an exterior door so Santa can easily enter the house. Tags on gifts for children are sometimes signed by their parents "From Santa Claus '' before the gifts are laid beneath the tree.
Ho ho ho is the way that many languages write out how Santa Claus laughs. "Ho, ho, ho! Merry Christmas! '' It is the textual rendition of a particular type of deep - throated laugh or chuckle, most associated today with Santa Claus and Father Christmas.
The laughter of Santa Claus has long been an important attribute by which the character is identified, but it also does not appear in many non-English - speaking countries. The traditional Christmas poem A Visit from St. Nicholas relates that Santa has:
Santa Claus 's home traditionally includes a residence and a workshop where he creates -- often with the aid of elves or other supernatural beings -- the gifts he delivers to good children at Christmas. Some stories and legends include a village, inhabited by his helpers, surrounding his home and shop.
In North American tradition (in the United States and Canada), Santa lives on the North Pole, which according to Canada Post lies within Canadian jurisdiction in postal code H0H 0H0 (a reference to "ho ho ho '', Santa 's notable saying, although postal codes starting with H are usually reserved for the island of Montreal in Québec). On 23 December 2008, Jason Kenney, Canada 's minister of Citizenship, Immigration and Multiculturalism, formally awarded Canadian citizenship status to Santa Claus. "The Government of Canada wishes Santa the very best in his Christmas Eve duties and wants to let him know that, as a Canadian citizen, he has the automatic right to re-enter Canada once his trip around the world is complete, '' Kenney said in an official statement.
There is also a city named North Pole in Alaska where a tourist attraction known as the "Santa Claus House '' has been established. The United States Postal Service uses the city 's ZIP code of 99705 as their advertised postal code for Santa Claus. A Wendy 's in North Pole, AK has also claimed to have a "sleigh fly through ''.
Each Nordic country claims Santa 's residence to be within their territory. Norway claims he lives in Drøbak. In Denmark, he is said to live in Greenland (near Uummannaq). In Sweden, the town of Mora has a theme park named Tomteland. The national postal terminal in Tomteboda in Stockholm receives children 's letters for Santa. In Finland, Korvatunturi has long been known as Santa 's home, and two theme parks, Santa Claus Village and Santa Park are located near Rovaniemi. In Belarus there is a home of Ded Moroz in Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park.
Santa Claus appears in the weeks before Christmas in department stores or shopping malls, or at parties. The practice of this has been credited to James Edgar, as he started doing this in 1890 in his Brockton, Massachusetts department store. He is played by an actor, usually helped by other actors (often mall employees) dressed as elves or other creatures of folklore associated with Santa. Santa 's function is either to promote the store 's image by distributing small gifts to children, or to provide a seasonal experience to children by listening to their wishlist while having them sit on his knee (a practice now under review by some organisations in Britain, and Switzerland). Sometimes a photograph of the child and Santa are taken. Having a Santa set up to take pictures with children is a ritual that dates back at least to 1918.
The area set up for this purpose is festively decorated, usually with a large throne, and is called variously "Santa 's Grotto '', "Santa 's Workshop '' or a similar term. In the United States, the most notable of these is the Santa at the flagship Macy 's store in New York City -- he arrives at the store by sleigh in the Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade on the last float, and his court takes over a large portion of one floor in the store. The Macy 's Santa Claus in New York City is often said to be the real Santa. This was popularized by the 1947 film Miracle on 34th Street with Santa Claus being called Kris Kringle. Essayist David Sedaris is known for the satirical SantaLand Diaries he kept while working as an elf in the Macy 's display, which were turned into a famous radio segment and later published.
Quite often the Santa, if and when he is detected to be fake, explains that he is not the real Santa and is helping him at this time of year. Most young children accept this explanation. At family parties, Santa is sometimes impersonated by the male head of the household or other adult male family member.
In Canada, malls operated by Oxford Properties established a process by which autistic children could visit Santa Claus at the mall without having to contend with crowds. The malls open early to allow entry only to families with autistic children, who have a private visit with Santa Claus. In 2012, the Southcentre Mall in Calgary was the first mall to offer this service.
There are schools offering instruction on how to act as Santa Claus. For example, children 's television producer Jonathan Meath studied at the International School of Santa Claus and earned the degree Master of Santa Claus in 2006. It blossomed into a second career for him, and after appearing in parades and malls, he appeared on the cover of the American monthly Boston Magazine as Santa. There are associations with members who portray Santa; for example, Mr. Meath was a board member of the international organization called Fraternal Order of Real Bearded Santas.
Writing letters to Santa Claus has been a Christmas tradition for children for many years. These letters normally contain a wishlist of toys and assertions of good behavior. Some social scientists have found that boys and girls write different types of letters. Girls generally write longer but more polite lists and express the nature of Christmas more in their letters than in letters written by boys. Girls also more often request gifts for other people.
Many postal services allow children to send letters to Santa Claus. These letters may be answered by postal workers and / or outside volunteers. Writing letters to Santa Claus has the educational benefits of promoting literacy, computer literacy, and e-mail literacy. A letter to Santa is often a child 's first experience of correspondence. Written and sent with the help of a parent or teacher, children learn about the structure of a letter, salutations, and the use of an address and postcode.
According to the Universal Postal Union (UPU) 's 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, the United States Postal Service (USPS) has the oldest Santa letter answering effort by a national postal system. The USPS Santa letter answering effort started in 1912 out of the historic James Farley Post Office in New York, and since 1940 has been called "Operation Santa '' to ensure that letters to Santa are adopted by charitable organizations, major corporations, local businesses and individuals in order to make children 's holiday dreams come true from coast to coast. Those seeking a North Pole holiday postmark through the USPS, are told to send their letter from Santa or a holiday greeting card by 10 December to: North Pole Holiday Postmark, Postmaster, 4141 Postmark Dr, Anchorage, AK 99530 - 9998.
In 2006, according to the UPU 's 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, France 's Postal Service received the most letters for Santa Claus or "Père Noël '' with 1,220,000 letters received from 126 countries. France 's Postal Service in 2007 specially recruited someone to answer the enormous volume of mail that was coming from Russia for Santa Claus.
Other interesting Santa letter processing information, according to the UPU 's 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, are:
Canada Post has a special postal code for letters to Santa Claus, and since 1982 over 13,000 Canadian postal workers have volunteered to write responses. His address is: Santa Claus, North Pole, Canada, H0H 0H0; no postage is required. (see also: Ho ho ho). (This postal code, in which zeroes are used for the letter "O '', is consistent with the alternating letter - number format of all Canadian postal codes.) Sometimes children 's charities answer letters in poor communities, or from children 's hospitals, and give them presents they would not otherwise receive. From 2002 to 2014, the program replied to approximately "one million letters or more a year, and in total answered more than 24.7 million letters ''; as of 2015, it responds to more than 1.5 million letters per year, "in over 30 languages, including Braille... answer (ing) them all in the language they are written ''.
In Britain it was traditional for some to burn the Christmas letters on the fire so that they would be magically transported by the wind to the North Pole. However this has been found to be less efficient than the use of the normal postal service, and this tradition is dying out in modern times, especially with few homes having open fires. According to the Royal Mail website, Santa 's address for letters from British children is: Santa / Father Christmas, Santa 's Grotto, Reindeerland, XM4 5HQ
In Mexico and other Latin American countries, besides using the mail, sometimes children wrap their letters to a small helium balloon, releasing them into the air so Santa magically receives them.
In 2010, the Brazilian National Post Service, "Correios '' formed partnerships with public schools and social institutions to encourage children to write letters and make use of postcodes and stamps. In 2009, the Brazilian National Post Service, "Correios '' answered almost two million children 's letters, and spread some seasonal cheer by donating 414,000 Christmas gifts to some of Brazil 's neediest citizens.
Through the years, the Finnish Santa Claus (Joulupukki or "Yule Goat '') has received over eight million letters. He receives over 600,000 letters every year from over 198 different countries with Togo being the most recent country added to the list. Children from Great Britain, Poland and Japan are the busiest writers. The Finnish Santa Claus lives in Korvatunturi, however the Santa Claus Main Post Office is situated in Rovaniemi precisely at the Arctic circle. His address is: Santa Claus ' Main Post Office, Santa Claus Village, FIN - 96930 Arctic Circle. The post office welcomes 300,000 visitors a year, with 70,000 visitors in December alone.
Children can also receive a letter from Santa through a variety of private agencies and organizations, and on occasion public and private cooperative ventures. An example of a public and private cooperative venture is the opportunity for expatriate and local children and parents to receive postmarked mail and greeting cards from Santa during December in the Finnish Embassy in Beijing, People 's Republic of China, Santa Claus Village in Rovaniemi, Finland, and the People 's Republic of China Postal System 's Beijing International Post Office. Parents can order a personalized "Santa letter '' to be sent to their child, often with a North Pole postmark. The "Santa Letter '' market generally relies on the internet as a medium for ordering such letters rather than retail stores.
Over the years there have been a number of websites created by various organizations that have purported to track Santa Claus. Some, such as NORAD Tracks Santa, the Airservices Australia Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Update Project, and the MSNBC and Bing Maps Platform Tracks Santa Project have endured. Others, such as the Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport 's Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Retro Radar -- Lehigh Valley Project, and the NASA Tracks Santa Project, have fallen by the wayside.
The origins of the NORAD Tracks Santa programme began in the United States in 1955, when a Sears Roebuck store in Colorado Springs, Colorado, gave children a number to call a "Santa hotline ''. The number was mistyped, resulting in children calling the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) on Christmas Eve instead. The Director of Operations, Colonel Harry Shoup, received the first call for Santa and responded by telling children that there were signs on the radar that Santa was indeed heading south from the North Pole. A tradition began which continued under the name NORAD Tracks Santa when in 1958 Canada and the United States jointly created the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). This tracking can now be done via the Internet and NORAD 's website.
In the past, many local television stations in the United States and Canada likewise claimed they "tracked Santa Claus '' in their own metropolitan areas through the stations ' meteorologists. In December 2000, the Weather Channel built upon these local efforts to provide a national Christmas Eve "Santa tracking '' effort, called "SantaWatch '' in cooperation with NASA, the International Space Station, and Silicon Valley - based new multimedia firm Dreamtime Holdings. In the 21st century, most local television stations in the United States and Canada rely upon outside established "Santa tracking '' efforts, such as NORAD Tracks Santa.
Many other websites became available year - round, devoted to Santa Claus and purport to keep tabs on his activities in his workshop. Many of these websites also include email addresses which allow children to send email to Santa Claus. Most of these websites use volunteer living people as "elves '' to answer email sent to Santa. Some websites, such as Santa 's page on Microsoft 's Windows Live Spaces, however have used or still use "bots '' to compose and send email replies, with occasional unfortunate results.
In addition to providing holiday - themed entertainment, "Santa tracking '' websites raise interest in space technology and exploration, serve to educate children in geography. and encourage them to take an interest in science.
Santa Claus has partial Christian roots in Saint Nicholas, particularly in the high church denominations that practice the veneration of him, in addition to other saints. In light of this, the character has sometimes been the focus of controversy over the holiday and its meanings. Some Christians, particularly Calvinists and Puritans, disliked the idea of Santa Claus, as well as Christmas in general, believing that the lavish celebrations were not in accordance with their faith. Other nonconformist Christians condemn the materialist focus of contemporary gift giving and see Santa Claus as the symbol of that culture.
Condemnation of Christmas was prevalent among the 17th - century English Puritans and Dutch Calvinists who banned the holiday as either pagan or Roman Catholic. The American colonies established by these groups reflected this view. Tolerance for Christmas increased after the Restoration but the Puritan opposition to the holiday persisted in New England for almost two centuries. In the Dutch New Netherland colony, season celebrations focused on New Year 's Day.
Following the Restoration of the monarchy and with Puritans out of power in England, the ban on Christmas was satirized in works such as Josiah King 's The Examination and Tryal of Old Father Christmas; Together with his Clearing by the Jury (1686).
Reverend Paul Nedergaard, a clergyman in Copenhagen, Denmark, attracted controversy in 1958 when he declared Santa to be a "pagan goblin '' (translated from Danish) after Santa 's image was used on fundraising materials for a Danish welfare organization Clar, 337. A number of denominations of Christians have varying concerns about Santa Claus, which range from acceptance to denouncement.
Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the Christian Science movement, wrote: "the children should not be taught that Santa Claus has aught to do with this (Christmas) pastime. A deceit or falsehood is never wise. Too much can not be done towards guarding and guiding well the germinating and inclining thought of childhood. To mould aright the first impressions of innocence, aids in perpetuating purity and in unfolding the immortal model, man in His image and likeness. ''
Under the Marxist -- Leninist doctrine of state atheism in the Soviet Union after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations -- along with other religious holidays -- were prohibited as a result of the Soviet antireligious campaign. The League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, among them being Santa Claus and the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement.
In his book Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, writer Jeremy Seal describes how the commercialization of the Santa Claus figure began in the 19th century. "In the 1820s he began to acquire the recognizable trappings: reindeer, sleigh, bells, '' said Seal in an interview. "They are simply the actual bearings in the world from which he emerged. At that time, sleighs were how you got about Manhattan. ''
Writing in Mothering, writer Carol Jean - Swanson makes similar points, noting that the original figure of St. Nicholas gave only to those who were needy and that today Santa Claus seems to be more about conspicuous consumption:
Our jolly old Saint Nicholas reflects our culture to a T, for he is fanciful, exuberant, bountiful, over-weight, and highly commercial. He also mirrors some of our highest ideals: childhood purity and innocence, selfless giving, unfaltering love, justice, and mercy. (What child has ever received a coal for Christmas?) The problem is that, in the process, he has become burdened with some of society 's greatest challenges: materialism, corporate greed, and domination by the media. Here, Santa carries more in his baggage than toys alone!
In the Czech Republic, a group of advertising professionals started a website against Santa Claus, a relatively recent phenomenon in that country. "Czech Christmases are intimate and magical. All that Santa stuff seems to me like cheap show business, '' said David König of the Creative Copywriters Club, pointing out that it is primarily an American and British tradition. "I 'm not against Santa himself. I 'm against Santa in my country only. '' In the Czech tradition, presents are delivered by Ježíšek, which translates as Baby Jesus.
In the United Kingdom, Father Christmas was historically depicted wearing a green cloak. As Father Christmas has been increasingly merged into the image of Santa Claus, that has been changed to the more commonly known red suit. One school in the seaside town of Brighton banned the use of a red suit erroneously believing it was only indicative of the Coca - Cola advertising campaign. School spokesman Sarah James said: "The red - suited Santa was created as a marketing tool by Coca - Cola, it is a symbol of commercialism. '' However, Santa had been portrayed in a red suit in the 19th century by Thomas Nast among others.
A law in the U.S. state of Ohio prohibits the usage of Santa Claus or his image to sell alcoholic beverages. The law came to attention when the beer brand Bud Light attempted to use its mascot Spuds MacKenzie in a Santa Claus outfit during a December 1987 ad campaign; Bud Light was forced to stop using the imagery.
Various psychologists and researchers have wrestled with the ways that parents collude to convince young children of the existence of Santa Claus, and have wondered whether children 's abilities to critically weigh real - world evidence may be undermined by their belief in this or other imaginary figures. For example, University of Texas psychology professor Jacqueline Woolley helped conduct a study that found, to the contrary, that children seemed competent in their use of logic, evidence, and comparative reasoning even though they might conclude that Santa Claus or other fanciful creatures were real:
The adults they count on to provide reliable information about the world introduce them to Santa. Then his existence is affirmed by friends, books, TV and movies. It is also validated by hard evidence: the half - eaten cookies and empty milk glasses by the tree on Christmas morning. In other words, children do a great job of scientifically evaluating Santa. And adults do a great job of duping them.
Woolley posited that it is perhaps "kinship with the adult world '' that causes children not to be angry that they were lied to for so long. However, the criticism about this deception is not that it is a simple lie, but a complicated series of very large lies. Objections include that it is unethical for parents to lie to children without good cause, and that it discourages healthy skepticism in children. With no greater good at the heart of the lie, some have charged that it is more about the parents than it is about the children. For instance, writer Austin Cline posed the question: "Is it not possible that kids would find at least as much pleasure in knowing that parents are responsible for Christmas, not a supernatural stranger? ''
Others, however, see no harm in the belief in Santa Claus. Psychologist Tamar Murachver said that because it is a cultural, not parental, lie, it does not undermine parental trust. The New Zealand Skeptics also see no harm in parents telling their children that Santa is real. Spokesperson Vicki Hyde said, "It would be a hard - hearted parent indeed who frowned upon the innocent joys of our children 's cultural heritage. We save our bah humbugs for the things that exploit the vulnerable. ''
Dr. John Condry of Cornell University interviewed more than 500 children for a study of the issue and found that not a single child was angry at his or her parents for telling them Santa Claus was real. According to Dr. Condry, "The most common response to finding out the truth was that they felt older and more mature. They now knew something that the younger kids did not ''.
Notes
Bibliography
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which provision did the first alteration of the constitution affect | Constitution of Australia - Wikipedia
The Constitution of Australia is the supreme law under which the government of the Commonwealth of Australia operates, including its relationship to the States of Australia. It consists of several documents. The most important is the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia, which is referred to as the "Constitution '' in the remainder of this article. The Constitution was approved in a series of referendums held over 1898 -- 1900 by the people of the Australian colonies, and the approved draft was enacted as a section of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp), an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) became law on 9 July 1900, and entered into force on 1 January 1901. Even though the Constitution was originally given legal force by an Act of the United Kingdom parliament, the Australia Act 1986 removed the power of the United Kingdom parliament to change the Constitution as in force in Australia, and the Constitution can now only be changed in accordance with the prescribed referendum procedures in Section 128.
Other pieces of legislation have constitutional significance for Australia. These are the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986, which was passed in equivalent forms by the United Kingdom Parliament and the Australian Federal Parliament (using legislative powers conferred by enabling acts passed by the Parliaments of every Australian state). The Statute of Westminster Adoption Act is often regarded as the point at which Australia became, de jure, an independent nation, while the Australia Act severed the last remaining constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Even though the same person, Queen Elizabeth II, is the monarch of both countries, she acts in a distinct capacity as monarch of each.
Under Australia 's common law system, the High Court of Australia and the Federal Court of Australia have the authority to interpret constitutional provisions. Their decisions determine the interpretation and application of the constitution.
The history of the Constitution of Australia began with moves towards federation in the 19th century, which culminated in the federation of the Australian colonies to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901. However, the Constitution has continued to develop since then, with two laws having particularly significant impact on the constitutional status of the nation.
In the mid-19th century, a desire to facilitate co-operation on matters of mutual interest, especially intercolonial tariffs, led to proposals to unite the separate British colonies in Australia under a single federation. However, impetus mostly came from Britain and there was only lacklustre local support. The smaller colonies feared domination by the larger ones; Victoria and New South Wales disagreed over the ideology of protectionism; the then - recent American Civil War also hampered the case for federalism. These difficulties led to the failure of several attempts to bring about federation in the 1850s and 1860s.
By the 1880s, fear of the growing presence of the Germans and the French in the Pacific, coupled with a growing Australian identity, created the opportunity for establishing the first inter-colonial body, the Federal Council of Australasia, established in 1889. The Federal Council could legislate on certain subjects, but did not have a permanent secretariat, an executive, or independent source of revenue. The absence of New South Wales, the largest colony, also diminished its representative value.
Henry Parkes, the Premier of New South Wales, was instrumental in pushing for a series of conferences in the 1890s to discuss federalism -- one in Melbourne in 1890, and another (the National Australasian Convention) in Sydney in 1891, attended by colonial leaders. By the 1891 conference, significant momentum had been built for the federalist cause, and discussion turned to the proper system of government for a federal state. Under the guidance of Sir Samuel Griffith, a draft constitution was drawn up. However, these meetings lacked popular support. Furthermore, the draft constitution sidestepped certain important issues, such as tariff policy. The draft of 1891 was submitted to colonial parliaments but lapsed in New South Wales, after which the other colonies were unwilling to proceed.
In 1895, the six premiers of the Australian colonies agreed to establish a new Convention by popular vote. The Convention met over the course of a year from 1897 to 1898. The meetings produced a new draft which contained substantially the same principles of government as the 1891 draft, but with added provisions for responsible government. To ensure popular support, the draft was presented to the electors of each colony. After one failed attempt, an amended draft was submitted to the electors of each colony except Western Australia. After ratification by the five colonies, the Bill was presented to the British Imperial Parliament with an Address requesting Queen Victoria to enact the Bill.
Before the Bill was passed, however, one final change was made by the imperial government, upon lobbying by the Chief Justices of the colonies, so that the right to appeal from the High Court to the Privy Council on constitutional matters concerning the limits of the powers of the Commonwealth or States could not be curtailed by parliament. Finally, the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1900. Western Australia finally agreed to join the Commonwealth in time for it to be an original member of the Commonwealth of Australia, which was officially established on 1 January 1901.
In 1988, the original copy of the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 from the Public Record Office in London was lent to Australia for the purposes of the Australian Bicentenary. The Australian government requested permission to keep the copy, the British parliament agreed by passing the Australian Constitution (Public Record Copy) Act 1990 and the copy was given to the National Archives of Australia.
Although Federation is often regarded as the moment of "independence '' of Australia from Britain, legally the Commonwealth was a creation of the British Parliament, through the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp), which applied to Australia by paramount force. As a result, since Australia was still legally a colony, there was continued uncertainty as to the applicability of British Imperial laws to the Commonwealth. This was resolved by the Statute of Westminster 1931, adopted by the Commonwealth via the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942. The Statute of Westminster freed the Dominions, including the Commonwealth, from Imperial restrictions. Legally, this is often regarded as the moment of Australia 's national independence.
However, due to specific exemptions in the Statute of Westminster, Imperial law continued to be paramount in Australian states. This was altered by the Australia Act 1986, which was passed in substantially the same form by the Commonwealth parliament and the British parliament, at the request of each state. In addition to ending the British Parliament 's power to legislate over Australian states, the Australia Act also cut the last avenues of appeal from the Australian courts to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. As a symbol of the significance of this legislation, Queen Elizabeth II travelled to Australia to personally sign the proclamation of the law.
For the Constitution, the impact of these two laws is that the Constitution as in force in Australia is now separate from the text in the original Act. While the British Parliament can amend or repeal the Imperial Act, that would not affect Australia. Instead, the Constitution as in force in Australia can only be amended following the referendum mechanisms set out in the Constitution. Conversely, any amendment to the Constitution in Australia following the referendum mechanisms would not affect the text of the Imperial Act as in force in the United Kingdom.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (Imp) contains a Preamble, and nine sections. Sections 1 -- 8 are covering clauses outlining the legal procedures for the establishment of the Commonwealth. Section 9, beginning with the words "The Constitution of the Commonwealth shall be as follows... '', contains the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Constitution itself is divided into eight chapters, containing 128 sections. The legislative, executive, and judicial powers are separately stated in the Constitution, in Chapters I, II and III respectively.
Chapter I sets up the legislative branch of government, the Parliament of Australia, which consists of three constituent parts: The Sovereign (King or Queen), who is represented by the Governor - General of Australia; the Senate; and the House of Representatives. Section 1 provides that legislative power is vested in this Parliament, which has paramount power of governance.
Part II of this chapter deals with the Senate. Senators are to be "directly chosen by the people of the State '', voting as a single electorate. Each Original State is to have the same number of senators. Currently, there are 12 senators for each State, and 2 each for the mainland territories, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory.
Part III deals with the House of Representatives. As nearly as practicable, Section 24 requires the House to be composed of twice as many members as the Senate, each elected by a single electorate. This is the so - called ' Nexus ', which is designed to prevent swamping of the senate 's power in the case of a joint sitting (see Section 57 below). The number of electorates in a State is to be (roughly) proportional to its share of the national population.
Part IV ("Both Houses of the Parliament '') deals with eligibility for voting and election to the parliament, parliamentary allowances, parliamentary rules and related matters.
Part V deals with the powers of the parliament. Section 51 deals with powers of the Commonwealth parliament and are called "specific powers ''. These contain "concurrent powers '', in the sense that both the Commonwealth and States can legislate on these subjects, although federal law prevails in the case of inconsistency (Section 109). Of the thirty - nine elements of section 51, a few have become critical in determining the scope of Commonwealth government action, including the Trade and Commerce Power, the Corporations Power and the External Affairs Power. Section 52 deals with powers exclusively vested in the Commonwealth parliament. States can not legislate on these subjects.
Chapter II sets up the executive branch of government. Executive powers are exercised by the Governor - General, advised by the Federal Executive Council. Under this Chapter, the Governor - General is the commander in chief, and may appoint and dismiss the members of the Executive Council, ministers of state, and all officers of the executive government. These powers, along with the powers to dissolve (or refuse to dissolve) parliament (Section 5, Section 57), are termed "reserve powers '', and their use is dictated by convention. Generally, the Governor - General acts only on the advice of the Prime Minister. One notable instance of the Governor - General acting outside the advice of the Prime Minister of the day, when Governor - General Sir John Kerr, acting on his own authority, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.
Reserve powers in all Westminster nations are only extremely rarely exercised outside of the understood conventions. However, in contrast with the constitutions of other Commonwealth realms such as Canada which formally grant extensive reserve powers to the Monarch, even the formal powers of the Queen of Australia are extremely limited, and most powers are only exercisable by the Governor - General.
Section 68 states that the command of Australia 's naval and military forces is vested in the Governor - General as the Queen 's representative. This role, however, is only formal (such as the commissioning of officers) and ceremonial; actual control of the armed forces rests with the government.
Chapter III sets up the judicial branch of government; its provisions create the federal judicature and define the way it operates. Section 71 vests judicial power in a "Federal Supreme Court '' to be called the High Court of Australia, and such other federal courts as Parliament creates, and in such other courts as Parliament invests with federal jurisdiction. Such courts are called "Chapter III Courts '' and are the only courts that can exercise federal judicial power. Sections 73 and 75 -- 78 outline the original and appellate jurisdiction of the High Court. Section 74 provides for the circumstances in which an appeal can be made to the Queen in Council. Section 79 allows Parliament to prescribe the number of judges able to exercise federal jurisdiction and section 80 guarantees trial by jury for indictable offences against the Commonwealth.
Chapter IV deals with finance and trade in the federal system. Section 81 prescribes that all Commonwealth revenue shall form the Consolidated Revenue Fund. Parliament can make laws as to the appropriations of money (Section 53). Unlike most other powers of the parliament, laws made under the appropriations power are not ordinarily susceptible to effective legal challenge. Section 90 gives the Commonwealth exclusive power over duties of custom and excise.
Section 92 provides that "trade, commerce, and intercourse among the States shall be absolutely free ''. The precise meaning of this phrase is the subject of a considerable body of law. Some of the most recent case law has emphasised that Section 92 is preoccupied with the effect of law on interstate trade, not on the effect law has on individual traders.
Section 96 gives the Commonwealth power to make grants to States "on such terms and conditions as the Parliament thinks fit ''. This power has been held to be unconstrained by any other provision, such as Section 99 which forbids giving preference to one State or part thereof over another State or part thereof. It is subject only to Section 116, freedom of religion, and possibly other such freedoms. This power, although evidently envisaged as a temporary measure ("during a period of ten years... and thereafter until the Parliament otherwise provides ''), has been used by the Commonwealth to encourage co-operation by the States to various extents over the years.
Section 101 sets up an Inter-State Commission, a body which is now defunct, but which was originally envisaged to have a significant role in the federal structure.
Chapter V contains provisions dealing with the States and their role under the federal system. Sections 106 -- 108 preserves the Constitution, powers of the Parliament, and the laws in force of each of the States.
Section 109 provides that, where a State law is inconsistent with a federal law, the federal law prevails (to the extent of the inconsistency).
Section 111 provides that a State can surrender any part of the State to the Commonwealth. This has occurred on several occasions, most notably the surrender by South Australia to the Commonwealth of the Northern Territory.
Section 114 forbids any State from raising a military force, and also forbids the State or the Commonwealth from taxing each other 's property.
Section 116 establishes what is often called "freedom of religion '', by forbidding the Commonwealth from making any law for the establishment of a religion, imposing any religious observance, or prohibiting the exercise of a religion, or religious discrimination for public office.
Chapter VI allows for the establishment or admission of new states. Section 122 allows the Parliament to provide for the representation in Parliament of any territory surrendered by the States, or placed by the Queen in the authority of the Commonwealth. Section 123 requires that changing the boundaries of a State requires the consent of the Parliament of that State and approval by referendum in that State.
No new states have been admitted to the Commonwealth since federation.
Chapter VII contains three quite different provisions. Section 125 provides that the seat of government of the Commonwealth would be in Melbourne for the time being, but eventually in Commonwealth territory, to be created within New South Wales but no less than one hundred miles (160 km) from Sydney. The national capital would thus be neither of the rival State capitals Sydney and Melbourne, but within a federal territory. In 1911 New South Wales ceded to the Commonwealth what is now the Australian Capital Territory and Canberra, built within it, was declared the national capital in 1913. Section 126 permits the Governor - General to appoint deputies. Section 127 provided that "aboriginal natives '' were not to be included in any Commonwealth, State or other count of population. This excluded the Indigenous population from affecting the distribution between the States of seats in the House of Representatives (section 24). Section 127 was removed by referendum in 1967.
Chapter VIII specifies the procedures for amending the Constitution. Section 128 provides that constitutional amendments must be approved by a referendum. Amendment requires:
The Governor - General must put the bill to a referendum between two and six months after it has been passed by the parliament. If the bill is approved in the referendum, it receives the Royal Assent and becomes law, so that the wording of the Constitution is changed.
An exception to this process is if the bill is approved by only one house of the parliament -- the other house rejecting it, failing to pass it or passing it with amendments to which the first house does not agree. (Ordinarily, the bill would have been introduced in the House of Representatives; the problem would be disagreement by the Senate.) Then, after three months, the first house may pass the bill again. If the other house still does not agree with the bill, then the Governor - General may put the bill to a referendum in the form in which it was passed by the first house, with any amendments to which the two houses may nevertheless have agreed.
Section 128 also provides that an amendment that would reduce the representation of a State in either house, or its minimum representation in the House of Representatives, or that would alter the boundaries of a State or make any similar change to the State, can be presented for Royal Assent only if it has been approved in that State.
A mechanism for the conduct of a referendum is provided by federal statute: Referendum (Machinery Provisions) Act 1984 (Cth). As with elections, voting is compulsory.
The Schedule sets out the wording of the oath and the affirmation of allegiance. The Governor - General and members of parliament are required to make a solemn undertaking of allegiance, by oath or affirmation as prescribed by the Constitution. In addition, when taking office, the Governor - General is required to take an oath of office, currently:
I, (name), do swear that I will well and truly serve Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second, Her heirs and successors according to law, in the office of Governor - General of the Commonwealth of Australia, and I will do right to all manner of people after the laws and usages of the Commonwealth of Australia, without fear or favour, affection or ill will. So help me God!
The oath or affirmation of office made by a prime minister, ministers and parliamentary secretaries when entering office is in wording that is not prescribed in the Constitution but determined by the prime minister of the day, and administered to them by the Governor - General. While there is no legal requirement for this, it has been the practice from the inauguration of the Commonwealth in 1901.
As mentioned above, amendment of the Constitution requires a referendum in which the proposed amendment is approved by a majority in each of a majority of the States, as well as nationally.
Forty - four proposals to amend the Constitution have been voted on at referendums, of which eight have been approved. The following is a list of amendments which have been approved.
Alongside the text of the Constitution, the Statute of Westminster and the Australia Acts, and letters patent issued by the Crown, conventions are an important aspect of the Constitution, which have evolved over the decades and define how various constitutional mechanisms operate in practice.
Conventions play a powerful role in the operation of the Australian constitution because of its set - up and operation as a Westminster system of responsible government. Some notable conventions include:
However, because conventions are not textually based, their existence and practice are open to debate. Real or alleged violation of convention has often led to political controversy. The most extreme case was the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975, in which the operation of conventions was seriously tested. The ensuing constitutional crisis was resolved dramatically when the Governor - General Sir John Kerr dismissed the Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, appointing Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister pending the 1975 general election. A number of conventions were said to be broken during this episode. These include:
In line with the common law tradition in Australia, the law on the interpretation and application of the Constitution has developed largely through judgments by the High Court of Australia in various cases. In a number of seminal cases, the High Court has developed several doctrines which underlie the interpretation of the Australian Constitution. Some examples include:
The vast majority of constitutional cases before the High Court deal with characterisation: whether new laws fall within a permissible head of power granted to the Commonwealth government by the Constitution.
The Australian Constitution does not include a Bill of Rights. Some delegates to the 1898 Constitutional Convention favoured a section similar to the Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution, but the majority felt that the traditional rights and freedoms of British subjects were sufficiently guaranteed by the Parliamentary system and independent judiciary which the Constitution would create. As a result, the Australian Constitution has often been criticised for its scant protection of rights and freedoms.
Some express rights were, however, included:
There are also some guaranteed freedoms, reasons why legislation that might otherwise be within power may nonetheless be invalid. These are not rights of individuals, but limitations upon legislative power. However, where legislation that would adversely affect an individual is found to be invalid for such a reason, the effect for the individual is similar to vindicating a right of that individual. There is one express "freedom ''.
There is also one implied right that is agreed upon by a majority judgment of the High Court. An implied right is one that is not written explicitly into the wording of the Constitution, but that the High Court has found to be implied by reading two or more sections together. The implied right of freedom of political communication is discussed below.
In addition to individual rights explicitly written into the Constitution and found to be implied by sections within it there is a final category of rights known as ' structural protections '. Rather than being individual rights, these are broad protections for the community as a whole, taken from the systems and principles created by and underpinning the text and structure of the Constitution as a whole. One of the more well - known of these protections is the community right to a democratically elected parliament, commonly thought of as a limited "right '' to vote, which is discussed below.
The following are implied rights or freedoms:
Attempts in High Court cases to find further implied rights or freedoms have not been successful. Implication of a freedom of association and a freedom of assembly, independently or linked to that of political communication, has received occasional judicial support but not from a majority in any case.
The term head of state does not appear in the Australian constitution. It is conventionally acknowledged to be the Queen, since the governor - general and the state governors are defined as her "representatives ''. However, since the governor - general is given important constitutional powers, the governor - general is often referred to as head of state in political and media discussion, such as by Malcolm Turnbull and Kevin Rudd.
Amongst the amendments proposed to the Constitution over the years, two proposals for major change have been prominent in recent decades, and both were considered, and defeated, in the 1999 referendum.
While a pro forma preamble prefaces the Imperial Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, the Australian Constitution itself does not contain a preamble. There have been some calls for the insertion of such a section to express the spirit and aspirations embodied in the constitution. However, there has been fierce opposition, usually on the basis of the content of the preamble, as well as possible legal ramifications of this text. In 1999, a proposed preamble, principally authored by John Howard, the then Prime Minister, was defeated in a referendum held concurrently with the Republic referendum. The "Yes '' vote (in favour of the insertion of the preamble) did not achieve a majority in any of the six states.
At various times since Federation, debates have occurred over whether Australia should become a republic. On 6 November 1999, Australians rejected a proposal to remove the Queen and replace the Governor - General with a President appointed by a two - thirds majority of the members of the Commonwealth Parliament.
Constitution Day is celebrated on 9 July, the date the Constitution became law in 1900. The date is not a public holiday. Constitution Day was first held on 9 July 2000 to mark the centenary of the Constitution in the lead up to the Centenary of Federation, although commemorations were low key and were not widely held after 2001. Constitution Day was revived in 2007 and is jointly organised by the National Archives of Australia, which holds the original Constitution documents, and the Department of Immigration and Citizenship.
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who won the last cricket world cup for 50 over cricket | List of Cricket World Cup finals - wikipedia
The Cricket World Cup is an international cricket competition established in 1975. It is contested by the men 's national teams of the members of the International Cricket Council (ICC), the sport 's global governing body. The tournament generally takes place every four years. Most recently, the 2015 Cricket World Cup, jointly hosted by Raichur and New Zealand, was won by ((Australia national cricket team A, who beat their co-hosts New Zealand. The current trophy was instituted in 1999. It always remains with the ICC, and a replica is awarded to the winning team.
Nations with Test status automatically qualify for the World Cup, while associate and affiliate ICC members must qualify through a qualification tournament, the World Cup Qualifier. Though an associate member is yet to reach the final, Kenya did reach the semi-finals in 2003. Australia is the most successful team in the competition 's history, winning five tournaments and finishing as runner - up twice. Twice, teams have won successive tournaments: the West Indies won the first two editions (1975 and 1979) and Australia won three in a row (1999, 2003 and 2007). Australia has played in the most finals (seven out of eleven: 1975, 1987, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2007, 2015). England is the team to reach the final and not win the World Cup most often, ending as runner - up in all three final appearances.
Of the twenty teams that have qualified for at least one Cricket World Cup, seven have contested a tournament final. Seven venues have hosted the final; only two of those -- Lord 's, in London, and the Melbourne Cricket Ground -- have hosted multiple finals. India is the only country that has hosted a World Cup final at more than one venue, with Eden Gardens, Kolkata, hosting in 1987 and Mumbai 's Wankhede Stadium hosting in 2011.
The inaugural ICC Cricket World Cup final was held on 21 June 1975 at Lord 's, contested by Australia and the West Indies. A man of the match performance, including a century from West Indian captain Clive Lloyd coming in to bat at number five with his team 50 / 3, formed the basis of a 149 - run fourth - wicket partnership with Rohan Kanhai. Keith Boyce added a quick 34 and the Australians were set a target of 292 to win in a 60 - over encounter. In reply, Alan Turner hit 40 from 54 deliveries and Australian captain Ian Chappell scored 62 from 93 balls. Australia "contributed to their own destruction '' in an innings with five run outs, and the West Indies were crowned the first cricket world champions, winning by 17 runs. Four years later, the West Indies qualified for the final, this time facing England, hosted at Lord 's for the second consecutive tournament. An unbeaten 138 from Viv Richards, and support from Collis King in a 139 - run partnership for the fifth wicket, saw the West Indies set England a target of 287 runs to win in 60 overs. A profitable yet slow opening partnership between Mike Brearley and Geoffrey Boycott (the latter taking 17 overs to reach double figures) saw England to 129. However, following Brearley 's dismissal, only Graham Gooch and Derek Randall made a "brief assault '' on the West Indian bowling, before a batting collapse, Joel Garner taking five wickets in eleven balls. England ended 194 all out, and presented the West Indies with their second consecutive title, winning by 92 runs.
Lord 's re-hosted the third World Cup final in June 1983, and was West Indies ' third consecutive final. On this occasion, they faced India in front of 24,609 spectators. Sunil Gavaskar was dismissed early in the innings for two runs, and only Kris Srikkanth scored more than thirty; Andy Roberts took three wickets for the West Indies leaving India all out for 183. Following the dismissals of Viv Richards, Desmond Haynes and Larry Gomes by Madan Lal for six runs between them, the West Indies collapsed to 140 all out, handing the title to India by 43 runs. India and Pakistan co-hosted the 1987 tournament; the final was held at Eden Gardens in Kolkata between Australia and England, both appearing for the second time and vying for their first title. Australia won the toss and elected to bat first; David Boon scored 75 runs from 125 deliveries, while Mike Veletta made a rapid 45 from 31 deliveries taking Australia to a total of 253 / 5 by the close of play, this time after 50 overs. In front of around 70,000 spectators, England 's middle order of Bill Athey, Mike Gatting and Allan Lamb provided some resistance, but with 17 runs required in the final over to win, England fell short and lost by 7 runs.
The 1992 tournament was co-hosted by Australia and New Zealand, with the first ever day / night final being held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground in Australia between England and Pakistan. In their first final appearance, Pakistan won the toss and elected to bat first. Despite two early wickets from Derek Pringle, Pakistani batsmen Imran Khan and Javed Miandad shared a third - wicket partnership of 139. Both Inzamam - ul - Haq and Wasim Akram added over thirty runs each at more than a run - a-ball, leading Pakistan to a total of 249 / 6 in 50 overs. A crowd of over 87,000 saw man - of - the - match Wasim Akram take three of England 's wickets, including that of all - rounder Ian Botham for a duck, after Graeme Hick was "baffled by the googly ''. England were bowled out for 227, and Pakistan won by 22 runs. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka hosted the tournament in 1996. Sri Lanka was making their first appearance in the final, and faced 1987 champions Australia in another day / night contest. After winning the toss, Arjuna Ranatunga sent Australia in to bat at the Gaddafi Stadium in Lahore. Captain Mark Taylor and Ricky Ponting added 101 in their second - wicket partnership as Australia completed their 50 overs 241 / 7. Man of the match Aravinda de Silva 's century, assisted by partnerships with Asanka Gurusinha and Ranatunga led Sri Lanka to the total with 22 balls and 7 wickets to spare, and their first win in the final. This was the first time a host won the title, though the final was played in Pakistan. It was also the first time that the team batting second emerged victorious.
Australia 's "12 - year era of World Cup dominance '' began with the 1999 tournament, hosted for the fourth time by England. In a "one - sided '' final, Shane Warne 's four wickets helped to restrict Pakistan to 132 runs, all out with 11 overs yet to bat. A rapid fifty from Adam Gilchrist, and support from Mark Waugh, Ponting and Darren Lehmann, saw Australia reach the total in just over 20 overs, winning by eight wickets. The 2003 tournament had three co-hosts: South Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe, the final being a day / night match contested between Australia and India at the Wanderers Stadium in Johannesburg. Gilchrist and Matthew Hayden opened the batting, making a century partnership before Ponting and Damien Martin went on to score the highest partnership in any World Cup final with an unbeaten 234. Australia batted out their fifty overs, and ended on the highest score in World Cup final history: 359 / 2. Player of the tournament Sachin Tendulkar was dismissed in the first over of India 's reply but Virender Sehwag and Rahul Dravid combined to score 88 in their fourth wicket partnership. However, following Dravid 's dismissal, India 's batting collapsed, and they finished on 234 all out with nearly eleven overs remaining, handing Australia a 125 - run victory.
The 2007 final, held at the Kensington Oval in Barbados, was reduced to 38 overs a side following a two - hour rain delay. Australia 's Gilchrist hit the fastest century in a World Cup final at a strike rate of over 143 and his opening stand with Hayden became the largest first - wicket partnership in World Cup history. Australia ended on 281 / 4, an average of 7.39 runs per over. In reply, Sanath Jayasuriya and Kumar Sangakkara accumulated 116 runs for the second wicket, but with Chamara Silva the only other batsman to score over 20, Sri Lanka capitulated. Despite a revised target, due to a further rain break, calculated using the Duckworth -- Lewis method, Sri Lanka scored 215 -- 8 from their allotted overs. With a 53 - run victory, Australia won their third consecutive World Cup. Bangladesh, India and Sri Lanka co-hosted the 2011 tournament, with the latter pair meeting in the final in the Wankhede Stadium in Mumbai. Scoring 91 runs in their final 10 overs, Sri Lanka 's innings ended on 274 / 6, Mahela Jayawardene top - scoring with an unbeaten 103. Sehwag was out leg before wicket to Lasith Malinga in the second ball of the Indian innings, Tendulkar soon followed him, but 97 from Gautam Gambhir and an unbeaten 91 from MS Dhoni saw India home with 10 balls to spare. By winning the match, India became the first team to win the finals on home soil.
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what are the types of sampling in statistics | Sampling (statistics) - wikipedia
In statistics, quality assurance, and survey methodology, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Two advantages of sampling are that the cost is lower and data collection is faster than measuring the entire population.
Each observation measures one or more properties (such as weight, location, color) of observable bodies distinguished as independent objects or individuals. In survey sampling, weights can be applied to the data to adjust for the sample design, particularly stratified sampling. Results from probability theory and statistical theory are employed to guide the practice. In business and medical research, sampling is widely used for gathering information about a population. Acceptance sampling is used to determine if a production lot of material meets the governing specifications.
The sampling process comprises several stages:
Successful statistical practice is based on focused problem definition. In sampling, this includes defining the population from which our sample is drawn. A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. Because there is very rarely enough time or money to gather information from everyone or everything in a population, the goal becomes finding a representative sample (or subset) of that population.
Sometimes what defines a population is obvious. For example, a manufacturer needs to decide whether a batch of material from production is of high enough quality to be released to the customer, or should be sentenced for scrap or rework due to poor quality. In this case, the batch is the population.
Although the population of interest often consists of physical objects, sometimes we need to sample over time, space, or some combination of these dimensions. For instance, an investigation of supermarket staffing could examine checkout line length at various times, or a study on endangered penguins might aim to understand their usage of various hunting grounds over time. For the time dimension, the focus may be on periods or discrete occasions.
In other cases, our ' population ' may be even less tangible. For example, Joseph Jagger studied the behaviour of roulette wheels at a casino in Monte Carlo, and used this to identify a biased wheel. In this case, the ' population ' Jagger wanted to investigate was the overall behaviour of the wheel (i.e. the probability distribution of its results over infinitely many trials), while his ' sample ' was formed from observed results from that wheel. Similar considerations arise when taking repeated measurements of some physical characteristic such as the electrical conductivity of copper.
This situation often arises when we seek knowledge about the cause system of which the observed population is an outcome. In such cases, sampling theory may treat the observed population as a sample from a larger ' superpopulation '. For example, a researcher might study the success rate of a new ' quit smoking ' program on a test group of 100 patients, in order to predict the effects of the program if it were made available nationwide. Here the superpopulation is "everybody in the country, given access to this treatment '' -- a group which does not yet exist, since the program is n't yet available to all.
Note also that the population from which the sample is drawn may not be the same as the population about which we actually want information. Often there is large but not complete overlap between these two groups due to frame issues etc. (see below). Sometimes they may be entirely separate -- for instance, we might study rats in order to get a better understanding of human health, or we might study records from people born in 2008 in order to make predictions about people born in 2009.
Time spent in making the sampled population and population of concern precise is often well spent, because it raises many issues, ambiguities and questions that would otherwise have been overlooked at this stage.
In the most straightforward case, such as the sampling of a batch of material from production (acceptance sampling by lots), it would be most desirable to identify and measure every single item in the population and to include any one of them in our sample. However, in the more general case this is not usually possible or practical. There is no way to identify all rats in the set of all rats. Where voting is not compulsory, there is no way to identify which people will actually vote at a forthcoming election (in advance of the election). These imprecise populations are not amenable to sampling in any of the ways below and to which we could apply statistical theory.
As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which has the property that we can identify every single element and include any in our sample. The most straightforward type of frame is a list of elements of the population (preferably the entire population) with appropriate contact information. For example, in an opinion poll, possible sampling frames include an electoral register and a telephone directory.
A probability sample is a sample in which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection.
Example: We want to estimate the total income of adults living in a given street. We visit each household in that street, identify all adults living there, and randomly select one adult from each household. (For example, we can allocate each person a random number, generated from a uniform distribution between 0 and 1, and select the person with the highest number in each household). We then interview the selected person and find their income.
People living on their own are certain to be selected, so we simply add their income to our estimate of the total. But a person living in a household of two adults has only a one - in - two chance of selection. To reflect this, when we come to such a household, we would count the selected person 's income twice towards the total. (The person who is selected from that household can be loosely viewed as also representing the person who is n't selected.)
In the above example, not everybody has the same probability of selection; what makes it a probability sample is the fact that each person 's probability is known. When every element in the population does have the same probability of selection, this is known as an ' equal probability of selection ' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as ' self - weighting ' because all sampled units are given the same weight.
Probability sampling includes: Simple Random Sampling, Systematic Sampling, Stratified Sampling, Probability Proportional to Size Sampling, and Cluster or Multistage Sampling. These various ways of probability sampling have two things in common:
Nonprobability sampling is any sampling method where some elements of the population have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred to as ' out of coverage ' / ' undercovered '), or where the probability of selection ca n't be accurately determined. It involves the selection of elements based on assumptions regarding the population of interest, which forms the criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling errors. These conditions give rise to exclusion bias, placing limits on how much information a sample can provide about the population. Information about the relationship between sample and population is limited, making it difficult to extrapolate from the sample to the population.
Example: We visit every household in a given street, and interview the first person to answer the door. In any household with more than one occupant, this is a nonprobability sample, because some people are more likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer than an employed housemate who might be at work when the interviewer calls) and it 's not practical to calculate these probabilities.
Nonprobability sampling methods include convenience sampling, quota sampling and purposive sampling. In addition, nonresponse effects may turn any probability design into a nonprobability design if the characteristics of nonresponse are not well understood, since nonresponse effectively modifies each element 's probability of being sampled.
Within any of the types of frames identified above, a variety of sampling methods can be employed, individually or in combination. Factors commonly influencing the choice between these designs include:
In a simple random sample (SRS) of a given size, all such subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Furthermore, any given pair of elements has the same chance of selection as any other such pair (and similarly for triples, and so on). This minimizes bias and simplifies analysis of results. In particular, the variance between individual results within the sample is a good indicator of variance in the overall population, which makes it relatively easy to estimate the accuracy of results.
SRS can be vulnerable to sampling error because the randomness of the selection may result in a sample that does n't reflect the makeup of the population. For instance, a simple random sample of ten people from a given country will on average produce five men and five women, but any given trial is likely to overrepresent one sex and underrepresent the other. Systematic and stratified techniques attempt to overcome this problem by "using information about the population '' to choose a more "representative '' sample.
SRS may also be cumbersome and tedious when sampling from an unusually large target population. In some cases, investigators are interested in "research questions specific '' to subgroups of the population. For example, researchers might be interested in examining whether cognitive ability as a predictor of job performance is equally applicable across racial groups. SRS can not accommodate the needs of researchers in this situation because it does not provide subsamples of the population. "Stratified sampling '' addresses this weakness of SRS.
Systematic sampling (also known as interval sampling) relies on arranging the study population according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k = (population size / sample size). It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the list. A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the telephone directory (an ' every 10th ' sample, also referred to as ' sampling with a skip of 10 ').
As long as the starting point is randomized, systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling. It is easy to implement and the stratification induced can make it efficient, if the variable by which the list is ordered is correlated with the variable of interest. ' Every 10th ' sampling is especially useful for efficient sampling from databases.
For example, suppose we wish to sample people from a long street that starts in a poor area (house No. 1) and ends in an expensive district (house No. 1000). A simple random selection of addresses from this street could easily end up with too many from the high end and too few from the low end (or vice versa), leading to an unrepresentative sample. Selecting (e.g.) every 10th street number along the street ensures that the sample is spread evenly along the length of the street, representing all of these districts. (Note that if we always start at house # 1 and end at # 991, the sample is slightly biased towards the low end; by randomly selecting the start between # 1 and # 10, this bias is eliminated.
However, systematic sampling is especially vulnerable to periodicities in the list. If periodicity is present and the period is a multiple or factor of the interval used, the sample is especially likely to be unrepresentative of the overall population, making the scheme less accurate than simple random sampling.
For example, consider a street where the odd - numbered houses are all on the north (expensive) side of the road, and the even - numbered houses are all on the south (cheap) side. Under the sampling scheme given above, it is impossible to get a representative sample; either the houses sampled will all be from the odd - numbered, expensive side, or they will all be from the even - numbered, cheap side, unless the researcher has previous knowledge of this bias and avoids it by a using a skip which ensures jumping between the two sides (any odd - numbered skip).
Another drawback of systematic sampling is that even in scenarios where it is more accurate than SRS, its theoretical properties make it difficult to quantify that accuracy. (In the two examples of systematic sampling that are given above, much of the potential sampling error is due to variation between neighbouring houses -- but because this method never selects two neighbouring houses, the sample will not give us any information on that variation.)
As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method, because all elements have the same probability of selection (in the example given, one in ten). It is not ' simple random sampling ' because different subsets of the same size have different selection probabilities -- e.g. the set (4, 14, 24,..., 994) has a one - in - ten probability of selection, but the set (4, 13, 24, 34,...) has zero probability of selection.
Systematic sampling can also be adapted to a non-EPS approach; for an example, see discussion of PPS samples below.
When the population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame can be organized by these categories into separate "strata. '' Each stratum is then sampled as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements can be randomly selected. There are several potential benefits to stratified sampling.
First, dividing the population into distinct, independent strata can enable researchers to draw inferences about specific subgroups that may be lost in a more generalized random sample.
Second, utilizing a stratified sampling method can lead to more efficient statistical estimates (provided that strata are selected based upon relevance to the criterion in question, instead of availability of the samples). Even if a stratified sampling approach does not lead to increased statistical efficiency, such a tactic will not result in less efficiency than would simple random sampling, provided that each stratum is proportional to the group 's size in the population.
Third, it is sometimes the case that data are more readily available for individual, pre-existing strata within a population than for the overall population; in such cases, using a stratified sampling approach may be more convenient than aggregating data across groups (though this may potentially be at odds with the previously noted importance of utilizing criterion - relevant strata).
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an independent population, different sampling approaches can be applied to different strata, potentially enabling researchers to use the approach best suited (or most cost - effective) for each identified subgroup within the population.
There are, however, some potential drawbacks to using stratified sampling. First, identifying strata and implementing such an approach can increase the cost and complexity of sample selection, as well as leading to increased complexity of population estimates. Second, when examining multiple criteria, stratifying variables may be related to some, but not to others, further complicating the design, and potentially reducing the utility of the strata. Finally, in some cases (such as designs with a large number of strata, or those with a specified minimum sample size per group), stratified sampling can potentially require a larger sample than would other methods (although in most cases, the required sample size would be no larger than would be required for simple random sampling).
Stratification is sometimes introduced after the sampling phase in a process called "poststratification ''. This approach is typically implemented due to a lack of prior knowledge of an appropriate stratifying variable or when the experimenter lacks the necessary information to create a stratifying variable during the sampling phase. Although the method is susceptible to the pitfalls of post hoc approaches, it can provide several benefits in the right situation. Implementation usually follows a simple random sample. In addition to allowing for stratification on an ancillary variable, poststratification can be used to implement weighting, which can improve the precision of a sample 's estimates.
Choice - based sampling is one of the stratified sampling strategies. In choice - based sampling, the data are stratified on the target and a sample is taken from each stratum so that the rare target class will be more represented in the sample. The model is then built on this biased sample. The effects of the input variables on the target are often estimated with more precision with the choice - based sample even when a smaller overall sample size is taken, compared to a random sample. The results usually must be adjusted to correct for the oversampling.
In some cases the sample designer has access to an "auxiliary variable '' or "size measure '', believed to be correlated to the variable of interest, for each element in the population. These data can be used to improve accuracy in sample design. One option is to use the auxiliary variable as a basis for stratification, as discussed above.
Another option is probability proportional to size (' PPS ') sampling, in which the selection probability for each element is set to be proportional to its size measure, up to a maximum of 1. In a simple PPS design, these selection probabilities can then be used as the basis for Poisson sampling. However, this has the drawback of variable sample size, and different portions of the population may still be over - or under - represented due to chance variation in selections.
Systematic sampling theory can be used to create a probability proportionate to size sample. This is done by treating each count within the size variable as a single sampling unit. Samples are then identified by selecting at even intervals among these counts within the size variable. This method is sometimes called PPS - sequential or monetary unit sampling in the case of audits or forensic sampling.
Example: Suppose we have six schools with populations of 150, 180, 200, 220, 260, and 490 students respectively (total 1500 students), and we want to use student population as the basis for a PPS sample of size three. To do this, we could allocate the first school numbers 1 to 150, the second school 151 to 330 (= 150 + 180), the third school 331 to 530, and so on to the last school (1011 to 1500). We then generate a random start between 1 and 500 (equal to 1500 / 3) and count through the school populations by multiples of 500. If our random start was 137, we would select the schools which have been allocated numbers 137, 637, and 1137, i.e. the first, fourth, and sixth schools.
The PPS approach can improve accuracy for a given sample size by concentrating sample on large elements that have the greatest impact on population estimates. PPS sampling is commonly used for surveys of businesses, where element size varies greatly and auxiliary information is often available -- for instance, a survey attempting to measure the number of guest - nights spent in hotels might use each hotel 's number of rooms as an auxiliary variable. In some cases, an older measurement of the variable of interest can be used as an auxiliary variable when attempting to produce more current estimates.
Sometimes it is more cost - effective to select respondents in groups (' clusters '). Sampling is often clustered by geography, or by time periods. (Nearly all samples are in some sense ' clustered ' in time -- although this is rarely taken into account in the analysis.) For instance, if surveying households within a city, we might choose to select 100 city blocks and then interview every household within the selected blocks.
Clustering can reduce travel and administrative costs. In the example above, an interviewer can make a single trip to visit several households in one block, rather than having to drive to a different block for each household.
It also means that one does not need a sampling frame listing all elements in the target population. Instead, clusters can be chosen from a cluster - level frame, with an element - level frame created only for the selected clusters. In the example above, the sample only requires a block - level city map for initial selections, and then a household - level map of the 100 selected blocks, rather than a household - level map of the whole city.
Cluster sampling (also known as clustered sampling) generally increases the variability of sample estimates above that of simple random sampling, depending on how the clusters differ between one another as compared to the within - cluster variation. For this reason, cluster sampling requires a larger sample than SRS to achieve the same level of accuracy -- but cost savings from clustering might still make this a cheaper option.
Cluster sampling is commonly implemented as multistage sampling. This is a complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels of units are embedded one in the other. The first stage consists of constructing the clusters that will be used to sample from. In the second stage, a sample of primary units is randomly selected from each cluster (rather than using all units contained in all selected clusters). In following stages, in each of those selected clusters, additional samples of units are selected, and so on. All ultimate units (individuals, for instance) selected at the last step of this procedure are then surveyed. This technique, thus, is essentially the process of taking random subsamples of preceding random samples.
Multistage sampling can substantially reduce sampling costs, where the complete population list would need to be constructed (before other sampling methods could be applied). By eliminating the work involved in describing clusters that are not selected, multistage sampling can reduce the large costs associated with traditional cluster sampling. However, each sample may not be a full representative of the whole population.
In quota sampling, the population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling. Then judgement is used to select the subjects or units from each segment based on a specified proportion. For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and 300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability sampling. In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random. For example, interviewers might be tempted to interview those who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus probability has been a matter of controversy for several years.
In imbalanced datasets, where the sampling ratio does not follow the population statistics, one can resample the dataset in a conservative manner called minimax sampling. The minimax sampling has its origin in Anderson minimax ratio whose value is proved to be 0.5: in a binary classification, the class - sample sizes should be chosen equally. This ratio can be proved to be minimax ratio only under the assumption of LDA classifier with Gaussian distributions. The notion of minimax sampling is recently developed for a general class of classification rules, called class-wise smart classifiers. In this case, the sampling ratio of classes is selected so that the worst case classifier error over all the possible population statistics for class prior probabilities, would be the
Accidental sampling (sometimes known as grab, convenience or opportunity sampling) is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, a population is selected because it is readily available and convenient. It may be through meeting the person or including a person in the sample when one meets them or chosen by finding them through technological means such as the internet or through phone. The researcher using such a sample can not scientifically make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough. For example, if the interviewer were to conduct such a survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he / she could interview would be limited to those given there at that given time, which would not represent the views of other members of society in such an area, if the survey were to be conducted at different times of day and several times per week. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing. Several important considerations for researchers using convenience samples include:
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample. Some variants of snowball sampling, such as respondent driven sampling, allow calculation of selection probabilities and are probability sampling methods under certain conditions.
The voluntary sampling method is a type of non-probability sampling. A voluntary sample is made up of people who self - select into the survey. Often, these subjects have a strong interest in the main topic of the survey. Volunteers may be invited through advertisements on Social Media Sites. This method is suitable for a research which can be done through filling a questionnaire. The target population for advertisements can be selected by characteristics like demography, age, gender, income, occupation, education level or interests using advertising tools provided by the social media sites. The advertisement may include a message about the research and will link to a web survey. After voluntary following the link and submitting the web based questionnaire, the respondent will be included in the sample population. This method can reach a global population and limited by the advertisement budget. This method may permit volunteers outside the reference population to volunteer and get included in the sample. It is difficult to make generalizations about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.
Line - intercept sampling is a method of sampling elements in a region whereby an element is sampled if a chosen line segment, called a "transect '', intersects the element.
Panel sampling is the method of first selecting a group of participants through a random sampling method and then asking that group for (potentially the same) information several times over a period of time. Therefore, each participant is interviewed at two or more time points; each period of data collection is called a "wave ''. The method was developed by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld in 1938 as a means of studying political campaigns. This longitudinal sampling - method allows estimates of changes in the population, for example with regard to chronic illness to job stress to weekly food expenditures. Panel sampling can also be used to inform researchers about within - person health changes due to age or to help explain changes in continuous dependent variables such as spousal interaction. There have been several proposed methods of analyzing panel data, including MANOVA, growth curves, and structural equation modeling with lagged effects.
Snowball sampling involves finding a small group of initial respondents and using them to recruit more respondents. It is particularly useful in cases where the population is hidden or difficult to enumerate.
Theoretical sampling occurs when samples are selected on the basis of the results of the data collected so far with a goal of developing a deeper understanding of the area or develop theories
Sampling schemes may be without replacement (' WOR ' -- no element can be selected more than once in the same sample) or with replacement (' WR ' -- an element may appear multiple times in the one sample). For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and immediately return them to the water before continuing with the sample, this is a WR design, because we might end up catching and measuring the same fish more than once. However, if we do not return the fish to the water (e.g., if we eat the fish), this becomes a WOR design.
Formulas, tables, and power function charts are well known approaches to determine sample size.
Good data collection involves:
Sampling enables the selection of right data points from within the larger data set to estimate the characteristics of the whole population. For example, there are about 600 million tweets produced every day. It is not necessary to look at all of them to determine the topics that are discussed during the day, nor is it necessary to look at all the tweets to determine the sentiment on each of the topics. A theoretical formulation for sampling Twitter data has been developed.
In manufacturing different types of sensory data such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current, voltage and controller data are available at short time intervals. To predict down - time it may not be necessary to look at all the data but a sample may be sufficient.
Survey results are typically subject to some error. Total errors can be classified into sampling errors and non-sampling errors. The term "error '' here includes systematic biases as well as random errors.
Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample design. They include:
Non-sampling errors are other errors which can impact the final survey estimates, caused by problems in data collection, processing, or sample design. They include:
After sampling, a review should be held of the exact process followed in sampling, rather than that intended, in order to study any effects that any divergences might have on subsequent analysis.
A particular problem is that of non-response. Two major types of non-response exist: unit nonresponse (referring to lack of completion of any part of the survey) and item non-response (submission or participation in survey but failing to complete one or more components / questions of the survey). In survey sampling, many of the individuals identified as part of the sample may be unwilling to participate, not have the time to participate (opportunity cost), or survey administrators may not have been able to contact them. In this case, there is a risk of differences, between respondents and nonrespondents, leading to biased estimates of population parameters. This is often addressed by improving survey design, offering incentives, and conducting follow - up studies which make a repeated attempt to contact the unresponsive and to characterize their similarities and differences with the rest of the frame. The effects can also be mitigated by weighting the data when population benchmarks are available or by imputing data based on answers to other questions. Nonresponse is particularly a problem in internet sampling. Reasons for this problem include improperly designed surveys, over-surveying (or survey fatigue), and the fact that potential participants hold multiple e-mail addresses, which they do n't use anymore or do n't check regularly.
In many situations the sample fraction may be varied by stratum and data will have to be weighted to correctly represent the population. Thus for example, a simple random sample of individuals in the United Kingdom might include some in remote Scottish islands who would be inordinately expensive to sample. A cheaper method would be to use a stratified sample with urban and rural strata. The rural sample could be under - represented in the sample, but weighted up appropriately in the analysis to compensate.
More generally, data should usually be weighted if the sample design does not give each individual an equal chance of being selected. For instance, when households have equal selection probabilities but one person is interviewed from within each household, this gives people from large households a smaller chance of being interviewed. This can be accounted for using survey weights. Similarly, households with more than one telephone line have a greater chance of being selected in a random digit dialing sample, and weights can adjust for this.
Weights can also serve other purposes, such as helping to correct for non-response.
Random sampling by using lots is an old idea, mentioned several times in the Bible. In 1786 Pierre Simon Laplace estimated the population of France by using a sample, along with ratio estimator. He also computed probabilistic estimates of the error. These were not expressed as modern confidence intervals but as the sample size that would be needed to achieve a particular upper bound on the sampling error with probability 1000 / 1001. His estimates used Bayes ' theorem with a uniform prior probability and assumed that his sample was random. Alexander Ivanovich Chuprov introduced sample surveys to Imperial Russia in the 1870s.
In the USA the 1936 Literary Digest prediction of a Republican win in the presidential election went badly awry, due to severe bias (1). More than two million people responded to the study with their names obtained through magazine subscription lists and telephone directories. It was not appreciated that these lists were heavily biased towards Republicans and the resulting sample, though very large, was deeply flawed.
The textbook by Groves et alia provides an overview of survey methodology, including recent literature on questionnaire development (informed by cognitive psychology):
The other books focus on the statistical theory of survey sampling and require some knowledge of basic statistics, as discussed in the following textbooks:
The elementary book by Scheaffer et alia uses quadratic equations from high - school algebra:
More mathematical statistics is required for Lohr, for Särndal et alia, and for Cochran (classic):
The historically important books by Deming and Kish remain valuable for insights for social scientists (particularly about the U.S. census and the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan):
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who eat the cookies from the cookie jar | Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar? - Wikipedia
"Who Stole the Cookie from the Cookie Jar? '' or the Cookie Jar Song is a sing along and game of children 's music. The song is an infinite - loop motif, where each verse directly feeds into the next. The game begins with the children sitting or standing, arranged in an inward - facing circle.
The song usually begins with the group leader asking who stole a cookie from an apocryphal (or sometimes real) cookie jar, followed by the name of one of the children in the circle. The child questions the "accusation, '' answered by an affirmation from the "accuser, '' followed by continued denial from the "accused. '' The accuser asks who stole the cookie, followed by the name of another child in the circle. The call - and - answer is potentially infinitely recursive, limited only by the number of participants or the amount of time the participants wish to spend on it.
Sometimes, a clapping or snapping beat is used by the children in the circle. Sometimes, the other children in the group sing along with the "accuser '' after the "accused '' has been identified. Some variations on the theme include the use by teachers of the song as a lesson in keeping with a beat and improvisation. As with many children 's songs, there can be many variations on the execution of the performance.
The song 's lyrics are usually:
This is followed by the "accused '' saying the name of someone else, as "(name of a child in the circle) stole the cookie from the cookie jar, '' and the subsequent back - and - forth lines are repeated. The song may be repeated ad infinitum or it may end - if it is being performed as part of a game, where members of the group are eliminated by failing to keep up with the prescribed beat or eliminated as a result of being chosen as one of the accused.
The song, and game, is featured as one of the sequences in Grandpa 's Magical Toys; the only accusation that is missing is that of the Dutch Girl, and she reveals that she got all the toys and the last cookie. The song was also done on three episodes of Barney & Friends. A variation of the song has been used in Smart4life commercials in the US beginning in 2009. The song was also used in the Family Guy episode "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein. '' The song was used in The Simpsons episode "Kamp Krustier '' where Chief Wiggum arrests two kids after they sing it in a group activity.
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when does the great war start in one piece | List of one Piece episodes (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the One Piece anime series was produced by Toei Animation, and directed by Hiroaki Miyamoto. The season began broadcasting in Japan on Fuji Television on July 18, 2010 and ended on September 25, 2011. The season focuses on Monkey D. Luffy as he tries to save his brother Portgas D. Ace. It contains two story arcs. The first is titled "Marineford '' (マリン フォード, Marinfōdo), which mainly adapts the 56th to 59th volumes of the material from the One Piece manga by Eiichiro Oda. The second story arc, which is yet to be named, also adapts material from the 59th to 61st volumes of the manga.
The season deals with the war between the Marines and Whitebeard 's pirates. Focusing on Luffy, Jimbei and the escaped convicts from Impel Down, they infiltrate Marineford to save Ace, but he is eventually killed. Eventually, Luffy must decide on whether to continue training or go back to Sabaody to see his friends once again. The first DVD compilation was released on October 5, 2011.
The season used three pieces of theme music. The first opening theme, titled "Kaze o Sagashite '' (風 を さがし て, lit. "Search for the Wind '') and performed by Yaguchi Mari with Straw Hat, continues to be used for the first two episodes. The second opening theme, from episodes 460 to 492, is "One Day '' performed by The Rootless. The third opening theme, from episodes 493 to 516, is "Fight Together '' performed by Namie Amuro.
Toriko and the Straw Hats follow the assailant 's tracks and set out to rescue their comrades, Nami and Komatsu. Along the way, they face a fierce group of lions, but are aided by Toriko 's allies: Sunny, Coco & Rin. They find their friends being held captive on a mountain by a group of mammals called Cocoalas. Luffy and Toriko defeat the Cocoalas together, rescue their friends and discover that the mountain itself is made of a delicious fruit that was rumored to reside there. Later, an eruption occurs which reveals the entire island to be one giant dessert. After Luffy and Toriko gorge on the dessert island, the Straw Hat crew gathers the provisions they need and sets off on their journey, as Toriko continues his search for his Full Course Menu.
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different type of plastic materials properties and uses | Plastic - wikipedia
Note 1: The use of this term instead of polymer is a source of confusion and thus is not recommended.
Plastic is material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic compounds that are malleable and so can be molded into solid objects.
Plasticity is the general property of all materials which can deform irreversibly without breaking but, in the class of moldable polymers, this occurs to such a degree that their actual name derives from this specific ability.
Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass and often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, however, an array of variants are made from renewable materials such as polylactic acid from corn or cellulosics from cotton linters.
Due to their low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in a multitude of products of different scale, including paper clips and spacecraft. They have prevailed over traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, metal, glass, and ceramic, in some products previously left to natural materials.
In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding. Other uses include automobiles (up to 20 % plastic), furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ -- 42 % of India 's consumption is used in packaging.
Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, with the introduction of polymer implants and other medical devices derived at least partially from plastic. The field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic materials, but rather the meaning of the word plasticity, with regard to the reshaping of flesh.
The world 's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland who coined the term ' plastics '. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry '' and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics ''.
The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century led to environmental concerns regarding its slow decomposition rate after being discarded as trash due to its composition of large molecules. Toward the end of the century, one approach to this problem was met with wide efforts toward recycling.
The word plastic derives from the Greek πλαστικός (plastikos) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded '' and, in turn, from πλαστός (plastos) meaning "molded ''.
The plasticity, or malleability, of the material during manufacture allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes, such as: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, amongst many others.
The common noun plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic. The adjective is applicable to any material which undergoes a plastic deformation, or permanent change of shape, when strained beyond a certain point. For example, aluminum which is stamped or forged exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the common sense. By contrast, some plastics will, in their finished forms, break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in the technical sense.
Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, ' pure ' or with the addition of: oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. The chains comprise many repeat units, formed from monomers. Each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units.
The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the "main path '', linking together a large number of repeat units.
To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang '' from this backbone. These pendant units are usually "hung '' on the monomers, before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. It is the structure of these side chains that influences the properties of the polymer.
The molecular structure of the repeating unit can be fine tuned to influence specific properties in the polymer.
Plastics are usually classified by: the chemical structure of the polymer 's backbone and side chains; some important groups in these classifications are: the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics.
Plastics can also be classified by: the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as: condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking.
Plastics can also be classified by: their various physical properties, such as: hardness, density, tensile strength, resistance to heat and glass transition temperature, and by their chemical properties, such as the organic chemistry of the polymer and its resistance and reaction to various chemical products and processes, such as: organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius.
Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such qualities and classes are: thermoplastics and thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics and engineering plastics and other plastics with particular structures, such as elastomers.
One important classification of plastics is by the permanence or impermanence of their form, or whether they are: thermoplastics or thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that, when heated, do not undergo chemical change in their composition and so can be molded again and again. Examples include: polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight.
Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid. In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of a thermosetting process: before heating with sulfur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is rigid and non-tacky.
Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as: all thermosets; polystyrene and its copolymers; and poly methyl methacrylate.
However, some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point, the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome, and also one or more glass transitions, the temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased. These so - called semi-crystalline plastics include: polyethylene, polypropylene, poly vinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes.
Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While plastics can be made electrically conductive, with a conductivity of up to 80 kS / cm in stretch - oriented polyacetylene, they are still no match for most metals like copper which have a conductivity of several hundred kS / cm. Nevertheless, this is a developing field.
Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade, or break down, upon exposure to: sunlight or ultra-violet radiation, water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes or wind abrasion. In some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack can also be considered as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation.
Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface (aerobic), whereas other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems (anaerobic).
Some companies produce biodegradable additives, to enhance biodegradation. Plastic can have starch powder added as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but this still does not lead to the complete breaking down of the plastic.
Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as Biopol; however, these are expensive at present.
While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials such: as cellulose and starch. Due both to the finite limits of the petrochemical reserves and to the threat of global warming, the development of bioplastics is a growing field.
However, bioplastic development begins from a very low base and, as yet, does not compare significantly with petrochemical production. Estimates of the global production capacity for bio-derived materials is put at 327,000 tonnes / year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world 's leading petrochemical derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015.
This category includes both commodity plastics, or standard plastics, and engineering plastics.
The development of plastics has evolved from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified, natural materials (e.g., natural rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk - proteins (casein) with lye.
In the 1800s, as industrial chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics also accelerated with Charles Goodyear 's discovery of vulcanization to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber.
Parkesine (nitrocellulose) is considered the first man - made plastic. The plastic material was patented by Alexander Parkes, in Birmingham, England in 1856. It was unveiled at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. Parkesine won a bronze medal at the 1862 World 's fair in London. Parkesine was made from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory.
In 1897, the Hanover, Germany mass printing press owner Wilhelm Krische was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards. The resultant horn - like plastic made from the milk protein casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846 -- 1940). The final result was unsuitable for the original purpose. In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith.
In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset, was reported by Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland by using phenol and formaldehyde.
After World War I, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s (around World War II). Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (PS), first produced by BASF in the 1930s, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s. In 1923, Durite Plastics Inc. was the first manufacturer of phenol - furfural resins. In 1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett.
In 1954, polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957.
In 1954, expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 's discovery is credited to employees of the Calico Printers ' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the USA and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe.
Plastics manufacturing is a major part of the chemical industry, and some of the world 's largest chemical companies have been involved since the earliest days, such as the industry leaders BASF and Dow Chemical.
In 2014, sales of the top fifty companies amounted to US $ 961,300,000,000. The firms came from some eighteen countries in total, with more than half of the companies on the list being headquartered in the US. Many of the top fifty plastics companies were concentrated in just three countries:
BASF was the world 's largest chemical producer for the ninth year in a row.
Trade associations which represent the industry in the US include the American Chemistry Council.
Many of the properties of plastics are determined by standards specified by ISO, such as:
Many of the properties of plastics are determined by the UL Standards, tests specified by Underwriters Laboratories (UL), such as:
Blended into most plastics are additional organic or inorganic compounds. The average content of additives is a few percent. Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to the additives: organotin compounds are particularly toxic.
Typical additives include:
Stabilizers prolong the lifetime of the polymer by suppressing degradation that results from UV - light, oxidation, and other phenomena. Typical stabilzers thus absorb UV light or function as antioxidants.
Many plastics contain fillers, to improve performance or reduce production costs. Typically fillers are mineral in origin, e.g., chalk. Other fillers include: starch, cellulose, wood flour, ivory dust and zinc oxide.
Plasticizers are, by mass, often the most abundant additives. These oily but nonvolatile compounds are blended in to plastics to improve rheology, as many organic polymers are otherwise too rigid for particular applications.
Colorants are another common additive, though their weight contribution is small.
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di - 2 - ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children 's toys and child care articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols.
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of the parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.
Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that "almost all plastic products '' sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic activity.
The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen - like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals ' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low - level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease.
As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA being linked to cancer.
Bis (2 - ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell.
The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the United States government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic.
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly, as their chemical structure renders them resistant to many natural processes of degradation. However, microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, and some are potentially useful for the disposal of certain classes of plastic waste.
There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste has been discarded since the 1950s. Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with a recycling rate of only 9 %. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber.
The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations. The long - term effects of plastic in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009, it was estimated that 10 % of modern waste was plastic, although estimates vary according to region. Meanwhile, 50 - 80 % of debris in marine areas is plastic.
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were commonly used in the manufacture of polystyrene, and as such the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer.
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum. If the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink although biodegradable plastics have caused methane emissions. Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52 % in transportation energy.
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 62 to 108 MJ / Kg (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35 %). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 230 to 235 MJ / Kg of silicon, and about 3,000 MJ / Kg of semiconductors. This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials, e.g. iron (from iron ore) requires 20 - 25 MJ / Kg of energy, glass (from sand, etc.) 18 - 35 MJ / Kg, steel (from iron) 20 - 50 MJ / Kg, paper (from timber) 25 - 50 MJ / Kg.
Controlled high - temperature incineration, above 850 ° C for two seconds, performed with selective additional heating, breaks down toxic dioxins and furans from burning plastic, and is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally include flue gas treatments to reduce pollutants further. This is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces polychlorinated dibenzo - p - dioxins, a carcinogen (cancer causing chemical). The problem occurs because the heat content of the waste stream varies. Open - air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures, and normally releases such toxic fumes.
Plastics can be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fuels, since plastics include hydrogen and carbon. One kilogram of waste plastic produces roughly a liter of hydrocarbon.
Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken down to a feedstock state.
The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor - intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems for the sorting process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase the capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling.
While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to sort, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result in more product components being reused or recycled. Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable as well. For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because the process is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste - to - energy plants.
An early success in the recycling of plastics is Vinyloop, an industrial process to separate PVC from other materials through dissolution, filtration and separation of contaminants. A solvent is used in a closed loop to elute PVC from the waste. This makes it possible to recycle composite PVC waste, which is normally incinerated or put in a landfill. Vinyloop - based recycled PVC 's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventionally produced PVC. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower. This is why the use of recycled material leads to a significantly better ecological outcome. This process was used after the Olympic Games in London 2012. Parts of temporary Buildings like the Water Polo Arena and the Royal Artillery Barracks were recycled. In this way, the PVC Policy could be fulfilled, which says that no PVC waste should be left after the games had ended.
In 1988, to assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the U.S. Society of the Plastics Industry devised a now - familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. Under this scheme, a plastic container is marked with a triangle of three "chasing arrows '', which encloses a number denoting the plastic type:
The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian - born American living in New York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol (C H OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create strong and fire resistant "composite '' materials. The new material tended to foam during synthesis, requiring that Baekeland build pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product, as he announced in 1909, in a meeting of the American Chemical Society. Bakelite was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in consumer goods and jewelry in the 1920s. Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living matter. It was also an early thermosetting plastic.
Unplasticised polystyrene is a rigid, brittle, inexpensive plastic that has been used to make plastic model kits and similar knick - knacks. It also is the basis for some of the most popular "foamed '' plastics, under the name styrene foam or Styrofoam. Like most other foam plastics, foamed polystyrene can be manufactured in an "open cell '' form, in which the foam bubbles are interconnected, as in an absorbent sponge, and "closed cell '', in which all the bubbles are distinct, like tiny balloons, as in gas - filled foam insulation and flotation devices. In the late 1950s, high impact styrene was introduced, which was not brittle. It finds much current use as the substance of toy figurines and novelties.
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl '') incorporates chlorine atoms. The C - Cl bonds in the backbone are hydrophobic and resist oxidation (and burning). PVC is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, properties that recommend its use in devices for plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink - wrap, food packaging, and rain gear.
All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen chloride is released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs. Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to form hydrochloric acid, polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long - term archival storage of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).
The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement of polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World 's Fair in New York City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66, under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothers and chemistry department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials ' molecular structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the molecular design of the materials.
His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes. However, Du Pont 's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6 and 4.6, as well as polyesters.
It took DuPont twelve years and US $27 million to refine nylon, and to synthesize and develop the industrial processes for bulk manufacture. With such a major investment, it was no surprise that Du Pont spared little expense to promote nylon after its introduction, creating a public sensation, or "nylon mania ''.
Nylon mania came to an abrupt stop at the end of 1941 when the USA entered World War II. The production capacity that had been built up to produce nylon stockings, or just nylons, for American women was taken over to manufacture vast numbers of parachutes for fliers and paratroopers. After the war ended, DuPont went back to selling nylon to the public, engaging in another promotional campaign in 1946 that resulted in an even bigger craze, triggering the so - called nylon riots.
Subsequently, polyamides 6, 10, 11, and 12 have been developed based on monomers which are ring compounds; e.g. caprolactam. Nylon 66 is a material manufactured by condensation polymerization.
Nylons still remain important plastics, and not just for use in fabrics. In its bulk form it is very wear resistant, particularly if oil - impregnated, and so is used to build gears, plain bearings, valve seats, seals and because of good heat - resistance, increasingly for under - the - hood applications in cars, and other mechanical parts.
Poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well as by the trade names Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among several others (see below), is a transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter - resistant alternative to glass. The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses.
Natural rubber is an elastomer (an elastic hydrocarbon polymer) that originally was derived from latex, a milky colloidal suspension found in specialised vessels in some plants. It is useful directly in this form (indeed, the first appearance of rubber in Europe was cloth waterproofed with unvulcanized latex from Brazil). However, in 1839, Charles Goodyear invented vulcanized rubber; a form of natural rubber heated with sulfur (and a few other chemicals), forming cross-links between polymer chains (vulcanization), improving elasticity and durability.
In 1851, Nelson Goodyear added fillers to natural rubber materials to form ebonite.
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In World War II, supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably styrene - butadiene rubber. In 1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes which increased to 840,000 tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for solid fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in the civilian space effort.
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p diddy i need a girl part 1 | I Need a Girl (Part One) - wikipedia
"I Need a Girl (Part One) '' is a single by American rapper P. Diddy with the collaboration of Usher and Loon from the album We Invented the Remix. In 2004, the song was featured in the Bad Boys compilation R&B Hits. Along with "I Need a Girl (Part Two) '', P. Diddy achieved a rare occurrence by having two parts of a song become chart hits. Part one peaked at number two on the US Billboard Hot 100 (behind Ashanti 's "Foolish '') and number one on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart. It also charted on the UK Singles Chart at number four. Billboard ranked this song at number 15 on their year end charts in 2002.
The music video features mainly Diddy and Usher singing at a house party filled with dancing guests, mostly women. Rappers Craig Mack, DJ Clue and Fabolous make cameo appearances.
CD - Maxi Released In May 7, 2002 (2002 - 05 - 07)
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who dies at the end of dear john | Dear John (2010 film) - wikipedia
Dear John is a 2010 American romantic drama - war film starring Amanda Seyfried and Channing Tatum. It was made by Screen Gems and was released theatrically in North America on February 5, 2010. The film was directed by Lasse Hallström, and it is an adaptation of Nicholas Sparks ' 2006 novel of the same name. It follows the life of a soldier (Channing Tatum) after he falls in love with a young woman (Amanda Seyfried). They decide to exchange letters to each other after he is deployed to the war. The movie was filmed in 2009 in Charleston, South Carolina.
While serving in the United States Army Special Forces in 2003, Staff Sergeant John Tyree is lying on the ground in Afghanistan, after being shot multiple times with his comrades around him. In a voice - over, he recalls a childhood trip to the US Mint and compares himself to a coin in the United States Military before stating that the last thing he thought of before he blacked out was "you. ''
In 2001, John is on leave in Charleston, South Carolina. He meets Savannah Curtis, a college student building homes with a group of co-eds for Habitat for Humanity while on spring break, when he fetches her purse from the ocean. She invites him to a bonfire party where he meets her neighbor, Tim Wheddon, and his son, Alan. Over the course of two weeks, they go on several dates and fall in love. Savannah also meets John 's father, who is obsessed with his coin collection.
Savannah mentions to John that his father - like Tim 's son, Alan - may have a form of high - functioning autism known as Asperger 's Syndrome. This upsets John, who storms off. Savannah 's friend Randy, who also has a crush on her, makes a comment that provokes John to fight, and he accidentally punches Tim, breaking his nose. Savannah sees the commotion, and stops speaking to John. John later apologizes to Tim, who offers to give Savannah a message. She drives to John 's house to spend one last day together.
John and Savannah continue their relationship through letters, and John visits her in her hometown to meet her family while on a future leave. As their time apart start as weeks and turn into months and years, Savannah begins to spend more time with Tim, and decides that she wants to work with autistic children; she plans to build a farm and horse stables where they can enjoy the outdoors and animals. John and Savannah makes plans to start a life together after John is discharged from the army in December 2001 - but September 11 happens, and John chooses to re-enlist. Over the next two years, the romance continues through their letters, and one turns out to be a literal "Dear John '' letter, in which Savannah breaks up with John, saying that, while she still loves him, she has developed feelings for someone else - she does not reveal that the "other man '' is Tim. In a fit of anger, John burns all of Savannah 's letters.
John is later wounded and encouraged to return home, but he re-enlists for a second time. Four years pass, and John is informed that his father has had a stroke - instead of being deployed with the rest of his unit, John is being sent home to be with his dad. When John arrives at the hospital, he learns that his father is alive, but in grave condition. In addition to reading his father articles from coin collectors ' newsletter (which Mr. Tyree has collected, along with his beloved coins, for decades), John writes a letter to his father, which he reads to him at the hospital; John 's voice - over at the beginning of the film was from this letter, in which he told his father that the first thing to cross his mind after he was shot was coins, and the last thing to cross his mind before he lost consciousness was his dad. Soon afterward, his father dies.
After his father 's funeral, John visits Savannah and learns that she has married Tim, abandoning her dream of a riding camp for autistic kids because of Tim 's fight against lymphoma. They enjoy a quiet evening together, eating dinner and are tempted to pick up where they left off years earlier, but do not go through with their feelings, and John leaves. The next day, John goes with Savannah to visit Tim in the hospital, and Tim tells John that Savannah still loves John; she loves him (Tim), too, but not in the same way she loves John - and Tim can see that. John sells all of his father 's coin collection (except the valuable mule coin that he found with his father years ago) in order to raise money to help with Tim 's cancer treatment. John returns to the military, carrying the mule coin with him as a charm / talisman. He receives a letter from Savannah telling him that Tim died after two months of treatment. John, now a civilian, eventually returns home; while riding his bike in town one day, he sees Savannah at a coffee shop, and they hug.
The score to Dear John was composed by Deborah Lurie, who recorded her score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Warner Brothers Eastwood Scoring Stage. A soundtrack album containing songs was released on February 2, 2010 from Relativity Media Group, and a score album was released digitally the same day.
Dear John has grossed $80,014,842 in North America and $34,962,262 in other territories for a worldwide total of $114,977,104.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed $30,468,614, finishing first at the box office, knocking off Avatar after seven weekends in first place and making it the best debut for a film based on a Nicholas Sparks novel.
The film was the second highest debut for a film opening Super Bowl weekend, just shy of Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert in 2008.
The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics, with some praising the casting, but many dismissing its characters and writing as generic.
Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score from film critics ' reviews, reports a rating of 43 % based on 34 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a "rotten '' 29 % with an average score of 4.4 / 10.
Dear John was released on DVD and Blu - ray on May 25, 2010.
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which of the following is located at the center of the earth | Near - Earth Object - wikipedia
A near - Earth object (NEO) is any small Solar System body whose orbit brings it into proximity with Earth. By definition, a solar system body is a NEO if its closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) is less than 1.3 astronomical unit (AU). NEOs include more than fourteen thousand near - Earth asteroids (NEAs), more than one hundred near - Earth comets (NECs), and a number of solar - orbiting spacecraft and meteoroids, large enough to be tracked in space before striking the Earth. It is now widely accepted that collisions in the past have had a significant role in shaping the geological and biological history of the Earth. NEOs have become of increased interest since the 1980s because of increased awareness of the potential danger some of the asteroids or comets pose, and mitigations are being researched. In January 2016, NASA announced the Planetary Defense Coordination Office to track NEOs larger than 30 to 50 meters in diameter and coordinate an effective threat response and mitigation effort.
NEAs have orbits that lie partly between 0.983 and 1.3 AU away from the Sun. When a NEA is detected it is submitted to the IAU 's Minor Planet Center for cataloging. Some NEAs ' orbits intersect that of Earth 's so they pose a collision danger. The United States, European Union, and other nations are currently scanning for NEOs in an effort called Spaceguard.
In the United States and since 1998, NASA has a congressional mandate to catalogue all NEOs that are at least 1 kilometer (km) wide, as the impact of such an object would be globally catastrophic. In 2006, it was estimated that 20 % of the mandated objects had not yet been found. In 2011, largely as a result of NEOWISE, it was estimated that 93 % of the NEAs larger than 1 km had been found and that only about 70 remained to be discovered. As of 29 October 2017, there have been 884 NEAs larger than 1 km discovered, of which 157 are potentially hazardous. The inventory is much less complete for smaller objects, which still have potential for large scale, though not global, damage.
Potentially hazardous objects (PHOs) are currently defined based on parameters that measure the object 's potential to make threatening close approaches to the Earth. Mostly objects with an Earth minimum orbit intersection distance (MOID) of 0.05 AU or less and an absolute magnitude of 22.0 or brighter (a rough indicator of large size) are considered PHOs. Objects that can not approach closer to the Earth (i.e. MOID) than 0.05 AU (7,500,000 km; 4,600,000 mi), or are smaller than about 150 m (500 ft) in diameter (i.e. H = 22.0 with assumed albedo of 13 %), are not considered PHOs. NASA 's catalog for near - Earth objects also includes the approach distances of asteroids and comets measured in lunar distances, and this usage has become a common unit of measure used by the news media in discussing these objects.
Some NEOs are of special interest because they can be physically explored with lower mission velocity than for even the Moon, due to their combination of low velocity with respect to Earth (ΔV) and weak gravity, so they may present interesting scientific opportunities both for direct geochemical and astronomical investigation, and as potentially economical sources of extraterrestrial materials for human exploitation. This makes them an attractive target for exploration. As of 2017, three near - Earth objects have been visited by spacecraft.
Human perception of near - Earth objects as benign objects of fascination or killer objects with high risk to human society has ebbed and flowed in the short period of human history that NEOs have been scientifically observed.
The first near - Earth asteroid to be discovered was 433 Eros in 1898. The asteroid was subject to several observation campaigns, because it allowed for a precise determination of the distance of the Earth from the Sun.
In 1937, asteroid 69230 Hermes was discovered when it passed the Earth at twice the distance of the Moon. Hermes was considered a threat because it was lost after its discovery, thus its orbit and potential for collision with Earth was n't known precisely. Hermes was re-discovered in 2003.
On June 14, 1968, 1.4 - kilometre asteroid 1566 Icarus passed Earth at a distance of 0.042482 AU (6,355,200 km), or 16 times the distance of the Moon. During this approach, Icarus became the first minor planet to be observed using radar, with measurements obtained at the Haystack Observatory and the Goldstone Tracking Station. This approach also earned significant public attention, due to alarmist news reports. A year before the approach, MIT students launched Project Icarus, devising a plan to deflect the asteroid with rockets in case it is found to be on a collision course with Earth.
On March 23, 1989, the 300 - meter (1,000 - foot) diameter Apollo asteroid 4581 Asclepius (1989 FC) missed the Earth by 700,000 kilometers (430,000 mi). If the asteroid had impacted it would have created the largest explosion in recorded history, equivalent to 20,000 megaton TNT. It attracted widespread attention because it was discovered only after the closest approach.
In March 1998, early orbit calculations for recently discovered asteroid (35396) 1997 XF showed a potential 2028 close approach 0.00031 AU (46,000 km) from the Earth, well within the orbit of the Moon, but with a large error margin allowing for a direct hit. Further data allowed a revision of the 2028 approach distance to 0.0064 AU (960,000 km), with no chance of collision. However, by that time, inaccurate reports of a potential impact caused a media storm.
More recently, a typical frame of reference for looking at NEOs has been through the scientific concept of risk. In this frame, the risk that any near - Earth object poses is typically seen through a lens that is a function of both the culture and the technology of human society. "NEOs have been understood differently throughout history. '' Each time an NEO is observed, "a different risk was posed, and throughout time that risk perception has evolved. It is not just a matter of scientific knowledge. ''
Such perception of risk is thus "a product of religious belief, philosophic principles, scientific understanding, technological capabilities, and even economical resourcefulness. ''
There are two schemes for the scientific classification of impact hazards from NEOs:
The annual background frequency used in the Palermo scale for impacts of energy greater than E megatonnes is estimated as:
For instance, this formula implies that the expected value of the time from now until the next impact greater than 1 megatonne is 33 years, and that when it occurs, there is a 50 % chance that it will be above 2.4 megatonnes. This formula is only valid over a certain range of E.
However, another paper published in 2002 -- the same year as the paper on that the Palermo scale is based -- found a power law with different constants:
This formula gives considerably lower rates for a given E. For instance, it gives the rate for bolides of 10 megatonnes or more (like the Tunguska explosion) as 1 per thousand years, rather than 1 per 210 years as in the Palermo formula. However, the authors give a rather large uncertainty (once in 400 to 1800 years for 10 megatonnes), due in part to uncertainties in determining the energies of the atmospheric impacts that they used in their determination.
NASA maintains a continuously updated Sentry Risk Table of the known NEO threats in the next 100 years. All or nearly all of the objects are highly likely to eventually drop off the list as more observations come in, reducing the uncertainties and enabling more accurate orbital predictions.
Asteroid (29075) 1950 DA was lost after its discovery in 1950, since its observations over just 17 days were insufficient to determine its orbit, and then rediscovered on December 31, 2000. It has a diameter of about a kilometer (0.6 miles). Although it will not strike for at least 800 years and thus has no Torino scale rating, (29075) 1950 DA was added to the list in April 2002 because it was the first object with a Palermo scale value greater than zero. This was roughly 50 % greater than the combined chance of impact for all other similarly large objects until 2880. The next radar opportunity for 1950 DA in 2032, will pinpoint our knowledge of the orbit, but additional optical position measurements have already reduced the probability of a 2880 impact to 1 in 20 000. However, as of October 2017, its Palermo scale value of − 1.42 is still the highest for all objects on the list. As of October 2017, only two more objects (2010 GZ 60 and (410777) 2009 FD) have cumulative Palermo scale values above − 2.
In July 2002, (89959) 2002 NT 7 became the first asteroid with a positive rating on the Torino Scale, with an approximately one in a million chance on a potential impact date of approximately February 1, 2019. After more observations, the estimated risk was reduced to zero, and the asteroid was removed from the Sentry Risk Table in August 2002. It is now known that 2002 NT will actually safely pass 0.4078 AU (61,010,000 km; 37,910,000 mi) from the Earth on January 13, 2019.
On 24 December 2004, minor planet 99942 Apophis (at the time known by its provisional designation 2004 MN) was assigned a 4 on the Torino scale, the highest rating ever achieved, as there was a 2.7 % chance of Earth impact on 13 April 2029. By 28 December 2004, additional observations had produced a smaller uncertainty zone which no longer included the Earth during the 2029 approach. The 2029 risk of impact consequently dropped to zero, but later potential impact solutions were still rated 1 on the Torino scale. The 2036 risk was lowered to a Torino rating of 0 in August 2006. Apophis has no chance of impacting Earth before 2060.
In February 2006, (144898) 2004 VD 17 has been assigned a Torino Scale rating of 2 due to a close encounter predicted for May 4, 2102. After more precise calculations, the rating was lowered to 1 in May 2006 and 0 in October 2006, and the asteroid was removed from the Sentry Risk Table entirely in February 2008.
As of October 2017, 2010 RF 12 is listed with the highest chance of impacting Earth, at 1 in 20 on 5 September 2095. However, at only 7 metres across, the asteroid does n't pose a serious threat: the possible 2095 impact rates only − 3.32 on the Palermo Scale.
In a 2013 article in Wired Science, David Portree provides an overview of NEO science and proposed asteroidal missions, with an emphasis on the outcome of two conferences held in the 1970s. The International Astronomical Union minor planets workshop was held in Tucson, Arizona in March 1971 and a consensus "emerged that launching spacecraft to asteroids would be ' premature '. '' "In January 1978, NASA 's Office of Space Science held a workshop at the University of Chicago to "assess the state of asteroid studies and consider options for the future. ''
Of all of the near - Earth asteroids (NEA) that had been discovered by mid-1977, it was estimated that spacecraft could rendezvous with and return from only about one in 10 using less propulsive energy than is necessary to reach Mars. "Because even the most massive NEA -- 35 kilometres (22 mi) - wide 1036 Ganymed, discovered in 1924, has a very weak surface gravity -- landing and takeoff would need very little energy. This meant that a single spacecraft could sample multiple sites on any given NEA. '' Overall, it was estimated that about one percent of all NEAs might provide opportunities for human - crewed missions, or no more than about ten known NEAs. Therefore, unless the NEA discovery rate were "immediately increased five-fold, no opportunity to launch ' astronaut - scientists ' to a NEA was likely to occur within a decade of the Chicago workshop. ''
Near - Earth objects are classified as meteoroids, asteroids, or comets depending on size and composition. Asteroids can also be members of an asteroid family, and comets create meteoroid streams that can generate meteor showers.
As of 29 October 2017, 17,056 NEOs have been discovered: 106 near - Earth comets and 16,950 near - Earth asteroids. Of those there are 1,244 Aten asteroids, 6,465 Amor asteroids, and 9,225 Apollo asteroids. There are 1,853 NEOs that are classified as potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs). Currently, 157 known PHAs and 884 known NEAs are estimated to measure least 1 kilometer (km) in diameter (roughly corresponds to an absolute magnitude of 17.75 or brighter); and 7,876 known NEAs are larger than about 140 meters in diameter.
As of 29 October 2017, there are 782 NEAs on the Sentry impact risk page at the NASA website. A significant number of these NEAs are equal to or smaller than 50 meters in diameter and none of the listed objects are placed even in the "green zone '' (Torino Scale 1), meaning that none warrant the attention of general public. As of 29 October 2017, the JPL Small - Body Database lists 3,694 near - Earth asteroids with an absolute magnitude dimmer than 25 (roughly 50 meters in diameter).
Near - Earth asteroids smaller than ~ 1 meter are near - Earth meteoroids and are listed as asteroids on most asteroid tables. The smallest known near - Earth meteoroid is 2008 TS with an absolute magnitude of 33.2 and estimated size of only 1 meter.
These are objects in a near - Earth orbit without the tail or coma of a comet. As of 29 October 2017, 16,950 near - Earth asteroids are known, ranging in size from 1 meter up to ~ 32 kilometers (1036 Ganymed). The estimated number of possibly existing near - Earth asteroids over one kilometer in diameter was reduced by NASA from 1,000 -- 2,000 to 500 -- 1,000 in 2000. An alternative estimate based on the LINEAR survey provided the number 7003122700000000000 ♠ 1227 + 170 − 90. In 2011, the NASA estimate of one - kilometre NEAs was narrowed to 7002981000000000000 ♠ 981 ± 19 (of which 93 % have been discovered), while the number of NEAs larger than 140 metres across was estimated at 7004132000000000000 ♠ 13 200 ± 1900. In 2017, two studies further reduced the estimated number of NEAs over one kilometer in diameter to 7002921000000000000 ♠ 921 ± 20. There are about 1 million near - Earth asteroids about 40 meters in diameter -- of which about 1 percent have been discovered. The composition of near - Earth asteroids is comparable to that of asteroids from the asteroid belt, reflecting a variety of asteroid spectral types.
NEAs survive in their orbits for just a few million years. They are eventually eliminated by planetary perturbations, causing ejection from the Solar System or a collision with the Sun or a planet. With orbital lifetimes short compared to the age of the Solar System, new asteroids must be constantly moved into near - Earth orbits to explain the observed asteroids. The accepted origin of these asteroids is that asteroid - belt asteroids are moved into the inner Solar System through orbital resonances with Jupiter. The interaction with Jupiter through the resonance perturbs the asteroid 's orbit and it comes into the inner Solar System. The asteroid belt has gaps, known as Kirkwood gaps, where these resonances occur as the asteroids in these resonances have been moved onto other orbits. New asteroids migrate into these resonances, due to the Yarkovsky effect that provides a continuing supply of near - Earth asteroids.
A small number of NEOs are extinct comets that have lost their volatile surface materials, although having a faint or intermittent comet - like tail does not necessarily result in a classification as a near - Earth comet, making the boundaries somewhat fuzzy. The rest of the near - Earth asteroids are driven out of the asteroid belt by gravitational interactions with Jupiter.
Near - Earth asteroids are divided into groups based on their semi-major axis (a), perihelion distance (q), and aphelion distance (Q):
(Note: Some authors define the Atens group differently: they define it as being all the asteroids with a semi-major axis of less than 1 AU. That is, they consider the Atiras to be part of the Atens. Historically, until 1998, there were no known or suspected Atiras, so the distinction was n't necessary.)
Atiras and Amors do not cross the Earth 's orbit and are not immediate impact threats, but their orbits may change to become Earth - crossing orbits in the future.
As of 29 October 2017, 106 near - Earth comets (NECs) have been discovered. Although no impact of a comet in Earth 's history has been conclusively confirmed, the Tunguska event may have been caused by a fragment of Comet Encke. Cometary fragmenting may also be responsible for some impacts from near - Earth objects. It is rare for a comet to pass within 0.1 AU (15,000,000 km; 9,300,000 mi) of Earth.
These near - Earth objects were probably derived from the Kuiper belt, beyond the orbit of Neptune.
Stony asteroids with a diameter of 4 meters (13 ft) impact Earth approximately once per year. Asteroids with a diameter of roughly 7 meters enter Earth 's atmosphere with as much energy as Little Boy (the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, approximately 15 kilotonnes of TNT) about every 5 years. These ordinarily explode in the upper atmosphere, and most or all of the solids are vaporized. Every 2,000 -- 3,000 years, objects produce explosions of 10 megatons comparable to the one observed at Tunguska in 1908. Objects with a diameter of one kilometer hit the Earth an average of twice every million years. Large collisions with five kilometer objects happen approximately once every twenty million years.
Assuming that these rates will continue for the next billion years, there exist at least 2,000 objects of diameter greater than 1 km that will eventually hit Earth. However, most of these are not yet considered potentially hazardous objects because they are currently orbiting between Mars and Jupiter. Eventually they will change orbits and become NEOs. Objects spend on average a few million years as NEOs before hitting the Sun, being ejected from the Solar System, or (for a small proportion) hitting a planet.
On August 10, 1972, a meteor that became known as 1972 Great Daylight Fireball was witnessed by many people moving north over the Rocky Mountains from the U.S. Southwest to Canada. It was an Earth - grazing meteoroid that passed within 57 kilometers (about 34 miles) of the Earth 's surface. It was filmed by a tourist at the Grand Teton National Park in Wyoming with an 8 - millimeter color movie camera.
On October 13, 1990, an Earth - grazing meteoroid EN131090 was observed above Czechoslovakia and Poland. It was moving with a speed of 41.74 km / s (25.94 mi / s) along a 409 km (254 mi) trajectory from the south to the north. The closest approach to the Earth was 98.67 km (61.31 mi). It was captured by two all - sky cameras of the European Fireball Network, which for the first time enabled geometric calculations of the orbit of such a body.
On March 18, 2004, LINEAR announced a 30 - meter asteroid, 2004 FH, which would pass the Earth that day at only 42,600 km (26,500 mi), about one - tenth the distance to the Moon, and the closest miss ever noticed. They estimated that similar - sized asteroids come as close about every two years.
On March 31, 2004, two weeks after 2004 FH, meteoroid 2004 FU 162 set a new record for closest recorded approach, passing Earth only 6,500 km (4,000 mi) away (about one Earth radius or one - sixtieth of the distance to the Moon). Because it was very small (6 meters / 20 feet), FU was detected only hours before its closest approach. If it had collided with Earth, it probably would have harmlessly disintegrated in the atmosphere.
On October 7, 2008, 19 hours after it has been first observed, asteroid 2008 TC 3 blew up 37 kilometers (23 mi) above the Nubian Desert in Sudan. It was the first time that an asteroid impact had been predicted prior to its entry into the atmosphere as a meteor.
On February 4, 2011, an asteroid designated 2011 CQ 1, estimated at 0.8 -- 2.6 m (2.6 -- 8.5 ft) in diameter, passed within 5,500 km (3,400 mi) of the Earth, setting a new record for closest approach without impact.
On November 8, 2011, (308635) 2005 YU 55 (relatively large at about 360 m in diameter) passed within 324,600 km (201,700 mi) (0.85 lunar distances) of Earth.
On February 15, 2013, the 30 - metre wide 367943 Duende (2012 DA) passed approximately 27,700 km (17,200 mi) above the surface of Earth. This was closer than satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The asteroid was not visible to the unaided eye. This was the first close passage of an object already discovered during a previous passage, and was thus the first to be predicted in advance.
On 2 January, 2014, just 21 hours after it was the first asteroid to be discovered in 2014, 2014 AA blew up in Earth 's atmosphere above the Atlantic Ocean. Far from any land, the meteor explosion was only observed by three infra - sound detectors of the Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty Organization. This impact was the second to be predicted in advance.
In 1998, the United States Congress mandated the Spaceguard Survey -- detection of 90 % of near - earth asteroids over 1 km diameter (that threaten global devastation) by 2008. Several surveys have undertaken "Spaceguard '' activities (an umbrella term), including Lincoln Near - Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR), Spacewatch, Near - Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT), Lowell Observatory Near - Earth - Object Search (LONEOS), Catalina Sky Survey (CSS), Campo Imperatore Near - Earth Object Survey (CINEOS), Japanese Spaceguard Association, Asiago - DLR Asteroid Survey (ADAS) and Near - Earth Object WISE (NEOWISE). In 2011, it was estimated that 93 % of near - Earth asteroids larger than 1 km in diameter have been found, thus the original Spaceguard goal has been met. In 2005, in the USA, the original Spaceguard mandate was extended by the George E. Brown, Jr. Near - Earth Object Survey Act, which calls for NASA to detect 90 % of NEOs with diameters of 140 meters or greater, by 2020.
In May 2016, the precision of asteroid diameter estimates arising from the Wide - field Infrared Survey Explorer and NEOWISE missions have been questioned by technologist Nathan Myhrvold, but the criticism has not passed peer review as of April 2017 and faced criticism for its methodology itself.
The ATLAS project, by contrast, aims to find impacting asteroids shortly before impact, much too late for deflection maneuvers but still in time to evacuate and otherwise prepare the affected Earth region.
The first near - Earth object to be visited by a spacecraft was asteroid 433 Eros when NASA 's Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous probe orbited it from February 2001 until landing on the asteroid surface in February 2002. A second near - Earth asteroid, 25143 Itokawa, was visited in September 2005 by the JAXA Hayabusa mission, which succeeded in taking material samples back to Earth. A third near - Earth asteroid, 4179 Toutatis, was explored by CNSA 's Chang'e 2 spacecraft during a flyby in December 2012.
The one - kilometre Apollo asteroid 162173 Ryugu is the target of the JAXA Hayabusa 2 mission. The space probe was launched in December 2014, is expected to arrive to the asteroid in June 2018 and return a sample to Earth in December 2020.
Notable objects include near - Earth objects and flyby objects as minor planets, comets, asteroids, and meteors:, generally specifically mentioned in news articles.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Pisces -- Cetus Supercluster Complex → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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give a brief account of wheat cultivation in india | Wheat - wikipedia
References: Serial No. 42236 ITIS 2002 - 09 - 22
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the most widely grown is common wheat (T. aestivum).
The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis.
Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares, 2014). World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. In 2016, world production of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most - produced cereal after maize. Since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to grow further through the middle of the 21st century. Global demand for wheat is increasing due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the production of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide industrialization process and the westernization of the diet.
Wheat is an important source of carbohydrates. Globally, it is the leading source of vegetal protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13 %, which is relatively high compared to other major cereals but relatively low in protein quality for supplying essential amino acids. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber.
In a small part of the general population, gluten -- the major part of wheat protein -- can trigger coeliac disease, noncoeliac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia, and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Cultivation and repeated harvesting and sowing of the grains of wild grasses led to the creation of domestic strains, as mutant forms (' sports ') of wheat were preferentially chosen by farmers. In domesticated wheat, grains are larger, and the seeds (inside the spikelets) remain attached to the ear by a toughened rachis during harvesting. In wild strains, a more fragile rachis allows the ear to easily shatter and disperse the spikelets. Selection for these traits by farmers might not have been deliberately intended, but simply have occurred because these traits made gathering the seeds easier; nevertheless such ' incidental ' selection was an important part of crop domestication. As the traits that improve wheat as a food source also involve the loss of the plant 's natural seed dispersal mechanisms, highly domesticated strains of wheat can not survive in the wild.
Cultivation of wheat began to spread beyond the Fertile Crescent after about 8000 BCE. Jared Diamond traces the spread of cultivated emmer wheat starting in the Fertile Crescent sometime before 8800 BCE. Archaeological analysis of wild emmer indicates that it was first cultivated in the southern Levant, with finds dating back as far as 9600 BCE. Genetic analysis of wild einkorn wheat suggests that it was first grown in the Karacadag Mountains in southeastern Turkey. Dated archeological remains of einkorn wheat in settlement sites near this region, including those at Abu Hureyra in Syria, suggest the domestication of einkorn near the Karacadag Mountain Range. With the anomalous exception of two grains from Iraq ed - Dubb, the earliest carbon - 14 date for einkorn wheat remains at Abu Hureyra is 7800 to 7500 years BCE.
Remains of harvested emmer from several sites near the Karacadag Range have been dated to between 8600 (at Cayonu) and 8400 BCE (Abu Hureyra), that is, in the Neolithic period. With the exception of Iraq ed - Dubb, the earliest carbon - 14 dated remains of domesticated emmer wheat were found in the earliest levels of Tell Aswad, in the Damascus basin, near Mount Hermon in Syria. These remains were dated by Willem van Zeist and his assistant Johanna Bakker - Heeres to 8800 BCE. They also concluded that the settlers of Tell Aswad did not develop this form of emmer themselves, but brought the domesticated grains with them from an as yet unidentified location elsewhere.
The cultivation of emmer reached Greece, Cyprus and India by 6500 BCE, Egypt shortly after 6000 BCE, and Germany and Spain by 5000 BCE. "The early Egyptians were developers of bread and the use of the oven and developed baking into one of the first large - scale food production industries. '' By 3000 BCE, wheat had reached the British Isles and Scandinavia. A millennium later it reached China.
The oldest evidence for hexaploid wheat has been confirmed through DNA analysis of wheat seeds, dating to around 6400 - 6200 BCE, recovered from Çatalhöyük. The first identifiable bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) with sufficient gluten for yeasted breads has been identified using DNA analysis in samples from a granary dating to approximately 1350 BCE at Assiros in Macedonia.
From Asia, wheat continued to spread across Europe. In the British Isles, wheat straw (thatch) was used for roofing in the Bronze Age, and was in common use until the late 19th century.
Technological advances in soil preparation and seed placement at planting time, use of crop rotation and fertilizers to improve plant growth, and advances in harvesting methods have all combined to promote wheat as a viable crop. When the use of seed drills replaced broadcasting sowing of seed in the 18th century, another great increase in productivity occurred.
Yields of pure wheat per unit area increased as methods of crop rotation were applied to long cultivated land, and the use of fertilizers became widespread. Improved agricultural husbandry has more recently included threshing machines and reaping machines (the ' combine harvester '), tractor - drawn cultivators and planters, and better varieties (see Green Revolution and Norin 10 wheat). Great expansion of wheat production occurred as new arable land was farmed in the Americas and Australia in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Wheat genetics is more complicated than that of most other domesticated species. Some wheat species are diploid, with two sets of chromosomes, but many are stable polyploids, with four sets of chromosomes (tetraploid) or six (hexaploid).
The presence of certain versions of wheat genes has been important for crop yields. Apart from mutant versions of genes selected in antiquity during domestication, there has been more recent deliberate selection of alleles that affect growth characteristics. Genes for the ' dwarfing ' trait, first used by Japanese wheat breeders to produce short - stalked wheat, have had a huge effect on wheat yields worldwide, and were major factors in the success of the Green Revolution in Mexico and Asia, an initiative led by Norman Borlaug. Dwarfing genes enable the carbon that is fixed in the plant during photosynthesis to be diverted towards seed production, and they also help prevent the problem of lodging. ' Lodging ' occurs when an ear stalk falls over in the wind and rots on the ground, and heavy nitrogenous fertilization of wheat makes the grass grow taller and become more susceptible to this problem. By 1997, 81 % of the developing world 's wheat area was planted to semi-dwarf wheats, giving both increased yields and better response to nitrogenous fertilizer.
Wild grasses in the genus Triticum and related genera, and grasses such as rye have been a source of many disease - resistance traits for cultivated wheat breeding since the 1930s.
Heterosis, or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize), occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale (as is done with maize) because wheat flowers are perfect and normally self - pollinate. Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents; these chemicals selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa. F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with the standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny many (ten or more) generations before release selections are identified to be released as a variety or cultivar.
Synthetic hexaploids made by crossing the wild goatgrass wheat ancestor Aegilops tauschii and various durum wheats are now being deployed, and these increase the genetic diversity of cultivated wheats.
Stomata (or leaf pores) are involved in both uptake of carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere and water vapor losses from the leaf due to water transpiration. Basic physiological investigation of these gas exchange processes has yielded valuable carbon isotope based methods that are used for breeding wheat varieties with improved water - use efficiency. These varieties can improve crop productivity in rain - fed dry - land wheat farms.
In 2010, a team of UK scientists funded by BBSRC announced they had decoded the wheat genome for the first time (95 % of the genome of a variety of wheat known as Chinese Spring line 42). This genome was released in a basic format for scientists and plant breeders to use but was not a fully annotated sequence which was reported in some of the media.
On 29 November 2012, an essentially complete gene set of bread wheat was published. Random shotgun libraries of total DNA and cDNA from the T. aestivum cv. Chinese Spring (CS42) were sequenced in Roche 454 pyrosequencer using GS FLX Titanium and GS FLX+ platforms to generate 85 Gb of sequence (220 million reads), equivalent to 5X genome coverage and identified between 94,000 and 96,000 genes.
This sequence data provides direct access to about 96,000 genes, relying on orthologous gene sets from other cereals. and represents an essential step towards a systematic understanding of biology and engineering the cereal crop for valuable traits. Its implications in cereal genetics and breeding includes the examination of genome variation, association mapping using natural populations, performing wide crosses and alien introgression, studying the expression and nucleotide polymorphism in transcriptomes, analyzing population genetics and evolutionary biology, and studying the epigenetic modifications. Moreover, the availability of large - scale genetic markers generated through NGS technology will facilitate trait mapping and make marker - assisted breeding much feasible.
Moreover, the data not only facilitate in deciphering the complex phenomena such as heterosis and epigenetics, it may also enable breeders to predict which fragment of a chromosome is derived from which parent in the progeny line, thereby recognizing crossover events occurring in every progeny line and inserting markers on genetic and physical maps without ambiguity. In due course, this will assist in introducing specific chromosomal segments from one cultivar to another. Besides, the researchers had identified diverse classes of genes participating in energy production, metabolism and growth that were probably linked with crop yield, which can now be utilized for the development of transgenic wheat. Thus whole genome sequence of wheat and the availability of thousands of SNPs will inevitably permit the breeders to stride towards identifying novel traits, providing biological knowledge and empowering biodiversity - based breeding.
In traditional agricultural systems wheat populations often consist of landraces, informal farmer - maintained populations that often maintain high levels of morphological diversity. Although landraces of wheat are no longer grown in Europe and North America, they continue to be important elsewhere. The origins of formal wheat breeding lie in the nineteenth century, when single line varieties were created through selection of seed from a single plant noted to have desired properties. Modern wheat breeding developed in the first years of the twentieth century and was closely linked to the development of Mendelian genetics. The standard method of breeding inbred wheat cultivars is by crossing two lines using hand emasculation, then selfing or inbreeding the progeny. Selections are identified (shown to have the genes responsible for the varietal differences) ten or more generations before release as a variety or cultivar.
The major breeding objectives include high grain yield, good quality, disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses, including mineral, moisture and heat tolerance. The major diseases in temperate environments include the following, arranged in a rough order of their significance from cooler to warmer climates: eyespot, Stagonospora nodorum blotch (also known as glume blotch), yellow or stripe rust, powdery mildew, Septoria tritici blotch (sometimes known as leaf blotch), brown or leaf rust, Fusarium head blight, tan spot and stem rust. In tropical areas, spot blotch (also known as Helminthosporium leaf blight) is also important.
Wheat has also been the subject of mutation breeding, with the use of gamma, x-rays, ultraviolet light, and sometimes harsh chemicals. The varieties of wheat created through these methods are in the hundreds (going as far back as 1960), more of them being created in higher populated countries such as China. Bread wheat with high grain iron and zinc content was developed through gamma radiation breeding. Modern bread wheat varieties have been cross-bred to contain greater amounts of gluten, which affords significant advantages for improving the quality of breads and pastas from a functional point of view. Gluten is appreciated for its unique viscoelastic properties. It gives elasticity to dough and is responsible for dough 's gas - retaining properties.
Because wheat self - pollinates, creating hybrid varieties is extremely labor - intensive; the high cost of hybrid wheat seed relative to its moderate benefits have kept farmers from adopting them widely despite nearly 90 years of effort. F1 hybrid wheat cultivars should not be confused with wheat cultivars deriving from standard plant breeding. Heterosis or hybrid vigor (as in the familiar F1 hybrids of maize) occurs in common (hexaploid) wheat, but it is difficult to produce seed of hybrid cultivars on a commercial scale as is done with maize because wheat flowers are perfect in the botanical sense, meaning they have both male and female parts, and normally self - pollinate. Commercial hybrid wheat seed has been produced using chemical hybridizing agents, plant growth regulators that selectively interfere with pollen development, or naturally occurring cytoplasmic male sterility systems. Hybrid wheat has been a limited commercial success in Europe (particularly France), the United States and South Africa.
The four wild species of wheat, along with the domesticated varieties einkorn, emmer and spelt, have hulls. This more primitive morphology (in evolutionary terms) consists of toughened glumes that tightly enclose the grains, and (in domesticated wheats) a semi-brittle rachis that breaks easily on threshing. The result is that when threshed, the wheat ear breaks up into spikelets. To obtain the grain, further processing, such as milling or pounding, is needed to remove the hulls or husks. In contrast, in free - threshing (or naked) forms such as durum wheat and common wheat, the glumes are fragile and the rachis tough. On threshing, the chaff breaks up, releasing the grains. Hulled wheats are often stored as spikelets because the toughened glumes give good protection against pests of stored grain.
There are many botanical classification systems used for wheat species, discussed in a separate article on wheat taxonomy. The name of a wheat species from one information source may not be the name of a wheat species in another.
Within a species, wheat cultivars are further classified by wheat breeders and farmers in terms of:
Hexaploid species
Tetraploid species
Diploid species
The named classes of wheat in English are the more or less the same in Canada as the US, as broadly the same commercial cash crop strains can be found in both.
The classes used in the United States are:
Red wheats may need bleaching; therefore, white wheats usually command higher prices than red wheats on the commodities market.
Raw wheat can be ground into flour or, using hard durum wheat only, can be ground into semolina; germinated and dried creating malt; crushed or cut into cracked wheat; parboiled (or steamed), dried, crushed and de-branned into bulgur also known as groats. If the raw wheat is broken into parts at the mill, as is usually done, the outer husk or bran can be used several ways. Wheat is a major ingredient in such foods as bread, porridge, crackers, biscuits, Muesli, pancakes, pies, pastries, cakes, cookies, muffins, rolls, doughnuts, gravy, beer, vodka, boza (a fermented beverage), and breakfast cereals.
In manufacturing wheat products, gluten is valuable to impart viscoelastic functional qualities in dough, enabling the preparation of diverse processed foods such as breads, noodles, and pasta that facilitate wheat consumption.
In 100 grams, wheat provides 327 calories and is a rich source (20 % or more of the Daily Value, DV) of multiple essential nutrients, such as protein, dietary fiber, manganese, phosphorus and niacin (table). Several B vitamins and other dietary minerals are in significant content. Wheat is 13 % water, 71 % carbohydrates, and 1.5 % fat. Its 13 % protein content is mostly gluten (75 - 80 % of the protein in wheat).
Wheat proteins have a low quality for human nutrition, according to the new protein quality method (DIAAS) promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization. Though they contain adequate amounts of the other essential amino acids, at least for adults, wheat proteins are deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine. Because the proteins present in the wheat endosperm (gluten proteins) are particularly poor in lysine, white flours are more deficient in lysine compared with whole grains. Significant efforts in plant breeding are being made to develop lysine - rich wheat varieties, without success as of 2017. Supplementation with proteins from other food sources (mainly legumes) is commonly used to compensate for this deficiency, since the limitation of a single essential amino acid causes the others to break down and become excreted, which is especially important during the period of growth.
Note: All nutrient values including protein and fiber are in % DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters. Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo - lacto - vegetables group Q = Quality of Protein in terms of completeness without adjusting for digestability.
100 g (3.5 oz) of hard red winter wheat contain about 12.6 g (0.44 oz) of protein, 1.5 g (0.053 oz) of total fat, 71 g (2.5 oz) of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 g (0.43 oz) of dietary fiber, and 3.2 mg (0.00011 oz) of iron (17 % of the daily requirement); the same weight of hard red spring wheat contains about 15.4 g (0.54 oz) of protein, 1.9 g (0.067 oz) of total fat, 68 g (2.4 oz) of carbohydrate (by difference), 12.2 g (0.43 oz) of dietary fiber, and 3.6 mg (0.00013 oz) of iron (20 % of the daily requirement).
Wheat is grown on more than 218,000,000 hectares (540,000,000 acres), a larger area than for any other crop. World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. With rice, wheat is the world 's most favored staple food. It is a major diet component because of the wheat plant 's agronomic adaptability with the ability to grow from near arctic regions to equator, from sea level to plains of Tibet, approximately 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level. In addition to agronomic adaptability, wheat offers ease of grain storage and ease of converting grain into flour for making edible, palatable, interesting and satisfying foods. Wheat is the most important source of carbohydrate in a majority of countries.
The most common forms of wheat are white and red wheat. However, other natural forms of wheat exist. Other commercially minor but nutritionally promising species of naturally evolved wheat species include black, yellow and blue wheat.
Consumed worldwide by billions of people, wheat is a significant food for human nutrition, particularly in the least developed countries where wheat products are primary foods. When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a healthy food source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber recommended for children and adults, in several daily servings containing a variety of foods that meet whole grain - rich criteria. Dietary fiber may also help people feel full and therefore help with a healthy weight. Further, wheat is a major source for natural and biofortified nutrient supplementation, including dietary fiber, protein and dietary minerals.
Manufacturers of foods containing wheat as a whole grain in specified amounts are allowed a health claim for marketing purposes in the United States, stating: "low fat diets rich in fiber - containing grain products, fruits, and vegetables may reduce the risk of some types of cancer, a disease associated with many factors '' and "diets low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables, and grain products that contain some types of dietary fiber, particularly soluble fiber, may reduce the risk of heart disease, a disease associated with many factors ''. The scientific opinion of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) related to health claims on gut health / bowel function, weight control, blood glucose / insulin levels, weight management, blood cholesterol, satiety, glycaemic index, digestive function and cardiovascular health is "that the food constituent, whole grain, (...) is not sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed health effects '' and "that a cause and effect relationship can not be established between the consumption of whole grain and the claimed effects considered in this opinion. ''
In genetically susceptible people, gluten -- a major part of wheat protein -- can trigger coeliac disease. Coeliac disease affects about 1 % of the general population in developed countries. There is evidence that most cases remain undiagnosed and untreated. The only known effective treatment is a strict lifelong gluten - free diet.
While coeliac disease is caused by a reaction to wheat proteins, it is not the same as a wheat allergy. Other diseases triggered by eating gluten are non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, (estimated to affect 0.5 % to 13 % of the general population), gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis.
The following table shows the nutrient content of wheat and other major staple foods in a raw form.
Raw forms of these staples, however, are not edible and can not be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked as appropriate for human consumption. In sprouted or cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.
In cooked form, the nutrition value for each staple depends on the cooking method (for example: baking, boiling, steaming, frying, etc.).
Harvested wheat grain that enters trade is classified according to grain properties for the purposes of the commodity markets. Wheat buyers use these to decide which wheat to buy, as each class has special uses, and producers use them to decide which classes of wheat will be most profitable to cultivate.
Wheat is widely cultivated as a cash crop because it produces a good yield per unit area, grows well in a temperate climate even with a moderately short growing season, and yields a versatile, high - quality flour that is widely used in baking. Most breads are made with wheat flour, including many breads named for the other grains they contain, for example, most rye and oat breads. The popularity of foods made from wheat flour creates a large demand for the grain, even in economies with significant food surpluses.
In recent years, low international wheat prices have often encouraged farmers in the United States to change to more profitable crops. In 1998, the price at harvest of a 60 pounds (27 kg) bushel was $2.68 per. Some information providers, following CBOT practice, quote the wheat market in per ton denomination. A USDA report revealed that in 1998, average operating costs were $1.43 per bushel and total costs were $3.97 per bushel. In that study, farm wheat yields averaged 41.7 bushels per acre (2.2435 metric ton / hectare), and typical total wheat production value was $31,900 per farm, with total farm production value (including other crops) of $173,681 per farm, plus $17,402 in government payments. There were significant profitability differences between low - and high - cost farms, mainly due to crop yield differences, location, and farm size.
In 2016, global wheat production was 749 million tonnes. Wheat is the primary food staple in North Africa and the Middle East, and is growing in uses in Asia. Unlike rice, wheat production is more widespread globally, though 47 % of the world total in 2014 was produced by just four countries -- China, India, Russia and the United States (table).
In the 20th century, global wheat output expanded by about 5-fold, but until about 1955 most of this reflected increases in wheat crop area, with lesser (about 20 %) increases in crop yields per unit area. After 1955 however, there was a ten-fold increase in the rate of wheat yield improvement per year, and this became the major factor allowing global wheat production to increase. Thus technological innovation and scientific crop management with synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, irrigation and wheat breeding were the main drivers of wheat output growth in the second half of the century. There were some significant decreases in wheat crop area, for instance in North America.
Better seed storage and germination ability (and hence a smaller requirement to retain harvested crop for next year 's seed) is another 20th - century technological innovation. In Medieval England, farmers saved one - quarter of their wheat harvest as seed for the next crop, leaving only three - quarters for food and feed consumption. By 1999, the global average seed use of wheat was about 6 % of output.
Several factors are currently slowing the rate of global expansion of wheat production: population growth rates are falling while wheat yields continue to rise, and the better economic profitability of other crops such as soybeans and maize, linked with investment in modern genetic technologies, has promoted shifts to other crops.
In 2014, the most productive crop yields for wheat were in Ireland, producing 10 tonnes per hectare. In addition to gaps in farming system technology and knowledge, some large wheat grain producing countries have significant losses after harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmers ' inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. Various studies in India, for example, have concluded that about 10 % of total wheat production is lost at farm level, another 10 % is lost because of poor storage and road networks, and additional amounts lost at the retail level.
In the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, as well as North China, irrigation has been a major contributor to increased grain output. More widely over the last 40 years, a massive increase in fertilizer use together with the increased availability of semi-dwarf varieties in developing countries, has greatly increased yields per hectare. In developing countries, use of (mainly nitrogenous) fertilizer increased 25-fold in this period. However, farming systems rely on much more than fertilizer and breeding to improve productivity. A good illustration of this is Australian wheat growing in the southern winter cropping zone, where, despite low rainfall (300 mm), wheat cropping is successful even with relatively little use of nitrogenous fertilizer. This is achieved by ' rotation cropping ' (traditionally called the ley system) with leguminous pastures and, in the last decade, including a canola crop in the rotations has boosted wheat yields by a further 25 %. In these low rainfall areas, better use of available soil - water (and better control of soil erosion) is achieved by retaining the stubble after harvesting and by minimizing tillage.
There are substantial differences in wheat farming, trading, policy, sector growth, and wheat uses in different regions of the world. The largest exporters of wheat in 2013 were, in order of exported quantities: United States (33.2 million tonnes), Canada (19.8 million tonnes), France (19.6 million tonnes), Australia (18 million tonnes), and the Russian Federation (13.8 million tonnes). The largest importers of wheat in 2013 were, in order of imported quantities: Egypt (10.3 million tonnes), Brazil (7.3 million tonnes), Indonesia (6.7 million tonnes), Algeria (6.3 million tonnes) and Japan (6.2 million tonnes).
In the rapidly developing countries of Asia and Africa, westernization of diets associated with increasing prosperity is leading to growth in per capita demand for wheat at the expense of the other food staples.
In the past, there has been significant governmental intervention in wheat markets, such as price supports in the US and farm payments in the EU. In the EU, these subsidies have encouraged heavy use of fertilizer inputs with resulting high crop yields. In Australia and Argentina, direct government subsidies are much lower.
The average annual world farm yield for wheat in 2014 was 3.3 tonnes per hectare (330 grams per square meter). Ireland wheat farms were the most productive in 2014, with a nationwide average of 10.0 tonnes per hectare, followed by the Netherlands (9.2), and Germany, New Zealand and the United Kingdom (each with 8.6).
Wheat futures are traded on the Chicago Board of Trade, Kansas City Board of Trade, and Minneapolis Grain Exchange, and have delivery dates in March (H), May (K), July (N), September (U), and December (Z).
Wheat normally needs between 110 and 130 days between sowing and harvest, depending upon climate, seed type, and soil conditions (winter wheat lies dormant during a winter freeze). Optimal crop management requires that the farmer have a detailed understanding of each stage of development in the growing plants. In particular, spring fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators are typically applied only at specific stages of plant development. For example, it is currently recommended that the second application of nitrogen is best done when the ear (not visible at this stage) is about 1 cm in size (Z31 on Zadoks scale). Knowledge of stages is also important to identify periods of higher risk from the climate. For example, pollen formation from the mother cell, and the stages between anthesis and maturity are susceptible to high temperatures, and this adverse effect is made worse by water stress. Farmers also benefit from knowing when the ' flag leaf ' (last leaf) appears, as this leaf represents about 75 % of photosynthesis reactions during the grain filling period, and so should be preserved from disease or insect attacks to ensure a good yield.
Several systems exist to identify crop stages, with the Feekes and Zadoks scales being the most widely used. Each scale is a standard system which describes successive stages reached by the crop during the agricultural season.
There are many wheat diseases, mainly caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Plant breeding to develop new disease - resistant varieties, and sound crop management practices are important for preventing disease. Fungicides, used to prevent the significant crop losses from fungal disease, can be a significant variable cost in wheat production. Estimates of the amount of wheat production lost owing to plant diseases vary between 10 -- 25 % in Missouri. A wide range of organisms infect wheat, of which the most important are viruses and fungi.
The main wheat - disease categories are:
Wheat is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the flame, rustic shoulder - knot, setaceous Hebrew character and turnip moth. Early in the season, many species of birds, including the long - tailed widowbird, and rodents feed upon wheat crops. These animals can cause significant damage to a crop by digging up and eating newly planted seeds or young plants. They can also damage the crop late in the season by eating the grain from the mature spike. Recent post-harvest losses in cereals amount to billions of dollars per year in the United States alone, and damage to wheat by various borers, beetles and weevils is no exception. Rodents can also cause major losses during storage, and in major grain growing regions, field mice numbers can sometimes build up explosively to plague proportions because of the ready availability of food. To reduce the amount of wheat lost to post-harvest pests, Agricultural Research Service scientists have developed an "insect - o - graph, '' which can detect insects in wheat that are not visible to the naked eye. The device uses electrical signals to detect the insects as the wheat is being milled. The new technology is so precise that it can detect 5 - 10 infested seeds out of 300,000 good ones. Tracking insect infestations in stored grain is critical for food safety as well as for the marketing value of the crop.
This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Wheat '', which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.
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when was season 5 orange is the new black released | List of Orange Is the New Black episodes - wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black is an American comedy - drama series created by Jenji Kohan, which premiered on July 11, 2013, on Netflix. The series, based on Piper Kerman 's memoir Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), follows Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a happily engaged New Yorker who is sent to a women 's federal prison for transporting a suitcase full of drug money across international borders, 10 years prior, for her girlfriend at the time, Alex Vause (Laura Prepon).
As of June 9, 2017, 65 episodes of Orange Is the New Black have been released, concluding the fifth season. Ten of the thirteen episodes of the fifth season were leaked online by hackers prior to its scheduled premiere date.
The series has been renewed for its sixth and seventh seasons.
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who wrote the music for oliver and company | Oliver & Company - wikipedia
Oliver & Company is a 1988 American animated musical comedy - drama film produced by Walt Disney Feature Animation and released on November 18, 1988, by Walt Disney Pictures. The 27th Disney animated feature film, the film is inspired by the classic Charles Dickens novel Oliver Twist, which has been adapted many other times for the screen. In the film, Oliver is a homeless kitten who joins a gang of dogs to survive in the streets. Among other changes, the setting of the film was relocated from 19th century London to late 1980s New York City, Fagin 's gang is made up of dogs (one of which is Dodger), and Sykes is a loan shark.
Oliver & Company began production around 1987 as Oliver and the Dodger. The film was re-released in the United States, Canada, and the UK on March 29, 1996. It was then released to video later that same year, and again in 2002 and 2009 on DVD. The film was released on Blu - ray Disc in 2013, commemorating its 25th Anniversary.
On Fifth Avenue, an orphaned kitten named Oliver is left abandoned after his fellow orphaned kittens are adopted by passersby. Wandering the streets by himself in search of someone to adopt him, Oliver meets a laid - back mongrel named Dodger who assists the kitten in stealing food from a hot dog vendor named Louie. Dodger then flees the scene without sharing his bounty with Oliver. Oliver follows Dodger all throughout the streets until he eventually arrives at the barge of his owner, a pickpocket named Fagin, along with his meal, to give to his friends: Tito the chihuahua, Einstein the Great Dane, Rita the Afghan Hound, and Francis the bulldog. Oliver sneaks inside, located below the docks, and is discovered by the dogs. After a moment of confusion, he is then received with a warm welcome. Fagin comes in and explains that he is running out of time to repay the money he borrowed from Bill Sykes, a nefarious shipyard agent and loan shark. Sykes tells Fagin that the money must be paid in three days, or else. Sykes ' dobermans, Roscoe and DeSoto, attack Oliver, but the cat is defended by Fagin 's dogs. Immediately thereafter, a depressed Fagin returns to the barge, lamenting that he only has three days to find the money he owes Sykes. After the dogs cheer him up, Fagin is introduced to Oliver, and, considering that they all need help, accepts him into the gang.
The next day, Fagin and his pets, now including Oliver, hit the streets to sell some shoddy goods and perhaps steal money. Oliver and Tito attempt to sabotage a limousine but the plan backfires when Oliver accidentally starts the car, electrocuting Tito, and Oliver is caught and taken home by its passenger, Jenny Foxworth, and her butler, Winston. Jenny 's parents are away on a trip and she adopts Oliver out of loneliness. Georgette, the Foxworth family 's pompous and pampered poodle, is enraged and jealous of Oliver 's presence and wants him removed from the household. Dodger and the others manage to steal Oliver from the Foxworth family and bring him back to the barge, but he explains that he was treated kindly and did not want to leave, much to the shock of Dodger who feels that Oliver is being ungrateful, and allows him the opportunity to leave. However, Fagin arrives and concocts a plan to ransom Oliver, then sends Jenny a ransom note. Jenny discovers the note and sets out to get Oliver back. Meanwhile, Fagin tells Sykes of his plan, who says he is proud of him for "starting to think big ''.
Later, Jenny meets up with Fagin, who is shocked that the "very rich cat owner person '' is only a little girl. Bothered by his conscience after seeing Jenny distraught over losing Oliver, Fagin gives Oliver back freely. Just then, Sykes comes out of the shadows and kidnaps Jenny, intending to ransom her and declaring Fagin 's debt paid.
Dodger rallies Oliver and the other dogs to rescue Jenny from Sykes, but the animals are confronted by Sykes and his Dobermans after they free her. Fagin saves the group with his scooter and a chase ensues throughout the streets and into the subway tunnels. Jenny is pushed onto the hood of Sykes 's car after it rammed the scooter, where she holds onto the hood ornament, and Oliver and Dodger attempt a rescue. Roscoe and DeSoto fall off the car in the struggle and land on the subway 's third rail, electrocuting them. Tito takes control of Fagin 's scooter as Fagin manages to retrieve Jenny, and Tito drives the scooter up the side of the Brooklyn Bridge as Sykes ' car drives straight into the path of an oncoming train, killing him and throwing him and his car into the East River. Dodger and Oliver manage to avoid the collision thanks to Sykes throwing them off him before the impact and are reunited with Jenny and the others. Later, Jenny celebrates her birthday with the animals, Fagin and Winston. That same day, Winston receives a phone call from Jenny 's parents in Rome saying that they will be back Stateside in Manhattan tomorrow. Oliver opts to stay with Jenny, but he promises to remain in contact with Dodger and the gang.
After the release of The Black Cauldron in 1985, Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Katzenberg invited the animators to pitch potential ideas for upcoming animated features, infamously called the "Gong Show ''. After Ron Clements and John Musker suggested The Little Mermaid and Treasure Island in Space, animator Pete Young suggested, "Oliver Twist with dogs ''. Originally intending to produce a live - action adaptation of the musical Oliver! at Paramount Pictures, Katzenberg approved the pitch. Under the working title of Oliver and the Dodger, the film was originally much darker and grittier with the film opening with Sykes 's two Dobermans murdering Oliver 's parents, setting the story to focus on Oliver exacting his revenge as detailed in a draft dated on March 30, 1987. George Scribner and Richard Rich were announced as the directors of the project, while Pete Young was appointed as story supervisor, though Rich left about six months into production, leaving Scribner as the sole director. In this adaptation, Scribner turned Oliver into a naïve kitten, Dodger and the gang into dogs, and Fagin into a human, and encouraged the film to be more street smart. Furthermore, Scribner borrowed a technique from Lady and the Tramp by blocking out the scenes on real streets, and then photographing them with cameras mounted eighteen inches off the ground. In this way, the animators would use the photos as templates to provide a real dog 's - eye view of the action. As work continued on Oliver, Roy E. Disney came up with an idea that Fagin would attempt to steal a rare panda from the city zoo. However, the writers would have problems with the idea, and the panda sub-plot was eventually dropped when Scribner suggested to have Fagin hold Oliver for ransom because he was a valuable, rare Asian cat.
For the film, Disney invested $15 million into a long - term computer system called Computer Animation Production System, otherwise known as CAPS. Unlike The Black Cauldron and The Great Mouse Detective which used computer imagery for special sequences, eleven minutes of Oliver & Company were computer - generated such as the skyscrapers, the taxi cabs, trains, Fagin 's scooter - cart, and the climactic subway chase. Meanwhile, the traditional animation was handled by the next generation of Disney animators, including supervising animators Glen Keane, Ruben A. Aquino, Mike Gabriel, Hendel Butoy, and Mark Henn as the "Nine Old Men '' had retired in the early 1980s. Throughout two and a half years of production, six supervising animators and a team of over 300 artists and technicians worked on the film. Skidmore, Owings & Merrill was the database for the New York City skyline, which was recreated accurately for the movie.
Because personalities are considered the greatest strength of Disney animated films, the filmmakers sought believable voices to match the movement of the animation. For this film, the filmmakers cast fellow New York natives including Bette Midler for Georgette, Sheryl Lee Ralph for Rita, and Roscoe Lee Browne for Francis. Comedian Cheech Marin was cast as the chihuahua Tito. Because energy proved to be the key to Tito 's personality, Marin claimed "I was encouraged to ad - lib, but I 'd say I just gave about 75 % of the lines as they were written. The natural energy of a Chihuahua played right into that feeling. George (Scribner) was very encouraging as a director: He kept the energy level high at the recording sessions. '' Pop singer Billy Joel was recommended for the voice of Dodger by Scribner because of his "New York street - smart, savoir - faire attitude '', and auditioned for the role by telephone after being given dialogue. Additionally, Joel confirmed he did the role because it was a Disney movie, and admitted that "I had just had a little girl. It 's a great way to do something that my little girl could see that she could relate to right away. ''
The soundtrack of Oliver & Company contains an instrumental score by J.A.C. Redford under the supervision of Carole Childs, while Jeffrey Katzenberg had the idea to bring in big - name singer / songwriters, each of whom would contribute a song into the film including Billy Joel, Barry Manilow, and Huey Lewis. At his suggestion of his friend David Geffen, Katzenberg brought in lyricist Howard Ashman, who composed the song "Once Upon a Time in New York City ''. Musical composer J.A.C. Redford was brought to compose the score who had a working relationship with Disney music executive Chris Montan on the series St. Elsewhere. Ashman, who, with Alan Menken, would write the songs for the next three Disney films. Billy Joel, in addition to voicing Dodger, performed the character 's song in the film.
The track list below represents the 1996 re-release of the Oliver & Company soundtrack. The original 1988 release featured the same songs, but with the instrumental cues placed in between the songs in the order in which they appeared in the film. Using the numbering system in the list below, the order the tracks on the 1988 release would be: 1, 2, 6, 7, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11. The reprise of "Why Should I Worry? '', performed by the entire cast, remains unreleased on CD.
Oliver & Company was the first Disney animated film to include real world advertised products. More than 30 company logos and brand names were shown in the film, including Kodak, Dr. Scholls, Sony, Diet Coke, Tab, McDonald 's, Yamaha, Ryder, and USA Today. However, the filmmakers commented on ABC 's The Wonderful World of Disney that this was for realism, was not paid product placement, and that it would not be New York City without advertising. Instead, Katzenberg urged the marketing campaign to focus on the classic Dickens novel and the pop score, and promotional tie - ins included Sears, which produced and manufactured products with themes inspired from the film, and McDonald 's which sold Christmas musical ornaments based on Oliver and Dodger, and small finger puppets based on the characters in a Happy Meal. For its theatrical re-release in 1996, the film was accompanied with a promotional campaign by Burger King.
In the United Kingdom, Oliver & Company was not distributed by Buena Vista International, but by Warner Bros. Buena Vista International did however release the film on home video.
Despite its financial success at the box office, Oliver & Company was not released on home video despite being one of the most requested Disney films. After its theatrical re-release, Oliver & Company was released on VHS in the US on September 25, 1996, for a limited time, and in the UK in 1997. It was later released on DVD on May 14, 2002. A 20th Anniversary Edition DVD was released on February 3, 2009, and a 25th Anniversary Edition Blu - ray was released on August 6, 2013.
Opening on the same weekend as Don Bluth 's The Land Before Time, which debuted at number - one grossing $7.5 million, beating out Oliver & Company which opened at fourth, grossing $4 million. Nevertheless, Oliver & Company out - grossed The Land Before Time with domestic gross estimates of $53 million compared to $46 million of the latter. Its success prompted Disney 's senior vice-president of animation, Peter Schneider, to announce the company 's plans to release animated features annually. On March 29, 1996, Disney re-released the film in direct competition with All Dogs Go to Heaven 2, grossing $4.5 million in its opening weekend. In its total box office lifetime, Oliver & Company made a total domestic gross of $74 million at the U.S. box office.
Despite its success at the box office, Oliver & Company was met with mixed reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes reported that 44 % of critics gave the film positive reviews based on 36 reviews with an average rating of 5.4 / 10. Its consensus states that "Oliver & Company is a decidedly lesser effort in the Disney canon, with lackluster songs, stiff animation, and a thoroughly predictable plot. ''
On the television program, Siskel & Ebert, Gene Siskel gave the film a thumbs down. Siskel stated: "When you measure this film to the company 's legacy of classics, it does n't match up '' as he complained "the story is too fragmented... because Oliver 's story gets too sidetracked from the story in the film that gets convoluted, too calculated for the Bette Midler, Billy Joel crowd as well as little kids. '' Roger Ebert gave the film a "marginal thumbs up '' as he described the film as "harmless, inoffensive ''. Animation historian Charles Solomon wrote a favorable reviewing concluding that the film "offers virtually ideal family holiday fare. The cartoon action will delight young children, while older ones, who usually reject animation as "kid stuff, '' will enjoy the rock songs and hip characters, especially the brash Tito. '' Writing for People, Peter Travers opined in his review, "Too slight to rank with such Disney groundbreakers as Pinocchio and Fantasia, the film is more on the good - fun level of The Lady and the Tramp and 101 Dalmatians. But why kick? With its captivating characters, sprightly songs and zap - happy animation, Oliver & Company adds up to a tip - top frolic. '' Desson Howe of The Washington Post noted that the film "retrieves some of the old Disney charm with tail - wagging energy and five catchy songs ''. Likewise, fellow Washington Post film critic Rita Kempley praised the songs and animation, and called it "happy adaptation of the Victorian classic. ''
Barry Walters, reviewing for The San Francisco Examiner, panned the film as "a rather shabby transitional work, one that lacks the sophistication of today 's ' toons and does n't hold up to the Disney classics of yesteryear. '' The staff of Halliwell 's Film Guide called Oliver & Company "episodic '' and "short on charm ''. "Only now and then '', they added, "it provides glimpses of stylish animation ''. The Ren & Stimpy Show creator John Kricfalusi suggested that the film was derivative of Ralph Bakshi 's works, and jokingly suggested its use as a form of punishment. Likewise, even some of the Disney animators viewed the film unfavorably considering it "another talking dog - and - cat movie ''.
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who went to the tomb and found it empty | Empty tomb - wikipedia
In Christianity, the empty tomb is the tomb of Jesus that was found to be empty by the women myrrhbearers who had come to his tomb to carry out their last devotions to Jesus ' body by anointing his body with spices and by pouring oils over it.
All four canonical gospels report the incident with some variations. Jesus ' body was laid out in the tomb after crucifixion and death. All the gospels report that women were the first to discover the Resurrection of Jesus. The first hint that something had happened was the rolled - away stone. This stone, as was typical of ancient tombs, had covered the entrance. They found the tomb to be empty, the body gone, and a young man or angel (s) within the tomb or on the rolled - away stone tells the women that Jesus has risen. These accounts, along with many Resurrection appearances of Jesus, lead to beliefs concerning the Resurrection of Jesus. The empty tomb points to the revelation of Jesus ' resurrection, implicitly in the canonical Gospel of Mark (without the later endings) and explicitly in the other three canonical gospel narratives.
For many people of antiquity, empty tombs were seen as signs not of resurrection but of assumption, that is, the person being taken bodily into the divine realm. In Chariton 's ancient Greek novel Callirhoe, the hero Chaereas finds his wife 's tomb empty and immediately assumes the gods took her rather than believe she was resurrected or that her body was stolen by grave - robbers. In Ancient Greek thinking, the connection between postmortem disappearance and apotheosis was strong and there are numerous examples of individuals conspiring, before their deaths, to have their remains hidden in order to promote their postmortem venerations. Arrian wrote of Alexander the Great planning his own bodily disappearance so that he would be revered as a god. Disappearances of individuals to be taken in the divine realm also occur in Jewish literature, although they do not involve an empty tomb. Daniel Smith suggests the empty tomb stories and resurrection appearances in the gospels come from separate traditions, with the former about Jesus ' absence or assumption, while the latter were about Jesus ' presence. He concludes that the gospel writers took the two traditions and weaved them together.
All four gospels agree in their emphasis upon the event taking place on the first day of the week and that the women were the first to learn of the empty tomb. All give prominence to "Mary '' and attention to the rolling away of the stone that had closed the tomb. There are variations concerning the time at which the women visited the tomb, the number and identity of the women, the purpose of their visit, the nature and appearance of the messenger (s), whether angelic or human, their message to the women and the response of the women to the visitor in the tomb.
The account of John 19: 39 - 42 tells of the intervention of influential followers of Jesus, such as Nicodemus, the man who earlier had visited Jesus at night, and Joseph of Arimathea. The Gospel of Luke 's account says Joseph was "a good and upright man '', a member of the Jewish high Council who had not consented to their decision and action to crucify Jesus. Nicodemus brought about seventy - five pounds of a mixture of myrrh and aloes. Taking Jesus ' body, the two of them wrapped it, with the spices, in strips of linen. This was in accordance with Jewish burial customs. They laid his body in a new tomb, cut in the rock, one in which no one had yet been laid. The account is marked by a sense of urgency in doing this before the Sabbath during which rest would be observed and no work could occur.
According to the Gospel of Matthew 27: 62 - 66, the Jews, knowing of Jesus ' having predicted his resurrection, had placed a Jewish guard to guard the tomb of Jesus.
First thing in the morning, the women come to the tomb with their spices, fully expecting to find Jesus ' remains. All the accounts agree that it was early morning. Matthew 28: 1 and Mark 16: 2 refer to the dawn or early morning, while John 20: 1 notes that it was still dark when they started their journey.
The four canonical gospels all agree that "Mary '' visited Jesus ' tomb, though they differ on which Mary and whether she was on her own. The gospel according to Luke relates that the women who had come with Jesus from Galilee followed Joseph of Arimathea and "saw the tomb and how his body was laid in it. Then they went home and prepared spices and perfumes. But they rested on the Sabbath in obedience to the commandment. '' Luke names them as Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James, and "the others with them ''.
According to most ancient versions of the gospel of John (and most modern translations) Mary was Mary Magdalene, though the Codex Sinaiticus ' version only calls her Mary. No other woman is mentioned explicitly, though when Mary says that she does n't know where Jesus ' body is, she uses the plural, which may indicate that there were other women with her.
In the Gospel of Mark both Mary Magdalene and Mary, the mother of James are mentioned, joined by Salome.
In Matthew, Mary Magdalene is with another Mary, presumably the mother of James.
When they return from the cemetery on Passover morning to tell the eleven remaining apostles and those with them, they brought with them word of an empty tomb and the report that "He is not here but has risen! '' The apostles were dismissive. Some have suggested a lack of enthusiasm because the messengers were women in a world that did not grant credibility to a woman 's witness. Josephus (Ant. iv.: 8: 15) writes that Jewish tradition stated: "From women let not evidence be accepted because of the levity and temerity of their sex. ''
The IVP New Testament Commentary Series (Academic) has the following analysis of the account in Luke:
These women did not go believing in resurrection. They did not go to check and see if the tomb was empty. The fact that they took spices along to anoint the decaying body shows what they expected to find, and this despite six resurrection predictions in Luke. So the first people who had to be convinced of the resurrection were the disciples themselves. They may have belonged to the era of the ancients, but they did not think as a matter of course that resurrection would occur. In a real sense they were the first skeptics to become convinced that Jesus was raised!
Theologian Thomas G. Long has offered two other possibilities besides their gender:
According to John the visit was on the first day of the week (Sunday, the day after Shabbat, the end of the Jewish week), while it was still dark. According to Mark and Luke it was light. Alfred Loisy believed that the original form of John here was similar to that recounted in the Codex Sinaiticus, and was intended to point to Mary, Jesus ' mother as the sole visitor, while later copyists substituted Mary Magdalene so that the gospel according to John matched accounts given in the other gospels more closely. An attempt at resolving the discrepancy in order to preserve the idea of infallibility describes Mary as making two different trips to the tomb, the first being in the dark on her own and the second at dawn with a group of women, including the other Mary.
Mark and Luke explain that the women were intending to continue the Jewish burial rituals. Matthew merely says that they came just to look at the tomb. John makes no mention of ritual and the apocryphal, heterodox Gospel of Peter claims that Mary Magdalene came to mourn. Rabbi Bar Kappara was of the opinion (recorded in the Midrash Rabbah) that the third day was often the prime point for mourning in those days.
Resolving the accounts is a matter tied to the synoptic problem. The prevailing theory of Markan priority would suggest that the original story had a mysterious man in white in the tomb. In Matthew he becomes an angel and in Luke, written for a non-Jewish audience, he becomes two angel - like men. In John 's gospel, this part of the account is omitted.
Raymond Brown has argued that the text for John 20 was combined from two separate sources that John inexpertly interlaced together.
Scholars L. Michael White and Helmut Koester see the account of the guards in Matthew as an apologetic insertion, an attempt by the writer to explain the Jewish claims that the disciples stole the body which were circulating at the time. The guards and the stolen body claims are not mentioned in the other three gospels. The apocryphal Gospel of Peter, on the other hand, is more detailed, specifying "Petronius the centurion with soldiers to guard the tomb ''.
In John 's gospel, the angels are described as sitting where Jesus ' body had been, thought to be a reference to squatting or sitting cross legged, suggesting that the tomb possessed a raised shelf or ledge, on which the body had been placed. F.F. Bruce argues that the angels, as supernatural beings, were sitting on thin air. John also describes the angels as sitting so that one was where Jesus ' head had been, and one where his feet had been, and some scholars think that this clear distinction between head and foot is an indication that the tomb had a built - in headrest, though others believe the writer is just referring to the direction in which Jesus had been placed.
John portrays Mary as stooping to view the tomb. According to modern archaeology, tombs of the era were accessed via doors at ground level which were generally less than a metre tall, fitting the description given to Mary 's viewing. These tombs either had a lone chamber for a single individual, or a passage lined with entrances to a number of tombs. Mary is able to see into Jesus ' tomb from the outside suggesting the former type. This is considered a traditional view.
According to both Luke and John, the disciples see grave clothes in the tomb. Luke states that strips of linen were "lying alone '', or "laid by themselves '', per the Greek, keimena mona, although the NRSV translation uses the phrase -- "by themselves '' -- instead of "alone '', and omits the word, "lying ''. John states that they were "lying '', or, per the NRSV, "lying there ''. These two descriptions may or may not imply the same thing. Brown has argued that John is using a phrase that actually describes the linen as lying on a shelf within the tomb. According to Luke, Jesus had been wrapped in a shroud, and this became the traditional view. What became of the grave clothes after the disciples have seen them is not described in the Bible, though some works of the New Testament apocrypha do make mention of it. A Roman Catholic tradition describes the shroud as being taken to Turin, becoming the Turin Shroud.
John additionally describes the presence of a soudarion, for the head, that was set apart. A soudarion is literally a sweat rag; more specifically it was a piece of cloth used to wipe away sweat, but in the context of dead bodies, most scholars believe it was used to keep the jaw closed. Tradition holds that the Sudarion was a turban, and that it later found its way to Oviedo in Spain, becoming the Sudarium of Oviedo. Although it may initially seem insignificant, the fact that the item for the head was set apart fundamentally affects Christology. If the head cloth remained in the same location as the remainder of the clothes, and if these remained where the body had been, it implies that Jesus ' body was lifted through the clothing, or that Jesus ' body de-materialised and re-materialised elsewhere, hence supporting more docetic interpretations. Conversely, it being set apart implies the opposite -- that someone took the clothes off in an ordinary manner. Furthermore, the Greek text uses the word entetuligmenon, translated "having been folded up '', seeming to imply some intentional action had been taken on the soudarion. Some see this as a direct attack by the author of John on docetism, and the gnosticism that used the synoptic accounts to advocate it.
In more recent times, the possibility that Jesus passed through cloth and dematerialized has frequently been regarded as evidence of divine action by God. This interpretation, however, was not one that existed in the early church, which viewed such interpretations as docetism. Those advocating a more supernatural account have argued that the fact that the soudarion (a head cloth for the dead) and the other grave clothes were set apart merely reflects the distance of the neck as it is situated between the head and the body, or that it simply means that the cloth was curled in a ball rather than lying flat, i.e., that it was lying in a different manner to the others.
The level of detail that the author of the Gospel According to John adds to this section is to former Bishop of Durham Brooke Foss Westcott evidence that the author was an eyewitness. C.H. Dodd argues that, having already reached the narrative climax with the crucifixion scene, these later sections deliberately slow down the narrative to act as dénouement. Schnackenburg interprets the level of detail as apologetic in origin, though he does regard the details concerning the placement of the grave clothes to be an attempt to disprove the allegation that Jesus ' tomb had simply been robbed, rather than as an attempt to assert a Christology.
Although the church proclaims the resurrection confidently today, the original witnesses had to be convinced that it had occurred. Resurrection had been promised by Scripture and by Jesus. However, only slowly, grudgingly and methodically did the disciples come to see that it had come to pass.
When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought spices so that they might go to anoint Jesus ' body. Very early on the first day of the week, just after sunrise, they were on their way to the tomb and they asked each other, "Who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb? '' But when they looked up, they saw that the stone, which was very large, had been rolled away. As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side, and they were alarmed. "Do n't be alarmed, '' he said. "You are looking for Jesus the Nazarene, who was crucified. He has risen! He is not here. See the place where they laid him. But go, tell his disciples and Peter, ' He is going ahead of you into Galilee. There you will see him, just as he told you. ' '' Trembling and bewildered, the women went out and fled from the tomb. They said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid.
After the Sabbath, at dawn on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalene and the other Mary went to look at the tomb.
There was a violent earthquake, for an angel of the Lord came down from heaven and, going to the tomb, rolled back the stone and sat on it. His appearance was like lightning, and his clothes were white as snow. The guards were so afraid of him that they shook and became like dead men. The angel said to the women, "Do not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified. He is not here; he has risen, just as he said. Come and see the place where he lay. Then go quickly and tell his disciples: ' He has risen from the dead and is going ahead of you into Galilee. There you will see him. ' Now I have told you.
So the women hurried away from the tomb, afraid yet filled with joy, and ran to tell his disciples. Suddenly Jesus met them. "Greetings, '' he said. They came to him, clasped his feet and worshiped him. Then Jesus said to them, "Do not be afraid. Go and tell my brothers to go to Galilee; there they will see me. ''
On the first day of the week, very early in the morning, the women took the spices they had prepared and went to the tomb. They found the stone rolled away from the tomb, but when they entered, they did not find the body of the Lord Jesus. While they were wondering about this, suddenly two men in clothes that gleamed like lightning stood beside them. In their fright the women bowed down with their faces to the ground, but the men said to them, "Why do you look for the living among the dead? He is not here; he has risen! Remember how he told you, while he was still with you in Galilee: ' The Son of Man must be delivered into the hands of sinful men, be crucified and on the third day be raised again. ' '' Then they remembered his words.
Early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the entrance. So she came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one Jesus loved, and said, "They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we do n't know where they have put him! '' So Peter and the other disciple started for the tomb. Both were running, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached the tomb first. He bent over and looked in at the strips of linen lying there but did not go in. Then Simon Peter, who was behind him, arrived and went into the tomb. He saw the strips of linen lying there, as well as the burial cloth that had been around Jesus ' head. The cloth was folded up by itself, separate from the linen. Finally the other disciple, who had reached the tomb first, also went inside. He saw and believed. (They still did not understand from Scripture that Jesus had to rise from the dead.) Then the disciples went back to their homes, but Mary stood outside the tomb crying. As she wept, she bent over to look into the tomb and saw two angels in white, seated where Jesus ' body had been, one at the head and the other at the foot. They asked her, "Woman, why are you crying? '' "They have taken my Lord away, '' she said, "and I do n't know where they have put him. '' At this, she turned around and saw Jesus standing there, but she did not realize that it was Jesus. He asked her, "Woman, why are you crying? Who is it you are looking for? '' Thinking he was the gardener, she said, "Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will get him. '' Jesus said to her, "Mary. '' She turned toward him and cried out, "Rabboni! '' (which means "Teacher ''). Jesus said, "Touch me not; for I am not yet ascended to my Father: but go to my brethren, and say unto them, I ascend unto my Father, and your Father; and to my God, and your God. '' Mary Magdalene went to the disciples with the news: "I have seen the Lord! '' And she told them that he had said these things to her.
And in the night in which the Lord 's day was drawing on, as the soldiers kept guard two by two in a watch, there was a great voice in the heaven; and they saw the heavens opened, and two men descend with a great light and approach the tomb. And the stone that was put at the door rolled of itself and made way in part; and the tomb was opened, and both the young men entered in.
When therefore those soldiers saw it, they awakened the centurion and the elders, for they too were close by keeping guard. And as they declared what things they had seen, again they saw three men come forth from the tomb, and two of them supporting one, and a cross following them. And the heads of the two reached to heaven, but the head of him who was led by them overpassed the heavens. And they heard a voice from the heavens, saying, You have preached to them that sleep. And a response was heard from the cross, Yes.
Portals: Christianity Bible
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who had the idea of the european union | History of the European Union - wikipedia
The European Union is a geo - political entity covering a large portion of the European continent. It is founded upon numerous treaties and has undergone expansions that have taken it from 6 member states to 28, a majority of the states in Europe.
Apart from the ideas of federation, confederation, or customs union, the original development of the European Union was based on a supranational foundation that would "make war unthinkable and materially impossible '' and reinforce democracy amongst its members as laid out by Robert Schuman and other leaders in the Schuman Declaration (1950) and the Europe Declaration (1951). This principle was at the heart of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) (1951), the Treaty of Paris (1951), and later the Treaty of Rome (1958) which established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC). Both the ECSC and EEC were later incorporated into the European Union while the EAEC maintains a distinct legal identity despite sharing members and institutions.
The Maastricht Treaty (1992) created the European Union with its pillars system, including foreign and home affairs alongside the European Community. This in turn led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro (launched 1999). The Maastricht Treaty has been amended by the treaties of Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001) and Lisbon (2007).
Large areas of Europe had previously been united by empires built on force, such as the Roman Empire, Byzantine Empire, Frankish Empire, the First French Empire and Nazi Germany. A peaceful means of some consolidation of European territories used to be provided by dynastic unions; less common were country - level unions, such as the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austro - Hungarian Empire.
In the Congress of Aix - la - Chapelle of 1818, Tsar Alexander, as the most advanced internationalist of the day, suggested a kind of permanent European union and even proposed the maintenance of international military forces to provide recognised states with support against changes by violence.
An example of an organisation formed to promote the association of states between the wars to promote the idea of European union is the Pan-Europa movement.
World War II from 1939 to 1945 saw a human and economic catastrophe which hit Europe hardest. It demonstrated the horrors of war, and also of extremism, through the Holocaust and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Once again, there was a desire to ensure it could never happen again, particularly with the war giving the world nuclear weapons. Most European countries failed to maintain their Great Power status, with the exception of the USSR, which became a superpower after World War II and maintained the status for 45 years. This left two rival ideologically opposed superpowers.
To ensure Germany could never threaten the peace again, its heavy industry was partly dismantled (See: Allied plans for German industry after World War II) and its main coal - producing regions were detached (Saarland, Silesia), or put under international control (Ruhr area). (See: Monnet Plan)
With statements such as Winston Churchill 's 1946 call for a "United States of Europe '' becoming louder, the Council of Europe was established in 1949 as the first pan-European organisation. In the year following, on 9 May 1950, the French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman proposed a community to integrate the coal and steel industries of Europe -- these being the two elements necessary to make weapons of war. (See: Schuman declaration).
On the basis of that speech, France, Italy, the Benelux countries (Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg) together with West Germany signed the Treaty of Paris (1951) creating the European Coal and Steel Community the following year; this took over the role of the International Authority for the Ruhr and lifted some restrictions on German industrial productivity. It gave birth to the first institutions, such as the High Authority (now the European Commission) and the Common Assembly (now the European Parliament). The first presidents of those institutions were Jean Monnet and Paul - Henri Spaak respectively.
WikiLeaks documents revealed on 8 May 2009 show that at the Bilderberg Group in 1955, there was support for a single European currency (i.e. the euro) and for a common market in Europe with lower tariff rates than those outside of the common market, and greater pan-European integration, based on the then six members of the European Coal and Steel Community, "particularly with regard to the industrial utilization of atomic energy. ''
The attempt to turn the Saar protectorate into a "European territory '' was rejected by a referendum in 1955. The Saar was to have been governed by a statute supervised by a European Commissioner reporting to the Council of Ministers of the Western European Union.
After failed attempts at creating defence (European Defence Community) and political communities (European Political Community), leaders met at the Messina Conference and established the Spaak Committee which produced the Spaak report. The report was accepted at the Venice Conference (29 and 30 May 1956) where the decision was taken to organise an Intergovernmental Conference. The Intergovernmental Conference on the Common Market and Euratom focused on economic unity, leading to the Treaties of Rome being signed in 1957 which established the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) among the members.
The two new communities were created separately from ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The executives of the new communities were called Commissions, as opposed to the "High Authority ''. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Etienne Hirsch. Euratom would integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union between members.
Throughout the 1960s tensions began to show with France seeking to limit supranational power and rejecting the membership of the United Kingdom. However, in 1965 an agreement was reached to merge the three communities under a single set of institutions, and hence the Merger Treaty was signed in Brussels and came into force on 1 July 1967 creating the European Communities. Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).
While the political progress of the Communities was hesitant in the 1960s, this was a fertile period for European legal integration. Many of the foundational legal doctrines of the Court of Justice were first established in landmark decisions during the 1960s and 1970s, above all in the Van Gend en Loos decision of 1963 that declared the "direct effect '' of European law, that is to say, its enforceability before national courts by private parties. Other landmark decisions during this period included Costa v ENEL, which established the supremacy of European law over national law and the "Dairy Products '' decision, which declared that general international law principles of reciprocity and retaliation were prohibited within the European Community.
After much negotiation, and following a change in the French Presidency, Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom (with Gibraltar) eventually joined the European Communities on 1 January 1973. This was the first of several enlargements which became a major policy area of the Union (see: Enlargement of the European Union).
In 1979, the European Parliament held its first direct elections by universal suffrage. 410 members were elected, who then elected the first female President of the European Parliament, Simone Veil.
A further enlargement took place in 1981 with Greece joining on 1 January, six years after applying. In 1982, Greenland voted to leave the Community after gaining home rule from Denmark (See also: Special member state territories and the European Union). Spain and Portugal joined (having applied in 1977) on 1 January 1986 in the third enlargement.
Recently appointed Commission President Jacques Delors (Delors Commission) presided over the adoption of the European flag by the Communities in 1986. In the first major revision of the treaties since the Merger Treaty, leaders signed the Single European Act in February 1986. The text dealt with institutional reform, including extension of community powers -- in particular in regarding foreign policy. It was a major component in completing the single market and came into force on 1 July 1987.
In 1987 Turkey formally applied to join the Community and began the longest application process for any country. In Central Europe, after 1988 Polish strikes and Polish Round Table Agreement in 1989, the Berlin Wall fell, along with the Iron Curtain. Germany reunified and the door to enlargement to the former Eastern Bloc was opened (See also: Copenhagen Criteria).
With a wave of new enlargements on the way, the Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992 which established the European Union when it came into force the following year.
On 1 November 1993, under the third Delors Commission, the Maastricht Treaty became effective, creating the European Union with its pillar system, including foreign and home affairs alongside the European Community. The 1994 European elections were held resulting in the Socialist group maintaining their position as the largest party in Parliament. The Council proposed Jacques Santer as Commission President but he was seen as a second choice candidate, undermining his position. Parliament narrowly approved Santer but his commission gained greater support, being approved by 416 votes to 103. Santer had to use his new powers under Maastricht to flex greater control over his choice of Commissioners. They took office on 23 January 1995.
On 30 March 1994, accession negotiations concluded with Austria, Sweden and Finland. Meanwhile, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein joined the European Economic Area (which entered into force on 1 January 1994), an organisation that allowed European Free Trade Association states to enter the Single European Market. The following year, the Schengen Agreement came into force between seven members, expanding to include nearly all others by the end of 1996. The 1990s also saw the further development of the euro. 1 January 1994 saw the second stage of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union begin with the establishment of the European Monetary Institute and at the start of 1999 the euro as a currency was launched and the European Central Bank was established. On 1 January 2002, notes and coins were put into circulation, replacing the old currencies entirely.
During the 1990s, the conflicts in the Balkans gave impetus to developing the EU 's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). The EU failed to react during the beginning of the conflict, and UN peacekeepers from the Netherlands failed to prevent the Srebrenica massacre (July 1995) in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the largest mass murder in Europe since the Second World War. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) finally had to intervene in the war, forcing the combatants to the negotiation table. The early foreign policy experience of the EU led to foreign policy being emphasised in the Treaty of Amsterdam (which created the High Representative).
However, any success was overshadowed by the budget crisis in March 1999. The Parliament refused to approve the Commission 's 1996 community 's budget on grounds of financial mismanagement, fraud and nepotism. With Parliament ready to throw them out, the entire Santer Commission resigned. The post-Delors mood of euroscepticism became entrenched with the Council and Parliament constantly challenging the Commission 's position in coming years.
In the following elections, the Socialists lost their decades - old majority to the new People 's Party and the incoming Prodi Commission was quick to establish the new European Anti-fraud Office (OLAF). Under the new powers of the Amsterdam Treaty, Prodi was described by some as the ' First Prime Minister of Europe '. On 4 June, Javier Solana was appointed Secretary General of the Council and the strengthened High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy admitted the intervention in Kosovo -- Solana was also seen by some as Europe 's first Foreign Minister. The Nice Treaty was signed on 26 February 2001 and entered into force on 1 February 2003 which made the final preparations before the 2004 enlargement to 10 new members.
On the 10 -- 13 June 2004, the 25 member states participated in the largest trans - national election in history (with the second largest democratic electorate in the world). The result of the sixth Parliamentary election was a second victory for the European People 's Party - European Democrats group. It also saw the lowest voter turnout of 45.5 %, the second time it had fallen below 50 %. On 22 July 2004, José Manuel Barroso was approved by the new Parliament as the next Commission President. However, his new team of 25 Commissioners faced a tougher road. With Parliament raising objections to a number of his candidates he was forced to withdraw his selection and try once more. The Prodi Commission had to extend their mandate to the 22 November after the new line - up of commissioners was finally approved.
A proposed constitutional treaty was signed by plenipotentiaries from EU member states on 28 October 2004. The document was ratified in most member states, including two positive referendums. The referendums that were held in France and the Netherlands failed however, killing off the treaty. The European Council agreed that the constitution proposal would be abandoned, but most of its changes would be retained in an amending treaty. On 13 December 2007 the treaty was signed, containing opt - outs for the more eurosceptic members and no state - like elements. The Lisbon treaty finally came into force on 1 December 2009. It created the post of President of the European Council and significantly expanded the post of High Representative. After much debate about what kind of person should be President, the European Council agreed on a low - key personality and chose Herman Van Rompuy while foreign policy - novice Catherine Ashton became High Representative.
The 2009 elections again saw a victory for the European People 's Party, despite losing the British Conservatives who formed a smaller eurosceptic grouping with other anti-federalist right wing parties. Parliament 's presidency was once again divided between the People 's Party and the Socialists, with Jerzy Buzek elected as the first President of the European Parliament from an ex-communist country. Barroso was nominated by the Council for a second term and received backing from EPP who had declared him as their candidate before the elections. However, the Socialists and Greens led the opposition against him despite not agreeing on an opposing candidate. Parliament finally approved Barroso II, though once more several months behind schedule.
In 2007, the fifth enlargement completed with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria on 1 January 2007. Also, in 2007 Slovenia adopted the euro, Malta and Cyprus in 2008 and Slovakia in 2009. However trouble developed with existing members as the eurozone entered its first recession in 2008. Members cooperated and the ECB intervened to help restore economic growth and the euro was seen as a safe haven, particularly by those outside such as Iceland.
However, with the risk of a default in Greece, Ireland, Portugal and other members in late 2009 -- 10, eurozone leaders agreed to provisions for loans to member states who could not raise funds. Accusations that this was a u-turn on the EU treaties, which rule out any bail out of a euro member in order to encourage them to manage their finances better, were countered by the argument that these were loans, not grants, and that neither the EU nor other Member States assumed any liabilities for the debts of the aided countries. With Greece struggling to restore its finances, other member states also at risk and the repercussions this would have on the rest of the eurozone economy, a loan mechanism was agreed. The crisis also spurred consensus for further economic integration and a range of proposals such as a European Monetary Fund or federal treasury.
The European Union received the 2012 Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe. '' The Nobel Committee stated that "that dreadful suffering in World War II demonstrated the need for a new Europe (...) today war between Germany and France is unthinkable. This shows how, through well - aimed efforts and by building up mutual confidence, historical enemies can become close partners. '' The Nobel Committee 's decision was subject to considerable criticism.
On 1 July 2013, Croatia joined the EU, and on 1 January 2014 the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte was added as an outermost region.
On 23 June 2016, the citizens of the United Kingdom voted to withdraw from the European Union in a referendum. The vote was in favour of leaving the EU by a margin of 51.9 % in favour to 48.1 % against.
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when were shakespeare's sonnets written and published | Shakespeare 's sonnets - wikipedia
Shakespeare 's sonnets are poems that William Shakespeare wrote on a variety of themes. When discussing or referring to Shakespeare 's sonnets, it is almost always a reference to the 154 sonnets that were first published all together in a quarto in 1609; however there are six additional sonnets that Shakespeare wrote and included in the plays Romeo and Juliet, Henry V and Love 's Labour 's Lost.
Shakespeare 's sonnets are considered a continuation of the sonnet tradition that swept through the Renaissance, from Petrarch in 14th - century Italy and was finally introduced in 16th - century England by Thomas Wyatt. With few exceptions, Shakespeare 's sonnets observe the stylistic form of the English sonnet -- the rhyme scheme, the 14 lines, and the meter. But Shakespeare 's sonnets introduce such significant departures of content that they seem to be rebelling against well - worn 200 year - old traditions.
Instead of expressing worshipful love for an almost goddess - like yet unobtainable female love - object, as Petrarch, Dante, and Philip Sidney had done, Shakespeare introduces a young man. He also introduces the Dark Lady, who is no goddess. Shakespeare explores themes such as lust, homoeroticism, misogyny, infidelity, and acrimony in ways that may challenge, but which also open new terrain for the sonnet form.
The primary source of Shakespeare 's sonnets is a quarto published in 1609 titled Shakespeare 's Sonnets. It contains 154 sonnets, which are followed by the long poem "A Lover 's Complaint ''. Thirteen copies of the quarto have survived in fairly good shape from the 1609 edition, which is the only edition, there were no other printings. There is evidence in a note on the title page of one of the extant copies that the great Elizabethan actor Edward Alleyn bought a copy in June of 1609 for one shilling.
The sonnets cover such themes as the passage of time, love, infidelity, jealousy, beauty and mortality. The first 126 are addressed to a young man; the last 28 are either addressed to, or refer to a woman. (Sonnets 138 and 144 had previously been published in the 1599 miscellany The Passionate Pilgrim).
The title of the quarto, Shakespeare 's Sonnets, is consistent with the entry in the Stationer Register. The title appears in upper case lettering on the title page, where it is followed by the phrase "Neuer before Imprinted ''. The title also appears every time the quarto is opened. That the author 's name in a possessive form is part of the title sets it apart from all other sonnet collections of the time, except for one -- Sir Philip Sidney 's posthumous 1591 publication that is titled, Syr. P.S. his Astrophel and Stella, which is considered one of Shakespeare 's most important models. Sidney 's title may have inspired Shakespeare, particularly if the "W.H. '' of Shakespeare 's dedication is Sidney 's nephew and heir, William Herbert. The idea that the persona referred to as the speaker of the Shakespeare 's sonnets might be Shakespeare himself, is aggressively repudiated by scholars, however, the title of the quarto does seem to encourage that kind of speculation.
The first 17 poems, traditionally called the procreation sonnets, are addressed to the young man -- urging him to marry and have children in order to immortalize his beauty by passing it to the next generation. Other sonnets express the speaker 's love for the young man; brood upon loneliness, death, and the transience of life; seem to criticise the young man for preferring a rival poet; express ambiguous feelings for the speaker 's mistress; and pun on the poet 's name. The final two sonnets are allegorical treatments of Greek epigrams referring to the "little love - god '' Cupid.
The publisher, Thomas Thorpe, entered the book in the Stationers ' Register on 20 May 1609:
Whether Thorpe used an authorised manuscript from Shakespeare or an unauthorised copy is unknown. George Eld printed the quarto, and the run was divided between the booksellers William Aspley and John Wright.
Shakespeare 's Sonnets include a dedication to "Mr. W.H. '':
TO. THE. ONLIE. BEGETTER. OF. THESE. INSUING. SONNETS. Mr. W.H. ALL. HAPPINESSE. AND. THAT. ETERNITIE. PROMISED. BY. OUR. EVER - LIVING. POET. WISHETH. THE. WELL - WISHING. ADVENTURER.IN. SETTING. FORTH. T.T.
The upper case letters and the stops that follow each word of the dedication were probably intended to resemble an ancient Roman lapidary inscription or monumental brass, perhaps accentuating the declaration in Sonnet 55 that the work would confer immortality to the subjects of the work:
The initials "T.T. '' are taken to refer to the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, though Thorpe usually signed prefatory matter only if the author was out of the country or dead. However, Thorpe 's entire corpus of such consists of only four dedications and three prefaces. It has been suggested that Thorpe signing the dedication, rather than the author, might indicate that Thorpe published the work without obtaining Shakespeare 's permission. Though Thorpe 's taking on the dedication may be explained by the great demands of business and travel that Shakespeare was facing at this time, which may have caused him to deal with the printing production in haste before rushing out of town. After all, May 1609 was an extraordinary time: That month saw a serious outbreak of the plague, which shut down the theatres, and also caused many to flee London. Plus Shakespeare 's theatre company was on tour from Ipswich to Oxford. In addition, Shakespeare had been away from Stratford and in the same month, May, was being called on to tend to family and business there, and deal with the litigation of a lawsuit in Warwickshire that involved a substantial amount of money.
The identity of Mr. W.H., "the only begetter of Shakespeare 's Sonnets '', is not known for certain. His identity has been the subject of a great amount of speculation: That he was the author 's patron, that he was both patron and the "faire youth '' who is addressed in the sonnets, that the "faire youth '' is based on Mr. W.H. in some sonnets but not others, and a number of other ideas.
William Herbert (the Earl of Pembroke). Herbert is seen as perhaps the most likely identity of Mr. W.H. and the "young man ''. He was the dedicatee of the First Folio. Thorpe would have been unlikely to have addressed a lord as "Mr '', but there may be an explanation, perhaps that form of address came from the author, who wanted to refer to Herbert at an earlier time -- when Herbert was a "younger man ''. There is a later dedication to Herbert in another quarto of verse, Ben Jonson 's Epigrammes (1616), in which the text of Jonson 's dedication begins, "MY LORD, While you can not change your merit, I dare not change your title... '' Jonson 's emphasis on Pembroke 's title, and his comment, seem to be chiding someone else who had the audacity to use the wrong title, as perhaps is the case in Shakespeare 's dedication.
Henry Wriothesley (the Earl of Southampton), with initials reversed, has received a great deal of consideration as a likely possibility. He was the dedicatee of Shakespeare 's poems Venus & Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. Southampton was also known for his good looks.
The following is a list of other possibilities that have been suggested:
The sonnets are almost all constructed of three quatrains (four - line stanzas) followed by a final couplet. The sonnets are composed in iambic pentameter, the meter used in Shakespeare 's plays.
The rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. Sonnets using this scheme are known as Shakespearean sonnets, or English sonnets, or Elizabethan sonnets. Often, at the beginning of the third quatrain occurs the volta ("turn ''), where of the poem shifts, and the poet expresses a turn of thought.
There are a few exceptions: Sonnets 99, 126, and 145. Number 99 has fifteen lines. Number 126 consists of six couplets, and two blank lines marked with italic brackets; 145 is in iambic tetrameters, not pentameters. In one other variation on the standard structure, found for example in sonnet 29, the rhyme scheme is changed by repeating the second (B) rhyme of quatrain one as the second (F) rhyme of quatrain three.
Apart from rhyme, and considering only the arrangement of ideas, and the placement of the volta, a number of sonnets maintain the two - part organization of the Italian sonnet. In that case the term "octave '' and "sestet '' are commonly used to refer to the sonnet 's first eight lines followed by the remaining six lines. There are other line - groupings as well, as Shakespeare finds inventive ways with the content of the fourteen line poems.
When analysed as characters, the subjects of the sonnets are usually referred to as the Fair Youth, the Rival Poet, and the Dark Lady. The speaker expresses admiration for the Fair Youth 's beauty, and -- if reading the sonnets in chronological order as published -- later has an affair with the Dark Lady, then so does the Fair Youth. Current linguistic analysis and historical evidence suggests, however, that the sonnets to the Dark Lady were composed first (around 1591 - 95), the procreation sonnets next, and the later sonnets to the Fair Youth last (1597 - 1603). It is not known whether the poems and their characters are fiction or autobiographical; scholars who find the sonnets to be autobiographical have attempted to identify the characters with historical individuals.
The "Fair Youth '' is the unnamed young man addressed by the devoted poet in the greatest sequence of the sonnets (1 -- 126). The young man is handsome, self - centered, universally admired and much sought after. The sequence begins with the poet urging the young man to marry and father children (sonnets 1 - 17). It continues with the friendship developing with the poet 's loving admiration, which at times is homoerotic in nature. Then comes a set of betrayals by the young man, as he is seduced by the Dark Lady, and they maintain a liaison (sonnets 133, 134 & 144), all of which the poet struggles to abide. It concludes with the poet 's own act of betrayal, resulting in his independence from the fair youth (sonnet 152).
The Dark Lady sequence (sonnets 127 -- 154) Shakespeare is the most defiant of the sonnet tradition. The sequence distinguishes itself from the Fair Youth sequence with its overt sexuality (Sonnet 151). The Dark Lady is so called because she has black hair and dun coloured skin. The Dark Lady suddenly appears (Sonnet 127), and she and the speaker of the sonnets, the poet, are in a sexual relationship. She is not aristocratic, young, beautiful, intelligent or chaste. Her complexion is muddy, her breath "reeks '', and she is ungainly when she walks. The relationship has a strong parallel with Touchstone 's pursuit of Audrey in As You Like It. The Dark Lady presents an adequate receptor for male desire. She is celebrated in cocky terms that would be offensive to her, not that she would be able to read or understand what 's said. Soon the speaker rebukes her for enslaving his fair friend (sonnet 130). He ca n't abide the triangular relationship, and it ends with him rejecting her. As with the Fair Youth, there have been many attempts to identify her with a real historical individual. Lucy Negro, Mary Fitton, Emilia Lanier, Elizabeth Wriothesley, and others have been suggested.
The Rival Poet 's identity remains a mystery. If Shakespeare 's patron and friend was Pembroke, Shakespeare was not the only poet that praised his beauty; Francis Davison did in a sonnet that is the preface to Davison 's quarto A Poetical Rhapsody (1608), which was published just before Shakespeare 's Sonnets. John Davies of Hereford, Samuel Daniel, George Chapman, Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson are also candidates that find support among clues in the sonnets.
It may be that the Rival Poet is a composite of several poets through which Shakespeare explores his sense of being threatened by competing poets. The speaker sees the Rival Poet as competition for fame and patronage. The sonnets most commonly identified as the Rival Poet group exist within the Fair Youth sequence in sonnets 78 -- 86.
"A Lover 's Complaint '' is part two of the quarto. It was a normal feature of the two - part poetic form for the first part to express the male point of view, and the second part to contrast or complement the first part with the female 's point of view. The sonnet sequence considers frustrated male desire, and the second part expresses the misery of a woman victimized by male desire. The earliest Elizabethan example of this two - part structure is Samuel Daniel 's Delia... with the Complaint of Rosamund (1592) -- a sonnet sequence that tells the story of a woman being threatened by a man of higher rank, followed by the woman 's complaint. This was imitated by other poets, including Shakespeare with his Rape of Lucrece, the last lines of which contain Lucrece 's complaint. Other examples are found in the works of Michael Drayton, Thomas Lodge, Richard Barnfield, and others.
The young man of the sonnets and the young man of "A Lover 's Complaint '' provide a thematic link between the two parts. In each part the young man is handsome, wealthy and promiscuous, unreliable and admired by all.
"A Lover 's Complaint '', is not written in the sonnet form, but is composed of 47 seven - line stanzas written in rhyme royal. Like the sonnets, it also has a possessive form in its title, which is followed by its own assertion of the author 's name. This time the possessive word, "Lover 's '', refers to a woman, who becomes the primary "speaker '' of the work.
"A Lover 's Complaint '' begins with a young woman weeping at the edge of a river, into which she throws torn - up letters, rings, and other tokens of love. An old man nearby approaches her and asks the reason for her sorrow. She responds by telling him of a former lover who pursued, seduced, and finally abandoned her. She recounts in detail the speech her lover gave to her which seduced her. She concludes her story by conceding that she would fall for the young man 's false charms again.
As the soule of Euphorbus was thought to live in Pythagoras: so the sweete wittie soule of Ouid liues in mellifluous & hony - tongued Shakespeare, witnes his Venus and Adonis, his Lucrece, his sugred Sonnets among his private friends, &c.
In his plays, Shakespeare himself seemed to be a satiric critic of sonnets -- the allusions to them are often scornful. Then Shakespeare went on to create one of the longest sonnet - sequences of his era, a sequence that took some sharp turns away from the tradition.
He may have been inspired out of literary ambition, and a desire to carve new paths apart from the well - worn tradition. Or he may have been inspired by biographical elements in his life. It is thought that the biographical aspects have been over-explored and over-speculated on, especially in the face of a paucity of evidence. The critical focus has turned instead (through New Criticism and by scholars such as Stephen Booth and Helen Vendler) to the text itself, which is studied and appreciated linguistically as a "highly complex structure of language and ideas ''.
Besides the biographic and the linguistic approaches, another way of appreciating Shakespeare 's sonnets is in the context of the culture and literature that surrounds them and precedes them. This is exemplified to an extreme degree by the influential study "Shakespeare 's Sonnet 15 and the Art of Memory '' by Raymond B. Waddington.
Gerald Hammond in his book The Reader and the Young Man Sonnets, suggests that the non-expert reader, who is thoughtful and engaged, does not need that much help in understanding the sonnets: though the reader may often feel mystified when trying to decide, for example, if a word or passage has a concrete meaning or an abstract meaning, laying that kind of perplexity in the reader 's path is something that sets Shakespeare apart, and dealing with it is an essential part of reading the sonnets -- the reader does n't always benefit from having knots untangled and double - meanings simplified by the experts, according to Hammond.
During the eighteenth century, The Sonnets ' reputation in England was relatively low; in 1805, The Critical Review credited John Milton with the perfection of the English sonnet. Towards the end of the nineteenth century century, Shakespeare and Milton seemed to be on an equal footing, but the critics, stymied by an over-emphasis of their biographical explorations, continued to struggle for decades.
Like all Shakespeare 's works, Shakespeare 's Sonnets have been reprinted many times. Prominent editions include:
There are sonnets written by Shakespeare that occur in his plays. They differ from the 154 sonnets published in the 1609, because they may lack the deep introspection, for example, and they are written to serve the needs of a performance, exposition or narrative.
In Shakespeare 's early comedies, the sonnets and sonnet - making of his characters are often objects of satire. In Two Gentlemen of Verona, sonnet - writing is portrayed cynically as a seduction technique. In Love 's Labour 's Lost, sonnets are portrayed as evidence that love can render men weak and foolish. In Much Ado About Nothing, Beatrice and Benedick each write a sonnet, which serves as proof that they have fallen in love. In All 's Well that Ends Well, a partial sonnet is read, and Bertram comments, "He shall be whipp 'd through the army with this rhyme in 's forehead. '' In Henry V, the Dauphin suggests he will compose a sonnet to his horse.
The sonnets that Shakespeare satirizes in his plays are sonnets written in the tradition of Petrarch and Sidney, whereas Shakespeare 's sonnets published in the quarto of 1609 take a radical turn away from that older style, and have none of the lovelorn qualities that are mocked in the plays. The sonnets published in 1609 seem to be rebelling against the tradition.
In the play Love 's Labour 's Lost, the King and his three lords have all vowed to live like monks, to study, to give up worldly things, and to see no women. All of them break this last part of the vow by falling in love. The lord Longaville expresses his love in a sonnet ("Did not the heavenly rhetoric of thine eye... ''), and the lord Berowne does, too -- a hexameter sonnet ("If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love? ''). These sonnets contain comic imperfections, including awkward phrasing, and problems with the meter. After Berowne is caught breaking his vow, and exposed by the sonnet he composed, he passionately renounces speech that is affected, and vows to prefer plain country speech. Ironically, when proclaiming this he demonstrates that he ca n't seem to avoid rich courtly language, and his speech happens to fall into the meter and rhyme of a sonnet. ("O, never will I trust to speeches penned... '')
The epilogue at the end of the play Henry V is written in the form of a sonnet ("Thus far with rough, and all - unable pen... '').
Three sonnets are found in Romeo and Juliet: The prologue to the play ("Two households, both alike in dignity... ''), the prologue to the second act ("Now old desire doth in his death - bed lie... ''), and set in the form of dialogue at the moment when Romeo and Juliet meet:
ROMEO If I profane with my unworthiest hand This holy shrine, the gentle fine is this: My lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand To smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss. JULIET Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, Which mannerly devotion shows in this; For saints have hands that pilgrims ' hands do touch, And palm to palm is holy palmers ' kiss. ROMEO Have not saints lips, and holy palmers too? JULIET Ay, pilgrim, lips that they must use in prayer. ROMEO O, then, dear saint, let lips do what hands do; They pray, grant thou, lest faith turn to despair. JULIET Saints do not move, though grant for prayers ' sake. ROMEO Then move not, while my prayer 's effect I take.
The play Edward III is not generally accepted as having been written by Shakespeare, but it is considered to be perhaps partially written by Shakespeare by a number of scholars, including Edward Capell, Eliot Slater, Eric Sams, Giorgio Melchiori, Brian Vickers, and others. The play, printed in 1596, contains lines that also appear in Shakespeare 's sonnets: "Lilies that fester smell far worse than weeds '' occurs in sonnet 94 and "scarlet ornaments '' occurs in sonnet 142. The same scene of the play that contains those quotations, is a comic scene that features and spoofs a poet attempting to compose a love poem at the behest of his king, Edward III:
The king, Edward III, has fallen in love with the Countess of Salibury, and he tells Lodowick, his confidant and a poet, to fetch ink and paper. Edward wants Lodowick 's help in composing a poem that will sing the praises of the countess. Lodowick has a question:
LODOWICK Write I to a woman? KING EDWARD What beauty else could triumph over me, Or who but women do our love lays greet? What, thinkest thou I did bid thee praise a horse?
The king then expresses and dictates his passion in exuberant poetry; he then asks Lodowick to read back to him what he has been able to write down. Lodowick reads:
LODOWICK. ' More fair and chaste ' -- KING EDWARD. I did not bid thee talk of chastity...
When the countess enters, the poetry - writing scene is interrupted without having accomplished much poetry.
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where was two thousand acres of sky filmed | Two Thousand Acres of Sky - wikipedia
Two Thousand Acres of Sky was a TV drama which aired on BBC Television from 2001 to 2003. It is also syndicated in the United States on PBS. It was created and written by Timothy Prager. The Executive Producer was Adrian Bate.
The show takes place on the fictional island of Ronansay off the coast of Skye. The actual filming location was the sea - side village of Port Logan.
In 2008, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation created a remake of the series called Himmelblå (in English: Skyblue) taking place on the island of Ylvingen, which is the island 's actual name, in the county of Nordland in northern Norway. The show has been a formidable success in Norway with 1.2 million viewers at the start of the second season, 57.2 % of the total amount of viewers in Norway. The first season of Himmelblå was aired by the Swedish public broadcaster SVT and by the Icelandic public broadcaster RUV during the autumn 2009.
Season
Abby is a single mother living in London with her two children. She sees an advertisement for a family with two children to run a B&B on an island off Scotland called Ronansay. The islanders have posted the advert as their local school is due to close due to only three children attending: they need an extra two children to keep the school open. Abby persuades her friend Kenny to pretend to be her husband and they are successful in their application to move to the island.
Abby begins a relationship with a local fisherman, called Alistair. Kenny finds this relationship difficult as he is secretly in love with Abby. Kenny in turn begins a relationship with a local girl.
After Abby and Alistair end their relationship, Kenny invites Abby 's ex-husband Robbie from London to stay. Abby and Robbie decide to give their marriage another chance, so Kenny decides to leave the island.
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what is the function of the choroid layer | Choroid - wikipedia
The choroid, also known as the choroidea or choroid coat, is the vascular layer of the eye, containing connective tissues, and lying between the retina and the sclera. The human choroid is thickest at the far extreme rear of the eye (at 0.2 mm), while in the outlying areas it narrows to 0.1 mm. The choroid provides oxygen and nourishment to the outer layers of the retina. Along with the ciliary body and iris, the choroid forms the uveal tract.
The structure of the choroid is generally divided into four layers (classified in order of furthest away from the retina to closest):
There are two circulations of the eye: the retinal (in the retina) and uveal, supplied in humans by posterior ciliary arteries, originating from the ophthalmic artery. The arteries of the uveal circulation, supplying the uvea and outer and middle layers of the retina, are branches of the ophthalmic artery and enter the eyeball without passing with the optic nerve. The retinal circulation, on the other hand, derives its circulation from the central retinal artery, also a branch of the ophthalmic artery, but passing in conjunction with the optic nerve. They are branching in a segmental distribution to the end arterioles and not anastomoses. This is clinically significant for diseases affecting choroidal blood supply. The macula responsible for central vision and the anterior part of the optic nerve are dependent on choroidal blood supply.
Teleosts bear a body of capillary adjacent to the optic nerve called the choroidal gland. Though its function is not known, it is believed to be a supplemental oxygen carrier.
Melanin, a dark colored pigment, helps the choroid limit uncontrolled reflection within the eye that would potentially result in the perception of confusing images.
In humans and most other primates, melanin occurs throughout the choroid. In albino humans, frequently melanin is absent and vision is low. In many animals, however, the partial absence of melanin contributes to superior night vision. In these animals, melanin is absent from a section of the choroid and within that section a layer of highly reflective tissue, the tapetum lucidum, helps to collect light by reflecting it in a controlled manner. The uncontrolled reflection of light from dark choroid produces the photographic red - eye effect on photos, whereas the controlled reflection of light from the tapetum lucidum produces eyeshine (see Tapetum lucidum).
Schematic cross section of the human eye; choroid is shown in purple.
Iris, front view
The terminal portion of the optic nerve and its entrance into the eyeball, in horizontal section
The interior of the posterior half of the left eyeball
Structures of the eye labeled
This image shows another labeled view of the structures of the eye
Calf 's eye dissected to expose the choroid: its tapetum lucidum is iridescent blue
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how many countries are there in west africa | West Africa - wikipedia
West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. West Africa has been defined as including 18 countries: Benin, Burkina Faso, the island nation of Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea - Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, the island of Saint Helena, Senegal, Sierra Leone, São Tomé and Príncipe and Togo. The population of West Africa is estimated at about 362 million people as of 2016...
(United Kingdom)
The history of West Africa can be divided into five major periods: first, its prehistory, in which the first human settlers arrived, developed agriculture, and made contact with peoples to the north; the second, the Iron Age empires that consolidated both intra-Africa, and extra-Africa trade, and developed centralized states; third, major polities flourished, which would undergo an extensive history of contact with non-Africans; fourth, the colonial period, in which Great Britain and France controlled nearly the entire region; and fifth, the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed.
Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B.C. Sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B.C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B.C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of agricultural productivity, and the first city - states later formed. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400. In the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the climatic change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen.
The domestication of the camel allowed the development of a trans - Saharan trade with cultures across the Sahara, including Carthage and the Berbers; major exports included gold, cotton cloth, metal ornaments, and leather goods, which were then exchanged for salt, horses, textiles, and other such materials. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires.
The development of the region 's economy allowed more centralized states and civilizations to form, beginning with the Nok culture that began in 1000 B.C. and the Ghana Empire that first flourished between the 9th and 12th centuries, which later gave way to the Mali Empire. In current - day Mauritania, there exist archaeological sites in the towns of Tichit and Oualata that were initially constructed around 2000 B.C., and were found to have originated from the Soninke branch of the Mandé peoples. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern - day Mauritania, the Mali empire came to dominate much of the region until its defeat by Almoravid invaders in 1052.
Three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al - Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem.
The Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated (c. 1240) by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. The Mali Empire continued to flourish for several centuries, most particularly under Sundiata 's grandnephew Musa I, before a succession of weak rulers led to its collapse under Mossi, Tuareg and Songhai invaders. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali and Askia Mohammed.
Meanwhile, south of the Sudan, strong city states arose in Igboland, such as the 10th - century Kingdom of Nri, which helped birth the arts and customs of the Igbo people, Bono in the 12th century, which eventually culminated in the formation the all - powerful Akan Empire of Ashanti, while Ife rose to prominence around the 14th century. Further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern - day Nigeria.
The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present - day southeastern Nigeria and a subgroup of the Igbo people. The Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland and was administered by a priest - king called as an Eze Nri. The Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people and possessed divine authority in religious matters.
The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western and North central Nigeria,. Established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the outstanding organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade and its powerful cavalry. The Oyo Empire was the most politically important state in the region from the mid-17th to the late 18th century, holding sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in Yorubaland, but also over nearby African states, notably the Fon Kingdom of Dahomey in the modern Republic of Benin to the west.
The Benin Empire was a pre-colonial empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo. It should not be confused with the modern - day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was "one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the coastal hinterland of West Africa, dating perhaps to the eleventh century CE '',. The Benin Empire was governed by a sovereign Emperor with hundreds of thousands of soldiers and a powerful council rich in resources, wealth, ancient science and technology with cities described as beautiful and large as Haarlem. "Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa (1668) ". Its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion and scramble of Africa.
Portuguese traders began establishing settlements along the coast in 1445, followed by the French, British, Spanish, Danish and Dutch; the African slave trade began not long after, which over the following centuries would debilitate the region 's economy and population. The slave trade also encouraged the formation of states such as the Asante Empire, Bambara Empire and Dahomey, whose economic activities include but not limited to exchanging slaves for European firearms.
In the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa. The most notable include Usman dan Fodio 's Fulani Empire, which replaced the Hausa city - states, Seku Amadu 's Massina Empire, which defeated the Bambara, and El Hadj Umar Tall 's Toucouleur Empire, which briefly conquered much of modern - day Mali.
However, the French and British continued to advance in the Scramble for Africa, subjugating kingdom after kingdom. With the fall of Samory Ture 's new - founded Wassoulou Empire in 1898 and the Ashanti queen Yaa Asantewaa in 1902, most West African military resistance to colonial rule resulted in failure.
Britain controlled the Gambia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, and Nigeria throughout the colonial era, while France unified Senegal, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Benin, Ivory Coast and Niger into French West Africa. Portugal founded the colony of Guinea - Bissau, while Germany claimed Togoland, but was forced to divide it between France and Britain following First World War due to the Treaty of Versailles. Only Liberia retained its independence, at the price of major territorial concessions.
Following World War II, nationalist movements arose across West Africa. In 1957, Ghana, under Kwame Nkrumah, became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France 's colonies (Guinea in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sekou Touré); by 1974, West Africa 's nations were entirely autonomous.
Since independence, many West African nations have been submerged under political instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso.
Since the end of colonialism, the region has been the stage for some brutal conflicts, including:
The Economic Community of West African States, established in May 1975, has defined the region of West Africa since 1999 as including the following 15 states:
Geopolitically, the United Nations definition of Western Africa includes the preceding states with the addition of Mauritania (which withdrew from ECOWAS in 1999), comprising an area of approximately 6.1 million square km. The UN region also includes the island of Saint Helena, a British overseas territory in the south Atlantic Ocean.
In the United Nations scheme of African regions, the region includes 17 states and the island of Saint Helena, an overseas territory: Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal and Niger are mostly in the Sahel, a transition zone between the Sahara desert and the Sudanian Savanna, Benin, Cote d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea - Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Togo, and Nigeria compose Guinea, the traditional name for the area near the Gulf of Guinea, Cape Verde is an island country in the Atlantic Ocean, Mauritania lies in the Maghreb, the northwestern region of Africa that has historically been inhabited by both traditionally West African groups such as the Fulani, Soninke and Wolof, along with Arab - Berber Maghrebi people. Due to its increasingly close ties to the Arab World and its 1999 withdrawal from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), in modern times it is often considered, especially in Africa, as now part of western North Africa.
Major cities in West Africa include:
West Africa, broadly defined to include the western portion of the Maghreb (Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), occupies an area in excess of 6,140,000 km, or approximately one - fifth of Africa. The vast majority of this land is plains lying less than 300 meters above sea level, though isolated high points exist in numerous states along the southern shore of West Africa.
The northern section of West Africa (narrowly defined to exclude the western Maghreb) is composed of semi-arid terrain known as Sahel, a transitional zone between the Sahara and the savannahs of the western Sudan. Forests form a belt between the savannas and the southern coast, ranging from 160 km to 240 km in width.
The northwest African region of Mauritania periodically suffers country - wide plagues of locusts which consume water, salt and crops on which the human population relies.
West Africa is west of an imagined north - south axis lying close to 10 ° east longitude. The Atlantic Ocean forms the western as well as the southern borders of the West African region. The northern border is the Sahara Desert, with the Ranishanu Bend generally considered the northernmost part of the region. The eastern border is less precise, with some placing it at the Benue Trough, and others on a line running from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad.
Colonial boundaries are reflected in the modern boundaries between contemporary West African states, cutting across ethnic and cultural lines, often dividing single ethnic groups between two or more states.
In contrast to most of Central, Southern and Southeast Africa, West Africa is not populated by Bantu - speaking peoples.
A Trans - ECOWAS project, established in 2007, plans to upgrade railways in this zone. One of the goals of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) is the development of an integrated railroad network. Aims include the extension of railways in member countries, the interconnection of previously isolated railways and the standardisation of gauge, brakes, couplings, and other parameters. The first line would connect the cities and ports of Lagos, Cotonou, Lomé and Accra and would allow the largest container ships to focus on a smaller number of large ports, while efficiently serving a larger hinterland. This line connects 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 ⁄ in) metre gauge systems, which would require four rail dual gauge, which can also provide standard gauge.
The Trans -- West African Coastal Highway is a transnational highway project to link 12 West African coastal states, from Mauritania in the north - west of the region to Nigeria in the east, with feeder roads already existing to two landlocked countries, Mali and Burkina Faso.
The eastern end of the highway terminates at Lagos, Nigeria. Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) consider its western end to be Nouakchott, Mauritania, or to be Dakar, Senegal, giving rise to these alternative names for the road:
The capital 's airports include:
Of the sixteen, the most important hub and entry point to West Africa is Kotoka International Airport, and Murtala Muhammed International Airport, offering many international connections.
Despite the wide variety of cultures in West Africa, from Nigeria through to Senegal, there are general similarities in dress, cuisine, music and culture that are not shared extensively with groups outside the geographic region. This long history of cultural exchange predates the colonization era of the region and can be approximately placed at the time of the Ghana Empire (proper: Wagadou Empire), Mali Empire or perhaps before these empires.
The main traditional styles of building (in conjunction with modern styles) are the distinct Sudano - Sahelian style in inland areas, and the coastal forest styles more reminiscent of other sub-Saharan areas. They differ greatly in construction due to the demands made by the variety of climates in the area, from tropical humid forests to arid grasslands and desert. Despite the architectural differences, buildings perform similar functions, including the compound structure central to West African family life or strict distinction between the private and public worlds needed to maintain taboos or social etiquette.
In contrast to other parts of the continent south of the Sahara Desert, the concepts of hemming and embroidering clothing have been traditionally common to West Africa for centuries, demonstrated by the production of various breeches, shirts, tunics and jackets. As a result, the peoples of the region 's diverse nations wear a wide variety of clothing with underlying similarities. Typical pieces of west African formal attire include the knee - to - ankle - length, flowing Boubou robe, Dashiki, and Senegalese Kaftan (also known as Agbada and Babariga), which has its origins in the clothing of nobility of various West African empires in the 12th century. Traditional half - sleeved, hip - long, woven smocks or tunics (known as fugu in Gurunsi, riga in Hausa) -- worn over a pair of baggy trousers -- is another popular garment. In the coastal regions stretching from southern Ivory Coast to Benin, a huge rectangular cloth is wrapped under one arm, draped over a shoulder, and held in one of the wearer 's hands -- coincidentally, reminiscent of Romans ' togas. The best - known of these toga - like garments is the Kente (made by the Akan people of Ghana and Ivory Coast), who wear them as a gesture of national pride.
Scores of foreign visitors to West African nations (e.g., traders, historians, emigrants, colonists, missionaries) have benefited from its citizens ' generosity, and even left with a piece of its cultural heritage, via its foods. West African cuisines have had a significant influence on those of Western civilization for centuries; several dishes of West African origin are currently enjoyed in the Caribbean (e.g., the West Indies and Haiti); Australia; the USA (particularly Louisiana, Virginia, North and South Carolina); Italy; and other countries. Although some of these recipes have been altered to suit the sensibilities of their adopters, they retain a distinct West African essence.
West Africans cuisines include fish (especially among the coastal areas), meat, vegetables, and fruits -- most of which are grown by the nations ' local farmers. In spite of the obvious differences among the various local cuisines in this multinational region, the foods display more similarities than differences. The small difference may be in the ingredients used. Most foods are cooked via boiling or frying. Commonly featured, starchy vegetables include yams, plantains, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Rice is also a staple food, as is the Serer people 's sorghum couscous (called "Chereh '' in Serer) particularly in Senegal and the Gambia. Jollof rice -- originally from the Kingdom of Jolof (now part of modern - day Senegal) but having spread to the Wolofs of Gambia -- is also enjoyed in many Western nations, as well; Mafé (proper: "Tigh - dege - na '' or Domodah) from Mali (via the Bambara and Mandinka) -- a peanut - butter stew served with rice; Akara (fried bean balls seasoned with spices served with sauce and bread) from Nigeria is a favourite breakfast for Gambians and Senegalese, as well as a favourite side snack or side dish in Brazil and the Caribbean just as it is in West Africa. It is said that its exact origin may be from Yorubaland in Nigeria. Fufu (from the Twi language, a dough served with a spicy stew or sauce for example okra stew etc.) from Ghana is enjoyed throughout the region and beyond even in Central Africa with their own versions of it.
The board game oware is quite popular in many parts of Southern
Africa. The word "Oware '' originates from the Akan people of Ghana. However, virtually all African peoples have a version of this board game. The major multi-sport event of West Africa is the ECOWAS Games which commenced at the 2012 ECOWAS Games. Football is also a pastime enjoyed by many, either spectating or playing. The major national teams of West Africa, the Ghana national football team, the Ivory Coast national football team, and the Nigeria national football team regularly win the Africa Cup of Nations. Major football teams of West Africa are Asante Kotoko SC and Accra Hearts of Oak SC of the Ghana Premier League, Enyimba International of the Nigerian Premier League and ASEC Mimosas of the Ligue 1 (Ivory Coast). The football governing body of West Africa is the West African Football Union (WAFU) and the major tournament is the West African Club Championship and WAFU Nations Cup, along with the annual individual award of West African Footballer of the Year.
Mbalax, Highlife, Fuji and Afrobeat are all modern musical genres which listeners enjoy in this region. Old traditional folk music is also well preserved in this region. Some of these are religious in nature such as the "Tassou '' tradition used in Serer religion.
Two important related traditions that musically make West African musical attitudes unique are the Griot tradition, and the Praise - singing tradition. In many cases, these two genres are highly similar, the difference being whether the traditions are considered the property of hereditary castes (Griot) or to talented individuals among a ruler 's subjects (Praise - singing). In both cases the minstrel tradition and specialization in certain string and percussion instruments is observed.
Traditionally, musical and oral history as conveyed over generations by Griots are typical of West African culture in Mande, Wolof, Songhay, Moor and (to some extent, though not universal) Fula areas in the far west. A hereditary caste occupying the fringes of society, the Griots were charged with memorizing the histories of local rulers and personages and the caste was further broken down into music - playing Griots (similar to bards) and non-music playing Griots. Like Praise - singers, the Griot 's main profession was musical acquisition and prowess, and patrons were the sole means of financial support. Modern Griots enjoy higher status in the patronage of rich individuals in places such as Mali, Senegal, Mauritania and Guinea, and to some extent make up the vast majority of musicians in these countries. Examples of modern popular Griot artists include Salif Keita, Youssou N'Dour, Mamadou Diabate, Rokia Traore and Toumani Diabate.
In other areas of West Africa, primarily among the Hausa, Mossi, Dagomba and Yoruba in the area encompassing Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, Nigeria and Niger, the traditional profession of non-hereditary praise - singers, minstrels, bards and poets play a vital role in extending the public show of power, lineage and prestige of traditional rulers through their exclusive patronage. Like the Griot tradition, praise singers are charged with knowing the details of specific historic events and royal lineages, but more importantly need to be capable of poetic improvisation and creativity, with knowledge of traditional songs directed towards showing a patron 's financial and political or religious power. Competition between Praise - singing ensembles and artistes are high, and artists responsible for any extraordinarily skilled prose, musical compositions and panegyric songs are lavishly rewarded with money, clothing, provisions and other luxuries by patrons who are usually politicians, rulers, Islamic clerics and merchants; these successful praise - singers rise to national stardom. Examples include Mamman Shata, Souley Konko, Fati Niger, Saadou Bori and Dan Maraya. In the case of Niger, numerous praise songs are composed and shown on television in praise of local rulers, Islamic clerics and politicians.
Nollywood of Nigeria, is the main film industry of West Africa. The Nigerian cinema industry is the second largest film industry in terms of number of annual film productions, ahead of the American film industry in Hollywood. Senegal and Ghana also have long traditions of producing films. The late Ousmane Sembène, the Senegalese film director, producer and writer is from the region, as is the Ghanaian Shirley Frimpong - Manso.
Islam is the predominant religion of the West African interior and the far west coast of the continent (70 % of West Africans); and was introduced to the region by traders in the 9th century. Islam is the religion of the region 's biggest ethnic groups by population. Islamic rules on livelihood, values, dress and practices had a profound effect on the populations and cultures in their predominant areas, so much so that the concept of tribalism is less observed by Islamized groups like the Mande, Wolof, Hausa, Fula and Songhai, than they are by non-Islamized groups. Ethnic intermarriage and shared cultural icons are established through a superseded commonality of belief or community, known as ummah. Traditional Muslim areas include Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Mauritania, Guinea, Niger; the upper coast and inland two - thirds of Sierra Leone and inland Liberia; the western, northern and far - eastern regions of Burkina Faso; and the northern halves of the coastal nations of Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast.
Traditional African religions (noting the many different belief systems) are the oldest belief systems among the populations of this region, and include Akan religion, Yoruba religion, Odinani, and Serer religion. They are spiritual but also linked to the historical and cultural heritage of the people. Although traditional beliefs vary from one place to the next, there are more similarities than differences.
Christianity, a relative newcomer introduced from the late 19th to mid-to - late 20th centuries, is associated with the British and French colonisation eras. As Western Christianity, it includes predominantly Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism. It has become the predominant religion in the central and southern part of Nigeria, and the coastal regions stretching from southern Ghana to coastal parts of Sierra Leone. Like Islam, elements of traditional African religion are mixed with Christianity. This religion was brought to the region by European missionaries during the colonial era.
West Africans primarily speak Niger -- Congo languages, belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some Nilo - Saharan and Afro - Asiatic speaking groups are also found in West Africa. The Niger -- Congo - speaking Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Akan and Wolof ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, Mandinka or Mande groups are most significant. Chadic - speaking groups, including the Hausa, are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara, and Nilo - Saharan communities, such as the Songhai, Kanuri and Zarma, are found in the eastern parts of West Africa bordering Central Africa. The population of West Africa is estimated at 362 million people as of 2016.
Colonial languages also play a pivotal cultural and political role, being adopted as the official languages of most countries in the region, as well as linguae franca in communication between the region 's various ethnic groups. For historical reasons, Western European languages such as French, English and Portuguese predominate in Southern and Coastal subregions, whilst Arabic spreads inland northwards.
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), founded by the 1975 Treaty of Lagos, is an organization of West African states which aims to promote the region 's economy. The West African Monetary Union (or UEMOA from its name in French, Union économique et monétaire ouest - africaine) is limited to the eight, mostly Francophone countries that employ the CFA franc as their common currency. The Liptako - Gourma Authority of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso seeks to jointly develop the contiguous areas of the three countries.
Since the adoption of the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 in 2000, women have been engaged in rebuilding war - torn Africa. Starting with the Women of Liberia Mass Action for Peace and Women in Peacebuilding Network (WIPNET), the peace movement has grown to include women across West Africa.
Established on May 8, 2006, Women Peace and Security Network - Africa (WIPSEN - Africa), is a women - focused, women - led Pan-African non-governmental organization based in Ghana. The organization has a presence in Ghana, Nigeria, Ivory Coast, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Regional leaders of nonviolent resistance include Leymah Gbowee, Comfort Freeman, and Aya Virginie Toure.
Pray the Devil Back to Hell is a documentary film about the origin of this peace movement. The film has been used as an advocacy tool in post-conflict zones like Sudan and Zimbabwe, mobilizing African women to petition for peace and security.
Praia, Cape Verde
Dakar, Senegal
Lomé, Togo
Porto - Novo, Benin
Niamey, Niger
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Freetown, Sierra Leone
Banjul, Gambia
Conakry, Guinea
Bissau, Guinea - Bissau
Monrovia, Liberia
Bamako, Mali
Georgetown, Ascension Island
Tristan da Cunha, Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
Coordinates: 12 ° 00 ′ 00 '' N 3 ° 00 ′ 00 '' E / 12.0000 ° N 3.0000 ° E / 12.0000; 3.0000
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what is the job of the president of the united states | President of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States, fully President of the United States of America (POTUS / ˈpoʊtəs / POH - təs) is the head of state and head of government of the United States of America. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces.
In contemporary times, the president is looked upon as one of the world 's most powerful political figures and as the leader of the only remaining global superpower. The role includes responsibility for the world 's most expensive military that has the second largest nuclear arsenal. The president also leads the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The president possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power.
Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government. It vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president directs the foreign and domestic policies of the United States, and takes an active role in promoting his policy priorities to members of Congress. In addition, as part of the system of checks and balances, Article One of the United States Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Since the office of president was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole.
Through the Electoral College, the registered voters indirectly elect the president and vice president to a four - year term. This is the only federal election in the United States which is not decided by popular vote. Nine vice presidents became president by virtue of a president 's intra-term death or resignation.
The Twenty - second Amendment precludes any United States citizen from being elected president for a third term. It also prohibits a person from being elected to the presidency more than once if that person previously had served as president, or acting president, for more than two years of another person 's term as president. In all, 44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four - year terms. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms, so he is counted twice; as the 22nd and 24th presidents.
The current president, Donald Trump, was elected as the 45th president in 2016. He was inaugurated on January 20, 2017.
During the American Revolution in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain. The new states were independent of each other as nation states and recognized the necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British. Congress desired to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy and negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish an alliance between the states. Under the Articles, Congress was a central authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens. This institutional design reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The states agreed to a resolution that settled competing western land claims. The Articles took effect on March 1, 1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them.
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates, and their foreign - financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed.
Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving further - reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia. Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia.
When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three - year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed - door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S. Constitution emerged.
The Presentment Clause requires that any bill passed by Congress must be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options:
In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president 's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary means, a two - thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional.
One of the most important of all executive powers is the president 's role as Commander - in - Chief of the United States Armed Forces. The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The present - day operational command of the Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through the Secretary of Defense. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president 's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69:
The President is to be commander - in - chief of the army and navy of the United States... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces... while that (the power) of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all (of) which... would appertain to the legislature. (Emphasis in the original.)
Pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1989.
The constitution also empowers the President to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between the United States and other countries, which, upon receiving the advice and consent of a two - thirds supermajority vote of the United States Senate, become binding with the force of federal law.
William Rehnquist, Nixon v. General Services Administration, 433 U.S. 425 (1977) (dissenting opinion)
The president is the head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed ''. The executive branch has over four million employees, including members of the military.
Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments: an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a president with the "advice and consent '' of a majority of the Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the president may make recess appointments. Recess appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next session of the Senate.
The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove executive officials purely at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president 's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute.
To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States. Within the Executive Office, the president 's innermost layer of aides (and their assistants) are located in the White House Office.
Additionally, the president possesses the power to manage operations of the federal government through issuing various types of directives, such as presidential proclamation and executive orders. When the president is lawfully exercising one of his constitutionally conferred responsibilities, the scope of this power is broad. Even so, these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Moreover, Congress can overturn an executive order though legislation.
The president also has the power to nominate federal judges, including members of the United States courts of appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these nominations require Senate confirmation. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts, presidents often respect the long - standing tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon a month after taking office. Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office, as is often done just before the end of a second presidential term, but not without controversy.
Historically, two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to the president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution, or any other law, Washington 's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When President Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that the privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees, but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve the president.
The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when the Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted the privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.
The Constitution 's Ineligibility Clause prevents the president (and all other executive officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Therefore, the president can not directly introduce legislative proposals for consideration in Congress. However, the president can take an indirect role in shaping legislation, especially if the president 's political party has a majority in one or both houses of Congress. For example, the president or other officials of the executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further influence the legislative branch through constitutionally or statutorily mandated, periodic reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or oral, but today the greatest in importance are given as the oral State of the Union addresses, which often outline the president 's legislative proposals for the coming year. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made.
In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. As the head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of ' czars ' -- each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for the White House ''. Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch '' and "the eclipse of Congress ''.
According to Article II, Section 3 of the Constitution, the president may convene either or both houses of Congress. If both houses can not agree on a date of adjournment, the president may appoint a date for Congress to adjourn. For example, Franklin Delano Roosevelt convened a special session of Congress immediately after the December 7, 1941, Japanese sneak attack on Pearl Harbor and asked for a declaration of war.
As head of state, the president can fulfill traditions established by previous presidents. William Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators ' Opening Day. Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All - Star Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.
The President of the United States has served as the honorary president of the Boy Scouts of America since the founding of the organization.
Other presidential traditions are associated with American holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White House egg rolling for local children. Beginning in 1947, during the Harry S. Truman administration, every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live domestic turkey during the annual National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation held at the White House. Since 1989, when the custom of "pardoning '' the turkey was formalized by George H.W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm where it will live out the rest of its natural life.
Presidential traditions also involve the president 's role as head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during the presidential transition. Ronald Reagan and his successors have also left a private message on the desk of the Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.
During a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn, a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening.
The modern presidency holds the president as one of the nation 's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by administration public relations officials as well as by presidents themselves. One critic described the presidency as "propagandized leadership '' which has a "mesmerizing power surrounding the office ''. Administration public relations managers staged carefully crafted photo - ops of smiling presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras. One critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as carefully framed "in rich detail '' which "drew on the power of myth '' regarding the incident of PT 109 and wrote that Kennedy understood how to use images to further his presidential ambitions. As a result, some political commentators have opined that American voters have unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a president to "drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers from hidden credit - card fees ''.
The nation 's Founding Fathers expected the Congress -- which was the first branch of government described in the Constitution -- to be the dominant branch of government; they did not expect a strong executive department. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and "monarchist '' in nature. Professor Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over the past thirty years have worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies ''. She criticizes proponents of the unitary executive for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers -- such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements -- that already allow presidents to enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress ''. Bill Wilson, board member of Americans for Limited Government, opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule ''.
Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three qualifications for holding the presidency. To serve as president, one must:
A person who meets the above qualifications would, however, still be disqualified from holding the office of president under any of the following conditions:
The modern presidential campaign begins before the primary elections, which the two major political parties use to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the party 's nominee for president. Typically, the party 's presidential candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice is rubber - stamped by the convention. The most common previous profession of U.S. presidents is lawyer.
Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and while the debates are usually restricted to the Democratic and Republican nominees, third party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the 1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.
The president is elected indirectly by the voters of each state and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College, a body of electors formed every four years for the sole purpose of electing the president and vice president to concurrent four - year terms. As prescribed by the Twelfth Amendment, each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the size of its total delegation in both houses of Congress. Additionally, the Twenty - third Amendment provides that the District of Columbia is entitled to the number it would have if it were a state, but in no case more than that of the least populous state. Currently, all states and D.C. select their electors based on a popular election held on Election Day. In all but two states, the party whose presidential - vice presidential ticket receives a plurality of popular votes in the state has its entire slate of elector nominees chosen as the state 's electors. Maine and Nebraska deviate from this winner - take - all practice, awarding two electors to the statewide winner and one to the winner in each congressional district.
On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in December, about six weeks after the election, the electors convene in their respective state capitals (and in Washington D.C.) to vote for president and, on a separate ballot, for vice president. They typically vote for the candidates of the party that nominated them. While there is no constitutional mandate or federal law requiring them to do so, the District of Columbia and 30 states have laws requiring that their electors vote for the candidates to whom they are pledged. Following the vote, each state then sends a certified record of their electoral votes to Congress. The votes of the electors are opened and counted during a joint session of Congress, held in the first week of January. If a candidate has received an absolute majority of electoral votes for president (currently 270 of 538), that person is declared the winner. Otherwise, the House of Representatives must meet to elect a president using a contingent election procedure in which representatives, voting by state delegation, with each state casting a single vote, choose between the top electoral vote - getters for president. For a candidate to win, he or she must receive the votes of an absolute majority of states (currently 26 of 50).
There have been two contingent presidential elections in the nation 's history. A 73 -- 73 electoral vote tie between Thomas Jefferson and fellow Democratic - Republican Aaron Burr in the election of 1800 necessitated the first. Conducted under the original procedure established by Article II, Section 1, Clause 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that if two or three persons received a majority vote and an equal vote, the House of Representatives would choose one of them for president; the runner up would become Vice President. On February 17, 1801, Jefferson was elected president on the 36th ballot, and Burr became vice president. Afterward, the system was overhauled through the Twelfth Amendment in time to be used in the 1804 election. A quarter - century later, the choice for president again devolved to the House when no candidate won an absolute majority of electoral votes (131 of 261) in the election of 1824. Under the Twelfth Amendment, the House was required to choose a president from among the top three electoral vote recipients: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and William H. Crawford. Held February 9, 1825, this second and most recent contingent election resulted in John Quincy Adams being elected president on the first ballot.
Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the four - year term of office for both the president and vice president begins at noon on January 20. The first presidential and vice presidential terms to begin on this date, known as Inauguration Day, were the second terms of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Vice President John Nance Garner in 1937. Previously, Inauguration Day was on March 4. As a result of the date change, the first term (1933 -- 37) of both men had been shortened by 43 days.
Before executing the powers of the office, a president is required to recite the presidential oath of office, found in Article II, Section 1, Clause 8. This is the only component in the inauguration ceremony mandated by the Constitution:
I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States.
Presidents have traditionally placed one hand upon a Bible while taking the oath, and have added "So help me God '' to the end of the oath. Although the oath may be administered by any person authorized by law to administer oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the Chief Justice of the United States.
When the first president, George Washington, announced in his Farewell Address that he was not running for a third term, he established a "two - terms then out '' precedent. Precedent became tradition after Thomas Jefferson publicly embraced the principle a decade later during his second term, as did his two immediate successors, James Madison and James Monroe. In spite of the strong two - term tradition, Ulysses S. Grant sought a non-consecutive third term in 1880, as did Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 (though it would have been only his second full term). Both were unsuccessful.
In 1940, after leading the nation through the Great Depression, Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term, breaking the self - imposed precedent. Four years later, with the U.S. engaged in World War II, he was re-elected again despite his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth term on April 12, 1945.
In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt 's presidency, the Twenty - second Amendment was adopted in 1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected president more than twice, or once if that person served more than two years (24 months) of another president 's four - year term. Harry S. Truman, president when this term limit came into force, was exempted from its limitations, and briefly sought a second full term -- to which he would have otherwise been inelegible for election to, as he had been president for more than two years of Roosevelt 's fourth term -- before he withdrew from the 1952 election.
Since the amendment 's adoption, five presidents have served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama. Both Jimmy Carter and George H.W. Bush sought a second term, but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B. Johnson, having held the presidency for one full term in addition to only 14 months of John F. Kennedy 's unexpired term, was eligible for a second full term in 1968, but withdrew from Democratic Primary. Additionally, Gerald Ford, who served out the last two years and five months of Nixon 's second term, sought a full term, but was defeated by Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election.
Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal of high federal officials, including the president, from office for "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. '' Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 authorizes the House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury '' with the power to impeach said officials by a majority vote. Article I, Section 3, Clause 6 authorizes the Senate to serve as a court with the power to remove impeached officials from office, by a two - thirds vote to convict.
Two presidents have been impeached by the House of Representatives: Andrew Johnson in 1868, and Bill Clinton in 1998. Both were acquitted by the senate: Johnson by one vote, and Clinton by 17 votes. Additionally, the House Judiciary Committee commenced impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon in 1974; however, he resigned from office before the full House voted on the articles of impeachment.
Succession to or vacancies in the office of president may arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation, and removal from office. Deaths have occurred a number of times, resignation has occurred only once, and removal from office has never occurred.
Under Section 3 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, the president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by transmitting a statement to the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. Such a transfer of power has occurred on three occasions: Ronald Reagan to George H.W. Bush once, on July 13, 1985, and George W. Bush to Dick Cheney twice, on June 29, 2002, and on July 21, 2007.
Under Section 4 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment, the vice president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the Speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the Senate that the president is incapacitated -- unable to discharge their presidential powers and duties. If this occurs, then the vice president will assume the presidential powers and duties as acting president; however, the president can declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the merit of the claim.
Section 1 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment states that the vice president becomes president upon the removal from office, death, or resignation of the preceding president. Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 authorizes Congress to declare who shall become acting president in the "Case of Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the President and Vice President. '' The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, (codified as 3 U.S.C. § 19) provides that if both the president and vice president have left office or are both otherwise unavailable to serve during their terms of office, the presidential line of succession follows the order of: Speaker of the House, then, if necessary, the President pro tempore of the Senate, and then if necessary, the eligible heads of federal executive departments who form the president 's Cabinet. The Cabinet currently has 15 members, of which the Secretary of State is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the order in which their department (or the department of which their department is the successor) was created. Those department heads who are constitutionally ineligible to be elected to the presidency are also disqualified from assuming the powers and duties of the presidency through succession. No statutory successor has yet been called upon to act as president.
Throughout most of its history, politics of the United States have been dominated by political parties. Political parties had not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was drafted in 1787, nor did they exist at the time of the first presidential election in 1788 -- 1789. Organized political parties developed in the U.S. in the mid -- 1790s, but political factions, from which organized parties evolved, began to appear almost immediately after the Federal government came into existence. Those who supported the Washington administration were referred to as "pro-administration '' and would eventually form the Federalist Party, while those in opposition joined the emerging Democratic - Republican Party.
Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a political party. Since George Washington, 43 persons have been sworn into the office of president, and each has been affiliated with a political party at the time of assuming office. The number of presidents per political party (at the time of entry into office) are:
Since 2001, the president 's annual salary has been $400,000 annual salary, along with a: $50,000 expense allowance; $100,000 nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 entertainment account. The president 's salary is set by Congress, and under Article II, Section 1, Clause 7 of the Constitution, may not be increased or reduced during his or her current term of office.
The White House in Washington, D.C. serves as the official residence of the president. The site was selected by George Washington, and the cornerstone was laid in 1792. Every president since John Adams (in 1800) has lived there. At various times in U.S. history, it has been known as the "President 's Palace, '' the "President 's House, '' and the "Executive Mansion. '' Theodore Roosevelt officially gave the White House its current name in 1901. Facilities that are available to the president include access to the White House staff, medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security services. The federal government pays for state dinners and other official functions, but the president pays for personal, family, and guest dry cleaning and food.
Camp David, officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont, a mountain - based military camp in Frederick County, Maryland, is the president 's country residence. A place of solitude and tranquility, the site has been used extensively to host foreign dignitaries since the 1940s.
Blair House, located next to the Eisenhower Executive Office Building at the White House Complex and Lafayette Park, serves as the president 's official guest house and as a secondary residence for the president if needed. Four interconnected, 19th century houses -- Blair House, Lee House, and 700 and 704 Jackson Place -- with a combined floor space exceeding 70,000 square feet (6,500 m) comprise the property.
The primary means of long distance air travel for the president is one of two identical Boeing VC - 25 aircraft, which are extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners and are referred to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although any U.S. Air Force aircraft the president is aboard is designated as "Air Force One '' for the duration of the flight). In - country trips are typically handled with just one of the two planes, while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary and one backup. The president also has access to smaller Air Force aircraft, most notably the Boeing C - 32, which are used when the president must travel to airports that can not support a jumbo jet. Any civilian aircraft the president is aboard is designated Executive One for the flight.
For short distance air travel, the president has access to a fleet of U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models, designated Marine One when the president is aboard any particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the president is actually aboard to any would - be threats.
For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state car, which is an armored limousine designed to look like a Cadillac sedan, but built on a truck chassis. The US Secret Service operates and maintains the fleet of several limousines. The president also has access to two armored motorcoaches, which are primarily used for touring trips.
The presidential limousine
The presidential plane, called Air Force One when the president is inside.
Marine One helicopter, when the president is aboard
The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the president and the first family. As part of their protection, presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate family members, and other prominent persons and locations are assigned Secret Service codenames. The use of such names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time when sensitive electronic communications were not routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.
Under the Former Presidents Act, all living former presidents are granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has increased numerous times with Congressional approval. Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary of the current administration 's cabinet secretaries, which was $199,700 each year in 2012. Former presidents who served in Congress may also collect congressional pensions. The act also provides former presidents with travel funds and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents, their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by the Secret Service until the president 's death. In 1997, Congress passed legislation limiting secret service protection to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves office. On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed legislation reinstating lifetime secret service protection for him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents. A spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for secret service protection.
Some presidents have had significant careers after leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard Taft 's tenure as Chief Justice of the United States and Herbert Hoover 's work on government reorganization after World War II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888, was elected president again four years later in 1892. Two former presidents served in Congress after leaving the White House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of Representatives, serving there for seventeen years, and Andrew Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875. John Tyler served in the provisional Congress of the Confederate States during the Civil War and was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but died before that body first met.
Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to deliver private messages to other nations or as official representatives of the United States to state funerals and other important foreign events. Richard Nixon made multiple foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was lauded as an elder statesman. Jimmy Carter has become a global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador, most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on his 2012 reelection campaign.
There are currently (since January 20, 2017) five living former presidents. In order of office they are:
Jimmy Carter (age 93) since 1981
George H.W. Bush (age 94) since 1993
Bill Clinton (age 71) since 2001
George W. Bush (age 72) since 2009
Barack Obama (age 57) since 2017
Every president since Herbert Hoover has created a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and making available his papers, records, and other documents and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and maintained by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and equipping each library must come from private, non-federal sources. There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries maintained by state governments and private foundations and Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State of Illinois, the George W. Bush Presidential library and Museum, which is run by Southern Methodist University, the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by Texas A&M University, and the Lyndon Baines Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the University of Texas at Austin.
A number of presidents have lived for many years after leaving office, and several of them have personally overseen the building and opening of their own presidential libraries. Some have even made arrangements for their own burial at the site. Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the president they document, including the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home in Abilene, Kansas, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum in Yorba Linda, California, and the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. These gravesites are open to the general public.
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when did the tamils arrived in sri lanka | Sri Lankan Tamils - wikipedia
Sri Lankan Tamils (Tamil: இலங்கை தமிழர், ilankai tamiḻar also Tamil: ஈழத் தமிழர், īḻat tamiḻar) or Ceylon Tamils, also known as Eelam Tamils in Tamil, are members of the Tamil ethnic group native to the South Asian island state of Sri Lanka. According to anthropological and archaeological evidence, Sri Lankan Tamils have a very long history in Sri Lanka and have lived on the island since at least around the 2nd century BC. Most modern Sri Lankan Tamils claim descent from residents of Jaffna Kingdom, a former kingdom in the north of the island and Vannimai chieftaincies from the east. They constitute a majority in the Northern Province, live in significant numbers in the Eastern Province, and are in the minority throughout the rest of the country. 70 % of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.
Although Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct, genetic studies indicate that they are closely related to Sinhalese ethnic group in the island. The Sri Lankan Tamils are mostly Hindus with a significant Christian population. Sri Lankan Tamil literature on topics including religion and the sciences flourished during the medieval period in the court of the Jaffna Kingdom. Since the beginning of the Sri Lankan Civil War in the 1980s, it is distinguished by an emphasis on themes relating to the conflict. Sri Lankan Tamil dialects are noted for their archaism and retention of words not in everyday use in the Tamil Nadu state in India.
Since Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain in 1948, relations between the majority Sinhalese and minority Tamil communities have been strained. Rising ethnic and political tensions, along with ethnic riots in 1956, 1958, 1977, 1981 and 1983, led to the formation and strengthening of militant groups advocating independence for Tamils. The ensuing civil war resulted in the deaths of more than 100,000 people and the forced disappearance of thousands of others. The civil war ended in 2009 but there are continuing allegations of atrocities being committed by the Sri Lankan Military and the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam during its final months. A United Nations panel found that as many as 40,000 civilians may have been killed in the final months of the civil war. The end of the civil war has not improved conditions in Sri Lanka, with press freedom not being restored and judiciary coming under political control.
One - third of Sri Lankan Tamils now live outside Sri Lanka. While there was significant migration during the British colonial period, the civil war led to more than 800,000 Tamils leaving Sri Lanka, and many have left the country for destinations such as Canada, India and Europe as refugees.
There is little scholarly consensus over the presence of the Sri Lankan Tamil people in Sri Lanka, also known as Eelam in Sangam literature. One theory states that there was not an organised Sri Lankan Tamil people presence in Sri Lanka until the invasions from what is now South India in the 12th century AD; another theory contends that Tamil people were one of the original inhabitants of the island. Theories about Tamil people 's presence in Sri Lanka feed into the cycle of ethnic conflict. Another theory states that the Sri Lankan Tamils are descendant of the Nagas, who started to assimilate to Tamil culture and language around 3rd BCE.
The indigenous Veddhas are physically related to people in South India and early populations of Southeast Asia. It is not possible to ascertain what languages that they originally spoke as Vedda language is considered diverged from its original source.
According to K. Indrapala, cultural diffusion, rather than migration of people, spread the Prakrit and Tamil languages from peninsular India into an existing mesolithic population, centuries before the common era. Tamil Brahmi and Tamil - Prakrit scripts were used to write the Tamil language during this period on the island.
Settlements of culturally similar early populations of ancient Sri Lanka and ancient Tamil Nadu in India were excavated at megalithic burial sites at Pomparippu on the west coast and in Kathiraveli on the east coast of the island. Bearing a remarkable resemblance to burials in the Early Pandyan Kingdom, these sites were established between the 5th century BCE and 2nd century CE. Excavated ceramic sequences similar to that of Arikamedu were found in Kandarodai (Kadiramalai) on the north coast, dated to 1300 BCE. Cultural similarities in burial practices in South India and Sri Lanka were dated by archaeologists to 10th century BCE. However, Indian history and archaeology have pushed the date back to 15th century BCE. In Sri Lanka, there is radiometric evidence from Anuradhapura that the non-Brahmi symbol - bearing black and red ware occur in the 10th century BCE. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna District. The name Ko Veta is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BCE. Ko, meaning "King '' in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan, Ko Putivira and Ko Ra - pumaan occurring in contemporary Tamil Brahmi inscriptions of ancient South India and Egypt.
Potsherds with early Tamil writing from the 2nd century BCE have been found from the north in Poonagari, Kilinochchi District to the south in Tissamaharama. They bore several inscriptions, including a clan name -- vela, a name related to velir from ancient Tamil country. Epigraphic evidence shows people identifying themselves as Damelas or Damedas (the Prakrit word for Tamil people) in Anuradhapura, the capital city of Rajarata the middle kingdom, and other areas of Sri Lanka as early as the 2nd century BCE. Excavations in the area of Tissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters, which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period. Other ancient inscriptions from the period reference a Tamil merchant, the Tamil householder residing in Ilubharata and a Tamil sailor named Karava. Two of the five ancient inscriptions referring to the Damedas (Tamils) are in Periya Pullyakulam in the Vavuniya District, one is in Seruvavila in Trincomalee District, one is in Kuduvil in Ampara District and one is in Anuradhapura. Mention is made in literary sources of Tamil rulers bringing horses to the island in water craft in the second century BCE, most likely arriving at Kudiramalai. Historical records establish that Tamil kingdoms in modern India were closely involved in the island 's affairs from about the 2nd century BCE. Kudiramalai, Kandarodai and Vallipuram served as great northern Tamil capitals and emporiums of trade with these kingdoms and the Romans from the 6th -- 2nd centuries BCE. The archaeological discoveries in these towns and the Manimekhalai, a historical poem, detail how Nāka - Tivu of Nāka - Nadu on the Jaffna Peninsula was a lucrative international market for pearl and conch trading for the Tamil fishermen.
In Mahavamsa, a historical poem, ethnic Tamil adventurers such as Elara invaded the island around 145 BCE. Early Chola king Karikalan, son of Eelamcetcenni utilised superior Chola naval power to conquer Ceylon in the first century CE. Hindu Saivism, Tamil Buddhism, Jainism and secularism were popular amongst the Tamils at this time, as was the proliferation of village deity worship. The Amaravati school was influential in the region when the Telugu Satavahana dynasty established the Andhra empire and its 17th monarch Hāla (20 -- 24 CE) married a princess from the island. Ancient Vanniars settled in the east of the island in the first few centuries of the common era to cultivate and maintain the area. The Vanni region flourished. In the 6th century CE, a special coastal route by boat was established from the Jaffna peninsula southwards to Saivite religious centres in Trincomalee (Koneswaram) and further south to Batticaloa (Thirukkovil), passed a few small Tamil trading settlements in Mullaitivu on the north coast. The conquests and rule of the island by Pallava king Narasimhavarman I (630 -- 668 CE) and his grandfather King Simhavishnu (537 -- 590 CE) saw the erection and structural development of several Kovils around the island, particularly in the north - east -- these Pallava Dravidian rock temples remained a popular and highly influential style of architecture in the region over the next few centuries. Tamil soldiers from what is now South India were brought to Anuradhapura between the 7th and 11th centuries CE in such large numbers that local chiefs and kings trying to establish legitimacy came to rely on them. By the 8th century CE Tamil villages were collectively known as Demel - kaballa (Tamil allotment), Demelat - valademin (Tamil villages), and Demel - gam - bim (Tamil villages and lands).
In the 9th and 10th centuries CE, Pandya and Chola incursions into Sri Lanka culminated in the Chola annexation of the island, which lasted until the latter half of the 11th century CE. Raja Raja Chola I renamed the northern throne Mummudi Chola Mandalam after his conquest of the northeast country to protect Tamil traders being looted, imprisoned and killed for years on the island. Rajadhiraja Chola 's conquest of the island led to the fall of four kings there, one of whom, Madavarajah, the king of Jaffna, was a usurper from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty. These dynasties oversaw the development of several Kovils that administered services to communities of land assigned to the temples through royal grants. Their rule also saw the benefaction of other faiths. Recent excavations have led to the discovery of a limestone Kovil of Raja Raja Chola I 's era on Delft island, found with Chola coins from this period. The decline of Chola power in Sri Lanka was followed by the restoration of the Polonnaruwa monarchy in the late 11th century CE. In 1215, following Pandya invasions, the Tamil - dominant Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty established an independent Jaffna kingdom on the Jaffna peninsula and other parts of the north. The Arya Chakaravarthi expansion into the south was halted by Alagakkonara, a man descended from a family of merchants from Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu. He was the chief minister of the Sinhalese king Parakramabahu V (1344 -- 59 CE). Vira Alakeshwara, a descendant of Alagakkonara, later became king of the Sinhalese, but he was overthrown by the Ming admiral Zheng He in 1409 CE. The next year, the Chinese admiral Zheng He erected a trilingual stone tablet in Galle in the south of the island, written in Chinese, Persian and Tamil that recorded offerings he made to Buddha, Allah and the God of Tamils Tenavarai Nayanar. The admiral invoked the blessings of Hindu deities at Temple of Perimpanayagam Tenavaram, Tevanthurai for a peaceful world built on trade. The 1502 map Cantino represents three Tamil cities on the east coast of the island -- Mullaitivu, Trincomalee and Pannoa, where the residents grow cinnamon and other spices, fish for pearls and seed pearls and worship idols, trading heavily with Kozhikode of Kerala. The Arya Chakaravarthi dynasty ruled large parts of northeast Sri Lanka until the Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619 CE. The coastal areas of the island were conquered by the Dutch and then became part of the British Empire in 1796 CE.
The Sinhalese Nampota dated in its present form to the 14th or 15th century CE suggests that the whole of the Tamil Kingdom, including parts of the modern Trincomalee District, was recognised as a Tamil region by the name Demala - pattanama (Tamil city). In this work, a number of villages that are now situated in the Jaffna, Mullaitivu and Trincomalee districts are mentioned as places in Demala - pattanama.
The English sailor Robert Knox described walking into the island 's Tamil country in the publication An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, referencing some aspects of their royal, rural and economic life and annotating some kingdoms within it on a map in 1681 CE. Upon arrival of European powers from the 17th century CE, the Tamils ' separate nation was described in their areas of habitation in the northeast of the island.
The caste structure of the majority Sinhalese has also accommodated Hindu immigrants from South India since the 13th century CE. This led to the emergence of three new Sinhalese caste groups: the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava. The Hindu migration and assimilation continued until the 18th century CE.
According to the 2012 census there were 2,270,924 Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka, 11.21 % of the population. Sri Lankan Tamils constitute an overwhelming majority of the population in the Northern Province and are the largest ethnic group in the Eastern Province. They are minority in other provinces. 70 % of Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka live in the Northern and Eastern provinces.
There are no accurate figures for the number of Sri Lankan Tamils living in the diaspora. Estimates range from 450,000 to one million.
The two groups of Tamils located in Sri Lanka are the Sri Lankan Tamils and the Indian Tamils. There also exists a significant population in Sri Lanka who are native speakers of Tamil language and are of Islamic faith. Though several evidence point them towards being ethnic Tamils, they are however controversially listed as a separate ethnic group by the Sri Lankan government. Sri Lankan Tamils (also called Ceylon Tamils) are descendants of the Tamils of the old Jaffna Kingdom and east coast chieftaincies called Vannimais. The Indian Tamils (or Hill Country Tamils) are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in the 19th century to work on tea plantations.
Most Sri Lankan Tamils live in the Northern and Eastern provinces and in the capital Colombo, and most Indian Tamils live in the central highlands. Historically, both groups have seen themselves as separate communities, although there has been a greater sense of unity since the 1980s. In 1948, the United National Party government stripped the Indian Tamils of their citizenship. Under the terms of an agreement reached between the Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, about forty percent of the Indian Tamils were granted Sri Lankan citizenship, and most of the remainder were repatriated to India. By the 1990s, most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship.
Sri Lankan Tamils are categorised into three subgroups based on regional distribution, dialects, and culture: Negombo Tamils from the western part of the island, Eastern Tamils from the eastern part, and Jaffna or Northern Tamils from the north.
Negombo Tamils, or Puttalam Tamils, are native Sri Lankan Tamils who live in the western Gampaha and Puttalam districts. The term does not apply to Tamil immigrants in these areas. They are distinguished from other Tamils by their dialects, one of which is known as the Negombo Tamil dialect, and by aspects of their culture such as customary laws. Most Negombo Tamils have assimilated into the Sinhalese ethnic group through a process known as Sinhalisation. Sinhalisation has been facilitated by caste myths and legends (see Passing (sociology)).
In Gampaha District, Tamils have historically inhabited the coastal region. In the Puttalam District, there was a substantial ethnic Tamil population until the first two decades of the 20th century. Most of those who identify as ethnic Tamils live in villages such as Udappu and Maradankulam. There are also Tamil Christians, chiefly Roman Catholics, who have preserved their heritage in the major cities such as Negombo, Chilaw, Puttalam, and also in villages such as Mampuri. Some residents of these two districts, especially the traditional fishermen, are bilingual, ensuring that the Tamil language survives as a lingua franca among migrating fishing communities across the island. Negombo Tamil dialect is spoken by about 50,000 people. This number does not include others, outside of Negombo city, who speak local varieties of the Tamil language.
Some Tamil place names have been retained in these districts. Outside the Tamil - dominated northeast, the Puttalam District has the highest percentage of place names of Tamil origin in Sri Lanka. Composite or hybrid place names are also present in these districts.
Eastern Tamils inhabit a region that spans the Trincomalee, Batticaloa, and Ampara districts. Their history and traditions are inspired by local legends, native literature, and colonial documents.
In the 16th century the area came under the nominal control of the Kingdom of Kandy, but there was scattered leadership under Vannimai chiefs in Batticaloa District who came with Magha 's army in 1215. From that time on, Eastern Tamil social development diverged from that of the Northern Tamils.
Eastern Tamils are an agrarian - based society. They follow a caste system similar to the South Indian or Dravidian kinship system. The Eastern Tamil caste hierarchy is dominated by the Mukkuvar, Paravar and Karaiyar. The main feature of their society is the kuti system. Although the Tamil word kuti means a house or settlement, in eastern Sri Lanka it is related to matrimonial alliances. It refers to the exogamous matrilineal clans and is found amongst most caste groups. Men or women remain members of the kuti of their birth and be brother or sister by relation. No man can marry in the same kuti because woman is always become sister to him. But, a man can only marry in one of his sampantha kutis not in the sakothara kutis. By custom, children born in a family belong to mother 's kuti. Kuti also collectively own places of worship such as Hindu temples. Each caste contains a number of kutis, with varying names. Aside from castes with an internal kuti system, there are seventeen caste groups, called Ciraikutis, or imprisoned kutis, whose members were considered to be in captivity, confined to specific services such as washing, weaving, and toddy tapping. However, such restrictions no longer apply.
The Tamils of the Trincomalee district have different social customs from their southern neighbours due to the influence of the Jaffna kingdom to the north. The indigenous Veddha people of the east coast also speak Tamil and have become assimilated into the Eastern Tamil caste structure. Most Eastern Tamils follow customary laws called Mukkuva laws codified during the Dutch colonial period.
Jaffna 's history of being an independent kingdom lends legitimacy to the political claims of the Sri Lankan Tamils, and has provided a focus for their constitutional demands. Northern Tamil society is generally categorised into two groups: those who are from the Jaffna peninsula in the north, and those who are residents of the Vanni to the immediate south. The Jaffna society is separated by castes. Historically, the Vellalar, who form approximately fifty percent of the population, were involved in agriculture, using the services of castes collectively known as Panchamar (Tamil for group of five). The Panchamar consisted of the Nalavar, Pallar, Parayar, Vannar, and Ambattar. Others such as the Karaiyar, existed outside the agriculture - based caste system. The caste of temple priests known as Iyers were also held in high esteem.
People in the Vanni districts considered themselves separate from Tamils of the Jaffna peninsula but the two groups did intermarry. Most of these married couples moved into the Vanni districts where land was available. Vanni consists of a number of highland settlements within forested lands using irrigation tank - based cultivation. An 1890 census listed 711 such tanks in this area. Hunting and raising livestock such as water buffalo and cattle is a necessary adjunct to the agriculture. The Tamil - inhabited Vanni consists of the Vavuniya, Mullaitivu, and eastern Mannar districts. Historically, the Vanni area has been in contact with what is now South India, including during the medieval period (see Vanniar). Northern Tamils follow customary laws called Thesavalamai, codified during the Dutch colonial period.
Although Sri Lankan Tamils are culturally and linguistically distinct, genetic studies indicate that they are closely related to other ethnic groups in the island while being related to the Indian Tamils from South India as well. There are various studies that indicate varying degrees of connections between Sri Lankan Tamils, Sinhalese and Indian ethnic groups.
In 1981, about eighty percent of Sri Lankan Tamils were Hindus who followed the Shaiva sect. The rest were mostly Roman Catholics who converted after the Portuguese conquest of Jaffna Kingdom and coastal Sri Lanka. There is also a small minority of Protestants due to missionary efforts in the 18th century by organisations such as the American Ceylon Mission. Most Tamils who inhabit the Western Province are Roman Catholics, while those of the Northern and Eastern Provinces are mainly Hindu. Pentecostal and other churches, such as Jehovah 's Witnesses, are active among the internally displaced and refugee populations. The 2012 Sri Lanka Census revealed a Buddhist population of 22,254 amongst Sri Lankan Tamils. Accounting to roughly 1 % of all Sri Lankan Tamils in Sri Lanka.
The Hindu elite follow the religious ideology of Shaiva Siddhanta (Shaiva school) while masses practice folk Hinduism, upholding their faith in local village deities not found in formal Hindu scriptures. The place of worship depends on the object of worship and how it is housed. It could be a proper Hindu temple known as a Koyil, constructed according to the Agamic scripts (a set of scriptures regulating the temple cult). More often, however, the temple is not completed in accordance with Agamic scriptures but consists of the barest essential structure housing a local deity. These temples observe daily Puja (prayers) hours and are attended by locals. Both types of temples have a resident ritualist or priest known as a Kurukkal. A Kurukkal may belong to someone from a prominent local lineage like Pandaram or Iyer community. In the Eastern Province, a Kurukkal usually belongs to Lingayat sect. Other places of worship do not have icons for their deities. The sanctum could house a trident (culam), a stone, or a large tree. Temples of this type are common in the Northern and Eastern Provinces; a typical village has up to 150 such structures. The offering would be done by an elder of the family who owns the site. A coconut oil lamp would be lit on Fridays, and a special rice dish known as pongal would be cooked either on a day considered auspicious by the family or on the Thai Pongal day, and possibly on Tamil New Year Day.
There are seven worshipped deities: Ayyanar, Annamar, Vairavar, Kali, Pillaiyar, Murukan, or Pattini. Villages have more Pillaiyar temples, which are patronised by local farmers. Tamil Roman Catholics, along with members of other faiths, worship at the Shrine of Our Lady of Madhu. Hindus have several temples with historic importance such as those at Ketheeswaram, Koneswaram, Naguleswaram, Munneswaram, Tondeswaram, and Nallur Kandaswamy. Kataragama temple and Adam 's Peak are attended by all religious communities.
Tamil dialects are differentiated by the phonological changes and sound shifts in their evolution from classical or old Tamil (3rd century BCE -- 7th century CE). The Sri Lankan Tamil dialects form a group that is distinct from the dialects of the modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala states of India. They are classified into three subgroups: the Jaffna Tamil, the Batticaloa Tamil, and the Negombo Tamil dialects. These dialects are also used by ethnic groups other than Tamils such as the Sinhalese, Moors and Veddhas. Tamil loan words in Sinhala also follow the characteristics of Sri Lankan Tamil dialects.
The Negombo Tamil dialect is used by bilingual fishermen in the Negombo area, who otherwise identify themselves as Sinhalese. This dialect has undergone considerable convergence with spoken Sinhala. The Batticaloa Tamil dialect is shared between Tamils, Muslims, Veddhas and Portuguese Burghers in the Eastern Province. Batticaloa Tamil dialect is the most literary of all the spoken dialects of Tamil. It has preserved several ancient features, remaining more consistent with the literary norm, while at the same time developing a few innovations. It also has its own distinctive vocabulary and retains words that are unique to present - day Malayalam, a Dravidian language from Kerala that originated as a dialect of old Tamil around 9th century CE. The Tamil dialect used by residents of the Trincomalee District has many similarities with the Jaffna Tamil dialect.
The dialect used in Jaffna is the oldest and closest to old Tamil. The long physical isolation of the Tamils of Jaffna has enabled their dialect to preserve ancient features of old Tamil that predate Tolkappiyam, the grammatical treatise on Tamil dated from 3rd century BCE to 10th century CE. Also, a large component of the settlers were of the Saiva Vellalar community, mudaliyar and pillai, which may have helped with the preservation of the dialect. Their ordinary speech is closely related to classical Tamil. Conservational Jaffna Tamil dialect and Indian Tamil dialects are to an extent not mutually intelligible, and the former is frequently mistaken for Malayalam by native Indian Tamil speakers. The closest Tamil Nadu Tamil variant to Jaffna Tamil is literary Tamil, used in formal speeches and news reading. There are also Prakrit loan words that are unique to Jaffna Tamil.
Sri Lankan Tamil society values education highly, for its own sake as well as for the opportunities it provides. The kings of the Aryacakravarti dynasty were historically patrons of literature and education. Temple schools and traditional gurukulam classes on verandahs (known as Thinnai Pallikoodam in Tamil) spread basic education in religion and in languages such as Tamil and Sanskrit to the upper classes. The Portuguese introduced western - style education after their conquest of the Jaffna kingdom in 1619. The Jesuits opened churches and seminaries, but the Dutch destroyed them and opened their own schools attached to Dutch Reformed churches when they took over Tamil - speaking regions of Sri Lanka.
The primary impetus for educational opportunity came with the establishment of the American Ceylon Mission in Jaffna District, which started with the arrival in 1813 of missionaries sponsored by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. The critical period of the missionaries ' impact was from the 1820s to the early 20th century. During this time, they created Tamil translations of English texts, engaged in printing and publishing, established primary, secondary, and college - level schools, and provided health care for residents of the Jaffna Peninsula. American activities in Jaffna also had unintended consequences. The concentration of efficient Protestant mission schools in Jaffna produced a revival movement among local Hindus led by Arumuga Navalar, who responded by building many more schools within the Jaffna peninsula. Local Catholics also started their own schools in reaction, and the state had its share of primary and secondary schools. Tamil literacy greatly increased as a result of these changes. This prompted the British colonial government to hire Tamils as government servants in British - held Ceylon, India, Malaysia, and Singapore.
By the time Sri Lanka became independent in 1948, about sixty percent of government jobs were held by Tamils, who formed barely fifteen percent of the population. The elected Sinhalese leaders of the country saw this as the result of a British stratagem to control the majority Sinhalese, and deemed it a situation that needed correction by implementation of the Policy of standardization.
According to legends, the origin of Sri Lankan Tamil literature dates back to the Sangam period (3rd century BCE -- 6th century CE). These legends indicate that the Tamil poet Eelattu Poothanthevanar (Poothanthevanar from Sri Lanka) lived during this period.
Medieval period Tamil literature on the subjects of medicine, mathematics and history was produced in the courts of the Jaffna Kingdom. During Singai Pararasasekaran 's rule, an academy for the propagation of the Tamil language, modelled on those of ancient Tamil Sangam, was established in Nallur. This academy collected manuscripts of ancient works and preserved them in the Saraswathy Mahal library.
During the Portuguese and Dutch colonial periods (1619 -- 1796), Muttukumara Kavirajar is the earliest known author who used literature to respond to Christian missionary activities. He was followed by Arumuga Navalar, who wrote and published a number of books. The period of joint missionary activities by the Anglican, American Ceylon, and Methodist Missions also saw the spread of modern education and the expansion of translation activities.
The modern period of Tamil literature began in the 1960s with the establishment of modern universities and a free education system in post-independence Sri Lanka. The 1960s also saw a social revolt against the caste system in Jaffna, which impacted Tamil literature: Dominic Jeeva, Senkai aazhiyaan, Thamizhmani Ahalangan are the products of this period.
After the start of the civil war in 1983, a number of poets and fiction writers became active, focusing on subjects such as death, destruction, and rape. Such writings have no parallels in any previous Tamil literature. The war produced displaced Tamil writers around the globe who recorded their longing for their lost homes and the need for integration with mainstream communities in Europe and North America.
The Jaffna Public Library which contained over 97,000 books and manuscripts was one of the biggest libraries in Asia, and through the Burning of the Jaffna Public Library much of Sri Lankan Tamil literature has been obliterated.
The cuisine of Sri Lankan Tamils draws influence from that of India, as well as from colonialists and foreign traders. Rice is usually consumed daily and can be found at any special occasion, while spicy curries are favourite dishes for lunch and dinner. Rice and curry is the name for a range of Sri Lankan Tamil dishes distinct from Indian Tamil cuisine, with regional variations between the island 's northern and eastern areas. While rice with curries is the most popular lunch menu, combinations such as curd, tangy mango, and tomato rice are also commonly served.
String hoppers, which are made of rice flour and look like knitted vermicelli neatly laid out in circular pieces about 12 centimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently combined with tomato sothi (a soup) and curries for breakfast and dinner. Another common item is puttu, a granular, dry, but soft steamed rice powder cooked in a bamboo cylinder with the base wrapped in cloth so that the bamboo flute can be set upright over a clay pot of boiling water. This can be transformed into varieties such as ragi, spinach, and tapioca puttu. There are also sweet and savoury puttus. Another popular breakfast or dinner dish is Appam, a thin crusty pancake made with rice flour, with a round soft crust in the middle. It has variations such as egg or milk Appam.
Jaffna, as a peninsula, has an abundance of seafood such as crab, shark, fish, prawn, and squid. Meat dishes such as mutton, chicken and pork also have their own niche. Vegetable curries use ingredients primarily from the home garden such as pumpkin, yam, jackfruit seed, hibiscus flower, and various green leaves. Coconut milk and hot chilli powder are also frequently used. Appetizers can consist of a range of achars (pickles) and vadahams. Snacks and sweets are generally of the homemade "rustic '' variety, relying on jaggery, sesame seed, coconut, and gingelly oil, to give them their distinct regional flavour. A popular alcoholic drink in rural areas is palm wine (toddy), made from palmyra tree sap. Snacks, savouries, sweets and porridge produced from the palmyra form a separate but unique category of foods; from the fan - shaped leaves to the root, the palmyra palm forms an intrinsic part of the life and cuisine of northern region.
Sri Lanka became an independent nation in 1948. Since independence, the political relationship between Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamil community has been strained. Sri Lanka has been unable to contain its ethnic violence as it escalated from sporadic terrorism to mob violence, and finally to civil war. The Sri Lankan Civil War has several underlying causes: the ways in which modern ethnic identities have been made and remade since the colonial period, rhetorical wars over archaeological sites and place name etymologies, and the political use of the national past. The civil war resulted in the death of at least 100,000 people and, according to human rights groups such as Human Rights Watch, the forced disappearance of thousands of others (see White van abductions in Sri Lanka). Since 1983, Sri Lanka has also witnessed massive civilian displacements of more than a million people, with eighty percent of them being Sri Lankan Tamils.
The arrival of Protestant missionaries on a large scale beginning in 1814 was a primary contributor to the development of political awareness among Sri Lankan Tamils. Activities by missionaries of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and Methodist and Anglican churches led to a revival among Hindu Tamils who created their own social groups, built their own schools and temples, and published their own literature to counter the missionary activities. The success of this effort led to a new confidence for the Tamils, encouraging them to think of themselves as a community, and it paved the way for their emergence as a cultural, religious, and linguistic society in the mid-19th century.
Britain, which conquered the whole island by 1815, established a legislative council in 1833 by unifying the Tamil and Sinhalese nations on the island and assigning three European seats and one seat each for Sinhalese, Tamils and Burghers. This council 's primary function was to act as advisor to the Governor, and the seats eventually became elected positions. There was initially little tension between the Sinhalese and the Tamils, when in 1913 Ponnambalam Arunachalam, a Tamil, was appointed representative of the Sinhalese as well as of the Tamils in the national legislative council. British Governor William Manning, who was appointed in 1918 however, actively encouraged the concept of "communal representation ''. Subsequently, the Donoughmore Commission in 1931 rejected communal representation and brought in universal franchise. This decision was opposed by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in parliament according to their proportion of the overall population. In 1944, G.G. Ponnambalam, a leader of the Tamil community, suggested to the Soulbury Commission that a roughly equal number of seats be assigned to Sinhalese and minorities in an independent Ceylon (50: 50) -- a proposal that was rejected. But under section 29 (2) of the constitution formulated by the commissioner, additional protection was provided to minority groups, such requiring a two - thirds majority for any amendments and a scheme of representation that provided more weight to the ethnic minorities.
Shortly after independence in 1948, G.G. Ponnambalam and his All Ceylon Tamil Congress joined D.S. Senanayake 's moderate, western - oriented United National Party led government which led to a split in the Tamil Congress. S.J.V. Chelvanayakam, the leader of the splinter Federal Party (FP or Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi), contested the Ceylon Citizenship Act, which denied citizenship to Tamils of recent Indian origin, before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy council in England, but failed to overturn it. The FP eventually became the dominant Tamil political party. In response to the Sinhala Only Act in 1956, which made Sinhala the sole official language, Federal Party Members of Parliament staged a nonviolent sit - in (satyagraha) protest, but it was violently broken up by a mob. The FP was blamed and briefly banned after the riots of May -- June 1958 targeting Tamils, in which many were killed and thousands forced to flee their homes. Another point of conflict between the communities was state sponsored colonisation schemes that effectively changed the demographic balance in the Eastern Province, an area Tamil nationalists considered to be their traditional homeland, in favour of the majority Sinhalese.
In 1972, a newly formulated constitution removed section 29 (2) of the 1947 Soulbury constitution that was formulated to protect the interests of minorities. Also, in 1973, the Policy of standardization was implemented by the Sri Lankan government, supposedly to rectify disparities in university enrolment created under British colonial rule. The resultant benefits enjoyed by Sinhalese students also meant a significant decrease in the number of Tamil students within the Sri Lankan university student population.
Shortly thereafter, in 1973, the Federal Party decided to demand a separate Tamil state. In 1976 they merged with the other Tamil political parties to become the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF). By 1977 most Tamils seemed to support the move for independence by electing the Tamil United Liberation Front overwhelmingly. The elections were followed by the 1977 riots, in which around 300 Tamils were killed. There was further violence in 1981 when an organised Sinhalese mob went on a rampage during the nights of 31 May to 2 June, burning down the Jaffna public library -- at the time one of the largest libraries in Asia -- containing more than 97,000 books and manuscripts.
Since 1948, successive governments have adopted policies that had the net effect of assisting the Sinhalese community in such areas as education and public employment. These policies made it difficult for middle class Tamil youth to enter university or secure employment.
The individuals belonging to this younger generation, often referred to by other Tamils as "the boys '' (Pudiyangal in Tamil), formed many militant organisations. The most important contributor to the strength of the militant groups was the Black July massacre, in which between 1,000 - 3,000 Tamils were killed, prompting many youths to choose the path of armed resistance.
By the end of 1987, the militant youth groups had fought not only the Sri Lankan security forces and the Indian Peace Keeping Force also among each other, with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) eventually eliminating most of the others. Except for the LTTE, many of the remaining organisations transformed into either minor political parties within the Tamil National Alliance or standalone political parties. Some also function as paramilitary groups within the Sri Lankan military.
Human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, as well as the United States Department of State and the European Union, have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka, and both the government of Sri Lanka and the rebel LTTE have been accused of human rights violations. Although Amnesty International in 2003 found considerable improvement in the human rights situation, attributed to a ceasefire and peace talks between the government and the LTTE, by 2007 they reported an escalation in political killings, child recruitment, abductions, and armed clashes, which created a climate of fear in the north and east of the country.
In August 2009, the civil war ended with total victory for the government forces. During last phase of the war many Tamil civilians and combatants were killed. The government estimated that over 22,000 LTTE cadres had died. The civilian death toll is estimated to vary from 6,500 to as high as 40,000. This is in addition to the 70,000 Sri Lankans killed up to the beginning of the last phase of the civil war. Over 300,000 internally displaced Tamil civilians were interred in special camps and eventually released. As of 2011, there were still few thousand alleged combatants in state prisons awaiting trials. The Sri Lankan government has released over 11,000 rehabilitated former LTTE cadres.
Bishop of Mannar (a north western town), Rayappu Joseph, says 146,679 people seem to be unaccounted between 2008 October and at the end of the civil war.
The earliest Tamil speakers from Sri Lanka known to have travelled to foreign lands were members of a merchant guild called Tenilankai Valanciyar (Valanciyar from Lanka of the South). They left behind inscriptions in South India dated to the 13th century. In the late 19th century, educated Tamils from the Jaffna peninsula migrated to the British colonies of Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore) and India to assist the colonial bureaucracy. They worked in almost every branch of public administration, as well as on plantations and in industrial sectors. Prominent Sri Lankan Tamils in the Forbes list of billionaire include: Ananda Krishnan, Raj Rajaratnam, and G. Gnanalingam, and Singapore 's former foreign minister and deputy prime minister, S. Rajaratnam, are of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. C.W. Thamotharampillai, an Indian - based Tamil language revivalist, was born in the Jaffna peninsula.
After the start of the conflict between the Sri Lankan government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, there was a mass migration of Tamils trying to escape the hardships and perils of war. Initially, it was middle class professionals, such as doctors and engineers, who emigrated; they were followed by the poorer segments of the community. The fighting drove more than 800,000 Tamils from their homes to other places within Sri Lanka as internally displaced persons and also overseas, prompting the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to identify them in 2004 as the largest asylum - seeking group.
The country with the largest share of displaced Tamils is Canada, with more than 200,000 legal residents, found mostly within the Greater Toronto Area. and there are a number of prominent Canadians of Sri Lankan Tamil descent, such as author Shyam Selvadurai, and Indira Samarasekera, former president of the University of Alberta.
Sri Lankan Tamils in India are mostly refugees of about over 100,000 in special camps and another 50,000 outside of the camps. In western European countries, the refugees and immigrants have integrated themselves into society where permitted. Tamil British singer M.I.A (born Mathangi Arulpragasam) and BBC journalist George Alagiah are, among others, notable people of Sri Lankan Tamil descent. Sri Lankan Tamil Hindus have built a number of prominent Hindu temples across North America and Europe, notably in Canada, France, Germany, Denmark, and the UK.
Sri Lankan Tamils continue to seek refuge in countries like Canada and Australia. The International Organization for Migration and the Australian government have declared Tamil refugees as economic migrants. Canada has tightened controls on their refugee program due to various abuses within the Canadian refugee system. A Canadian government survey found that over 70 % of Sri Lankan Tamil refugees have gone back to Sri Lanka for holidays raising concerns over the legitimacy of their refugee claims.
Tamil presence in Sri Lankan politics and society is facing a revival. In 2015 elections the Tamil national alliance got the third largest amound of seats in the Parliament and as the largest parties UNP and SLFP created a unity government TNA leader R. Sampanthan was appointed as the opposition leader K. Sripavan beame the 44th Chief justice and the second Tamil to hold the position.
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when did governor general's rule end in india | List of governors - General of India - Wikipedia
The Regulating Act of 1773 created the office with the title of Governor - General of the Presidency of Fort William, or Governor - General of Bengal to be appointed by the Court of Directors of the East India Company (EIC). The Court of Directors assigned a Council of Four (based in India) to assist The Governor General, and decision of council was binding on Governor General during 1773 - 1784.
The Saint Helena Act 1833 (or Government of India Act 1833) re-designated the office with the title of Governor - General of India.
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the company rule was brought to an end, and the British India along with princely states came under the direct rule of the Crown. The Government of India Act 1858 created the office of Secretary of State for India in 1858 to oversee the affairs of India, which was advised by a new Council of India with 15 members (based in London). The existing Council of Four was formally renamed as the Council of Governor General of India or Executive Council of India. The Council of India was later abolished by Government of India Act 1935.
Following the adoption of the Government of India Act of 1858, the Governor - General as representing the Crown became known as the Viceroy. The designation ' Viceroy ', although it was most frequently used in ordinary parlance, had no statutory authority, and was never employed by Parliament. Although the Proclamation of 1858 announcing the assumption of the government of India by the Crown referred to Lord Canning as "first Viceroy and Governor - General '', none of the Warrants appointing his successors referred to them as ' Viceroys ', and the title, which was frequently used in Warrants dealing with precedence and in public notifications, was basically one of ceremony used in connection with the state and social functions of the Sovereign 's representative. The Governor - General continued to be the sole representative of the Crown, and the Government of India continued to be vested in the Governor - General - in - Council.
From the year 1858 onwards, the appointments of Governor - General of India were made by British Crown at the advice of Secretary of State for India. The office of Governor - General continued to exist as a ceremonial post in each of the new dominions until they adopted republican constitutions in 1950 and 1956 respectively...
Started the Census.
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when did the titanic hit the ocean floor | RMS Titanic - wikipedia
RMS Titanic was a British passenger liner that sank in the North Atlantic Ocean in the early hours of 15 April 1912, after colliding with an iceberg during its maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. There were an estimated 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, and more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. RMS Titanic was the largest ship afloat at the time it entered service and was the second of three Olympic - class ocean liners operated by the White Star Line. It was built by the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster.
Titanic was under the command of Capt. Edward Smith, who also went down with the ship. The ocean liner carried some of the wealthiest people in the world, as well as hundreds of emigrants from Great Britain and Ireland, Scandinavia and elsewhere throughout Europe who were seeking a new life in the United States. The first - class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on - board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high - class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high - powered radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger "marconigrams '' and for the ship 's operational use. Although Titanic had advanced safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors, Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people -- about half the number on board, and one third of her total capacity -- due to outdated maritime safety regulations. The ship carried 16 lifeboat davits which could lower three lifeboats each, for a total of 48 boats. However, Titanic carried only a total of 20 lifeboats, four of which were collapsible and proved hard to launch during the sinking.
After leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland, she hit an iceberg at 11: 40 p.m. ship 's time. The collision caused the hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard (right) side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea; she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some crew members were evacuated in lifeboats, many of which were launched only partially loaded. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a "women and children first '' protocol for loading lifeboats. At 2: 20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived and brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors.
The disaster was met with worldwide shock and outrage at the huge loss of life and the regulatory and operational failures that led to it. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new wireless regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications -- which could have saved many more passengers.
The wreck of Titanic was discovered in 1985 (more than 70 years after the disaster), and remains on the seabed. The ship was split in two and is gradually disintegrating at a depth of 12,415 feet (3,784 m). Thousands of artefacts have been recovered and displayed at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history; her memory is kept alive by numerous works of popular culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits, and memorials. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the largest ever sunk. The final survivor of the sinking, Millvina Dean, aged two months at the time, died in 2009 at the age of 97.
The name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. Built in Belfast, Ireland, in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it was then known), the RMS Titanic was the second of the three Olympic - class ocean liners -- the first was the RMS Olympic and the third was the HMHS Britannic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Line 's fleet, which comprised 29 steamers and tenders in 1912. The three ships had their genesis in a discussion in mid-1907 between the White Star Line 's chairman, J. Bruce Ismay, and the American financier J.P. Morgan, who controlled the White Star Line 's parent corporation, the International Mercantile Marine Co. (IMM).
The White Star Line faced an increasing challenge from its main rivals Cunard, which had recently launched the Lusitania and the Mauretania -- the fastest passenger ships then in service -- and the German lines Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd. Ismay preferred to compete on size rather than speed and proposed to commission a new class of liners that would be larger than anything that had gone before as well as being the last word in comfort and luxury. The company sought an upgrade in their fleet primarily in response to the Cunard giants but also to replace their oldest pair of passenger ships still in service, being the SS Teutonic of 1889 and SS Majestic of 1890. Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be brought back into her old spot on White Star 's New York service after Titanic 's loss.
The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, who had a long - established relationship with the White Star Line dating back to 1867. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line; the usual approach was for the latter to sketch out a general concept which the former would take away and turn into a ship design. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin. In the case of the Olympic - class ships, a cost of £ 3 million (£ 250 million in 2015 money) for the first two ships was agreed plus "extras to contract '' and the usual five percent fee.
Harland and Wolff put their leading designers to work designing the Olympic - class vessels. The design was overseen by Lord Pirrie, a director of both Harland and Wolff and the White Star Line; naval architect Thomas Andrews, the managing director of Harland and Wolff 's design department; Edward Wilding, Andrews ' deputy and responsible for calculating the ship 's design, stability and trim; and Alexander Carlisle, the shipyard 's chief draughtsman and general manager. Carlisle 's responsibilities included the decorations, equipment and all general arrangements, including the implementation of an efficient lifeboat davit design.
On 29 July 1908, Harland and Wolff presented the drawings to J. Bruce Ismay and other White Star Line executives. Ismay approved the design and signed three "letters of agreement '' two days later, authorising the start of construction. At this point the first ship -- which was later to become Olympic -- had no name, but was referred to simply as "Number 400 '', as it was Harland and Wolff 's four hundredth hull. Titanic was based on a revised version of the same design and was given the number 401.
Titanic was 882 feet 9 inches (269.06 m) long with a maximum breadth of 92 feet 6 inches (28.19 m). Her total height, measured from the base of the keel to the top of the bridge, was 104 feet (32 m). She measured 46,328 gross register tons and with a draught of 34 feet 7 inches (10.54 m), she displaced 52,310 tons.
All three of the Olympic - class ships had ten decks (excluding the top of the officers ' quarters), eight of which were for passenger use. From top to bottom, the decks were:
Titanic was equipped with three main engines -- two reciprocating four - cylinder, triple - expansion steam engines and one centrally placed low - pressure Parsons turbine -- each driving a propeller. The two reciprocating engines had a combined output of 30,000 hp. The output of the steam turbine was 16,000 hp. The White Star Line had used the same combination of engines on an earlier liner, the SS Laurentic, where it had been a great success. It provided a good combination of performance and speed; reciprocating engines by themselves were not powerful enough to propel an Olympic - class liner at the desired speeds, while turbines were sufficiently powerful but caused uncomfortable vibrations, a problem that affected the all - turbine Cunard liners Lusitania and Mauretania. By combining reciprocating engines with a turbine, fuel usage could be reduced and motive power increased, while using the same amount of steam.
The two reciprocating engines were each 63 feet (19 m) long and weighed 720 tons, with their bedplates contributing a further 195 tons. They were powered by steam produced in 29 boilers, 24 of which were double - ended and five single - ended, which contained a total of 159 furnaces. The boilers were 15 feet 9 inches (4.80 m) in diameter and 20 feet (6.1 m) long, each weighing 91.5 tons and capable of holding 48.5 tons of water.
They were heated by burning coal, 6,611 tons of which could be carried in Titanic 's bunkers, with a further 1,092 tons in Hold 3. The furnaces required over 600 tons of coal a day to be shovelled into them by hand, requiring the services of 176 firemen working around the clock. 100 tons of ash a day had to be disposed of by ejecting it into the sea. The work was relentless, dirty and dangerous, and although firemen were paid relatively generously there was a high suicide rate among those who worked in that capacity.
Exhaust steam leaving the reciprocating engines was fed into the turbine, which was situated aft. From there it passed into a surface condenser, to increase the efficiency of the turbine and so that the steam could be condensed back into water and reused. The engines were attached directly to long shafts which drove the propellers. There were three, one for each engine; the outer (or wing) propellers were the largest, each carrying three blades of manganese - bronze alloy with a total diameter of 23.5 feet (7.2 m). The middle propeller was slightly smaller at 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter, and could be stopped but not reversed.
Titanic 's electrical plant was capable of producing more power than an average city power station of the time. Immediately aft of the turbine engine were four 400 kW steam - driven electric generators, used to provide electrical power to the ship, plus two 30 kW auxiliary generators for emergency use. Their location in the stern of the ship meant they remained operational until the last few minutes before the ship sank.
The interiors of the Olympic - class ships were subdivided into 16 primary compartments divided by 15 bulkheads which extended well above the waterline. Eleven vertically closing watertight doors could seal off the compartments in the event of an emergency. The ship 's exposed decking was made of pine and teak, while interior ceilings were covered in painted granulated cork to combat condensation. Standing above the decks were four funnels, each painted buff with black tops, (though only three were functional -- the last one was a dummy, installed for aesthetic purposes and also for kitchen ventilation) -- and two masts, each 155 feet (47 m) high, which supported derricks for working cargo.
Titanic 's rudder was so large -- at 78 feet 8 inches (23.98 m) high and 15 feet 3 inches (4.65 m) long, weighing over 100 tons -- that it required steering engines to move it. Two steam - powered steering engines were installed though only one was used at any one time, with the other one kept in reserve. They were connected to the short tiller through stiff springs, to isolate the steering engines from any shocks in heavy seas or during fast changes of direction. As a last resort, the tiller could be moved by ropes connected to two steam capstans. The capstans were also used to raise and lower the ship 's five anchors (one port, one starboard, one in the centreline and two kedging anchors).
The ship was equipped with her own waterworks, capable of heating and pumping water to all parts of the vessel via a complex network of pipes and valves. The main water supply was taken aboard while Titanic was in port, but in an emergency the ship could also distil fresh water from seawater, though this was not a straightforward process as the distillation plant quickly became clogged by salt deposits. A network of insulated ducts conveyed warm air, driven by electric fans, around the ship, and First Class cabins were fitted with additional electric heaters.
Titanic 's radiotelegraph equipment (then known as wireless telegraphy) was leased to the White Star Line by the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, which also supplied two of its employees, Jack Phillips and Harold Bride, as operators. The service maintained a 24 - hour schedule, primarily sending and receiving passenger telegrams, but also handling navigation messages including weather reports and ice warnings.
The radio room was located on the Boat Deck, in the officers ' quarters. A soundproofed "Silent Room '', next to the operating room, housed loud equipment, including the transmitter and a motor - generator used for producing alternating currents. The operators ' living quarters were adjacent to the working office. The ship was equipped with a ' state of the art ' 5 kilowatt rotary spark - gap transmitter, operating under the radio callsign MGY, and communication was conducted in Morse code. This transmitter was one of the first Marconi installations to use a rotary spark gap, which gave Titanic a distinctive musical tone that could be readily distinguished from other signals. The transmitter was one of the most powerful in the world, and guaranteed to broadcast over a radius of 350 miles (563 km). An elevated T - antenna that spanned the length of the ship was used for transmitting and receiving. The normal operating frequency was 500 kHz (600 m wavelength), however the equipment could also operate on the "short '' wavelength of 1,000 kHz (300 m wavelength) that was employed by smaller vessels with shorter antennas.
The passenger facilities aboard Titanic aimed to meet the highest standards of luxury. According to Titanic 's general arrangement plans, the ship could accommodate 833 First Class Passengers, 614 in Second Class and 1,006 in Third Class, for a total passenger capacity of 2,453. In addition, her capacity for crew members exceeded 900, as most documents of her original configuration have stated that her full carrying capacity for both passengers and crew was approximately 3,547. Her interior design was a departure from that of other passenger liners, which had typically been decorated in the rather heavy style of a manor house or an English country house.
Titanic was laid out in a much lighter style similar to that of contemporary high - class hotels -- the Ritz Hotel was a reference point -- with First Class cabins finished in the Empire style. A variety of other decorative styles, ranging from the Renaissance to Louis XV, were used to decorate cabins and public rooms in First and Second Class areas of the ship. The aim was to convey an impression that the passengers were in a floating hotel rather than a ship; as one passenger recalled, on entering the ship 's interior a passenger would "at once lose the feeling that we are on board ship, and seem instead to be entering the hall of some great house on shore ''.
Among the more novel features available to first - class passengers was a 7 ft. deep saltwater swimming pool, a gymnasium, a squash court, and a Turkish bath which comprised electric bath, steam room, cool room, massage room, and hot room. First - class common rooms were impressive in scope and lavishly decorated. They included a Lounge in the style of the Palace of Versailles, an enormous Reception Room, a men 's Smoking Room, and a Reading and Writing Room. There was an À la Carte Restaurant in the style of the Ritz Hotel which was run as a concession by the famous Italian restaurateur Gaspare Gatti. A Café Parisien decorated in the style of a French sidewalk café, complete with ivy covered trellises and wicker furniture, was run as an annex to the restaurant. For an extra cost, first - class passengers could enjoy the finest French haute cuisine in the most luxurious of surroundings. There was also a Verandah Café where tea and light refreshments were served, that offered grand views of the ocean. At 114 ft. long X 92 ft. wide, the Dining Saloon on D - Deck was the largest room afloat and could seat almost 600 passengers at a time. Third Class (commonly referred to as Steerage) accommodations aboard Titanic were not as luxurious as First or Second Class, but even so were better than on many other ships of the time. They reflected the improved standards which the White Star Line had adopted for trans - Atlantic immigrant and lower - class travel. On most other North Atlantic passenger ships at the time, Third Class accommodations consisted of little more than open dormitories in the forward end of the vessels, in which hundreds of people were confined, often without adequate food or toilet facilities.
The White Star Line had long since broken that mould. As seen aboard Titanic, all White Star Line passenger ships divided their Third Class accommodations into two sections, always at opposite ends of the vessel from one another. The established arrangement was that single men were quartered in the forward areas, while single women, married couples and families were quartered aft. In addition, while other ships provided only open berth sleeping arrangements, White Star Line vessels provided their Third Class passengers with private, small but comfortable cabins capable of accommodating two, four, six, eight and 10 passengers.
Third Class accommodations also included their own dining rooms, as well as public gathering areas including adequate open deck space, which aboard Titanic comprised the Poop Deck at the stern, the forward and aft well decks, and a large open space on D Deck which could be used as a social hall. This was supplemented by the addition of a smoking room for men and a General Room on C Deck which women could use for reading and writing. Although they were not as glamorous in design as spaces seen in upper class accommodations, they were still far above average for the period.
Leisure facilities were provided for all three classes to pass the time. As well as making use of the indoor amenities such as the library, smoking rooms, and gymnasium, it was also customary for passengers to socialise on the open deck, promenading or relaxing in hired deck chairs or wooden benches. A passenger list was published before the sailing to inform the public which members of the great and good were on board, and it was not uncommon for ambitious mothers to use the list to identify rich bachelors to whom they could introduce their marriageable daughters during the voyage.
One of Titanic 's most distinctive features was her First Class staircase, known as the Grand Staircase or Grand Stairway. Built of solid English oak with a sweeping curve, the staircase descended through seven decks of the ship, between the Boat Deck to E deck, before terminating in a simplified single flight on F Deck. It was capped with a dome of wrought iron and glass that admitted natural light to the stairwell. Each landing off the staircase gave access to ornate entrance halls paneled in the William & Mary style and lit by ormolu and crystal light fixtures.
At the uppermost landing was a large carved wooden panel containing a clock, with figures of "Honour and Glory Crowning Time '' flanking the clock face. The Grand Staircase was destroyed during the sinking and is now just a void in the ship which modern explorers have used to access the lower decks. During the filming of James Cameron 's Titanic in 1997, his replica of the Grand Staircase was ripped from its foundations by the force of the inrushing water on the set. It has been suggested that during the real event, the entire Grand Staircase was ejected upwards through the dome.
Although Titanic was primarily a passenger liner, she also carried a substantial amount of cargo. Her designation as a Royal Mail Ship (RMS) indicated that she carried mail under contract with the Royal Mail (and also for the United States Post Office Department). For the storage of letters, parcels and specie (bullion, coins and other valuables), 26,800 cubic feet (760 m) of space in her holds was allocated. The Sea Post Office on G Deck was manned by five postal clerks; three Americans and two Britons, who worked 13 hours a day, seven days a week sorting up to 60,000 items daily.
The ship 's passengers brought with them a huge amount of baggage; another 19,455 cubic feet (550.9 m) was taken up by first - and second - class baggage. In addition, there was a considerable quantity of regular cargo, ranging from furniture to foodstuffs, and a 1912 Renault Type CE Coupe de Ville motor car. Despite later myths, the cargo on Titanic 's maiden voyage was fairly mundane; there was no gold, exotic minerals or diamonds, and one of the more famous items lost in the shipwreck, a jewelled copy of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, was valued at only £ 405 (£ 36,800 today). According to the claims for compensation filed with Commissioner Gilchrist, following the conclusion of the Senate Inquiry, the single most highly valued item of luggage or cargo was a large neoclassical oil painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain by French artist Merry - Joseph Blondel. The painting 's owner, first class passenger Mauritz Håkan Björnström - Steffansson, filed a claim for $100,000 ($2.4 million equivalent in 2014) in compensation for the loss of the artwork.
Titanic was equipped with eight electric cranes, four electric winches and three steam winches to lift cargo and baggage in and out of the hold. It is estimated that the ship used some 415 tons of coal whilst in Southampton, simply generating steam to operate the cargo winches and provide heat and light.
Titanic carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland and Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt "collapsible '' (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. Olympic herself did not even carry the four collapsibles A -- D during the 1911 -- 12 season. All of the lifeboats were stowed securely on the boat deck and, except for collapsible lifeboats A and B, connected to davits by ropes. Those on the starboard side were odd - numbered 1 -- 15 from bow to stern, while those on the port side were even - numbered 2 -- 16 from bow to stern.
Both cutters were kept swung out, hanging from the davits, ready for immediate use, while collapsible lifeboats C and D were stowed on the boat deck (connected to davits) immediately inboard of boats 1 and 2 respectively. A and B were stored on the roof of the officers ' quarters, on either side of number 1 funnel. There were no davits to lower them and their weight would make them difficult to launch by hand. Each boat carried (among other things) food, water, blankets, and a spare life belt. Lifeline ropes on the boats ' sides enabled them to save additional people from the water if necessary.
Titanic had 16 sets of davits, each able to handle four lifeboats. This gave Titanic the ability to carry up to 64 wooden lifeboats which would have been enough for 4,000 people -- considerably more than her actual capacity. However, the White Star Line decided that only 16 wooden lifeboats and four collapsibles would be carried, which could accommodate 1,178 people, only one - third of Titanic 's total capacity. At the time, the Board of Trade 's regulations required British vessels over 10,000 tons to only carry 16 lifeboats with a capacity of 990 occupants.
Therefore, the White Star Line actually provided more lifeboat accommodation than was legally required. At the time, lifeboats were intended to ferry survivors from a sinking ship to a rescuing ship -- not keep afloat the whole population or power them to shore. Had the SS Californian responded to Titanic 's distress calls, the lifeboats may have been adequate to ferry the passengers to safety as planned.
The sheer size of Titanic and her sister ships posed a major engineering challenge for Harland and Wolff; no shipbuilder had ever before attempted to construct vessels this size. The ships were constructed on Queen 's Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Harland and Wolff had to demolish three existing slipways and build two new ones, the largest ever constructed up to that time, to accommodate both ships. Their construction was facilitated by an enormous gantry built by Sir William Arrol & Co., a Scottish firm responsible for the building of the Forth Bridge and London 's Tower Bridge. The Arrol Gantry stood 228 feet (69 m) high, was 270 feet (82 m) wide and 840 feet (260 m) long, and weighed more than 6,000 tons. It accommodated a number of mobile cranes. A separate floating crane, capable of lifting 200 tons, was brought in from Germany.
The construction of Olympic and Titanic took place virtually in parallel, with Olympic 's keel laid down first on 16 December 1908 and Titanic 's on 31 March 1909. Both ships took about 26 months to build and followed much the same construction process. They were designed essentially as an enormous floating box girder, with the keel acting as a backbone and the frames of the hull forming the ribs. At the base of the ships, a double bottom 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) deep supported 300 frames, each between 24 inches (61 cm) and 36 inches (91 cm) apart and measuring up to about 66 feet (20 m) long. They terminated at the bridge deck (B Deck) and were covered with steel plates which formed the outer skin of the ships.
The 2,000 hull plates were single pieces of rolled steel plate, mostly up to 6 feet (1.8 m) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long and weighing between 2.5 and 3 tons. Their thickness varied from 1 inch (2.5 cm) to 1.5 inches (3.8 cm). The plates were laid in a clinkered (overlapping) fashion from the keel to the bilge. Above that point they were laid in the "in and out '' fashion, where strake plating was applied in bands (the "in strakes '') with the gaps covered by the "out strakes '', overlapping on the edges. Commercial oxy - fuel and electric arc welding methods, ubiquitous in fabrication today, were still in their infancy; like most other iron and steel structures of the era, the hull was held together with over three million iron and steel rivets, which by themselves weighed over 1,200 tons. They were fitted using hydraulic machines or were hammered in by hand. In the 1990s some material scientists concluded that the steel plate used for the ship was subject to being especially brittle when cold, and that this brittleness exacerbated the impact damage and hastened the sinking. It is believed that, by the standards of the time, the steel plate 's quality was good, not faulty, but that it was inferior to what would be used for shipbuilding purposes in later decades, owing to advances in the metallurgy of steelmaking. As for the rivets, considerable emphasis has also been placed on their quality and strength.
One of the last items to be fitted on Titanic before the ship 's launch was her two side anchors and one centre anchor. The anchors themselves were a challenge to make with the centre anchor being the largest ever forged by hand and weighing nearly 16 tons. Twenty Clydesdale draught horses were needed to haul the centre anchor by wagon from the Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd forge shop in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom to the Dudley railway station two miles away. From there it was shipped by rail to Fleetwood in Lancashire before being loaded aboard a ship and sent to Belfast.
The work of constructing the ships was difficult and dangerous. For the 15,000 men who worked at Harland and Wolff at the time, safety precautions were rudimentary at best; a lot of the work was dangerous and was carried out without any safety equipment like hard hats or hand guards on machinery. As a result, deaths and injuries were to be expected. During Titanic 's construction, 246 injuries were recorded, 28 of them "severe '', such as arms severed by machines or legs crushed under falling pieces of steel. Six people died on the ship herself while she was being constructed and fitted out, and another two died in the shipyard workshops and sheds. Just before the launch a worker was killed when a piece of wood fell on him.
Titanic was launched at 12: 15 p.m. on 31 May 1911 in the presence of Lord Pirrie, J. Pierpoint Morgan, J. Bruce Ismay and 100,000 onlookers. 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the ship 's passage into the River Lagan. In keeping with the White Star Line 's traditional policy, the ship was not formally named or christened with champagne. The ship was towed to a fitting - out berth where, over the course of the next year, her engines, funnels and superstructure were installed and her interior was fitted out.
Although Titanic was virtually identical to the class 's lead ship Olympic, a few changes were made to distinguish both ships. The most noticeable exterior difference was that Titanic (and the third vessel in class, Britannic) had a steel screen with sliding windows installed along the forward half of the A Deck promenade. This was installed as a last minute change at the personal request of Bruce Ismay, and was intended to provide additional shelter to first class passengers. Extensive changes were made to B Deck on Titanic as the promenade space in this deck, which had proven unpopular on Olympic was converted into additional First Class cabins, including two opulent parlour suites with their own private promenade spaces. The À la Carte restaurant was also enlarged and the Café Parisien, an entirely new feature which did not exist on Olympic, was added. These changes made Titanic slightly heavier than her sister, and thus she could claim to be the largest ship afloat. The work took longer than expected due to design changes requested by Ismay and a temporary pause in work occasioned by the need to repair Olympic, which had been in a collision in September 1911. Had Titanic been finished earlier, she might well have missed her collision with an iceberg.
Titanic 's sea trials began at 6 a.m. on Tuesday, 2 April 1912, just two days after her fitting out was finished and eight days before she was due to leave Southampton on her maiden voyage. The trials were delayed for a day due to bad weather, but by Monday morning it was clear and fair. Aboard were 78 stokers, greasers and firemen, and 41 members of crew. No domestic staff appear to have been aboard. Representatives of various companies travelled on Titanic 's sea trials, Thomas Andrews and Edward Wilding of Harland and Wolff and Harold A. Sanderson of IMM. Bruce Ismay and Lord Pirrie were too ill to attend. Jack Phillips and Harold Bride served as radio operators, and performed fine - tuning of the Marconi equipment. Francis Carruthers, a surveyor from the Board of Trade, was also present to see that everything worked, and that the ship was fit to carry passengers.
The sea trials consisted of a number of tests of her handling characteristics, carried out first in Belfast Lough and then in the open waters of the Irish Sea. Over the course of about 12 hours, Titanic was driven at different speeds, her turning ability was tested and a "crash stop '' was performed in which the engines were reversed full ahead to full astern, bringing her to a stop in 850 yd (777 m) or 3 minutes and 15 seconds. The ship covered a distance of about 80 nautical miles (92 mi; 150 km), averaging 18 knots (21 mph; 33 km / h) and reaching a maximum speed of just under 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
On returning to Belfast at about 7 p.m., the surveyor signed an "Agreement and Account of Voyages and Crew '', valid for 12 months, which declared the ship seaworthy. An hour later, Titanic departed Belfast to head to Southampton, a voyage of about 570 nautical miles (660 mi; 1,060 km). After a journey lasting about 28 hours she arrived about midnight on 4 April and was towed to the port 's Berth 44, ready for the arrival of her passengers and the remainder of her crew.
Both Olympic and Titanic registered Liverpool as their home port. The offices of the White Star Line as well as Cunard were in Liverpool, and up until the introduction of the Olympic, most British ocean liners for both Cunard and White Star, such as Lusitania and Mauretania, sailed out of Liverpool followed by a port of call in Queenstown, Ireland. Since the company 's founding in 1871, a vast majority of their operations had taken place out of Liverpool. However, in 1907 White Star established another service out of the port of Southampton on England 's south coast, which became known as White Star 's "Express Service ''. Southampton had many advantages over Liverpool, the first being its proximity to London.
In addition, Southampton, being on the south coast, allowed ships to easily cross the English Channel and make a port of call on the northern coast of France, usually at Cherbourg. This allowed British ships to pick up clientele from continental Europe before recrossing the channel and picking up passengers at Queenstown. The Southampton - Cherbourg - New York run would become so popular that most British ocean liners began using the port after World War I. Out of respect for Liverpool, ships continued to be registered there until the early 1960s. Queen Elizabeth 2 was one of the first ships registered in Southampton when introduced into service by Cunard in 1969.
Titanic 's maiden voyage was intended to be the first of many trans - Atlantic crossings between Southampton and New York via Cherbourg and Queenstown on westbound runs, returning via Plymouth in England while eastbound. Indeed, her entire schedule of voyages through to December 1912 still exists. When the route was established, four ships were assigned to the service. In addition to Teutonic and Majestic, the RMS Oceanic and the brand new RMS Adriatic sailed the route. When the Olympic entered service in June 1911, she replaced Teutonic, which after completing her last run on the service in late April was transferred to the Dominion Line 's Canadian service. The following August, Adriatic was transferred to White Star 's main Liverpool - New York service, and in November, Majestic was withdrawn from service impending the arrival of Titanic in the coming months, and was mothballed as a reserve ship.
White Star 's initial plans for Olympic and Titanic on the Southampton run followed the same routine as their predecessors had done before them. Each would sail once every three weeks from Southampton and New York, usually leaving at noon each Wednesday from Southampton and each Saturday from New York, thus enabling the White Star Line to offer weekly sailings in each direction. Special trains were scheduled from London and Paris to convey passengers to Southampton and Cherbourg respectively. The deep - water dock at Southampton, then known as the "White Star Dock '', had been specially constructed to accommodate the new Olympic - class liners, and had opened in 1911.
Titanic had around 885 crew members on board for her maiden voyage. Like other vessels of her time, she did not have a permanent crew, and the vast majority of crew members were casual workers who only came aboard the ship a few hours before she sailed from Southampton. The process of signing up recruits had begun on 23 March and some had been sent to Belfast, where they served as a skeleton crew during Titanic 's sea trials and passage to England at the start of April.
Captain Edward John Smith, the most senior of the White Star Line 's captains, was transferred from Olympic to take command of Titanic. Henry Tingle Wilde also came across from Olympic to take the post of Chief Mate. Titanic 's previously designated Chief Mate and First Officer, William McMaster Murdoch and Charles Lightoller, were bumped down to the ranks of First and Second Officer respectively. The original Second Officer, David Blair, was dropped altogether. The Third Officer was Herbert Pitman MBE, the only deck officer who was not a member of the Royal Naval Reserve. Pitman was the second to last surviving officer.
Titanic 's crew were divided into three principal departments: Deck, with 66 crew; Engine, with 325; and Victualling (pronounced vi - tal - ling), with 494. The vast majority of the crew were thus not seamen, but were either engineers, firemen, or stokers, responsible for looking after the engines, or stewards and galley staff, responsible for the passengers. Of these, over 97 % were male; just 23 of the crew were female, mainly stewardesses. The rest represented a great variety of professions -- bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed - makers, cleaners, and even a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship 's wireless operators.
Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on 6 April; in all, 699 of the crew came from there, and 40 % were natives of the town. A few specialist staff were self - employed or were subcontractors. These included the five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department, the staff of the First Class A La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien, the radio operators (who were employed by Marconi) and the eight musicians, who were employed by an agency and travelled as second - class passengers. Crew pay varied greatly, from Captain Smith 's £ 105 a month (equivalent to £ 9,500 today) to the £ 3 10 s (£ 320 today) that stewardesses earned. The lower - paid victualling staff could, however, supplement their wages substantially through tips from passengers.
Titanic 's passengers numbered approximately 1,317 people: 324 in First Class, 284 in Second Class, and 709 in Third Class. Of these, 869 (66 %) were male and 447 (34 %) female. There were 107 children aboard, the largest number of which were in Third Class. The ship was considerably under capacity on her maiden voyage, as she could accommodate 2,453 passengers -- 833 First Class, 614 Second Class, and 1,006 Third Class.
Usually, a high prestige vessel like Titanic could expect to be fully booked on its maiden voyage. However, a national coal strike in the UK had caused considerable disruption to shipping schedules in the spring of 1912, causing many crossings to be cancelled. Many would - be passengers chose to postpone their travel plans until the strike was over. The strike had finished a few days before Titanic sailed; however, that was too late to have much of an effect. Titanic was able to sail on the scheduled date only because coal was transferred from other vessels which were tied up at Southampton, such as SS City of New York and RMS Oceanic, as well as coal Olympic had brought back from a previous voyage to New York, which had been stored at the White Star Dock.
Some of the most prominent people of the day booked a passage aboard Titanic, travelling in First Class. Among them (with those who perished marked with a dagger †) were the American millionaire John Jacob Astor IV † and his wife Madeleine Force Astor, industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim †, painter and sculptor Francis Davis Millet †, Macy 's owner Isidor Straus † and his wife Ida †, Denver millionairess Margaret "Molly '' Brown, Sir Cosmo Duff Gordon and his wife, couturière Lucy (Lady Duff - Gordon), Lieut. Col. Arthur Peuchen, writer and historian Archibald Gracie, cricketer and businessman John B. Thayer † with his wife Marian and son Jack, George Dunton Widener † with his wife Eleanor and son Harry †, Noël Leslie, Countess of Rothes, Mr. † and Mrs. Charles M. Hays, Mr. and Mrs. Henry S. Harper, Mr. † and Mrs. Walter D. Douglas, Mr. † and Mrs. George D. Wick, Mr. † and Mrs. Henry B. Harris, Mr. † and Mrs. Arthur L. Ryerson, Mr. † and Mrs. † Hudson J.C. Allison, Mr. and Mrs. Dickinson Bishop, noted architect Edward Austin Kent †, brewery heir Harry Molson †, tennis players Karl Behr and Dick Williams, author and socialite Helen Churchill Candee, future lawyer and suffragette Elsie Bowerman and her mother Edith, journalist and social reformer William Thomas Stead †, journalist and fashion buyer Edith Rosenbaum, Philadelphia and New York socialite Edith Corse Evans †, wealthy divorcée Charlotte Drake Cardeza, French sculptor Paul Chevré (fr), author Jacques Futrelle † with his wife May, silent film actress Dorothy Gibson with her mother Pauline, Alfons Simonius - Blumer, Swiss Army Colonel and banker, president of the Swiss Bankverein, James A. Hughes 's daughter Eloise, banker Robert Williams Daniel, the chairman of the Holland America Line, Johan Reuchlin (de), Arthur Wellington Ross 's son John H. Ross, Washington Roebling 's nephew Washington A. Roebling II, Andrew Saks 's daughter Leila Saks Meyer with her husband Edgar Joseph Meyer † (son of Marc Eugene Meyer), senator William A. Clark 's nephew Walter M. Clark with his wife Virginia, great - great - grandson of soap manufacturer Andrew Pears, Thomas C. Pears, with wife, John S. Pillsbury 's honeymooning grandson John P. Snyder and wife, Nelle, Dorothy Parker 's New York manufacturer uncle Martin Rothschild with his wife, Elizabeth, among others.
Titanic 's owner J.P. Morgan was scheduled to travel on the maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute. Also aboard the ship were the White Star Line 's managing director J. Bruce Ismay and Titanic 's designer Thomas Andrews, who was on board to observe any problems and assess the general performance of the new ship.
The exact number of people aboard is not known, as not all of those who had booked tickets made it to the ship; about 50 people cancelled for various reasons, and not all of those who boarded stayed aboard for the entire journey. Fares varied depending on class and season. Third Class fares from London, Southampton, or Queenstown cost £ 7 5s (equivalent to £ 700 today) while the cheapest First Class fares cost £ 23 (£ 2,100 today). The most expensive First Class suites were to have cost up to £ 870 in high season (£ 79,000 today).
Titanic 's maiden voyage began on Wednesday, 10 April 1912. Following the embarkation of the crew the passengers began arriving at 9: 30 a.m., when the London and South Western Railway 's boat train from London Waterloo station reached Southampton Terminus railway station on the quayside, alongside Titanic 's berth. The large number of Third Class passengers meant they were the first to board, with First and Second Class passengers following up to an hour before departure. Stewards showed them to their cabins, and First Class passengers were personally greeted by Captain Smith. Third Class passengers were inspected for ailments and physical impairments that might lead to their being refused entry to the United States -- a prospect the White Star Line wished to avoid, as it would have to carry anyone who failed the examination back across the Atlantic. In all, 920 passengers boarded Titanic at Southampton -- 179 First Class, 247 Second Class, and 494 Third Class. Additional passengers were to be picked up at Cherbourg and Queenstown.
The maiden voyage began at noon, as scheduled. An accident was narrowly averted only a few minutes later, as Titanic passed the moored liners SS City of New York of the American Line and Oceanic of the White Star Line, the latter of which would have been her running mate on the service from Southampton. Her huge displacement caused both of the smaller ships to be lifted by a bulge of water and then drop into a trough. New York 's mooring cables could not take the sudden strain and snapped, swinging her around stern - first towards Titanic. A nearby tugboat, Vulcan, came to the rescue by taking New York under tow, and Captain Smith ordered Titanic 's engines to be put "full astern ''. The two ships avoided a collision by a matter of about 4 feet (1.2 m). The incident delayed Titanic 's departure for about an hour, while the drifting New York was brought under control.
After making it safely through the complex tides and channels of Southampton Water and the Solent, Titanic disembarked the Southampton pilot at the Nab Lightship and headed out into the English Channel. She headed for the French port of Cherbourg, a journey of 77 nautical miles (89 mi; 143 km). The weather was windy, very fine but cold and overcast. Because Cherbourg lacked docking facilities for a ship the size of Titanic, tenders had to be used to transfer passengers from shore to ship. The White Star Line operated two at Cherbourg, the SS Traffic and the SS Nomadic. Both had been designed specifically as tenders for the Olympic - class liners and were launched shortly after Titanic. (Nomadic is today the only White Star Line ship still afloat.) Four hours after Titanic left Southampton, she arrived at Cherbourg and was met by the tenders. There, 274 additional passengers were taken aboard -- 142 First Class, 30 Second Class, and 102 Third Class. Twenty - four passengers left aboard the tenders to be conveyed to shore, having booked only a cross-Channel passage. The process was completed within only 90 minutes and at 8 p.m. Titanic weighed anchor and left for Queenstown with the weather continuing cold and windy.
At 11: 30 a.m. on Thursday 11 April, Titanic arrived at Cork Harbour on the south coast of Ireland. It was a partly cloudy but relatively warm day, with a brisk wind. Again, the dock facilities were not suitable for a ship of Titanic 's size, and tenders were used to bring passengers aboard. In all, 123 passengers boarded Titanic at Queenstown -- three First Class, seven Second Class and 113 Third Class. In addition to the 24 cross-channel passengers who had disembarked at Cherbourg, another seven passengers had booked an overnight passage from Southampton to Queenstown. Among the seven was Father Francis Browne, a Jesuit trainee who was a keen photographer and took many photographs aboard Titanic, including the last - ever known photograph of the ship. A decidedly unofficial departure was that of a crew member, stoker John Coffey, a Queenstown native who sneaked off the ship by hiding under mail bags being transported to shore. Titanic weighed anchor for the last time at 1: 30 p.m. and departed on her westward journey across the Atlantic.
Titanic was planned to arrive at New York Pier 59 on the morning of 17 April. After leaving Queenstown Titanic followed the Irish coast as far as Fastnet Rock, a distance of some 55 nautical miles (63 mi; 102 km). From there she travelled 1,620 nautical miles (1,860 mi; 3,000 km) along a Great Circle route across the North Atlantic to reach a spot in the ocean known as "the corner '' south - east of Newfoundland, where westbound steamers carried out a change of course. Titanic sailed only a few hours past the corner on a rhumb line leg of 1,023 nautical miles (1,177 mi; 1,895 km) to Nantucket Shoals Light when she made her fatal contact with an iceberg. The final leg of the journey would have been 193 nautical miles (222 mi; 357 km) to Ambrose Light and finally to New York Harbor.
From 11 April to local apparent noon the next day, Titanic covered 484 nautical miles (557 mi; 896 km); the following day, 519 nautical miles (597 mi; 961 km); and by noon on the final day of her voyage, 546 nautical miles (628 mi; 1,011 km). From then until the time of her sinking she travelled another 258 nautical miles (297 mi; 478 km), averaging about 21 knots (24 mph; 39 km / h).
The weather cleared as she left Ireland under cloudy skies with a headwind. Temperatures remained fairly mild on Saturday 13 April, but the following day Titanic crossed a cold weather front with strong winds and waves of up to 8 feet (2.4 m). These died down as the day progressed until, by the evening of Sunday 14 April, it became clear, calm and very cold.
The first three days of the voyage from Queenstown had passed without apparent incident. A fire had begun in one of Titanic 's coal bunkers approximately 10 days prior to the ship 's departure, and continued to burn for several days into its voyage, but passengers were unaware of this situation. Fires occurred frequently on board steamships of that day due to spontaneous combustion of the coal. The fires had to be extinguished with fire hoses, by moving the coal on top to another bunker and by removing the burning coal and feeding it into the furnace. The fire was over on 14 April. There has been some speculation and discussion as to whether this fire and attempts to extinguish it may have made the ship more vulnerable to its fate.
Titanic received a series of warnings from other ships of drifting ice in the area of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. One of the ships to warn Titanic was the Atlantic Line 's Mesaba. Nevertheless, the ship continued to steam at full speed, which was standard practice at the time. Although the ship was not trying to set a speed record, timekeeping was a priority, and under prevailing maritime practices, ships were often operated at close to full speed, with ice warnings seen as advisories and reliance placed upon lookouts and the watch on the bridge. It was generally believed that ice posed little danger to large vessels. Close calls with ice were not uncommon, and even head - on collisions had not been disastrous. In 1907 SS Kronprinz Wilhelm, a German liner, had rammed an iceberg but still had been able to complete her voyage, and Captain Smith himself had declared in 1907 that he "could not imagine any condition which would cause a ship to founder. Modern shipbuilding has gone beyond that. ''
At 11: 40 p.m. (ship 's time) on 14 April, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg immediately ahead of Titanic and alerted the bridge. First Officer William Murdoch ordered the ship to be steered around the obstacle and the engines to be stopped, but it was too late; the starboard side of Titanic struck the iceberg, creating a series of holes below the waterline. The hull was not punctured by the iceberg, but rather dented such that the hull 's seams buckled and separated, allowing water to seep in. Five of the ship 's watertight compartments were breached. It soon became clear that the ship was doomed, as she could not survive more than four compartments being flooded. Titanic began sinking bow - first, with water spilling from compartment to compartment as her angle in the water became steeper.
Those aboard Titanic were ill - prepared for such an emergency. In accordance with accepted practices of the time, where ships were seen as largely unsinkable and lifeboats were intended to transfer passengers to nearby rescue vessels, Titanic only had enough lifeboats to carry about half of those on board; if the ship had carried her full complement of about 3,339 passengers and crew, only about a third could have been accommodated in the lifeboats. The crew had not been trained adequately in carrying out an evacuation. The officers did not know how many they could safely put aboard the lifeboats and launched many of them barely half - full. Third - class passengers were largely left to fend for themselves, causing many of them to become trapped below decks as the ship filled with water. The "women and children first '' protocol was generally followed when loading the lifeboats, and most of the male passengers and crew were left aboard.
At 2: 20 a.m., two hours and 40 minutes after Titanic struck the iceberg, her rate of sinking suddenly increased as her forward deck dipped underwater, and the sea poured in through open hatches and grates. As her unsupported stern rose out of the water, exposing the propellers, the ship began to break in two between the third and fourth funnels, due to the immense forces on the keel. With the bow underwater, and air trapped in the stern, the stern remained afloat and buoyant for a few minutes longer, rising to a nearly vertical angle with hundreds of people still clinging to it, before sinking. For many years it was generally believed the ship sank in one piece; however, when the wreck was located many years later, it was discovered that the ship had fully broken in two. All remaining passengers and crew were immersed into lethally cold water with a temperature of 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Sudden immersion into freezing water typically causes death within minutes, either from cardiac arrest, uncontrollable breathing of water, or cold incapacitation (not, as commonly believed, from hypothermia), and almost all of those in the water died of cardiac arrest or other bodily reactions to freezing water, within 15 -- 30 minutes. Only 13 of them were helped into the lifeboats, though these had room for almost 500 more people.
Distress signals were sent by wireless, rockets, and lamp, but none of the ships that responded was near enough to reach Titanic before she sank. A radio operator on board the Birma, for instance, estimated that it would be 6 a.m. before the liner could arrive at the scene. Meanwhile, the SS Californian, which was the last to have been in contact before the collision, saw Titanic 's flares but failed to assist. Around 4 a.m., RMS Carpathia arrived on the scene in response to Titanic 's earlier distress calls.
About 710 people survived the disaster and were conveyed by Carpathia to New York, Titanic 's original destination, while at least 1,500 people lost their lives. Carpathia 's captain described the place as an ice field that had included 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet (61 m) high and numerous smaller bergs, as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic; passengers described being in the middle of a vast white plain of ice, studded with icebergs. This area is now known as Iceberg Alley.
RMS Carpathia took three days to reach New York after leaving the scene of the disaster. Her journey was slowed by pack ice, fog, thunderstorms and rough seas. She was, however, able to pass news to the outside world by wireless about what had happened. The initial reports were confused, leading the American press to report erroneously on 15 April that Titanic was being towed to port by the SS Virginian.
Later that day, confirmation came through that Titanic had been lost and that most of her passengers and crew had died. The news attracted crowds of people to the White Star Line 's offices in London, New York, Montreal, Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast. It hit hardest in Southampton, whose people suffered the greatest losses from the sinking. Four out of every five crew members came from this town.
Carpathia docked at 9: 30 p.m. on 18 April at New York 's Pier 54 and was greeted by some 40,000 people waiting at the quayside in heavy rain. Immediate relief in the form of clothing and transportation to shelters was provided by the Women 's Relief Committee, the Travelers Aid Society of New York, and the Council of Jewish Women, among other organisations. Many of Titanic 's surviving passengers did not linger in New York but headed onwards immediately to relatives ' homes. Some of the wealthier survivors chartered private trains to take them home, and the Pennsylvania Railroad laid on a special train free of charge to take survivors to Philadelphia. Titanic 's 214 surviving crew members were taken to the Red Star Line 's steamer SS Lapland, where they were accommodated in passenger cabins.
Carpathia was hurriedly restocked with food and provisions before resuming her journey to Fiume, Austria - Hungary. Her crew were given a bonus of a month 's wages by Cunard as a reward for their actions, and some of Titanic 's passengers joined together to give them an additional bonus of nearly £ 900 (£ 82,000 today), divided among the crew members.
The ship 's arrival in New York led to a frenzy of press interest, with newspapers competing to be the first to report the survivors ' stories. Some reporters bribed their way aboard the pilot boat New York, which guided Carpathia into harbour, and one even managed to get onto Carpathia before she docked. Crowds gathered outside newspaper offices to see the latest reports being posted in the windows or on billboards. It took another four days for a complete list of casualties to be compiled and released, adding to the agony of relatives waiting for news of those who had been aboard Titanic.
In January 1912, the hulls and equipment of Titanic and Olympic had been insured through Lloyd 's of London. The total coverage was £ 1,000,000 (£ 91,000,000 today) per ship. The policy was to be "free from all average '' under £ 150,000, meaning that the insurers would only pay for damage in excess of that sum. The premium, negotiated by brokers Willis Faber & Company (now Willis Group), was 15 s (75 p) per £ 100, or £ 7,500 (£ 680,000 today) for the term of one year. Lloyd 's paid the White Star Line the full sum owed to them within 30 days.
Many charities were set up to help the victims and their families, many of whom lost their sole breadwinner, or, in the case of many Third Class survivors, everything they owned. On 29 April opera stars Enrico Caruso and Mary Garden and members of the Metropolitan Opera raised $12,000 ($300,000 in 2014) in benefits for victims of the disaster by giving special concerts in which versions of "Autumn '' and "Nearer My God To Thee '' were part of the programme. In Britain, relief funds were organised for the families of Titanic 's lost crew members, raising nearly £ 450,000 (£ 41,000,000 today). One such fund was still in operation as late as the 1960s.
Even before the survivors arrived in New York, investigations were being planned to discover what had happened, and what could be done to prevent a recurrence. Inquiries were held in both the United States and United Kingdom, the former more robustly critical of traditions and practices, and scathing of the failures involved, and the latter broadly more technical and expert - oriented.
The U.S. Senate 's inquiry into the disaster was initiated on 19 April, a day after Carpathia arrived in New York. The chairman, Senator William Alden Smith, wanted to gather accounts from passengers and crew while the events were still fresh in their minds. Smith also needed to subpoena all surviving British passengers and crew while they were still on American soil, which prevented them from returning to the UK before the American inquiry was completed on 25 May. The British press condemned Smith as an opportunist, insensitively forcing an inquiry as a means of gaining political prestige and seizing "his moment to stand on the world stage ''. Smith, however, already had a reputation as a campaigner for safety on U.S. railroads, and wanted to investigate any possible malpractices by railroad tycoon J.P. Morgan, Titanic 's ultimate owner.
The British Board of Trade 's inquiry into the disaster was headed by Lord Mersey, and took place between 2 May and 3 July. Being run by the Board of Trade, who had previously approved the ship, it was seen by some as having little interest in its own or White Star 's conduct being found negligent.
Each inquiry took testimony from both passengers and crew of Titanic, crew members of Leyland Line 's Californian, Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia and other experts. The British inquiry also took far greater expert testimony, making it the longest and most detailed court of inquiry in British history up to that time. The two inquiries reached broadly similar conclusions: the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate, Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings, the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed, and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a dangerous area at too high a speed.
Neither inquiry 's findings listed negligence by IMM or the White Star Line as a factor. The American inquiry concluded that since those involved had followed standard practice the disaster was an act of God. The British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long - standing practice that had not previously been shown to be unsafe, noting that British ships alone had carried 3.5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 10 lives, and concluded that Smith had done "only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position ''. Lord Mersey did however find fault with the "extremely high speed (twenty - two knots) which was maintained '' following numerous ice warnings, noting that without hindsight, "what was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future ''.
The recommendations included strong suggestions for major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures, such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided, that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that wireless equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock. An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic, and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea; both measures are still in force today.
On 18 June 1912, Guglielmo Marconi gave evidence to the Court of Inquiry regarding the telegraphy. Its final report recommended that all liners carry the system and that sufficient operators maintain a constant service.
One of the most controversial issues examined by the inquiries was the role played by SS Californian, which had been only a few miles from Titanic but had not picked up her distress calls or responded to her signal rockets. Californian had warned Titanic by radio of the pack ice that was the reason Californian had stopped for the night, but was rebuked by Titanic 's senior wireless operator, Jack Phillips.
Testimony before the British inquiry revealed that at 10: 10 p.m., Californian observed the lights of a ship to the south; it was later agreed between Captain Stanley Lord and Third Officer C.V. Groves (who had relieved Lord of duty at 11: 10 p.m.) that this was a passenger liner. At 11: 50 p.m., the officer had watched that ship 's lights flash out, as if she had shut down or turned sharply, and that the port light was now visible. Morse light signals to the ship, upon Lord 's order, were made between 11: 30 p.m. and 1: 00 a.m., but were not acknowledged. If Titanic were as far from the Californian as Lord claimed, then he knew, or should have known, that Morse signals would not be visible. A reasonable and prudent course of action would have been to awaken the wireless operator and to instruct him to attempt to contact Titanic by that method. Had Lord done so, it is possible he could have reached Titanic in time to save additional lives.
Captain Lord had gone to the chartroom at 11: 00 p.m. to spend the night; however, Second Officer Herbert Stone, now on duty, notified Lord at 1: 10 a.m. that the ship had fired five rockets. Lord wanted to know if they were company signals, that is, coloured flares used for identification. Stone said that he did not know and that the rockets were all white. Captain Lord instructed the crew to continue to signal the other vessel with the Morse lamp, and went back to sleep. Three more rockets were observed at 1: 50 a.m. and Stone noted that the ship looked strange in the water, as if she were listing. At 2: 15 a.m., Lord was notified that the ship could no longer be seen. Lord asked again if the lights had had any colours in them, and he was informed that they were all white.
Californian eventually responded. At around 5: 30 a.m., Chief Officer George Stewart awakened wireless operator Cyril Furmstone Evans, informed him that rockets had been seen during the night, and asked that he try to communicate with any ship. He got news of Titanic 's loss, Captain Lord was notified, and the ship set out to render assistance. She arrived well after Carpathia had already picked up all the survivors.
The inquiries found that the ship seen by Californian was in fact Titanic and that it would have been possible for Californian to come to her rescue; therefore, Captain Lord had acted improperly in failing to do so.
The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear, due to a number of factors. These include confusion over the passenger list, which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute, and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were therefore double - counted on the casualty lists. The death toll has been put at between 1,490 and 1,635 people. The tables below use figures from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. While the use of Marconi wireless system did not achieve the result of bringing a rescue ship to the Titanic before it sank, the use of wireless did bring the Carpathia in time to rescue some of the survivors who otherwise would have perished due to exposure.
The water temperature in the area where Titanic sank, which was well below normal, also contributed to the rapid death of many passengers during the sinking. Water temperature readings taken around the time of the accident were reported to be 28 ° F (− 2 ° C). Typical water temperatures were normally in the mid-40 ° F range during mid-April. The coldness of the water was a critical factor, often causing death within minutes for many of those in the water.
Fewer than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster. Some survivors died shortly afterwards; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia. The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic. Although only 3 % of first - class women were lost, 54 % of those in third class died. Similarly, five of six first - class and all second - class children survived, but 52 of the 79 in third class perished. The differences by gender were even bigger: nearly all female crew members, first and second class passengers were saved. Men from the First Class died at a higher rate than women from the Third Class. In total, 50 % of the children survived, 20 % of the men and 75 % of the women.
The last living survivor, Millvina Dean from England, who at only nine weeks old was the youngest passenger on board, died aged 97 on 31 May 2009. A special survivor was crew member Violet Jessop who survived the sinkings of both Titanic and Britannic and was aboard Olympic when she was rammed in 1911.
Once the massive loss of life became known, White Star Line chartered the cable ship CS Mackay - Bennett from Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, to retrieve bodies. Three other Canadian ships followed in the search: the cable ship Minia, lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and sealing vessel Algerine. Each ship left with embalming supplies, undertakers, and clergy. Of the 333 victims that were eventually recovered, 328 were retrieved by the Canadian ships and five more by passing North Atlantic steamships.
The first ship to reach the site of the sinking, the CS Mackay - Bennett, found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted. Health regulations required that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port. Captain Larnder of the Mackay - Bennett and undertakers aboard decided to preserve only the bodies of first class passengers, justifying their decision by the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates. As a result, many third class passengers and crew were buried at sea. Larnder identified many of those buried at sea as crew members by their clothing, and stated that as a mariner, he himself would be contented to be buried at sea.
Bodies recovered were preserved for transport to Halifax, the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections. The Halifax coroner, John Henry Barnstead, developed a detailed system to identify bodies and safeguard personal possessions. Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim bodies. A large temporary morgue was set up in the curling rink of the Mayflower Curling Club and undertakers were called in from all across eastern Canada to assist. Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe. About two - thirds of the bodies were identified. Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered. The majority of recovered victims, 150 bodies, were buried in three Halifax cemeteries, the largest being Fairview Lawn Cemetery followed by the nearby Mount Olivet and Baron de Hirsch cemeteries.
In mid-May 1912, RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies over 200 miles (320 km) from the site of the sinking who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A. When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site sometime after the sinking in a lifeboat to pick up survivors, they rescued a dozen males and one female from Collapsible A, but left the dead bodies of three of its occupants. After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic, the bodies were buried at sea.
The last Titanic body recovered was steward James McGrady, Body No. 330, found by the chartered Newfoundland sealing vessel Algerine on 22 May and buried at Fairview Lawn Cemetery in Halifax on 12 June.
Only 333 bodies of Titanic victims were recovered, one in five of the over 1,500 victims. Some bodies sank with the ship while currents quickly dispersed bodies and wreckage across hundreds of miles making them difficult to recover. By June, one of the last search ships reported that life jackets supporting bodies were coming apart and releasing bodies to sink.
Titanic was long thought to have sunk in one piece and, over the years, many schemes were put forward for raising the wreck. None came to fruition. The fundamental problem was the sheer difficulty of finding and reaching a wreck that lies over 12,000 feet (3,700 m) below the surface, in a location where the water pressure is over 6,500 pounds per square inch (450 bar). A number of expeditions were mounted to find Titanic but it was not until 1 September 1985 that a Franco - American expedition led by Robert Ballard succeeded.
The team discovered that Titanic had in fact split apart, probably near or at the surface, before sinking to the seabed. The separated bow and stern sections lie about a third of a mile (0.6 km) apart in Titanic Canyon off the coast of Newfoundland. They are located 13.2 miles (21.2 km) from the inaccurate coordinates given by Titanic 's radio operators on the night of her sinking, and approximately 715 miles (1,151 km) from Halifax and 1,250 miles (2,012 km) from New York.
Both sections struck the sea bed at considerable speed, causing the bow to crumple and the stern to collapse entirely. The bow is by far the more intact section and still contains some surprisingly intact interiors. In contrast, the stern is completely wrecked; its decks have pancaked down on top of each other and much of the hull plating was torn off and lies scattered across the sea floor. The much greater level of damage to the stern is probably due to structural damage incurred during the sinking. Thus weakened, the remainder of the stern was flattened by the impact with the sea bed.
The two sections are surrounded by a debris field measuring approximately 5 by 3 miles (8.0 km × 4.8 km). It contains hundreds of thousands of items, such as pieces of the ship, furniture, dinnerware and personal items, which fell from the ship as she sank or were ejected when the bow and stern impacted on the sea floor. The debris field was also the last resting place of a number of Titanic 's victims. Most of the bodies and clothes were consumed by sea creatures and bacteria, leaving pairs of shoes and boots -- which have proved to be inedible -- as the only sign that bodies once lay there.
Since its initial discovery, the wreck of Titanic has been revisited on numerous occasions by explorers, scientists, filmmakers, tourists and salvagers, who have recovered thousands of items from the debris field for conservation and public display. The ship 's condition has deteriorated significantly over the years, particularly from accidental damage by submersibles but mostly because of an accelerating rate of growth of iron - eating bacteria on the hull. In 2006, it was estimated that within 50 years the hull and structure of Titanic would eventually collapse entirely, leaving only the more durable interior fittings of the ship intermingled with a pile of rust on the sea floor.
Many artefacts from Titanic have been recovered from the sea bed by RMS Titanic Inc., which exhibits them in touring exhibitions around the world and in a permanent exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada. A number of other museums exhibit artefacts either donated by survivors or retrieved from the floating bodies of victims of the disaster.
On 16 April 2012, the day after the 100th anniversary of the sinking, photos were released showing possible human remains resting on the ocean floor. The photos, taken by Robert Ballard during an expedition led by NOAA in 2004, show a boot and a coat close to Titanic 's stern which experts called "compelling evidence '' that it is the spot where somebody came to rest, and that human remains could be buried in the sediment beneath them. The wreck of the Titanic falls under the scope of the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage. This means that all states party to the convention will prohibit the pillaging, commercial exploitation, sale and dispersion of the wreck and its artefacts. Because of the location of the wreck in international waters and the lack of any exclusive jurisdiction over the wreckage area, the convention provides a state co-operation system, by which states inform each other of any potential activity concerning ancient shipwreck sites, like the Titanic, and co-operate to prevent unscientific or unethical interventions.
After the disaster, recommendations were made by both the British and American Boards of Inquiry stating that ships should carry enough lifeboats for all aboard, mandated lifeboat drills would be implemented, lifeboat inspections would be conducted, etc. Many of these recommendations were incorporated into the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea passed in 1914. The convention has been updated by periodic amendments, with a completely new version adopted in 1974. Signatories to the convention followed up with national legislation to implement the new standards. For example in Britain, new "Rules for Life Saving Appliances '' were passed by the Board of Trade on 8 May 1914 and then applied at a meeting of British steamship companies in Liverpool in June 1914.
Further, the United States government passed the Radio Act of 1912. This act, along with the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, stated that radio communications on passenger ships would be operated 24 hours a day, along with a secondary power supply, so as not to miss distress calls. Also, the Radio Act of 1912 required ships to maintain contact with vessels in their vicinity as well as coastal onshore radio stations. In addition, it was agreed in the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea that the firing of red rockets from a ship must be interpreted as a sign of need for help. Once the Radio Act of 1912 was passed it was agreed that rockets at sea would be interpreted as distress signals only, thus removing any possible misinterpretation from other ships.
Finally, the disaster led to the formation and international funding of the International Ice Patrol, an agency of the United States Coast Guard that to the present day monitors and reports on the location of North Atlantic Ocean icebergs that could pose a threat to transatlantic sea traffic. Coast Guard aircraft conduct the primary reconnaissance. In addition, information is collected from ships operating in or passing through the ice area. Except for the years of the two World Wars, the International Ice Patrol has worked each season since 1913. During the period there has not been a single reported loss of life or property due to collision with an iceberg in the patrol area. In 1912, the Board of Trade chartered the barque Scotia to act as a weather ship in the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, keeping a look - out for icebergs. A Marconi wireless was installed to enable her to communicate with stations on the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland.
Titanic has gone down in history as the ship that was called unsinkable. For more than 100 years, she has been the inspiration of fiction and non-fiction. She is commemorated by monuments for the dead and by museums exhibiting artefacts from the wreck. Just after the sinking memorial postcards sold in huge numbers together with memorabilia ranging from tin candy boxes to plates, whiskey jiggers, and even black mourning teddy bears. Several survivors wrote books about their experiences but it was not until 1955 the first historically accurate book A Night to Remember was published.
The first film about the disaster, Saved from the Titanic, was released only 29 days after the ship sank and had an actual survivor as its star -- the silent film actress Dorothy Gibson. The British film A Night to Remember (1958) is still widely regarded as the most historically accurate movie portrayal of the sinking. The most financially successful by far has been James Cameron 's Titanic (1997), which became the highest - grossing film in history up to that time, as well as the winner of 11 Oscars at the 70th Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director for Cameron.
The Titanic disaster was commemorated through a variety of memorials and monuments to the victims, erected in several English - speaking countries and in particular in cities that had suffered notable losses. These included Southampton, Liverpool and Belfast in the United Kingdom; New York and Washington, D.C. in the United States; and Cobh (formerly Queenstown) in Ireland. A number of museums around the world have displays on Titanic, the most prominent is in Belfast, the ship 's birthplace (see next section).
RMS Titanic Inc., which is authorised to salvage the wreck site, has a permanent Titanic exhibition at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino in Nevada which features a 22 - ton slab of the ship 's hull. It also runs an exhibition which travels around the world. In Nova Scotia, Halifax 's Maritime Museum of the Atlantic displays items that were recovered from the sea a few days after the disaster. They include pieces of woodwork such as panelling from the ship 's First Class Lounge and an original deckchair, as well as objects removed from the victims. In 2012 the centenary was marked by plays, radio programmes, parades, exhibitions and special trips to the site of the sinking together with commemorative stamps and coins.
In a frequently commented - on literary coincidence, Morgan Robertson authored a novel called Futility in 1898 about a fictional British passenger liner with the plot bearing a number of similarities to the Titanic disaster. In the novel the ship is the SS Titan, a four - stacked liner, the largest in the world and considered unsinkable. But like the Titanic, she sinks after hitting an iceberg and does not have enough lifeboats.
Only recently has the significance of Titanic most notably been given by Northern Ireland where it was built by Harland and Wolff in the capital city, Belfast. While the rest of the world embraced the glory and tragedy of Titanic, in its birth city, Titanic remained a taboo subject throughout the 20th century. The sinking brought tremendous grief and was a blow to the city 's pride. But its shipyard was also a place many Catholics regarded as hostile. In the latter half of the century, during a 30 - year sectarian conflict Titanic was a reminder of the lack of civil rights that in part contributed towards The Troubles. While the fate of Titanic remained a well - known story within local households throughout the 20th century, commercial investment around RMS Titanic 's legacy was modest because of these issues.
After The Troubles in 1998, the number of overseas tourists visiting Northern Ireland dramatically increased to 30 million (100 % rise by 2008). It was subsequently identified in the ' Northern Ireland Tourism Board 's Strategic Framework for Action 2004 -- 2007 ' that the significance of and interest in Titanic globally (partly due to the 1997 film ' Titanic ') was not being fully exploited as a tourist attraction. Thus, Titanic Belfast ® was spearheaded, along with some smaller projects, such as a Titanic memorial.
In 2012 on the ship 's centenary, Titanic Belfast visitor attraction was opened on the site of the shipyard where Titanic was built. It was Northern Ireland 's second most visited tourist attraction with almost 700,000 visitors in 2016.
Despite over 1,600 ships being built by Harland and Wolff in Belfast Harbour, Queen 's Island became renamed after its most famous ship; Titanic Quarter in 1995. In 2005 Titanic Quarter Ltd launched one of the world 's largest urban - waterfront regeneration projects. Today Titanic Quarter is Northern Ireland 's most esteemed site; a major hub of world - class education, employment, entertainment and tourist facilities. Once a sensitive story, Titanic is now considered one of Northern Ireland 's most iconic and uniting symbols.
There have been several proposals and studies for a project to build a replica ship based on the Titanic. A project by South African businessman Sarel Gaus was abandoned in 2006, and a project by Australian businessman Clive Palmer was announced in 2012, known as the Titanic II.
A Chinese shipbuilding company known as Wuchang Shipbuilding Industry Group Co., Ltd commenced construction in January 2014 to build a replica ship of the Titanic for use in a resort. The vessel will house many features of the original, such as a ballroom, dining hall, theatre, first - class cabins, economy cabins and swimming pool. Tourists will be able to reside inside the Titanic during their time at the resort. It will be permanently docked at the resort and feature an audiovisual simulation of the sinking, which has caused some criticism.
The RMS Olympic was the sister ship of the Titanic. The interior decoration of the dining salon and the grand staircase were in identical style and created by the same craftsmen. Large parts of the interior of the Olympic were later sold and are now in the White Swan Hotel, Alnwick, which gives an impression of how the interior of the Titanic looked.
Books:
Journals and news articles:
Investigations:
Coordinates: 41 ° 43 ′ 57 '' N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 '' W / 41.73250 ° N 49.94694 ° W / 41.73250; - 49.94694
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what is the normal width of a parking space | Parking space - wikipedia
A parking space is a location that is designated for parking, either paved or unpaved. It can be in a parking garage, in a parking lot or on a city street. The space many be delineated by road surface markings. The automobile fits inside the space, either by parallel parking, perpendicular parking or angled parking.
Depending on the location of the parking space, the time allowed to park may be fixed by regulation, and a fee may be required to use the parking space. It may be designated for free parking. When the demand for spaces outstrips supply vehicles may overspill park onto the sidewalk, grass verges and other places which were not designed for the purpose.
For most motorised vehicles, there are three commonly used arrangements of parking spaces -- parallel parking, perpendicular parking, and angle parking. These are self - park configurations where the vehicle driver is able to access the parking independently.
With parallel parking of cars, these are arranged in a line, with the front bumper of one car facing the back bumper of an adjacent one. This is done parallel to a curb, when one is provided. Parallel parking is the most common mode of streetside parking for cars. It may also be used in parking lots and parking structures, but usually only to supplement parking spaces that use the other modes.
With perpendicular parking, also known as bay parking, cars are parked side to side, perpendicular to an aisle, curb, or wall. This type of car parking fits more cars per length of road (or curb) than parallel parking, and is therefore commonly used in car parking lots and car parking structures.
Often, in car parking lots using perpendicular parking, two rows of parking spaces may be arranged front to front, with aisles in between. If no other cars are blocking, a driver may perform a "pullthrough '' by driving through one parking space into the connecting space to avoid having to reverse out of a parking space upon their return.
Sometimes, a single row of perpendicular car parking spaces is marked in the center of a street. This arrangement eliminates reversing from the manoeuvre; cars are required to drive in forwards and drive out forwards.
Angle parking, known as echelon parking in Britain, is similar to perpendicular parking for these vehicles, except that cars are arranged at an angle to the aisle (an acute angle with the direction of approach). The gentler turn allows easier and quicker parking, narrower aisles, and thus higher density than perpendicular parking. While in theory the aisles are one - way, in practice they are typically wide enough to allow two cars to pass slowly when drivers go down the aisles the wrong way.
Angle parking is very common in car parking lots. It may also be used in streetside car parking in the U.S. when there is more width available for car parking than would be needed for parallel parking of cars, as it creates a larger number of parking spaces. Some cities have utilized angled parking on - street (as compared to off - street parking facilities). This has been done mostly in residential, retail and mixed use areas where additional parking compared to parallel parking is desired and traffic volumes are lower. Most angled parking is design in a head - in configuration while a few cities (Seattle, Portland, Baltimore, and Indianapolis are examples) have some back - in angled parking (typically on hills or low traffic volume streets).
Angle parking is considered dangerous by cycling organisations, especially in the head - in configuration, but unwelcome in either form. When comparing to parallel parking:
Hence organisations such as the Cyclists Touring Club are usually opposed to all proposed echelon parking schemes, though there are some alternatives, such as "back in '' angle parking (slanted the "wrong '' way, with the driver reversing into the space, rather than reversing out), which can overcome many of the issues of safety.
Besides these basic modes of motor vehicle parking, there are instances where a more ad hoc approach to arranging motor vehicles is appropriate. For example, in parts of some large cities, such as Chicago, where land is expensive and therefore parking space is at a premium, there are parking lots for motor vehicles where the driver leaves the keys to the vehicle with an attendant who arranges vehicles so as to maximize the number of vehicles that can be parked in the lot. Vehicles may be packed up to five vehicles deep in combinations of perpendicular and / or parallel parking with limited circulation aisles for the parking attendant. Such arrangements are known as attendant parking. When the lot or facility is provided to serve the customers of a business, it is considered valet parking.
Inner city parking lots are often temporary, the operators renting land which is vacant pending the construction of a new office building. Some inner city lots are equipped with individual lifts, allowing cars to be stored above each other.
Another ad hoc arrangement is tandem parking. This is sometimes done with residential motor vehicle parking where two motor vehicles park nose - to - end in tandem. The first motor vehicle does not have independent access, and the second motor vehicle must move to provide access. As with attendant parking, the purpose is to maximize the number of motor vehicles that can park in a limited space.
In parking lots, parking is allowed only where marked.
In North America, the width of angled and perpendicular parking spaces usually ranges from 7.5 to 9.0 feet (2.3 -- 2.7 m). For example, normal parking spaces in the city of Dallas, Texas are 8.5 feet (2.6 m) wide, while compact spaces are 7.5 feet (2.3 m) wide.
Because the boundary between parking space and driving area is not always well - defined, the length of a parking space is more difficult to establish. However, most angled and perpendicular spaces are considered to be between 10 and 18 feet (3.0 -- 5.5 m) in length. Though, in the United States, a parking space 10 feet (3.0 m) deep is uncommon and most parking spaces will be within 16 to 20 feet (4.9 -- 6.1 m), with 19 feet (5.8 m) feet deep being the standard DOT recommended depth for standard perpendicular parking.
Parallel parking spaces are typically cited as being approximately 9.1 feet (2.8 m) wide by 20 feet (6.1 m) long.
During construction, the specific dimensions of a parking space are decided by a variety of factors. A high cost of land will encourage smaller dimensions and the introduction of compact spaces. Many garages and parking lots have spaces designated for a Compact car only. These spaces are narrower than traditional spaces, thus allowing more cars to park.
According to French standard "Norme NF P 91 - 100 '', minimum width of parking spaces range from 2.20 to 2.30 metres (7.2 -- 7.5 ft) (See fr: Marquage du stationnement en France). Narrow parking spaces such as in Vevey, Switzerland might make opening the door difficult in a larger vehicle.
Larger cars are an issue when the size of the parking spot is fixed. Automobile associations warn of this issue. A Swiss Association regulating parking space wants to consider this issue for 2016.
In the United Kingdom the recommended standard Parking bay size is 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) wide by 4.8 metres (16 ft) long. Recently there has been some controversy about most UK parking spaces being too small to fit modern cars, which have grown significantly since standards were set decades ago.
Parking spaces commonly contain a parking chock (wheel stop), which is used to prevent cars from pulling too far into the space and
This barrier is usually made of concrete and will normally be a horizontal bar to stop the tires from moving forward or a vertical bar that may cause damage to the vehicle if contact is made. In a parking garage, the barrier will often be a concrete wall.
Some parking spaces are reserved as handicapped parking, for individuals with disabilities. Handicapped parking spaces are typically marked with the International Symbol of Access, though in practice, the design of the symbol varies widely.
In the United States the Access Board provides guidelines on parking spaces.
In some countries, women 's parking spaces have been established in more visible spots to reduce the chance of sexual attacks, facilitate parking for women, or to provide spaces that are closer to shopping centers or employment.
Curb markings in the United States are prescribed by the Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). Local highway agencies may prescribe special colors for curb markings to supplement standard signs for parking regulation. California has designated an array of colors for curb regulations. A white curb designates passenger pick up or drop off. The green curb is for time limited parking. The yellow curb is for loading, and the blue curb is for disabled persons with proper vehicle identification. The red curb is for emergency vehicles only - fire lanes (no stopping, standing, or parking). In Oregon and Florida, the yellow curb is utilized to indicate no parking. In Georgia either red or yellow can be used to indicate no parking. In Seattle, Washington, alternating red and yellow curb markings indicate a bus stop.
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who came up with the plum pudding model | Plum pudding model - wikipedia
The plum pudding model is one of several scientific models of the atom. First proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904 soon after the discovery of the electron, but before the discovery of the atomic nucleus, the model represented an attempt to consolidate the known properties of atoms at the time: 1) electrons are negatively - charged particles and 2) atoms are neutrally - charged.
In this model, atoms were known to consist of negatively charged electrons. Though Thomson called them "corpuscles '', they were more commonly called "electrons '' as G.J. Stoney proposed in 1894. At the time, atoms were known to be neutrally charged. To account for this, Thomson knew atoms must also have a source of positive charge to balance the negative charge of the electrons. He considered three plausible models that would satisfy the known properties of atoms at the time:
Thomson chose the third possibility as the most likely structure of atoms. Thomson published his proposed model in the March 1904 edition of the Philosophical Magazine, the leading British science journal of the day. In Thomson 's view:
... the atoms of the elements consist of a number of negatively electrified corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive electrification,...
With this model, Thomson abandoned his earlier "nebular atom '' hypothesis in which atoms were composed of immaterial vortices. Being an astute and practical scientist, Thomson based his atomic model on known experimental evidence of the day. His proposal of a positive volume charge reflects the nature of his scientific approach to discovery which was to propose ideas to guide future experiments.
The orbits of electrons within the model were stabilized by the fact that when an electron moved away from the centre of the positively - charged sphere, it was subjected to a greater net positive inward force, because there was more positive charge inside its orbit (see Gauss 's law). Electrons were free to rotate in rings which were further stabilized by interactions among the electrons, and spectroscopic measurements were meant to account for energy differences associated with different electron rings. Thomson attempted unsuccessfully to reshape his model to account for some of the major spectral lines experimentally known for several elements.
The plum pudding model usefully guided his student, Ernest Rutherford, to devise experiments to further explore the composition of atoms. As well, Thomson 's model (along with a similar Saturnian ring model for atomic electrons put forward in 1904 by Nagaoka after James Clerk Maxwell 's model of Saturn 's rings), were useful predecessors of the more correct solar - system - like Bohr model of the atom.
The colloquial nickname "plum pudding '' was soon attributed to Thomson 's model as the distribution of electrons within its positively - charged region of space reminded many scientists of "plums '' in the common English dessert, plum pudding.
In 1909, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden conducted experiments with thin sheets of gold. Their professor, Ernest Rutherford, expected to find results consistent with Thomson 's atomic model. It was n't until 1911 that Rutherford correctly interpreted the experiment 's results which implied the presence of a very small nucleus of positive charge at the center of gold atoms. This led to the development of the Rutherford model of the atom. Immediately after Rutherford published his results, Antonius Van den Broek made the intuitive proposal that the atomic number of an atom is the total number of units of charge present in its nucleus. Henry Moseley 's 1913 experiments (see Moseley 's law) provided the necessary evidence to support Van den Broek 's proposal. The effective nuclear charge was found to be consistent with the atomic number (Moseley found only one unit of charge difference). This work culminated in the solar - system - like (but quantum - limited) Bohr model of the atom in the same year, in which a nucleus containing an atomic number of positive charges is surrounded by an equal number of electrons in orbital shells. As Thomson 's model guided Rutherford 's experiments, Bohr 's model guided Moseley 's research.
The plum pudding model with a single electron was used in part by the physicist Arthur Erich Haas in 1910 to estimate the numerical value of Planck 's constant and the Bohr radius of hydrogen atoms. Haas ' work estimated these values to within an order of magnitude and preceded the work of Niels Bohr by three years. Of note, the Bohr model itself only provides substantially - reasonable predictions for atomic and ionic systems having a single effective electron.
A particularly useful mathematics problem related to the plum pudding model is the optimal distribution of equal point charges on a unit sphere called the Thomson problem. The Thomson problem is a natural consequence of the plum pudding model in the absence of its uniform positive background charge.
The classical electrostatic treatment of electrons confined to spherical quantum dots is also similar to their treatment in the plum pudding model. In this classical problem, the quantum dot is modeled as a simple dielectric sphere (in place of a uniform, positively - charged sphere as in the plum pudding model) in which free, or excess, electrons reside. The electrostatic N - electron configurations are found to be exceptionally close to solutions found in the Thomson problem with electrons residing at the same radius within the dielectric sphere. Notably, the plotted distribution of geometry - dependent energetics has been shown to bear a remarkable resemblance to the distribution of anticipated electron orbitals in natural atoms as arranged on the periodic table of elements. Of great interest, solutions of the Thomson problem exhibit this corresponding energy distribution by comparing the energy of each N - electron solution with the energy of its neighbouring (N - 1) - electron solution with one charge at the origin. However, when treated within a dielectric sphere model, the features of the distribution are much more pronounced and provide greater fidelity with respect to electron orbital arrangements in real atoms.
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who was the prominent anti-rent leader and what was his secret name | Anti-Rent War - wikipedia
The Anti-Rent War (also known as the Helderberg War) was a tenants ' revolt in upstate New York during the early 19th century.
The incident began with the death of Stephen Van Rensselaer III in 1839. Van Rensselaer, who was described as having "... proved a lenient and benevolent landowner '' was the patroon of the region at the time, and was a descendant of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, the first patroon of the Manor of Rensselaerswyck. During his life, he preferred to allow rents to accumulate or to accept partial payment when tenants were in financial constraints. The patroons owned all the land on which the tenants in the Hudson Valley lived, and used feudal leases to maintain control of the region. When he died, Van Rensselaer 's will directed his heirs to collect outstanding rents to apply to the estate debts. When his heirs attempted to collect the rents which he had long deferred, tenant farmers resisted. The tenants could not pay the amounts demanded, could not secure favorable terms, and could not obtain relief in the courts, so they revolted.
The first mass meeting of tenant farmers leading to the Anti-Rent War was held in Berne, New York on July 4, 1839. In January 1845, one hundred and fifty delegates from eleven counties assembled in St. Paul 's Lutheran Church, Berne to call for political action to redress their grievances.
The Anti-Rent War led to the creation of the Antirenter Party, which had a strong influence on New York State politics from 1846 -- 51.
Trials of leaders of the revolt, charged with riot, conspiracy and robbery, were held in 1845. Participants as counsel in the trials included Ambrose L. Jordan, as leading counsel for the defense, and John Van Buren, the state attorney general, who personally conducted the prosecution. At the first trial, the jury came to no conclusion.
During a re-trial in September 1845, the two leading counsels started a fist - fight in open court. Both were sentenced by the presiding judge, Justice John W. Edmonds, to "solitary confinement in the county jail for 24 hours. '' At the conclusion of the trial, one defendant, Smith A. Boughton, was sentenced to life imprisonment. After the election of John Young as governor, who had the support of the Anti-Renters, he pardoned Boughton.
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who sings you are the magnet and i am steel | Walter Egan - wikipedia
Walter Egan (born July 12, 1948) is an American rock musician, best known for his 1978 gold status hit single "Magnet and Steel '' from his second album release, Not Shy, produced by Lindsey Buckingham and Richard Dashut. The song reached # 8 on the Billboard Hot 100 and # 18 on the Easy Listening chart. Overseas, it peaked at # 32 on the Australian Singles Chart, Kent Music Report.
Egan was born in Queens, New York, United States. In 1970, as a sculpture major, he earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. as one of Georgetown 's first art majors. Egan started his career in the arts, concentrating on printmaking and painting, and the music business. As early as 1969, Egan was playing guitar and composing songs. While an undergraduate, he was a lead guitarist and backup vocalist for the college - formed group Sageworth and Drums, also known as Sageworth. The group evolved from a group of Georgetown University undergraduate students playing weekend mixers and parties to a tight, professional headlining act with a reputation as one of the best and most original bands in the greater Washington, D.C. area. Other members included Peter Barry Chowka, lead vocal and guitar; John Zambetti, guitar and backing vocals; Tom Guidera, bass and backing vocals; and Matthew Sheppard, drums, with Annie McLoone added later as a lead singer.
In late 1971, Sageworth relocated to Boston and spent the next two years performing around the Northeast before finally breaking up, at which point Walter moved to Los Angeles and began his career as a solo artist.
In 1977, Lindsey Buckingham of Fleetwood Mac co-produced Walter Egan 's first album, Fundamental Roll, with Stevie Nicks, also of Fleetwood Mac. The hit song, "Magnet and Steel '', inspired by Nicks and from his second album "Not Shy '', was featured in the 1997 film Boogie Nights, the 1998 film Overnight Delivery, and the 1999 film Deuce Bigalow: Male Gigolo. Egan also wrote "Hearts on Fire '', which was covered by Gram Parsons on his album Grievous Angel, and "Hot Summer Nights '', which was the first hit for the band Night, which included such session musicians as Nicky Hopkins and Robbie McIntosh. Egan scored minor hits with his own version of "Hot Summer Nights '', as well as "Only the Lucky '' and "Fool Moon Fire ''.
Egan later toured as a member of a latter - day version of Spirit.
Egan is listed as co-writer on the Eminem hit "We Made You ''. The song 's producer, Dr. Dre, believed he was inspired by the bass line from (and used samples of) Egan 's "Hot Summer Nights ''.
In 2008, he participated in a music industry seminar (with Bill Danoff) at Georgetown University.
In 2011, from his home in Franklin, he produced a new album entitled Raw Elegant that was released on Spectra Records.
In 1985, Egan was a four - time champion on the game show Catchphrase. In 1986, Egan appeared as a contestant on the television game show Scrabble. During his introduction segment, Egan identified himself as a singer and songwriter. Host Chuck Woolery asked Egan to sing a bit from one of his songs, and he sang the main hook from "Magnet and Steel ''.
Walter Egan is currently employed as a substitute teacher in Williamson County, Tennessee, near Franklin.
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where is the 18th congressional district in pennsylvania | Pennsylvania 's 18th congressional district - wikipedia
Pennsylvania 's 18th congressional district includes parts of Greene, Washington, Allegheny, and Westmoreland counties. The district is represented by Conor Lamb, who was elected March 13, 2018.
The district is concentrated in the southern suburbs of Pittsburgh. It is predominantly white, although it contains a diverse range of suburbs. It is drawn in such a way that in some locations, neighborhoods and even streets are split between the 18th and the neighboring 12th and 14th districts. In parts of the eastern portion of the district, one side of the street is in the 12th while the other side is in the 18th. In the west, one side of the street is in the 14th while the other side is in the 18th.
Although there are 35,000 more Democrats in the district than Republicans, the district has trended increasingly Republican since the mid-1990s; most of the district 's state legislators are Republicans. The district is home to many large coal mines and the energy industry is an important employer. The western part of the district contains some rural regions of Washington County, as well as the very wealthy suburbs in the northern part of that county, which tends to be more Republican than the part contained in the neighboring 9th District. The district also contains many of Allegheny County 's southern suburbs of Pittsburgh, which range from traditionally wealthy areas such as Mount Lebanon and Upper St. Clair to middle - class communities such as Bethel Park and Scott Township and working - class labor towns such as Elizabeth.
The district skews older and has the second - oldest electorate in the state.
The district winds along the eastern suburbs at the edge of Allegheny County, including most of the large suburban commercial center of Monroeville, and in western Westmoreland County. Central Westmoreland County, including the city of Greensburg, is also part of the district. It also contains the rural foothills of the county at the district 's eastern end. Westmoreland County has become a major Republican stronghold.
The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania ruled that the district map violated the state constitution and redrew it in February 2018. The 18th and 14th districts will swap names and have their boundaries adjusted for the 2018 elections (after March 's special election) and thereafter.
Historically, the current district covers much of the area that was the center of the Whiskey Rebellion of the 1790s.
Coordinates: 40 ° 10 ′ 14 '' N 80 ° 01 ′ 39 '' W / 40.17056 ° N 80.02750 ° W / 40.17056; - 80.02750
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who sings the song sugar oh honey honey | Sugar, Sugar - wikipedia
"Sugar, Sugar '' is a song written by Jeff Barry and Andy Kim. It was originally recorded by the virtual band the Archies. This version reached number one in the US on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1969 and remained there for four weeks. It was also number one on the UK Singles chart in that same year for eight weeks. The song became a hit again in 1970 when rhythm and blues and soul singer Wilson Pickett took it back onto the charts.
"Sugar, Sugar '' by the Archies was produced by Jeff Barry, and the song was originally released on the album Everything 's Archie. The album is the product of a group of studio musicians managed by Don Kirshner. Ron Dante 's lead vocals were accompanied by those of Toni Wine and Andy Kim. Together they provided the voices of the Archies using multitracking. The song was initially released in late May 1969, on the Calendar label (the same label as the two previous Archies singles), achieving moderate chart success in the early summer in some radio markets, and was re-released mid-July 1969, on the Kirshner label, whereby it then attained massive success nationwide by late summer / early fall.
Upon its initial release, Kirshner had promotion men play it for radio station execs without telling them the name of the group (due to the disappointing chart performance of the Archies ' previous single, "Feelin ' So Good (S.k.o.o.b.y - D.o.o.) '', which only went to number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 charts). Only after most of the DJs liked the song were they told that it was performed by a cartoon group.
The song is said to have been earlier offered to The Monkees, although songwriter Jeff Barry denies this. Don Kirshner has said that Mike Nesmith put his fist through the wall of the Beverly Hills Hotel refusing to do "Sugar, Sugar ''. However, the fist incident took place in early 1967, whereas "Sugar, Sugar '' was written in early 1969.
The Archies ' "Sugar, Sugar '' was the 1969 number - one single of the year. A week after topping the RPM 100 national singles chart in Canada on September 13, 1969 (where it spent three weeks), it went on to spend four weeks at the top of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 from September 20 and eight weeks at the top of the UK singles chart. In total, it spent 22 weeks in the Billboard Hot 100. The song lists at number 78 on Billboard 's Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Singles. It also peaked at one in the South African Singles Chart. On February 5, 2006, "Sugar, Sugar '' was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame, as co-writer Andy Kim is originally from Montreal, Quebec.
In the United States, "Sugar, Sugar '' was classified by the RIAA as a gold record in August 1969, meaning it sold 1 million units (the gold threshold was later lowered to 500,000). The single also topped the 1969 Billboard Year - End chart. "Sugar, Sugar '' is listed as the 78th top hit of all - time in Billboard s all - time singles chart.
Although official music recording sales certifications were not introduced in the United Kingdom until the British Phonographic Industry was formed in 1973, Disc introduced an initiative in 1959 to present a gold record to singles that sold over one million units. The awards relied on record companies correctly compiling and supplying sales information, and "Sugar, Sugar '' was erroneously awarded a gold disc in January 1970 having sold approximately 945,000 copies; the RCA informed Disc that one million copies had been shipped, however not all were sold. Nevertheless, following the introduction of music downloads in 2004, "Sugar, Sugar '' passed the one - million sales mark.
The studio musicians on the Archies song are:
In 1970, American singer Wilson Pickett recorded a cover version of "Sugar, Sugar '' in his Criteria Studios sessions. Pickett 's rendition of the song was produced by Dave Crawford, Jerry Wexler, Rick Hall, and Tom Dowd. The track was released by Atlantic Records as the second single from his tenth studio album Right On.
Wilson Pickett 's cover of "Sugar, Sugar '' peaked at number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It also reached number 4 on the R&B chart. The parent album Right On reached number 197 on the Billboard 200 Albums Chart. The Wilson Pickett recording of "Sugar, Sugar '' was later used in the 1997 film The Ice Storm.
The song has frequently been used in films and other television shows including Highway 61, Heaven & Earth, Now and Then, Thieves, A Very Brady Sequel, Sorority Boys, The Magic Roundabout, Bee Movie, The Campaign, The Ghost Busters, Takin ' Over the Asylum, Where The Heart Is, From the Earth to the Moon, Lukas, Keen Eddie, The Simpsons, Cake Boss, Free Agents, Being Erica, Waterloo Road, Loose Women, Orphan Black, and Riverdale.
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who wrote the song just give it away | Give It Away (George Strait song) - Wikipedia
"Give It Away '' is a song performed by American country music artist George Strait, written by Jamey Johnson, Bill Anderson and Buddy Cannon. It was released in July 2006 as the lead single from the album It Just Comes Natural.
The song became Strait 's 41st No. 1 single on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, setting a new record for most No. 1 singles on that chart. Previously, Conway Twitty held that record with 40 number - one singles.
At the Academy of Country Music awards in 2007, "Give It Away '' won both the Single of the Year and Song of the Year awards; the song also won Song of the Year honors at the Country Music Association Awards the same year. "Give It Away '' received a nomination for Best Male Country Vocal Performance at the 2008 Grammy Awards.
Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably, calling it "a leavin ' song that would 've worked in any decade. ''
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what is comprised of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or repressed | Unconscious mind - wikipedia
The unconscious mind (or the unconscious) consists of the processes in the mind which occur automatically and are not available to introspection, and include thought processes, memories, interests, and motivations.
Even though these processes exist well under the surface of conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an impact on behavior. The term was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Empirical evidence suggests that unconscious phenomena include repressed feelings, automatic skills, subliminal perceptions, thoughts, habits, and automatic reactions, and possibly also complexes, hidden phobias and desires.
The concept was popularized by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. In psychoanalytic theory, unconscious processes are understood to be directly represented in dreams, as well as in slips of the tongue and jokes.
Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts (those that appear without any apparent cause), the repository of forgotten memories (that may still be accessible to consciousness at some later time), and the locus of implicit knowledge (the things that we have learned so well that we do them without thinking).
It has been argued that consciousness is influenced by other parts of the mind. These include unconsciousness as a personal habit, being unaware, and intuition. Phenomena related to semi-consciousness include awakening, implicit memory, subliminal messages, trances, hypnagogia, and hypnosis. While sleep, sleepwalking, dreaming, delirium, and comas may signal the presence of unconscious processes, these processes are seen as symptoms rather than the unconscious mind itself.
Some critics have doubted the existence of the unconscious.
The term "unconscious '' (German: Unbewusste) was coined by the 18th - century German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling (in his System of Transcendental Idealism, ch. 6, § 3) and later introduced into English by the poet and essayist Samuel Taylor Coleridge (in his Biographia Literaria). Some rare earlier instances of the term "unconsciousness '' (Unbewußtseyn) can be found in the work of the 18th - century German physician and philosopher Ernst Platner.
Influences on thinking that originate from outside of an individual 's consciousness were reflected in the ancient ideas of temptation, divine inspiration, and the predominant role of the gods in affecting motives and actions. The idea of internalised unconscious processes in the mind was also instigated in antiquity and has been explored across a wide variety of cultures. Unconscious aspects of mentality were referred to between 2500 and 600 BC in the Hindu texts known as the Vedas, found today in Ayurvedic medicine.
Paracelsus is credited as the first to make mention of an unconscious aspect of cognition in his work Von den Krankheiten (translates as "About illnesses '', 1567), and his clinical methodology created a cogent system that is regarded by some as the beginning of modern scientific psychology. William Shakespeare explored the role of the unconscious in many of his plays, without naming it as such. In addition, Western philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Eduard von Hartmann, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche used the word unconscious.
In 1880, Edmond Colsenet supports at the Sorbonne, a philosophy thesis on the unconscious. Elie Rabier and Alfred Fouillee perform syntheses of the unconscious "at a time when Freud was not interested in the concept ''.
Psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer points out that, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology (The Principles of Psychology), examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term ' unconscious ' and ' subconscious ' ''. Historian of psychology Mark Altschule observes that, "It is difficult -- or perhaps impossible -- to find a nineteenth - century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance. ''
Van Rilliaer could have also mentioned that Eduard von Hartmann published a book dedicated to this topic, Philosophy of the Unconscious, in 1869 -- long before anybody else.
Furthermore, 19th century German psychologists, Gustav Fechner and Wilhelm Wundt, had begun to use the term in their experimental psychology, in the context of manifold, jumbled sense data that the mind organizes at an unconscious level before revealing it as a cogent totality in conscious form. ''
Sigmund Freud and his followers developed an account of the unconscious mind. It plays an important role in psychoanalysis.
Freud divided the mind into the conscious mind (or the ego) and the unconscious mind. The latter was then further divided into the id (or instincts and drive) and the superego (or conscience). In this theory, the unconscious refers to the mental processes of which individuals make themselves unaware. Freud proposed a vertical and hierarchical architecture of human consciousness: the conscious mind, the preconscious, and the unconscious mind -- each lying beneath the other. He believed that significant psychic events take place "below the surface '' in the unconscious mind, like hidden messages from the unconscious. He interpreted such events as having both symbolic and actual significance.
In psychoanalytic terms, the unconscious does not include all that is not conscious, but rather what is actively repressed from conscious thought or what a person is averse to knowing consciously. Freud viewed the unconscious as a repository for socially unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, traumatic memories, and painful emotions put out of mind by the mechanism of psychological repression. However, the contents did not necessarily have to be solely negative. In the psychoanalytic view, the unconscious is a force that can only be recognized by its effects -- it expresses itself in the symptom. In a sense, this view places the conscious self as an adversary to its unconscious, warring to keep the unconscious hidden. Unconscious thoughts are not directly accessible to ordinary introspection, but are supposed to be capable of being "tapped '' and "interpreted '' by special methods and techniques such as meditation, free association (a method largely introduced by Freud), dream analysis, and verbal slips (commonly known as a Freudian slip), examined and conducted during psychoanalysis. Seeing as these unconscious thoughts are normally cryptic, psychoanalysts are considered experts in interpreting their messages.
Freud based his concept of the unconscious on a variety of observations. For example, he considered "slips of the tongue '' to be related to the unconscious in that they often appeared to show a person 's true feelings on a subject. For example, "I decided to take a summer curse ''. This example shows a slip of the word "course '' where the speaker accidentally used the word curse which would show that they have negative feelings about having to do this. Freud noticed that also his patient 's dreams expressed important feelings they were unaware of. After these observations, he came to the conclusion that psychological disturbances are largely caused by personal conflicts existing at the unconscious level. His psychoanalytic theory acts to explain personality, motivation and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior.
Freud later used his notion of the unconscious in order to explain certain kinds of neurotic behavior. The theory of the unconscious was substantially transformed by later psychiatrists, among them Carl Jung and Jacques Lacan.
In his 1932 / 1933 conferences, Freud "proposes to abandon the notion of the unconscious that ambiguous judge ''.
Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, developed the concept further. He agreed with Freud that the unconscious is a determinant of personality, but he proposed that the unconscious be divided into two layers: the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. The personal unconscious is a reservoir of material that was once conscious but has been forgotten or suppressed, much like Freud 's notion. The collective unconscious, however, is the deepest level of the psyche, containing the accumulation of inherited psychic structures and archetypal experiences. Archetypes are not memories but images with universal meanings that are apparent in the culture 's use of symbols. The collective unconscious is therefore said to be inherited and contain material of an entire species rather than of an individual. Every person shares the collective unconscious with the entire human species, as Jung puts it: (the) "whole spiritual heritage of mankind 's evolution, born anew in the brain structure of every individual ''.
In addition to the structure of the unconscious, Jung differed from Freud in that he did not believe that sexuality was at the base of all unconscious thoughts.
The notion that the unconscious mind exists at all has been disputed.
Franz Brentano rejected the concept of the unconscious in his 1874 book Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, although his rejection followed largely from his definitions of consciousness and unconsciousness.
Jean - Paul Sartre offers a critique of Freud 's theory of the unconscious in Being and Nothingness, based on the claim that consciousness is essentially self - conscious. Sartre also argues that Freud 's theory of repression is internally flawed. Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre 's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.
Erich Fromm contends that, "The term ' the unconscious ' is actually a mystification (even though one might use it for reasons of convenience, as I am guilty of doing in these pages). There is no such thing as the unconscious; there are only experiences of which we are aware, and others of which we are not aware, that is, of which we are unconscious. If I hate a man because I am afraid of him, and if I am aware of my hate but not of my fear, we may say that my hate is conscious and that my fear is unconscious; still my fear does not lie in that mysterious place: ' the ' unconscious. ''
John Searle has offered a critique of the Freudian unconscious. He argues that the Freudian cases of shallow, consciously held mental states would be best characterized as ' repressed consciousness, ' while the idea of more deeply unconscious mental states is more problematic. He contends that the very notion of a collection of "thoughts '' that exist in a privileged region of the mind such that they are in principle never accessible to conscious awareness, is incoherent. This is not to imply that there are not "nonconscious '' processes that form the basis of much of conscious life. Rather, Searle simply claims that to posit the existence of something that is like a "thought '' in every way except for the fact that no one can ever be aware of it (can never, indeed, "think '' it) is an incoherent concept. To speak of "something '' as a "thought '' either implies that it is being thought by a thinker or that it could be thought by a thinker. Processes that are not causally related to the phenomenon called thinking are more appropriately called the nonconscious processes of the brain.
Other critics of the Freudian unconscious include David Stannard, Richard Webster, Ethan Watters, Richard Ofshe, and Eric Thomas Weber.
David Holmes examined sixty years of research about the Freudian concept of "repression '', and concluded that there is no positive evidence for this concept. Given the lack of evidence for many Freudian hypotheses, some scientific researchers proposed the existence of unconscious mechanisms that are very different from the Freudian ones. They speak of a "cognitive unconscious '' (John Kihlstrom), an "adaptive unconscious '' (Timothy Wilson), or a "dumb unconscious '' (Loftus & Klinger), which executes automatic processes but lacks the complex mechanisms of repression and symbolic return of the repressed.
In modern cognitive psychology, many researchers have sought to strip the notion of the unconscious from its Freudian heritage, and alternative terms such as "implicit '' or "automatic '' have come into currency. These traditions emphasize the degree to which cognitive processing happens outside the scope of cognitive awareness, and show that things we are unaware of can nonetheless influence other cognitive processes as well as behavior. Active research traditions related to the unconscious include implicit memory (see priming, implicit attitudes), and nonconscious acquisition of knowledge (see Lewicki, see also the section on cognitive perspective, below).
In terms of the unconscious, the purpose of dreams, as stated by Freud, is to fulfill repressed wishes through the process of dreaming, since they can not be fulfilled in real life. For example, if someone was to rob a store and feel guilty about it, they might dream about a scenario in which their actions were justified and renders them blameless. Freud asserted that the wish - fulfilling aspect of the dream may be disguised due to the difficulty in distinguishing between manifest content and latent content. The manifest content consists of the plot of a dream at the surface level. The latent content refers to the hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot. The latent content of the dream is what supports the idea of wish fulfillment. It represents the intimate information in the dreamer 's current issues and childhood conflict.
In response to Freud 's theory on dreams, other psychologists have come up with theories to counter his argument. Theorist Rosalind Cartwright proposed that dreams provide people with the opportunity to act out and work through everyday problems and emotional issues in a non-real setting with no consequences. According to her cognitive problem solving view, a large amount of continuity exists between our waking thought and the thoughts that exist in dreams. Proponents of this view believe that dreams allow participation in creative thinking and alternate ways to handle situations when dealing with personal issues because dreams are not restrained by logic or realism.
In addition to this, Allan Hobson and colleagues came up with the activation - synthesis hypothesis which proposes that dreams are simply the side effects of the neural activity in the brain that produces beta brain waves during REM sleep that are associated with wakefulness. According to this hypothesis, neurons fire periodically during sleep in the lower brain levels and thus send random signals to the cortex. The cortex then synthesizes a dream in reaction to these signals in order to try to make sense of why the brain is sending them. However, the hypothesis does not state that dreams are meaningless, it just downplays the role that emotional factors play in determining dreams.
While, historically, the psychoanalytic research tradition was the first to focus on the phenomenon of unconscious mental activity, there is an extensive body of conclusive research and knowledge in contemporary cognitive psychology devoted to the mental activity that is not mediated by conscious awareness.
Most of that (cognitive) research on unconscious processes has been done in the mainstream, academic tradition of the information processing paradigm. As opposed to the psychoanalytic tradition, driven by the relatively speculative (in the sense of being hard to empirically verify) theoretical concepts such as the Oedipus complex or Electra complex, the cognitive tradition of research on unconscious processes is based on relatively few theoretical assumptions and is very empirically oriented (i.e., it is mostly data driven). Cognitive research has revealed that automatically, and clearly outside of conscious awareness, individuals register and acquire more information than what they can experience through their conscious thoughts. (See Augusto, 2010, for a recent comprehensive survey.)
For example, an extensive line of research conducted by Hasher and Zacks has demonstrated that individuals register information about the frequency of events automatically (i.e., outside of conscious awareness and without engaging conscious information processing resources). Moreover, perceivers do this unintentionally, truly "automatically, '' regardless of the instructions they receive, and regardless of the information processing goals they have. The ability to unconsciously and relatively accurately tally the frequency of events appears to have little or no relation to the individual 's age, education, intelligence, or personality, thus it may represent one of the fundamental building blocks of human orientation in the environment and possibly the acquisition of procedural knowledge and experience, in general.
Ellenberger, in his classic 1970 history of dynamic psychology. He remarks on Schopenhauer 's psychological doctrines several times, crediting him for example with recognizing parapraxes, and urges that Schopenhauer "was definitely among the ancestors of modern dynamic psychiatry. '' (1970, p. 205). He also cites with approval Foerster 's interesting claim that "no one should deal with psychoanalysis before having thoroughly studied Schopenhauer. '' (1970, p. 542). In general, he views Schopenhauer as the first and most important of the many nineteenth - century philosophers of the unconscious, and concludes that "there can not be the slightest doubt that Freud 's thought echoes theirs. '' (1970, p. 542).
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the number of movements in a symphony usually is | Symphony - wikipedia
A symphony is an extended musical composition in Western classical music, most often written by composers for orchestra. Although the term has had many meanings from its origins in the ancient Greek era, by the late 18th century the word had taken on the meaning common today: a work usually consisting of multiple distinct sections or movements, often four, with the first movement in sonata form. Symphonies are scored for string (violin, viola, cello, and double bass), brass, woodwind, and percussion instruments which altogether number about 30 -- 100 musicians. Symphonies are notated in a musical score, which contains all the instrument parts. Orchestral musicians play from parts which contain just the notated music for their instrument. A small number of symphonies also contain vocal parts (e.g., Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony).
The word symphony is derived from the Greek word συμφωνία (symphonia), meaning "agreement or concord of sound '', "concert of vocal or instrumental music '', from σύμφωνος (symphōnos), "harmonious ''. The word referred to a variety of different concepts before ultimately settling on its current meaning designating a musical form.
In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for consonance, as opposed to διαφωνία (diaphōnia), which was the word for "dissonance ''. In the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form symphonia was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously. Isidore of Seville was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two - headed drum, and from c. 1155 to 1377 the French form symphonie was the name of the organistrum or hurdy - gurdy. In late medieval England, symphony was used in both of these senses, whereas by the 16th century it was equated with the dulcimer. In German, Symphonie was a generic term for spinets and virginals from the late 16th century to the 18th century.
In the sense of "sounding together, '' the word begins to appear in the titles of some works by 16th - and 17th - century composers including Giovanni Gabrieli 's Sacrae symphoniae, and Symphoniae sacrae, liber secundus, published in 1597 and 1615, respectively; Adriano Banchieri 's Eclesiastiche sinfonie, dette canzoni in aria francese, per sonare, et cantare, op. 16, published in 1607; Lodovico Grossi da Viadana 's Sinfonie musicali, op. 18, published in 1610; and Heinrich Schütz 's Symphoniae sacrae, op. 6, and Symphoniarum sacrarum secunda pars, op. 10, published in 1629 and 1647, respectively. Except for Viadana 's collection, which contained purely instrumental and secular music, these were all collections of sacred vocal works, some with instrumental accompaniment.
In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the terms symphony and sinfonia were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in operas, sonatas and concertos -- usually part of a larger work. The opera sinfonia, or Italian overture had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements: fast, slow, fast and dance - like. It is this form that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms "overture '', "symphony '' and "sinfonia '' were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century.
In the 17th century, pieces scored for large instrumental ensemble did not precisely designate which instruments were to play which parts, as is the practice from the 19th century to the current period. When composers from the 17th century wrote pieces, they expected that these works would be performed by whatever group of musicians were available. To give one example, whereas the bassline in a 19th - century work is scored for cellos, double basses and other specific instruments, in a 17th - century work, a basso continuo part for a sinfonia would not specify which instruments would play the part. A performance of the piece might be done with a basso continuo group as small as a single cello and harpsichord. However, if a bigger budget was available for a performance and a larger sound was required, a basso continuo group might include multiple chord - playing instruments (harpsichord, lute, etc.) and a range of bass instruments, including cello, double bass, bass viol or even a serpent, an early bass woodwind instrument.
During the 18th century, "the symphony was cultivated with extraordinary intensity ''. It played a role in many areas of public life, including church services, but a particularly strong area of support for symphonic performances was the aristocracy. In Vienna, perhaps the most important location in Europe for the composition of symphonies, "literally hundreds of noble families supported musical establishments, generally dividing their time between Vienna and their ancestral estate (elsewhere in the Empire) ''. Since the normal size of the orchestra at the time was quite small, many of these courtly establishments were capable of performing symphonies. The young Joseph Haydn, taking up his first job as a music director in 1757 for the Morzin family, found that when the Morzin household was in Vienna, his own orchestra was only part of a lively and competitive musical scene, with multiple aristocrats sponsoring concerts with their own ensembles.
LaRue, Bonds, Walsh, and Wilson trace the gradual expansion of the symphonic orchestra through the 18th century. At first, symphonies were string symphonies, written in just four parts: first violin, second violin, viola, and bass (the bass line was taken by cello (s), double bass (es) playing the part an octave below, and perhaps also a bassoon). Occasionally the early symphonists even dispensed with the viola part, thus creating three - part symphonies. A basso continuo part including a bassoon together with a harpsichord or other chording instrument was also possible.
The first additions to this simple ensemble were a pair of horns, occasionally a pair of oboes, and then both horns and oboes together. Over the century, other instruments were added to the classical orchestra: flutes (sometimes replacing the oboes), separate parts for bassoons, clarinets, and trumpets and timpani. Works varied in their scoring concerning which of these additional instruments were to appear. The full - scale classical orchestra, deployed at the end of the century for the largest - scale symphonies, has the standard string ensemble mentioned above, pairs of winds (flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons), a pair of horns, and timpani. A keyboard continuo instrument (harpsichord or piano) remained an option.
The "Italian '' style of symphony, often used as overture and entr'acte in opera houses, became a standard three - movement form: a fast movement, a slow movement, and another fast movement. Over the course of the 18th century it became the custom to write four - movement symphonies, along the lines described in the next paragraph. The three - movement symphony died out slowly; about half of Haydn 's first thirty symphonies are in three movements; and for the young Mozart, the three - movement symphony was the norm, perhaps under the influence of his friend Johann Christian Bach. An outstanding late example of the three - movement Classical symphony is Mozart 's "Prague '' Symphony, from 1787.
The four - movement form that emerged from this evolution was as follows:
Variations on this layout, like changing the order of the middle movements or adding a slow introduction to the first movement, were common. Haydn, Mozart and their contemporaries restricted their use of the four - movement form to orchestral or multi-instrument chamber music such as quartets, though since Beethoven solo sonatas are as often written in four as in three movements.
The composition of early symphonies was centred on Milan, Vienna, and Mannheim. The Milanese school centred around Giovanni Battista Sammartini and included Antonio Brioschi, Ferdinando Galimberti and Giovanni Battista Lampugnani. Early exponents of the form in Vienna included Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Wenzel Raimund Birck and Georg Matthias Monn, while later significant Viennese composers of symphonies included Johann Baptist Wanhal, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf and Leopold Hofmann. The Mannheim school included Johann Stamitz.
The most important symphonists of the latter part of the 18th century are Haydn, who wrote at least 107 symphonies over the course of 36 years, and Mozart, with at least 47 symphonies in 24 years.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Beethoven elevated the symphony from an everyday genre produced in large quantities to a supreme form in which composers strove to reach the highest potential of music in just a few works. Beethoven began with two works directly emulating his models Mozart and Haydn, then seven more symphonies, starting with the Third Symphony ("Eroica '') that expanded the scope and ambition of the genre. His Symphony No. 5 is perhaps the most famous symphony ever written; its transition from the emotionally stormy C minor opening movement to a triumphant major - key finale provided a model adopted by later symphonists such as Brahms and Mahler. His Symphony No. 6 is a programmatic work, featuring instrumental imitations of bird calls and a storm; and, unconventionally, a fifth movement (symphonies usually had at most four movements). His Symphony No. 9 includes parts for vocal soloists and choir in the last movement, making it a choral symphony.
Of the symphonies of Franz Schubert, two are core repertory items and are frequently performed. Of the Eighth Symphony (1822), Schubert completed only the first two movements; this highly Romantic work is usually called by its nickname "The Unfinished. '' His last completed symphony, the Ninth (1826) is a massive work in the Classical idiom.
Of the early Romantics, Felix Mendelssohn (five symphonies) and Robert Schumann (four) continued to write symphonies in the classical mold, though using their own musical language. In contrast, Hector Berlioz favored programmatic works, including his "dramatic symphony '' Roméo et Juliette and the highly original Symphonie fantastique. The latter is also a programme work and has both a march and a waltz and five movements instead of the customary four. His fourth and last symphony, the Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale (originally titled Symphonie militaire) was composed in 1840 for a 200 - piece marching military band, to be performed out of doors, and is an early example of a band symphony. Berlioz later added optional string parts and a choral finale. In 1851, Richard Wagner declared that all of these post-Beethoven symphonies were no more than an epilogue, offering nothing substantially new. Indeed, after Schumann 's last symphony, the "Rhenish '' composed in 1850, for two decades the Lisztian symphonic poem appeared to have displaced the symphony as the leading form of large - scale instrumental music. If the symphony had been eclipsed, it was not long before it re-emerged in a "second age '' in the 1870s and 1880s, with the symphonies of Anton Bruckner, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Camille Saint - Saëns, Alexander Borodin, Antonín Dvořák, and César Franck -- works which continued to dominate the concert repertory for at least a century.
Over the course of the 19th century, composers continued to add to the size of the symphonic orchestra. Around the beginning of the century, a full - scale orchestra would consist of the string section plus pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and lastly a set of timpani. This is, for instance, the scoring used in Beethoven 's symphonies numbered 1, 2, 4, 7, and 8. Trombones, which had previously been confined to church and theater music, came to be added to the symphonic orchestra, notably in Beethoven 's 5th, 6th, and 9th symphonies. The combination of bass drum, triangle, and cymbals (sometimes also: piccolo), which 18th century composers employed as a coloristic effect in so - called "Turkish music '', came to be increasingly used during the second half of the 19th century without any such connotations of genre. By the time of Mahler (see below), it was possible for a composer to write a symphony scored for "a veritable compendium of orchestral instruments ''. In addition to increasing in variety of instruments, 19th century symphonies were gradually augmented with more string players and more wind parts, so that the orchestra grew substantially in sheer numbers, as concert halls likewise grew.
At the beginning of the 20th century, Gustav Mahler wrote long, large - scale symphonies. His Eighth Symphony, for example, was composed in 1906 and is nicknamed the "Symphony of a Thousand '' because of the large number of voices required to perform the work. Additionally, his Third Symphony is one of the longest regularly performed symphonies at around 100 minutes in length for most performances. The 20th century also saw further diversification in the style and content of works that composers labeled symphonies (Anon. 2008). Some composers, including Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei Rachmaninoff, and Carl Nielsen, continued to write in the traditional four - movement form, while other composers took different approaches: Jean Sibelius ' Symphony No. 7, his last, is in one movement, whereas Alan Hovhaness 's Symphony No. 9, Saint Vartan -- originally op. 80, changed to op. 180 -- composed in 1949 -- 50, is in twenty - four.
A concern with unification of the traditional four - movement symphony into a single, subsuming formal conception had emerged in the late 19th century. This has been called a "two - dimensional symphonic form '', and finds its key turning point in Arnold Schoenberg 's Chamber Symphony No. 1, Op. 9 (1909), which was followed in the 1920s by other notable single - movement German symphonies, including Kurt Weill 's First Symphony (1921), Max Butting 's Chamber Symphony, Op. 25 (1923), and Paul Dessau 's 1926 Symphony.
There remained, however, certain tendencies. Designating a work a "symphony '' still implied a degree of sophistication and seriousness of purpose. The word sinfonietta came into use to designate a work that is shorter, of more modest aims, or "lighter '' than a symphony, such as Sergei Prokofiev 's Sinfonietta for orchestra (Kennedy 2006a).
In the first half of the century, Edward Elgar, Gustav Mahler, Jean Sibelius, Carl Nielsen, Igor Stravinsky, Bohuslav Martinů, Roger Sessions, and Dmitri Shostakovich composed symphonies "extraordinary in scope, richness, originality, and urgency of expression '' (Steinberg 1995, 404). One measure of the significance of a symphony is the degree to which it reflects conceptions of temporal form particular to the age in which it was created. Five composers from across the span of the 20th century who fulfil this measure are Sibelius, Stravinsky, Luciano Berio (in his Sinfonia, 1968 -- 69), Elliott Carter (in his Symphony of Three Orchestras, 1976), and Pelle Gudmundsen - Holmgreen (in Symphony / Antiphony, 1980).
Beginning in the 20th century, more symphonies have been written for concert band than in past centuries. Although examples exist from as early as 1932, the first such symphony of importance since Hector Berlioz wrote the Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale in 1840 is Nikolai Miaskovsky 's Symphony No. 19, Op. 46, composed in 1939 (Battisti 2002, 42). Some further examples are Paul Hindemith 's Symphony in B - flat for Band, composed in 1951; Morton Gould 's Symphony No. 4 "West Point '', composed in 1952; Vincent Persichetti 's Symphony No. 6, Op. 69, composed in 1956; Vittorio Giannini 's Symphony No. 3, composed in 1959; Alan Hovhaness 's Symphonies No. 4, op. 165, No. 7, "Nanga Parvat '', op. 175, No. 14, "Ararat '', op. 194, and No. 23, "Ani '', op. 249, composed in 1958, 1959, 1961, and 1972 respectively; Alfred Reed 's 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th symphonies, composed in 1979, 1988, 1992, and 1994 respectively; and Johan de Meij 's Symphony No. 1 "The Lord of the Rings '', composed in 1988, and his Symphony No. 2 "The Big Apple '', composed in 1993.
The word "symphony '' is also used to refer to the orchestra, the large ensemble that often performs these works. The word "symphony '' appears in the name of many orchestras, for example, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, the St. Louis Symphony, the Houston Symphony, or Miami 's New World Symphony. For some orchestras, "(city name) Symphony '' provides a shorter version of the full name; for instance, the OED gives "Vancouver Symphony '' as a possible abbreviated form of Vancouver Symphony Orchestra. As well, in common usage, a person may say they are going out to hear a symphony perform, a reference to the orchestra and not the works on the program.
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