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who won the all ireland football final 2017 | 2017 All - Ireland senior football Championship final - wikipedia
The 2017 All - Ireland Senior Football Championship Final, the 130th event of its kind and the culmination of the 2017 All - Ireland Senior Football Championship, was played at Croke Park in Dublin on 17 September 2017.
The final was the fourth occasion that the two counties met in the final, following matches in 1921, 2013 and 2016. Prior to the game, Dublin were seeking their third consecutive All - Ireland title, while Mayo were aiming for their first All - Ireland since 1951. The same two counties played in the ladies ' All - Ireland final. This is only the second time that the final pairing has been the same in the men 's and ladies ' championships; the first time was in 1982, when Kerry played Offaly in the men 's and ladies ' finals.
The final was shown live in Ireland on RTÉ Two as part of The Sunday Game live programme, presented by Michael Lyster from Croke Park, with studio analysis from Joe Brolly, Pat Spillane, and Colm O'Rourke. Match commentary was provided by Ger Canning with analysis by Dessie Dolan. The game was also shown live on Sky Sports, presented by Rachel Wyse and Brian Carney.
Dublin won the final by a point on a 1 - 17 to 1 - 16 scoreline to claim their third title in a row, the first time this has happened since 1921 - 23.
The final was played before a capacity attendance of 82,243 people. The match drew a peak audience of 1.3 million, which made it the most watched RTÉ broadcast of 2017, surpassing the hurling final.
The two teams had widely varying paths to the final. Whereas Mayo struggled (losing to Galway, needing extra time to beat Derry and Cork and replays to beat Roscommon and Kerry), Dublin breezed to the final, winning their five games by 12, 31, 9, 10 and 12 points respectively.
The Donegal team that won the 1992 All - Ireland Final were presented to the crowd before the match to mark 25 years.
Demand for tickets was extremely high in both counties with Dublin and Mayo receiving around 32,000 tickets between them. Stand tickets were priced at € 80 with terrace at € 40.
The 2017 All - Ireland Minor Football Final was played between Kerry and Derry as a curtain - raiser to the senior final, with Kerry winning by 6 - 17 to 1 - 8.
On 4 September, Cavan 's Joe McQuillan was confirmed as the referee for the final. It was McQuilllan 's third All Ireland final having previously been in charge in 2011 and 2013. Cork 's Conor Lane was the standby referee, the other linesman was Padraig O'Sullivan from Kerry and the Sideline official was Niall Cullen.
The All - Ireland final was played between Dublin and Mayo, the second consecutive meeting of the teams in the decisive match. The reigning champions, Dublin, had defeated Mayo following a replay, and were looking to claim their third consecutive title. Dublin were favourites to win prior to kick - off. Pre-match discussion in the media revolved around the Mayo curse, a superstition held among GAA fans that Mayo will not win the All - Ireland until every member of the victorious 1951 team had died. The curse allegedly arose after a priest punished the team for celebrating raptorously in front of a funeral procession.
The game attracted additional international information as association football pundits Jeff Stelling and Chris Kamara made their commentary debut at a GAA game, alongside legendary GAA commentator Mícheál Ó Muircheartaigh.
Dublin and Mayo both named the same fifteen players that played in the semi-final wins for the final. Prior to the start of the match, Eoghan O'Gara was named to start for Dublin instead of Niall Scully, with Paddy Durcan also starting instead of Diarmuid O'Connor for Mayo.
The game took place in Croke Park before a capacity audience of 82,000. After 90 seconds of play, Dublin took a definitive lead as Con O'Callaghan scored a goal when he ran at the Mayo defence before shooting low along the ground to the corner of the net at the hill 16 end. However, despite this early three - point lead, Mayo played dominantly throughout the opening 35 minutes, scoring seven points from play to take a one point lead in at half - time, 0 - 9 to 1 - 05. Andy Moran was responsible for three of these points, and his first - half performance was praised by pundits.
However, after the second half began, the game took on a different complexion as Dublin seized the lead by scoring three consecutive points. However, Mayo reclaimed the lead early into the half as Lee Keegan scored a goal to put his team one point ahead. The talking point of the match occurred in the 48th minute, as Dublin 's John Small, who had previously received a yellow card in the first half, was sent off for a foul on Colm Boyle. However, Donal Vaughan of Mayo was also sent off after striking Small in the face in retaliation for the foul. This left both teams reduced to fourteen men for the remaining duration of the game. After seventy minutes of the game had elapsed, the teams were tied at 1 - 16 apiece, and it appeared that the game was destined for a draw and replay. In the seventy - first minute, Mayo were awarded a kickable free and an opportunity to go ahead. Cillian O'Connor, who had missed a free under a similar scenario in the previous final, took the kick, and missed, having it strike the post and rebound away from goal. Ciarán Kilkenny was given a black card by the referee for cynical play. Then, with a mere minute of the six additional minutes remaining, Diarmuid Connolly was fouled approximately forty - five metres from the Mayo goal, leaving Dublin with a kick to win the game. Dean Rock, the son of Barney Rock, one of the most famous Gaelic footballers from the capital, took the free. Lee Keegan controversially threw a GPS device at Rock as he took the free, yet the Dubliner was undeterred and converted. This left the defending champions one point ahead, and after reclaiming the ball from the Mayo kick - out, Dublin maintained possession until the final whistle was blown. Stephen Cluxton, the Dublin captain, then lifted the Sam Maguire Cup for the fifth time in seven years.
Man of the Match: James McCarthy
Dublin captain Stephen Cluxton accepted the Sam Maguire Cup from GAA president Aogan O ' Fearghail in the Hogan Stand. Cluxton was making a record 91st championship appearances and lifted the cup for a record fourth time. He was one of 12 Dublin players who collected their fifth senior All - Ireland winners medal. The 12 Dublin players are the only men outside of Kerry to win five senior All - Ireland winners medals in Gaelic Football.
Highlights of the final were shown on The Sunday Game programme which aired at 9: 30pm that night on RTÉ Two and was presented by Des Cahill. James McCarthy, Dean Rock and Chris Barrett were shortlisted for the Man of the Match award. The winner was James McCarthy with GAA president Aogan O ' Fearghail presenting the award at the Dublin post match function, held in the Gibson hotel.
The Dublin team had a homecoming celebration the day after the final at Smithfield in Dublin which started at 6: 30pm. The night before, players and their management team celebrated their win at The Gibson Hotel.
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what kind of stocks are in the s p 500 | List of S&P 500 companies - wikipedia
The S&P 500 stock market index, maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, comprises 505 common stocks issued by 500 large - cap companies and traded on American stock exchanges, and covers about 80 percent of the American equity market by capitalization. The index is weighted by free - float market capitalization, so more valuable companies account for relatively more of the index. The index constituents and the constituent weights are updated regularly using rules published by S&P Dow Jones Indices. Although the index is called the S&P "500 '', the index contains 505 stocks because it includes two share classes of stock from 5 of its component companies.
S&P Dow Jones Indices updates the components of the S&P 500 periodically, typically in response to acquisitions, or to keep the index up to date as various companies grow or shrink in value. Between January 1, 1963 and December 31, 2014, 1,186 index components were replaced by other components.
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when did her reign begin and when did it end | Queen Victoria - wikipedia
Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 -- 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death. On 1 May 1876, she adopted the additional title of Empress of India.
Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. Both the Duke and the King died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe - Coburg - Saalfeld. She inherited the throne at the age of 18, after her father 's three elder brothers had all died, leaving no surviving legitimate children. The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power. Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.
Victoria married her first cousin Prince Albert of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and earning her the sobriquet "the grandmother of Europe ''. After Albert 's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration.
Her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than that of any of her predecessors and is known as the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. She was the last British monarch of the House of Hanover. Her son and successor, Edward VII, initiated the House of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha, the line of his father.
Victoria 's father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward 's niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe - Coburg - Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children -- Carl (1804 -- 1856) and Feodora (1807 -- 1872) -- by her first marriage to the Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte 's widower. The Duke and Duchess of Kent 's only child, Victoria, was born at 4.15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.
Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners - Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace. She was baptised Alexandrina, after one of her godparents, Emperor Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents -- Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta -- were dropped on the instructions of the Duke 's eldest brother, George, the Prince Regent.
At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: George, the Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, the Duke of York; William, the Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria 's father, Edward, the Duke of Kent. The Prince Regent had no surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child - bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further children. The Duke of Clarence and the Duke of Kent married on the same day in 1818, but both of Clarence 's daughters (born in 1819 and 1820) died as infants. Victoria 's father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son, George IV. The Duke of York died in 1827. When George IV died in 1830, he was succeeded by his next surviving brother, William IV, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for the Duchess of Kent (Victoria 's mother) to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor. King William distrusted the Duchess 's capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria 's 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.
Victoria later described her childhood as "rather melancholy ''. Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so - called "Kensington System '', an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess 's lover. The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father 's family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them. The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William 's illegitimate children, and perhaps prompted the emergence of Victorian morality by insisting that her daughter avoid any appearance of sexual impropriety. Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play - hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash. Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin, but she spoke only English at home.
In 1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way. Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King 's annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops. William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive. Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest. She objected on the grounds of the King 's disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours. At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence. While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary. As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff. Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother 's household.
By 1836, the Duchess 's brother, Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry his niece to his nephew, Prince Albert of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha. Leopold, Victoria 's mother, and Albert 's father (Ernest I, Duke of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha) were siblings. Leopold arranged for Victoria 's mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert. William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange. Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes. According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert 's company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, "(Albert) is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful. '' Alexander, on the other hand, was "very plain ''.
Victoria wrote to her uncle Leopold, whom Victoria considered her "best and kindest adviser '', to thank him "for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see. '' However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.
Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom. In her diary she wrote, "I was awoke at 6 o'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting - room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen. '' Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.
Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited all the British dominions, Hanover passed instead to her father 's younger brother, her unpopular uncle the Duke of Cumberland, who became King of Hanover. He was her heir presumptive until she married and had a child.
At the time of her accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. The prime minister at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced Queen, who relied on him for advice. Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was "passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one '', and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure. Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations. She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £ 385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father 's debts.
At the start of her reign Victoria was popular, but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother 's ladies - in - waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out - of - wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy. Victoria believed the rumours. She hated Conroy, and despised "that odious Lady Flora '', because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System. At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually agreed, and was found to be a virgin. Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora. When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen. At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as "Mrs. Melbourne ''.
In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery. The Queen commissioned a Tory, Sir Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen 's ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the bedchamber crisis, Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.
Though Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother 's continued reliance on Conroy. Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her. When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother 's close proximity promised "torment for many years '', Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a "schocking (sic) alternative ''. Victoria showed interest in Albert 's education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.
Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor. They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James 's Palace, London. Victoria was besotted. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:
I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness -- really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband!... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before -- was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life!
Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen 's companion, replacing Lord Melbourne as the dominant, influential figure in the first half of her life. Victoria 's mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria 's aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria 's mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses. Through Albert 's mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.
During Victoria 's first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18 - year - old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot. He was tried for high treason, found not guilty on the grounds of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia. In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria 's popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis. Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant, viewed breast - feeding with disgust, and thought newborn babies were ugly. Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857).
Victoria 's household was largely run by her childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria and had supported her against the Kensington System. Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter 's health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria 's close relationship with her ended.
On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; however the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to provoke Francis to take a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis 's death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge. Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail. In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder - filled pistol at Victoria 's carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London. In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years ' transportation.
Melbourne 's support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria 's reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.
In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight. In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine. In Ireland, Victoria was labelled "The Famine Queen ''. In January 1847 she personally donated £ 2,000 (equivalent to between £ 178,000 and £ 6.5 million in 2016) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor, and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition. The story that she donated only £ 5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.
By 1846, Peel 's ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories -- by then known also as Conservatives -- were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the "Peelites ''), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.
Internationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain. She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at château d'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520. When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign. Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England. At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House, a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped. Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances. Victoria 's first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.
Russell 's ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen. She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen. Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government 's approval of President Louis - Napoleon Bonaparte 's coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister. The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell 's administration had been replaced by a short - lived minority government led by Lord Derby.
In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. Victoria was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous. Victoria may have suffered from postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies. Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self - control. For example, about a month after Leopold 's birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her "continuance of hysterics '' over a "miserable trifle ''.
In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.
Napoleon III, since the Crimean War Britain 's closest ally, visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit. Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris. They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert 's 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I 's tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200 - guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.
On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England. The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister. Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French one. Derby 's ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.
Eleven days after Orsini 's assassination attempt in France, Victoria 's eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and Prince Albert until the bride was 17. The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son - in - law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state. Victoria felt "sick at heart '' to see her daughter leave England for Germany; "It really makes me shudder '', she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, "when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too -- one by one. '' Almost exactly a year later, Princess Victoria gave birth to the Queen 's first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Kaiser.
In March 1861, Victoria 's mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother 's papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply; she was heart - broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for "wickedly '' estranging her from her mother. To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief, Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble. In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, the Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland. Appalled, Albert travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him. By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell. He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated. She blamed her husband 's death on worry over the Prince of Wales 's philandering. He had been "killed by that dreadful business '', she said. She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances, and rarely set foot in London in the following years. Her seclusion earned her the nickname "widow of Windsor ''.
Victoria 's self - imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement. She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences -- Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864, a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced "these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant 's declining business ''. Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.
Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown. Slanderous rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and the Queen was referred to as "Mrs. Brown ''. The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.
Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert 's death. The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men, though she was not in favour of votes for women. Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. "Everyone likes flattery, '' he said, "and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel. '' With the phrase "we authors, Ma'am '', he complimented her. Disraeli 's ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone 's demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were "a public meeting rather than a woman ''.
In 1870, republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen 's seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic. A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria 's removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her. In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray. In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die. As the tenth anniversary of her husband 's death approached, her son 's condition grew no better, and Victoria 's distress continued. To general rejoicing, he pulled through. Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul 's Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.
On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17 - year - old Arthur O'Connor (great - nephew of Irish MP Feargus O'Connor) waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria 's open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months ' imprisonment, and a birching. As a result of the incident, Victoria 's popularity recovered further.
After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain 's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides. She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war '', and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration ''. At her behest, a reference threatening the "undermining of native religions and customs '' was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.
In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported. She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England. Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India '' from 1 May 1876. The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.
On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert 's death, Victoria 's second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as "almost incredible and most mysterious ''. In May 1879, she became a great - grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe - Meiningen) and passed her "poor old 60th birthday ''. She felt "aged '' by "the loss of my beloved child ''.
Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo - Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin. Disraeli 's expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo - Zulu War and the Second Anglo - Afghan War. "If we are to maintain our position as a first - rate Power '', she wrote, "we must... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY. '' Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: "It is not in our custom to annexe countries '', she said, "unless we are obliged & forced to do so. '' To Victoria 's dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister. When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by "fast falling tears '', and erected a memorial tablet "placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I. ''
On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria 's refusal to accept one of his poems, shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Two schoolboys from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman. Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity, but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was "worth being shot at -- to see how much one is loved ''.
On 17 March 1883, she fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter. Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown. Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair. The manuscript was destroyed. In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her "devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown ''. On the day after the first anniversary of Brown 's death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was "the dearest of my dear sons '', she lamented. The following month, Victoria 's youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria 's granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry 's brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by Henry and Beatrice 's promise to remain living with and attending her.
Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated. She thought his government was "the worst I have ever had '', and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum. Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury 's government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a "half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man ''. Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria 's glee it was defeated. In the ensuing election, Gladstone 's party lost to Salisbury 's and the government switched hands again.
In 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria 's Golden Jubilee. Victoria marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey. By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular. Two days later on 23 June, she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to "Munshi '': teaching her Urdu (known as Hindustani) and acting as a clerk. Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus. Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, "the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do. '' Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice. Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.
Victoria 's eldest daughter became Empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed within the year, and Victoria 's grandchild Wilhelm became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Under Wilhelm, Victoria and Albert 's hopes of a liberal Germany were not fulfilled. He believed in autocracy. Victoria thought he had "little heart or Zartgefühl (tact) -- and... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped (sic) ''.
Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him. In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister. His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria 's reign.
On 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest - reigning monarch in English, Scottish, and British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee, which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain. The prime ministers of all the self - governing dominions were invited to London for the festivities. One reason for including the prime ministers of the dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria 's grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.
The Queen 's Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open - air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul 's Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78 - year - old Queen.
Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit. By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war. In July, her second son Alfred ("Affie '') died. "Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too '', she wrote in her journal. "It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another. ''
Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her lame, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts. Through early January, she felt "weak and unwell '', and by mid-January she was "drowsy... dazed, (and) confused ''. She died on Tuesday 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81. Her son and successor King Edward VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany, were at her deathbed. Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.
In 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier 's daughter and the head of the army, and white instead of black. On 25 January, Edward VII, the Kaiser and Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, helped lift her body into the coffin. She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil. An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert 's dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown 's hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers. Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown 's mother, given to her by Brown in 1883. Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George 's Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying - in - state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in Frogmore Mausoleum at Windsor Great Park.
With a reign of 63 years, seven months and two days, Victoria was the longest - reigning British monarch and the longest - reigning queen regnant in world history until her great - great - granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015. She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover. Her son and successor Edward VII belonged to her husband 's House of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha.
According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life. From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes. After Victoria 's death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria 's accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process. Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice 's edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them. Part of Victoria 's extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A.C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.
Victoria was physically unprepossessing -- she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet tall -- but she succeeded in projecting a grand image. She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure. Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public. Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey 's Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date. The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham - Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired. They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight - talking. Contrary to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria "was immensely amused and roared with laughter '' on many occasions.
Through Victoria 's reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch. In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn ''. As Victoria 's monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the "family monarchy '', with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.
Victoria 's links with Europe 's royal families earned her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe ''. Victoria and Albert had 42 grandchildren, of whom 34 survived to adulthood. Their descendants include Elizabeth II; Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain.
Victoria 's youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood - clotting disease haemophilia B and two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great - grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia, Alfonso, Prince of Asturias, and Infante Gonzalo of Spain. The presence of the disease in Victoria 's descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent but a haemophiliac. There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria 's mother, and as male carriers always suffer the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill. It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria 's father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers. Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.
Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa 's largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), and two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland).
The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War, and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria 's birthday).
At the end of her reign, the Queen 's full style and title were: "Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India. ''
As Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne.
Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield -- also used on the Royal Standard -- is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory - counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland.
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where did the phrase the gift that keeps on giving come from | The Gift That Keeps Giving - wikipedia
"The Gift That Keeps Giving '' is a song by Super Furry Animals taken from their 2007 album, Hey Venus!. It was given away as a free download single from the band 's official website on Christmas Day 2007.
The song was conceived as a Christmas single as part of the band 's plans to make a "pop record '' in parent album Hey Venus! The title stems from sessions in 2004 for the extended live version of "The Man Do n't Give a Fuck '', at which the group 's engineer repeatably used the phrase. Critical response to "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' was generally positive with the NME claiming it to be one of the best songs on Hey Venus! and BBC Wales describing the track as "brain - bendingly catchy ''.
A Team D.A.D.D.Y. directed music video was made to accompany the track 's release as a single. The video features a spoilt child being showered with Christmas presents while poorer children are shown in tears due to their lack of gifts. Two different endings for the video were produced - in one Santa Claus is shown crucified on a cross while another sees Santa laid on the floor with an arrow through his head.
In a 2008 interview with Uncut singer Gruff Rhys stated that "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' was written as an "AOR Christmas single '' following a visit to Japan where "they celebrate Christmas as a commercial holiday with all the decorations... in one store they had Santa on a cross hanging from the wall... so the Christmas single was just an excuse to have Santa on a cross on the cover ''. Although the cover art did not in the end feature this scene, a crucified Santa does appear in the accompanying music video.
Speaking to British music magazine Artrocker Rhys offered another explanation as to the origins of the song:
The track was recorded at Miraval Studios, France along with the rest of Hey Venus!
"The Gift That Keeps Giving '' is 3 minutes 20 seconds long and is in the key of D minor. The track begins with a phased guitar melody backed only by synthesizer, hi - hat and occasional guitar chords. Cian Ciaran 's piano joins the mix as the song builds up with the introduction of drums at 25 seconds. Gruff Rhys begins singing after 39 seconds and is joined by sleighbells which accompany the lines "all the bells started ringing '' shortly before the first chorus which features harmony backing vocals (the first of many in the "falsetto - laden '' track) singing the title phrase. Another verse and chorus follow before an instrumental verse at 1 minute 46 seconds featuring a trumpet solo playing around the vocal melody. The song "crescendos tenderly '' with a double chorus before entering the outro which initially includes spoken word backing vocals chanting "giving again '' and is "enhanced by a horn section that the Furries seem to be able to utilise more effectively than anyone else ''.
Critical reaction to "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' was generally positive with the New Musical Express rating it as one of the best on parent album Hey Venus!; "(it does n't so much raise) the bar, as balances it on top of Mount Snowdon '' going on to state: "From a foundation of ELO guitar cloud - swells, Gruff 's Elvis Costello - in - a-bubblegum - bath voice wraps around tender trombone parps to create the band 's most beautiful moment since "Demons ''. BBC Wales commented on the track 's Christmas links, describing "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' as a "mellow, mellifluous, slow ode to the joys of the festive season... lyrically incredibly simple... brain - bendingly catchy ''. The Guardian meanwhile, stated that the song "might sound more California than Christmas '' but still possesses the "obligatory sleighbells... shaken throughout ''. Much was made of the ' retro ' nature of the track with Yahoo Music UK claiming that the song is "a pure blue - eyed soul tune, of the sort that Dan Penn and Spooner Oldham used to churn out four decades ago '' and The Guardian describing it as a "gorgeous, Bacharach - tinged haze ''. In contrast the UCSD Guardian described "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' as "jazzy '' and "lo - fi '' and saw it as "a throw - back to 2000 's experimental Mwng ''.
Billboard noted that "the group 's penchant for sonic flourishes is used to subtle effect '' on "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' and went on to suggest that the track is representative of Hey Venus! as a whole. Cokemachineglow, however, thought that the song "will be cast into the void, one daring, lonely piece of the first Super Furry Animals album to not succeed as a thorough unit '' and, in their single review of "The Gift That Keeps Giving '', the NME suggested that the track was n't one of the group 's best.
The band 's decision to employ Japanese surrealist Keiichi Tanaami to produce the cover for Hey Venus! and its singles received some criticism, not least because the artist had already used similar designs. In a 2005 interview with German magazine Komakino, keyboard player Cian Ciaran stated that the artwork for "The Gift... '' was unique, however, and praised the artist.
The video for "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' was directed by Team D.A.D.D.Y. and revolves around a festive theme in keeping with the track 's release date of Christmas day.
The video opens with a spoilt child opening numerous Christmas presents including a toy train, a box full of kittens and a copy of Hey Venus! (which he throws over his shoulder in disgust). Towards the end of the video less privileged children are shown crying at their lack of presents before we cut back to the initial child who is surrounded by gifts while Santa Claus is seen in front of a log fire, crucified on a cross. An alternative ending instead features Santa lying on the floor with an arrow through his head.
Despite the apparently cynical nature of the video, BBC Wales asserts that it is "not meant to be read in any deeper level than ' ai n't Christmas brilliant? ' ''
All songs by Super Furry Animals.
Although the track was initially reported to come with an "exclusive b - side '' this turned out not to be the case and only "The Gift That Keeps Giving '' was made available.
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where is the endocrine system located in the human body | Endocrine system - wikipedia
The endocrine system is a chemical messenger system consisting of hormones, the group of glands of an organism that carry those hormones directly into the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs, and the feedback loops of homeostasis that the hormones drive. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The field of study dealing with the endocrine system and its disorders is endocrinology, a branch of internal medicine.
Special features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and commonly the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules that store their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence are usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic - pituitary - adrenal axis.
In addition to the specialized endocrine organs mentioned above, many other organs that are part of other body systems, such as bone, kidney, liver, heart and gonads, have secondary endocrine functions. For example, the kidney secretes endocrine hormones such as erythropoietin and renin. Hormones can consist of either amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.
The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its hormones to the outside of the body using ducts. As opposed to endocrine factors that travel considerably longer distances via the circulatory system, other signaling molecules, such as paracrine factors involved in paracrine signalling diffuse over a relatively short distance.
The word endocrine derives via New Latin from the Greek words ἔνδον, endon, "inside, within, '' and "exocrine '' from the κρίνω, krīnō, "to separate, distinguish ''.
The human endocrine system consists of several systems that operate via feedback loops. Several important feedback systems are mediated via the hypothalamus and pituitary.
Endocrine glands are glands of the endocrine system that secrete their products, hormones, directly into insterstitial spaces and then absorbed into blood rather than through a duct. The major glands of the endocrine system include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are neuroendocrine organs.
A hormone is a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes: eicosanoids, steroids, and amino acid / protein derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that secrete hormones comprise the endocrine system. The term hormone is sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration, tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and development, movement, reproduction, and mood.
Hormones affect distant cells by binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type - specific responses that include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responses where the hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in increased expression of target proteins. Amino acid -- based hormones (amines and peptide or protein hormones) are water - soluble and act on the surface of target cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid - soluble, move through the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within their nuclei.
The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling, that is, using the circulatory system to reach distant target organs. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.
Autocrine signaling is a form of signaling in which a cell secretes a hormone or chemical messenger (called the autocrine agent) that binds to autocrine receptors on the same cell, leading to changes in the cells.
Some endocrinologists and clinicians include the paracrine system as part of the endocrine system, but there is not consensus. Paracrines are slower acting, targeting cells in the same tissue or organ. An example of this is somatostatin which is released by some pancreatic cells and targets other pancreatic cells.
Juxtacrine signaling is a type of intercellular communication that is transmitted via oligosaccharide, lipid, or protein components of a cell membrane, and may affect either the emitting cell or the immediately adjacent cells.
It occurs between adjacent cells that possess broad patches of closely opposed plasma membrane linked by transmembrane channels known as connexons. The gap between the cells can usually be between only 2 and 4 nm.
Diseases of the endocrine system are common, including conditions such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterized by irregulated hormone release (a productive pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signaling (hypothyroidism), lack of a gland (diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the thyroid (toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as a result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as a result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.
Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Secondary endocrine disease is indicative of a problem with the pituitary gland. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.
As the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signaling distant tissues to proliferate, for example, the estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signaling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.
Other common diseases that result from endocrine dysfunction include Addison 's disease, Cushing 's disease and Graves 's disease. Cushing 's disease and Addison 's disease are pathologies involving the dysfunction of the adrenal gland. Dysfunction in the adrenal gland could be due to primary or secondary factors and can result in hypercortisolism or hypocortisolism. Cushing 's disease is characterized by the hypersecretion of the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) due to a pituitary adenoma that ultimately causes endogenous hypercortisolism by stimulating the adrenal glands. Some clinical signs of Cushing 's disease include obesity, moon face, and hirsutism. Addison 's disease is an endocrine disease that results from hypocortisolism caused by adrenal gland insufficiency. Adrenal insufficiency is significant because it is correlated with decreased ability to maintain blood pressure and blood sugar, a defect that can prove to be fatal.
Graves ' disease involves the hyperactivity of the thyroid gland which produces the T3 and T4 hormones. Graves ' disease effects range from excess sweating, fatigue, heat intolerance and high blood pressure to swelling of the eyes that causes redness, puffiness and in rare cases reduced or double vision.
A neuroendocrine system has been observed in all animals with a nervous system and all vertebrates have an hypothalamus - pituitary axis. All vertebrates have a thyroid, which in amphibians is also crucial for transformation of larvae into adult form. All vertebrates have adrenal gland tissue, with mammals unique in having it organized into layers. All vertebrates have some form of renin -- angiotensin axis, and all tetrapods have aldosterone as primary mineralocorticoid.
Female endocrine system.
Male endocrine system
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when was the book the lion the witch and the wardrobe published | The Lion, the Witch and the wardrobe - wikipedia
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe is a fantasy novel for children by C.S. Lewis, and illustrators Pauline Baynes, Chris Van Allsburg in 1978, and Leo and Diane Dillon in 1994, published by Geoffrey Bles in 1950. It is the first published and best known of seven novels in The Chronicles of Narnia (1950 -- 1956). Among all the author 's books it is also the most widely held in libraries. Although it was written as well as published first in the series, it is volume two in recent editions, which are sequenced by the stories ' chronology (the first being The Magician 's Nephew). Like the others, it was illustrated by Pauline Baynes, and her work has been retained in many later editions.
Most of the novel is set in Narnia, a land of talking animals and mythical creatures that one White Witch has ruled for 100 years of deep winter. In the frame story, four English children are relocated to a large, old country house following a wartime evacuation. The youngest visits Narnia three times via the magic of a wardrobe in a spare room. All four children are together on her third visit, which verifies her fantastic claims and comprises the subsequent 12 of 17 chapters except for a brief conclusion. In Narnia, the siblings seem fit to fulfill an old prophecy and so are soon adventuring both to save Narnia and their lives. Lewis wrote the book for, and dedicated it to, his goddaughter Lucy Barfield. She was the daughter of Owen Barfield, Lewis 's friend, teacher, adviser, and trustee.
In 1940, four siblings -- Peter, Susan, Edmund, and Lucy Pevensie -- are among many children evacuated from London during World War II to escape the Blitz. They are sent to the countryside to live with professor Digory Kirke. Exploring the professor 's house, Lucy finds a wardrobe which doubles as a magic portal to a forest in a land called Narnia. At a lamppost oddly located in the forest, she meets Tumnus, a faun, who invites her to tea in his home. There the faun confesses that he invited her not out of hospitality, but with the intention of betraying her to the White Witch. The witch has ruled Narnia for years, using magic to keep it frozen in a perpetual winter. She has ordered all Narnians to turn in any humans ("Sons of Adam '' or "Daughters of Eve '') they come across. But now that he has come to know and like a human, Tumnus repents his original intention and escorts Lucy back to the lamppost.
Lucy returns through the wardrobe and finds that only a few seconds have passed in normal time during her absence. Her siblings do not believe her story about another world inside the wardrobe, which is now found to have a solid back panel.
During a game of hide - and - seek on some days later, Lucy again passes into Narnia. This time her brother Edmund chances to follow her. He meets Jadis, who calls herself Queen of Narnia. When she learns that he is human and has two sisters and a brother, she places an enchantment on him. She urges him to bring his siblings to her castle, promising in return to make him her heir. When Lucy and Edmund return together through the wardrobe, Edmund realizes that the queen he met and the witch Lucy describes are one and the same. He denies to the others that he has been in Narnia at all. Peter and Susan are puzzled by Lucy 's insistence, and consult the Professor, who surprises them by taking Lucy 's side in the debate of Narnia 's existence.
Soon afterward, all four children enter Narnia together after hiding in the wardrobe to avoid the professor 's dour housekeeper, Mrs. Macready. Remembering the winter cold ahead, they take coats from the wardrobe before exploring. Lucy guides them to Tumnus 's cave, but they find it ransacked, with a notice from Jadis (the White Witch) proclaiming his arrest for harbouring humans.
A talking beaver intercepts them, proves himself a friend, and hides the children in his den. There, he and Mrs. Beaver tell them of a prophecy that Jadis 's power will fail when two Sons of Adam and two Daughters of Eve fill the four thrones at Cair Paravel. Aslan, the great lion and the rightful King, has been absent for many years but is now "on the move again '' in Narnia.
Edmund steals away to Jadis 's castle, which is filled with statues of Narnian victims she has turned to stone. Jadis is furious when Edmund appears alone and angrier still to learn that Aslan may have returned. She takes him on her sledge to catch the others or to reach Aslan 's court before them.
Meanwhile, Mr Beaver realises that Edmund has betrayed them, and they set off at once to seek Aslan at the Stone Table. As they travel, the Witch 's spell over Narnia begins to break: Father Christmas (who has not been seen in Narnia for a hundred years) arrives with magical presents: a sword for Peter, a horn and a bow with arrows for Susan, a knife and a bottle of healing cordial for Lucy. The snow melts, and winter ends. Aslan welcomes the children and the Beavers to his camp near the Stone Table. Upon hearing Edmund 's situation, he orders a rescue party of loyal Narnians.
After much hardship at the hands of the Witch and her sledge driver, Edmund is rescued from their camp and reunited with his siblings. Jadis approaches in truce to parley with Aslan. She insists that, according to "deep magic from the dawn of time '', she holds the right to kill Edmund following his treason. Aslan bargains with her privately and she renounces her claim.
That evening, Aslan secretly returns to the Stone Table, shadowed by Susan and Lucy. Upon noticing them, Aslan welcomes their company but warns them not to interfere with what is about to happen. He has traded his own life to the witch for Edmund 's, and the girls watch as Jadis oversees his shaming before her underlings. She orders Aslan tied to the Stone Table, shaved and muzzled; and she administers the killing blow herself.
Confident now of victory, the Witch leads her army away to battle. Susan and Lucy remain weeping over Aslan 's abandoned body. They un-muzzle him and see mice gnaw away his bonds. The Stone Table breaks and Aslan is restored to life. He tells Lucy and Susan that Jadis was unaware of the "deeper magic from before the dawn of time '' that will resurrect an innocent killed in place of a traitor.
Aslan carries Lucy and Susan on his back as he hurries to Jadis 's castle. He breathes upon the stone statues in the courtyard, restoring them to life.
Meanwhile, Peter and Edmund lead the Narnians against Jadis, and Edmund is seriously wounded. Aslan arrives with the former statues as reinforcements. The Narnians rout Jadis 's supporters, and Aslan kills Jadis. Aslan breathes life into those Jadis has turned to stone on the battlefield, and Lucy uses her magic cordial to revive the wounded, starting with Edmund. The Pevensie children are crowned kings and queens of Narnia at Cair Paravel. Soon afterward, Aslan slips away and disappears.
Fifteen years later, the four rulers chase a wish - granting white stag through the forest whereupon they rediscover the lamppost. They soon find their way not through branches but coats. They come back through the wardrobe in the Professor 's house and are suddenly children again, dressed in their old clothes. Almost no time has passed in the real world, despite their many years in Narnia.
The four children consult the Professor. He forgives them the absence of the four coats they stole, and hints that theirs would prove not to be the first adventure in Narnia, nor by any means the last.
The Pevensie Siblings
Raised in London, evacuated to the Dorset countryside, and reaching adulthood in Narnia, they are the four main characters. In one chapter, Father Christmas arrives to endow those present (three Pevensies and two beavers) with a feast, weapons, and magical items. After the restoration of Narnia, a Tetrarchy is established with the four siblings as the rulers.
At the Country Home
The house that shelters the Pevensie children is run by a Professor, staffed by servants, and frequently toured by historians.
Narnians
The magical land of Narnia is populated by talking animals, mythological species, and sentient flora.
Lewis described the origin of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe in an essay titled "It All Began with a Picture '':
The Lion all began with a picture of a Faun carrying an umbrella and parcels in a snowy wood. This picture had been in my mind since I was about sixteen. Then one day, when I was about forty, I said to myself: ' Let 's try to make a story about it. '
Shortly before the Second World War many children were evacuated from London to the English countryside to escape bomber attacks on London by Nazi Germany. On 2 September 1939 three school girls, Margaret, Mary and Katherine, came to live at The Kilns in Risinghurst, Lewis 's home three miles east of Oxford city centre. Lewis later suggested that the experience gave him a new appreciation of children and in late September he began a children 's story on an odd sheet that has survived as part of another manuscript:
This book is about four children whose names were Ann, Martin, Rose and Peter. But it is most about Peter who was the youngest. They all had to go away from London suddenly because of Air Raids, and because Father, who was in the Army, had gone off to the War and Mother was doing some kind of war work. They were sent to stay with a kind of relation of Mother 's who was a very old professor who lived all by himself in the country.
The plot element of entering a new world through the back of a wardrobe had certainly entered Lewis 's mind by 1946, when he used it to describe his first encounter with really good poetry:
I did not in the least feel that I was getting in more quantity or better quality a pleasure I had already known. It was more as if a cupboard which one had hitherto valued as a place for hanging coats proved one day, when you opened the door, to lead to the garden of the Hesperides...
How much more of the story Lewis then wrote is uncertain. Roger Lancelyn Green thinks that he might even have completed it. In September 1947 Lewis wrote in a letter about stories for children: "I have tried one myself but it was, by the unanimous verdict of my friends, so bad that I destroyed it. ''
In August 1948, during a visit by an American writer, Chad Walsh, Lewis talked vaguely about completing a children 's book he had begun "in the tradition of E. Nesbit ''. After this conversation not much happened until the beginning of the next year. Then everything changed. In his essay "It All Began With a Picture '' Lewis continues: "At first I had very little idea how the story would go. But then suddenly Aslan came bounding into it. I think I had been having a good many dreams of lions about that time. Apart from that, I do n't know where the Lion came from or why he came. But once he was there, he pulled the whole story together, and soon he pulled the six other Narnian stories in after him. ''
The major ideas of the book echo lines Lewis had written fourteen years earlier in his alliterative poem The Planets:
... Of wrath ended And woes mended, of winter passed And guilt forgiven, and good fortune Jove is master; and of jocund revel, Laughter of ladies. The lion - hearted... are Jove 's children.
On 10 March 1949 Roger Lancelyn Green dined with Lewis at Magdalen College. After the meal Lewis read two chapters from his new children 's story to Green. Lewis asked Green 's opinion of the tale and Green said that he thought it was good. The manuscript of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was complete by the end of March 1949. Lucy Barfield received it by the end of May. When on 16 October 1950 Geoffrey Bles in London published the first edition, three new "chronicles '', Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader and The Horse and His Boy, had also been completed.
Lewis 's publisher, Geoffrey Bles, allowed him to choose the illustrator for the novel and the Narnia series. Lewis chose Pauline Baynes, possibly based on J.R.R. Tolkien 's recommendation. Baynes had greatly impressed Tolkien with her illustrations for his Farmer Giles of Ham (1949). However, Baynes claimed that Lewis learned about her work after going into a bookshop and asking for a recommendation for an illustrator who was skilled at portraying both humans and animals. In December 1949, Bles showed Lewis the first drawings for the novel, and Lewis sent Baynes a note congratulating her, particularly on the level of detail. Lewis 's appreciation of the illustrations is evident in a letter he wrote to Baynes after The Last Battle won the Carnegie Medal for best children 's book of 1956: "is it not rather ' our ' medal? I 'm sure the illustrations were taken into account as well as the text ''.
The British edition of the novel had 43 illustrations; American editions generally had fewer. The popular United States paperback edition published by Collier between 1970 and 1994, which sold many millions, had only 17 illustrations, many of them severely cropped from the originals, giving many readers in that country a very different experience when reading the novel. All the illustrations were restored for the 1994 worldwide HarperCollins edition, although these lacked the clarity of early printings.
Lewis very much enjoyed writing The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and embarked on the sequel Prince Caspian soon after finishing the first novel. He completed the sequel by end of 1949, less than a year after finishing the initial book. The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe had few readers during 1949 and was not published until late in 1950, so his initial enthusiasm did not stem from favourable reception by the public.
While Lewis is known today on the strength of the Narnia stories as a highly successful children 's writer, the initial critical response was muted. At the time it was fashionable for children 's stories to be realistic; fantasy and fairy tales were seen as indulgent, appropriate only for very young readers and potentially harmful to older children, even hindering their ability to relate to everyday life. Some reviewers considered the tale overtly moralistic or the Christian elements over-stated -- attempts to indoctrinate children. Others were concerned that the many violent incidents might frighten children.
Lewis 's publisher, Geoffrey Bles, feared that the Narnia tales would not sell, and might damage Lewis ' reputation and affect sales of his other books. Nevertheless, the novel and its successors were highly popular with young readers, and Lewis 's publisher was soon eager to release further Narnia stories.
In the United States a 2004 study found that The Lion was a common read - aloud book for seventh - graders in schools in San Diego County, California. In 2005 it was included on TIME 's unranked list of the 100 best English - language novels published since 1923. Based on a 2007 online poll, the U.S. National Education Association named it one of "Teachers ' Top 100 Books for Children ''. In 2012 it was ranked number five among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.
A 2012 survey by the University of Worcester determined that it was the second most common book that UK adults had read as children, after Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland. (Adults, perhaps limited to parents, ranked Alice and The Lion fifth and sixth as books the next generation should read, or their children should read during their lifetimes.)
TIME magazine included the novel in its "All - TIME 100 Novels '' (best English - language novels from 1923 to 2005). In 2003, the novel was listed at number 9 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read. It has also been published in 47 foreign languages.
Lewis wrote that "The Narnian books are not as much allegory as supposal. Suppose there were a Narnian world and it, like ours, needed redemption. What kind of incarnation and Passion might Christ be supposed to undergo there? ''
The main story is an allegory of Christ 's crucifixion: Aslan sacrifices himself for Edmund, a traitor who may deserve death, in the same way that Christians believe Jesus sacrificed himself for sinners. Aslan is killed on the Stone Table, symbolizing Mosaic Law, which breaks when he is resurrected, symbolizing the replacement of the strict justice of Old Testament law with redeeming grace and forgiveness granted on the basis of substitutional atonement, according to Christian theology. As with the Christian Passion, it is women (Susan and Lucy) who tend Aslan 's body after he dies and are the first to see him after his resurrection. The significance of the death contains elements of both the ransom theory of atonement and the satisfaction theory: Aslan suffers Edmund 's penalty (satisfaction), and buys him back from the White Witch, who was entitled to him by reason of his treachery (ransom). In Christian belief, Christ is associated with the Biblical "Lion of Judah '' of Revelation 5: 5.
Professor Kirke is based on W.T. Kirkpatrick, who tutored a 16 - year - old Lewis. "Kirk, '' as he was sometimes called, taught the young Lewis much about thinking and communicating clearly, skills that would be invaluable to him later.
Narnia is caught in endless winter that has lasted a century when the children first enter. Norse tradition mythologises a "great winter, '' known as the Fimbulwinter, said to precede Ragnarök. The trapping of Edmund by the White Witch is reminiscent of the seduction and imprisonment of Kay by The Snow Queen in Hans Christian Andersen 's novella of that name.
The dwarves and giants are found in Norse mythology; fauns, centaurs, minotaurs and dryads derive from Greek mythology. Father Christmas, of course, was part of popular English folklore.
There are several parallels between the White Witch and the immortal white queen, Ayesha, of H. Rider Haggard 's She, a novel greatly admired by C.S. Lewis.
The Story of the Amulet written by Edith Nesbit also contains scenes that can be considered precursors to sequences presenting Jadis, particularly in The Magician 's Nephew. Nesbit 's short story The Aunt and Amabel includes the motif of a girl entering a wardrobe to gain access to a magical place.
The freeing of Aslan 's body from the stone table by field mice is reminiscent of Aesop 's fable of "The Lion and the Mouse. '' In the fable, a lion catches a mouse, but the mouse persuades the lion to release him, promising that the favor would be rewarded. Later in the story, he gnaws through the lion 's bonds after he has been captured by hunters. It is also reminiscent of a scene from Edgar Allan Poe 's story "The Pit and the Pendulum, '' in which a prisoner is freed when rats gnaw through his bonds. In a later book, "Prince Caspian, '' we learn that as reward for their actions, mice gained the same intelligence and speech as other Narnian animals.
Due to labor union rules, the text of The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe was reset for the publication of the first American edition of by Macmillan US in 1950. Lewis took that opportunity to make the following changes to the original British edition published by Geoffrey Bles earlier that same year:
When HarperCollins took over publication of the series in 1994, they began using the original British edition for all subsequent English editions worldwide. The current US edition published by Scholastic has 36,135 words.
The story has been adapted three times for television. The first adaptation was a ten - part serial produced by ABC Weekend Television for ITV and broadcast in 1967. In 1979, an animated TV - movie, directed by Peanuts director Bill Meléndez, was broadcast and won the first Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program. A third television adaptation was produced in 1988 by the BBC using a combination of live actors, animatronic puppets and animation. Only this last one was the first of a series of 3 Narnia adaptations. The programme was nominated for an Emmy and won a BAFTA. It was followed by three further Narnia adaptations.
Stage adaptations include a 1984 version staged at London 's Westminster Theatre, produced by Vanessa Ford Productions. The play, adapted by Glyn Robbins, was directed by Richard Williams and designed by Marty Flood. Jules Tasca, Ted Drachman, and Thomas Tierney collaborated on a musical adaptation published in 1986.
In 1997, Trumpets Inc., a Filipino Christian theatre and musical production company, produced a musical rendition that Douglas Gresham, Lewis 's stepson (and co-producer of the Walden Media film adaptations), has openly declared that he feels is the closest to Lewis 's intention. It starred among others popular young Filipino singer Sam Concepcion as Edmund Pevensie. The book and lyrics were written by Jaime del Mundo and Luna Inocian, while music was composed by Lito Villareal.
In 1998, the Royal Shakespeare Company did an adaptation by Adrian Mitchell, for which the acting edition has been published. The Stratford Festival in Canada mounted a new production of Mitchell 's work in June 2016. (2) (3)
In 2003, there was an Australian commercial stage production which toured the country by Malcolm C. Cooke Productions, using both life - size puppets and human actors. It was directed by notable film director Nadia Tass, and starred Amanda Muggleton, Dennis Olsen, Meaghan Davies and Yolande Brown.
In 2011, a two - actor stage adaptation by Le Clanché du Rand opened Off - Broadway in New York City at St. Luke 's Theatre. The production was directed by Julia Beardsley O'Brien and starred Erin Layton and Andrew Fortman. As of 2014, the production is currently running with a replacement cast of Abigail Taylor - Sansom and Rockford Sansom.
In 2016, the Stratford Festival presented a dramatization by Adrian Mitchell, directed by Tim Carroll.
Multiple audio editions have been released, both straightforward readings and dramatizations.
In 1981, Michael Hordern read abridged versions of the classic tale (and the others in the series). In 2000, an unabridged audio book was released, narrated by Michael York. (All the books were released in audio form, read by different actors.)
In 1988, BBC Radio 4 mounted a full dramatization. In 1998, Focus on the Family Radio Theatre also adapted this story. Both the original BBC version and the Focus on the Family version have been broadcast on BBC radio. Both are the first in a series of adaptations of all seven of the Narnia books. The BBC series uses the title Tales of Narnia, while the Focus on the Family version uses the more familiar Chronicles moniker. The Focus on the Family version is also longer, with a full orchestra score, narration, a larger cast of actors, and introductions by Douglas Gresham, C.S. Lewis ' stepson.
In 2005, the story was adapted for a theatrical film, co-produced by Walt Disney and Walden Media. It has so far been followed by two more films: The Chronicles of Narnia: Prince Caspian and The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. The latter was co-produced by Twentieth - Century Fox and Walden Media.
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beethoven string quartet in c major op. 59 no. 3 | String quartet No. 9 (Beethoven) - wikipedia
The String Quartet No. 9 in C major, Op. 59, No. 3, was written by Ludwig van Beethoven and published in 1808. This work is the third of three of his "Razumovsky '' cycle of string quartets, and is a product of his "middle '' period. It consists of four movements:
The introductory andante con moto section of the first movement is not directly related to the rest of the movement and serves a similar function to the introduction of his Op. 74 quartet. Thereafter, the movement 's main thematic material is exposed and developed. The relation (or apparent lack thereof) between the slow, sombre and dissonant introduction and the bright allegro which follows, is similar to what is found in Mozart 's "Dissonance '' Quartet, also in the key of C.
The quartet 's second movement makes use of an augmented second in the descending scale first played by the first violin at the beginning of the movement. This interval, repeated through the movement, gives it an association with the Hungarian scale. Unlike the other two opus 59 quartets, this one does not have an explicit "Theme Russe '' in any of its movements. Nevertheless, it can be argued that this second movement with its sparse texture and comfortless melodies, evokes a Russian feel by bringing to mind the vast, barren and desolate landscape of the Siberian tundra.
The quartet 's third movement is a lighter menuetto which provides the motif that is subsequently turned upside down for the last movement, a fugal allegro molto that begins with the viola and adds the second violin, cello and first violin in that order. The movement is in alla breve time and is almost a perpetuum mobile in quavers. The fugue is semi-rigorous, somewhere between the fugato of Mozart 's string quartet K. 387 and the rigorous fugue of his Adagio and Fugue K. 546. About halfway into the movement, a contrasting theme is introduced, which moves in minims. The movement concludes with an enormous Mannheim crescendo, peaking at an implicit fff.
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how many seats does nassau coliseum have for hockey | Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum - wikipedia
Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum, commonly known as the Nassau Coliseum, and branded as NYCB Live: Home of the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum due to a naming rights agreement, is a multi-purpose indoor arena in Uniondale, New York, east of New York City. The Coliseum is approximately 7 miles (11 km) east of the eastern limits of the Borough of Queens of New York City and is conveniently located next to the Meadowbrook Parkway.
Opened 46 years ago in 1972, the Coliseum occupies 63 acres (25 ha) of Mitchel Field, a former Army airfield, later an Air Force base. The facility is located in the Town of Hempstead, within the Uniondale 11553 ZIP code. The Coliseum is used for sporting events, concerts, large exhibitions and shows as well as trade shows -- 44,000 square feet (4,100 m) at the main arena, 60,000 at the Expo Center. In 2015, the arena was temporarily closed for a major renovation which was completed in April 2017.
The arena is one of two homes for the New York Islanders of the National Hockey League (NHL), serving from 1972 to 2015 and again from 2018 until at least 2021, when the Belmont Park Arena is completed, and was formerly home of the New York Nets of the American Basketball Association (ABA) and National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1972 to 1977; both teams also currently play at Barclays Center in Brooklyn. In 2017, the venue became the new home of the Brooklyn Nets ' NBA G League team, the Long Island Nets.
The Coliseum originally had a capacity of 13,000 to 15,000 depending on the event, and in the early 1980s the maximum capacity was increased to around 18,000. Before closing for renovations in 2015 the Coliseum seated 16,170 for hockey, up to 18,511 for concerts and 17,686 for boxing. Those renovations resulted in drastically reduced capacities: 13,900 for hockey, 16,500 for basketball, but still 18,511 for concerts
The Coliseum was home to the New York Nets of the American Basketball Association, and later the National Basketball Association, from 1972 to 1977. The first event at the Coliseum was a Nets game against the Pittsburgh Condors on February 11, 1972.
The Nets won two ABA Championships in the Coliseum, with Hall of Famer Julius Erving headlining the team. In 1973 -- 74 the Nets defeated the Utah Stars in five games to capture their first title. The Nets then captured the final American Basketball Association Championship in 1976, defeating the Denver Nuggets in six games. Following the 1976 season the Nets joined the National Basketball Association as part of the ABA -- NBA merger. After their first season in the NBA, the Nets moved to New Jersey. The New Jersey Nets played four seasons at the Rutgers Athletic Center before completion of a new arena at the Meadowlands Sports Complex.
The Coliseum also hosted the New York Arrows and later the New York Express of the original Major Indoor Soccer League. The Arrows, which existed as a franchise from 1978 to 1984, won the first four MISL championships. The short - lived New York Express played part of the 1986 -- 87 season, ending operations before the All - Star break with financial troubles and a 3 - 23 record.
In NCAA Division I men 's college basketball, the Coliseum hosted the ECAC Metro Region Tournament organized by the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC) in 1978, 1979, 1980, and 1981. It also has hosted first - and second - round games of the NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament in 1982, 1994, and 2001.
The New York Sets of World Team Tennis played their first match at Nassau Coliseum on May 7, 1974, and won the WTT championships in 1976. The team changed its name to the New York Apples for the 1977 season, and played 12 of its 22 home matches at Madison Square Garden and the Felt Forum, repeating as champions. Prior to the 1978 season, the Apples announced that they would leave the Coliseum and play all their home matches in the Madison Square Garden complex.
The New York Raiders, intended by the fledgling World Hockey Association to be their flagship franchise, was slated to play in the new Nassau Coliseum in 1972 -- 73. However, the Nassau County government did not consider the WHA a fully professional league and wanted nothing to do with the Raiders. Nassau County retained William Shea to get an NHL team to play in the new building. The NHL responded by hastily awarding a franchise to Long Island -- the New York Islanders -- which forced the Raiders to play in Madison Square Garden, in the shadow of the New York Rangers. On October 7, 1972, the first Islanders game in Nassau Coliseum was played as the Atlanta Flames visited the Islanders. Flames forward Morris Stefaniw scored the first NHL goal in the building at 6: 56 of the first period, while Ed Westfall scored the first goal for the Islanders, as the Flames won the game 3 -- 2. The first Islanders ' home win at the arena was on October 12, 1972, where they defeated the Los Angeles Kings 3 -- 2. The Islanders ' first playoff win at the arena came on April 20, 1975, where they defeated the Pittsburgh Penguins 4 -- 2. On April 22, 1976, the Islanders earned their first playoff series victory at the arena by defeating the Buffalo Sabres 3 -- 2, and winning the series 4 -- 2.
On February 8, 1983, the arena hosted the 35th National Hockey League All - Star Game, during which Wayne Gretzky scored four goals in the third period and was honored as the game 's most valuable player.
The Islanders were 11 -- 1 in Stanley Cup Finals games at the Coliseum. Their only loss was a 1 -- 0 setback in Game 1 in 1984 to the Edmonton Oilers. Islanders fans nicknamed the arena "Fort Neverlose '' in honor of the team 's strong home record during the finals.
The Coliseum was home to the New York Saints of the National Lacrosse League from 1989 to 2003. In 2007, it was home to four of the New York Titans National Lacrosse League team 's eight home games (along with Madison Square Garden).
The Nassau Coliseum hosted minor league hockey prior to the awarding of the Islanders franchise, an event that was brought back in 2005, when the Islanders - affiliated Bridgeport Sound Tigers of the American Hockey League (AHL) played two "home '' games at the Coliseum in the absence of NHL hockey due to the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout. On April 17 -- 18, 2009, the Sound Tigers played two of their home playoff games against the Wilkes - Barre / Scranton Penguins at the Coliseum due to a scheduling conflict at the Arena at Harbor Yard in Bridgeport, Connecticut, the team 's home.
In 2000 and 2005, the Professional Bull Riders brought their Built Ford Tough Series (originally Bud Light Cup) to the Coliseum.
On February 24 -- 25, 2006, the Coliseum hosted the 44th NYSPHSAA Wrestling Championships. It was just the third time the annual event has been held on Long Island. Selling 17,755 tickets over three sessions, it broke (and still holds) the NYSPHSAA wrestling tournament attendance record.
On April 25, 2015, the final Islanders game at Nassau Coliseum was held, Game 6 of their first round playoff series against the Washington Capitals. The game was won by the Islanders 3 - 1, forcing a Game 7 in Washington. Islanders ' Nikolay Kulemin scored the final NHL game - winning goal at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum at 10: 33 of the third period, a wrist shot against Braden Holtby. The Islanders ' Cal Clutterbuck scored the final NHL goal at the Coliseum, an empty net goal that put the Islanders up 3 - 1 at 19: 07 of the 3rd period. However, the Islanders were denied entry into the second round of the playoffs as they lost Game 7 of the series to the Capitals in Washington two nights later, thus making Game 6 the final major - league sporting event held at the Coliseum.
On July 19 -- 20, 2014, the Global RallyCross Championship raced at the Nassau Coliseum parking lot.
On November 5, 2015, the Nets announced their new NBA D - League team, the Long Island Nets, would play at the renovated Coliseum starting in 2017 (the team played their first season at their parent team 's home, the Barclays Center).
On July 22, 2017, the Coliseum hosted UFC on Fox: Weidman vs. Gastelum.
In February 2018, the Coliseum hosted the New York Open, an ATP 250 men 's tennis tournament replacing the long - running Memphis Open.
The seating capacity for hockey during the life of the arena has been:
Elvis Presley performed four sold - out concerts at the Nassau Coliseum on June 22, 23 & 24, 1973. His last Coliseum appearance was on July 19, 1975. Six days following Presley 's death, a summer tour was scheduled to begin at the Coliseum on August 22, 1977. Tickets for the show have become collectors items. David Bowie performed a radio broadcast from there during his 1976 Isolar Tour, in support of the album Station to Station. A heavily circulated bootleg of the concert saw official release in 2010 as part of the Station to Station Deluxe Box Set. Queen played at the Coliseum in February 1977 during their headlining US tour. The band used footage of their performance of "Tie Your Mother Down '' in the song 's promotional film.
Led Zeppelin played three nights at the Nassau Coliseum on their 1975 North American Tour. During the second night, February 13, Ronnie Wood of the Faces and The Rolling Stones joined the band for a rousing rendition of "Communication Breakdown. '' High quality soundboard recordings of the band 's performances on February 13 and 14 have surfaced on bootlegs.
The Coliseum was one of only two venues in the United States where Pink Floyd mounted their limited run of shows for The Wall Tour. The group performed five concerts from February 24 through 28, 1980 one of which was filmed and only appeared as an underground tape. In August 1988, they recorded and filmed the Delicate Sound of Thunder over four nights at the Coliseum. They first played the venue in June 1975 on their Wish You Were Here Tour.
Live on Long Island 04 - 18 - 80 by The Marshall Tucker Band was the original lineup 's final concert and the final recording of bassist and founding member Tommy Caldwell, who died just ten days later in an automobile accident. Tommy Caldwell is pictured on the album cover. The Coliseum album was the first to feature a complete concert from the original band. However, the album was n't released until 26 years later. The band was touring in support of their album Tenth at the time, and the recording features the songs "It Takes Time '' and "Cattle Drive '' from that release as well as classics such as "Heard It in a Love Song '', "Searchin ' for a Rainbow '' and "Ca n't You See ''.
Billy Joel has a "retired number '' banner hanging from the rafters, along with those of Islander greats, to commemorate his many sold - out Coliseum shows. His "retired number '' is 69. One of Joel 's concerts from his 1982 tour at the Coliseum was recorded for a 1983 HBO concert special and VHS release, Billy Joel: Live From Long Island.
Bruce Springsteen has performed at the arena numerous times, most notably during a three - night stand in December 1980. A number of songs from these shows were part of his 1986 live album, Live / 1975 -- 85, and the show of December 31 was released in full as Nassau Coliseum, New York 1980 in 2015.
Supertramp performed at the Coliseum on their final tour with Roger Hodgson in 1983 in support of their... Famous Last Words... album. The 1986 live album Finyl Vinyl by Rainbow features a rendition of the song "Ca n't Happen Here '' which was recorded at Nassau Coliseum in 1981. The 1987 home video Cliff ' Em All features a rendition of the song "Master of Puppets '' by Metallica, filmed at Nassau Coliseum on April 28, 1986 (while the band was opening a show for Ozzy Osbourne).
Both The Grateful Dead and Phish frequently played the Coliseum, concerts yielding live albums in both cases: Go to Nassau by the Dead; and three installments of the Live Phish Series -- 4 - 2 - 98, 4 - 3 - 98 and 2 - 28 - 03. Genesis ' performance at the Coliseum on November 29, 1981 (during the band 's Abacab Tour) was recorded and filmed for the band 's Three Sides Live album and concert video plus radio broadcast. Frank Zappa played his final U.S. show on March 25, 1988 at the Coliseum. He was joined onstage by his son, Dweezil Zappa, for the concert 's encores. Pink Floyd performed between August 19 and 23, 1988, on their A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour. In March 1990, the country supergroup The Highwaymen performed at the Coliseum. Their performance was recorded and was released on VHS in 1991. On June 11, 12 and 13, 1990, Madonna performed three sold - out shows at Nassau Coliseum on her Blond Ambition World Tour. The inside sleeve to Morrissey 's 1992 album Your Arsenal was shot at a performance at the Coliseum on November 11, 1991.
The arena has hosted WWE Raw and Smackdown events many times and has been a mainstay of WWE for over 30 years. On August 25, 2002, SummerSlam was hosted at the Coliseum. The April 10, 2017 edition of Raw was WWE 's first event at the Coliseum following the renovations. In October 2018, the Coliseum will host Evolution, the promotion 's first all - women 's pay - per - view event.
The Coliseum also hosted the opening leg of Wrestlemania 2 held on April 7, 1986. As part of an ambitious plan to have Wrestlemania from three separate venues (also used were the Rosemont Horizon in Chicago and the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena), 16,585 fans saw 4 live matches at the Coliseum with the rest of the event shown to the audience by closed - circuit television. The main event at the Nassau leg was actually a boxing match between Rowdy Roddy Piper and tough - guy actor Mr. T.
Scenes for the 2007 movie Music and Lyrics starring Hugh Grant and Drew Barrymore were filmed at the arena.
The Coliseum was the second - oldest arena in active use by a National Hockey League team (after nearby Madison Square Garden), and until the return of the Winnipeg Jets to the league at the 15,004 seat MTS Centre in Winnipeg, was the smallest arena in the NHL by total seating capacity. The arena had been considered obsolete for many years, and various Islanders owners tried to replace it.
Team and county officials announced in 2004 a plan called The Lighthouse Project to renovate the Coliseum. The project 's centerpiece was a 60 - story tower that would look like a lighthouse. Other plans included new housing, athletic facilities, a minor league baseball stadium, restaurants, and a hotel. The project would also add trees, water and other natural elements to the area.
On August 14, 2007, Islanders owner Charles Wang and the Lighthouse Development Group partnered with Rexcorp to create a new plan. The 60 - story "lighthouse '' evolved into two 31 - story buildings connected by a footbridge at the top. The project was transformed from a simple renovation of the Coliseum property into a 150 - acre (0.61 km) transformation of surrounding properties. Plans called for more 2,000 residential units (20 % affordable housing), a hotel, a convention center, a sports technology center, 500,000 square feet (46,000 m) of retail space, and a sports complex next to the renovated Coliseum. The overall project was slated to cost roughly $3.75 billion.
Construction was not planned to begin until at least mid-2009. Nassau County approved the Lighthouse Project in 2006 on a 16 -- 2 vote, and the Draft Environmental Impact Statement was completed after a state - mandated environmental review. The Lighthouse Project was then expected to go before the Town of Hempstead for approval on a change in land zoning. However, the approval was never granted. After the October 2009 deadline passed, the Long Island Press reported the Lighthouse Project 's cancellation. Wang has denied the report.
In May 2010, Mets COO Jeff Wilpon had discussions with Wang about constructing an arena for the Islanders near Citi Field. Wilpon has also discussed buying the Islanders. In June 2010, the FanHouse website reported Jeff and Fred Wilpon, the owner of the Mets, began working with real estate firm Jones Lang LaSalle (who also worked on Madison Square Garden 's latest renovation) on a feasibility study of a new Islanders arena in Queens. However, a source from Newsday indicated the FanHouse report was not true. There were also reports businessman Nelson Peltz wanted to buy the Islanders and move them to the Barclays Center in Brooklyn.
On July 12, 2010, Town Supervisor Kate Murray (R - Hempstead) announced an "alternate zone '' for the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum property that downsized the Lighthouse Project to half its proposed size and made the project, according to Nassau County Executive Edward Mangano and the developers, "economically unviable for both the developer and owner of the site. '' As a result, Wang, Mangano and the developers decided they would no longer pursue the project.
On May 11, 2011, the Islanders and Nassau County executives announced that county residents would vote on a referendum for approval of a $400 million public bond issue for a new plan to replace the Coliseum. The plan, including the construction of a new $350 million arena as well as a $50 million minor league baseball ballpark nearby, was presented by Wang as a last - ditch effort to keep the Islanders on Long Island. However, voters in Nassau County rejected a proposal by a 57 % to 43 % margin on August 1, 2011.
On October 24, 2012, the Islanders announced the team would move to the Barclays Center in Brooklyn after their lease expired at the end of the 2014 -- 2015 season. The Islanders played their final game at the Coliseum on April 25, 2015, beating the Washington Capitals 3 - 1 in game 6 of the first round of the playoffs against the Washington Capitals forcing a Game 7, held in and won by Washington, ending the Isles ' run at the Coliseum; in Game 6 Cal Clutterbuck of the Islanders scored the final NHL goal in the building, an empty netter at 19: 07 of the third period.
Not long after the Islanders announced their move to Brooklyn, Forest City Enterprises, the owner of Barclays Center, was chosen to perform a study on development possibilities for the Nassau Coliseum site. A request for proposal was issued as a result of this study to transform the arena into a smaller sized venue and its surrounding parking lot into an entertainment hub with theaters, sports bars, and retail.
Four competing proposals were submitted in May 2013, and Nassau County Executive Edward Mangano selected two finalists in July 2013, including one from a group led by Forest City Ratner. Ratner 's proposal called for a reduction of the Coliseum 's capacity to 13,000 seats and a revamp of the arena 's interior and concrete facade designed by SHoP Architects, the firm which designed the Barclays Center, which would cost the group approximately $89 million. As part of his bid, the Islanders would play 6 games per season in the arena, the Brooklyn Nets would play one exhibition game, and a minor league hockey team would call the arena home.
On August 15, 2013, Nassau County announced Forest City had won the bid for the renovation of the Nassau Coliseum and the surrounding property, pending approval from the Nassau legislature and zoning changes from the Hempstead town government. The Nassau legislature unanimously approved the bid on September 24, 2013.
Billy Joel performed the arena 's final pre-renovation concert on August 4, 2015.
On April 5, 2017, a Billy Joel concert was the arena 's first post-renovation event. Other acts that will perform during the new Coliseum 's opening week include Stevie Nicks, The Pretenders, Idina Menzel, Lionel Richie, Mariah Carey, and Marc Anthony. Bruno Mars and New Kids on the Block have also been announced.
On November 4, 2016, it was announced that Brooklyn Sports & Entertainment had reached a naming rights deal with New York Community Bank. The deal with the county mandates the inclusion of "Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum '' in the arena 's name. The cost of the naming rights and the agreement 's length were not disclosed.
On January 14, 2017, it was announced the closing Ringling Bros. Barnum & Bailey Circus would perform their last show at the renovated Nassau Coliseum on May 21, 2017.
On June 15, 2017, the New York Islanders announced that they would play a preseason game against the Philadelphia Flyers on September 17, 2017, which would be their first appearance at the Coliseum in nearly two years.
In late January 2017, Bloomberg News reported via internal sources that Barclays Center was considering dropping the Islanders due to poor attendance and their effects on the venue 's profits. The venue has received a poor reception as a hockey arena due to poor sight lines and ice conditions, as Barclays was primarily designed as a basketball arena. Newsday reported that Nassau County executive Edward Mangano had met with Ledecky, and he told the paper the Islanders could return to the renovated Nassau Coliseum. These reports were further elaborated by Long Island Association president Kevin Law in April 2017, who stated that Brooklyn Sports & Entertainment (who manages both venues) was preparing to offer a relocation plan to the team. Law felt that the alternate option of seeking a new arena in Belmont Park was redundant to the renovated Coliseum. The Islanders played a preseason game at the renovated Coliseum on September 17, 2017. The Islanders ' lease of Barclays Center is up for renegotiation, and the parties have until January 31, 2018, to opt - out of their current 25 - year lease.
The renovation project reduced the capacity of the arena to 13,000, a level which was believed to be unsustainable for an NHL team; in comparison, the Islanders ' average attendance at Barclays is 12,059, the lowest in the NHL (Barclays Center is the second - smallest arena in the NHL based on seating capacity, with 15,795 -- which is around 400 seats fewer than the Coliseum pre-renovation). As such, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman felt that returning was n't a "viable option '' for the Islanders, but noted that the team was "in the process of evaluating what makes the most sense for the franchise and particularly for their fans. ''
In December 2017, New York Arena Partners (a venture of the Islanders, Oak View Group, and Sterling Equities) won a bid to construct a new, 18,000 - seat arena and mixed - used district at Belmont Park, beating a competing proposal by New York City FC for a new soccer stadium. The new arena is projected to be completed in time for the 2021 - 22 season.
In January 2018, Islanders owner Jon Ledecky revealed on WFAN 's Boomer and Gio that he had toured the renovated Coliseum with Bettman and other senior NHL officials. They assessed that the Islanders could play a limited schedule of home games at the Coliseum, but that it would n't be sustainable as a full - time venue because of its capacity and diminished amenities over other newly - built arenas, such as an insufficient number of corporate suites. On January 23, 2018, it was reported that Barclays Center was pushing for a short - term lease under which the Islanders would split their home games between Barclays Center and the Nassau Coliseum until the Belmont Park arena is completed, with the number of games at the Coliseum steadily increasing for each year of the arrangement.
On June 21, 2018, the Islanders announced that they would play half their home schedule at the Coliseum until Belmont Park Arena is completed.
Inside the Coliseum during a hockey game
Westbound on Charles Lindbergh Blvd towards the Nassau Coliseum
Inside the Coliseum during a hockey game
Corner view of the Coliseum
Outside view of the Coliseum next to flagpoles
The New York Islanders ' retired numbers and other banners raised inside the Coliseum
Coliseum before an Islanders game
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which of the following would count for more coup | Counting coup - wikipedia
Counting coup was the winning of prestige against an enemy by the Plains Indians of North America. Warriors won prestige by acts of bravery in the face of the enemy, which could be recorded in various ways and retold as stories. Any blow struck against the enemy counted as a coup, but the most prestigious acts included touching an enemy warrior with the hand, bow, or coup stick and escaping unharmed. Touching the first enemy to die in battle or touching the enemy 's defensive works also counted as coup. Counting coup could also involve stealing an enemy 's weapons or horses tied up to his lodge in camp. Risk of injury or death was required to count coup.
Escaping unharmed while counting coup was considered a higher honor than being wounded in the attempt. A warrior who won coup was permitted to wear an eagle feather in his hair. If he had been wounded in the attempt, however, he was required to paint the feather red to indicate this.
After a battle or exploit, the people of a tribe would gather together to recount their acts of bravery and "count coup. '' Coups were recorded by putting notches in a coup stick. Indians of the Pacific Northwest would tie an eagle feather to their coup stick for each coup counted, but many tribes did not do so. Among the Blackfoot tribe of the upper Missouri River Valley, coup could be recorded by the placement of "coup bars '' on the sleeves and shoulders of special shirts that bore paintings of the warrior 's exploits in battle. Many shirts of this sort have survived to the present, including some in European museums.
Joe Medicine Crow (1913 - 2016) is credited with achieving the feat while serving with the US Army during World War II, as on one occasion he overpowered and disarmed a German soldier, and later stole horses from an SS unit.
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when is rise of the teenage mutant ninja turtles coming out | Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles - wikipedia
Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles is an upcoming American 2D - animated action - comedy science fiction television series. It is based on the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise, originally created by Kevin Eastman and Peter Laird, and is set to debut in September 2018. The series was announced by Nickelodeon in a press release on March 2, 2017 and is initially scheduled to run for at least 26 episodes. This re-imagined series will have the Turtles go on new adventures as they seek to unlock the mystical secrets of New York City.
Deep in the sewers of New York City, Raphael, Leonardo, Donatello, and Michelangelo are four mutant turtle brothers who go on new adventures where they end up "tapping into mystic ninja powers they never knew existed '', while "learning '' to work together as a team and navigate the perils of the modern age and hidden realms in order to fulfill their destiny to become a team of heroes ".
On March 2, 2017, Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles was announced as a re-imagining of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise. Cyma Zarghami, President of the Nickelodeon Group, stated in a press release:
"The Turtles is a property that has reinvention in its DNA, which keeps it fresh and relevant to every new generation while satisfying the demand from its adult fans. ' Turtles ' has been an incredibly important franchise for us since we reignited it five years ago, and we 're excited for the new series to take the characters in a different direction with more humor, a younger and lighter feel and all - new dimensions to explore. ''
The series logotype was revealed to public in mid-October 2017. On November 2, 2017, Nickelodeon announced the official voice actor cast for the main characters on the turtles ' side. In addition to these news, voice actor Rob Paulsen, who previously voiced Raphael in the 1987 -- 1996 TV series as well as Donatello in the 2012 -- 2017 TV series, will now serve as the voice director for this TV series. John Cena was later cast as the villain Baron Draxum. Besides voice directing, Rob Paulsen will also be providing voice work alongside fellow voice actor and co-star Maurice LaMarche.
On February 1, 2018, major main - characters art designs were announced and revealed by Nickelodeon. This occurred during a Facebook event, which was broadcast live that day.
On March 23, 2018, the first trailer for the series was released by Nickelodeon.
In mid-May 2018, it was announced that each episode will consist of two 11 - minute carts. Each of them will tell self - contained, standalone stories with hints of a larger plot.
In April 2018, it was announced that IDW would publish a comic based on the series, beginning in July 2018.
On February 16, 2018, the first toys based on the series were presented during the New York City Toy Fair. The first Rise of the Teenage Muant Ninja Turtles toys are expected to be released on October 1, 2018.
In the months leading up to the series ' launch, Viacom and Nintendo collaborated to market Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles via a special limited - time online multiplayer event for the 2017 video game Splatoon 2, in which Inklings can participate in a Splatfest tournament, battling over which of the four brothers is the best.
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what language is used in the lord of the rings | Languages constructed by J.R.R. Tolkien - wikipedia
The philologist and author J.R.R. Tolkien created a number of constructed languages. Inventing languages (called glossopoeia by Tolkien, from Greek γλώσσα glôssa, "language, tongue '' and ποιῶ poiô, "to make '' paralleling his idea of mythopoeia or myth - making) was a lifelong occupation for Tolkien, starting in his teens. An early project of Tolkien was the reconstruction of an unrecorded early Germanic language which might have been spoken by the people of Beowulf in the Germanic heroic age.
The most - developed project of Tolkien was his Elvish languages. He first started constructing an Elvin tongue in c. 1910 -- 1911 while he was at the King Edward 's School, Birmingham. He later called it Quenya (c. 1915), and he continued actively developing the history and grammar of his Elvish languages until his death in 1973.
In 1931, he held a lecture about his passion for constructed languages, titled A Secret Vice. Here he contrasts his project of artistic languages constructed for aesthetic pleasure with the pragmatism of international auxiliary languages. The lecture also discusses Tolkien 's views on phonaesthetics, citing Greek, Finnish, and Welsh as examples of "languages which have a very characteristic and in their different ways beautiful word - form ''.
Tolkien 's glossopoeia has two temporal dimensions: the internal (fictional) timeline of events described in the Silmarillion and other writings, and the external timeline of Tolkien 's own life during which he often revised and refined his languages and their fictional history.
Tolkien was a professional philologist of ancient Germanic languages, specialising in Old English. He was also interested in many languages outside his field, and developed a particular love for the Finnish language. He described the finding of a Finnish grammar book as "entering a complete wine - cellar filled with bottles of an amazing wine of a kind and flavour never tasted before ''.
Glossopoeia was Tolkien 's hobby for most of his life. At a little over 13, he helped construct a sound substitution cypher known as Nevbosh, ' new nonsense ', which grew to include some elements of actual invented language. Notably, Tolkien claimed that this was not his first effort in invented languages. Shortly thereafter, he developed a true invented language called Naffarin which contained elements that would survive into his later languages, which he continued to work on until his death more than 65 years later. Language invention had always been tightly connected to the mythology that Tolkien developed, as he found that a language could not be complete without the history of the people who spoke it, just as these people could never be fully realistic if imagined only through English and as speaking English. Tolkien therefore took the stance of a translator and adaptor rather than that of the original author of his works.
Tolkien was of the opinion that the invention of an artistic language in order to be convincing and pleasing must include not only the language 's historical development, but also the history of its speakers, and especially the mythology associated with both the language and the speakers. It was this idea that an "Elvish language '' must be associated with a complex history and mythology of the Elves that was at the core of the development of Tolkien 's legendarium.
Tolkien wrote in one of his letters: "what I think is a primary ' fact ' about my work, that it is all of a piece, and fundamentally linguistic in inspiration... It is not a ' hobby ', in the sense of something quite different from one 's work, taken up as a relief - outlet. The invention of languages is the foundation. The ' stories ' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows. I should have preferred to write in ' Elvish '. But, of course, such a work as The Lord of the Rings has been edited and only as much ' language ' has been left in as I thought would be stomached by readers. (I now find that many would have liked more.)... It is to me, anyway, largely an essay in ' linguistic aesthetic ', as I sometimes say to people who ask me ' what is it all about '. ''
While the Elvish languages remained at the center of Tolkien 's attention, the requirements of the narratives associated with Middle - earth also necessitated the development at least superficially of the languages of other races, especially of Dwarves and Men, but also the Black Speech designed by Sauron, the main antagonist in The Lord of the Rings. This latter language was designed to be the ostensible antithesis of the ideal of an artistic language pursued with the development of Quenya, the Black Speech representing a dystopian parody of an international auxiliary language just as Sauron 's rule over the Orcs is a dystopian parody of a totalitarian state.
The Elvish language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto - language. The family was constructed from c. 1910. Tolkien worked on it up to his death in 1973. He constructed the grammar and vocabulary of at least fifteen languages and dialects in roughly periods:
Although the Elvish languages Sindarin and Quenya are the most famous and the most developed of the languages that Tolkien invented for his Secondary World, they are by no means the only ones. They belong to a family of Elvish languages, that originate in Common Eldarin, the language common to all Eldar, which in turn originates in Primitive Quendian, the common root of Eldarin and Avarin languages.
Finnish morphology (particularly its rich system of inflection) in part gave rise to Quenya. Another of Tolkien 's favourites was Welsh, and features of Welsh phonology found their way into Sindarin. Very few words were borrowed from existing languages, so that attempts to match a source to a particular Elvish word or name in works published during his lifetime are often very dubious.
Tolkien had worked out much of the etymological background of his Elvish languages during the 1930s (collected in the form of The Etymologies). In 1937, he wrote the Lhammas, a linguistic treatise addressing the relationship of not just the Elvish languages, but of all languages spoken in Middle - earth during the First Age. The text purports to be a translation of an Elvish work, written by one Pengolodh, whose historical works are presented as being the main source of the narratives in the Silmarillion concerning the First Age.
The Lhammas exists in two versions, the shorter one being called the Lammasathen. The main linguistic thesis in this text is that the languages of Middle - earth are all descended from the language of the Valar (the "gods ''), Valarin, and divided into three branches:
Tolkien later revised this internal history to the effect that the Elves had been capable of inventing language on their own, before coming into contact with Valarin (see Primitive Quendian).
When working on The Lord of the Rings during the 1940s, Tolkien invested great effort into detailing the linguistics of Middle - earth.
As The Lord of the Rings was intended to represent as a sequel to The Hobbit, which had not originally been intended to form part of the legendarium and used Old Norse names for the Dwarves, Tolkien came up with a literary device of real languages "translating '' fictional languages. This meant that a considerable number of additional constructed languages were envisaged, but none of them became as well developed as the family of Elvish languages. In the Lord of the Rings, Tolkien adopted the literary device of claiming to have translated the original Sôval Phârë speech (or Westron as he called it) into English. This device of rendering an imaginary language with a real one was carried further:
thus mapping the genetic relation of his fictional languages on the existing historical relations of the Germanic languages. Furthermore, to parallel the Celtic substratum in England, he used Old Welsh names to render the Dunlendish names of Buckland Hobbits (e.g., Meriadoc for Kalimac).
In addition to that, there is a separate language family that is spoken by Men, the most prominent member of which was Westron (derived from the Númenórean speech Adûnaic), the "Common speech '' of the peoples of The Lord of the Rings. Most Mannish tongues showed influences by Elvish, as well as some Dwarvish influences. Several independent languages were drafted as well, an example being Khuzdul, the language of the Dwarves. Other languages are Valarin (the tongue of the Valar), and the Black Speech created by Sauron in the Second Age.
Because of the device Modern English representing Westron, there was no necessity to actually work out the details of Westron grammar or vocabulary in any detail, but Tolkien does give some examples of Westron words in Appendix F to The Lord of the Rings, where he also summarizes its origin and role as lingua franca in Middle - earth:
Other "Mannish '' languages envisaged for the setting of The Lord of the Rings, but barely developed in terms of grammar or vocabulary, include Haladin, Dunlendish, Drûg, Haradrim, and Easterling.
Some samples of the language of the Dwarves, called Khuzdul, are also found in The Lord of the Rings. The situation here is a little different from the "Mannish '' languages: As Khuzdul was kept secret by the Dwarves and never used in the presence of outsiders (not even Dwarvish given names), it was not "translated '' by any real - life historical language, and such limited examples as there are in the text are given in the "original ''. Khuzdul was designed to have a "Semitic '' affinity, with a system of triconsonantal roots and other parallels especially to Hebrew, just as some aspects of the Dwarves and the Jews are intentional.
Tolkien devised Adûnaic (or Númenórean), the language spoken in Númenór, shortly after World War II, and thus at about the time he completed The Lord of the Rings, but before he wrote the linguistic background information of the Appendices. Adûnaic is intended as the language from which Westron (also called Adûni) is derived. This added a depth of historical development to the Mannish languages. Adûnaic was intended to have a "faintly Semitic flavour ''. Its development began with The Notion Club Papers (written in 1945). It is there that the most extensive sample of the language is found, revealed to one of the (modern - day) protagonists, Lowdham, of that story in a visionary dream of Atlantis. Its grammar is sketched in the unfinished "Lowdham 's Report on the Adunaic Language ''.
Tolkien remained undecided whether the language of the Men of Númenór should be derived from the original Mannish language (as in Adûnaic), or if it should be derived from "the Elvish Noldorin '' (i.e. Sindarin) instead. In The Lost Road and Other Writings it is implied that the Númenóreans spoke Quenya, and that Sauron, hating all things Elvish, taught the Númenóreans the old Mannish tongue they themselves had forgotten.
Being a skilled penman, Tolkien not only invented many languages but also scripts. Some of his scripts were designed for use with his constructed languages, others for more practical ends: to be used in his personal diary, and one especially for English, the New English Alphabet.
The following is a list of scripts in chronological order:
The first published monograph dedicated to the Elvish languages was An Introduction to Elvish (1978) edited by Jim Allan (published by Bran 's Head Books). It is composed of articles written before the publication of The Silmarillion.
With the publication of much linguistic material during the 1990s, especially in the History of Middle - earth series, and the Vinyar Tengwar and Parma Eldalamberon material published at an increasing rate during the early 2000s from the stock of linguistic material in the possession of the appointed team of editors (some 3000 pages according to them), the subject of Tolkien 's constructed languages has become much more accessible.
David Salo wrote A Gateway to Sindarin: A Grammar of an Elvish Language from J.R.R. Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings (University of Utah Press, 2007). Elizabeth Solopova, Languages, Myth and History: An Introduction to the Linguistic and Literary Background of J.R.R. Tolkien 's Fiction (New York City: North Landing Books, 2009) gives an overview of the linguistic traits of the various languages invented by Tolkien and the history of their creation.
A few fanzines were dedicated to the subject, like Tyalië Tyelelliéva published by Lisa Star, and Quettar, the Bulletin of the Linguistic Fellowship of The Tolkien Society, published by Julian C. Bradfield. Tengwestië is an online publication of the Elvish Linguistic Fellowship.
Internet mailing lists and forums dedicated to Tolkien 's constructed languages include Tolklang, Elfling and Lambengolmor.
Since 2005, there has been an International Conference on J.R.R. Tolkien 's Invented Languages, part of a series of biennial conferences at changing locations. They are open to everyone with a serious interest in Tolkien 's invented languages. Attendees are encouraged to prepare, bring, and deliver a paper on any aspect of Tolkien 's languages. At a past conference, held in Valencia in 2011, Helge K. Fauskanger presented a piece on Tolkien 's use of mor as a syllable to denote evil.
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what is the difference between formula 1 2 and 3 | Formula racing - wikipedia
Formula racing is any of several forms of open - wheeled single - seater motorsport. The origin of the term lies in the nomenclature that was adopted by the FIA for all of its post-World War II single - seater regulations, or formulae. The best known of these formulae are Formula One, Two, Three and Four. Common usage of "formula racing '' encompasses other single - seater series, including the GP2 Series, which replaced Formula 3000 (which had itself been the effective replacement for Formula Two).
Categories such as Formula Three and FIA Formula 2 Championship are described as feeder formulae, which refers to their position below Formula One on the career ladder of single - seater motor racing. There are two primary forms of racing formula: the open formula that allows a choice of chassis or engines and the control or "spec '' formula that relies on a single supplier for chassis and engines. Formula Three is an example of an open formula, while Formula BMW is a control formula. There are also some exceptions on these two forms like Formula Ford where there is an open chassis formula but a restricted single brand engine formula.
In the process of reviving Grand Prix racing after the end of World War II, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile 's Commission Sportive Internationale was responsible for defining the standardised regulations of Formula One (F1) in 1946. The first race to be run to the early Formula One regulations was a non-championship Grand Prix in Turin in September 1946. The first officially recognised Formula One season was held in 1947 and the World Championship for Drivers was inaugurated in 1950. This was the first example of formula racing.
Formula E is the highest class of competition for single - seat, electrically powered racing cars, which held its inaugural season in 2014 -- 15. Conceived in 2012, the championship was intended by the FIA to serve as an R&D platform for the electric vehicle and promote interest in EVs and sustainability. The series races predominately on temporary circuits in cities such as New York, Hong Kong, Zürich, Berlin, Rome, and Paris in events known as "ePrix ''. In order to cap costs but maintain technological development, the series uses a spec chassis and battery that must be used by all entrants, with competing teams permitted to design and build their own motors, inverter and rear suspension. The series has gained significant traction in recent years.
The FIA Formula 2 Championship was introduced in 2017 by Bernie Ecclestone and Flavio Briatore following the rebranding of the long - term F1 feeder series -- GP2 Series. Designed to make racing affordable and to make it the perfect training ground for life in F1, F2 has made it mandatory for all of the teams to use the same chassis, engine and tyre supplier.
In 2003, the most senior Formula Renault was the Formula Renault V6 Eurocup, which supported the ETCC and FIA GT 's "Super Racing Weekends ''. After just two seasons Renault merged the series with the World Series by Nissan to form the World Series by Renault (WSR), which supported the Formula One Grand Prix. This series includes Formula Renault 3.5, Formula Renault 2.0, and Formula Renault 1.6.
The GP3 Series was launched by Bruno Michel in 2010 as a feeder series for GP2. So far, nine drivers have competed in Formula One after GP3 -- 2010 champion Esteban Gutiérrez, 2011 champion Valtteri Bottas, 2013 champion Daniil Kvyat, Jean - Éric Vergne, Roberto Merhi, Esteban Ocon, Alexander Rossi, Carlos Sainz Jr. and Rio Haryanto.
Formula Three has a long history, with at least ten active championships around the world. It was created by the FIA in 1950 as the low cost entry point to single - seater formula racing. In 1959, it was replaced by a technically similar formula called Formula Junior, before Formula Three was reintroduced in 1964. Like the other FIA - derived formulae, F3 is an open class that permits a choice of chassis and engines. Notable championships include the FIA European Formula Three Championship, the British Formula Three Championship, and the All - Japan Formula Three Championship.
FIA Formula 4, also called FIA F4, is an open - wheel racing car category intended for junior drivers. There is no global championship, but rather individual nations or regions can host their own championships in compliance with a universal set of rules and specifications. The category was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) -- the International sanctioning and administrative body for motorsport -- as an entry - level category for young drivers, bridging the gap between karting and Formula 3. The series is a part of the FIA Global Pathway.
The Verizon IndyCar Series is the premier level of American open wheel racing. The series, founded by Indianapolis Motor Speedway owner Tony George, began in 1996 as the "Indy Racing League '' (IRL). In 2008, the series merged with the rival Champ Car World Series, formerly known as CART, to form the IndyCar Series. The IndyCar Series is not an open formula. The league specifies the chassis, engine and tyre manufacturers, which are changed every three years. Currently, all teams run on Dallara chassis and Firestone tires and they can choose between a Honda and a Chevrolet engine. A typical IndyCar season usually contains a mixture of natural - terrain road courses, temporary street circuits, and short & high - speed ovals; including the historic Indianapolis 500.
The current Indy Lights presented by Cooper Tires is the feeder series for the IndyCar Series, similar to F1 's relationship with GP2. The original Indy Lights (known as "American Racing Series '') acted as a developmental circuit for CART from 1986 to 2001. In 2001, the Toyota Atlantic series was equally effective in providing new drivers, so CART cancelled the Indy Lights. The current series was founded in 2002 by the Indy Racing League. It initially struggled to attract drivers and some races had fewer than ten entrants. However, with the introduction of road courses in 2005 and a boost in prize money in 2006, drivers like Marco Andretti and Phil Giebler were attracted to compete in the Indy Lights championships part - time, expanding the field to twenty or more cars in every race in 2007. As the spec car (a Dallara with a Nissan VRH35 engine) had been used since INDYCAR established the series in 2002, the number of drivers has decreased again with just nine drivers competing the entire season and so far eight other drivers running three or less races. A new Dallara IL - 15 with an Advanced Engine Research 2 - litre turbocharged 4 - cylinder engine will be the specification starting in 2015.
The Pro Mazda Championship presented by Cooper Tires has been a racing driver development series since 2011, when it became governed by Indy Racing League, although the original series started in 1991 as the Star Mazda Championship. Drivers currently use Formula Mazda cars built by Star Race Cars with a 250 hp Mazda ' Renesis ' rotary engine and Cooper tyres.
Cooper Tires presents the U.S. F2000 National Championship powered by Mazda is an American variation of the Formula Ford. The series was initially founded by Dan Andersen and Mike Foschi in 1990 and regularly fielded over 60 entries per race. In 2001, the series was sold to Jon Baytos who introduced a number of controversial rule changes that brought the series out of alignment with similar SCCA classes, which led to a reduction in participation and the end of the series in 2006. In 2010, the series returned under the leadership of Andersen with the intent to return F2000 to its status as a feeder formula for higher open wheel racing classes in the United States.
The Super Formula, a.k.a. Formula Nippon, is the premier level of Japanese formula racing. It began as the Japanese Formula 2000 series in 1973 and continued to use Formula Two regulations after European Formula Two had ended in 1984. In 1987 the series switched to the Formula 3000 standard, so that Japanese and European regulations paralleled one another again. However, in 1996, the International Formula 3000 series became a one - make format to reduce costs and the Japanese Formula broke away, changing the series ' name to Formula Nippon. Until recently, Formula Nippon was an open formula -- chassis were supplied by Lola, Reynard and G - Force, while Mugen - Honda supplied most engines. However, in 2001 / 02 G - Force and Reynard withdrew and the series once again followed F3000 's lead in becoming a one - make series. In 2006, the regulations were changed drastically -- the chassis was replaced and the engines provided by Toyota and Honda had the same specifications as the engines used in the 2005 IndyCar Series.
See: Formula Three
The Formula Challenge Japan (FCJ) is promoted as a young driver development project jointly by Honda, Toyota and Nissan. It replaced the Formula Dream. The first season was in 2006 and carried on from the defunct Formula Dream series. Each participant needs to be younger than 26 years old and possess a National A racing license, but not having raced in Formula Three or above. The cars run on a Tatuus chassis, Dunlop and a 200 hp 2.0 L engine, similar to that of a Formula Renault 2.0 car. As of 2009, the series supports the Formula Nippon. In 2015, the series will be replaced with Japan Formula 4.
Formula series from the 21st century that could be categorised between Tier 1 and Tier 5 (see top of page), but are now defunct, are described below.
The Formula Two regulations were first defined in 1947 as a form of B - class below Formula One. It was not unusual for some Formula One events to include a number of F2 entries in the same field and the entries in the World Championship seasons of 1952 -- 53 comprised exclusively F2 cars for reasons of cost. F2 had a patchy history until the inauguration of the European Formula Two Championship in 1967. F2 was an open formula that allowed the use of any chassis that met the prescribed regulations; it was well supported during the 1970s, with chassis from Tecno, March Engineering, Toleman, Ralt, Matra and others. The European championship ran continually until the creation of its successor, Formula 3000, in 1985. In 2008 it was announced by the FIA that Formula Two would return in 2009 in the form of the FIA Formula Two Championship. This series was discontinued after the 2012 season.
The Formula 3000 was created by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile in 1985 to become the final step for drivers before entering Formula One. Formula Two had become too expensive and was dominated by works - run cars with factory engines. Formula 3000 offered quicker, cheaper, more open racing. The series began as an open formula, but in 1986 tyres were standardized, followed by engines and chassis in 1996. The series ran until 2004 and was replaced in 2005 by the GP2 Series.
International Formula Master, a.k.a. Formula Super 2000, was conceived as a competitor for Formula Three. It started in 2005 as the 3000 Pro Series, organised by Peroni Promotion. MTC Organisation took over in 2006 and turned it into a support series for the WTCC. Drivers used second - hand Formula 2000 cars made by Tatuus that were powered by a 250 hp Honda K20A engine.
A1 Grand Prix (A1GP) was unique in its field in that competitors solely represented their nation as opposed to themselves or a team, the usual format in most formula racing series. As such, it was often promoted as the "World Cup of Motorsport ''. Also, the series attracted equal numbers of (former or future) Formula One drivers and IndyCar Series drivers. The concept was founded by Sheikh Al Maktoum of Dubai in 2004, but sold to the FIA in 2005. The races were held in the traditional Formula One off - season, the northern hemisphere winter. Between 2005 and 2009 29 countries from five continents participated.
Using 750 hp V12 engines, Superleague Formula introduced team sponsorship by association football clubs. In qualifying, the link with football was also present as the series employed a system based on a group stage to knock - out format used in some football tournaments. Another unique feature of Superleague Formula was the Super Final, a five lap shootout between the six best drivers of a weekend. In 2010, the series offered the biggest prize fund in European motorsport with the champion set to earn € 1 million. In theory, it would be possible for a driver to earn up to € 2.2 million over the course of the season. This was all done to give drivers a chance to earn a living from motorsport. By 2011, the link with football was fading with more than half the teams no longer associated with football teams, The later races of the season did not take place, and no further seasons were organised.
See: Formula Challenge Japan
Formula Asia V6 (Renault) was launched in 2006 to give Southeast Asian - based drivers a chance to progress from karting through junior single seaters to international motorsport. Karun Chandhok, for example, won the 2006 championship and was rewarded with a test in a World Series by Renault car at Paul Ricard. Drivers ran with Tatuus chassis, a Renault 3.5 L V6 engine and Michelin tyres.
The Auto GP World Series ' roots can be traced back to 1999 and the Italian Formula 3000 series. At first, nearly all races were held in Italy, but the series expanded throughout Europe quickly. In 2001 the series became European Formula 3000 and in 2004 Superfund became the title sponsor, planning to set up the Formula Superfund series. However, the funding was pulled and the series was cancelled. Therefore, Coloni Motorsport re-established the Italian Formula 3000 and expanded this in 2006 to the Euroseries 3000. In 2010, the first - generation A1 Grand Prix cars replaced the Lola F3000 chassis and the Auto GP name was adopted.
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which of the following structures is not a part of the epidermis of a leaf | Epidermis (botany) - wikipedia
The epidermis (from the Greek ἐπιδερμίς, meaning "over-skin '') is a single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants. It forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment. The epidermis serves several functions: it protects against water loss, regulates gas exchange, secretes metabolic compounds, and (especially in roots) absorbs water and mineral nutrients. The epidermis of most leaves shows dorsoventral anatomy: the upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) surfaces have somewhat different construction and may serve different functions. Woody stems and some other stem structures produce a secondary covering called the periderm that replaces the epidermis as the protective covering.
The epidermis is the outermost cell layer of the primary plant body. In some older works the cells of the leaf epidermis have been regarded as specialised parenchyma cells, but the established modern preference has long been to classify the epidermis as dermal tissue, whereas parenchyma is classified as ground tissue. The epidermis is the main component of the dermal tissue system of leaves (diagrammed below), and also stems, roots, flowers, fruits, and seeds; it is usually transparent (epidermal cells have fewer chloroplasts or lack them completely, except for the guard cells.)
The cells of the epidermis are structurally and functionally variable. Most plants have an epidermis that is a single cell layer thick. Some plants like Ficus elastica and Peperomia, which have periclinal cellular division within the protoderm of the leaves, have an epidermis with multiple cell layers. Epidermal cells are tightly linked to each other and provide mechanical strength and protection to the plant. The walls of the epidermal cells of the above ground parts of plants contain cutin, and are covered with a cuticle. The cuticle reduces water loss to the atmosphere, it is sometimes covered with wax in smooth sheets, granules, plates, tubes or filaments. The wax layers give some plants a whitish or bluish surface color. Surface wax acts as a moisture barrier and protects the plant from intense sunlight and wind. The underside of many leaves have a thinner cuticle than the top side, and leaves of plants from dry climates often have thickened cuticles to conserve water by reducing transpiration.
The epidermal tissue includes several differentiated cell types: epidermal cells, guard cells, subsidiary cells, and epidermal hairs (trichomes). The epidermal cells are the most numerous, largest, and least specialized. These are typically more elongated in the leaves of monocots than in those of dicots.
Trichomes or hairs grow out from the epidermis in many species. In root epidermis, epidermal hairs, termed root hairs are common and are specialized for absorption of water and mineral nutrients.
In plants with secondary growth, the epidermis of roots and stems is usually replaced by a periderm through the action of a cork cambium.
The leaf and stem epidermis is covered with pores called stomata (sing., stoma), part of a stoma complex consisting of a pore surrounded on each side by chloroplast - containing guard cells, and two to four subsidiary cells that lack chloroplasts. The stomata complex regulates the exchange of gases and water vapor between the outside air and the interior of the leaf. Typically, the stomata are more numerous over the abaxial (lower) epidermis of the leaf than the (adaxial) upper epidermis. An exception is floating leaves where most or all stomata are on the upper surface. Vertical leaves, such as those of many grasses, often have roughly equal numbers of stomata on both surfaces. The stoma is bounded by two guard cells. The guard cells differ from the epidermal cells in the following aspects:
At night, the sugar is used up and water leaves the guard cells, so they become flaccid and the stomatal pore closes. In this way, they reduce the amount of water vapour escaping from the leaf.
The plant epidermis consists of three main cell types: pavement cells, guard cells and their subsidiary cells that surround the stomata and trichomes, otherwise known as leaf hairs. The epidermis of petals also form a variation of trichomes called conical cells.
Trichomes develop at a distinct phase during leaf development, under the control of two major trichome specification genes: TTG and GL1. The process may be controlled by the plant hormones gibberellins, and even if not completely controlled, gibberellins certainly have an effect on the development of the leaf hairs. GL1 causes endoreplication, the replication of DNA without subsequent cell division as well as cell expansion. GL1 turns on the expression of a second gene for trichome formation, GL2, which controls the final stages of trichome formation causing the cellular outgrowth.
Arabidopsis thaliana uses the products of inhibitory genes to control the patterning of trichomes, such as TTG and TRY. The products of these genes will diffuse into the lateral cells, preventing them from forming trichomes and in the case of TRY promoting the formation of pavement cells.
Expression of the gene MIXTA, or its analogue in other species, later in the process of cellular differentiation will cause the formation of conical cells over trichomes. MIXTA is a transcription factor.
Stomatal patterning is a much more controlled process, as the stoma effect the plants water retention and respiration capabilities. As a consequence of these important functions, differentiation of cells to form stomata is also subject to environmental conditions to a much greater degree than other epidermal cell types.
Stomata are pores in the plant epidermis that are surrounded by two guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the aperture. These guard cells are in turn surrounded by subsidiary cells which provide a supporting role for the guard cells.
Stomata begin as stomatal meristemoids. The process varies between dicots and monocots. Spacing is thought to be essentially random in dicots though mutants do show it is under some form of genetic control, but it is more controlled in monocots, where stomata arise from specific asymmetric divisions of protoderm cells. The smaller of the two cells produced becomes the guard mother cells. Adjacent epidermal cells will also divide asymmetrically to form the subsidiary cells.
Because stomata play such an important role in the plants survival, collecting information on their differentiation is difficult by the traditional means of genetic manipulation, as stomatal mutants tend to be unable to survive. Thus the control of the process is not well understood. Some genes have been identified. TMM is thought to control the timing of stomatal initiation specification and FLP is thought to be involved in preventing further division of the guard cells once they are formed.
Environmental conditions affect the development of stomata, in particular their density on the leaf surface. It is thought that plant hormones, such as ethylene and cytokines, control the stomatal developmental response to the environmental conditions. Accumulation of these hormones appears to cause increased stomatal density such as when the plants are kept in closed environments.
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who plays supergirl in the new tv series | Supergirl (TV series) - wikipedia
Supergirl is an American superhero action - adventure television series developed by Ali Adler, Greg Berlanti and Andrew Kreisberg (the latter two having previously created Arrow and The Flash) that originally aired on CBS and premiered on October 26, 2015. It is based on the DC Comics character Supergirl, created by Otto Binder and Al Plastino, and stars Melissa Benoist in the title role. Supergirl is a costumed superheroine who is Superman 's cousin and one of the last surviving Kryptonians.
The series was officially picked up on May 6, 2015, after receiving a series commitment in September 2014, and received a full season order on November 30, 2015. On May 12, 2016, Warner Bros. announced that the series had been renewed for a second season and that it would move from CBS to The CW. It debuted on October 10, 2016. On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which began airing on October 9, 2017.
Kara Zor - El was sent to Earth from Krypton as a 13 - year - old by her parents Zor - El and Alura. Krypton was exploding, and Kara 's parents sent Kara in a spacecraft to Earth after her cousin. Kara was meant to protect her infant cousin Kal - El, but her spacecraft was knocked off course and forced into the Phantom Zone, where it stayed for 24 years. By the time the spacecraft crash landed on Earth, Kal - El had grown up and become Superman. The series begins eleven years later when the now 24 - year - old Kara is learning to embrace her powers and has adopted the superheroic alias "Supergirl ''.
In the first season, having hidden her powers for more than a decade, Kara is forced to reveal her powers, and becomes National City 's protector. Kara discovers that hundreds of the criminals her mother prosecuted as a judge are hiding on Earth, including her aunt Astra and Astra 's husband Non. She and her adoptive sister, Alex Danvers, discover that their boss, Hank Henshaw, is actually benevolent Green Martian J'onn J'onzz. She is aided by a few close friends and family who guard her secrets, including her cousin 's friend, James Olsen, and tech genius Winn Schott, Jr.
In the second season, Kara and her allies deal with feuds between Earth 's native populace and extraterrestrial community, and investigate the shadowy organization Project Cadmus, masterminded by Lillian Luthor, mother of Superman 's archenemy Lex Luthor. At the same time, Kara becomes friendly with Lillian 's stepdaughter Lena Luthor, the new CEO of LuthorCorp, and struggles with romantic feelings for recent Earth arrival Mon - El, a survivor and prince from Krypton 's neighboring planet Daxam. James becomes the masked streetfighting vigilante Guardian; Alex begins dating Maggie Sawyer; and J'onn befriends a younger Martian, M'gann, from the White Martian race that killed his people.
In the third season, Kara struggles with her loss of Mon - El after he is forced to leave Earth after the Daxamite invasion. When Mon - El later returns, he reveals that he has time - traveled to the 31st century and married a Titanian, Imra Ardeen, during his time there. This creates a complicated love triangle between Kara, Mon - El, and Imra. Mon - El has also founded the future 's superhero team, the Legions, and is one of their leaders. Kara 's new friend, Samantha Arias, is unknowingly an another Kryptonian survivor, and begins a sinister transformation that turns her from a loving single mother into the worldkilling weapon known as Reign.
By September 2014, Warner Bros. Television was looking to create a television series centered around Supergirl. Executive producers for the series include Greg Berlanti (also a creator / producer for Arrow and The Flash), Ali Adler, who are both writing the script, and Berlanti Productions ' Sarah Schechter. DC Comics ' Geoff Johns is also expected to be part of the project. Titles under consideration for the series included Super and Girl. Berlanti confirmed the show shortly after, and stated it was in development and had yet to be pitched to networks. On September 20, it was announced that CBS had landed Supergirl with a series commitment, with an expected premiere in 2015 of the 2015 -- 16 television season. In January 2015, CBS Entertainment Chairman Nina Tassler revealed the show would be a procedural, saying, "There will be (crime) cases, but what (executive producers) Ali Adler and Greg Berlanti pitched was a real series arc for her. The beauty of it is now with shows like The Good Wife and Madam Secretary, you can have serialized story elements woven into a case of the week. She 's a crime solver, so she 's going to have to solve a crime. ''
In January 2015, it was announced by The Hollywood Reporter that Melissa Benoist would star as Supergirl. Benoist later revealed that auditioning for the part "was a long, drawn - out, three - month process ''; she was the first actress looked at for the role, although Claire Holt and Gemma Atkinson were also considered. In March 2015, Blake Neely, composer for Arrow and The Flash, revealed he would be composing for Supergirl. The show was officially picked up to series on May 6, 2015. It was originally set to premiere in November 2015, before being moved up to October 26, 2015. The pilot episode was screened at San Diego Comic - Con International 2015 on July 8 and 11, 2015. In July 2015, Adler spoke on how much influence Superman would have on the show, saying, "Our prototype is the way the president is seen on Veep. It 's certainly (inspired by) so much of what Julia Louis - Dreyfus ' character goes through. Ultimately, this is a show about Supergirl and we really want to see it through her lens. '' On November 30, 2015, CBS ordered an additional seven episodes of Supergirl, for a full season of 20 episodes.
On May 12, 2016, Warner Bros. Television announced that the series had been renewed for a second season of 22 episodes and would move to The CW. The season debuted in October 2016. With the move of the production to Vancouver, it was unclear if Calista Flockhart would remain with the series, as her original contract stipulated that she work near her home in Los Angeles. The CW president Mark Pedowitz said Flockhart wanted to remain with the series and that "We 're in ongoing discussions... we 're happy to have her in (in whatever capacity) works out. '' Flockhart ultimately reached a deal to be recurring in the second season, with the production flying her to Vancouver every few weeks to film material.
On January 8, 2017, The CW renewed the series for a third season, which debuted on October 9, 2017. The third season saw Jessica Queller and Robert Rovner become the series ' executive producers and co-showrunners along with Kreisberg, following Adler 's departure; Adler will remain an executive consultant for the series. Both Queller and Rovner joined Supergirl midway through the first season as co-executive producer and consulting producer, respectively, with Rovner promoted to executive producer ahead of the second season.
The costume for Supergirl was created by Colleen Atwood, who also designed the costumes for Arrow and The Flash. Benoist stated that she is aware of the costume worn by Kara in more modern depictions of in the comics, and expressed that the "micro-mini hemline '' of the skirt in the version created by Michael Turner could be "a little daunting... but that 's good. I like being pushed. '' Promotional photos of Benoist wearing Atwood 's design were released on March 6, 2015. Atwood indicated that she wanted to "embrace the past... but more importantly, thrust her into the street - style action hero of today. '' Atwood later revealed details about the costume such as the cape being fastened to an undersuit so as not to pull the costume and that the fabric used was Eurojersey. The reveal of the Martian Manhunter costume in "Human For a Day '' was created through visual effects, though a physical version was created to appear in later episodes, with it proving to be one of the most challenging costumes for the costume team.
Reception of the Supergirl costume upon its reveal was mixed. Entertainment Weekly 's Natalie Abrams commented that the new look of the costume looks and feels different in a good way. The new costume avoids exposing the character 's midriff, as it does in the Michael Turner version of the costume from the comics, as well as having Benoist wear stockings underneath the skirt with over-the - knee boots. Abrams compared the texture of the costume to that worn by Henry Cavill as Superman in Man of Steel, as well as the positioning of the cape on the suit, and the decision to do away with the bright blue and red color scheme. Andrew Dyce, from Screen Rant, found the new costume to perfectly balance itself between classic nostalgia and modernism. The Washington Post noted that Atwood 's design was successful, praising her ability to take "cartoon - y tints '' and moving them to darker tones.
E! Online was less impressed with the design, negatively comparing it to a "cheap Halloween costume '', with washed out colors, and not buying into the "gritty, ' street style ' '' look Atwood was intending. TV Guide questioned Atwood 's design, and noted that although the promotional image has Benoist trying to appear as a powerful hero, the thigh - high boots and pleated skirt comes across as a "model advertising a moderately - priced Halloween costume ''.
In February 2015, it was announced that Andrew Kreisberg, co-creator of Arrow and The Flash, had joined the series as a writer and executive producer; and Arrow / The Flash and Smallville alum Glen Winter was announced to be directing the pilot. Principal photography for the pilot took place from March 4 to March 29, 2015. Filming locations included the Warner Bros. lot, where Lois and Clark was shot. Each episode cost approximately $3 million to broadcast, which is one of the highest license fees ever for a first year show.
The second season was filmed in Vancouver, rather than Los Angeles where the first season was shot. This was done to reduce the high production costs of the series, one of the issues that made CBS wary to renew the series on their network. Filming for the third season began in Vancouver on July 6, 2017, and is expected to continue until April 24, 2018.
In Canada, Supergirl aired in a sim - subbed simulcast on Global with the American broadcast in the first season; the second season saw it move to Showcase in the same arrangement.
The series premiered on October 29, 2015, in the United Kingdom on Sky One. The series premiered in Australia on December 6, 2015 on FOX8.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the series premiere a 95 % approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 7.6 / 10 based on 73 reviews. The site 's consensus states: "Melissa Benoist shines as Superman 's plucky little cousin in Supergirl, a family - friendly comic - book adaptation that ditches cynicism for heart. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 75 out of 100 based on reviews from 33 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews ''. Cliff Wheatley of IGN gave the pilot episode a 7 / 10, praising Melissa Benoist 's performance as Kara and the fun take on the Superman mythos.
Rotten Tomatoes gave the premiere of the second season a 100 % approval rating from critics and with an average rating of 8.3 / 10 based on 20 reviews. The site 's consensus reads, "The arrival of the more famous cousin in Supergirl does nothing to detract from the show 's lead, who continues to deliver strength, action, and relatability. '' Metacritic assigned a score of 81 out of 100 based on reviews from 4 critics, indicating "Universal acclaim ''.
In November 2014, Berlanti expressed interest in Supergirl existing in the Arrowverse, the same universe as his other series Arrow and The Flash, and in January 2015, The CW president Mark Pedowitz revealed that he was also open to a crossover between the series and networks (due to Berlanti executive producing all three and The CW being co-owned by CBS). However, CBS Entertainment chair Nina Tassler stated that month that "those two shows are on a different network. So I think we 'll keep Supergirl to ourselves for a while. '' In August 2015, Tassler revealed that while there were no plans at the time to do crossover storylines, the three series would have crossover promotions.
Pedowitz regretted passing on the series when presented it in mid-2014, saying, "We had n't launched The Flash yet, we were n't ready to take on another DC property. In hindsight we probably should 've gone that direction... Sometimes you lose great shows. '' In January 2016, during the Television Critics Association press tour, he said that The CW was still interested in a crossover with Supergirl if the producers could find a way to do it, and Berlanti added that while no official conversations had taken place, internal ones had concerning how a crossover would work. He also noted that for a crossover to happen during Supergirl 's first season, it would have to be figured out "in the next month or so ''. Glenn Geller, Tassler 's successor at CBS, then stated on the matter, "I have to be really careful what I say here. Watch and wait and see what happens. ''
On February 3, 2016, it was announced that Grant Gustin, who appears as Barry Allen / Flash on The Flash, would appear in the eighteenth episode of the first season, "Worlds Finest ''. While no plot details on the episodes were released at the time, Ross A. Lincoln of Deadline.com noted that "the in - universe reason '' for the crossover was due to Barry 's ability to travel to various dimensions, thus implying that Supergirl exists on an alternate Earth to the Arrowverse in a multiverse. The Flash episode "Welcome to Earth - 2 '' confirmed this, showing an image of Benoist as Supergirl during a sequence where characters travel through that multiverse. The earth that the series inhabits is Earth - 38 in the Arrowverse multiverse, and has been informally referred to as "Earth - CBS '' by Marc Guggenheim, one of the creators of Arrow.
During the second season, Supergirl appears in "Invasion! '', a crossover episode of The Flash, Arrow and Legends of Tomorrow, when she 's recruited by Barry Allen and Cisco Ramon at the end of "Medusa '' to help fight off an invasion by the Dominators. Supergirl and The Flash also featured in a musical crossover, featuring several covers of existing songs along with two original numbers. Similar to "Invasion! '', the crossover begins at the end of the Supergirl episode "Star - Crossed '' and primarily takes place during The Flash episode "Duet '', featuring the Music Meister as the antagonist who puts both The Flash and Supergirl in a shared hallucination. After "Invasion! '', Guggenheim felt "If there 's an appetite for it from the fans and from the network, '' the crossover next year could be "a proper four - part crossover. ''
At the 2017 Paleyfest event, Kreisberg reiterated the creative team 's intention to do a full four - way crossover the following year. At San Diego Comic Con 2017, it was confirmed that another four - way crossover would take place, with Supergirl playing a larger role than the previous season.
Beginning in January 2016, DC Comics launched a 13 - issue, bi-weekly digital comic, Adventures of Supergirl. Written by Sterling Gates and drawn by a rotating team of artist including Bengal, Jonboy Meyers, Emanuela Lupacchino, and Emma Vieceli, the comic, while not directly tying into the show, tells stories set in the universe of the show.
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when did phil of the future first air | Phil of the future - wikipedia
Phil of the Future is an American science fiction sitcom that originally aired on Disney Channel from June 18, 2004, to August 19, 2006, for two seasons. The series was created by Tim Maile and Douglas Tuber and produced by 2121 Productions, a part of Brookwell McNamara Entertainment. It follows a family from the future that gets stranded in the 21st century when their time machine breaks down. The series began airing again (as reruns) as part of Disney Replay. It also aired in select countries such as Canada (Family Channel).
Phil of the Future 's working title was The Out of Timers. The title theme song for Phil of the Future was written by John Adair and Steve Hampton. It was sung by Loren Ellis and The Drew Davis Band, who also sang the theme song of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody.
A DVD of the show titled Gadgets & Gizmos was released on August 16, 2005. It contains four episodes including a never - before - seen episode.
A video game based on Phil of the Future was released for the Game Boy Advance on August 22, 2006. In the game, Pim uses a cloning machine to create clones of a pet from the future called "Blahs '' and it is up to Phil to stop them.
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what part of the us did the louisiana purchase cover | Louisiana Purchase - wikipedia
The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana '') was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km2) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000) for a total of sixty - eight million francs ($15 million, equivalent to $300 million in 2016). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.
The Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, then the First Consul of the French Republic, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France 's failure to put down the revolt in Saint - Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States to fund his military. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the bargain. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition; they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics. It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. France ceded the territory to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762). Following French defeat in the Seven Years ' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece. '' The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration '' of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney 's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit '' in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon 's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on December 20, 1803. A further ceremony was held in St. Louis, Upper Louisiana regarding the New Orleans formalities. The March 9 -- 10, 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.
James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.
The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish did n't want the Americans to settle in their territory.
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States. On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:
The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I can not forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three - eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson 's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans. '' Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France 's history, for it would seal America 's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere. Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction. In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti), which was then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801 after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint - Domingue (more than two - thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere. In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by the United Kingdom, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back - channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson 's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states ' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up - to - date intelligence on Napoleon 's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two. Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain 's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.
Napoleon needed peace with the United Kingdom to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.
As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France 's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé - Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe 's arrival, Barbé - Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million, (equivalent to about $300 million in 2016 dollars,) which averages to less than three cents per acre (7 ¢ / ha).
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.
The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty was announced, but the documents did not arrive in Washington, D.C. until July 14. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert 's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase. This argument goes as follows:
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson 's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase 's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59 -- 57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave - holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners '', unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless. '' The sale of course was not "worthless '' -- the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests. '' Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson 's alleged hypocrisy by asserting that countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.
Jefferson 's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution ''), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country 's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction '' if the Congress approved the treaty.
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.
The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self - interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.
When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on April 30 by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank. ''
The United States Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty with a vote of twenty - four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
A timeline of legislation can be found at the Library of Congress: American Memory: The Louisiana Purchase Legislative Timeline -- 1803 - 1804.
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag - raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805 -- 1812).
New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory 's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.
The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida. Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis. The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.
The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain 's internal provinces.
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill - defined British possession -- Rupert 's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams -- Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams -- Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present - day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present - day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French - speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint - Domingue, today 's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American - held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint - Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.
The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African - Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over). In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836. The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later. As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states. ''
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox. In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present - day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present - day Iowa. With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government 's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring 's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations. Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France. Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.
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where does the sacrament of confirmation take place | Confirmation - Wikipedia
In Christianity, Confirmation is seen as the sealing of Christianity created in Baptism. Those being confirmed are known as confirmands. In some denominations, such as the Anglican Communion and Methodist Churches, confirmation bestows full membership in a local congregation upon the recipient. In others, such as the Roman Catholic Church, Confirmation "renders the bond with the Church more perfect '', because, while a baptized person is already a member, "reception of the sacrament of Confirmation is necessary for the completion of baptismal grace ''.
Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Latter - Day Saint Churches view Confirmation as a sacrament. In the East it is conferred immediately after baptism. In the West, this practice is usually followed when adults are baptized, but in the case of infants not in danger of death it is administered, ordinarily by a bishop, only when the child reaches the age of reason or early adolescence. Among those Catholics who practice teen - aged Confirmation, the practice may be perceived, secondarily, as a "coming of age '' rite.
Latter - Day Saint Churches do not practice infant baptism, but baptize only after the "age of accountability '' is reached. Confirmation occurs either immediately following Baptism, or on the following Sunday. The Baptism is not considered complete or fully efficacious until Confirmation is received.
In traditional Protestant denominations, such as the Anglican, Lutheran, Methodist and Reformed Churches, Confirmation is a rite that often includes a profession of faith by an already baptized person. It is also required by most Protestant denominations for full membership in the respective Church, in particular for traditional Protestant churches, in which it is also recognized secondarily as a coming of age ceremony.
Confirmation is not practiced in Baptist, Anabaptist and other groups that teach believer 's baptism. Thus, the sacrament or rite of Confirmation is administered to those being received from those aforementioned groups, in addition to those converts from non-Christian religions.
There is an analogous ceremony also called Confirmation in the Jewish religion, which is not to be confused with Bar or Bat Mitzvah. The early Jewish Reformers instituted a ceremony where young Jews who are older than Bar Mitzvah age study both traditional and contemporary sources of Jewish philosophy in order to learn what it means to be Jewish. The age instituted was older than that of Bar Mitzvah because some of these topics were considered too complicated for 13 - year - old minds to grasp. Nowadays, Confirmation has gained widespread adherence among congregations affiliated with the Reform movement, but has not gained as much traction in Conservative and Orthodox Jewish groups. The way Confirmation differs from Bar Mitzvah is that Confirmation is considered a more communal confirmation of one 's being Jewish, and Bar Mitzvah is more of a personal confirmation of joining that covenant.
The roots of Confirmation are found in the New Testament. For instance, in the Acts of the Apostles 8: 14 -- 17:
Now when the apostles in Jerusalem heard that Samaria had accepted the word of God, they sent them Peter and John, who went down and prayed for them, that they might receive the holy Spirit, for it had not yet fallen upon any of them; they had only been baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then they laid hands on them and they received the holy Spirit.
Also, in the Gospel of John, Chapter 14, Christ speaks of the coming of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles (John 14: 15 -- 26). Later, after his Resurrection, Jesus breathed upon them and they received the Holy Spirit (John 20: 22), a process completed on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2: 1 -- 4). After this point, the New Testament records the apostles bestowing the Holy Spirit upon others through the laying on of hands.
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, Confirmation, known also as Chrismation, is one of the seven sacraments instituted by Christ for the conferral of sanctifying grace and the strengthening of the union between individual souls and God.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church in its paragraphs 1302 -- 1303 states:
It is evident from its celebration that the effect of the sacrament of Confirmation is the special outpouring of the Holy Spirit as once granted to the apostles on the day of Pentecost.
From this
Recall then that you have received the spiritual seal, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of right judgment and courage, the spirit of knowledge and reverence, the spirit of holy fear in God 's presence. Guard what you have received. God the Father has marked you with his sign; Christ the Lord has confirmed you and has placed his pledge, the Spirit, in your hearts.
In the Latin (i.e., Western) Catholic Church, the sacrament is customarily conferred only on persons old enough to understand it, and the ordinary minister of Confirmation is a bishop. "If necessity so requires '', the diocesan bishop may grant specified priests the faculty to administer the sacrament, although normally he is to administer it himself or ensure that it is conferred by another bishop. In addition, the law itself confers the same faculty on the following:
"According to the ancient practice maintained in the Roman liturgy, an adult is not to be baptized unless he receives Confirmation immediately afterward, provided no serious obstacles exist. '' Administration of the two sacraments, one immediately after the other, to adults is normally done by the bishop of the diocese (generally at the Easter Vigil, since "the baptism of adults, at least of those who have completed their fourteenth year, is to be referred to the Bishop, so that he himself may confer it if he judges this appropriate '' But if the bishop does not confer the baptism, then it devolves on the priest whose office it then is to confer both sacraments, since, "in addition to the bishop, the law gives the faculty to confirm to the following... priests who, in virtue of an office which they lawfully hold, baptize an adult or a child old enough for catechesis or receive a validly baptized adult into full communion with the Church... ''
In Eastern Catholic Churches, the usual minister of this sacrament is the parish priest, using olive oil consecrated by a bishop (i.e., chrism), and administering the sacrament immediately after baptism. This corresponds exactly to the practice of the early Church, when at first those receiving baptism were mainly adults, and of the non-Roman Catholic Eastern Churches.
The practice of the Eastern Churches gives greater emphasis to the unity of Christian initiation. That of the Latin Church more clearly expresses the communion of the new Christian with the bishop as guarantor and servant of the unity, catholicity and apostolicity of his Church, and hence the connection with the apostolic origins of Christ 's Church.
The main reason why the West separated the sacrament of Confirmation from that of Baptism was to re-establish direct contact between the person being initiated with the bishops. In the Early Church, the bishop administered all three sacraments of initiation (Baptism, Confirmation and Eucharist), assisted by the priests and deacons and, where they existed, by deaconesses for women 's Baptism. The post-baptismal Chrismation in particular was reserved to the Bishop. When adults no longer formed the majority of those being baptized, this Chrismation was delayed until the bishop could confer it. Until the 12th century, priests often continued to confer Confirmation before giving Communion to very young children.
After the Fourth Lateran Council, Communion, which continued to be given only after Confirmation, was to be administered only on reaching the age of reason. Some time after the 13th century, the age of Confirmation and Communion began to be delayed further, from seven, to twelve and to fifteen. The 1917 Code of Canon Law, while recommending that Confirmation be delayed until about seven years of age, allowed it be given at an earlier age. Only on 30 June 1932 was official permission given to change the traditional order of the three sacraments of Christian initiation: the Sacred Congregation for the Sacraments then allowed, where necessary, that Confirmation be administered after first Holy Communion. This novelty, originally seen as exceptional, became more and more the accepted practice. Thus, in the mid-20th century, Confirmation began to be seen as an occasion for professing personal commitment to the faith on the part of someone approaching adulthood.
However, the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1308 warns: "Although Confirmation is sometimes called the ' sacrament of Christian maturity, ' we must not confuse adult faith with the adult age of natural growth, nor forget that the baptismal grace is a grace of free, unmerited election and does not need ' ratification ' to become effective. ''
On the canonical age for Confirmation in the Latin or Western Catholic Church, the present (1983) Code of Canon Law, which maintains unaltered the rule in the 1917 Code, lays down that the sacrament is to be conferred on the faithful at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is a danger of death or, in the judgement of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The Code prescribes the age of discretion also for the sacraments of Penance and first Holy Communion.
In some places the setting of a later age, e.g. mid-teens in the United States, early teens in Ireland and Britain, has been abandoned in recent decades in favor of restoring the traditional order of the three sacraments of Christian initiation, Even where a later age has been set, a bishop may not refuse to confer the sacrament on younger children who request it, provided they are baptized, have the use of reason, are suitably instructed and are properly disposed and able to renew the baptismal promises (letter of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments published in its 1999 bulletin, pages 537 -- 540).
The Roman Catholic Church and some Anglo - Catholics teach that, like baptism, Confirmation marks the recipient permanently, making it impossible to receive the sacrament twice. It accepts as valid a Confirmation conferred within churches, such as the Eastern Orthodox Church, whose Holy Orders it sees as valid through the apostolic succession of their bishops. But it considers it necessary to administer the sacrament of Confirmation, in its view for the only time, to Protestants who are admitted to full communion with the Catholic Church.
One of the effects of the sacrament is that "it gives us a special strength of the Holy Spirit to spread and defend the faith by word and action as true witnesses of Christ, to confess the name of Christ boldly, and never to be ashamed of the Cross '' (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1303). This effect was described by the Council of Trent as making the confirmed person "a soldier of Christ ''.
The same passage of the Catechism of the Catholic Church also mentions, as an effect of Confirmation, that "it renders our bond with the Church more perfect ''. This mention stresses the importance of participation in the Christian community.
The "soldier of Christ '' imagery was used, as far back as 350, by St Cyril of Jerusalem. In this connection, the touch on the cheek that the bishop gave while saying "Pax tecum '' (Peace be with you) to the person he had just confirmed was interpreted in the Roman Pontifical as a slap, a reminder to be brave in spreading and defending the faith: "Deinde leviter eum in maxilla caedit, dicens: Pax tecum '' (Then he strikes him lightly on the cheek, saying: Peace be with you). When, in application of the Second Vatican Council 's Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, the Confirmation rite was revised in 1971, mention of this gesture was omitted. However, the French and Italian translations, indicating that the bishop should accompany the words "Peace be with you '' with "a friendly gesture '' (French text) or "the sign of peace '' (Italian text), explicitly allow a gesture such as the touch on the cheek, to which they restore its original meaning. This is in accord with the Introduction to the Rite of Confirmation, 17, which indicates that the episcopal conference may decide "to introduce a different manner for the minister to give the sign of peace after the anointing, either to each individual or to all the newly confirmed together. ''
The Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches refer to this sacrament (or, more properly, Sacred Mystery) as Chrismation, a term which Roman Catholics also use; for instance, in Italian the term is cresima. Eastern Christians link Chrismation closely with the Sacred Mystery of Baptism, conferring it immediately after baptism, which is normally on infants.
The Sacred Tradition of the Orthodox Church teaches that the Apostles themselves established the practice of anointing with chrism in place of the laying on of hands when bestowing the sacrament. As the numbers of converts grew, it became physically impossible for the apostles to lay hands upon each of the newly baptized. So the Apostles laid hands upon a vessel of oil, bestowing the Holy Spirit upon it, which was then distributed to all of the presbyters (priests) for their use when they baptized. This same chrism is in use to this day, never being completely depleted but newly consecrated chrism only being added to it as needed (this consecration traditionally is performed only by the primates of certain autocephalous churches on Great Thursday) and it is believed that chrism in use today contains some small amount of the original chrism made by the apostles.
When Roman Catholics and traditional Protestants, such as Lutherans, Anglicans and Methodists, convert to Orthodoxy, they are often admitted by Chrismation, without baptism; but, since this is a matter of local episcopal discretion, a bishop may require all converts to be admitted by baptism if he deems it necessary. Depending upon the form of the original baptism, some Protestants must be baptized upon conversion to Orthodoxy. A common practice is that those persons who have been previously baptized by triple immersion in the name of the Trinity do not need to be baptized. However, requirements will differ from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and some traditional Orthodox jurisdictions prefer to baptize all converts. When a person is received into the church, whether by Baptism or Chrismation, they will often take the name of a saint, who will become their patron saint. Thenceforward, the feast day of that saint will be celebrated as the convert 's name day, which in traditional Orthodox cultures is celebrated in lieu of one 's birthday.
The Orthodox rite of Chrismation takes place immediately after baptism and clothing the "newly illumined '' (i.e., newly baptized) in their baptismal robe. The priest makes the sign of the cross with the chrism (also referred to as Myrrh) on the brow, eyes, nostrils, lips, both ears, breast, hands and feet of the newly illumined, saying with each anointing: "The seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit. Amen. '' Then the priest will place his epitrachelion (stole) over the newly illumined and leads them and their sponsors in a procession, circling three times around the Gospel Book, while the choir chants each time: "As many as have been baptized into Christ have put on Christ. Alleluia '' (Galatians 3: 27).
The reason the Eastern Churches perform Chrismation immediately after Baptism is so that the newly baptized may receive Holy Communion, which is commonly given to infants as well as adults.
An individual may be baptized in extremis (in a life - threatening emergency) by any baptized member of the church; however, only a priest or bishop may perform the Mystery of Chrismation. If someone who has been baptized in extremis survives, the priest then performs the Chrismation.
The Roman Catholic Church does not confirm converts to Catholicism who have been Chrismated in a non-Catholic Eastern church, considering that the sacrament has been validly conferred and may not be repeated.
In the Eastern Orthodox Church the sacrament may be conferred more than once and it is customary to receive returning or repentant apostates by repeating Chrismation.
When discussing Confirmation the LDS Church uses the term "ordinance '' owing to their origins in a Protestant environment, but the actual doctrine describing their ordinances and their effects is sacramental. LDS ordinances are understood as administering Grace and must be conducted by clergy members who are properly ordained through Apostolic Succession reaching back through Peter to Christ, although the line of authority differs from Catholics & Eastern Orthodox. Baptism by water is understood as representing the death of the old person and their resurrection from that death into a new life in Christ. Through baptism by water, sin and guilt are washed away as the old sinner dies and the new child of Christ emerges. Confirmation is understood as being the baptism by fire wherein the Holy Spirit enters into the confirmant, purges them of the effects of the sin from their previous life (the guilt and culpability of which were already washed away), and introduces them into the Church as a new person in Christ. Through Confirmation, the confirmant receives the Gift of the Holy Ghost, granting the individual the permanent companionship of the Holy Ghost as long as the person does not willfully drive Him away through sin. The ceremony is significantly simpler than in Catholic or Eastern Orthodox Churches and is as follows: The clergyman lays his hands upon the confirmant 's head & States the person 's full name. The clergyman states that the ordinance is performed by the authority of the Melchizedek Priesthood. The clergyman confirms the person a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. The clergyman bestows the gift of the Holy Ghost by saying, "Receive the Holy Ghost. '' The clergyman gives a priesthood blessing as the Spirit directs. The clergyman closes in the name of Jesus Christ. Other actions typically associated with Confirmation in Catholicism or Eastern Orthodoxy, such as the reception of a Christian name, anointing of body parts with Chrism, and the clothing of the confirmant in a white garment or chiton are conducted separately as part of a ceremony called the Initiatory.
Lutheran Confirmation is a public profession of faith prepared for by long and careful instruction. In English, it is called "affirmation of baptism '', and is a mature and public profession of the faith which "marks the completion of the congregation 's program of confirmation ministry ''. The German language also uses for Lutheran Confirmation a different word (Konfirmation) from the word used for the sacramental rite of the Catholic Church (Firmung).
Lutheran churches do not treat Confirmation as a dominical sacrament of the Gospel, considering that only Baptism and the Eucharist can be regarded as such. Some popular Sundays for this to occur are Palm Sunday, Pentecost and Reformation Sunday (last Sunday in October).
Article 25 of The 16th Century 39 Articles lists Confirmation among those rites "commonly called Sacraments '' which are "not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel '' (a term referring to the dominical sacraments, i.e. Baptism and the Holy Eucharist), because they were not directly instituted by Christ with a specific matter and form, and they are not generally necessary to salvation. The language of the Articles has led some to deny that Confirmation and the other rites are sacraments at all. Others maintain that "commonly called Sacraments '' does not mean "wrongly called Sacraments ''.
Many Anglicans, especially Anglo - Catholics, count the rite as one of seven sacraments. This is the official view in several Anglican Provinces. While most provinces of the Anglican Communion do not make provision for ministers other than bishops to administer Confirmation, presbyters can be authorized to do so in certain South Asian provinces, which are united churches. Similarly, the American Episcopal Church recognizes that "those who have previously made a mature public commitment in another Church may be received by the laying on of hands by a Bishop of this Church, rather than confirmed. '' Furthermore, at its General Convention in 2015 a resolution advancing presbyteral confirmation was referred to committee for further review.
It should be noted that "(t) he renewal of the baptismal vows, which is part of the Anglican Confirmation service, is in no way necessary to Confirmation and can be done more than once. (...) When Confirmation is given early, candidates may be asked to make a fresh renewal of vows when they approach adult life at about eighteen. '' The Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England employs the phrase "ratify and confirm '' with respect to these vows which has led to the common conception of Confirmation as the renewal of baptismal vows. While such a view closely aligns to the doctrine of confirmation held by Lutherans, the dominant Anglican position is perhaps better evidenced in the attempt to replace "ratify and confirm '' with "ratify and confess '' in the proposed Prayer Book revision of 1928, which was defeated in the House of Commons June 14 of that year. It must be acknowledged that Anglicanism includes a range of approaches to the theology of confirmation.
In the Methodist Church, as with the Anglican Communion, Confirmation is defined by the Articles of Religion as one those "Commonly called Sacraments but not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel '', also known as the "five lesser sacraments ''. The Methodist theologian John William Fletcher stated that "it was a custom of the Apostles and elders in the primitive Church, adopted by our own church, to pray that young Believers might be filled with the Spirit through the laying on of hands. '' As such, the Methodist Worship Book declares that
In Confirmation, those who have been baptized declare their faith in Christ and are Strengthened by the Holy Spirit for continuing discipleship. Confirmation reminds us that we are baptized and that God continues to be at work in our lives: we respond by affirming that we belong to Christ and to the whole People of God. At a Service of Confirmation, baptized Christians are also received into membership of the Methodist Church and take their place as such in a local congregation.
By Water and Spirit, an official United Methodist publication, states that "it should be emphasized that Confirmation is what the Holy Spirit does. Confirmation is a divine action, the work of the Spirit empowering a person ' born through water and the Spirit ' to ' live as a faithful disciple of Jesus Christ '. '' As with its Anglican patrimony, in Methodism, Confirmation is a means of grace. Furthermore, Confirmation is the individual 's first public affirmation of the grace of God in baptism and the acknowledgment of the acceptance of that grace by faith. For those baptized as infants, it often occurs when youth enter their 6th through 8th grade years, but it may occur earlier or later. For youth and adults who are joining the Church, "those who are baptized are also confirmed, remembering that our ritual reflects the ancient unity of baptism, Confirmation (laying on of hands with prayer), and Eucharist. '' Candidates to be confirmed, known as confirmands, take a class which covers Christian doctrine, theology, Methodist Church history, stewardship, basic Bible study and other topics.
The Presbyterian Church in America has a process of Confirmation, but it is not necessarily public, and depends on the congregation as to the nature of Confirmation. In practice, many churches do require and offer classes for Confirmation.
The PC (USA) has a Confirmation process. This is a profession of faith that "seeks to provide youth with a foundational understanding of our faith, tradition and Presbyterian practices ''.
In many countries, it is customary for a person being confirmed in some dioceses of Roman Catholic Church and in some Anglican dioceses to adopt a new name, generally the name of a biblical character or saint, thus securing an additional patron saint as protector and guide. This practice is not mentioned in the official liturgical book of the Rite of Confirmation and is not in use in Spanish and French - speaking lands, nor in Italy or the Philippines. Although some insist on the custom, it is discouraged by others and in any case is only a secondary aspect of Confirmation.
As indicated by the different senses of the word "christening '', baptism and the giving of a personal name have traditionally been linked. At Confirmation, in which the intervention of a godparent strengthens a resemblance with baptism, it became customary to take a new name, as was also the custom on other occasions, in particular that of religious profession. King Henry III of France (1551 -- 1589) was christened Edouard Alexandre in 1551, but at Confirmation received the name Henri, by which he afterwards reigned. Today usually no great use is made of the Confirmation name, although some treat it as an additional middle name. For example, A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin was born George Raymond Martin, but added his confirmation name Richard as a second middle name. However, even after the English Reformation, the legal system of that country admitted the lawfulness of using one 's Confirmation name in, for instance, purchasing land.
The Catholic Church sees Confirmation as one of the three sacraments that no one can receive more than once (see sacramental character). It recognizes as already confirmed those who enter the Catholic Church after receiving the sacrament, even as babies, in the churches of Eastern Christianity, but it confers the sacrament (in its view, for the first and only time) on those who enter the Catholic Church after being confirmed in Protestant or Anglican churches, seeing these churches as lacking properly ordained ministers.
In the Anglican Communion, a person who was previously confirmed in another denomination by a bishop or priest recognized as validly ordained is "received '' rather than confirmed again. Some dioceses of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America recognize non-episcopal Confirmations as well and these individuals are received into the Anglican Communion rather than re-confirmed. In other dioceses, confirmations of those Christian denominations are recognized if they have a valid apostolic succession in the eyes of the Anglican Communion (e.g. Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, Roman Catholic Church, etc.).
Eastern Orthodox churches occasionally practise what is seen by other Christians as "re-Chrismation '', in that they usually chrismate / confirm -- and sometimes rebaptize -- a convert, even one previously confirmed in other churches. The justification is that the new Chrismation (or baptism) is the only valid one, the earlier one being administered outside of the Church and hence being little more than a symbol. The Eastern Orthodox will also chrismate an apostate from the Orthodox Church who repents and re-enters communion. According to some interpretations, the Eastern churches therefore view Confirmation / Chrismation as a repeatable sacrament. According to others, the rite is understood as "part of a process of reconciliation, rather than as a reiteration of post-baptismal chrismation ''.
All mainstream denominations of Judaism have a ceremony known as Bar Mitzvah or Bat Mitzvah, which occurs when Jewish children reach 13 years (boys), 12 -- 13 years (girls); at this time they become responsible for their observance of Judaism 's religious obligations. Prior to this, the child 's parents hold the responsibility for the child 's adherence to Jewish law and tradition. After this age, children bear their own responsibility for Jewish ritual law, tradition, and ethics and are privileged to participate in all areas of Jewish community life.
In the late 1800s Reform Judaism developed a separate ceremony, called confirmation, loosely modeled on Christian Confirmation ceremonies. This occurred because, at the time, Reform Jews believed that it was inappropriate for Bar / bat mitzvah age children to be considered mature enough to understand what it means to be religious. It was held that children of this age were not responsible enough to understand what it means to observe religious practices. As such, the reform rite of confirmation was originally a replacement for the Bar / Bat mitzvah ceremony, held at age 16. In later decades, the Reform movement modified this view, and now much of Reform Judaism in the USA encourages children to celebrate becoming Bar / Bat mitzvah at the traditional age, and then has the confirmation at the later age as a sign of a more advanced completion of their Jewish studies.
Today, many Reform Jewish congregations hold confirmation ceremonies as a way of marking the biblical festival of Shavuot and the decision of young adults to embrace Jewish study in their lives and reaffirm their commitment to the Covenant. The confirmands represent "the first fruits of each year 's harvest. They represent the hope and promise of tomorrow. '' Confirmation is typically held in tenth grade after a year of study, but some synagogues celebrate it in other years of high school.
Confirmation, in the context of Reform Judaism, was mentioned officially for the first time in an ordinance issued by the Jewish consistory of the kingdom of Westphalia at Cassel in 1810. There it was made the duty of the rabbi "to prepare the young for confirmation, and personally to conduct the ceremony. '' At first only boys were confirmed, on the Sabbath ("Shabbat '') that they celebrated becoming Bar Mitzvah; the ceremony was performed at the home or in the schoolroom. In Berlin, Jewish girls were confirmed for the first time in 1817, in Hamburg in 1818.
Confirmation was at first excluded from the synagogue, because, like every innovation, it met with stern opposition from more traditional rabbis. Gradually, however, it found more favor; Hebrew school classes were confirmed together, and confirmation gradually became a solemn and celebration at the synagogue. In 1822 the first class of boys and girls was confirmed at the Hamburg Temple, and in 1831 Rabbi Samuel Egers, a prominent traditional rabbi of his time, began to confirm boys and girls at the synagogue of Brunswick. While in the beginning some Shabbat, frequently during Chanukah or Passover, was selected for confirmation, it became increasingly customary, following the example of Egers, to perform the ceremony during the biblical festival of Shavuot ("Feast of Weeks ''). It was felt that Shavuot was well suited for the rite, as it celebrated the occasion when the Israelites on Mount Sinai declared their intention to accept the yoke of God 's Law, so those of every new generation should follow the ancient example and declare their willingness to be faithful to the Sinaitic covenant transmitted by their ancestors.
Confirmation was introduced in Denmark as early as 1817, in Hamburg 1818, and in Hessen and Saxony in 1835. The Prussian government, which showed itself hostile to the Reform movement, prohibited it as late as 1836, as did Bavaria as late as 1838. It soon made its way, however, into all progressive congregations of Germany. In 1841 it was introduced in France, first in Bordeaux and Marseilles, then in Strasburg and Paris, under the name "initiation religieuse ''. The first Israelitish synod in 1869 at Leipsic adopted a report on religious education, the 13th section of which contains an elaborate opinion on confirmation, recommending the same to all Jewish congregations. In America the annual confirmation of boys and girls was first resolved upon by the congregation of Temple Emanu - El of New York in 1847. The ceremony soon gained so firm a foothold in America that soon there was no progressive Jewish congregation in which it did not occur during Shavuot.
Orthodox Judaism criticized the Reform movement for introducing confirmation, as the ceremony had no roots in rabbinic Judaism. When Conservative Judaism began to develop as a distinct movement, it too generally rejected confirmation as either unnecessary, or as a non-Jewish innovation. Today, nearly all Reform communities have returned to individual Bar Mitzvah at 13 for the Bat Mitzvah ceremonies, but the communal confirmation ceremony is still popular.
Several secular, mainly Humanist, organizations direct civil confirmations for older children, as a statement of their life stance that is an alternative to traditional religious ceremonies for children of that age.
Some atheist regimes have as a matter of policy fostered the replacement of Christian rituals such as confirmation with non-religious ones. In the historically Protestant German Democratic Republic (East Germany), for example, "the Jugendweihe (youth dedication) gradually supplanted the Christian practice of Confirmation. '' A concept that first appeared in 1852, the Jugendweihe is described as "a solemn initiation marking the transition from youth to adulthood that was developed in opposition to Protestant and Catholic Churches ' Confirmation. ''
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when did countries in north america gain independence from spain | Decolonization of the Americas - wikipedia
Decolonization of the Americas refers to the process by which the countries in the Americas gained their independence from European rule. Decolonization began with a series of revolutions in the late 18th and early to mid-19th centuries. The status quo then prevailed for more than a century, excepting the independence of Cuba (whose war for independence culminated in the Spanish -- American War).
Peaceful independence by voluntary withdrawal of colonial powers then became the norm in the second half of the 20th century. However, there are still many British and Dutch colonies in North America (mostly Caribbean islands), and France has fully "integrated '' most of its former colonies as fully constituent "departments '' of France.
The United States of America declared independence from Great Britain on July 2, 1776 (although the event is now commemorated on July 4, the date when the Declaration of Independence was officially adopted by Congress), in so doing becoming the first independent, foreign - recognized nation in the Americas and the first European colonial entity to break from its mother country. Britain formally acknowledged American independence in 1783 after its defeat in the American Revolutionary War.
Although initially occupying only the land east of the Mississippi between Canada and Florida, the United States would later eventually acquire various other North American territories from the British, French, Spanish, and Russians in succeeding years, effectively decolonizing these areas formerly under European control.
The American and French Revolutions had profound effects on the Spanish, Portuguese and French colonies in the Americas. Haiti, a French slave colony, was the first to follow the United States to independence, during the Haitian Revolution, which lasted from 1791 to 1804. Thwarted in his attempt to rebuild a French empire in North America, Napoleon Bonaparte sold Louisiana to the United States and from then on focused on the European theater, marking the end of France 's ambitions of building a colonial empire in the Western Hemisphere.
The Spanish Kingdoms in the Americas won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century.
During the Peninsula War, Napoleon installed his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish Throne and captured the King Fernando VII. Several assemblies were established after 1810 by the Criollos to recover the sovereignty and self - government based in Seven - Part Code, for restoration the laws of Castilian succession to rule the lands in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain.
This experience of self - government, along with the influence of Liberalism and the ideas of the French and American Revolutions, brought about a struggle for independence, led by the Libertadores. The territories freed themselves, often with help from foreign mercenaries and privateers. United States, Europe and the British Empire were neutral, aimed to achieve political influence and trade without the Spanish monopoly.
In South America, Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led the final phase of the independence struggle. Although Bolívar attempted to keep the Spanish - speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific.
A related process took place in what is now Mexico, Central America, and parts of North America between 1810 and 1821 with the Mexican War of Independence. Independence was achieved in 1821 by a coalition uniting under Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees. Unity was maintained for a short period under the First Mexican Empire, but within a decade the region fought against the United States over the border lands (losing bordering lands of California and Texas). Most of the heat was during the official Mexican - American War from 1846 to 1848.
In 1898, in the Greater Antilles, the United States won the Spanish -- American War and occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, ending Spanish territorial control in the Americas.
Unlike the Spanish, the Portuguese did not divide their colonial territory in the Americas. The captaincies they created were subdued to a centralized administration in Salvador which reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. Therefore, it is not common to refer to "Portuguese America '' (like Spanish America, Dutch America, etc.), but rather to Brazil, as a unified colony since its very beginnings.
As a result, Brazil did not split into several states by the time of Independence (1822), as happened to its Spanish - speaking neighbors. The adoption of monarchy instead of federal republic in the first six decades of Brazilian political sovereignty also contributed to the nation 's unity.
In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country 's independence in 1822 and became Brazil 's first Emperor. This was generally peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, although some guerrillas were fought between Portuguese troops and civilians. Portugal recognized Brazil 's independence 3 years later upon compensation.
Canada 's transition from colonial rule to independence occurred gradually over many decades and was achieved mostly through political means, as opposed to the violent revolutions that marked the end of colonialism in other North and South American countries. Attempts at revolting against the British, such as the Rebellion of 1837, were brief and quickly put down. Canada was declared a dominion within the British Empire in 1867. Originally, the Canadian Confederation included just a few of what are now Canada 's eastern provinces; other British colonies in modern - day Canada, such as British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland, would join later. Additionally, Britain 's and Norway 's claims to Arctic lands were ceded to Canada in the late 19th and early 20th century. By 1931, the United Kingdom had relinquished its control over Canada 's foreign policy. What few political links that remained between Canada and the UK were formally severed in 1982 with the Canada Act.
Other countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
From the United Kingdom:
From the Netherlands:
Some parts of the Americas are still administered by European countries or the USA:
Some of the remaining non-sovereign territories of the Americas have retained this status by choice, and enjoy a significant degree of self - government. (Some have nevertheless been placed on the U.N. list of Non-Self - Governing Territories, an ongoing subject of controversy.) Aruba, for example, seceded from the Netherlands Antilles on January 1, 1986, and became a separate, self - governing member of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Movement toward full independence by 1996 was halted at Aruba 's request in 1990. French Guiana, Guadeloupe and Martinique are not considered dependent territories of France, but have been "incorporated '' into France itself, as overseas départements (départements d'outre - mer, or DOM). Other regions however have had or currently have movements to change their political status, for example different movements to change the political status of Puerto Rico and intermittent calls for independence in other non-sovereign territories such as Martinique and others, with differing amounts of support.
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the big five personality dimensions have been shown to have | Big Five personality traits - wikipedia
The Big Five personality traits, also known as the five factor model (FFM), is a model based on common language descriptors of personality. When factor analysis (a statistical technique) is applied to personality survey data, some words used to describe aspects of personality are often applied to the same person. For example, someone described as conscientious is more likely to be described as "always prepared '' rather than "messy ''. This theory is based therefore on the association between words but not on neuropsychological experiments. This theory uses descriptors of common language and therefore suggests five broad dimensions commonly used to describe the human personality and psyche. The five factors have been defined as openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism, often represented by the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE. Beneath each proposed global factor, there are a number of correlated and more specific primary factors. For example, extraversion is said to include such related qualities as gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and positive emotions.
That these underlying factors can be found is consistent with the lexical hypothesis: personality characteristics that are most important in peoples ' lives will eventually become a part of their language and, secondly, that more important personality characteristics are more likely to be encoded into language as a single word.
The five factors are:
People who do not exhibit a clear tendency towards specific characteristics chosen from the above - mentioned related pairs in all five dimensions are considered adaptable, moderate and reasonable personalities, but can be perceived as unprincipled, inscrutable and calculating.
The Big Five personality traits was the model to comprehend the relationship between personality and academic behaviors. This model was defined by several independent sets of researchers. These researchers began by studying relationships between a large number of known personality traits. They reduced the lists of these traits (arbitrarily) by 5 -- 10 fold and then used factor analysis to group the remaining traits (using data mostly based upon people 's estimations, in self - report questionnaire and peer ratings) in order to find the underlying factors of personality.
The initial model was advanced by Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal in 1961, but failed to reach an academic audience until the 1980s. In 1990, J.M. Digman advanced his five - factor model of personality, which Lewis Goldberg extended to the highest level of organization. These five overarching domains have been found to contain and subsume most known personality traits and are assumed to represent the basic structure behind all personality traits.
At least four sets of researchers have worked independently for decades on this problem and have identified generally the same five factors: Tupes and Christal were first, followed by Goldberg at the Oregon Research Institute, Cattell at the University of Illinois, and Costa and McCrae at the National Institutes of Health. These four sets of researchers used somewhat different methods in finding the five traits, and thus each set of five factors has somewhat different names and definitions. However, all have been found to be highly inter-correlated and factor - analytically aligned. Studies indicate that the Big Five traits are not nearly as powerful in predicting and explaining actual behavior as are the more numerous facets or primary traits.
Each of the Big Five personality traits contains two separate, but correlated, aspects reflecting a level of personality below the broad domains but above the many facet scales that are also part of the Big Five. The aspects are labeled as follows: Volatility and Withdrawal for Neuroticism; Enthusiasm and Assertiveness for Extraversion; Intellect and Openness for Openness to Experience; Industriousness and Orderliness for Conscientiousness; and Compassion and Politeness for Agreeableness.
Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs.
A particular individual, however, may have a high overall openness score and be interested in learning and exploring new cultures but have no great interest in art or poetry.
Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self - discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and then declines among older adults.
Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity / situations, and energy creation from external means. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action - oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves.
Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low - key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation than extraverts and more time alone. This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations.
Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist Eysenck suggesting that these traits are connected somehow to our central nervous system
The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.
Disagreeable individuals place self - interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others ' well - being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others ' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative.
Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one 's agreeableness positively correlates with the quality of relationships with one 's team members. Agreeableness also positively predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in leadership positions in a variety of professions, individuals were asked to take a personality test and have two evaluations completed by directly supervised subordinates. Leaders with high levels of agreeableness were more likely to be considered transformational rather than transactional. Although the relationship was not strong, (r = 0.32, β = 0.28, p < 0.01) it was the strongest of the Big Five traits. However, the same study showed no predictive power of leadership effectiveness as evaluated by the leader 's direct supervisor. Agreeableness, however, has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills. Therefore, with further research organizations may be able to determine an individual 's potential for performance based on their personality traits.
Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Eysenck 's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli. Neuroticism is a classic temperament trait that has been studied in temperament research for decades, before it was adapted by the FFM. Since main properties of temperament traits are stability in life time and its neurophysiological basis, the FFM researchers used these properties of Neuroticism to support their model. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress, they also tend to be flippant in the way they express emotion. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism is connected to a pessimistic approach toward work, confidence that work impedes personal relationships, and apparent anxiety linked with work. Furthermore, those who score high on neuroticism may display more skin - conductance reactivity than those who score low on neuroticism. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. Lacking contentment in one 's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one 's likelihood of falling into clinical depression. Moreover, individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience more negative life events, but neuroticism also changes in response to positive and negative life experiences.
At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low - scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.
Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test.
In 1884, Sir Francis Galton was the first person who is known to have investigated the hypothesis that it is possible to derive a comprehensive taxonomy of human personality traits by sampling language: the lexical hypothesis. In 1936, Gordon Allport and S. Odbert put Sir Francis Galton 's hypothesis into practice by extracting 4,504 adjectives which they believed were descriptive of observable and relatively permanent traits from the dictionaries at that time. In 1940, Raymond Cattell retained the adjectives, and eliminated synonyms to reduce the total to 171. He constructed a self - report instrument for the clusters of personality traits he found from the adjectives, which he called the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. Based on a subset of only 20 of the 36 dimensions that Cattell had originally discovered, Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal claimed to have found just five broad factors which they labeled: "surgency '', "agreeableness '', "dependability '', "emotional stability '', and "culture ''. Warren Norman subsequently relabeled "dependability '' as "conscientiousness ''.
For the next two decades, the changing zeitgeist made publication of personality research difficult. In his 1968 book Personality and Assessment, Walter Mischel asserted that personality instruments could not predict behavior with a correlation of more than 0.3. Social psychologists like Mischel argued that attitudes and behavior were not stable, but varied with the situation. Predicting behavior from personality instruments was claimed to be impossible. However, it has subsequently been demonstrated empirically that the magnitude of the predictive correlations with real - life criteria can increase significantly under stressful emotional conditions (as opposed to the typical administration of personality measures under neutral emotional conditions), thereby accounting for a significantly greater proportion of the predictive variance.
In addition, emerging methodologies challenged this point of view during the 1980s. Instead of trying to predict single instances of behavior, which was unreliable, researchers found that they could predict patterns of behavior by aggregating large numbers of observations. As a result, correlations between personality and behavior increased substantially, and it was clear that "personality '' did in fact exist. Personality and social psychologists now generally agree that both personal and situational variables are needed to account for human behavior. Trait theories became justified, and there was a resurgence of interest in this area. In the 1980s, Lewis Goldberg started his own lexical project, emphasizing five broad factors once again. He later coined the term "Big Five '' as a label for the factors.
In a 1980 symposium in Honolulu, four prominent researchers, Lewis Goldberg, Naomi Takemoto - Chock, Andrew Comrey, and John M. Digman, reviewed the available personality instruments of the day. This event was followed by widespread acceptance of the five - factor model among personality researchers during the 1980s. Peter Saville and his team included the five - factor "Pentagon '' model with the original OPQ in 1984. Pentagon was closely followed by the NEO five - factor personality inventory, published by Costa and McCrae in 1985. However, the methodology employed in constructing the NEO instrument has been subjected to critical scrutiny (see section below).
There are debates between researchers of temperament and researchers of personality as to whether or not biologically - based differences define a concept of temperament or a part of personality. The presence of such differences in pre-cultural individuals (such as animals or young infants) suggests that they belong to temperament since personality is a socio - cultural concept. For this reason developmental psychologists generally interpret individual differences in children as an expression of temperament rather than personality. Some researchers argue that temperaments and personality traits are age - specific manifestations of virtually the same latent qualities. Some believe that early childhood temperaments may become adolescent and adult personality traits as individuals ' basic genetic characteristics actively, reactively, and passively interact with their changing environments.
Researchers of adult temperament point out that, similarly to sex, age and mental illness, temperament is based on biochemical systems whereas personality is a product of socialization of an individual possessing these four types of features. Temperament interacts with social - cultural factors, but still can not be controlled or easily changed by these factors. Therefore, it is suggested that temperament should be kept as an independent concept for further studies and not be conflated with personality. Moreover, temperament refers to dynamical features of behaviour (energetic, tempo, sensitivity and emotionality - related), whereas personality is to be considered a psycho - social construct comprising the content characteristics of human behavior (such as values, attitudes, habits, preferences, personal history, self - image). Temperament researchers point out that the lack of attention to extant temperament research by the developers of the Big Five model lead to an overlap between its dimensions and dimensions described in multiple temperament models much earlier. For example, neuroticism reflects the traditional temperament dimension of emotionality, extraversion the temperament dimension of "energy '' or "activity '', and openness to experience the temperament dimension of sensation - seeking.
Genetically informative research, including twin studies, suggest that heritability and environmental factors both influence all five factors to the same degree. Among four recent twin studies, the mean percentage for heritability was calculated for each personality and it was concluded that heritability influenced the five factors broadly. The self - report measures were as follows: openness to experience was estimated to have a 57 % genetic influence, extraversion 54 %, conscientiousness 49 %, neuroticism 48 %, and agreeableness 42 %.
The Big Five personality traits have been assessed in some non-human species but methodology is debatable. In one series of studies, human ratings of chimpanzees using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire, revealed factors of extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness -- as well as an additional factor of dominance -- across hundreds of chimpanzees in zoological parks, a large naturalistic sanctuary, and a research laboratory. Neuroticism and openness factors were found in an original zoo sample, but were not replicated in a new zoo sample or in other settings (perhaps reflecting the design of the CPQ). A study review found that markers for the three dimensions extraversion, neuroticism, and agreeableness were found most consistently across different species, followed by openness; only chimpanzees showed markers for conscientious behavior.
Research on the Big Five, and personality in general, has focused primarily on individual differences in adulthood, rather than in childhood and adolescence, and often include temperament traits. Recently, there has been growing recognition of the need to study child and adolescent personality trait development in order to understand how traits develop and change throughout the lifespan.
Recent studies have begun to explore the developmental origins and trajectories of the Big Five among children and adolescents, especially those that relate to temperament. Many researchers have sought to distinguish between personality and temperament. Temperament often refers to early behavioral and affective characteristics that are thought to be driven primarily by genes. Models of temperament often include four trait dimensions: surgency / sociability, negative emotionality, persistence / effortful control, and activity level. Some of these differences in temperament are evident at, if not before, birth. For example, both parents and researchers recognize that some newborn infants are peaceful and easily soothed while others are comparatively fussy and hard to calm. Unlike temperament, however, many researchers view the development of personality as gradually occurring throughout childhood. Contrary to some researchers who question whether children have stable personality traits, Big Five or otherwise, most researchers contend that there are significant psychological differences between children that are associated with relatively stable, distinct, and salient behavior patterns.
The structure, manifestations, and development of the Big Five in childhood and adolescence has been studied using a variety of methods, including parent - and teacher - ratings, preadolescent and adolescent self - and peer - ratings, and observations of parent - child interactions. Results from these studies support the relative stability of personality traits across the human lifespan, at least from preschool age through adulthood. More specifically, research suggests that four of the Big Five -- namely Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - reliably describe personality differences in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. However, some evidence suggests that Openness may not be a fundamental, stable part of childhood personality. Although some researchers have found that Openness in children and adolescents relates to attributes such as creativity, curiosity, imagination, and intellect, many researchers have failed to find distinct individual differences in Openness in childhood and early adolescence. Potentially, Openness may (a) manifest in unique, currently unknown ways in childhood or (b) may only manifest as children develop socially and cognitively. Other studies have found evidence for all of the Big Five traits in childhood and adolescence as well as two other child - specific traits: Irritability and Activity. Despite these specific differences, the majority of findings suggest that personality traits -- particularly Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness - are evident in childhood and adolescence and are associated with distinct social - emotional patterns of behavior that are largely consistent with adult manifestations of those same personality traits. Some researchers have proposed the youth personality trait is best described by six trait dimensions: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and activity. Despite some preliminary evidence for this "Little Six '' model, research in this area has been delayed by a lack of available measures.
Previous research has found evidence that most adults become more agreeable, conscientious, and less neurotic as they age. This has been referred to as the maturation effect. Many researchers have sought to investigate how trends in adult personality development compare to trends in youth personality development. Two main population - level indices have been important in this area of research: rank - order consistency and mean - level consistency. Rank - order consistency indicates the relative placement of individuals within a group. Mean - level consistency indicates whether groups increase or decrease on certain traits throughout the lifetime.
Findings from these studies indicate that, consistent with adult personality trends, youth personality becomes increasingly more stable in terms of rank - order throughout childhood. Unlike adult personality research, which indicates that people become agreeable, conscientious, and emotionally stable with age, some findings in youth personality research have indicated that mean - levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience decline from late childhood to late adolescence. The disruption hypothesis, which proposes that biological, social, and psychological changes experienced during youth result in temporary dips in maturity, has been proposed to explain these findings.
In Big Five studies, extraversion has been associated with surgency. Children with high Extraversion are energetic, talkative, social, and dominant with children and adults; whereas, children with low Extraversion tend to be quiet, calm, inhibited, and submissive to other children and adults. Individual differences in Extraversion first manifest in infancy as varying levels of positive emotionality. These differences in turn predict social and physical activity during later childhood and may represent, or be associated with, the behavioral activation system. In children, Extraversion / Positive Emotionality includes four sub-traits: three traits that are similar to the previously described traits of temperament -- activity, sociability, shyness, and the trait of dominance.
Many studies of longitudinal data, which correlate people 's test scores over time, and cross-sectional data, which compare personality levels across different age groups, show a high degree of stability in personality traits during adulthood, especially Neuroticism trait that is often regarded as a temperament trait similarly to longitudinal research in temperament for the same traits. It is shown that the personality stabilizes for working - age individuals within about four years after starting working. There is also little evidence that adverse life events can have any significant impact on the personality of individuals. More recent research and meta - analyses of previous studies, however, indicate that change occurs in all five traits at various points in the lifespan. The new research shows evidence for a maturation effect. On average, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness typically increase with time, whereas extraversion, neuroticism, and openness tend to decrease. Research has also demonstrated that changes in Big Five personality traits depend on the individual 's current stage of development. For example, levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness demonstrate a negative trend during childhood and early adolescence before trending upwards during late adolescence and into adulthood. In addition to these group effects, there are individual differences: different people demonstrate unique patterns of change at all stages of life.
In addition, some research (Fleeson, 2001) suggests that the Big Five should not be conceived of as dichotomies (such as extraversion vs. introversion) but as continua. Each individual has the capacity to move along each dimension as circumstances (social or temporal) change. He is or she is therefore not simply on one end of each trait dichotomy but is a blend of both, exhibiting some characteristics more often than others:
Research regarding personality with growing age has suggested that as individuals enter their elder years (79 -- 86), those with lower IQ see a raise in extraversion, but a decline in conscientiousness and physical well being.
Research by Cobb - Clark and Schurer indicates that personality traits are generally stable among adult workers. The research done on personality also mirrors previous results on locus of control.
Cross-cultural research has shown some patterns of gender differences on responses to the NEO-PI - R and the Big Five Inventory. For example, women consistently report higher Neuroticism, Agreeableness, warmth (an extraversion facet) and openness to feelings, and men often report higher assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and openness to ideas as assessed by the NEO-PI - R.
A study of gender differences in 55 nations using the Big Five Inventory found that women tended to be somewhat higher than men in neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. The difference in neuroticism was the most prominent and consistent, with significant differences found in 49 of the 55 nations surveyed. Gender differences in personality traits are largest in prosperous, healthy, and more gender - egalitarian cultures. A plausible explanation for this is that acts by women in individualistic, egalitarian countries are more likely to be attributed to their personality, rather than being attributed to ascribed gender roles within collectivist, traditional countries. Differences in the magnitude of sex differences between more or less developed world regions were due to differences between men, not women, in these respective regions. That is, men in highly developed world regions were less neurotic, extraverted, conscientious and agreeable compared to men in less developed world regions. Women, on the other hand tended not to differ in personality traits across regions. The most simple explanation for this gender data is that women remain relatively resource - poor, regardless of the circumstances of males within a first - world country. However, the authors of this study speculated that resource - poor environments (that is, countries with low levels of development) may inhibit the development of gender differences, whereas resource - rich environments facilitate them. This may be because males require more resources than females in order to reach their full developmental potential. The authors also argued that due to different evolutionary pressures, men may have evolved to be more risk taking and socially dominant, whereas women evolved to be more cautious and nurturing. Ancient hunter - gatherer societies may have been more egalitarian than later agriculturally oriented societies. Hence, the development of gender inequalities may have acted to constrain the development of gender differences in personality that originally evolved in hunter - gatherer societies. As modern societies have become more egalitarian, again, it may be that innate sex differences are no longer constrained and hence manifest more fully than in less - developed cultures. Currently, this hypothesis remains untested, as gender differences in modern societies have not been compared with those in hunter - gatherer societies.
Frank Sulloway argues that firstborns are more conscientious, more socially dominant, less agreeable, and less open to new ideas compared to laterborns. Large - scale studies using random samples and self - report personality tests, however, have found milder effects than Sulloway claimed, or no significant effects of birth order on personality.
In 2002, the journal of psychology posted a Big Five Personality Trait Difference; Researchers explored relationship between the five factor model and the Universal - Diverse Orientation (UDO) in councillor trainees. (Thompson, R., Brossart, D., and Mivielle, A., 2002) UDO is known as one social attitude that produces a strong awareness and / or acceptance towards the similaralities and difference among individuals. (Miville, M., Romas, J., Johnson, J., and Lon, R. 2002) The study has shown the councillor trainees that are more open to the idea of creative expressions among individuals are more likely to work with a diverse group of clients, and feel comfortable in their role. (Thompson, R. et al. 2002)
The Big Five have been pursued in a variety of languages and cultures, such as German, Chinese, Indian, etc. For example, Thompson has claimed to find the Big Five structure across several cultures using an international English language scale. Cheung, van de Vijver, and Leong (2011) suggest, however, that the Openness factor is particularly unsupported in Asian countries and that a different fifth factor is identified.
Recent work has found relationships between Geert Hofstede 's cultural factors, Individualism, Power Distance, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance, with the average Big Five scores in a country. For instance, the degree to which a country values individualism correlates with its average extraversion, whereas people living in cultures which are accepting of large inequalities in their power structures tend to score somewhat higher on conscientiousness.
Personality differences around the world might even have contributed to the emergence of different political systems. A recent study has found that countries ' average personality trait levels are correlated with their political systems: countries with higher average trait Openness tended to have more democratic institutions, an association that held even after factoring out other relevant influences such as economic development.
Attempts to replicate the Big Five in other countries with local dictionaries have succeeded in some countries but not in others. Apparently, for instance, Hungarians do not appear to have a single agreeableness factor. Other researchers have found evidence for agreeableness but not for other factors. It is important to recognize that individual differences in traits are relevant in a specific cultural context, and that the traits do not have their effects outside of that context
As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the FFM to personality disorders. Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms of the FFM domains.
In her review of the personality disorder literature published in 2007, Lee Anna Clark asserted that "the five - factor model of personality is widely accepted as representing the higher - order structure of both normal and abnormal personality traits ''. However, other researches disagree that this model is widely accepted (see the section Critique below) and suggest that it simply replicates early temperament research. Noticeably, FFM publications never compare their findings to temperament models even though temperament and mental disorders (especially personality disorders) are thought to be based on the same neurotransmitter imbalances, just to varying degrees.
The five - factor model was claimed to significantly predict all ten personality disorder symptoms and outperform the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) in the prediction of borderline, avoidant, and dependent personality disorder symptoms. However, most predictions related to an increase in Neuroticism and a decrease in Agreeableness, and therefore did not differentiate between the disorders very well.
Converging evidence from several nationally representative studies has established three classes of mental disorders which are especially common in the general population: Depressive disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder (MDD), dysthymic disorder), anxiety disorders (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), panic disorder, agoraphobia, specific phobia, and social phobia), and substance use disorders (SUDs).
These common mental disorders (CMDs) have been empirically linked to the Big Five personality traits, neuroticism in particular. Numerous studies have found that having high scores of neuroticism significantly increases one 's risk for developing a CMD. A large - scale meta - analysis (n > 75,000) examining the relationship between all of the Big Five personality traits and CMDs found that low conscientiousness yielded consistently strong effects for each CMD examined (i.e., MDD, dysthymic disorder, GAD, PTSD, panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobia, and SUD). This finding parallels research on physical health, which has established that conscientiousness is the strongest personality predictor of mortality and is highly correlated with making poor health choices. In regards to the other personality domains, the meta - analysis found that all CMDs examined were defined by high neuroticism, most exhibited low extraversion, only SUD was linked to agreeableness (negatively), and no disorders were associated with Openness. A meta - analysis of 59 longitudinal studies showed that high neuroticism predicted the development of anxiety, depression, substance abuse, psychosis, schizophrenia, and non-specific mental distress, also after adjustment for baseline symptoms and psychiatric history.
Five major models have been posed to explain the nature of the relationship between personality and mental illness. There is currently no single "best model '', as each of them has received at least some empirical support. It is also important to note that these models are not mutually exclusive -- more than one may be operating for a particular individual and various mental disorders may be explained by different models.
Being highly conscientious may add as much as five years to one 's life. The Big Five personality traits also predict positive health outcomes. In an elderly Japanese sample, conscientiousness, extraversion, and openness were related to lower risk of mortality.
Personality plays an important role that affects academic achievement. A study conducted with 308 undergraduates who completed the Five Factor Inventory Processes and offered their GPA suggested that conscientiousness and agreeableness have a positive relationship with all types of learning styles (synthesis analysis, methodical study, fact retention, and elaborative processing), whereas neuroticism has an inverse relationship with them all. Moreover, extraversion and openness were proportional to elaborative processing. The Big Five personality traits accounted for 14 % of the variance in GPA, suggesting that personality traits make some contributions to academic performance. Furthermore, reflective learning styles (synthesis - analysis and elaborative processing) were able to mediate the relationship between openness and GPA. These results indicate that intellectual curiousness has significant enhancement in academic performance if students can combine their scholarly interest with thoughtful information processing.
A recent study of Israeli high - school students found that those in the gifted program systematically scored higher on openness and lower on neuroticism than those not in the gifted program. While not a measure of the Big Five, gifted students also reported less state anxiety than students not in the gifted program. Specific Big Five personality traits predict learning styles in addition to academic success.
Studies conducted on college students have concluded that hope, which is linked to agreeableness, has a positive effect on psychological well being. Individuals high in neurotic tendencies are less likely to display hopeful tendencies and are negatively associated with well - being. Personality can sometimes be flexible and measuring the big five personality for individuals as they enter certain stages of life may predict their educational identity. Recent studies have suggested the likelihood of an individual 's personality affecting their educational identity.
Learning styles have been described as "enduring ways of thinking and processing information ''.
Although there is no evidence that personality determines thinking styles, they may be intertwined in ways that link thinking styles to the Big Five personality traits. There is no general consensus on the number or specifications of particular learning styles, but there have been many different proposals.
Smeck, Ribicj, and Ramanaih (1997) defined four types of learning styles:
When all four facets are implicated within the classroom, they will each likely improve academic achievement. This model asserts that students develop either agentic / shallow processing or reflective / deep processing. Deep processors are more often than not found to be more conscientious, intellectually open, and extraverted when compared to shallow processors. Deep processing is associated with appropriate study methods (methodical study) and a stronger ability to analyze information (synthesis analysis), whereas shallow processors prefer structured fact retention learning styles and are better suited for elaborative processing. The main functions of these four specific learning styles are as follows:
Openness has been linked to learning styles that often lead to academic success and higher grades like synthesis analysis and methodical study. Because conscientiousness and openness have been shown to predict all four learning styles, it suggests that individuals who possess characteristics like discipline, determination, and curiosity are more likely to engage in all of the above learning styles.
According to the research carried out by Komarraju, Karau, Schmeck & Avdic (2011), conscientiousness and agreeableness are positively related with all four learning styles, whereas neuroticism was negatively related with those four. Furthermore, extraversion and openness were only positively related to elaborative processing, and openness itself correlated with higher academic achievement.
Besides openness, all Big Five personality traits helped predict the educational identity of students. Based on these findings, scientists are beginning to see that there might be a large influence of the Big Five traits on academic motivation that then leads to predicting a student 's academic performance.
Some authors suggested that Big Five personality traits combined with learning styles can help predict some variations in the academic performance and the academic motivation of an individual which can then influence their academic achievements. This may be seen because individual differences in personality represent stable approaches to information processing. For instance, conscientiousness has consistently emerged as a stable predictor of success in exam performance, largely because conscientious students experience fewer study delays. The reason conscientiousness shows a positive association with the four learning styles is because students with high levels of conscientiousness develop focused learning strategies and appear to be more disciplined and achievement - oriented.
The Association for Psychological Science (APS), however, recently commissioned a report whose conclusion indicates that no significant evidence exists to make the conclusion that learning - style assessments should be included in the education system. The APS also suggested in their report that all existing learning styles have not been exhausted and that there could exist learning styles that have the potential to be worthy of being included in educational practices. Thus it is premature, at best, to conclude that the evidence linking the Big Five to "learning styles '', or "learning styles '' to learning itself, is valid.
Within organizational communication, personality is taken into account of how a person carries themselves in the workplace. The five factor personality theory encompasses five different personalities which are as follows: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Openness is being original and having imagination. Conscientiousness is being goal oriented with a willingness to achieve. Extraversion is being sociable and being an emotionally positive person. Agreeableness is being able to adapt and as a leader make necessary accommodations. The last personality trait was neuroticism which is usually when a leader tends to be negative emotionally and having a need for stability.
It is believed that the Big Five traits are predictors of future performance outcomes. Job outcome measures include job and training proficiency and personnel data. However, research demonstrating such prediction has been criticized, in part because of the apparently low correlation coefficients characterizing the relationship between personality and job performance. In a 2007 article co-authored by six current or former editors of psychological journals, Dr. Kevin Murphy, Professor of Psychology at Pennsylvania State University and Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology (1996 -- 2002), states:
Such criticisms were put forward by Walter Mischel, whose publication caused a two - decades ' long crisis in personality psychometrics. However, later work demonstrated (1) that the correlations obtained by psychometric personality researchers were actually very respectable by comparative standards, and (2) that the economic value of even incremental increases in prediction accuracy was exceptionally large, given the vast difference in performance by those who occupy complex job positions.
There have been studies that link national innovation to openness to experience and conscientiousness. Those who express these traits have showed leadership and beneficial ideas towards the country of origin.
Some businesses, organizations, and interviewers assess individuals based on the Big Five personality traits. Research has suggested that individuals who are considered leaders typically exhibit lower amounts of neurotic traits, maintain higher levels of openness (envisioning success), balanced levels of conscientiousness (well - organized), and balanced levels of extraversion (outgoing, but not excessive). Further studies have linked professional burnout to neuroticism, and extraversion to enduring positive work experience. When it comes to making money, research has suggested that those who are high in agreeableness (especially men) are not as successful in accumulating income.
Some research suggests that vocational outcomes are correlated to Big Five personality traits. Conscientiousness predicts job performance in general. In addition, research has demonstrated that Agreeableness is negatively related to salary. Those high in Agreeableness make less, on average, than those low in the same trait. Neuroticism is also negatively related to salary while Conscientiousness and Extraversion are positive predictors of salary. Occupational self - efficacy has also been shown to be positively correlated with conscientiousness and negatively correlated with neuroticism. Significant predictors of career - advancement goals are: extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness.
Research designed to investigate the individual effects of Big Five personality traits on work performance via worker completed surveys and supervisor ratings of work performance has implicated individual traits in several different work roles performances. A "work role '' is defined as the responsibilities an individual has while they are working. Nine work roles have been identified, which can be classified in three broader categories: proficiency (the ability of a worker to effectively perform their work duties), adaptivity (a workers ability to change working strategies in response to changing work environments), and proactivity (extent to which a worker will spontaneously put forth effort to change the work environment). These three categories of behavior can then be directed towards three different levels: either the individual, team, or organizational level leading to the nine different work role performance possibilities.
Two theories have been integrated in an attempt to account for these differences in work role performance. Trait activation theory posits that within a person trait levels predict future behavior, that trait levels differ between people, and that work - related cues activate traits which leads to work relevant behaviors. Role theory suggests that role senders provide cues to elicit desired behaviors. In this context, role senders (i.e.: supervisors, managers, et cetera) provide workers with cues for expected behaviors, which in turn activates personality traits and work relevant behaviors. In essence, expectations of the role sender lead to different behavioral outcomes depending on the trait levels of individual workers and because people differ in trait levels, responses to these cues will not be universal.
The Big Five model of personality was used for attempts to predict satisfaction in romantic relationships, relationship quality in dating, engaged, and married couples.
Dating couples
Engaged couples
Married couples
These reports are, however, rare and not conclusive.
The predictive effects of the Big Five personality traits relate mostly to social functioning and rules - driven behavior and are not very specific for prediction of particular aspects of behavior. For example, it was noted that high neuroticism precedes the development of all common mental disorders., and this trait does not even always attributed to personality by temperament researchers. Further evidence is required to fully uncover the nature and differences between personality traits, temperament and life outcomes. Social and contextual parameters also play a role in outcomes and the interaction between the two is not yet fully understood.
Several measures of the Big Five exist:
The most frequently used measures of the Big Five comprise either items that are self - descriptive sentences or, in the case of lexical measures, items that are single adjectives. Due to the length of sentence - based and some lexical measures, short forms have been developed and validated for use in applied research settings where questionnaire space and respondent time are limited, such as the 40 - item balanced International English Big - Five Mini-Markers or a very brief (10 item) measure of the Big Five domains. Research has suggested that some methodologies in administering personality tests are inadequate in length and provide insufficient detail to truly evaluate personality. Usually, longer, more detailed questions will give a more accurate portrayal of personality. The five factor structure has been replicated in peer reports. However, many of the substantive findings rely on self - reports.
Much of the evidence on the measures of the Big 5 relies on self - report questionnaires, which makes self - report bias and falsification of responses difficult to deal with and account for. It has been argued that the Big Five tests do not create an accurate personality profile because the responses given on these tests are not true in all cases. For example, questionnaires are answered by potential employees who might choose answers that paint them in the best light.
Research suggests that a relative - scored Big Five measure in which respondents had to make repeated choices between equally desirable personality descriptors may be a potential alternative to traditional Big Five measures in accurately assessing personality traits, especially when lying or biased responding is present. When compared with a traditional Big Five measure for its ability to predict GPA and creative achievement under both normal and "fake good '' - bias response conditions, the relative - scored measure significantly and consistently predicted these outcomes under both conditions; however, the Likert questionnaire lost its predictive ability in the faking condition. Thus, the relative - scored measure proved to be less affected by biased responding than the Likert measure of the Big Five.
Andrew H. Schwartz analyzed 700 million words, phrases, and topic instances collected from the Facebook messages of 75,000 volunteers, who also took standard personality tests, and found striking variations in language with personality, gender, and age.
The proposed Big Five model has been subjected to considerable critical scrutiny and defense for the model.
Subsequent critical replies by Jack Block at the University of California Berkeley followed. It has been argued that there are limitations to the scope of the Big Five model as an explanatory or predictive theory. It has also been argued that measures of the Big Five account for only 56 % of the normal personality trait sphere alone (not even considering the abnormal personality trait sphere). Also, the static Big Five is not theory - driven, it is merely a statistically - driven investigation of certain descriptors that tend to cluster together often based on less than optimal factor analytic procedures. Measures of the Big Five constructs appear to show some consistency in interviews, self - descriptions and observations, and this static five - factor structure seems to be found across a wide range of participants of different ages and cultures. However, while genotypic temperament trait dimensions might appear across different cultures, the phenotypic expression of personality traits differs profoundly across different cultures as a function of the different socio - cultural conditioning and experiential learning that takes place within different cultural settings.
Moreover, the fact that the Big Five model was based on lexical hypothesis, (i.e. on the verbal descriptors of individual differences) indicated strong methodological flaws in this model, especially related to its main factors, Extraversion and Neuroticism. First, there is a natural pro-social bias of language in people 's verbal evaluations. After all, language is an invention of group dynamics that was developed to facilitate socialization, the exchange of information and to synchronize group activity. This social function of language therefore creates a sociability bias in verbal descriptors of human behaviour: there are more words related to social than physical or even mental aspects of behavior. The sheer number of such descriptors will cause them to group into a largest factor in any language, and such grouping has nothing to do with the way that core systems of individual differences are set up. Second, there is also a negativity bias in emotionality (i.e. most emotions have negative affectivity), and there are more words in language to describe negative rather than positive emotions. Such asymmetry in emotional valence creates another bias in language. Experiments using the lexical hypothesis approach indeed demonstrated that the use of lexical material skews the resulting dimensionality according to a sociability bias of language and a negativity bias of emotionality, grouping all evaluations around these two dimensions. This means that the two largest dimensions in the Big Five model might be just an artifact of the lexical approach that this model employed.
One common criticism is that the Big Five does not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model precisely because they feel it neglects other domains of personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness / machiavellianism, honesty, sexiness / seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, masculinity / femininity, snobbishness / egotism, sense of humour, and risk - taking / thrill - seeking. Dan P. McAdams has called the Big Five a "psychology of the stranger '', because they refer to traits that are relatively easy to observe in a stranger; other aspects of personality that are more privately held or more context - dependent are excluded from the Big Five.
In many studies, the five factors are not fully orthogonal to one another; that is, the five factors are not independent. Orthogonality is viewed as desirable by some researchers because it minimizes redundancy between the dimensions. This is particularly important when the goal of a study is to provide a comprehensive description of personality with as few variables as possible.
Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors. A five factor solution depends on some degree of interpretation by the analyst. A larger number of factors may underlie these five factors. This has led to disputes about the "true '' number of factors. Big Five proponents have responded that although other solutions may be viable in a single dataset, only the five factor structure consistently replicates across different studies.
Moreover, the factor analysis that this model is based on is a linear method incapable of capturing nonlinear, feedback and contingent relationships between core systems of individual differences.
A frequent criticism is that the Big Five is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. Although this does not mean that these five factors do not exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.
Jack Block 's final published work before his death in January 2010 drew together his lifetime perspective on the five - factor model.
He summarized his critique of the model in terms of:
He went on to suggest that repeatedly observed higher order factors hierarchically above the proclaimed Big Five personality traits may promise deeper biological understanding of the origins and implications of these superfactors.
It has been noted that even though early lexical studies in the English language indicated five large groups of personality traits, more recent, and more comprehensive, cross-language studies have provided evidence for six large groups rather than five. These six groups forms the basis of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Based on these findings it has been suggested that the Big Five system should be replaced by HEXACO, or revised to better align with lexical evidence.
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how many set of paired gradient are present in clinical mr scanner | Physics of magnetic Resonance imaging - wikipedia
The physics of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involves the interaction of biological tissue with electromagnetic fields. MRI is a medical imaging technique used in radiology to investigate the anatomy and physiology of the body. The human body is largely composed of water molecules, each containing two hydrogen nuclei, or protons. When inside the magnetic field (B) of the scanner, the magnetic moments of these protons align with the direction of the field.
A radio frequency pulse is then applied, causing the protons to alter their magnetization alignment relative to the field. In response to the force bringing them back to their equilibrium orientation, the protons undergo a rotating motion (precession), much like a spin wheel under the effect of gravity. These changes in magnetization alignment cause a changing magnetic flux, which yields a changing voltage in receiver coils to give the signal. The frequency at which a proton or group of protons in a voxel resonates depends on the strength of the local magnetic field around the proton or group of protons. By applying additional magnetic fields (gradients) that vary linearly over space, specific slices to be imaged can be selected, and an image is obtained by taking the 2 - D Fourier transform of the spatial frequencies of the signal (a.k.a., k - space). Due to the magnetic Lorentz force from B on the current flowing in the gradient coils, the gradient coils will try to move. The knocking sounds heard during an MRI scan are the result of the gradient coils trying to move against the constraint of the concrete or epoxy in which they are secured. These sounds can be very unnerving to the patient, particularly given the tight space in which the patient lays. This behaviour of MRI scanners can be described in terms of a fully coupled acousto - magneto - mechanical system. Solutions to such systems can provide useful insight for design engineers.
Diseased tissue, such as tumors, can be detected because the protons in different tissues return to their equilibrium state at different rates (i.e., they have different relaxation times). By changing the parameters on the scanner this effect is used to create contrast between different types of body tissue.
Contrast agents may be injected intravenously to enhance the appearance of blood vessels, tumors or inflammation. Contrast agents may also be directly injected into a joint in the case of arthrograms, MRI images of joints. Unlike CT, MRI uses no ionizing radiation and is generally a very safe procedure. Patients with some metal implants, cochlear implants, and cardiac pacemakers are prevented from having an MRI scan due to effects of the strong magnetic field and powerful radio frequency pulses unless the device they carry is labeled MR - Conditional.
MRI is used to image every part of the body, and is particularly useful for neurological conditions, for disorders of the muscles and joints, for evaluating tumors, and for showing abnormalities in the heart and blood vessels.
Subatomic particles have the quantum mechanical property of spin. Certain nuclei such as H (protons), H, He, Na or P, have a non -- zero spin and therefore a magnetic moment. In the case of the so - called spin - ⁄ nuclei, such as H, there are two spin states, sometimes referred to as up and down. Nuclei such as C have no unpaired neutrons or protons, and no net spin; however, the isotope C does.
When these spins are placed in a strong external magnetic field they precess around an axis along the direction of the field. Protons align in two energy eigenstates (the Zeeman effect): one low - energy and one high - energy, which are separated by a very small splitting energy.
In the static magnetic fields commonly used in MRI, the energy difference between the nuclear spin states corresponds to a radio - frequency photon. Resonant absorption of energy by the protons due to an external oscillating magnetic field will occur at the Larmor frequency for the particular nucleus.
The spin of the proton has two states. The net longitudinal magnetization in thermodynamical equilibrium is due to a tiny excess of protons in the lower energy state. This gives a net polarization that is parallel to the external field. Application of a radio frequency (RF) pulse can tip this net polarization vector sideways (with, i.e., a so - called 90 ° pulse), or even reverse it (with a so - called 180 ° pulse).
The recovery of longitudinal magnetization is called longitudinal or T relaxation and occurs exponentially with a time constant T. The loss of phase coherence in the transverse plane is called transverse or T relaxation. T is thus associated with the enthalpy of the spin system, or the number of nuclei with parallel versus anti-parallel spin. T on the other hand is associated with the entropy of the system, or the number of nuclei in phase.
When the radio frequency pulse is turned off, the transverse vector component produces an oscillating magnetic field which induces a small current in the receiver coil. This signal is called the free induction decay (FID). In an idealized nuclear magnetic resonance experiment, the FID decays approximately exponentially with a time constant T. However in practical MRI there are small differences in the static magnetic field at different spatial locations ("inhomogeneities '') that cause the Larmor frequency to vary across the body. This creates destructive interference, which shortens the FID. The time constant for the observed decay of the FID is called the T relaxation time, and is always shorter than T. At the same time, the longitudinal magnetization starts to recover exponentially with a time constant T which is much larger than T (see below).
In MRI, the static magnetic field is caused to vary across the body (by using a field gradient), so that different spatial locations become associated with different precession frequencies. Usually these field gradients are pulsed, and it is the almost infinite variety of RF and gradient pulse sequences that gives MRI its versatility. Application of field gradient destroys the FID signal, but this can be recovered and measured by a refocusing gradient (to create a so - called "gradient echo ''), or by a radio frequency pulse (to create a so - called "spin - echo ''). The whole process can be repeated when some T - relaxation has occurred and the thermal equilibrium of the spins has been more or less restored. The repetition time (TR) is the time between two successive excitations of the same slice.
Typically, in soft tissues T is around one second while T and T are a few tens of milliseconds. However, these values can vary widely between different tissues, as well as between different external magnetic fields. This behavior is one factor giving MRI its tremendous soft tissue contrast.
MRI contrast agents, such as those containing Gadolinium (III) work by altering (shortening) the relaxation parameters, especially T.
A number of schemes have been devised for combining field gradients and radio frequency excitation to create an image:
Although each of these schemes is occasionally used in specialist applications, the majority of MR Images today are created either by the two - dimensional Fourier transform (2DFT) technique with slice selection, or by the three - dimensional Fourier transform (3DFT) technique. Another name for 2DFT is spin - warp. What follows here is a description of the 2DFT technique with slice selection.
The 3DFT technique is rather similar except that there is no slice selection and phase - encoding is performed in two separate directions.
Another scheme which is sometimes used, especially in brain scanning or where images are needed very rapidly, is called echo - planar imaging (EPI): In this case, each RF excitation is followed by a train of gradient echoes with different spatial encoding. Multiplexed - EPI is even faster, e.g., for whole brain fMRI or diffusion MRI.
Image contrast is created by differences in the strength of the NMR signal recovered from different locations within the sample. This depends upon the relative density of excited nuclei (usually water protons), on differences in relaxation times (T, T, and T) of those nuclei after the pulse sequence, and often on other parameters discussed under specialized MR scans. Contrast in most MR images is actually a mixture of all these effects, but careful design of the imaging pulse sequence allows one contrast mechanism to be emphasized while the others are minimized. The ability to choose different contrast mechanisms gives MRI tremendous flexibility. In the brain, T - weighting causes the nerve connections of white matter to appear white, and the congregations of neurons of gray matter to appear gray, while cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) appears dark. The contrast of white matter, gray matter and cerebrospinal fluid is reversed using T or T imaging, whereas proton - density - weighted imaging provides little contrast in healthy subjects. Additionally, functional parameters such as cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral blood volume (CBV) or blood oxygenation can affect T, T, and T and so can be encoded with suitable pulse sequences.
In some situations it is not possible to generate enough image contrast to adequately show the anatomy or pathology of interest by adjusting the imaging parameters alone, in which case a contrast agent may be administered. This can be as simple as water, taken orally, for imaging the stomach and small bowel. However, most contrast agents used in MRI are selected for their specific magnetic properties. Most commonly, a paramagnetic contrast agent (usually a gadolinium compound) is given. Gadolinium - enhanced tissues and fluids appear extremely bright on T - weighted images. This provides high sensitivity for detection of vascular tissues (e.g., tumors) and permits assessment of brain perfusion (e.g., in stroke). There have been concerns raised recently regarding the toxicity of gadolinium - based contrast agents and their impact on persons with impaired kidney function. (See Safety / Contrast agents below.)
More recently, superparamagnetic contrast agents, e.g., iron oxide nanoparticles, have become available. These agents appear very dark on T - weighted images and may be used for liver imaging, as normal liver tissue retains the agent, but abnormal areas (e.g., scars, tumors) do not. They can also be taken orally, to improve visualization of the gastrointestinal tract, and to prevent water in the gastrointestinal tract from obscuring other organs (e.g., the pancreas). Diamagnetic agents such as barium sulfate have also been studied for potential use in the gastrointestinal tract, but are less frequently used.
In 1983, Ljunggren and Twieg independently introduced the k - space formalism, a technique that proved invaluable in unifying different MR imaging techniques. They showed that the demodulated MR signal S (t) generated by freely precessing nuclear spins in the presence of a linear magnetic field gradient G equals the Fourier transform of the effective spin density. Mathematically:
where:
In other words, as time progresses the signal traces out a trajectory in k - space with the velocity vector of the trajectory proportional to the vector of the applied magnetic field gradient. By the term effective spin density we mean the true spin density ρ (x →) (\ displaystyle \ rho ((\ vec (x)))) corrected for the effects of T preparation, T decay, dephasing due to field inhomogeneity, flow, diffusion, etc. and any other phenomena that affect that amount of transverse magnetization available to induce signal in the RF probe or its phase with respect to the receiving coil ' s electromagnetic field.
From the basic k - space formula, it follows immediately that we reconstruct an image I (x →) (\ displaystyle I ((\ vec (x)))) simply by taking the inverse Fourier transform of the sampled data, viz.
Using the k - space formalism, a number of seemingly complex ideas became simple. For example, it becomes very easy to understand the role of phase encoding (the so - called spin - warp method). In a standard spin echo or gradient echo scan, where the readout (or view) gradient is constant (e.g., G), a single line of k - space is scanned per RF excitation. When the phase encoding gradient is zero, the line scanned is the k axis. When a non-zero phase - encoding pulse is added in between the RF excitation and the commencement of the readout gradient, this line moves up or down in k - space, i.e., we scan the line k = constant.
The k - space formalism also makes it very easy to compare different scanning techniques. In single - shot EPI, all of k - space is scanned in a single shot, following either a sinusoidal or zig - zag trajectory. Since alternating lines of k - space are scanned in opposite directions, this must be taken into account in the reconstruction. Multi-shot EPI and fast spin echo techniques acquire only part of k - space per excitation. In each shot, a different interleaved segment is acquired, and the shots are repeated until k - space is sufficiently well - covered. Since the data at the center of k - space represent lower spatial frequencies than the data at the edges of k - space, the T value for the center of k - space determines the image 's T contrast.
The importance of the center of k - space in determining image contrast can be exploited in more advanced imaging techniques. One such technique is spiral acquisition -- a rotating magnetic field gradient is applied, causing the trajectory in k - space to spiral out from the center to the edge. Due to T and T decay the signal is greatest at the start of the acquisition, hence acquiring the center of k - space first improves contrast to noise ratio (CNR) when compared to conventional zig - zag acquisitions, especially in the presence of rapid movement.
Since x → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (x))) and k → (\ displaystyle (\ vec (k))) are conjugate variables (with respect to the Fourier transform) we can use the Nyquist theorem to show that the step in k - space determines the field of view of the image (maximum frequency that is correctly sampled) and the maximum value of k sampled determines the resolution; i.e.,
(These relationships apply to each axis independently.)
In the timing diagram, the horizontal axis represents time. The vertical axis represents: (top row) amplitude of radio frequency pulses; (middle rows) amplitudes of the three orthogonal magnetic field gradient pulses; and (bottom row) receiver analog - to - digital converter (ADC). Radio frequencies are transmitted at the Larmor frequency of the nuclide to be imaged. For example, for H in a magnetic field of 1 T, a frequency of 42.5781 MHz would be employed. The three field gradients are labeled G (typically corresponding to a patient 's left - to - right direction and colored red in diagram), G (typically corresponding to a patient 's front - to - back direction and colored green in diagram), and G (typically corresponding to a patient 's head - to - toe direction and colored blue in diagram). Where negative - going gradient pulses are shown, they represent reversal of the gradient direction, i.e., right - to - left, back - to - front or toe - to - head. For human scanning, gradient strengths of 1 -- 100 mT / m are employed: Higher gradient strengths permit better resolution and faster imaging. The pulse sequence shown here would produce a transverse (axial) image.
The first part of the pulse sequence, SS, achieves "slice selection ''. A shaped pulse (shown here with a sinc modulation) causes a 90 ° nutation of longitudinal nuclear magnetization within a slab, or slice, creating transverse magnetization. The second part of the pulse sequence, PE, imparts a phase shift upon the slice - selected nuclear magnetization, varying with its location in the Y direction. The third part of the pulse sequence, another slice selection (of the same slice) uses another shaped pulse to cause a 180 ° rotation of transverse nuclear magnetization within the slice. This transverse magnetisation refocuses to form a spin echo at a time T. During the spin echo, a frequency - encoding (FE) or readout gradient is applied, making the resonant frequency of the nuclear magnetization vary with its location in the X direction. The signal is sampled n times by the ADC during this period, as represented by the vertical lines. Typically n of between 128 and 512 samples are taken.
The longitudinal magnetisation is then allowed to recover somewhat and after a time T the whole sequence is repeated n times, but with the phase - encoding gradient incremented (indicated by the horizontal hatching in the green gradient block). Typically n of between 128 and 512 repetitions are made.
The negative - going lobes in G and G are imposed to ensure that, at time T (the spin echo maximum), phase only encodes spatial location in the Y direction.
Typically T is between 5 ms and 100 ms, while T is between 100 ms and 2000 ms.
After the two - dimensional matrix (typical dimension between 128 × 128 and 512 × 512) has been acquired, producing the so - called k - space data, a two - dimensional inverse Fourier transform is performed to provide the familiar MR image. Either the magnitude or phase of the Fourier transform can be taken, the former being far more common.
= = = Overview of main sequences = = =
This table does not include uncommon and experimental sequences.
Standard foundation and comparison for other sequences.
Standard foundation and comparison for other sequences.
The major components of an MRI scanner are: the main magnet, which polarizes the sample, the shim coils for correcting inhomogeneities in the main magnetic field, the gradient system which is used to localize the MR signal and the RF system, which excites the sample and detects the resulting NMR signal. The whole system is controlled by one or more computers.
The magnet is the largest and most expensive component of the scanner, and the remainder of the scanner is built around it. The strength of the magnet is measured in teslas (T). Clinical magnets generally have a field strength in the range 0.1 -- 3.0 T, with research systems available up to 9.4 T for human use and 21 T for animal systems. In the United States, field strengths up to 4 T have been approved by the FDA for clinical use.
Just as important as the strength of the main magnet is its precision. The straightness of the magnetic lines within the center (or, as it is technically known, the iso - center) of the magnet needs to be near - perfect. This is known as homogeneity. Fluctuations (inhomogeneities in the field strength) within the scan region should be less than three parts per million (3 ppm). Three types of magnets have been used:
Most superconducting magnets have their coils of superconductive wire immersed in liquid helium, inside a vessel called a cryostat. Despite thermal insulation, sometimes including a second cryostat containing liquid nitrogen, ambient heat causes the helium to slowly boil off. Such magnets, therefore, require regular topping - up with liquid helium. Generally a cryocooler, also known as a coldhead, is used to recondense some helium vapor back into the liquid helium bath. Several manufacturers now offer ' cryogenless ' scanners, where instead of being immersed in liquid helium the magnet wire is cooled directly by a cryocooler.
Magnets are available in a variety of shapes. However, permanent magnets are most frequently ' C ' shaped, and superconducting magnets most frequently cylindrical. However, C - shaped superconducting magnets and box - shaped permanent magnets have also been used.
Magnetic field strength is an important factor in determining image quality. Higher magnetic fields increase signal - to - noise ratio, permitting higher resolution or faster scanning. However, higher field strengths require more costly magnets with higher maintenance costs, and have increased safety concerns. A field strength of 1.0 -- 1.5 T is a good compromise between cost and performance for general medical use. However, for certain specialist uses (e.g., brain imaging) higher field strengths are desirable, with some hospitals now using 3.0 T scanners.
When the MR scanner is placed in the hospital or clinic, its main magnetic field is far from being homogeneous enough to be used for scanning. That is why before doing fine tuning of the field using a sample, the magnetic field of the magnet must be measured and shimmed.
After a sample is placed into the scanner, the main magnetic field is distorted by susceptibility boundaries within that sample, causing signal dropout (regions showing no signal) and spatial distortions in acquired images. For humans or animals the effect is particularly pronounced at air - tissue boundaries such as the sinuses (due to paramagnetic oxygen in air) making, for example, the frontal lobes of the brain difficult to image. To restore field homogeneity a set of shim coils is included in the scanner. These are resistive coils, usually at room temperature, capable of producing field corrections distributed as several orders of spherical harmonics.
After placing the sample in the scanner, the B field is ' shimmed ' by adjusting currents in the shim coils. Field homogeneity is measured by examining an FID signal in the absence of field gradients. The FID from a poorly shimmed sample will show a complex decay envelope, often with many humps. Shim currents are then adjusted to produce a large amplitude exponentially decaying FID, indicating a homogeneous B field. The process is usually automated.
Gradient coils are used to spatially encode the positions of protons by varying the magnetic field linearly across the imaging volume. The Larmor frequency will then vary as a function of position in the x, y and z - axes.
Gradient coils are usually resistive electromagnets powered by sophisticated amplifiers which permit rapid and precise adjustments to their field strength and direction. Typical gradient systems are capable of producing gradients from 20 -- 100 mT / m (i.e., in a 1.5 T magnet, when a maximal z - axis gradient is applied, the field strength may be 1.45 T at one end of a 1 m long bore and 1.55 T at the other). It is the magnetic gradients that determine the plane of imaging -- because the orthogonal gradients can be combined freely, any plane can be selected for imaging.
Scan speed is dependent on performance of the gradient system. Stronger gradients allow for faster imaging, or for higher resolution; similarly, gradient systems capable of faster switching can also permit faster scanning. However, gradient performance is limited by safety concerns over nerve stimulation.
Some important characteristics of gradient amplifiers and gradient coils are slew rate and gradient strength. As mentioned earlier, a gradient coil will create an additional, linearly varying magnetic field that adds or subtracts from the main magnetic field. This additional magnetic field will have components in all 3 directions, viz. x, y and z; however, only the component along the magnetic field (usually called the z - axis, hence denoted G) is useful for imaging. Along any given axis, the gradient will add to the magnetic field on one side of the zero position and subtract from it on the other side. Since the additional field is a gradient, it has units of gauss per centimeter or millitesla per meter (mT / m). High performance gradient coils used in MRI are typically capable of producing a gradient magnetic field of approximate 30 mT / m or higher for a 1.5 T MRI. The slew rate of a gradient system is a measure of how quickly the gradients can be ramped on or off. Typical higher performance gradients have a slew rate of up to 100 -- 200 T m s. The slew rate depends both on the gradient coil (it takes more time to ramp up or down a large coil than a small coil) and on the performance of the gradient amplifier (it takes a lot of voltage to overcome the inductance of the coil) and has significant influence on image quality.
The radio frequency (RF) transmission system consists of an RF synthesizer, power amplifier and transmitting coil. That coil is usually built into the body of the scanner. The power of the transmitter is variable, but high - end whole - body scanners may have a peak output power of up to 35 kW, and be capable of sustaining average power of 1 kW. Although these electromagnetic fields are in the RF range of tens of megahertz (often in the shortwave radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum) at powers usually exceeding the highest powers used by amateur radio, there is very little RF interference produced by the MRI machine. The reason for this, is that the MRI is not a radio transmitter. The RF frequency electromagnetic field produced in the "transmitting coil '' is a magnetic near - field with very little associated changing electric field component (such as all conventional radio wave transmissions have). Thus, the high - powered electromagnetic field produced in the MRI transmitter coil does not produce much electromagnetic radiation at its RF frequency, and the power is confined to the coil space and not radiated as "radio waves. '' Thus, the transmitting coil is a good EM field transmitter at radio frequency, but a poor EM radiation transmitter at radio frequency.
The receiver consists of the coil, pre-amplifier and signal processing system. The RF electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear relaxation inside the subject is true EM radiation (radio waves), and these leave the subject as RF radiation, but they are of such low power as to also not cause appreciable RF interference that can be picked up by nearby radio tuners (in addition, MRI scanners are generally situated in metal mesh lined rooms which act as Faraday cages.)
While it is possible to scan using the integrated coil for RF transmission and MR signal reception, if a small region is being imaged, then better image quality (i.e., higher signal - to - noise ratio) is obtained by using a close - fitting smaller coil. A variety of coils are available which fit closely around parts of the body such as the head, knee, wrist, breast, or internally, e.g., the rectum.
A recent development in MRI technology has been the development of sophisticated multi-element phased array coils which are capable of acquiring multiple channels of data in parallel. This ' parallel imaging ' technique uses unique acquisition schemes that allow for accelerated imaging, by replacing some of the spatial coding originating from the magnetic gradients with the spatial sensitivity of the different coil elements. However, the increased acceleration also reduces the signal - to - noise ratio and can create residual artifacts in the image reconstruction. Two frequently used parallel acquisition and reconstruction schemes are known as SENSE and GRAPPA. A detailed review of parallel imaging techniques can be found here:
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when did we have snow in march 2018 | 2018 Great Britain and Ireland cold wave - wikipedia
Beginning on 24 February 2018, the United Kingdom and Ireland were affected by a cold wave, dubbed the Beast from the East by the media, which brought widespread unusually low temperatures and heavy snowfall to large areas. The cold wave combined with Storm Emma, part of the 2017 -- 18 UK and Ireland windstorm season, which made landfall in southwest England and southern Ireland on 2 March.
In contrast to usual winter storms, Emma was not formed as a normal low pressure area along with the jetstream; the initial event was an arctic outbreak due to a disordered polar vortex into Central Europe, transporting not only cold air from Siberia to Europe, but on the way to the British Islands according to the lake effect sent a lot of snow into areas of Great Britain and Ireland.
This weather situation repeated itself on the weekend of 17 and 18 March, but was less severe than on the previous occasion due to the onset of spring. This briefer cold snap was given the name "Mini Beast from the East ''.
The cold spell nicknamed the Beast from the East was caused by a large arctic airmass with anticyclonic structure, stretching from the Russian Far East to the British Isles covering large parts of Asia and almost all of Europe. The anticyclone, centered over Scandinavia, is the dominant high pressure area in the weather system and represents its European part. North Asia was covered by other anticyclones that belong to that giant arctic airmass. The anticyclone brought cold easterly winds into Europe and the British Isles leading to snowfall and sub-zero temperatures as result of freezing air from Siberia. Ireland was predicted to experience its worst winter for at least 30 years. In the United Kingdom the Met Office issued a red snow warning, meaning a potential risk to life.
The anticyclone, nicknamed ' Hartmut ' was such an intense high pressure system that it evolved into an anticyclonic storm. A gust of 187 km / h was registered in the Øvre Dividal National Park in Norway, relatively near to the anticyclonic centre. Other hurricane - force gusts delivered by Hartmut were registered across Europe, particularly over Scandinavia and the British Isles. Such hurricane - force anticyclonic storms are not extremely rare, but occur less often than cyclonic storms of similar intensity.
16 weather - related deaths include that of a seven - year - old girl in Looe, Cornwall Thursday 1 March, when she was hit by a car that slid on ice into a bungalow. On Wednesday 28 February, Stephen Cavanagh, 60, died after trying to save his dog from a lake in Welling, South East London. Also on Wednesday, a 46 - year - old man died in a crash and a 75 - year - old woman was found dead underneath her car in Farsley. A carer from Glasgow died on her way to work and a 52 - year - old homeless man was found dead freezing inside his tent. On Tuesday, 27 February, four people died in two separate weather related crashes. A 20 - year - old also died after slipping and falling whilst crossing a bridge in Haddington, East Lothian. This followed the death of a man trying to help another driver in the snowy conditions in Bergh Apton, Norfolk who suffered a heart attack. A 70 - year - old also died after being rescued from icy cliffs in Torquay.
Storm Emma brought chaos with heavy snow and strong winds to Southern Ireland, South West England and Southern Wales on the 2 -- 3 March 2018 with up to 50 cm of snow in some elevated areas. High winds brought disruption to other parts of Great Britain and Ireland.
Following a brief spell of warmer weather, a fresh cold snap nicknamed the "Mini Beast from the East '' was forecast to bring another covering of snow on the weekend of 17 and 18 March. However, due to the onset of spring, and a higher sun position, it was forecast that the effect would be less severe than on the previous occasion, as the ground was warmer than before so the snow would melt more quickly.
Snow showers began to affect parts of Britain and Ireland on 17 March, with north - east England, the North Midlands, and parts of southern England experiencing the heaviest snowfall. The snow was accompanied by strong winds, forecast to be as high as 70mph, and the Met Office issued an amber weather warning effective from the afternoon of 17 March. Snow showers continued to affect parts of the UK and Ireland on 18 March, with South West England the most severely affected. The adverse weather conditions forced the cancellation of some sporting events, including the Reading Half Marathon, while Ireland 's rugby union team, who had won the 2018 Six Nations Championship, cancelled their homecoming "due to heavy snowfall '' with no new date confirmed.
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where is the euphrates river located on a map | Euphrates - wikipedia
The Euphrates (/ juː ˈfreɪtiːz / (listen); Sumerian: 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Buranuna, Akkadian: 𒌓𒄒𒉣 Purattu, Arabic: الفرات al - Furāt, Syriac: ̇ܦܪܬ Pǝrāt, Armenian: Եփրատ: Yeprat, Hebrew: פרת Perat, Turkish: Fırat, Kurdish: Firat ) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of Western Asia. Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (the "Land between the Rivers ''). Originating in eastern Turkey, the Euphrates flows through Syria and Iraq to join the Tigris in the Shatt al - Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf.
The Ancient Greek form Euphrátēs (Ancient Greek: Εὐφράτης) was borrowed from Old Persian Ufrātu, itself from Elamite ú - ip - ra - tu - iš. The Elamite name is ultimately derived from the Sumerian Buranuna, possibly through the Akkadian name. In Akkadian the river was similarly called Purattu, which has been perpetuated in Semitic languages (cf. Syriac P (ə) rāṯ, Arabic al - Furrāt) and in other nearby languages of the time (cf. Hurrian Puranti, Sabarian Uruttu). The Elamite, Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian forms are suggested to be from an unrecorded substrate language. Gamkrelidze and Ivanov suggest the Proto - Sumerian * burudu "copper '' (Sumerian urudu) as an origin, with an explanation that Euphrates was the river by which the copper ore was transported in rafts, since Mesopotamia was the center of copper metallurgy during the period.
The earliest references to the Euphrates come from cuneiform texts found in Shuruppak and pre-Sargonic Nippur in southern Iraq and date to the mid-3rd millennium BCE. In these texts, written in Sumerian, the Euphrates is called Buranuna (logographic: UD. KIB. NUN). The name could also be written KIB. NUN. (NA) or KIB. NUN, with the prefix "'' indicating that the river was a divinity. In Sumerian, the name of the city of Sippar in modern - day Iraq was also written UD. KIB. NUN, indicating a historically strong relationship between the city and the river.
The Euphrates is the longest river of Western Asia. It emerges from the confluence of the Kara Su or Western Euphrates (450 kilometres (280 mi)) and the Murat Su or Eastern Euphrates (650 kilometres (400 mi)) 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) upstream from the town of Keban in southeastern Turkey. Daoudy and Frenken put the length of the Euphrates from the source of the Murat River to the confluence with the Tigris at 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi), of which 1,230 kilometres (760 mi) is in Turkey, 710 kilometres (440 mi) in Syria and 1,060 kilometres (660 mi) in Iraq. The same figures are given by Isaev and Mikhailova. The length of the Shatt al - Arab, which connects the Euphrates and the Tigris with the Persian Gulf, is given by various sources as 145 -- 195 kilometres (90 -- 121 mi).
Both the Kara Su and the Murat Su rise northwest from Lake Van at elevations of 3,290 metres (10,790 ft) and 3,520 metres (11,550 ft) amsl, respectively. At the location of the Keban Dam, the two rivers, now combined into the Euphrates, have dropped to an elevation of 693 metres (2,274 ft) amsl. From Keban to the Syrian -- Turkish border, the river drops another 368 metres (1,207 ft) over a distance of less than 600 kilometres (370 mi). Once the Euphrates enters the Upper Mesopotamian plains, its grade drops significantly; within Syria the river falls 163 metres (535 ft) while over the last stretch between Hīt and the Shatt al - Arab the river drops only 55 metres (180 ft).
The Euphrates receives most of its water in the form of rainfall and melting snow, resulting in peak volumes during the months April through May. Discharge in these two months accounts for 36 percent of the total annual discharge of the Euphrates, or even 60 -- 70 percent according to one source, while low runoff occurs in summer and autumn. The average natural annual flow of the Euphrates has been determined from early - and mid-twentieth century records as 20.9 cubic kilometres (5.0 cu mi) at Keban, 36.6 cubic kilometres (8.8 cu mi) at Hīt and 21.5 cubic kilometres (5.2 cu mi) at Hindiya. However, these averages mask the high inter-annual variability in discharge; at Birecik, just north of the Syro -- Turkish border, annual discharges have been measured that ranged from a low volume of 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1961 to a high of 42.7 cubic kilometres (10.2 cu mi) in 1963.
The discharge regime of the Euphrates has changed dramatically since the construction of the first dams in the 1970s. Data on Euphrates discharge collected after 1990 show the impact of the construction of the numerous dams in the Euphrates and of the increased withdrawal of water for irrigation. Average discharge at Hīt after 1990 has dropped to 356 cubic metres (12,600 cu ft) per second (11.2 cubic kilometres (2.7 cu mi) per year). The seasonal variability has equally changed. The pre-1990 peak volume recorded at Hīt was 7,510 cubic metres (265,000 cu ft) per second, while after 1990 it is only 2,514 cubic metres (88,800 cu ft) per second. The minimum volume at Hīt remained relatively unchanged, rising from 55 cubic metres (1,900 cu ft) per second before 1990 to 58 cubic metres (2,000 cu ft) per second afterward.
In Syria, three rivers add their water to the Euphrates; the Sajur, the Balikh and the Khabur. These rivers rise in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains along the Syro -- Turkish border and add comparatively little water to the Euphrates. The Sajur is the smallest of these tributaries; emerging from two streams near Gaziantep and draining the plain around Manbij before emptying into the reservoir of the Tishrin Dam. The Balikh receives most of its water from a karstic spring near ' Ayn al - ' Arus and flows due south until it reaches the Euphrates at the city of Raqqa. In terms of length, drainage basin and discharge, the Khabur is the largest of these three. Its main karstic springs are located around Ra 's al - ' Ayn, from where the Khabur flows southeast past Al - Hasakah, where the river turns south and drains into the Euphrates near Busayrah. Once the Euphrates enters Iraq, there are no more natural tributaries to the Euphrates, although canals connecting the Euphrates basin with the Tigris basin exist.
The drainage basins of the Kara Su and the Murat River cover an area of 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi) and 40,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi), respectively. The estimates that have been made for the area of the Euphrates drainage basin vary widely; from a low 233,000 square kilometres (90,000 sq mi) to a high 766,000 square kilometres (296,000 sq mi). Recent estimates put the basin area at 388,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi), 444,000 square kilometres (171,000 sq mi) and 579,314 square kilometres (223,674 sq mi). The greater part of the Euphrates basin is located in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. According to both Daoudy and Frenken, Turkey 's share is 28 percent, Syria 's is 17 percent and that of Iraq is 40 percent. Isaev and Mikhailova estimate the percentages of the drainage basin lying within Turkey, Syria and Iraq at 33, 20 and 47 percent respectively. Some sources estimate that approximately 15 percent of the drainage basin is located within Saudi Arabia, while a small part falls inside the borders of Kuwait. Finally, some sources also include Jordan in the drainage basin of the Euphrates; a small part of the eastern desert (220 square kilometres (85 sq mi)) drains toward the east rather than to the west.
The Euphrates flows through a number of distinct vegetation zones. Although millennia - long human occupation in most parts of the Euphrates basin has significantly degraded the landscape, patches of original vegetation remain. The steady drop in annual rainfall from the sources of the Euphrates toward the Persian Gulf is a strong determinant for the vegetation that can be supported. In its upper reaches the Euphrates flows through the mountains of Southeast Turkey and their southern foothills which support a xeric woodland. Plant species in the moister parts of this zone include various oaks, pistachio trees, and Rosaceae (rose / plum family). The drier parts of the xeric woodland zone supports less dense oak forest and Rosaceae. Here can also be found the wild variants of many cereals, including einkorn wheat, emmer wheat, oat and rye. South of this zone lies a zone of mixed woodland - steppe vegetation. Between Raqqa and the Syro -- Iraqi border the Euphrates flows through a steppe landscape. This steppe is characterised by white wormwood (Artemisia herba - alba) and Chenopodiaceae. Throughout history, this zone has been heavily overgrazed due to the practicing of sheep and goat pastoralism by its inhabitants. Southeast of the border between Syria and Iraq starts true desert. This zone supports either no vegetation at all or small pockets of Chenopodiaceae or Poa sinaica. Although today nothing of it survives due to human interference, research suggests that the Euphrates Valley would have supported a riverine forest. Species characteristic of this type of forest include the Oriental plane, the Euphrates poplar, the tamarisk, the ash and various wetland plants.
Among the fish species in the Tigris -- Euphrates basin, the family of the Cyprinidae are the most common, with 34 species out of 52 in total. Among the Cyprinids, the mangar has good sport fishing qualities, leading the British to nickname it "Tigris salmon. '' The Rafetus euphraticus is an endangered soft - shelled turtle that is limited to the Tigris -- Euphrates river system.
The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs from the 1st millennium BCE depict lion and bull hunts in fertile landscapes. Sixteenth to nineteenth century European travellers in the Syrian Euphrates basin reported on an abundance of animals living in the area, many of which have become rare or even extinct. Species like gazelle, onager and the now - extinct Arabian ostrich lived in the steppe bordering the Euphrates valley, while the valley itself was home to the wild boar. Carnivorous species include the gray wolf, the golden jackal, the red fox, the leopard and the lion. The Syrian brown bear can be found in the mountains of Southeast Turkey. The presence of European beaver has been attested in the bone assemblage of the prehistoric site of Abu Hureyra in Syria, but the beaver has never been sighted in historical times.
The Hindiya Barrage on the Iraqi Euphrates, based on plans by British civil engineer William Willcocks and finished in 1913, was the first modern water diversion structure built in the Tigris -- Euphrates river system. The Hindiya Barrage was followed in the 1950s by the Ramadi Barrage and the nearby Abu Dibbis Regulator, which serve to regulate the flow regime of the Euphrates and to discharge excess flood water into the depression that is now Lake Habbaniyah. Iraq 's largest dam on the Euphrates is the Haditha Dam; a 9 - kilometre - long (5.6 mi) earth - fill dam creating Lake Qadisiyah. Syria and Turkey built their first dams in the Euphrates in the 1970s. The Tabqa Dam in Syria was completed in 1973 while Turkey finished the Keban Dam, a prelude to the immense Southeastern Anatolia Project, in 1974. Since then, Syria has built two more dams in the Euphrates, the Baath Dam and the Tishrin Dam, and plans to build a fourth dam -- the Halabiye Dam -- between Raqqa and Deir ez - Zor. The Tabqa Dam is Syria 's largest dam and its reservoir (Lake Assad) is an important source of irrigation and drinking water. It was planned that 640,000 hectares (2,500 sq mi) should be irrigated from Lake Assad, but in 2000 only 100,000 -- 124,000 hectares (390 -- 480 sq mi) had been realized. Syria also built three smaller dams on the Khabur and its tributaries.
With the implementation of the Southeastern Anatolia Project (Turkish: Güneydoğu Anadolu Projesi, or GAP) in the 1970s, Turkey launched an ambitious plan to harness the waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates for irrigation and hydroelectricity production and provide an economic stimulus to its southeastern provinces. GAP affects a total area of 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) and approximately 7 million people; representing about 10 percent of Turkey 's total surface area and population, respectively. When completed, GAP will consist of 22 dams -- including the Keban Dam -- and 19 power plants and provide irrigation water to 1,700,000 hectares (6,600 sq mi) of agricultural land, which is about 20 percent of the irrigable land in Turkey. C. 910,000 hectares (3,500 sq mi) of this irrigated land is located in the Euphrates basin. By far the largest dam in GAP is the Atatürk Dam, located c. 55 kilometres (34 mi) northwest of Şanlıurfa. This 184 - metre - high (604 ft) and 1,820 - metre - long (5,970 ft) dam was completed in 1992; thereby creating a reservoir that is the third - largest lake in Turkey. With a maximum capacity of 48.7 cubic kilometres (11.7 cu mi), the Atatürk Dam reservoir is large enough to hold the entire annual discharge of the Euphrates. Completion of GAP was scheduled for 2010 but has been delayed because the World Bank has withheld funding due to the lack of an official agreement on water sharing between Turkey and the downstream states on the Euphrates and the Tigris.
Apart from barrages and dams, Iraq has also created an intricate network of canals connecting the Euphrates with Lake Habbaniyah, Lake Tharthar, and Abu Dibbis reservoir; all of which can be used to store excess floodwater. Via the Shatt al - Hayy, the Euphrates is connected with the Tigris. The largest canal in this network is the Main Outfall Drain or so - called "Third River; '' constructed between 1953 and 1992. This 565 - kilometre - long (351 mi) canal is intended to drain the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris south of Baghdad to prevent soil salinization from irrigation. It also allows large freight barges to navigate up to Baghdad.
The construction of the dams and irrigation schemes on the Euphrates has had a significant impact on the environment and society of each riparian country. The dams constructed as part of GAP -- in both the Euphrates and the Tigris basins -- have affected 382 villages and almost 200,000 people have been resettled elsewhere. The largest number of people was displaced by the building of the Atatürk Dam, which alone affected 55,300 people. A survey among those who were displaced showed that the majority were unhappy with their new situation and that the compensation they had received was considered insufficient. The flooding of Lake Assad led to the forced displacement of c. 4,000 families, who were resettled in other parts of northern Syria as part of a now abandoned plan to create an "Arab belt '' along the borders with Turkey and Iraq.
Apart from the changes in the discharge regime of the river, the numerous dams and irrigation projects have also had other effects on the environment. The creation of reservoirs with large surfaces in countries with high average temperatures has led to increased evaporation; thereby reducing the total amount of water that is available for human use. Annual evaporation from reservoirs has been estimated at 2 cubic kilometres (0.48 cu mi) in Turkey, 1 cubic kilometre (0.24 cu mi) in Syria and 5 cubic kilometres (1.2 cu mi) in Iraq. Water quality in the Iraqi Euphrates is low because irrigation water tapped in Turkey and Syria flows back into the river, together with dissolved fertilizer chemicals used on the fields. The salinity of Euphrates water in Iraq has increased as a result of upstream dam construction, leading to lower suitability as drinking water. The many dams and irrigation schemes, and the associated large - scale water abstraction, have also had a detrimental effect on the ecologically already fragile Mesopotamian Marshes and on freshwater fish habitats in Iraq.
The inundation of large parts of the Euphrates valley, especially in Turkey and Syria, has led to the flooding of many archaeological sites and other places of cultural significance. Although concerted efforts have been made to record or save as much of the endangered cultural heritage as possible, many sites are probably lost forever. The combined GAP projects on the Turkish Euphrates have led to major international efforts to document the archaeological and cultural heritage of the endangered parts of the valley. Especially the flooding of Zeugma with its unique Roman mosaics by the reservoir of the Birecik Dam has generated much controversy in both the Turkish and international press. The construction of the Tabqa Dam in Syria led to a large international campaign coordinated by UNESCO to document the heritage that would disappear under the waters of Lake Assad. Archaeologists from numerous countries excavated sites ranging in date from the Natufian to the Abbasid period, and two minarets were dismantled and rebuilt outside the flood zone. Important sites that have been flooded or affected by the rising waters of Lake Assad include Mureybet, Emar and Abu Hureyra. A similar international effort was made when the Tishrin Dam was constructed, which led, among others, to the flooding of the important Pre-Pottery Neolithic B site of Jerf el - Ahmar. An archaeological survey and rescue excavations were also carried out in the area flooded by Lake Qadisiya in Iraq. Parts of the flooded area have recently become accessible again due to the drying up of the lake, resulting not only in new possibilities for archaeologists to do more research, but also providing opportunities for looting, which has been rampant elsewhere in Iraq in the wake of the 2003 invasion.
The early occupation of the Euphrates basin was limited to its upper reaches; that is, the area that is popularly known as the Fertile Crescent. Acheulean stone artifacts have been found in the Sajur basin and in the El Kowm oasis in the central Syrian steppe; the latter together with remains of Homo erectus that were dated to 450,000 years old. In the Taurus Mountains and the upper part of the Syrian Euphrates valley, early permanent villages such as Abu Hureyra -- at first occupied by hunter - gatherers but later by some of the earliest farmers, Jerf el - Ahmar, Mureybet and Nevalı Çori became established from the eleventh millennium BCE onward. In the absence of irrigation, these early farming communities were limited to areas where rainfed agriculture was possible, that is, the upper parts of the Syrian Euphrates as well as Turkey. Late Neolithic villages, characterized by the introduction of pottery in the early 7th millennium BCE, are known throughout this area. Occupation of lower Mesopotamia started in the 6th millennium and is generally associated with the introduction of irrigation, as rainfall in this area is insufficient for dry agriculture. Evidence for irrigation has been found at several sites dating to this period, including Tell es - Sawwan. During the 5th millennium BCE, or late Ubaid period, northeastern Syria was dotted by small villages, although some of them grew to a size of over 10 hectares (25 acres). In Iraq, sites like Eridu and Ur were already occupied during the Ubaid period. Clay boat models found at Tell Mashnaqa along the Khabur indicate that riverine transport was already practiced during this period. The Uruk period, roughly coinciding with the 4th millennium BCE, saw the emergence of truly urban settlements across Mesopotamia. Cities like Tell Brak and Uruk grew to over 100 hectares (250 acres) in size and displayed monumental architecture. The spread of southern Mesopotamian pottery, architecture and sealings far into Turkey and Iran has generally been interpreted as the material reflection of a widespread trade system aimed at providing the Mesopotamian cities with raw materials. Habuba Kabira on the Syrian Euphrates is a prominent example of a settlement that is interpreted as an Uruk colony.
During the Jemdet Nasr (3600 -- 3100 BCE) and Early Dynastic periods (3100 -- 2350 BCE), southern Mesopotamia experienced a growth in the number and size of settlements, suggesting strong population growth. These settlements, including Sumero - Akkadian sites like Sippar, Uruk, Adab and Kish, were organized in competing city - states. Many of these cities were located along canals of the Euphrates and the Tigris that have since dried up, but that can still be identified from remote sensing imagery. A similar development took place in Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu and Assyria, although only from the mid 3rd millennium and on a smaller scale than in Lower Mesopotamia. Sites like Ebla, Mari and Tell Leilan grew to prominence for the first time during this period.
Large parts of the Euphrates basin were for the first time united under a single ruler during the Akkadian Empire (2335 -- 2154 BC) and Ur III empires, which controlled -- either directly or indirectly through vassals -- large parts of modern - day Iraq and northeastern Syria. Following their collapse, the Old Assyrian Empire (1975 -- 1750 BCE) and Mari asserted their power over northeast Syria and northern Mesopotamia, while southern Mesopotamia was controlled by city - states like Isin, Kish and Larsa before their territories were absorbed by the newly emerged state of Babylonia under Hammurabi in the early to mid 18th century BCE.
In the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE, the Euphrates basin was divided between Kassite Babylon in the south and Mitanni, Assyria and the Hittite Empire in the north, with the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365 -- 1020 BC) eventually eclipsing the Hittites, Mitanni and Kassite Babylonians. Following the end of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the late 11th century BCE, struggles broke out between Babylonia and Assyria over the control of the Iraqi Euphrates basin. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (935 -- 605 BC) eventually emerged victorious out of this conflict and also succeeded in gaining control of the northern Euphrates basin in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE.
In the centuries to come, control of the wider Euphrates basin shifted from the Neo-Assyrian Empire (which collapsed between 612 and 599 BC) to the short lived Median Empire (612 -- 546 BC) and equally brief Neo-Babylonian Empire (612 -- 539 BC) in the last years of the 7th century BC, and eventually to the Achaemenid Empire (539 -- 333 BC). The Achaemenid Empire was in turn overrun by Alexander the Great, who defeated the last king Darius III and died in Babylon in 323 BCE.
Subsequent to this, the region came under the control of the Seleucid Empire (312 -- 150 BC), Parthian Empire (150 -- 226 AD) (during which several Neo-Assyrian states such as Adiabene came to rule certain regions of the Euphrates), and was fought over by the Roman Empire, its succeeding Byzantine Empire and the Sassanid Empire (226 -- 638 AD), until the Islamic conquest of the mid 7th century AD.
After World War I, the borders in Southwest Asia were redrawn in the Treaty of Lausanne, when the Ottoman Empire was partitioned. Clause 109 of the treaty stipulated that the three riparian states of the Euphrates (at that time Turkey, France for its Syrian mandate and the United Kingdom for its mandate of Iraq) had to reach a mutual agreement on the use of its water and on the construction of any hydraulic installation. An agreement between Turkey and Iraq signed in 1946 required Turkey to report to Iraq on any hydraulic changes it made on the Tigris -- Euphrates river system, and allowed Iraq to construct dams on Turkish territory to manage the flow of the Euphrates.
The river featured on the coat of arms of Iraq from 1932 - 1959.
Turkey and Syria completed their first dams on the Euphrates -- the Keban Dam and the Tabqa Dam, respectively -- within one year of each other and filling of the reservoirs commenced in 1975. At the same time, the area was hit by severe drought and river flow toward Iraq was reduced from 15.3 cubic kilometres (3.7 cu mi) in 1973 to 9.4 cubic kilometres (2.3 cu mi) in 1975. This led to an international crisis during which Iraq threatened to bomb the Tabqa Dam. An agreement was eventually reached between Syria and Iraq after intervention by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union. A similar crisis, although not escalating to the point of military threats, occurred in 1981 when the Keban Dam reservoir had to be refilled after it had been almost emptied to temporarily increase Turkey 's hydroelectricity production. In 1984, Turkey unilaterally declared that it would ensure a flow of at least 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) per second, or 16 cubic kilometres (3.8 cu mi) per year, into Syria, and in 1987 a bilateral treaty to that effect was signed between the two countries. Another bilateral agreement from 1989 between Syria and Iraq settles the amount of water flowing into Iraq at 60 percent of the amount that Syria receives from Turkey. In 2008, Turkey, Syria and Iraq instigated the Joint Trilateral Committee (JTC) on the management of the water in the Tigris -- Euphrates basin and on 3 September 2009 a further agreement was signed to this effect. On April 15, 2014, Turkey began to reduce the flow of the Euphrates into Syria and Iraq. The flow was cut off completely on May 16, 2014. The Euphrates now terminates at the Turkish -- Syrian border. This is in violation of an agreement reached in 1987 in which Turkey committed to releasing a minimum of 500 cubic metres (18,000 cu ft) of water per second at the Turkish -- Syrian border.
Throughout history, the Euphrates has been of vital importance to those living along its course. With the construction of large hydropower stations, irrigation schemes, and pipelines capable of transporting water over large distances, many more people now depend on the river for basic amenities such as electricity and drinking water than in the past. Syria 's Lake Assad is the most important source of drinking water for the city of Aleppo, 75 kilometres (47 mi) to the west of the river valley. The lake also supports a modest state - operated fishing industry. Through a newly restored power line, the Haditha Dam in Iraq provides electricity to Baghdad.
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list of football players in the hall of fame | List of Pro Football Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Pro Football Hall of Fame includes players, coaches, and contributors (e.g., owners, general managers and team or league officials) who have "made outstanding contributions to professional football ''. The charter class of seventeen was selected in 1963. As of 2017, 310 individuals have been elected.
Enshrinees are selected by a 46 - person selection committee which meets each year at the time and location of the Super Bowl. Current rules of the committee stipulate that between four and eight individuals are selected each year. Any person may nominate an individual to the hall, provided the nominee has not played or coached for at least five seasons prior to the nomination. Not including the charter class, 73 players have been inducted in their first year of eligibility.
In addition to the regular selection committee, which primarily focuses on contributions made over the past approximately thirty seasons, a nine - member seniors committee (which is a subset of the larger committee) submits two nominees each year whose contributions came prior to 1985. These nominees are referred as "seniors nominees '' (formerly "old - timer '' nominees).
Some Hall of Fame members were selected for their skills as coaches. Others were enshrined for their skills as players. This list names only the position for which the man was considered for induction. Many excellent coaches were not selected for their playing career. Many Hall of Fame caliber players were also coaches, but it was their playing for which they were inducted. Only the accomplishments highlighted on the Hall of Fame web site are noted on this list.
As of 2014, two current NFL teams are not represented by an enshrinee -- the Houston Texans (began play in 2002), and the Jacksonville Jaguars (began play in 1995). The teams which most recently gained representation are the Carolina Panthers (Reggie White, class of 2006) and the Baltimore Ravens (Rod Woodson, class of 2009). Ray Guy was the first full - time punter inducted (Class of 2014).
The hall is not officially affiliated with the National Football League (NFL), although as of 2014 all but one enshrinee participated in the NFL for at least a portion of his career; the single exception being Billy Shaw. There are 38 inductees into the hall who spent all or part of their careers in the American Football League that merged with the NFL. Three players, Red Grange, Ray Flaherty, Mike Michalske, played a portion of their career in the first American Football League from 1926. The second American Football League from 1936 only has one Hall of Fame member who has played in this league, Ken Strong. Fifteen inductees spent some of their playing career in the All - America Football Conference during the late 1940s. Five players played some at least one year in the Ohio League, the predecessor to the NFL. Six players or coaches who spent part of their careers in the short - lived United States Football League (USFL) have been inducted. Two coaches (Marv Levy, Bud Grant), one administrator (Jim Finks), and five players (Warren Moon, Fred Biletnikoff, John Henry Johnson, Don Maynard, Arnie Weinmeister) who spent part of their careers in the Canadian Football League (CFL) have been inducted; two of which have been inducted into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame: Warren Moon and Bud Grant. Four players, Larry Csonka, Leroy Kelly, Don Maynard, and Paul Warfield, played a portion of their career in the short - lived World Football League. Fritz Pollard is the only player to play in the Anthracite League 's only season. Only one player, Kurt Warner, played a substantial portion of his career in the Arena Football League. Bill Walsh and Ken Stabler are the only members of the Hall of Fame to be involved with the Continental Football League. Nine inductees have played on a team that existed independently; there are three instances of an independent team being a pre-NFL team and one incident of a team being post-NFL, the rest of the teams existed independently for the entirety of their existence.
A few other professional leagues have more tangential connections to the Hall of Fame:
Each entry includes the year of induction (i.e., "class ''), position (s) played, team (s) each was associated with, and tenures with each team. The Pro Football Hall Of Fame website does not include CFL, USFL, WFL, indoor football leagues, and other lesser known league teams. The Canadian Football League and the Arena Football League both have their own halls of fame. NFL, American Football League, AAFC, and Ohio League (listed as pre-NFL) teams are recognized in the Hall of Fame. The list is complete up to date 2017 Hall of Fame class.
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who appoints and dismisses the gazetted officials of the union government | Gazetted officer (India) - wikipedia
Gazetted Officers (Hindi: राजपत्रित अधिकारी) are executive / managerial / supervisorial level ranked public servants in India. Authority for a gazetted officer to issue an official stamp comes from the President of India or the Governors of States. To that effect, they are de jure representatives and delegates of the Indian State and the President.
The Gazette of India is published on the regular basis by the Directorate of Printing, Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. It is an official Central Government or State Government publication, which publishes the appointments or promotions of certain government officials. An officer or public servant, who is appointed under the seal of the Governor at State level or by the President of India at the national level (and in the Union Territories), requires being listed in the Indian Gazette or State Government Gazette and is considered to be a Gazetted Officer. If a person 's name is published in the Gazette, he / she is called Gazetted. Many are honorary Justices of the Peace and have the same standing as some of the Magistrates. Such officers, among other functions, have the power to verify the documents for academic, immigration and other purposes.
The Central Government of India and Governments of States in India classify public employees into Group A (Gazetted / Executive), B (Gazetted), B (Non-Gazetted), C and D. Earlier classification was Class I (Gazetted), II (Gazetted), II (Non-Gazetted), III and IV. Class I or Group A is the highest rank class and the Class IV or Group D is the least. The Government of India has plans to merge Group D into Group C. Class I and II (Gazetted) belong to the class of officers whose transfers, appointments, promotions and superannuation are published on a yearly basis in the official gazette of State or Union Government.
Gazetted Status of Commissioned Officers of Armed forces has not been conferred till date by the Government of India.
Officers falling under the category of class III and IV are not gazetted. They do not have the personal authority to issue an official stamp on behalf of the Government. Further employees serving in Nationalized Banks and PSUs are not gazetted. Officers belong to state board and corporation like GEB, GIDC, GSPC, GNFC etc and Commissioned Officers / JCOs of Indian Armed Forces are also not gazetted as per rules and regulations of government.
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why is there only 10 teams in the big 12 | Big 12 Conference - Wikipedia
The Big 12 Conference is a ten - school collegiate athletic conference headquartered in Irving, Texas. It is a member of the NCAA 's Division I for all sports; its football teams compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS; formerly Division I-A), the higher of two levels of NCAA Division I football competition. Its ten members, located in Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia, include eight public and two private Christian schools. Additionally, the Big 12 has 12 affiliate members, eight for the sport of wrestling, one for women 's gymnastics, and 3 for women 's rowing. The Big 12 Conference is a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization incorporated in Delaware.
The Big 12 Conference was founded on February 25, 1994. The eight members of the former Big Eight Conference joined with Southwest Conference schools Texas, Texas A&M, Baylor, and Texas Tech to form the new Big 12 Conference, which commenced competition on August 31, 1996. Oklahoma and Oklahoma State were grouped with the four former SWC schools in the Big 12 South division, while the other six teams of the former Big Eight (Kansas, Kansas State, Colorado, Nebraska, Missouri and Iowa State) formed the Big 12 North division.
The conference 's current 10 - campus makeup resulted from the 2010 -- 13 Big 12 Conference realignment, in which Nebraska joined the Big Ten Conference, Colorado joined the Pac - 12, and Missouri and Texas A&M joined the Southeastern Conference. TCU and West Virginia joined from the Mountain West and Big East Conferences respectively to offset two of the departing schools, bringing the conference to its current strength.
The Big 12 Conference, like others involved in the realignment, has kept its name primarily for marketing purposes; the conference has high name recognition and remains one of the Power Five conferences which are considered the primary contenders to produce a College Football Playoff champion team in any given year. Attempts to rename the Big 12 to reflect its current strength would lead to confusion with the current Big Ten Conference (which currently has 14 teams).
The Big 12 Conference commissioner is Bob Bowlsby.
Full members Assoc. member (Other sports) Other Conference
The Big 12 Conference sponsors championship competition in ten men 's and thirteen women 's NCAA sanctioned sports.
Men 's (and Coed -- see Rifle) varsity sports not sponsored by the Big 12 Conference which are played by Big 12 schools:
The Big 12 Conference is a major college athletic conference in the United States, having formed in February 1994 when four prominent colleges from Texas that were members of the Southwest Conference were invited to join the eight members of the Big Eight Conference to form a new 12 member conference. The Big 12 began athletic play in the fall of 1996, with the Texas Tech vs. Kansas State football game being the first - ever sports event staged by the conference. From its formation until 2011, its 12 members competed in two divisions. Between 2011 and 2012 four charter members left the conference, while two schools joined in 2012.
The Big 12 is unique among the current "Power Five '' conferences in that it only has 10 members, despite the name, causing some confusion. From 1987 to 2015, 12 or more members were required for an "exempt '' conference championship game -- that is, one that did not count against NCAA limits for regular - season games (currently 12 in FBS) -- although the first such game was not established until the SEC did so in 1992. (Since the 2014 season, the Pac - 12 has 12 members, while the ACC, Big Ten, and SEC have 14 football members each.)
Former Texas Athletic Director DeLoss Dodds and former football coach Mack Brown, along with Oklahoma football coach Bob Stoops, preferred not to have a championship game. Critics argued it was a competitive advantage over other contract conferences. Conferences with a championship game have their division champions typically play one of their toughest games of the year in the last week of the regular season. Unlike the other "Power 5 '' conferences in which a team only plays a portion of the other teams in the conference each season, each Big 12 team plays the other nine teams during its conference schedule. This theoretically allows for the declaration of a de facto champion without the need for an additional rematch between the top two teams in the conference.
On June 3, 2016, the conference announced it would reinstate the football championship game in the 2017 season. This followed the passage of a new NCAA rule allowing all FBS conferences to hold "exempt '' football championship games regardless of their membership numbers.
The Big 12 schools are located in the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, West Virginia and Iowa. These states have a combined population of 37.8 million.
As of 2013, out of the 115.6 million TV households nationwide there are only 13,427,130 TV households in those states (11.6 %), although Morgantown, West Virginia where WVU is based is in the Pittsburgh television market, which increases the Big 12 's television base well into Pennsylvania, and Lawrence, Kansas, where KU is based, is in the Kansas City television market, increasing the base into western Missouri. The Big 12 's share of the nation 's TVs is a fraction of that reached by the rest of the Power Five. This likely works against the conference in TV negotiations, but the conference negotiated tier 1 and 2 TV contracts with total payouts similar to those of the other Power Five conferences.
Member schools granted their first and second tier sports media rights to the conference for the length of their current TV deals. The Grant of Rights (GOR) deal with the leagues ' TV contracts ensures that "if a Big 12 school leaves for another league in the next 13 years, that school 's media rights, including revenue, would remain with the Big 12 and not its new conference. ''
GOR is seen by league members as a "foundation of stability '' and allowed the Big 12 to be "positioned with one of the best media rights arrangements in collegiate sports, providing the conference and its members unprecedented revenue growth, and sports programming over two networks. '' All members agreed to the GOR and later agreed to extend the initial 6 - year deal to 13 years to correspond to the length of their TV contracts.
Prior to this agreement, the Big Ten and Pac - 12 also had similar GOR agreements. The Big 12 subsequently assisted the ACC in drafting its GOR agreement. Four of the five major conferences now have such agreements, with the SEC the only exception.
The Big 12 is the only major conference that allows members to monetize TV rights for tier 3 events in football and men 's basketball. This allows individual Big 12 member institutions to create tier 3 deals that include TV rights for one home football game and four home men 's basketball games per season. Tier 3 rights exist for other sports as well, but these are not unique to the Big 12. The unique arrangement potentially allows Big 12 members to remain some of college sports ' highest revenue earners. Other conferences ' cable deals are subject to value reductions based on how people acquire cable programming, Big 12 schools tier 3 deals are exempt. Texas alone will earn more than $150 million of that total from their Longhorn Network.
Conference revenue comes mostly from television contracts, bowl games, the NCAA, merchandise, licensing and conference - hosted sporting events. The Conference distributes revenue annually to member institutions. From 1996 to 2011, 57 percent of revenue was allotted equally; while 43 percent was based upon the number of football and men 's basketball television appearances and other factors. In 2011 the distribution was 76 percent equal and 24 percent based on television appearances. Changing the arrangement requires a unanimous vote; as a Big 12 member, Nebraska and Texas A&M had withheld support for more equitable revenue distribution.
With this model, larger schools can receive more revenue because they appear more often on television. In 2006, for example, Texas received $10.2 million, 44 % more than Baylor University 's $7.1 million.
Big 12 revenue was generally less than other BCS conferences; this was due in part to television contracts signed with Fox Sports Net (four years for $48 million) and ABC / ESPN (eight years for $480 million).
In 2011, the Big 12 announced a new 13 - year media rights deal with Fox that would ensure that every Big 12 home football game is televised, as well as greatly increasing coverage of women 's basketball, conference championships and other sports. The deal, valued at an estimated $1.1 billion, runs until 2025. In 2012, the conference announced a new ESPN / FOX agreement, replacing the current ABC / ESPN deal, to immediately increase national media broadcasts of football and increase conference revenue; the new deal was estimated to be worth $2.6 billion through the 2025 expiration. The two deals pushed the conference per - school payout to approximately $20 million per year, while separating third - tier media rights into separate deals for each school; such contracts secured an additional $6 million to $20 million per school annually. The per - school payout under the deal is expected to reach $44 million, according to Commissioner Bob Bowlsby.
Revenue includes ticket sales, contributions and donations, rights / licensing, student fees, school funds and all other sources including TV income, camp income, food and novelties. Total expenses includes coaching / staff, scholarships, buildings / ground, maintenance, utilities and rental fees and all other costs including recruiting, team travel, equipment and uniforms, conference dues and insurance costs. Data is from United States Department of Education.
* Iowa State discontinued its participation in baseball as an NCAA - recognized activity following the 2001 season. It participates in club baseball as a member of the National Club Baseball Association. Games are played at Cap Timm Field, capacity 3,000.
The following is a list of all NCAA, equestrian, and college football championships won by teams that were representing the Big 12 Conference in NCAA - recognized sports at the time of their championship.
Football (3): 1997 -- Nebraska 2000 -- Oklahoma 2005 -- Texas
Equestrian (3): 2002 − Texas A&M (Overall) 2012 -- Baylor (Hunter Seat) 2012 -- Texas A&M (Overall)
Baseball (2): 2002 -- Texas 2005 -- Texas
Men 's Basketball (1): 2008 -- Kansas
Women 's Basketball (3): 2005 -- Baylor 2011 -- Texas A&M 2012 -- Baylor
Women 's Bowling (5): 1999 -- Nebraska 2001 -- Nebraska 2004 -- Nebraska 2005 -- Nebraska 2009 -- Nebraska
Men 's Cross Country (6): 2001 -- Colorado 2004 -- Colorado 2006 -- Colorado 2009 -- Oklahoma State 2010 -- Oklahoma State 2012 -- Oklahoma State
Women 's Cross Country (2): 2000 -- Colorado 2004 -- Colorado
Men 's Golf (5): 2000 -- Oklahoma State 2006 -- Oklahoma State 2009 -- Texas A&M 2012 -- Texas 2017 -- Oklahoma
Rifle (5): 2013 -- West Virginia 2014 -- West Virginia 2015 -- West Virginia 2016 -- West Virginia 2017 -- West Virginia
Women 's Gymnastics (3): 2014 -- Oklahoma 2016 -- Oklahoma 2017 -- Oklahoma
Men 's Gymnastics (8): 2002 -- Oklahoma 2003 -- Oklahoma 2005 -- Oklahoma 2006 -- Oklahoma 2008 -- Oklahoma 2015 -- Oklahoma 2016 -- Oklahoma 2017 -- Oklahoma
Women 's Indoor Track (3): 1998 -- Texas 1999 -- Texas 2006 -- Texas
Men 's Outdoor Track (3): 2009 -- Texas A&M 2010 -- Texas A&M 2011 -- Texas A&M
Women 's Outdoor Track (7): 1998 -- Texas 1999 -- Texas 2005 -- Texas 2009 -- Texas A&M 2010 -- Texas A&M 2011 -- Texas A&M 2013 -- Kansas
Men 's / Women 's Skiing (4): 1998 -- Colorado 1999 -- Colorado 2006 -- Colorado 2011 -- Colorado
Softball (4): 2000 -- Oklahoma 2013 -- Oklahoma 2016 -- Oklahoma 2017 -- Oklahoma
Men 's Swimming (7): 1996 -- Texas 2000 -- Texas 2001 -- Texas 2002 -- Texas 2010 -- Texas 2015 -- Texas 2016 -- Texas
Men 's Tennis (1): 2004 -- Baylor
Women 's Volleyball (3): 2000 -- Nebraska 2006 -- Nebraska 2012 -- Texas
Wrestling (4): 2003 -- Oklahoma State 2004 -- Oklahoma State 2005 -- Oklahoma State 2006 -- Oklahoma State
The national championships listed below are as of March 2016. Football, Helms, pre-NCAA competition and overall equestrian titles are included in the total, but excluded from the column listing NCAA and AIAW titles.
See also: List of NCAA schools with the most NCAA Division I championships, List of NCAA schools with the most Division I national championships, and NCAA Division 1 FBS Conferences
The Conference sponsors 23 sports, 10 men 's and 13 women 's.
In football, divisional titles were awarded based on regular - season conference results, with the teams with the best conference records from the North and South playing in the Big 12 Championship Game from 1996 to 2010. Baseball, basketball, softball, tennis and women 's soccer titles are awarded in both regular - season and tournament play. Cross country, golf, gymnastics, swimming and diving, track and field, and wrestling titles are awarded during an annual meet of participating teams. The volleyball title is awarded based on regular - season play.
As of March 8, 2016. List includes both regular - season, tournament titles, and co-championships. List does not include conference championships won prior to the formation of the Big 12 Conference in 1996.
The first football game in conference play was Texas Tech vs. Kansas State in 1996, won by Kansas State, 21 -- 14.
From 1996 to 2010, Big 12 Conference teams played eight conference games a season. Each team faced all five opponents within its own division and three teams from the opposite division. Inter-divisional play was a "three - on, three - off '' system, where teams would play three teams from the other division on a home - and - home basis for two seasons, and then play the other three foes from the opposite side for a two - year home - and - home.
This format came under considerable criticism, especially from Nebraska and Oklahoma, who were denied a yearly match between two of college football 's most storied programs. The Nebraska - Oklahoma rivalry was one of the most intense in college football history. (Until 2006, the teams had never met in the Big 12 Championship.) Due to the departure of Nebraska and Colorado in 2011, the Big 12 eliminated the divisions (and championship game) and instituted a nine - game round - robin format. With the advent of the College Football Playoff committee looking at teams ' strength of schedule for picking the four playoff teams, on December 8, 2015 the Big 12 announced an annual requirement for all Big 12 teams to schedule a non-conference game against a team from the four other Power Five conferences (plus Notre Dame). Per Big 12 commissioner Bob Bowlsby: "Schedule strength is a key component in CFP Selection Committee deliberations. This move will strengthen the resumes for all Big 12 teams. Coupled with the nine - game full round robin Conference schedule our teams play, it will not only benefit the teams at the top of our standings each season, but will impact the overall strength of the Conference. ''
The Big 12 Championship Game game was approved by all members except Nebraska. It was held each year, commencing with the first match in the 1996 season at the Trans World Dome in St. Louis. It pitted the division champions against each other after the regular season was completed.
Following the 2008 game, the event was moved to the new Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas, being played there in 2009 and 2010. In 2010, the Sooners defeated the Cornhuskers 23 -- 20.
After 2010, the game was moved to Arlington for 2011, 2012, and 2013. However, the decision became moot following the 2010 season because the league lacked sufficient members.
In April 2015, the ACC and the Big 12 developed new rules for the NCAA to deregulate conference championship games. The measure passed on January 14, 2016, allowing a conference with fewer than 12 teams to stage a championship game that does not count against the FBS limit of 12 regular - season games under either of the following circumstances:
Under the first criterion, the Big 12 championship game will resume at the conclusion of the 2017 regular season, and will be played during the first weekend of December, the time all other Division I FBS conference championship games are played.
As of 2014.
‡: Conference representative will play in the bowls on a rotating basis.
Rivalries (primarily in football) mostly predate the conference. The Kansas - Missouri rivalry was the longest running, the longest west of the Mississippi and the second longest in college football. It was played 119 times before Missouri left the Big 12. As of October 2012, the University of Kansas ' athletic department had not accepted Missouri 's invitations to play inter-conference rivalry games, putting the rivalry on hold. Sports clubs sponsored by the two universities continued to play each other.
The rivalry between TCU and Baylor, known as the Revivalry is also one of the longest running in college football, with the two schools having played each other -- largely as Southwest Conference members -- 112 times since 1899. As of the 2016 game, TCU leads the series 53 -- 52 -- 7.
The Oklahoma - Texas rivalry, the Red River Showdown is one year younger and has been played 108 times. This was a major rivalry decades before they were both in the conference, starting the year after the Revivalry in 1900. Currently Texas leads this rivalry 60 -- 44 -- 5.
Some of the longstanding football rivalries between Big 12 schools include:
From 1996 to 2011, standings in conference play were not split among divisions, although the schedule was structured as if they were. Teams played a home - and - home against teams within their "division '' s and a single game against teams from the opposite division for a total of 16 conference games. After Nebraska and Colorado left, Big 12 play transitioned to an 18 - game, double round robin schedule.
Big 12 basketball teams played non-division members only once and in - division members twice during the regular season in a 16 - game schedule until the 2012 - 13 season when its ten teams adopted a "home and away '' double round robin 18 - game schedule. The conference tournament gave first round byes to the top four teams from 1997 until 2012, and the top six teams 2013 to present.
Kansas has the most Big 12 titles, winning or sharing the regular - season title 17 times in the league 's 21 seasons. The 2002 Jayhawks became the first, and so far only, team to complete an undefeated Big 12 regular season, going 16 -- 0. As of the 2017 - 2018 season, Kansas had won or shared 14 straight regular - season league titles and 16 of the past 17. Though rematches between Big 12 regular season co-champions have happened in that year 's Big 12 tournament, none have met in the ensuing NCAA Tournament.
In 2004 -- 05, Oklahoma won the Big 12 Tournament seeding tiebreaker over Kansas based on its 71 -- 63 win over the Jayhawks in Norman, OK. The teams did not meet in Kansas City, MO. In 2005 -- 06, Texas won the Big 12 Tournament seeding tiebreaker over Kansas based on its 80 -- 55 win over the Jayhawks in Austin, TX. Kansas beat Texas 80 -- 68 in the Big 12 Tournament championship game in Dallas, TX. In 2007 -- 08, Texas won the Big 12 Tournament seeding tiebreaker over Kansas based on its 72 -- 69 win over the Jayhawks in Austin, TX. Kansas beat Texas 84 - 74 in the Big 12 Tournament championship game in Kansas City, MO. In 2012 -- 13, Kansas won the Big 12 Tournament seeding tiebreaker over Kansas State based on winning 59 -- 55 in Manhattan and 83 -- 62 in Lawrence. Kansas beat Kansas State for a third time 70 - 54 in the championship game in Kansas City, MO.
Totals though the end of the 2015 - 16 season.
Totals though the end of the 2015 -- 16 season.
Totals though the end of the 2015 -- 16 season.
All current Big 12 members sponsor baseball except Iowa State, which dropped the sport after the 2001 season. All former Big 12 members sponsored the sport throughout their tenures in the conference except Colorado, which never sponsored baseball during its time in the Big 12.
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minimum age limit for membership of vidhan parishad | Vidhan Parishad - wikipedia
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Article 169 of the Constitution of India provides for the establishment of a Vidhan Parishad. The Vidhan Parishad or Legislative Council is the upper house in those states of India that have a bicameral legislature. As of 2017, seven (7) (out of twenty - nine) states have a Legislative Council. They are elected by local bodies, legislative assembly, governor, graduates, teacher, etc. Odisha, too, is planning to make a legislative council. And members are known as MLC.
Each Member of the Legislative Council (MLC) serves for a six - year term, with terms staggered so that the terms of one third of a council 's membership expire every two years. This arrangement parallels that for the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India.
MLCs must be citizens of India, at least 30 years old, mentally sound, not an insolvent, and on the voters ' list of the state for which he or she is contesting an election. He or she may not be a Member of Parliament at the same time.
The size of the Vidhan Parishad can not be more than one third of the membership of the Vidhan Sabha. However, its size can not be less than 40 members (except in Jammu and Kashmir, where there are 36 by an Act of Parliament.)
MLCs are chosen in the following manner:
The existence of a Legislative Council has proven politically controversial. A number of states that have had their Council abolished have subsequently requested its re-establishment; conversely, proposals for the re-establishment of the Council for a state have also met with opposition. Proposals for abolition or re-establishment of a state 's Legislative Council require confirmation by the Parliament of India.
In April 2007, the State of Andhra Pradesh re-established its Legislative Council. The State 's main opposition party, the Telugu Desam Party, had stated that it would abolish the council again if it came to power in the state.
After the victory of the Akali Dal - BJP in Punjab, newly elected Chief Ministers Parkash Singh Badal stated that he would re-constitute the state 's Vidhan Parishad but was not established
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who wrote the book of law in the bible | Law of Moses - wikipedia
The Law of Moses, also called the Mosaic Law or in Hebrew: תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה , Torat Moshe, refers primarily to the Torah or first five books of the Hebrew Bible. Traditionally believed to have been written by Moses, most academics now believe they had many authors.
The Law of Moses or Torah of Moses (Hebrew: תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה , Torat Moshe, Septuagint Ancient Greek: νόμος Μωυσῆ, nómos Mōusē, or in some translations the "Teachings of Moses '') is a biblical term first found in the Book of Joshua 8: 31 - 32, where Joshua writes the Hebrew words of "Torat Moshe תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה '' on an altar of stones at Mount Ebal. The text continues:
And afterward he read all the words of the teachings, the blessings and cursings, according to all that is written in the book of the Torah (Joshua 8: 34).
The term occurs 15 times in the Hebrew Bible, a further 7 times in the New Testament, and repeatedly in Second Temple period, intertestamental, rabbinical and patristic literature.
The Hebrew word for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, Torah (which means "law '' and was translated into Greek as "nomos '' or "Law '') refers to the same five books termed in English "Pentateuch '' (from Latinised Greek "five books, '' implying the five books of Moses). According to some scholars, use of the name "Torah '' to designate the "Five Books of Moses '' of the Hebrew Bible is clearly documented only from the 2nd century BCE.
In modern usage, Torah can refer to the first five books of the Tanakh, as the Hebrew Bible is commonly called, to the instructions and commandments found in the 2nd to 5th books of the Hebrew Bible, and also to the entire Tanakh and even all of the Oral Law as well. Among English - speaking Christians the term "The Law '' can refer to the whole Pentateuch including Genesis, but this is generally in relation to the New Testament where nomos "the Law '' sometimes refers to all five books, including Genesis. This use of the Hebrew term "Torah '' (law), for the first five books is considered misleading by 21st - century Christian bible scholar John Van Seters, because the Pentateuch "consists of about one half law and the other half narrative. ''
The "Law of Moses '' in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the ancient Near East because transgressions were seen as offenses against God rather than solely as offenses against society (civil law). This contrasts with the Sumerian Code of Ur - Nammu (c. 2100 - 2050 BCE), and the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BCE, of which almost half concerns contract law). However the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented. For example the Israelite Sabbatical Year has antecedents in the Akkadian mesharum edicts granting periodic relief to the poor. Another important distinction is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed Ugaritic texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel, before the monarchical period beginning with David, was set up as a theocracy, rather than a monarchy, although God is most commonly portrayed like a king.
According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses was the leader of early Israel out of Egypt; and traditionally the first five books of the Hebrew Bible are attributed to him, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, as a consequence came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and / or his officials), and the Levites were the guardians and interpreters of the law.
The Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 31: 24 -- 26) records Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the Ark of the Covenant of the LORD. '' Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 17: 14, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua, that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of Amalek from under heaven; '' Exodus 24: 4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the LORD, and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel; '' Exodus 34: 27, "And the LORD said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with thee and with Israel; '' and Leviticus 26: 46 "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the LORD established on Mount Sinai between himself and the Israelites through Moses. ''
The Book of Kings relates how a "law of Moses '' was discovered in the Temple during the reign of king Josiah (r. 641 -- 609 BCE). This book is mostly identified as an early version of the Book of Deuteronomy, perhaps chapters 5 - 26 and chapter 28 of the extant text. This text contains a number of laws, dated to the 8th century BCE kingdom of Judah.
Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses '' is found in Joshua 8: 30 - 31.
The content of the Law is spread among the books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, and then reiterated and added to in Deuteronomy (deutero - nomy is Latinised Greek for "Second reading of the Law ''). This includes:
The content of the instructions and its interpretations, the Oral Torah, was passed down orally, excerpted and codified in Rabbinical Judaism, and in the Talmud were numbered as the 613 commandments. The Law given to Moses at Sinai (Hebrew Halakhah le - Moshe mi - Sinai הלכה למשה מסיני) is a halakhic distinction.
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how old was kobe bryant when he won his first nba championship | Kobe Bryant - wikipedia
Kobe Bean Bryant (born August 23, 1978) is an American former professional basketball player. He played his entire 20 - year career with the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He entered the NBA directly from high school and won five NBA championships with the Lakers. Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, 15 - time member of the All - NBA Team, and 12 - time member of the All - Defensive team. He led the NBA in scoring during two seasons and ranks third on the league 's all - time regular season scoring and fourth on the all - time postseason scoring list. He holds the NBA record for the most seasons playing with one franchise for an entire career and is widely regarded as one of the greatest basketball players of all time. Bryant is the first guard in NBA history to play for at least 20 seasons.
The son of former NBA player Joe Bryant, Kobe Bryant enjoyed a successful high school basketball career at Lower Merion High School in Pennsylvania, where he was recognized as the top high school basketball player in the country. He declared for the NBA draft upon graduation and was selected in the 13th overall pick in the 1996 NBA draft by the Charlotte Hornets, who traded him to the Lakers. As a rookie, Bryant earned himself a reputation as a high - flyer and a fan favorite by winning the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, and he was named an All - Star by his second season. Despite a feud between them, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal led the Lakers to three consecutive NBA championships from 2000 to 2002.
In 2003, Bryant was accused of sexual assault in Colorado, but the charges were eventually dropped, and a civil suit was settled out of court. After the Lakers lost the 2004 NBA Finals, O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat. Bryant became the cornerstone of the Lakers, and he led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. In 2006, he scored a career - high 81 points against the Toronto Raptors, the second most points scored in a single game in league history behind Wilt Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Bryant was awarded the regular season 's Most Valuable Player Award (MVP) in 2008. After losing in the 2008 NBA Finals, he led the Lakers to two consecutive championships in 2009 and 2010, earning the Finals MVP Award on both occasions. He continued to be among the top players in the league through 2013 when the 34 - year - old Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon. Although he recovered, his play was limited the following two years by season - ending injuries to his knee and shoulder, respectively. Citing his physical decline, he announced that he would retire after the 2015 -- 16 season.
At 34 years and 104 days of age, Bryant became the youngest player in league history to reach 30,000 career points. He became the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history on February 1, 2010, when he surpassed Jerry West. During his third year in the league, Bryant was chosen to start the All - Star Game, and he would continue to be selected to start that game for a record 18 consecutive appearances until his retirement. His four All - Star MVP Awards are tied for the most in NBA history. At the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics, he won gold medals as a member of the U.S. national team. Sporting News and TNT named Bryant the top NBA player of the 2000s. In 2018, Bryant won the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film for his film Dear Basketball.
Bryant was born in 1978 in Philadelphia; he was the youngest of three children and the only son of former NBA player Joe Bryant and Pamela Cox Bryant. He is also the maternal nephew of basketball player John "Chubby '' Cox. His parents named him after the famous beef of Kobe, Japan, which they saw on a restaurant menu. His middle name, Bean, is derived from his father 's nickname "Jellybean ''. Bryant was raised Roman Catholic. When Bryant was six, his father retired from the NBA and moved his family to Rieti in Italy to continue playing professional basketball at a lower level. Kobe became accustomed to his new lifestyle and learned to speak fluent Italian. During summers, he would come back to the United States to play in a basketball summer league.
Bryant started playing basketball when he was 3 years old, and the Lakers were his favorite team when he was growing up. Bryant 's grandfather would mail him videos of NBA games, which Bryant would study. At an early age, he also learned to play soccer and his favorite team was A.C. Milan. When Kobe 's father Joe retired as a player in 1991, the family moved back to the United States.
Bryant earned national recognition during a spectacular high school career at Lower Merion High School in Ardmore, which was located in the Philadelphia suburb of Lower Merion. He played on the varsity basketball team as a freshman. He became the first freshman in decades to start for Lower Merion 's varsity team, but the team finished with a 4 -- 20 record. The following three years, the Aces compiled a 77 -- 13 record, with Bryant playing all five positions. During his junior year, he averaged 31.1 points, 10.4 rebounds, and 5.2 assists and was named Pennsylvania Player of the Year, attracting attention from college recruiters in the process. Duke, Michigan, North Carolina and Villanova were at the top of his list; however, when Kevin Garnett went in the first round of the 1995 NBA draft, he began considering going directly to the pros.
At Adidas ABCD camp, Bryant earned the 1995 senior MVP award while playing alongside future NBA teammate Lamar Odom. While in high school, then 76ers coach John Lucas invited Bryant to work out and scrimmage with the team, where he played one - on - one with Jerry Stackhouse. In his senior year of high school, Bryant led the Aces to their first state championship in 53 years. During the run, he averaged 30.8 points, 12 rebounds, 6.5 assists, 4 steals, and 3.8 blocked shots in leading the Aces to a 31 -- 3 record. Bryant ended his high school career as Southeastern Pennsylvania 's all - time leading scorer at 2,883 points, surpassing both Wilt Chamberlain and Lionel Simmons.
Bryant received several awards for his outstanding performance during his senior year at Lower Merion. The awards included being named Naismith High School Player of the Year, Gatorade Men 's National Basketball Player of the Year, a McDonald 's All - American, and a USA Today All - USA First Team player. Bryant 's varsity coach, Greg Downer, commented that he was "a complete player who dominates '' and praised his work ethic, even as the team 's top player. In 1996, Bryant took R&B singer Brandy to his senior prom, though the two were, and remain, just friends. Ultimately, however, the 17 - year - old Bryant made the decision to go directly into the NBA, only the sixth player in NBA history to do so. Bryant 's news was met with a lot of publicity at a time when prep - to - pro NBA players were not very common (Garnett being the only exception in 20 years). His basketball skills and SAT score of 1080 would have ensured admission to any college he chose, but he did not officially visit any campuses. In 2012, Bryant was honored as one of the 35 Greatest McDonald 's All - Americans.
Prior to the 1996 NBA draft, Bryant had worked out in Los Angeles, where he scrimmaged against former Lakers players Larry Drew and Michael Cooper and, according to then - Laker manager Jerry West, "marched over these people ''. The Lakers were looking to trade their starting center Vlade Divac for a player 's draft rights in order to free up salary cap space to make an offer to free agent center Shaquille O'Neal. Bill Branch, the Hornets ' head scout at the time, said that the Hornets agreed to trade their draft selection at # 13 to the Lakers the day before the draft. Prior to the trade agreement, the Hornets never considered drafting Bryant. During the draft, the Lakers told the Hornets whom to select minutes before the pick was made. Bryant was the first guard ever drafted directly out of high school.
After the draft, the trade was put in jeopardy when Divac threatened to retire rather than be traded from Los Angeles. However, on June 30, Divac relented on his threat and the trade was made final on July 9, 1996 when the league 's offseason moratorium ended. Since Bryant was still 17 at the time, his parents had to cosign his contract with the Lakers until he was able to sign his own when he turned 18 before the season began. Bryant signed a three year rookie contract totalling $3.5 million.
Bryant debuted in the Summer Pro League in Long Beach, California, scoring 25 points in front of a standing - room - only crowd. Defenders struggled to get in front of him, and his performance excited West and Lakers coach Del Harris. He scored 36 points in the finale and finished with averages of 24.5 points and 5.3 rebounds in four games. As a rookie in 1996 -- 97, Bryant mostly came off the bench behind guards Eddie Jones and Nick Van Exel. At the time he became the youngest player ever to play in an NBA game (18 years, 72 days; a record since broken by Jermaine O'Neal and former teammate Andrew Bynum), and also became the youngest NBA starter ever (18 years, 158 days). Initially, Bryant played limited minutes, but as the season continued, he began to see some more playing time. By the end of the season, he averaged 15.5 minutes a game. During the All - Star weekend, Bryant participated in the Rookie Challenge and won the 1997 Slam Dunk Contest, becoming the youngest dunk champion ever at the age of 18. Bryant 's performance throughout the year earned him a spot on the NBA All - Rookie Second Team with fellow bench teammate Travis Knight. The Lakers advanced to the Western Conference semifinals in the playoffs against the Utah Jazz, when Bryant was pressed into a lead role at the end of Game 5. Byron Scott missed the game with a sprained wrist, Robert Horry was ejected for fighting with Utah 's Jeff Hornacek, and Shaquille O'Neal fouled out with 1: 46 remaining in the fourth quarter. Bryant shot four air balls at the end of the game; the Jazz won 98 -- 93 in overtime to eliminate the Lakers 4 -- 1. He first whiffed a game - winning 2 - point jump shot in the fourth quarter, and then misfired three three - point field goals in overtime, including two tying shots in the final minute. O'Neal commented that "(Bryant) was the only guy who had the guts at the time to take shots like that. ''
In Bryant 's second season, he received more playing time and began to show more of his abilities as a talented young guard. As a result, Bryant 's point averages more than doubled from 7.6 to 15.4 points per game. Bryant would see an increase in minutes when the Lakers "played small '', which would feature Bryant playing small forward alongside the guards he would usually back up. Bryant was the runner - up for the NBA 's Sixth Man of the Year Award, and through fan voting, he also became the youngest NBA All - Star starter in NBA history. He was joined by teammates O'Neal, Van Exel, and Jones, making it the first time since 1983 that four players on the same team were selected to play in the same All - Star Game. Bryant 's 15.4 points per game was the highest of any non-starter in the season.
The 1998 -- 99 season marked Bryant 's emergence as a premier guard in the league. With starting guards Van Exel and Jones traded, Bryant started every game for the lockout - shortened 50 - game season. During the season, Bryant signed a 6 - year contract extension worth $70 million. This kept him with the Lakers until the end of the 2003 -- 04 season. Even at an early stage of his career, sportswriters were comparing his skills to those of Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson. The playoff results, however, were no better, as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the Western Conference Semifinals.
Bryant 's fortunes would improve when Phil Jackson took over as coach of the Lakers in 1999. After years of steady improvement, Bryant became one of the premier shooting guards in the league, earning appearances in the league 's All - NBA, All - Star, and All - Defensive teams. The Lakers became championship contenders under Bryant and O'Neal, who formed a legendary center - guard combination. Jackson utilized the triangle offense that he implemented to win six championships with the Chicago Bulls; this offense would help both Bryant and O'Neal rise to the elite class of the NBA. Three resulting championships were won consecutively in 2000, 2001, and 2002, further proving such a fact.
Bryant was sidelined for six weeks prior to the start of the 1999 -- 2000 season due to a hand injury that he had incurred during a preseason game against the Washington Wizards. When Bryant was back and playing over 38 minutes a game, he had an increase in all statistical categories during the 1999 -- 2000 season. This included leading the team in assists per game and steals per game. The duo of O'Neal and Bryant backed with a strong bench led to the Lakers winning 67 games, tied for fifth-most in NBA history. This followed with O'Neal winning the MVP and Bryant being named to the All - NBA Team Second Team and All - NBA Defensive Team for the first time in his career (the youngest player ever to receive defensive honors). While playing second fiddle to O'Neal in the playoffs, Bryant had some clutch performances including a 25 - point, 11 rebound, 7 assist, 4 block game in game 7 of the Western Conference finals against the Portland Trail Blazers. He also threw an alley - oop pass to O'Neal to clinch the game and the series. In the 2000 Finals against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant injured his ankle in the second quarter of Game 2 after landing on the Pacers ' Jalen Rose 's foot. Rose later admitted he placed his foot under Bryant intentionally. Bryant did not return to the game, and he also missed Game 3 due to the injury. In Game 4, Bryant scored 22 points in the second half and led the team to an OT victory as O'Neal fouled out of the game. Bryant scored the winning shot to put the Lakers ahead 120 -- 118. With a 116 -- 111 Game 6 victory, the Lakers won their first championship since 1988.
Statistically, the 2000 -- 01 season saw Bryant perform similarly to the previous year, but he averaged 6 more points a game (28.5). It was also the year when disagreements between Bryant and O'Neal began to surface. Once again he led the team in assists with 5 per game. The Lakers, however, only won 56 games, an 11 - game drop off from last year. The Lakers would respond by going 15 -- 1 in the playoffs. They easily swept the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and San Antonio Spurs to advance to the Finals, before losing their first game against the Philadelphia 76ers in OT. They would go on to win the next 4 games and bring their second championship to Los Angeles in as many seasons. During the playoffs, Bryant played heavy minutes which brought his stats up to 29.4 points, 7.3 rebounds, and 6.1 assists per game. In the playoffs, teammate O'Neal declared Bryant the best player in the league. Bryant ended up making the All NBA Second team and All NBA Defensive Team for the second year in a row. In addition, he was also voted to start in the NBA All - Star Game for the 3rd year in a row (no game in 1999).
In the 2001 -- 02 season, Bryant played 80 games for the first time in his career. He continued his all - round play by averaging 25.2 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.5 assists per game. He also had a career - high 46.9 % shooting and once again led his team in assists. He claimed his first All - Star MVP trophy after a 31 - point performance in Philadelphia when he was loudly booed by fans as they had throughout the game, stemming from his earlier comment to a 76ers heckler during the Finals that the Lakers were "going to cut your hearts out ''. While making the All - NBA Defensive team again, he was also promoted to the All - NBA First Team for the first time in his career. The Lakers won 58 games that year and finished second place in the Pacific Division behind in - state rival Sacramento Kings. Bryant was suspended one game after he punched Reggie Miller of the Indiana Pacers after the Lakers ' March 1, 2002 victory over the Pacers.
The road to the Finals would prove a lot tougher than the record run the Lakers had the previous year. While the Lakers swept the Blazers and defeated the Spurs 4 -- 1 in the first two rounds of the playoffs, the Lakers did not have home court advantage against the Sacramento Kings. The series would stretch to 7 games, the first time this happened to the Lakers since the 2000 Western Conference Finals. However, the Lakers were able to beat their division rivals and make their third consecutive NBA Finals appearance. In the 2002 Finals against the New Jersey Nets, Bryant averaged 26.8 points, 51.4 % shooting, 5.8 rebounds, 5.3 assists per game, which included scoring a quarter of the team 's points. At age 23, Bryant became the youngest player to win three championships. Bryant 's play was notable and praised for his performance in the 4th quarter of games, specifically the last 2 rounds of the playoffs. This cemented Bryant 's reputation as a "clutch player ''.
In the 2002 -- 03 season, Bryant set an NBA record for three - pointers in a game on January 7, 2003, when he made 12 against the Seattle SuperSonics. He averaged 30 points per game and embarked on a historic run, posting 40 or more points in nine consecutive games while averaging 40.6 in the entire month of February. In addition, he averaged 6.9 rebounds, 5.9 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, all career - highs to that point. Bryant was once again voted to both the All - NBA and All - Defensive 1st teams, and came in third place in voting for the MVP award. After finishing 50 -- 32 in the regular season, the Lakers floundered in the playoffs and lost in the Western Conference semi-finals in six games to the eventual NBA champions San Antonio Spurs.
In the following 2003 -- 04 season, the Lakers were able to acquire NBA All - Stars Karl Malone, and Gary Payton to make another push at the NBA Championship. Bryant was arrested for sexual assault before the season began. This caused Bryant to miss some games due to court appearances or attend court earlier in the day and travel to play games later in same day. In the final game of the regular season, the Lakers played the Portland Trail Blazers. Bryant made two buzzer beaters to win the game and the Pacific Division title. At the end of the fourth quarter, Bryant made a 3 - pointer with 1.1 seconds left to send it into overtime. The game eventually went to a second overtime, in which Bryant made another 3 - pointer as time expired to lift the Lakers past the Blazers, 105 -- 104.
With a starting lineup of O'Neal, Malone, Payton, and Bryant, the Lakers were able to reach the NBA Finals. However, they were upset in five games by the Detroit Pistons, who won their first championship since 1990. In that series, Bryant averaged 22.6 points per game and 4.4 assists. He shot 35.1 % from the field. Jackson 's contract as coach was not renewed, and Rudy Tomjanovich took over. O'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom, Caron Butler, and Brian Grant. The following day, Bryant declined an offer to sign with the Los Angeles Clippers and re-signed a seven - year contract with the Lakers.
Bryant was closely scrutinized and criticized during the 2004 -- 05 season with his reputation badly damaged from all that had happened over the previous year. A particularly damaging salvo came when Jackson wrote The Last Season: A Team in Search of Its Soul. The book detailed the events of the Lakers ' tumultuous 2003 -- 04 season and has a number of criticisms of Bryant. In the book, Jackson called Bryant "un-coachable ''. Midway through the season, Tomjanovich suddenly resigned as Lakers coach, citing the recurrence of health problems and exhaustion. Without Tomjanovich, stewardship of the remainder of the Lakers ' season fell to career assistant coach Frank Hamblen. Bryant was the league 's second - leading scorer at 27.6 points per game, but he was surrounded by a subpar supporting cast, and the Lakers went 34 -- 48 and missed the playoffs for the first time in over a decade. The year signified a drop in Bryant 's overall status in the NBA, as he did not make the NBA All - Defensive Team and was also demoted to the All - NBA Third Team. During the season, Bryant also engaged in public feuds with Malone and Ray Allen.
The 2005 -- 06 NBA season marked a crossroads in Bryant 's basketball career. Despite past differences with Bryant, Jackson returned to coach the Lakers. Bryant endorsed the move, and by all appearances, the two men worked together well the second time around, leading the Lakers back into the playoffs. Bryant 's individual scoring accomplishments posted resulted in the finest statistical season of his career. On December 20, 2005, Bryant scored 62 points in three quarters against the Dallas Mavericks. Entering the fourth quarter, Bryant outscored the entire Mavericks team 62 -- 61, the only time a player has done this through three quarters since the introduction of the shot clock. When the Lakers faced the Miami Heat on January 16, 2006, Bryant and Shaquille O'Neal made headlines by engaging in handshakes and hugs before the game, signifying a change in the feud that had festered between them. A month later, at the 2006 NBA All - Star Game, the two were seen laughing together.
On January 22, 2006, Bryant scored a career - high 81 points in a 122 -- 104 victory against the Toronto Raptors. In addition to breaking the previous franchise record of 71 set by Elgin Baylor, Bryant 's 81 - point game was the second - highest point total in NBA history, surpassed only by Chamberlain 's 100 - point game in 1962. Whereas Chamberlain was fed repeatedly by teammates for inside shots in a blowout win, Bryant created his own shot -- mostly from the outside -- in a game which the Lakers trailed at halftime by 14 and did not pull away until the fourth quarter. Chamberlain, playing in an era when the games were paced faster and scoring opportunities were more plentiful, accounted for 59 percent of his team 's points in Philadelphia 's 169 -- 147 win, compared to Bryant scoring 66 percent of the Lakers ' 122 points. In that same month, Bryant also became the first player since 1964 to score 45 points or more in four consecutive games, joining Chamberlain and Baylor as the only players ever to do so. For the month of January, Bryant averaged 43.4 points per game, the eighth highest single month scoring average in NBA history and highest for any player other than Chamberlain. By the end of the 2005 -- 06 season, Bryant set Lakers single - season franchise records for most 40 - point games (27) and most points scored (2,832). He won the league 's scoring title for the first time by averaging 35.4 points per game, becoming just the fifth player in league history to average at least 35 in a season. Bryant finished in fourth place in the voting for the 2006 NBA Most Valuable Player Award but received 22 first place votes -- second only to winner Steve Nash.
Later in the season, it was reported that Bryant would change his jersey number from 8 to 24 at the start of the 2006 -- 07 NBA season. Bryant 's first high school number was 24 before he switched to 33. After the Lakers ' season ended, Bryant said on TNT that he wanted 24 as a rookie, but it was unavailable, as was 33, retired with Kareem Abdul - Jabbar. Bryant wore 143 at the Adidas ABCD camp and chose 8 by adding those numbers. In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers played well enough to reach a 3 -- 1 series lead over the Phoenix Suns, culminating with Bryant 's overtime - forcing and game - winning shots in Game 4. They came within six seconds of eliminating the second - seeded Suns in Game 6, however, they lost that game 126 -- 118 in overtime. Despite Bryant 's 27.9 points per game in the series, the Lakers broke down and ultimately fell to the Suns in seven games. After scoring 50 points on 20 of 35 shooting in the Game 6 loss, Bryant was criticized for only taking three shots in the second half of the 121 -- 90 Game 7 loss to Phoenix.
During the 2006 -- 07 season, Bryant was selected to his 9th All - Star Game appearance, and on February 18, he logged 31 points, 6 assists, and 6 steals, earning his second career All - Star Game MVP trophy. Over the course of the season, Bryant became involved in a number of on - court incidents. On January 28 while attempting to draw contact on a potential game - winning jump shot, he flailed his arm, striking San Antonio Spurs guard Manu Ginóbili in the face with his elbow. Following a league review, Bryant was suspended for the subsequent game at Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks. The basis given for the suspension was that Bryant had performed an "unnatural motion '' in swinging his arm backward. Later, on March 6, he seemed to repeat the motion, this time striking Minnesota Timberwolves guard Marko Jarić. On March 7, the NBA handed Bryant his second one - game suspension. In his first game back on March 9, he elbowed Kyle Korver in the face which was retroactively re-classified as a Type 1 flagrant foul.
On March 16, Bryant scored a season - high 65 points in a home game against the Portland Trail Blazers, which helped end the Lakers 7 - game losing streak. This was the second - best scoring performance of his 11 - year career. The following game, Bryant recorded 50 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves, after which he scored 60 points in a road win against the Memphis Grizzlies -- becoming the second Laker to score three straight 50 - plus point games, a feat not seen since Jordan last did it in 1987. The only other Laker to do so was Baylor, who also scored 50 + in three consecutive contests in December 1962. In the following day, in a game against the New Orleans Hornets, Bryant scored 50 points, making him the second player in NBA history to have four straight 50 - point games behind Chamberlain, who achieved it twice with streaks of five and seven. Bryant finished the year with a total of ten 50 - plus point games, matched only by Chamberlain. Bryant also won his second straight scoring title that season. Throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, his jersey became the top selling NBA jersey in the United States and China. A number of journalists have attributed the improved sales to Bryant 's new number, as well as his continuing All - Star performance on the court. In the 2007 NBA playoffs, the Lakers were once again eliminated in the first round by the Phoenix Suns, 4 -- 1.
On May 27, 2007, ESPN reported that Bryant stated that he wanted to be traded if Jerry West did not return to the team with full authority. Bryant later confirmed his desire for West 's return to the franchise but denied stating that he would want to be traded if that does not occur. However, three days later, on Stephen A. Smith 's radio program, Bryant expressed anger over a Lakers "insider '' who claimed that Bryant was responsible for Shaquille O'Neal 's departure from the team, and publicly stated, "I want to be traded. '' Three hours after making that statement, Bryant stated in another interview that after having a conversation with head coach Jackson, he had reconsidered his decision and backed off his trade request. Bryant was later shown in an infamous amateur video saying that center Andrew Bynum should have been traded for All - Star Jason Kidd.
On December 23, 2007, Bryant became the youngest player (29 years, 122 days) to reach 20,000 points, in a game against the New York Knicks, in Madison Square Garden. This record has since been broken by LeBron James. Despite an injury to his shooting hand 's small finger, described as "a complete tear of the radial collateral ligament, an avulsion fracture, and a volar plate injury at the MCP joint '' that occurred in a game on February 5, 2008, Bryant played all 82 games of the regular season instead of opting for surgery. Regarding his injury, he stated, "I would prefer to delay any surgical procedure until after our Lakers season, and this summer 's Olympic Games. But, this is an injury that myself (sic) and the Lakers ' medical staff will just have to continue to monitor on a day - to - day basis. '' In early September 2008, Bryant decided not to have surgery to repair the injury.
Aided by the signing of Spanish All - Star Pau Gasol, Bryant leads his team to a West best 57 -- 25 record. The Lakers swept the Nuggets in the first round and on May 6, 2008, and Bryant was officially announced as the league MVP. He said, "It 's been a long ride. I 'm very proud to represent this organization, to represent this city. '' West, who was responsible for bringing Bryant to the Lakers, was on hand at the press conference to observe Bryant receive his MVP trophy from NBA commissioner David Stern. He stated, "Kobe deserved it. He 's had just another great season. Does n't surprise me one bit. '' In addition to winning his MVP award, Bryant was the only unanimous selection to the All - NBA team on May 8, 2008, for the third straight season and sixth time in his career. He would then headline the NBA All - Defensive First Team with Kevin Garnett, receiving 52 points overall including 24 first - place nods, earning his eighth selection.
The Lakers concluded the 2007 -- 08 regular season with a 57 -- 25 record, finishing first in the Western Conference and setting up themselves for a first - round contest against the Nuggets. In Game 1, Bryant, who said he made himself a decoy through most of the game, scored 18 of his 32 points in the final 8 minutes to keep Los Angeles safely ahead. That made Denver the first 50 - win team to be swept out of the first round of the playoffs since the Memphis Grizzlies fell in four games to the San Antonio Spurs in 2004. In the first game of the next round against the Jazz, Bryant scored 38 points as the Lakers beat the Jazz in Game 1. The Lakers won the next game as well, but dropped Games 3 and 4, even with Bryant putting up 33.5 points per game. The Lakers then won the next two games to win the semifinals in 6. This set up a Western Conference Finals berth against the San Antonio Spurs. The Lakers defeated the Spurs in 5 games, sending themselves to the NBA Finals against the Boston Celtics. This marked the fifth time in Bryant 's career and the first time without O'Neal to go to the NBA Finals. The Lakers then lost to the Boston Celtics in 6 games.
In the 2008 -- 09 season, the Lakers opened the campaign by winning their first seven games. Bryant led the team to tie the franchise record for most wins to start the season going 17 -- 2, and by the middle of December they compiled a 21 -- 3 record. He was selected to his eleventh consecutive All - Star Game as a starter, and was named the Western Conference Player of the Month for December and January in addition to being named Western Conference Player of the week three times. In a game against the Knicks on February 2, 2009, Bryant scored 61 points, setting a record for the most points scored at Madison Square Garden. During the 2009 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant tallied 27 points, 4 assists, 4 rebounds, and 4 steals was awarded All - Star Game co-MVP with former teammate O'Neal. The Lakers finished the regular season with the best record in the west (65 -- 17). Bryant was runner - up in the MVP voting behind LeBron James, and was selected to the All - NBA First Team and All - Defensive First Team for the seventh time in his career.
In the playoffs, the Lakers defeated the Utah Jazz in five games and the Houston Rockets in seven games in the opening two rounds. After finishing off the Denver Nuggets in the Conference Finals in six games, the Lakers earned their second straight trip to the NBA Finals where they defeated the Orlando Magic in five games. Bryant was awarded his first NBA Finals MVP trophy upon winning his fourth championship, achieving series averages of 32.4 points, 7.4 assists, 5.6 rebounds, 1.4 steals and 1.4 blocks. He became the first player since West in the 1969 NBA Finals to average at least 32.4 points and 7.4 assists for a finals series and the first since Jordan to average 30 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists for a title - winning team in the finals.
During the 2009 -- 10 season, Bryant made six game - winning shots including a buzzer - beating, one - legged 3 - pointer against the Miami Heat on December 4, 2009. Bryant considered the shot one of the luckiest he has made. A week later, Bryant suffered an avulsion fracture in his right index finger in a game against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Despite the injury, Bryant elected to continue playing with it, rather than take any time off to rest the injury. Five days after his finger injury, he made another game - winning shot, after missing on an opportunity in regulation, this time against the Milwaukee Bucks in an overtime game. Bryant also became the youngest player (31 years, 151 days) to reach 25,000 points during the season, surpassing Chamberlain. He continued his dominant clutch plays making yet another game - winning three - pointer against the Sacramento Kings, and what would be the game - winning field goal against the Boston Celtics. The following day, he surpassed West to become the all - time leading scorer in Lakers franchise history. After being sidelined for five games from an ankle injury, Bryant made his return and made another clutch three - pointer to give the Lakers a one - point lead with four seconds remaining against the Memphis Grizzlies. Two weeks later, he made his sixth game - winning shot of the season against the Toronto Raptors.
On April 2, 2010, Bryant signed a three - year contract extension worth $87 million. Bryant finished the regular season missing four of the final five games, due to injuries to his knee and finger. Bryant suffered multiple injuries throughout the season and as a result, missed nine games. The Lakers began the playoffs as the number one seed in the Western Conference against the Oklahoma City Thunder, eventually defeating them in six games. The Lakers swept the Utah Jazz in the second round and advanced to the Western Conference Finals, where they faced the Phoenix Suns. In Game 2, Bryant finished the game with 13 assists, setting a new playoff career - high; it was the most assists by a Laker in the playoffs since Magic Johnson had 13 in 1996. The Lakers went on to win the series in six games capturing the Western Conference Championship and advancing to the NBA Finals for a third straight season. In a rematch against the 2008 Champion Boston Celtics, Bryant, despite shooting 6 for 24 from the field, led the Lakers back from a thirteen - point third quarter deficit in Game 7 to win the championship; he scored 10 of his game - high 23 points in the fourth quarter and finished the game with 15 rebounds. Bryant won his fifth championship and earned his second consecutive NBA Finals MVP award. This marked the first time the Lakers won a Game 7 against the Boston Celtics in the NBA Finals. Bryant said that this was the most satisfying of all of his five championships.
Bryant wanted a sixth championship to match Jordan 's total. The Lakers started the 2010 -- 11 season by winning their first eight games. In his ninth game of the season, playing against the Denver Nuggets, Bryant became the youngest player in NBA history to reach 26,000 career points. Bryant also recorded his first triple - double since January 21, 2009. On January 30 against the Celtics, he became the youngest player to score 27,000 points. On February 1, 2011, Bryant became one of seven players with at least 25,000 points, 5,000 rebounds, and 5,000 assists. In Boston on February 10, Bryant scored 20 of his 23 points in the second half as the Lakers rallied from an early 15 - point deficit for a 92 -- 86 win over the Celtics. It was the Lakers ' first victory of the season against one of the league 's top four teams, as they entered the game 0 -- 5 in previous matchups and had been outscored by an average of 11 points. Bryant, selected to his 13th straight All - Star game after becoming the leading vote - getter, had 37 points, 14 rebounds, and three steals in the 2011 All - Star Game and won his fourth All - Star MVP, tying Hall of Famer Bob Pettit for the most All - Star MVP awards. During the season, Bryant moved from 12th to 6th place on the NBA all - time career scoring list, passing John Havlicek, Dominique Wilkins, Oscar Robertson, Hakeem Olajuwon, Elvin Hayes, and Moses Malone. Bryant finished the season averaging less than 20 shots a game, his fewest since the 2003 -- 04 season.
On April 13, 2011, the NBA fined Bryant $100,000 for directing a gay slur at referee Bennie Adams in frustration in the previous day 's game. The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation praised the NBA 's decision to fine Bryant, and the Human Rights Campaign said that Bryant 's language was a "disgrace '' and "distasteful ''. Bryant stated that he was open to discussing the matter with gay rights groups and wanted to appeal his fine. He later apologized for the use of the word. Bryant and other Lakers appeared in a Lakers public service announcement denouncing his behavior. The team 's quest for another three - peat was ended when they were swept by the Dallas Mavericks in the second round of the playoffs. The Mavericks would go on to win the 2011 NBA Finals.
Bryant received experimental platelet - rich plasma therapy called Orthokine in Germany to treat the pain on his left knee and ankle, and Mike Brown replaced the retired Jackson as coach of the Lakers in the offseason. Bryant began the season playing with an injured wrist. On January 10, 2012, Bryant scored 48 points against the Suns, the most ever by a player in his 16th season. "Not bad for the seventh - best player in the league '', said Bryant, referring to a preseason ESPN ranking of the NBA 's top players. He went on to score 40, 42, and 42 in his next three games. It was the sixth time in his career he scored 40 or more points in four straight games, a feat exceeded only by Chamberlain (19 times). At the 2012 NBA All - Star Game, Bryant scored 27 points to pass Jordan as the career scoring leader in the All - Star Game. He also suffered a broken nose and a concussion in the third quarter of the All - Star Game after a hard foul from Dwyane Wade. In April, Bryant missed seven games with a bruised left shin. He returned three games before the end of the regular season. In the last game of the regular season, against Sacramento, he chose not to go for a possible third NBA scoring title, having needed 38 points to surpass Kevin Durant. The Lakers were knocked out of the playoffs by Durant 's Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round of the playoffs, losing in five games.
The Lakers in 2012 -- 13 acquired center Dwight Howard and point guard Steve Nash. On November 2, 2012, Bryant scored 40 points with two steals, and he passed Magic Johnson (1,724) as the Lakers career leader in steals. However, the Lakers lost the game to the Clippers and started the season 0 -- 3 for the first time in 34 years and just the fourth time in franchise history. After starting the season 1 -- 4, coach Brown was fired. He was replaced by Mike D'Antoni, who Bryant knew as a child when Bryant 's father was playing in Italy and D'Antoni was also a star player there. Bryant had grown close with D'Antoni during their time with Team USA. On December 5 against New Orleans, Bryant became the youngest player (34 years and 104 days) in league history to score 30,000 points, joining Hall of Famers Chamberlain, Jordan, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, and Karl Malone as one of five players to reach that milestone. On December 18, in a 101 -- 100 win over the Charlotte Bobcats, Bryant scored 30 + points in his seventh consecutive game, the longest streak ever by an NBA player after turning 34 years old; it was the fourth - longest such streak in his career. His streak would be snapped at 10 on December 28 in a 104 -- 87 win over the Portland Trail Blazers, when he scored 27 points, sitting out the whole fourth quarter. In a move to improve the team 's defense, D'Antoni began having Bryant guard the opponent 's best perimeter player; Bryant was the primary defender on the Cavaliers ' Kyrie Irving, who was held to 15 points. Bryant acknowledged he was a more focused defender when he had a challenging defensive assignment as opposed to when he played off the ball against weaker players. His defense disrupted opponents and freed Nash from unfavorable matchups.
Bryant was leading the league in scoring through much of the first 42 games. With a disappointing 17 -- 25 start to the season, D'Antoni had Bryant became the primary facilitator on offense and Nash was moved off the ball and became more of a spot - up shooter. In the next three games, Bryant had at least 10 assists in three wins with a three - game total of 39 assists, the most in his career. He missed a triple - double in each game with nine rebounds twice and eight in the other. In two crucial wins in March, he scored at least 40 points and had at least 10 assists in back - to - back games, becoming the first Laker to accomplish the feat since West in 1970.
With the Lakers fighting to secure the eighth and final playoff berth in the Western Conference, coupled with injuries on the team, Bryant began playing almost all 48 minutes each game. On April 10, 2013, Bryant became the first player in NBA history to get 47 points, eight rebounds, five assists, four blocks, and three steals in an NBA game. On April 12, Bryant suffered a torn Achilles tendon against the Golden State Warriors, ending his season. His injury came while he was playing seven consecutive quarters and at least 40 minutes for seven consecutive games. The 34 - year - old Bryant was averaging his most minutes (38.6) in six years, and only Portland rookie Damian Lillard was averaging more minutes. Lakers general manager Mitch Kupchak had spoken to Bryant about his extensive playing time 10 days earlier, but Bryant insisted the minutes needed to continue given the Lakers ' playoff push. Bryant had surgery on April 13 to repair the tear, and it was estimated he would miss six to nine months. He ended the season with his customary numbers scoring an average of 27.3 points, 46.3 percent shooting, 5.6 rebounds, and 6 assists. However, The New York Times called his leading of the Lakers back into playoff contention "perhaps some of the finest work of his career. '' Eight times he reached 40 points during the season, and eleven times he had 10 or more assists in his role as distributor, dubbed "Magic Mamba '' after the passing skills of Magic Johnson. Bryant 's assists were the second - highest of his career and his field goal percentage was its highest since 2008 -- 09. The Lakers finished the season at 45 - 37, good for seventh in the West. Playing without Bryant, the Lakers were swept in four games by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the playoffs.
Bryant resumed practicing in November 2013, after the 2013 - 2014 season had already begun. On November 25, he signed a two - year contract extension with the Lakers at an estimated value of $48.5 million. He remained the league 's highest - paid player, although he accepted a discounted deal; he had been eligible to receive an extension starting at $32 million per year. Bryant 's contract became a polarizing topic, with detractors arguing that stars should take less money to allow their team more financial freedom, while supporters countered that the NBA 's biggest stars were being paid less than their true value. Bryant resumed playing on December 8 after missing the season 's first 19 games. On December 17, Bryant matched his season high of 21 points in a 96 -- 92 win over Memphis, but he suffered a lateral tibial plateau fracture in his left knee that was expected to sideline him for six weeks. He had played six games since returning from his Achilles injury, which included time at point guard after injuries to Nash, Steve Blake, and Jordan Farmar. Bryant was averaging 13.8 points, 6.3 assists, and 4.3 rebounds. Despite being sidelined, he was voted by fans to start in his 16th All - Star game. Bryant did not feel he was deserving of the selection, and some likened it to a career achievement award for his past performance. However, he missed playing in the game, still hampered by his knee. On March 12, 2014, the Lakers ruled Bryant out for the remainder of the season, citing his need for more rehab and the limited time remaining in the season. At the time, the team was 22 -- 42 and tied for the worst record in the Western Conference. The Lakers finished 27 -- 55 and missed the playoffs for the first time since 2005.
Bryant returned for the 2014 -- 15 season, his 19th season with the Lakers, who had replaced D'Antoni with Bryant 's former Lakers teammate, Byron Scott. On November 30, 2014, in a 129 -- 122 overtime victory against the Toronto Raptors, Bryant recorded his 20th career triple - double with 31 points, 12 assists and 11 rebounds. At age 36, he became the oldest NBA player to ever achieve 30 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists in a game. On December 14, Bryant became the NBA 's third all - time leading scorer, passing Jordan (32,292) in a 100 -- 94 win against Minnesota. He played in the first 27 games of the season, averaging team - highs with 26.4 points and 35.4 minutes per game while leading the league with 22.4 shots per game. However, Scott held him out for three straight games to rest after one of his worst performances of the season, when Bryant committed nine turnovers and scored 25 points on just 8 - for - 30 shooting in a 108 -- 101 loss to Sacramento. He was suffering from soreness in his knees, feet, back, and Achilles tendons and Scott planned to reduce his workload going forward. Three times Bryant had exceeded 40 minutes in a game, and the coach blamed himself for overloading him after he started the season in such great shape. For the season, Bryant had been shooting just 37 percent from the field, and the team 's record was only 8 -- 19. In his second game back after resting, he had 23 points, 11 assists, and 11 rebounds in a 111 -- 103 win over Denver, and became just the third player in league history to record multiple triple - doubles in a season at age 36 or older. On January 21, 2015, Bryant suffered a rotator cuff tear in his right shoulder while driving baseline for a two - handed dunk against the New Orleans Pelicans. Though he is right - handed, he returned to play in the game and ran the offense while shooting, dribbling, and passing almost exclusively with his left hand. Prior to the injury, Bryant had been rested in 8 of 16 games. He underwent season - ending surgery for the injury, finishing the season averaging 22.3 points but shooting a career - low 37.3 percent, well below his 45.4 percent career mark to start the season. He was expected to be sidelined for nine months with a return targeted toward the start of the 2015 -- 16 season. The Lakers finished the season with a record of 21 - 61, surpassing the franchise record for most losses in a season that they had set the previous year.
After recovering to play in the 2015 -- 16 preseason, Bryant suffered a calf injury and missed the final two weeks of exhibition games. However, he played in the season opener to begin his 20th season with the Lakers, surpassing John Stockton 's league record of 19 for the most seasons with the same team. On November 24, 2015, the Lakers fell to 2 -- 12 after losing 111 -- 77 to the Warriors. Bryant scored just four points in 25 minutes on 1 - for - 14 shooting, matching the worst - shooting game of his career in which he attempted at least five shots. On December 1, 2015, Bryant played his last game against his hometown team, the Philadelphia 76ers, where the Lakers lost 103 - 91.
On November 29, 2015, Bryant announced via The Players ' Tribune that he would be retiring at the end of the season. In his poem titled "Dear Basketball '', Bryant wrote that he fell in love with the game at age six; "A love so deep I gave you my all / From my mind & body / To my spirit & soul. '' The 2015 -- 16 season "is all I have left to give. / My heart can take the pounding / My mind can handle the grind / But my body knows it 's time to say goodbye. / And that 's OK. / I 'm ready to let you go. '' In a letter distributed to Lakers ' fans before that evening 's game against the Indiana Pacers, Bryant wrote, "What you 've done for me is far greater than anything I 've done for you... My love for this city, this team and for each of you will never fade. Thank you for this incredible journey. ''
At the time of his announcement, he was second on the team in minutes (30.8) behind Jordan Clarkson and leading the team with 16.7 field goal attempts per game, while averaging just 15.7 points and shooting a career - low 31.5 percent. His free throw attempts had dropped from his career average, and his game had become over-reliant on pump fakes and long - range shots, making a league - worst 19.5 percent from three - point range while attempting seven a game, almost double his career average. In his press conference after the announcement, he acknowledged his declining skills. "Even though I play like shit, I 've worked really, really hard not to play like crap and I do everything I possibly can. And I feel good about that '', he said.
Bryant requested that opposing teams on the road not hold any on - court ceremonies in his honor or present him any gifts in public. Prior to announcing his retirement, he had been steadfast about not wanting the fuss of a staged farewell tour, preferring to hear boos instead of cheers. Still, he was honored around the league with video tributes, and fans greeted him with ovations, even at arenas that historically jeered him like TD Garden in Boston and Sleep Train Arena in Sacramento. Previously, Bryant was respected but not beloved, and he was astonished at the cheers he was now receiving.
On February 3, Bryant made seven three - pointers and scored a season - high 38 points, including 14 of the team 's 18 points in the last 5: 02 of the game, for a 119 -- 115 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. The win ended a 10 - game losing streak, and the Lakers averted establishing the longest losing streak in franchise history. Bryant became just the fourth NBA player over 37 years old to log at least 35 points, five rebounds, and five assists in a game. Bryant was the leading overall vote - getter for the 2016 All - Star Game with 1.9 million votes, ahead of Stephen Curry 's 1.6 million. Having moved to small forward that season, Bryant was selected as a frontcourt starter for the first time. Playing in his first All - Star game since 2013, Bryant had 10 points, six rebounds, and seven assists. West teammates offered to feed him the ball in an attempt to get him another All - Star MVP, but he declined.
On April 13, 2016, Bryant played his final NBA game against the Utah Jazz, scoring a season - high 60 points (the most points scored by a player that season), including outscoring the entire Jazz team 23 -- 21 in the fourth quarter, in the Lakers ' 101 -- 96 victory. The Lakers finished the season with a 17 - 65 record; this was the worst season record in the history of the organization. Bryant became the oldest player to score 60 or more points in a game at 37 years and 234 days old.
Bryant declined to play in the 2000 Olympics because he was getting married in the off - season. He also decided not to play in the 2002 FIBA World Championship. Bryant was originally selected for the FIBA Americas Championship in 2003 but withdrew after undergoing arthroscopic shoulder and knee surgeries. In the following summer, he had to withdraw from the Olympic team because of his sexual assault case. Along with LeBron James, he was one of the first two players to publicly named to the 2006 -- 2008 U.S. preliminary roster in 2006 by Jerry Colangelo. However, he was once again sidelined after knee surgery and did n't participate in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
Bryant 's United States national team career finally began in 2007. He was a member of the 2007 USA Men 's Senior National Team and USA FIBA Americas Championship Team that finished 10 -- 0, won gold and qualified the United States men for the 2008 Olympics. He started in all 10 of the USA 's FIBA Americas Championship games. Bryant averaged 15.3 points, 2.9 assists, 2.0 rebounds, and 1.6 steals per game in the tournament.
On June 23, 2008, he was named to the USA Men 's Senior National Team for the 2008 Summer Olympics. This was his first time going to the Olympics. Bryant scored 20 points, including 13 in the fourth quarter, along with six assists, as Team USA defeated Spain 118 -- 107 in the gold medal game on August 24, 2008, for its first gold medal in a worldwide competition since the 2000 Olympics. He averaged 15.0 points, 2.8 rebounds, and 2.1 assists while shooting. 462 from the field in eight Olympic contests.
Bryant rejoined the national team for the 2012 Summer Olympics. He retired from the team after winning another gold medal.
Listed at 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) and weighing 212 pounds (96 kg), Bryant played primarily as a shooting guard. He was often cited as one of the most dangerous scorers in the NBA. Bryant has drawn frequent comparisons to Jordan, after whom he modeled his playing style. Like Jordan, he became most known for shooting a fall - away jump shot. Chris Ballard of Sports Illustrated described another of Bryant 's most famous moves as the "jab step - and - pause '': Bryant jabbed his non-pivot foot forward to let the defender relax, but instead of bringing the jab foot back, he pushed off of it and drove around his opponent to get to the basket.
Bryant established a reputation for taking shots in the closing moments of tight games, even when he was double or triple - teamed, and was noted as one of the premier closers in the NBA. In a 2012 annual survey of NBA general managers, Bryant was selected for the 10th consecutive season as the player general managers would want to take a clutch shot with a game on the line. Bryant enjoyed being the villain, and reveled in being booed and then silencing the crowd with his play. His ability to make difficult shots has also drawn criticism of his shot selection. Throughout his career, Bryant was disparaged for being a selfish, high - volume shooter; he missed more field goal attempts in his career than any other player in NBA history. Phil Jackson, who coached Bryant for many years, stated that Bryant "tends to force the action, especially when the game is n't going his way. When his shot is off, Kobe will pound away relentlessly until his luck turns. '' According to Bryant, "I would go 0 for 30 before I would go 0 for 9; 0 for 9 means you beat yourself, you psyched yourself out of the game. ''
In addition to his abilities on offense, Bryant also established himself as a standout defensive player. Bryant rarely drew charges when he played defense, which he believed spared his body and contributed to his longevity. Some critics have suggested that Bryant 's defensive accolades in his later years were based more on his reputation than his actual play.
Bryant was also lauded for his work ethic. Throughout his first 16 seasons, his body was resilient, and he exhibited a high pain threshold while often playing through injuries. A fierce competitor, Bryant made opponents and teammates alike the objects of his scorn. Many players have considered him difficult to play with because of his high level of commitment and performance. According to sportswriter Mark Heisler of Forbes, "circa 2004 -- 2007, Kobe was the most alienated superstar the NBA had ever seen. '' He did, however, lead the Lakers to two championships after the departure of Shaquille O'Neal; during this period, he became more of a mentor to his teammates than he had been earlier in his career. Bryant 's longtime head coach Phil Jackson noted that the biggest difference between his first and second stints in coaching the Lakers was that during the latter period, "(Bryant) embraced the team and his teammates, calling them up when we were on the road and inviting them out to dinner. It was as if the other players were now his partners, not his personal spear - carriers. ''
Bryant was called "one of the greatest players in the history of our game '' by NBA commissioner Adam Silver, and The New York Times wrote that he has had "one of the most decorated careers in the history of the sport. '' Reuters called him "arguably the best player of his generation '', while both Sporting News and TNT named him their NBA player of the decade for the 2000s. In 2008 and again in 2016, ESPN ranked him the second greatest shooting guard of all - time after Jordan. Players including Kevin Durant, Dirk Nowitzki, Dwyane Wade, and Derrick Rose have called Bryant their generation 's version of Jordan. The Press - Enterprise described Bryant as "maybe the greatest Laker in the organization 's history ''. He is the Lakers ' all - time leading scorer, and his five titles are tied for the most in franchise history. Both numbers he wore during his career, 8 and 24, were retired by the Lakers on December 18, 2017.
With career averages of 25.0 points, 5.2 rebounds, 4.7 assists, and 1.4 steals per game, he is considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. He was the first player in NBA history to have at least 30,000 career points and 6,000 career assists, and is one of only four players with 25,000 points, 6,000 rebounds, and 6,000 assists. Bryant led the NBA in scoring during the 2005 -- 06 and 2006 -- 07 seasons. His 81 - point performance against Toronto in 2006 was the second - highest in NBA history, behind only Chamberlain 's 100. He has scored at least 50 points 24 times in his career, which is third in league history behind Jordan (31) and Chamberlain (118); six times Bryant scored at least 60. He was just the third player in NBA history to average 40 points in a calendar month, which he has accomplished four times. Bryant was voted the league MVP in 2008 and led his team to the 2008 NBA Finals as the first seed in the Western Conference. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, he won a gold medal as a member of the U.S. men 's basketball team, occasionally referred to as "The Redeem Team ''. He won another gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. He led the Lakers to two more championships in 2009 and 2010, winning the Finals MVP award on both occasions.
Bryant is an 18 - time All - Star, which ranks second behind only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar 's 19. He has been chosen a record 18 straight times, each time as a starter. On four occasions (2003, 2011, 2013, 2016) he was the leading vote - getter. Four times Bryant was named the All - Star MVP, a record he shares with Bob Pettit. He has been selected to the All - NBA Team on 15 occasions, tied for the most with Abdul - Jabbar and Tim Duncan, and his 11 first - team honors are tied for the most ever with Karl Malone. Bryant is also a 12 - time All - Defensive Team selection, trailing only Duncan 's 15, and nine times he was named to the All - Defensive First Team, tied with Jordan, Garnett, and Gary Payton for the most all - time. He was the first guard to play 20 seasons in the NBA. He also won the NBA Slam Dunk Contest in 1997 and is its youngest winner. In his career, Bryant has scored 40 - plus points in 121 games, and 21 times he has recorded a triple - double.
In November 1999, 21 - year - old Bryant met 17 - year - old Vanessa Laine while she was working as a background dancer on the Tha Eastsidaz music video "G 'd Up ''. Bryant was in the building and working on his debut musical album. The two began dating and became engaged just six months later in May 2000, while Laine was still a senior at Marina High School in Huntington Beach, California. To avoid media scrutiny, she finished high school through independent study. According to Vanessa 's cousin Laila Laine, there was no prenuptial agreement. Vanessa said Bryant "loved her too much for one ''.
They married on April 18, 2001, at St. Edward the Confessor Catholic Church in Dana Point, California. The wedding was not attended by Bryant 's parents, his two sisters, his longtime advisor and agent Arn Tellem, or his Laker teammates. Bryant 's parents were opposed to the marriage for a number of reasons. Reportedly Bryant 's parents had problems with him marrying so young, especially to a woman who was not African - American. This disagreement resulted in an estrangement period of over two years, which ended when the couple 's first daughter was born.
In 2013, Bryant had a legal disagreement with an auction house over memorabilia from his early years that his mother intended to auction. Pamela Bryant received $450,000 from the auction house for the items and claimed Bryant had given her the rights to the items he had remaining in her home. However, his lawyers asked the auction house to return the items to Bryant. Before the scheduled trial, a settlement was reached allowing the sale of less than 10 % of the original items. Bryant 's parents apologized to him in a written statement, which also acknowledged the financial support Bryant had provided them in the past.
In January 2002, Bryant bought a Mediterranean - style house for $4 million, located on a cul - de-sac in Newport Coast, Newport Beach. He sold the house in May 2015.
The Bryants ' first child, a daughter whom they named Natalia Diamante Bryant, was born in 2003. The birth of Natalia influenced Bryant to reconcile his differences with his parents. Due to an ectopic pregnancy, Vanessa suffered a miscarriage in the spring of 2005. Their second daughter, Gianna Maria - Onore Bryant, was born in 2006. On December 16, 2011, Vanessa Bryant filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences, and the couple requested joint custody of their daughters. On January 11, 2013, Bryant and his wife both announced via social media that they had called off their divorce.
In an early 2007 interview, it was revealed that Bryant still speaks Italian fluently. He has also conducted press interviews in Spanish. Bryant assigned himself the nickname of "Black Mamba '', citing a desire for his basketball skills to mimic the eponymous snake 's ability to "strike with 99 % accuracy at maximum speed, in rapid succession. '' During the 2012 -- 13 season, he began referring to himself as "vino '' to describe how his play had been aging like a fine wine.
In early December 2016, Vanessa gave birth to their third daughter, named Bianka.
In the summer of 2003, the sheriff 's office of Eagle, Colorado, arrested Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19 - year - old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera in Eagle County in advance of undergoing knee surgery nearby. The accuser stated that Bryant raped her in his hotel room the night before Bryant was to have the procedure. Bryant admitted to an adulterous sexual encounter with his accuser but denied her sexual assault allegation.
The accusation tarnished Bryant 's reputation, and the public 's perception of him plummeted; his endorsement contracts with McDonald 's and Nutella were terminated. Sales for Bryant 's replica jersey fell significantly from their previous highs. However, in September 2004, the assault case was dropped by prosecutors after the accuser refused to testify at the trial. Afterward, Bryant agreed to apologize to her for the incident, including his public mea culpa: "Although I truly believe this encounter between us was consensual, I recognize now that she did not and does not view this incident the same way I did. After months of reviewing discovery, listening to her attorney, and even her testimony in person, I now understand how she feels that she did not consent to this encounter. '' The accuser filed a separate civil lawsuit against Bryant, which the two sides ultimately settled. The specific terms of the settlement were not disclosed to the public.
Before starting the 1996 -- 97 NBA season, Bryant signed a six - year contract with Adidas that was worth approximately $48 million. His first signature shoe was the Equipment KB 8. Bryant 's other earlier endorsements included deals with The Coca - Cola Company to endorse their Sprite soft drink, appearing in advertisements for McDonald 's, promoting Spalding 's new NBA Infusion Ball, Upper Deck, Italian chocolate company Ferrero SpA 's brand Nutella, Russell Corporation, and appearing on his own series of video games by Nintendo. Many companies like McDonald 's and Ferrero SpA terminated his contracts when rape allegations against him became public. A notable exception was Nike, Inc., who had signed him to a five - year, $40 -- 45 million contract just before the incident. However, they refused to use his image or market a new shoe of his for the year but eventually did start promoting Bryant once his image recovered 2 years later. He has since resumed endorsement deals with The Coca - Cola Company, through their subsidiary Energy Brands, to promote their Vitamin Water brand of drinks. Bryant was also the cover athlete for NBA ' 07: Featuring the Life Vol. 2 and appeared in commercials for the video games Guitar Hero World Tour (with Tony Hawk, Michael Phelps, and Alex Rodriguez) in 2008 and Call of Duty: Black Ops (alongside Jimmy Kimmel) in 2010.
In a 2008 video promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant appears to jump over a speeding Aston Martin. The stunt was considered to be fake, and the Los Angeles Times said a real stunt would probably be a violation of Bryant 's Lakers contract. After promoting Nike 's Hyperdunk shoes, Bryant came out with the fourth edition of his signature line by Nike, the Zoom Kobe IV. In 2010 Nike launched another shoe, Nike Zoom Kobe V. In 2009, Bryant signed a deal with Nubeo to market the "Black Mamba collection '', a line of sports / luxury watches that range from $25,000 to $285,000. On February 9, 2009, Bryant was featured on the cover of ESPN The Magazine. However, it was not for anything basketball related, rather it was about Bryant being a big fan of FC Barcelona. CNN estimated Bryant 's endorsement deals in 2007 to be worth $16 million a year. In 2010, Bryant was ranked third behind Tiger Woods and Jordan in Forbes ' list of the world 's highest - paid athletes with $48 million.
On December 13, 2010, Bryant signed a two - year endorsement deal with Turkey 's national airline, Turkish Airlines. The deal involved Bryant being in a promotional film to be aired in over 80 countries in addition to his being used in digital, print and billboard advertising.
Bryant has appeared as the cover athlete for the following video games:
In September 2012, Bryant shot a commercial for Turkish Airlines with FC Barcelona star Lionel Messi. In the airline 's latest commercial, the duo competes to win the attention of a young boy. In 2013, Forbes listed Bryant the fifth highest paid sports star in the world behind Floyd Mayweather, Cristiano Ronaldo, LeBron James and Lionel Messi.
In high school, Bryant was a member of a rap group called CHEIZAW, named after the Chi Sah gang in the martial arts film Kid with the Golden Arm. The group was signed by Sony Entertainment, but the company 's ultimate goal was to eliminate the group and have Bryant record on his own. The label wanted to capitalize on Bryant 's youth and NBA fame. He performed at a 1997 concert by Sway & King Tech and recorded a verse for a remix of Brian McKnight 's "Hold Me ''. Bryant even appeared on Lakers teammate O'Neal's Respect, starting the track "3 X 's Dope '', though Bryant 's name was not listed on the credits.
Sony pushed Bryant from his roots of underground hip hop into a more radio - friendly sound. His debut album, Visions, was scheduled to release in the spring of 2000. The first single, "K.O.B.E ' '', featured supermodel Tyra Banks singing the hook. The single debuted in January 2000, and was performed at NBA All - Star Weekend that month; the song was not well received. Sony abandoned plans for the album, which was never released, and dropped Bryant later that year. The Sony president who originally signed Bryant had already left, and Bryant 's other backers had mostly abandoned him. Afterward, Bryant co-founded an independent record label, Heads High Entertainment, but it folded within a year.
In 2011, Bryant was featured in Taiwanese singer Jay Chou 's single, "The Heaven and Earth Challenge '' (天地 一 鬥, pronounced "Tian Di Yi Dou ''). The proceeds for downloads of both the single and ringtones were donated to impoverished schools for basketball facilities and equipment. The music video of the single also features Bryant. The song was also used by Sprite in its 2011 marketing campaign in China.
In 2009, rapper Lil Wayne titled a song "Kobe Bryant ''. Similarly, in 2010, the rapper Sho Baraka released a song called "Kobe Bryant On'em '', which was featured on his album Lions and Liars.
Bryant is the official ambassador for After - School All - Stars (ASAS), an American non-profit organization that provides comprehensive after - school programs to children in thirteen US cities. Bryant also started the Kobe Bryant China Fund which partnered with the Soong Ching Ling Foundation, a charity backed by the Chinese government. The Kobe Bryant China Fund raises money within China earmarked for education and health programs. On November 4, 2010, Bryant appeared alongside Zach Braff at the Call of Duty: Black Ops launch event at the Santa Monica Airport, where they presented a $1 million check to the Call of Duty Endowment, an Activision - founded nonprofit organization that helps veterans transition to civilian careers after their military service has ended.
Bryant established Kobe Inc. to own and grow brands in the sports industry. The initial investment was in the BodyArmor sports drink company in 2014. The headquarters are in Newport Beach, California.
On August 22, 2016, Bryant and his business partner Jeff Stibel launched Bryant - Stibel, a venture capital firm focused on different businesses including media, data, gaming, and technology, with $100 million in funding.
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who sings you dont know what its like to live somebody | To Love Somebody (song) - wikipedia
"To Love Somebody '' is a song written by Barry and Robin Gibb. Produced by Robert Stigwood, it was the second single released by the Bee Gees from their international debut album, Bee Gees 1st, in 1967. The single reached No. 17 in the United States and No. 41 in the United Kingdom. The song 's B - side was "Close Another Door ''. The single was reissued in 1980 on RSO Records with "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '' as its flipside. The song ranked at number 94 on NME magazine 's "100 Best Tracks of the Sixties ''. It was a minor hit in the UK and France. It reached the top 20 in the US. It reached the top 10 in Canada.
In a 2017 interview with Piers Morgan 's Life Stories, Barry was asked "of all the songs that you 've ever written, which song would you choose? '' Barry said that "To Love Somebody '' was the song that he 'd choose as it has "a clear, emotional message ''.
The song has been recorded by many other artists, including Nina Simone, Janis Joplin, Roberta Flack, Jimmy Somerville, Michael Bolton, Billy Corgan, Rod Stewart, Michael Bublé and Hank Williams Jr...
At the request of Robert Stigwood, the band 's manager, Barry and Robin Gibb wrote "To Love Somebody '', a soulful ballad in the style of Sam & Dave or The Rascals, for Otis Redding. Redding came to see Barry at the Plaza in New York City one night. Robin claimed that "(Otis Redding) said he loved our material and would Barry write him a song ''.
The Bee Gees recorded "To Love Somebody '' at IBC Studios, London in March 1967 and released it as a single in mid-July 1967 in the US. Redding died in an aeroplane crash later that year, before having a chance to record the song. The song was recorded around April 1967 with "Gilbert Green '' and "End of My Song '' at the IBC Studios in London, England.
Robin said, "Everyone told us what a great record they thought it was, Other groups all raved about it but for some reason people in Britain just did not seem to like it. '' Barry said, "I think the reason it did n't do well here was because it 's a soul number, Americans loved it, but it just was n't right for this country ''.
Barry Gibb explained in a June 2001 interview with Mojo magazine:
It was for Robert. I say that unabashedly. He asked me to write a song for him, personally. It was written in New York and played to Otis but, personally, it was for Robert. He meant a great deal to me. I do n't think it was a homosexual affection but a tremendous admiration for this man 's abilities and gifts.
Robert being the Bee Gee 's manager, Robert Stigwood.
The simple title refrain of the chorus, "You do n't know what it 's like, Baby, you do n't know what it 's like, To love somebody... the way I love you '' has the effect of being at once heartbreaking and triumphant, a self - pitying put - down to an unrequited love. "There 's... a certain kind of light that never shone on me... You ai n't got to be so blind, I 'm a man, ca n't you see what I am?, I live and breathe for you, But what good does that do, If I ai n't got you? ''.
One of the most famous Gibb compositions, "To Love Somebody '' has been covered by many artists. Some of the most notable versions include:
"To Love Somebody '' has been used in several movies including I Love You Phillip Morris, Y Tu Mamá También, Melody, The Wrong Man, My Entire Life and 50 / 50. Also this song has been used in a trailer for Joy (2015).
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the house by the edge of the park | The House on the Edge of the Park - wikipedia
The House on the Edge of the Park (Italian: La casa sperduta nel parco) is a 1980 English - language Italian exploitation thriller film written by Gianfranco Clerici and Vincenzo Mannino, and directed by Ruggero Deodato. It stars David A. Hess (from Wes Craven 's The Last House on the Left, playing a similar character), and Giovanni Lombardo Radice.
Alex is a serial - killer driving around New York City at night when he spots a young woman, Susan, driving alongside him. He follows her to a nearby park where he rapes her before strangling her to death. He takes her locket as a trophy to another one of his many killings.
Some time later, Alex and his friend Ricky are closing up the underground garage where they both work, planning to go to a local disco. Before they can leave, a Cadillac pulls in with a young, well - dressed couple (Tom and his girlfriend Lisa) asking for help with their car. Alex refuses to help them, saying that the garage is closed, but the slow - witted Ricky decides to help and easily fixes the problem. Tom tells Alex and Ricky that they are driving to a friend 's house in New Jersey for a party, and invites them along. Before leaving, Alex stops by his locker, which is filled with various weapons he uses to murder people, and takes a straight - edged razor.
The four arrive at a large villa where they are welcomed by the owner Gloria and her friends Glenda and Howard. Minutes later it becomes obvious that the rich people - like Alex and Ricky - are looking for easy thrills. Gloria asks Ricky to do a striptease to some disco music and he makes a fool of himself, and is further humiliated by being goaded to drink alcohol with each move. However, Alex stops Ricky before he strips completely naked. Tom, Howard and Glenda next play poker with Ricky, while Lisa begins sexually teasing Alex and invites him upstairs to shower with her, only to push him away. As Alex grows more frustrated, he sees that the hosts are cheating at poker with Ricky. Alex pulls out the straight - edge razor, and a fight breaks out between him and Howard. Alex throws Howard outside the back door, beats him viciously, and throws him into the pool. Laughing, Alex urinates on Howard and drags him back inside, tying him to a piano leg and proclaiming that he is running the party now.
Alex and Ricky proceed to beat on their hosts - turned - hostages with Alex slashing Tom 's face with the razor and beating his face into the poker table. Ricky holds the others at bay with a wine bottle while Alex sexually assaults both Gloria and Glenda. Lisa runs to an upstairs bedroom where she tries to escape, but Alex catches her and proceeds to rape her. When Alex takes Lisa downstairs to rejoin the others, the doorbell rings. Alex forces Gloria to answer; when she opens the door, it 's their teenage neighbor, Cindy. Alex grabs Cindy, while Gloria tries to escape. Ricky, still holding the broken wine bottle, runs outside after Gloria and catches her, showing Gloria that he means her no harm by tossing aside the wine bottle. Gloria responds to his simple nature by taking off her clothes and seducing him.
Inside, Alex cuts Cindy 's blouse off with the razor while singing. Ricky then returns to the house with Gloria just as Alex forces Cindy to strip off the rest of her clothes, and proceeds to savagely slash her with his razor over and over again. At this point, Ricky comes to a realization and attempts to stop Alex. Upset at being betrayed by his friend, Alex turns against Ricky and slashes his abdomen wide open, and then breaks down in regret.
Bloodied and battered, Tom runs into the nearby study and pulls out a 9mm pistol out from a desk drawer. Tom shoots Alex a few times, then kicks him through the glass back door. Gloria and the other women untie Howard, and the five descend upon the fatally wounded Alex lying on the ground. Tom removes the locket Alex is wearing and reveals the reason for all this: the woman that Alex raped and murdered at the park is Tom 's sister and Tom wanted revenge. He and Lisa wanted to lure them to Gloria 's house so they could kill them and make it look like self - defense. After shouting at him, Tom shoots the wounded Alex in the groin, making him fall into the swimming pool. Tom and Lisa take turns shooting Alex, who thrashes weakly in the water, before a final bullet to the head by Howard finishes him for good.
Returning to the house, Gloria stops Howard from shooting Ricky, while Glenda tends to the wounded Cindy. Tom and Lisa go into the study where they talk about their plan. Tom says that despite some mistakes, that it worked out for the best, and then picks up the phone to call the police.
The entire film was shot in only three weeks in September 1979, under a very limited budget. The majority of the filming was done in New York City, while some shots were completed at Incir De Paolis Studios in Rome, Italy
The House on the Edge of the Park was initially rejected for a UK cinema certificate by the BBFC when first submitted on 16 March 1981, and later found itself on the DPP list of "video nasties '' when it was revealed that the uncut version was readily available on UK video. When it was eventually passed by the BBFC in July 2002, it was cut by 11 minutes and 43 seconds, with almost all of the rape and violence either replaced or removed entirely. It was resubmitted in 2011 and received an almost uncut release, now only being cut by 42 seconds.
The USA Media Blasters release is completely uncut at 91 minutes.
Once during an interview about the making of the film, Deodato was asked about his initial thoughts of the script when he first read it. He responded: "I thought it was too violent. I make violent films, but softer ones. But this film was full of violence, and that made me uncomfortable. When I met David Hess, I thought that with my direction I could make him do anything. But when I first read it, I found it quite disturbing. ''
In 2006, the BBFC commissioned a group of academics at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth to conduct research into people 's responses to films that include scenes of sexual violence. The House on the Edge of the Park is one of the films included in their remit to examine.
On 27 February 2011, the Dread Central movie website exclusively reported that UK production company North Bank Entertainment were teaming up with director Deodato and actor Radice for The House on the Edge of the Park Part II, a direct sequel to the original film.
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what is the difference between shogun and daimyo | Daimyō - wikipedia
The daimyō (大名, IPA: (daimjoː) (listen)) were powerful Japanese feudal lords who, until their decline in the early Meiji period, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. In the term, dai (大) means "large '', and myō stands for myōden (名 田), meaning private land.
Subordinate only to the shōgun, daimyōs were the most powerful feudal rulers from the 10th century to the middle 19th century in Japan. From the Shugo of the Muromachi period through the Sengoku to the daimyōs of the Edo period, the rank had a long and varied history. The backgrounds of daimyō also varied considerably; while some daimyō clans, notably the Mōri, Shimazu and Hosokawa, were cadet branches of the Imperial family or were descended from the kuge, other daimyōs were promoted from the ranks of the samurai, notably during the Edō period.
The term daimyō also sometimes refers to the leading figures of such clans, also called "Lord ''. It was usually, though not exclusively, from these warlords that a shōgun arose or a regent was chosen. Daimyōs often hired samurai to guard their land and they paid the samurai in land or food as relatively few could afford to pay samurai in money. The daimyō era ended soon after the Meiji Restoration with the adoption of the prefecture system in 1871.
The shugo daimyō (守護 大名) were the first group of men to hold the title daimyō. They arose from among the shugo during the Muromachi period. The shugo - daimyō held not only military and police powers, but also economic power within a province. They accumulated these powers throughout the first decades of the Muromachi period.
Major shugo - daimyō came from the Shiba, Hatakeyama, and Hosokawa clans, as well as the tozama clans of Yamana, Ōuchi, and Akamatsu. The greatest ruled multiple provinces.
The Ashikaga shogunate required the shugo - daimyō to reside in Kyoto, so they appointed relatives or retainers, called shugodai, to represent them in their home provinces. Eventually some of these in turn came to reside in Kyoto, appointing deputies in the provinces.
The Ōnin War was a major uprising in which shugo - daimyōs fought each other. During this and other wars of the time, kuni ikki, or provincial uprisings, took place as locally powerful warriors sought independence from the shugo - daimyōs. The deputies of the shugo - daimyōs, living in the provinces, seized the opportunity to strengthen their position. At the end of the fifteenth century, those shugo - daimyōs who succeeded remained in power. Those who had failed to exert control over their deputies fell from power and were replaced by a new class, the sengoku - daimyōs, who arose from the ranks of the shugodai and ji - samurai.
Among the sengoku daimyōs (戦国 大名) were many who had been shugo - daimyōs, such as the Satake, Imagawa, Takeda, Toki, Rokkaku, Ōuchi, and Shimazu. New to the ranks of the daimyōs were the Asakura, Amago, Nagao, Miyoshi, Chōsokabe, Jimbō, Hatano, Oda, and Matsunaga. These came from the ranks of the shugodai and their deputies. Additional sengoku - daimyōs such as the Mōri, Tamura, and Ryūzōji arose from the ji - samurai. The lower officials of the shogunate and rōnin (Late Hōjō, Saitō), provincial officials (Kitabatake), and kuge (Tosa Ichijō) also gave rise to sengoku - daimyōs.
The Battle of Sekigahara in the year 1600 marked the beginning of the Edo period. Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu then reorganized roughly 200 daimyōs and their territories into han, which were assessed by rice production. Those heading han assessed at 10,000 koku (50,000 bushels) or more were considered daimyōs. Ieyasu also categorized the daimyōs according to their relation to the ruling Tokugawa family: the shinpan were related to the Tokugawa; the fudai had been vassals of the Tokugawa or allies in battle; and the tozama had not allied with the Tokugawa before the battle (did not necessarily fight against the Tokugawa).
The shinpan were collaterals of Ieyasu, such as the Matsudaira, or descendants of Ieyasu other than in the main line of succession. Several shinpan, including the Tokugawa of Owari (Nagoya), Kii (Wakayama), and Mito, as well as the Matsudaira of Fukui and Aizu, held large han.
A few fudai daimyōs, such as the Ii of Hikone, held large han, but many were small. The shogunate placed many fudai at strategic locations to guard the trade routes and the approaches to Edo. Also, many fudai daimyōs took positions in the Edo shogunate, some rising to the position of rōjū. The fact that fudai daimyōs could hold government positions while tozama in general, could not was a main difference between the two.
Tozama daimyōs held mostly large fiefs far away from the capital, with e.g. the Kaga han of Ishikawa Prefecture, headed by the Maeda clan, assessed at 1,000,000 koku. Other famous tozama clans included the Mori of Chōshū, the Shimazu of Satsuma, the Date of Sendai, the Uesugi of Yonezawa, and the Hachisuka of Awa. Initially, the Tokugawa regarded them as potentially rebellious, but for most of the Edo period, marriages between the Tokugawa and the tozama, as well as control policies such as sankin - kōtai, resulted in peaceful relations.
Daimyōs were required to maintain residences in Edo as well as their fiefs, and to move periodically between Edo and their fiefs, typically spending alternate years in each place, in a practice called sankin - kōtai.
In 1869, the year after the Meiji Restoration, the daimyōs, together with the kuge, formed a new aristocracy, the kazoku. In 1871, the han were abolished and prefectures were established, thus effectively ending the daimyō era in Japan. In the wake of this change, many daimyōs remained in control of their lands, being appointed as prefectural governors; however, they were soon relieved of this duty and called en masse to Tokyo, thereby cutting off any independent base of power from which to potentially rebel. Despite this, members of former daimyō families remained prominent in government and society, and in some cases continue to remain prominent to the present day. For example, Morihiro Hosokawa, the former prime minister, is a descendant of the daimyō of Kumamoto, but these cases are very few now.
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where is the ncaa women's final four played | 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament began on March 16, 2018, and concluded with the national championship game on Sunday, April 1. The Final Four was played at Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. This is the third time that the women 's Final Four was played in Ohio after previously being held in Cincinnati in 1997 and Cleveland in 2007 and the first time that the women 's Final Four was played in Columbus. For only the fourth time in the tournament 's 37 - year history, all four of the number one seeds made it to the Final Four.
Tennessee continued its record streak of making every NCAA Women 's Basketball Tournament at 37 consecutive appearances. Connecticut also continued its record streak of 11 consecutive Final Four appearances.
The first two rounds, also referred to as the subregionals, were played at the sites of the top 16 seeds, as was done in 2016 and 2017. The following are the sites selected to host the last four rounds of the 2018 tournament.
Subregionals (First and Second Rounds)
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
Selections for the 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Championship were announced at 7 p.m. Eastern time, Monday, March 12 via ESPN.
The basis for the subregionals returned to the approach used between 1982 and 2002; the top sixteen teams, as chosen in the bracket selection process, hosted the first two rounds on campus.
A total of 64 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids teams were given to teams that won their conference tournament. The remaining 32 teams were granted "at - large '' bids, which were extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
The Selection Committee also seeded the entire field from 1 to 64.
The following teams automatically qualified for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's tournament.
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Connecticut 's Albany Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Notre Dame 's Spokane Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Mississippi State 's Kansas City Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Louisville 's Lexington Region).
March 30
April 1
* -- Denotes overtime period
ESPN had US television rights to all games during the tournament. During the first and second rounds, ESPN aired select games nationally on ESPN2, ESPNU, and ESPNews. All other games aired regionally on ESPN, ESPN2, or ESPN3 and were streamed online via WatchESPN. Most of the nation got whip - a-round coverage during this time, which allowed ESPN to rotate between the games and focus the nation on the game that had the closest score.
First & Second Rounds Friday / Sunday
Sweet Sixteen & Elite Eight Friday / Sunday
Final Four
First & Second Rounds Saturday / Monday
Sweet Sixteen & Elite Eight Saturday / Monday
Championship
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament. Teams participating in the Regional Finals, Final Four, and Championship were allowed to have their own local broadcasts, but they were n't allowed to stream those broadcasts online.
Regional Finals Sunday
Final Four
Regional Finals Monday
Championship
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where did lucy live in while you were sleeping | While you were sleeping (film) - wikipedia
While You Were Sleeping is a 1995 romantic comedy film directed by Jon Turteltaub and written by Daniel G. Sullivan and Fredric Lebow. It stars Sandra Bullock as Lucy, a Chicago Transit Authority token collector, and Bill Pullman as Jack, the brother of a man whose life she saves, along with Peter Gallagher as Peter, the man who is saved, Peter Boyle and Glynis Johns as members of Peter 's family, and Jack Warden as longtime family friend and neighbor.
Lucy Eleanor Moderatz (Sandra Bullock) is a lonely fare token collector for the Chicago Transit Authority. She has a secret crush on a handsome commuter named Peter Callaghan (Peter Gallagher), although they are complete strangers. On Christmas Day, she rescues him from the oncoming Chicago ' El. ' train after a group of muggers push him onto the tracks. He falls into a coma, and she accompanies him to the hospital, where a nurse overhears her musing aloud, "I was going to marry him. '' Misinterpreting her, the nurse tells his family that she is his fiancée.
At first she is too caught up in the panic to explain the truth. She winds up keeping the secret for a number of reasons: she is embarrassed, Peter 's grandmother Elsie (Glynis Johns) has a heart condition, and Lucy quickly comes to love being a part of Peter 's big, loving family. One night, thinking she is alone while visiting Peter, she confesses about her predicament. Peter 's godfather Saul (Jack Warden) overhears the truth and later confronts her, but tells her he will keep her secret, because the accident has brought the family closer.
With no family and few friends, Lucy becomes so captivated with the quirky Callaghans and their unconditional love for her that she can not bring herself to hurt them by revealing that Peter does not even know her. She spends a belated Christmas with them and then meets Peter 's younger brother Jack (Bill Pullman), who is supposed to take over his father 's furniture business. He is suspicious of her at first, but he falls in love with her as they spend time together. They develop a close friendship and soon she falls in love with him as well.
After New Year 's Eve, Peter wakes up. He does not know Lucy, so it is assumed that he must have amnesia. She and Peter spend time together, and Saul persuades Peter to propose to her "again ''; she agrees even though she is in love with Jack. When Jack visits her the day before the wedding, she gives him a chance to change her mind, asking him if he can give her a reason not to marry Peter. He replies that he can not, leaving her disappointed.
On the day of the wedding, just as the priest begins the ceremony, Lucy finally confesses everything and tells the family she loves Jack rather than Peter. At this point, Peter 's real fiancée Ashley Bartlett Bacon (Ally Walker), who happens to be married herself, arrives and also demands the wedding be stopped. As the family argues, Lucy slips out unnoticed, unsure of her future.
Some time later, while Lucy is at work, Jack places an engagement ring in the token tray of her booth. She lets him into the booth, and with the entire Callaghan family watching, he proposes to her. In the last scenes of the film, they kiss at the end of their wedding, then leave on a CTA train for their honeymoon. She narrates that he fulfilled her dream of going to Florence, Italy, and explains that, when Peter asked when she fell in love with Jack, she replied, "it was while you were sleeping. ''
Julia Roberts was offered the role of Lucy Moderatz but turned it down.
The film was a tremendous success, grossing a total of $182,057,016 worldwide against an estimated $17,000,000 budget. It made $9,288,915 on its opening weekend of April 21 -- 23, 1995. It was the thirteenth - highest grosser of 1995 in the United States. Also, the film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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who does the voice of mrs rabbit in peppa pig | Sarah Ann Kennedy - Wikipedia
Sarah Ann Kennedy is a British voice actress best known for providing the voices of Miss Rabbit and Mummy Rabbit in the children 's animated series Peppa Pig, Nanny Plum in the children 's animated series Ben & Holly 's Little Kingdom and Dolly Pond in Pond Life. She is also a writer and animation director and the creator of Crapston Villas, an animated soap opera for Channel 4 in 1996 -- 1998. She has also written for Hit Entertainment and Peppa Pig, and is a lecturer at the University of Central Lancashire.
Kennedy was born in Perivale Middlesex and grew up in Stratford - upon - Avon. She is married to ceramicist Rob Parr. They currently live in Preston, Lancashire, and have one child, a daughter.
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how many seasons of the fall are on netflix | The Fall (TV series) - wikipedia
The Fall is a British - Irish crime drama television series filmed and set in Northern Ireland. The series, starring Gillian Anderson as Detective Superintendent Stella Gibson, is created and written by Allan Cubitt and features Jamie Dornan as serial killer Paul Spector. It is produced by Artists Studio, and shown on RTÉ One in the Republic of Ireland and BBC Two in the UK.
The series premiered in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ One on 12 May 2013, and in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on 13 May 2013. The second series began in the Republic of Ireland on 9 November and in the UK on 13 November 2014. The third series premiered on RTÉ One on 25 September and on BBC Two on 29 September 2016.
Metropolitan Police Superintendent Stella Gibson, a senior investigating officer tasked with reviewing investigations, is seconded (i.e., temporarily assigned) to the Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) in order to assess the progress of a murder investigation that has remained active longer than 28 days. When it becomes apparent a serial killer is on the loose, local detectives must work with Stella to find and capture Paul Spector, who is attacking young professional women in the city of Belfast. As time passes Stella 's team works tirelessly to build a case, but they are met with complications both inside and outside the PSNI. Paul, concurrently, builds a relationship with his children 's babysitter, Katie, to unknown ends. As Spector 's world comes crashing down, it may turn out to be his professional and not his personal decisions that cause the killer to face a fate he did not expect.
Writer Cubitt was inspired by guitar manufacturing companies when naming some of his characters; both Stella and Gibson are brands of guitar, as are Bacon & Day, Benedetto, Brawley, Breedlove, Burns, Eastwood, Hagstrom, Kay, Martin, Music Man, Paul Reed Smith, Spector, Stagg and Tom Anderson.
Cubitt said that he originally was researching another show he was planning on writing and read a book on the BTK ("Bind, Torture, Kill '') serial killer, Dennis Rader. Cubitt found the structure of the book, which began with a structured look at the BTK Killer 's attack that was possible because of Rader 's own testimony, documentary evidence that he had left, and the extensive forensic evidence that was gathered from the scene of the crime. Inspired by this, Cubitt created a structure where the killer is identified immediately, eliminating the whodunit aspect of many stories. The focus could then become on the motivation and underlying reasons for the killings and a focus on the insights that might be gained about the psychology of the killer, even in the face of what might be considered a normal, functioning person with a job, wife, and children. Cubitt said this was the starting point that interested him: how this supposedly normally functioning person would then be connected to the crimes.
On 3 February 2012, BBC Two picked up The Fall series with a five episode order. The series was written by Allan Cubitt and produced for BBC Two by Artists Studio and BBC Northern Ireland, with funding from Northern Ireland Screen and the European Regional Development Fund. Gub Neal and Julian Stevens produced, with Cubitt, Justin Thomson - Glover, Patrick Irwin, and Stephen Wright serving as executive producers. Jakob Verbruggen directed the first series. Cubitt cast Gillian Anderson first, then cast Jamie Dornan. The series premiered in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ One on 12 May 2013, and in the UK on BBC Two on 13 May 2013.
BBC Two renewed the show for a second series on 27 May 2013. On 21 October 2013, it was announced that Jakob Verbruggen would not be returning to direct The Fall 's second series. Instead Cubitt would direct, with production due to begin in February 2014. Series star Gillian Anderson became an executive producer for the programme from its second series. Production of series 2 ended in June 2014. Series 2 began in the Republic of Ireland on Sunday, 9 November on RTÉ One and in the United Kingdom on BBC Two Thursday, 13 November 2014.
In March 2015, it was announced that the BBC had commissioned a third series of The Fall. Cubitt stated that this series was conceived "in the hope of further exploring the characters and themes that are at the heart of (the drama) ''. Cubitt stated that he has already envisaged how the show 's third series will conclude. Carol Moorhead replaced Julian Stevens as second producer of the third series. Filming took place in Belfast between December 2015 and April 2016. The third series got an exclusive look at the Edinburgh International Television Festival on 25 August 2016. It premiered in the Republic of Ireland on Sunday, 25 September on RTÉ One and in the UK on Thursday, 29 September 2016 on BBC Two.
It was reported that Cubitt has ideas for several seasons past Spector 's arc. In September 2016, Cubitt confirmed that the third series is Dornan 's last, but expressed intention for future series. Cubitt added that the fourth series "is n't going to be straight away. '' Anderson stated: "I 'm excited by the idea of potentially revisiting it in a few years, to see what transpires in Stella 's life afterwards. ''
Casting announcements began in February 2012, with Gillian Anderson first to be cast in the series as Detective Superintendent Stella Gibson. Next to join the series was Northern Irish actor Jamie Dornan as serial killer Paul Spector. Archie Panjabi, Emmett Scanlan and Karen Hassan were next to be cast, with Panjabi playing Reed Smith, Scanlan playing DC Glen Martin and Hassan playing Annie Brawley. It was later announced that Niamh McGrady, Bronagh Waugh, John Lynch, and Séainín Brennan had joined the series.
In 2014, it was announced that Colin Morgan and Bronagh Taggart had joined the cast in starring roles as Tom Anderson and Gail McNally, respectively. Jonjo O'Neill later joined the main cast, while Claire Rafferty was cast in a recurring capacity. Ian McElhinney departed the series in episode 1, whilst lead actress Archie Panjabi departed following the series ' penultimate episode.
Anderson, Dornan, Lynch, Waugh, Franciosi, Kane, O'Neill, and Morgan all returned as regulars for the third series, alongside new cast members Aisling Bea, Richard Coyle, Barry Ward, Richard Clements, Ruth Bradley, Genevieve O'Reilly, Aidan McArdle, Denise Gough, Martin McCann, Conor MacNeill, and Krister Henriksson. Former main cast members Niamh McGrady, Stuart Graham, and Bronagh Taggart returned in guest arcs.
The first series aired on Bravo in Canada. The series also aired across Latin America during September 2013 for subscribers of the TV satellite provider DirecTV. The Fall was aired in the exclusive channel OnDIRECTV in high definition. HBO Europe has picked up the series to air on their Cinemax channels in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, Macedonia, Bosnia - Herzegovina and Albania. Estonian National Broadcasting started to run the series in Estonia on channel ETV (Eesti Televisioon) on 7 December 2014. Hot (Israel) started screening the series on its video on demand service in February 2014. Reruns have aired on M3 in Canada since June 2014. In Australia, the first series was shown on UKTV (Foxtel) in April / May 2014. The series began airing on SBS One starting 23 October 2014. In New Zealand, the series began airing on the Sky channel SoHo on Thursday 29 August 2013. In Italy the first series was shown on Sky Atlantic. In The Netherlands the first series was aired by KRO in HD on public channel NPO 1 between 14 March 2015 and 11 April 2015.
In Australia, series 2 was shown on BBC First in November / December 2014 -- within 48 hours of the first broadcasts in the UK, and on SBS One in November 2015. In the Netherlands series 2 began airing on KRO in HD on public channel NPO 1 on 29 August 2015.
In Germany, the show was given the title Tod in Belfast ("Death in Belfast ''); the first two series aired together in Germany on ZDF from 15 November to 16 December 2015. The two series were shown in a recut containing 6 episodes with each being 90 minutes long and a total of 540 minutes altogether. This equates to approximately 120 minutes of the whole material of series 1 and 2 being cut. The uncut version was later shown in re-runs by channels ZDFneo and Sky Krimi.
In Latin America, the entire series was aired on OnDirectv, an exclusive TV channel for DirecTV subscribers and as of 2017 it is also available on Netflix in the region.
The Fall received positive reviews from critics. Both the first and the second season received a rating of 100 % on Rotten Tomatoes. The third season has a rating of 71 %. The first season has a score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim ''. The third season has a score of 60 out of 100, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The first series was made available in full in the United States via Netflix 's "Watch Instantly '' service starting 28 May 2013, and airs on Bravo and Netflix in Canada.
The second series was broadcast on Netflix 's "Watch Instantly '' service, starting in January 2015, in the United States. It was also broadcast on Netflix in Canada. In Latin America, Netflix began broadcasting the season on 16 January 2015, at 12: 01am.
The third series was made available on Netflix on 29 October 2016.
In August 2016, it was announced that the French private national TV channel TF1 is producing a remake of the series, titled Dans l'ombre du tueur ("In the Shadow of the Killer ''). The French adaptation will star Emmanuelle Seigner and Melvil Poupaud as the leads, and supporting cast that will include: Jean - Hugues Anglade, Claire Keim, Patrick Chesnais, Bérengère Krief and Sofia Essaïdi. Filming began in Lyon on 12 September 2016.
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who was the birth of venus painted for | The Birth of Venus - wikipedia
The Birth of Venus (Italian: Nascita di Venere (ˈnaʃʃita di ˈvɛːnere)) is a painting by Sandro Botticelli probably made in the mid 1480s. It depicts the goddess Venus arriving at the shore after her birth, when she had emerged from the sea fully - grown (called Venus Anadyomene and often depicted in art). The painting is in the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, Italy.
Although the two are not a pair, the painting is inevitably discussed with Botticelli 's other very large mythological painting, the Primavera, also in the Uffizi. They are among the most famous paintings in the world, and icons of the Italian Renaissance; of the two, the Birth is even better known than the Primavera. As depictions of subjects from classical mythology on a very large scale they were virtually unprecedented in Western art since classical antiquity, as was the size and prominence of a nude female figure in the Birth. It used to be thought that they were both commissioned by the same member of the Medici family, but this is now uncertain.
They have been endlessly analysed by art historians, with the main themes being: the emulation of ancient painters and the context of wedding celebrations (generally agreed), the influence of Renaissance Neo-Platonism (somewhat controversial), and the identity of the commissioners (not agreed). Most art historians agree, however, that the Birth does not require complex analysis to decode its meaning, in the way that the Primavera probably does. While there are subtleties in the painting, its main meaning is a straightforward, if individual, treatment of a traditional scene from Greek mythology, and its appeal is sensory and very accessible, hence its enormous popularity.
In the centre the newly - born goddess Venus stands nude in a giant scallop shell. Its size is purely imaginary, and is also found in classical depictions of the subject. At the left the wind god Zephyr blows at her, with the wind shown by lines radiating from his mouth. He is in the air, and carries a young female, who is also blowing, but less forcefully. Both have wings. Vasari was probably correct in identifying her as "Aura '', personification of a lighter breeze. Their joint efforts are blowing Venus towards the shore, and blowing the hair and clothes of the other figures to the right.
At the right a female figure who may be floating slightly above the ground holds out a rich cloak or dress to cover Venus when she reaches the shore, as she is about to do. She is one of the three Horae or Hours, Greek minor goddesses of the seasons and of other divisions of time, and attendants of Venus. The floral decoration of her dress suggests she is the Hora of Spring.
Alternative identifications for the two secondary female figures involve those also found in the Primavera; the nymph held by Zephyr may be Chloris, a flower nymph he married in some versions of her story, and the figure on land may be Flora. Flora is generally the Roman equivalent of the Greek Chloris; in the Primavera Chloris is transformed into the figure of Flora next to her, following Ovid 's Fasti, but it is hard to see that such a transformation is envisaged here. However, the roses blown along with the two flying figures would be appropriate for Chloris.
The subject is not strictly the "Birth of Venus '', a title only given the painting in the nineteenth century (though given as the subject by Vasari), but the next scene in her story, where she arrives on land, blown by the wind. The land probably represents either Cythera or Cyprus, both Mediterranean islands regarded by the Greeks as territories of Venus.
The painting is large, but slightly smaller than the Primavera, and where that is a panel painting, this is on the cheaper support of canvas. Canvas was increasing in popularity, perhaps especially for secular paintings for country villas, which were decorated more simply, cheaply and cheerfully than those for city palazzi, being designed for pleasure more than ostentatious entertainment.
The painting is on two pieces of canvas, sewn together before starting, with a gesso ground tinted blue. There are differences to Botticelli 's usual technique, working on panel supports, such as the lack of a green first layer under the flesh areas. There are a number of pentimenti revealed by modern scientific testing. The Hora originally had "low classical sandals '', and the collar on the mantle she holds out is an afterthought. The hair of Venus and the flying couple was changed. There is heavy use of gold as a pigment for highlights, on hair, wings, textiles, the shell and the landscape. This was all apparently applied after the painting was framed. It was finished with a "cool gray varnish '', probably using egg yolk.
As in the Primavera, the green pigment used for the wings of Zephyr and his companion and the leaves of the orange trees on the land has darkened considerably with exposure to light over time, somewhat distorting the intended balance of colours. Parts of some leaves at the top right corner, normally covered by the frame, have been less affected. The blues of the sea and sky have also lost their brightness.
Although the pose of Venus is classical in some respects, and borrows the position of the hands from the Venus Pudica type in Greco - Roman sculptures (see section below), the overall treatment of the figure, standing off - centre with a curved body of long flowing lines, is in many respects from Gothic art. Kenneth Clark wrote: "Her differences from antique form are not physiological, but rhythmic and structural. Her whole body follows the curve of a Gothic ivory. It is entirely without that quality so much prized in classical art, known as aplomb; that is to say, the weight of the body is not distributed evenly either side of a central plumb line... She is not standing but floating... Her shoulders, for example, instead of forming a sort of architrave to her torso, as in the antique nude, run down into her arms in the same unbroken stream of movement as her floating hair. ''
Venus ' body is anatomically improbable, with elongated neck and torso. Her pose is impossible: although she stands in a classical contrapposto stance, her weight is shifted too far over the left leg for the pose to be held. The proportions and poses of the winds to the left do not quite make sense, and none of the figures cast shadows. The painting depicts the world of the imagination rather than being very concerned with realistic depiction.
Ignoring the size and positioning of the wings and limbs of the flying pair on the left, which bother some other critics, Kenneth Clark calls them:
... perhaps the most beautiful example of ecstatic movement in the whole of painting... the suspension of our reason is achieved by the intricate rhythms of the drapery which sweep and flow irresistibly around the nude figures. Their bodies, by an endless intricacy of embrace, sustain the current of movement, which finally flickers down their legs and is dispersed like an electric charge.
Botticelli 's art was never fully committed to naturalism; in comparison to his contemporary Domenico Ghirlandaio, Botticelli seldom gave weight and volume to his figures and rarely used a deep perspectival space. Botticelli never painted landscape backgrounds with great detail or realism, but this is especially the case here. The laurel trees and the grass below them are green with gold highlights, most of the waves regular patterns, and the landscape seems out of scale with the figures. The clumps of bulrushes in the left foreground are out of place here, as they come from a freshwater species.
It has long been suggested that Botticelli was commissioned to paint the work by the Medici family of Florence, perhaps by Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici (1463 -- 1503) a major patron of Botticelli, under the influence of his cousin Lorenzo de ' Medici, "il Magnifico ''. This was first suggested by Herbert Horne in his monograph of 1908, the first major modern work on Botticelli, and long followed by most writers, but more recently has been widely doubted, though it is still accepted by some. Various interpretations of the painting rely on this origin for its meaning. Although relations were perhaps always rather tense between the Magnifico and his young cousins and wards, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco and his brother Giovanni di Pierfrancesco de ' Medici, it may have been politic to commission a work that glorified the older Lorenzo, as some interpretations have it. There may be a deliberate ambiguity as to which Lorenzo was intended to be evoked. In later years hostility between the two branches of the family became overt.
Horne believed that the painting was commissioned soon after the purchase in 1477 of the Villa di Castello, a country house outside Florence, by Lorenzo and Giovanni, to decorate their new house, which they were rebuilding. This was the year after their father died at the age of 46, leaving the young boys wards of their cousin Lorenzo il Magnifico, of the senior branch of the Medici family and de facto ruler of Florence. There is no record of the original commission, and the painting is first mentioned by Vasari, who saw it, together with the Primavera, at Castello, some time before the first edition of his Lives in 1550, probably by 1530 -- 40. In 1550 Vasari was himself painting in the villa, but he very possibly visited it before that. But in 1975 it emerged that, unlike the Primavera, the Birth is not in the inventory, apparently complete, made in 1499 of the works of art belonging to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco 's branch of the family. Ronald Lightbown concludes that it only came to be owned by the Medici after that. The inventory was only published in 1975, and made many previous assumptions invalid.
Horne dated the work at some point after the purchase of the villa in 1477 and before Botticelli 's departure for Rome to join the painting of the Sistine Chapel in 1481. Recent scholars prefer a date of around 1484 -- 86 on grounds of the work 's place in the development of Botticelli 's style. The Primavera is now usually dated earlier, after Botticelli 's return from Rome in 1482 and perhaps around the time of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco 's wedding in July 1482, but by some still before Botticelli 's departure.
Whenever the two paintings were united at Castello, they have remained together ever since. They stayed in Castello until 1815, when they were transferred to the Uffizi. For some years until 1919 they were kept in the Galleria dell'Accademia, another government museum in Florence.
Although there are ancient and modern texts that are relevant, no single text provides the precise imagery of the painting, which has led scholars to propose many sources and interpretations. Many art historians who specialize in the Italian Renaissance have found Neoplatonic interpretations, of which two different versions have been articulated by Edgar Wind and Ernst Gombrich, to be the key to understanding the painting. Botticelli represented the Neoplatonic idea of divine love in the form of a nude Venus.
For Plato -- and so for the members of the Florentine Platonic Academy -- Venus had two aspects: she was an earthly goddess who aroused humans to physical love or she was a heavenly goddess who inspired intellectual love in them. Plato further argued that contemplation of physical beauty allowed the mind to better understand spiritual beauty. So, looking at Venus, the most beautiful of goddesses, might at first raise a physical response in viewers which then lifted their minds towards the godly. A Neoplatonic reading of Botticelli 's Birth of Venus suggests that 15th - century viewers would have looked at the painting and felt their minds lifted to the realm of divine love.
The composition, with a central nude figure, and one to the side with an arm raised above the head of the first, and winged beings in attendance, would have reminded its Renaissance viewers of the traditional iconography of the Baptism of Christ, marking the start of his ministry on earth. In a similar way, the scene shows here marks the start of Venus 's ministry of love, whether in a simple sense, or the expanded meaning of Renaissance Neoplatonism.
More recently, questions have arisen about Neoplatonism as the dominant intellectual system of late 15th - century Florence, and scholars have indicated that there might be other ways to interpret Botticelli 's mythological paintings. In particular, both Primavera and Birth of Venus have been seen as wedding paintings that suggest appropriate behaviors for brides and grooms.
The laurel trees at right and laurel wreath worn by the Hora are punning references to the name "Lorenzo '', though it is uncertain whether Lorenzo il Magnifico, the effective ruler of Florence, or his young cousin Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco is meant. In the same way the flowers in the air around Zephyr and on the textiles worn and carried by the Hora evoke the name of Florence.
The closest precedent for the scene is generally agreed to be in one of the early ancient Greek Homeric Hymns, published in Florence in 1488 by the Greek refugee Demetrios Chalkokondyles:
This poem was probably already known to Botticelli 's Florentine contemporary, and Lorenzo di Medici 's court poet, Angelo Poliziano. The iconography of The Birth of Venus is similar to a description of a relief of the event in Poliziano 's poem the Stanze per la giostra, commemorating a Medici joust in 1475, which may also have influenced Botticelli, although there are many differences. For example Poliziano talks of multiple Horae and zephyrs. Older writers, following Horne, posited that "his patron Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco asked him to paint a subject illustrating the lines '', and that remains a possibility, though one difficult to maintain so confidently today. Another poem by Politian speaks of Zephyr causing flowers to bloom, and spreading their scent over the land, which probably explains the roses he blows along with him in the painting.
Having a large standing female nude as the central focus was unprecedented in post-classical Western painting, and certainly drew on the classical sculptures which were coming to light in this period, especially in Rome, where Botticelli had spent 1481 -- 82 working on the walls of the Sistine Chapel. The pose of Botticelli 's Venus follows the Venus Pudica ("Venus of Modesty '') type from classical antiquity, where the hands are held to cover the breasts and groin; in classical art this is not associated with the new - born Venus Anadyomene. What became a famous example of this type is the Venus de ' Medici, a marble sculpture that was in a Medici collection in Rome by 1559, which Botticelli may have had opportunity to study (the date it was found is unclear).
The painter and the humanist scholars who probably advised him would have recalled that Pliny the Elder had mentioned a lost masterpiece of the celebrated ancient Greek painter, Apelles, representing Venus Anadyomene (Venus Rising from the Sea). According to Pliny, Alexander the Great offered his mistress, Pankaspe, as the model for the nude Venus and later, realizing that Apelles had fallen in love with the girl, gave her to the artist in a gesture of extreme magnanimity. Pliny went on to note that Apelles ' painting of Pankaspe as Venus was later "dedicated by Augustus in the shrine of his father Caesar. '' Pliny also stated that "the lower part of the painting was damaged, and it was impossible to find anyone who could restore it... This picture decayed from age and rottenness, and Nero... substituted for it another painting by the hand of Dorotheus ''.
Pliny also noted a second painting by Apelles of Venus "superior even to his earlier one, '' that had been begun by artist but left unfinished. The Roman images in various media showing the new - born Venus in a giant shell may well be crude derivative versions of these paintings. Botticelli could not have seen the frescos unearthed later in Pompeii, but may well have seen small versions of the motif in terracotta or engraved gems. The "House of Venus '' in Pompeii has a life - size fresco of Venus lying in the shell, also seen in other works; in most other images she stands with her hands on her hair, wringing the water from it, with or without a shell.
The two - dimensionality of this painting may be a deliberate attempt to evoke the style of ancient Greek vase painting or frescos on the walls of Etruscan tombs, the only types of ancient painting known to Botticelli.
Greco - Roman Venus Anadyomene
Greco - Roman bronze statuette
Roman glass cameo Venus Anadyomene
Greek terracotta, from Pontus
Another interpretation of the Birth of Venus is provided here by its author, Charles R. Mack. This interpretation takes much that is generally agreed, but Mack goes on to explain the painting as an allegory extolling the virtues of Lorenzo de ' Medici. This has not been adopted by Renaissance art historians in general, and it remains problematic, since it depends on the painting being commissioned by the Medici, yet the work is not documented in Medici hands until well into the following century.
Mack sees the scene as inspired by both the Homeric Hymn and the ancient paintings. But something more than a rediscovered Homeric hymn was likely in the mind of the Medici family member who commissioned this painting from Botticelli. Once again, Botticelli, in his version of the Birth of Venus, might be seen as completing the task begun by his ancient predecessor Apelles, even surpassing him. Giving added support to this interpretation of Botticelli as a born - again Apelles is the fact that that very claim was voiced in 1488 by Ugolino Verino in a poem entitled "On Giving Praise to the History of Florence. ''
While Botticelli might well have been celebrated as a revivified Apelles, his Birth of Venus also testified to the special nature of Florence 's chief citizen, Lorenzo de ' Medici. Although it now seems that the painting was executed for another member of the Medici family, it likely was intended to celebrate and flatter its head, Lorenzo de ' Medici. Tradition associates the image of Venus in Botticelli 's painting with the famous beauty Simonetta Cattaneo Vespucci, of whom popular legend claims both Lorenzo and his younger brother, Giuliano, were great admirers. Simonetta was possibly born in the Ligurian seaside town of Portovenere (' the port of Venus '). Thus, in Botticelli 's interpretation, Pankaspe (the ancient living prototype of Simonetta), the mistress of Alexander the Great (the Laurentian predecessor), becomes the lovely model for the lost Venus executed by the famous Greek painter Apelles (reborn through the recreative talents of Botticelli), which ended up in Rome, installed by Emperor Augustus in the temple dedicated to Florence 's supposed founder Julius Caesar.
In the case of Botticelli 's Birth of Venus, the suggested references to Lorenzo, supported by other internal indicators such as the stand of laurel bushes at the right, would have been just the sort of thing erudite Florentine humanists would have appreciated. Accordingly, by overt implication, Lorenzo becomes the new Alexander the Great with an implied link to both Augustus, the first Roman emperor, and even to Florence 's legendary founder, Caesar himself. Lorenzo, furthermore, is not only magnificent but, as was Alexander in Pliny 's story, also magnanimous, as well. Ultimately, these readings of the Birth of Venus flatter not only the Medici and Botticelli but all of Florence, home to the worthy successors to some of the greatest figures of antiquity, both in governance and in the arts.
These essentially pagan readings of Botticelli 's Birth of Venus should not exclude a more purely Christian one, which may be derived from the Neoplatonic reading of the painting indicated above. Viewed from a religious standpoint, the nudity of Venus suggests that of Eve before the Fall as well as the pure love of Paradise. Once landed, the goddess of love will don the earthly garb of mortal sin, an act that will lead to the New Eve -- the Madonna whose purity is represented by the nude Venus. Once draped in earthly garments she becomes a personification of the Christian Church which offers a spiritual transport back to the pure love of eternal salvation. In this case the scallop shell upon which this image of Venus / Eve / Madonna / Church stands may be seen in its traditionally symbolic pilgrimage context. Furthermore, the broad expanse of sea serves as a reminder of the Virgin Mary 's title stella maris, alluding both to the Madonna 's name (Maria / maris) and to the heavenly body (Venus / stella). The sea brings forth Venus just as the Virgin gives birth to the ultimate symbol of love, Christ.
Rather than choosing one of the many interpretations offered for Botticelli 's depiction of the Birth (Arrival?) of Venus it might be better to view it from a variety of perspectives. This layered approach -- mythological, political, religious -- was intended.
Botticelli, or more likely his workshop, repeated the figure of Venus in another painting of about 1490. This life - sized work depicts a similar figure and pose, partially clad in a light blouse, and contrasted against a plain dark background. It is in the Galleria Sabauda in Turin. There is another such workshop Venus (formerly in Berlin), and very likely others were destroyed in the "Bonfire of the Vanities ''. Examples seem to have been exported to France and Germany, probably influencing Lucas Cranach the Elder among others.
More than a decade later, Botticelli adapted the figure of Venus for a nude personification of "Truth '' in his Calumny of Apelles. Here one hand is raised, pointing to heaven for justification, and the figure 's gaze also looks upwards; the whole effect is very different.
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who plays supergirl's mom on the tv series | List of Supergirl characters - wikipedia
Supergirl is an American television series developed by Greg Berlanti, Ali Adler, and Andrew Kreisberg based on the characters created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster in the "Superman '' franchise and Al Plastino and Otto Binder 's character Supergirl. The series stars Melissa Benoist in the titular role of Kara Zor - El / Kara Danvers / Supergirl, as well as Mehcad Brooks, Chyler Leigh, Jeremy Jordan, David Harewood, and Calista Flockhart, with Chris Wood, Floriana Lima, Katie McGrath, and Odette Annable joining in later seasons. In addition to original characters, several other characters from DC Comics universe also appear throughout the series. For its first season, Supergirl aired on CBS, before moving to The CW for its second season.
The series follows Kryptonian refugee and Superman 's biological cousin Kara Zor - El (Benoist), who, after hiding her powers on Earth for more than a decade, becomes National City 's superhero as Supergirl, battles against extraterrestrial and otherworldly threats, criminal masterminds, being targeted by her cousin 's rogues gallery, and encountering an emerging community of metahumans within her adoptive world and individuals from parallel universes. Supergirl also deals with Earth 's populace 's fears and hostility against beings with superpowers, leading her into conflicts with industrialist Maxwell Lord (Peter Facinelli), Lucy Lane 's (Jenna Dewan) father General Sam Lane (Glenn Morshower), and Project Cadmus. She is assisted by a few close friends and family who guard her secrets -- most notably her cousin 's longtime friend, James Olsen (Brooks) and mentored by the Martian survivor J'onn J'onzz (Harewood).
The following is a list of characters who have appeared in the television series. Many are named after (or based on) DC Comics characters.
Kara Zor - El / Kara Danvers / Supergirl (portrayed by Melissa Benoist) is a 24 - year - old Kryptonian living in National City, who must embrace her powers after previously hiding them. She assists her adoptive sister as part of the Department of Extranormal Operations (DEO) as she discovered the truth that her foster father also worked for the DEO so they would not take her, while Alex 's co-workers at the DEO help her perfect her powers. Kara works as Cat Grant 's assistant at CatCo. Benoist expressed her excitement over portraying the character, and being able to "(tell) a story about a human being really realizing their potential and their strength ''. Claire Holt and Gemma Atkinson were considered for the role. Malina Weissman and Izabela Vidovic portray a young Kara.
In season two, Kara deals with feuds between Earth 's native populace and extraterrestrial community, and struggles with romantic feelings for Daxamite prince Mon - El. She learns that Superman was a former member of the D.E.O., therefore this making her his successor within the organization. She also becomes friends with Lex Luthor 's paternal half - sister Lena, and enemies with Luthor and Mon - El 's mothers Lillian and Rhea respectively. Kara also becomes a visiting superhero to Barry Allen 's home universe and recurring ally to its heroes.
In season three, Kara deals with the threat of Selena and the Worldkillers. By the end of season three, Kara travels back in time to stop Sam from killing Selena 's Worldkiller daughter Reign to prevent the sacrifice of Mon - El and her still - living mother Alura. When Kara uses the Harun - El (a Black Kryptonite) with Sam and Reign into the Fountain of Lilith taking down Reign, another Kara appearing in the border of Siberia. During the "Crisis on Earth - X '' crossover, Benoist also portrays Overgirl, her character 's fascistic parallel universe counterpart from a Nazi - ruled world of Earth - X, with other performers including her stunt double Jennifer Clarke. She is also being referred by Harry Wells and Cisco Ramon as Supergirl - X and Kara - X. This Kara Zor - El is married to Oliver Queen 's Earth - X 's doppelgänger, Dark Arrow, and a member of the New Reichsmen. Overgirl later dies after being unable to acquire Kara 's heart to replace her damaged organ, goes supernova, and then explodes in space.
James Olsen (portrayed by Mehcad Brooks) is a former Daily Planet photographer who moved to National City and became the new art director for his former colleague, Cat Grant 's media company, CatCo Worldwide Media. He is a potential love interest for Kara. Among his reasons for moving across the country include his breakup with his fiancée, Lucy Lane (with whom he has since reconciled), and keeping an eye on the newly revealed Supergirl for Superman, who considers him a close friend. While working at the Daily Planet, James received the Pulitzer Prize for taking the first photograph of Superman.
In the second season, though initially attracted to each other, James and Kara decided that they are incompatible as a couple but remain friends. With Winn 's help, James becomes Guardian. He was also named acting CEO of CatCo Worldwide Media after Cat Grant took a sabbatical from the company.
In season three, James and Lena Luthor begin a relationship. By the end of season three, James reveals himself to the public as the Guardian. Brooks briefly portrays a parallel universe version of his character from Earth - X, where he was a member of an underground resistance against the New Reich, the Freedom Fighters. This James Olsen / Guardian is killed by Dark Arrow after a fight.
Alexandra "Alex '' Danvers (portrayed by Chyler Leigh) is Kara 's adoptive sister. A brilliant scientist with a past as a party girl, she was hired by Hank Henshaw at the DEO after being arrested for drunk driving, in an effort to turn her life around and see potential in her. As Henshaw 's protégée, Alex was personally trained by him in extensive combat, strategic tactics, and investigation after joining the DEO, eventually becoming his right - hand agent in the field. An exceptionally skilled combatant, marksman, tactician, and detective since, Alex tasks herself in providing rigorous training to Kara in order to decrease her reliance on her powers. Initially, like Kara, she becomes suspicious of the DEO and thus her own role upon learning of their father having worked there in order to protect Kara, but Alex ultimately learns that Henshaw is the Martian survivor J'onn J'onzz in shape - shifted disguise, whom her father (who she thought is dead) had rescued before his and the real Henshaw 's deaths. After she is arrested and placed in custody for having known about J'onn, she and J'onn escape upon learning that her father is alive at Project Cadmus. She and J'onn are eventually pardoned by the President after they helped save the world from Non 's attack with Kara and subsequently rejoin the DEO. Alex also obtains a kryptonite - powered exoskeleton from Non when she was under his mind control to fight Kara, which artificially enhances her strength and endurance when wearing it. She keeps the suit (however using another power source alternative Omegahedron) for later missions.
In season 2, Alex realizes her homosexuality and pursues a relationship with National City PD 's detective, Maggie Sawyer. She also confides in Sawyer her secret that she is a DEO agent and occasionally works together.
In season 3, though Alex and Maggie were engaged to be married, but later they break it off after realizing their incompatibility as a couple, primarily based on Alex 's desire to have kids, while Maggie had no yearning to do so. Alex meets Samantha Arias and her daughter Ruby, and envious of Samantha of her motherhood and adores Ruby. She befriends Samantha so that she can be close to Ruby, and hopes one day that she will have her own daughter like Samantha 's. Alex had a one - night stand and develops a friendship with Sara Lance, a vigilante associate of Oliver Queen / Green Arrow and leader of the time - traveling superhero team, the Legends, from Earth - 1; her encounter with Sara allows Alex to begin moving on from Maggie. She also befriends Barry Allen and Oliver when she arrives to attend the former 's wedding with Kara. She joins Earth - 1 heroes and Kara to stop Earth - X invaders ' scheme against the multiverse, and partnered with Sara when Kara was preoccupied with her villainous parallel universe doppelgänger Overgirl. Her scientific background is also invaluable in helping fellow scientists Harry Wells, Caitlin Snow, Martin Stein, Felicity Smoak, and Barry on Earth - 1. Alex learns from Overgirl that she may have her own counterpart on Earth - X when she reveals to Alex that her adoptive sister tried to kill her once. Nearing the end of the season, in addition to her exoskeleton, Winn made a prototypical DEO protective suit for Alex, which is filled with advanced gadgetry for her needs in the field. In one episode, Alex made a reference that she worked in a hospital in Seattle before becoming a federal agent (a nod to Leigh 's previous role as Dr. Lexie Grey in Grey 's Anatomy). In a flashback, it is revealed that ten years previously, Alex first became close to Kara after investigating a murder mystery of their friend from high school together. By the end of season three, Alex becomes the new director of DEO.
Jordan Mazarati and Olivia Nikkanen portray a young Alex.
Winslow "Winn '' Schott Jr. (portrayed by Jeremy Jordan) is a tech expert who works alongside Kara at CatCo and serves as one of her allies, helping her develop her costume and aiding her in her adventures as Supergirl. Winn has an unrequited crush on Kara and is rivals with James for her affection, and he later pursued a relationship with Cat 's new assistant Siobhan Smythe until she turns into Supergirl 's supernatural metahuman archenemy Silver Banshee. In the series, he is the son of Toyman.
In the second season, he has left CatCo for a full - time position at the DEO recruited by Alex Danvers and J'onn J'onzz. He and James also become best friends. Winn is responsible for helping James to become the Guardian while he is called the man in the van by James. In addition to remain improving Kara 's costume and offers her tech support, Winn also makes his own modifications with her interdimensional extrapolator, a device she received from Earth - 1 's metahuman inventor Cisco Ramon.
In season 3, Winn helps in the fight against the Worldkillers. By the end of season three, Winn is invited to join the Legion of Super-Heroes as he invented the sub-atomic shield and its development saves countless people in the future. Together with Mon - El, he travels into future for saving it, starting his own journey as a hero. During the "Crisis on Earth - X '' crossover, an Earth - X version of Winn is introduced. General Winn Schott is the leader of the Freedom Fighters working against the New Reich on his world and thus is Dark Arrow 's enemy. He is even able to obtain some of Dark Arrow 's arsenal as trophies throughout their fights, therefore implies that Schott is a formidable adversary to the New Reich.
Starting in season 4, Jeremy Jordan will no longer be series regular in the show, but recurring instead.
J'onn J'onzz (portrayed by David Harewood) is the head of the DEO who takes Hank Henshaw 's likeness after Henshaw is killed in Peru while hunting J'onn. J'onn takes Henshaw 's likeness in order to reform the DEO from within as well as a promise to Jeremiah Danvers to watch over Alex and Kara, who each subsequently trust him as a mentor after learning of his true identity. Prior to his escape from the holocaust on Mars, J'onn was a law enforcement officer to his people. In addition to his powers, J'onn learned various skills and knowledge after living on Earth over decades including martial arts, strategy, investigation tactics, in addition telepathically learned some of Henshaw 's memories and knowledge, making him a formidable opponent when in human form without the need of his extraterrestrial abilities and more than capable to run the DEO in Henshaw 's place. He takes Alex in as his protégée and forges her as a strong DEO agent, eventually she becomes his right - hand operative. In the episode "Falling '', J'onn reveals to the whole world his true identity in order to stop Kara, who is affected by Red Kryptonite, from killing Alex. He is then arrested by the DEO agents who are at the scene, only to escape with Alex upon learning that Jeremiah has survived the attack and that he is being held at Project Cadmus, a facility that experiments with aliens and where he was going to be taken.
In season 2, J'onn begins a romantic relationship with a benevolent member of the White Martian race, M'gann M'orzz.
In season 3, it is revealed that J'onn's father is alive and they struggle to reconcile of their relationship. His spaceship is disguised as a 1952 vintage Chevrolet Deluxe convertible, in which J'onn, Kara, and Alex love to drive for pleasure. By the end of season three, after he succeeds the memory and knowledge from his father, J'onn leaves the DEO.
The evolution of Henshaw was discussed during the filming of the pilot, with the executive producers jokingly saying that Harewood would be a good actor to play the Martian Manhunter in a potential television series, to which DC Comics ' Geoff Johns asked why it could not be done in Supergirl. Harewood reflected that he had a difficult time "find (ing) an angle to play Hank Henshaw '' in the pilot, and became excited when he was told about the change for his character 's backstory.
Harewood also recurs as the real Hank Henshaw -- a former CIA agent and ex-head of the DEO who is ruthless and obsessed with hunting down aliens he believed to be dangerous. He died after he stabbed Jeremiah Danvers in Peru while hunting the alien J'onn J'onzz. He was subsequently found and revived by Project Cadmus, who enhanced him to become the Cyborg Superman.
Cat Grant (portrayed by Calista Flockhart) is the founder and CEO of CatCo Worldwide Media, who feels, since she "branded '' Kara as "Supergirl '', that she has proprietary custody over the new hero. She was the personal assistant to Perry White prior to being a gossip columnist at the Daily Planet. Cat investigates and reveals that Supergirl is Superman 's cousin, which then causes her to become a target for some of Superman 's enemies. She also serves as a mentor to Kara, dispensing advice about being a woman in a man 's world. In the episode "Hostile Takeover '', she begins to suspect that Kara is Supergirl, while the second - season finale reveals she knew Kara was Supergirl all along.
Flockhart became a recurring actress for the second season, due to the series ' production shift to Vancouver and her desire to take on projects near her Los Angeles home. To accommodate this, Cat decides to take a leave of absence from CatCo, leaving James in charge during the second episode of season two. She returns in the final two episodes to help protect National City from the Daxamite invasion. Flockhart will remain a recurring guest star for the third season. In the third season 's premiere, it is revealed that Cat has become Olivia Marsdin 's Press Secretary.
Mon - El (portrayed by Chris Wood) is a survivor and prince of a royal family from the planet Daxam who seeks to become a superhero on Earth. Due to Daxamites being an offshoot of Kryptonians, Mon - El has similar powers to Superman and Supergirl. Mon - El crash lands on Earth in an escape pod at the end of the first season. His carefree and somewhat laid - back nature leads to friction with Kara as she mentors him in the ways of being a hero. Mon - El eventually falls in love with Kara and they become a couple. After Kara triggers a weapon that laces the atmosphere with lead dust in order to stop Rhea 's Daxamite army, Mon - El is forced to leave Earth.
In season three, it is revealed that Mon - El 's pod was sucked into a wormhole and he time - traveled to the 31st century. He was in the future for seven years, where L - Corp administered a serum that gives him immunity to lead poisoning. Despite his love for Kara, Mon - El ultimately marries Imra Ardeen before he returns to the 21st century with her and other passengers for an unknown mission. He is also revealed to be the founder of the superhero team, the Legion. In season 4, Chris Wood 's character as Mon - El would no longer appear.
Maggie Sawyer (portrayed by Floriana Lima) is a detective for the National City Police Department who takes a special interest in the cases involving aliens, metahumans, and other extraordinary occurrences. She uses her own experience as a lesbian to help guide Alex as the latter struggles to understand her own sexuality, and the two eventually begin a romantic relationship. However in season three because Maggie does not want to have children, Alex breaks up with her.
Lima became a recurring actress for the third season. She noted the role was only intended to last for one season.
Lena Luthor (portrayed by Katie McGrath) is the CEO of L - Corp (formerly known as Luthor Corp) and the younger paternal half - sister of Lex Luthor. She arrives in National City after Lex has been incarcerated, hoping to rebrand Luthor Corp as a force for good. As the daughter of Lionel Luthor, to whom she is close, Lena tries to redeem her family name after Lex 's crimes have tarnished it and to break from her half - brother and step - mother 's legacy. Initially, she believed that she was the adopted daughter of the Lionel and Lillian Luthor, but Lena learns that she is actually Lionel 's illegitimate child from his extramarital affair. Lena meets Kara after Kara is assigned to interview Lena about L - Corp. Shortly after, the two develop a strong friendship. Later in the season she is taken advantage of by Rhea, under guise of fixing the portal to get her home, but instead brought all the Daxamites to Earth. She is almost married off to Mon - El before the wedding is interrupted and they escape where she then aids her mother and Winn in driving away the Daxamites. Camille Marty portrays a young Lena. McGrath was promoted to series regular for the third season.
In season 3, she buys CatCo Media to prevent Morgan Edge from taking it over and decides to run CatCo personally, temporarily handing over control of L - Corp to Sam Arias. Unlike her half - brother, Lena is able to develop a formula to create synthetic Kryptonites. Like Cat Grant, she knows Kara is Supergirl, but is too slowly to search the truth. By the end of season 3, Lena synthesizes the Kryptonian mineral Harun - El in her labortary since it is a form of Black Kryptonite, and starts the phase 2 of her experiment.
Samantha "Sam '' Arias / Reign (portrayed by Odette Annable) is an unknowing Kryptonian survivor sent to Earth by a party of Kryptonian prestresses as an infant prior to its destruction. Sam was adopted by Patricia Arias. Although she grew up without knowledge of her origins, she is sensing that there is something unusual within herself and fears it. Samantha is also a single mother who struggles to raise her daughter Ruby, having distanced herself from her adoptive mother when she became pregnant with her daughter as a teenager. At one point, Sam demonstrated superhuman strength that let her lift a fallen tower off of her daughter Ruby during a terrorist attack; but she believes her strength in the moment was merely derived from epinephrine (adrenaline) and the heightened emotion of distress, and she loses the extra strength immediately after. She works with Lena Luthor, and is promoted to be the acting CEO of L - Corp after Lena Luthor buys CatCo, and later becomes its CFO. She and her daughter also later befriend Alex and Kara Danvers. Throughout the season, Sam forms close friendships with Lena, Alex, and Kara. She finds out from her adoptive mother that she arrived on Earth in a space pod and thus she is an extraterrestrial in origin. Under the pod 's key 's guidance, Sam travels to a desert that leads to a hidden Kryptonian fortress, where a hologram in the form of one of the dark priestesses, Selena, informs Sam of her heritage and that she is engineered as a "Worldkiller, '' a living biological weapon of enhanced Kryptonian physiology who was sent to rule Earth; her pregnancy kept her from coming into her powers. Sam was not willing to accept this, but her full powers manifested, awakening her dormant alternative personality Reign. By the end of the season, it is revealed that Selena is Reign 's birth mother, therefore is Sam 's as well.
After returning home, Sam remains a devoted mother to Ruby with no memories of her actions as Reign, while her Kryptonian alter - ego becomes a black - clad, masked vigilante who indiscriminately kills those she sees as evildoers. However, Reign and two other Worldkillers are each designed to have dissociative identity in order to keep their existences hidden, yet Sam is stronger than Reign in control because of her devotion to Ruby, keeping Reign from fully takes over. During her first encounter with Kara 's alter - ego Supergirl, Reign battles and defeats her, leaving the superheroine in a coma for days.
After Supergirl emerges from her coma, Reign is at odds with her, the DEO, and the Legion. Reign learned that are more Worldkillers on Earth and seeks to find them. She manages to get Purity on her side when she surrenders to Reign.
Following the deaths of Purity and Pestilence, Reign absorbed their abilities and got away. Reign later targeted Ruby causing Supergirl and Alex Danvers to work in protecting her. Thanks to some Kryptonite, Supergirl, Mon - El, and Kara were able to incapacitate her enough to render her unconscious as they work to find a way to get rid of the Reign side of her. Later, using a mineral from Krypton calls the Harun - El, which is a form of Black Kryptonite, they are able to split Sam from Reign. Sam joins the fight against Reign and the dark priestesses after endowing powers that matches Reign 's. In one timeline, Sam kills Reign, but at the cost of her own life and her allies, but Supergirl travels back in time, and changes the outcome of Reign 's defeat and averted the deaths. In the reset timeline, though still defeating Reign by herself, because of another exposure to the Harun - El during the fight, Sam is rid of the Kryptonian side from her, therefore again having no powers once more and having a chance to again living a normal life with her daughter.
This is a list of recurring actors and the characters they portrayed in multiple episodes, which were significant roles. The characters are listed by the order in which they first appeared.
The following is a supplementary list of guest stars, some recurring, who appear in lesser roles. The characters are listed in the order in which they first appeared.
The hosts of The Talk, Sara Gilbert, Julie Chen, Sharon Osbourne, Aisha Tyler and Sheryl Underwood, cameo as themselves.
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school of the art institute of chicago chicago illinois | School of the Art Institute of Chicago - wikipedia
The School of the Art Institute of Chicago (SAIC) is one of America 's largest accredited independent schools of art and design. It is located in the Loop in Chicago, Illinois. The school is associated with the museum of the same name, and "The Art Institute of Chicago '' or "Chicago Art Institute '' often refers to either entity. Providing degrees at the undergraduate and graduate levels, SAIC has been recognized by U.S. News & World Report as one of the top graduate art programs in the nation, as well as by Columbia University 's National Arts Journalism survey as the most influential art school in the United States.
Tracing its history to an art students cooperative founded in 1866, which grew into the museum and school, SAIC has been accredited since 1936 by the Higher Learning Commission, by the National Association of Schools of Art and Design since 1944 (charter member), and by the Association of Independent Colleges of Art and Design (AICAD) since its founding in 1991. Additionally it is accredited by the National Architectural Accrediting Board.
Its downtown Chicago campus consists of seven buildings located in the immediate vicinity of the AIC building. SAIC is in an equal partnership with the AIC and share many administrative resources such as design, construction, and human resources. The campus, located in the Loop, comprises chiefly three buildings: the Michigan (112 S. Michigan Ave.), the Sharp (37 S. Wabash Ave.), and the Columbus (280 S. Columbus Dr.). SAIC also owns additional buildings throughout Chicago that are used as student galleries or investments.
The institute has its roots in the 1866 founding of the Chicago Academy of Design, which local artists established in rented rooms on Clark Street. It was financed by member dues and patron donations. Four years later, the school moved into its own Adams Street building, which was destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.
Because of the school 's financial and managerial problems after this loss, business leaders in 1878 formed a board of trustees and founded the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. They expanded its mission beyond education and exhibitions to include collecting. In 1882, the academy was renamed the Art Institute of Chicago. The banker Charles L. Hutchinson served as its elected president until his death in 1924.
Chancellor Walter E. Massey served as president from 2010 -- July 2016. The current president is Elissa Tenny, formerly the school 's provost.
SAIC offers classes in art and technology; arts administration; art history, theory, and criticism; art education and art therapy; ceramics; fashion design; filmmaking; historic preservation; architecture; interior architecture; designed objects; journalism; painting and drawing; performance; photography; printmaking; sculpture; sound; new media; video; visual communication; visual and critical studies; animation; illustration; fiber; and writing. SAIC also serves as a resource for issues related to the position and importance of the arts in society.
SAIC also offers an interdisciplinary Low - Residency MFA for students wishing to study the fine arts and / or writing.
As of fall 2016, the student enrollment at SAIC is demographically classified as follows:
Total Enrollment: 3,569
Undergraduate students: 2,848
Graduate students: 721
Sex:
Female: 72.3 %
Male: 27.7 %
International and ethnic origin:
International students: 32 % (countries represented: 59)
United States students: 68 %, further subdivided as follows:
White: 35.6 %
Hispanic: 10.6 %
Asian or Pacific Islander: 10.4 %
African American: 3.6 %
American Indian: 0.3 %
Multiethnic: 2.8 %
Not Specified: 5.2 %
Geographic distribution of United States students:
Midwest: 47 % (includes 10.6 % from Chicago)
Northeast: 20 %
West: 18 %
South: 16 %
Founded in 1868, the Visiting Artists Program (VAP) is one of the oldest public programs of the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Formalized in 1951 by Flora Mayer Witkowsky 's endowment of a supporting fund, the Visiting Artists Program hosts public presentations by artists, designers, and scholars each year in lectures, symposia, performances, and screenings. It is an eclectic program that showcases artists ' working in all media, including sound, video, performance, poetry, painting, and independent film; in addition to significant curators, critics, and art historians.
Recent visiting artists have included Catherine Opie, Andi Zeisler, Aaron Koblin, Jean Shin, Sam Lipsyte, Ben Marcus, Marilyn Minter, Pearl Fryar, Tehching Hsieh, Homi K. Bhabha, Bill Fontana, Wolfgang Laib, Suzanne Lee, and Amar Kanwar among others.
Additionally, the Distinguished Alumni Series brings alumni back to the community to present their work and reflect on how their experiences at SAIC have shaped them. Recent alumni speakers include Tania Bruguera, Jenni Sorkin, Kori Newkirk, Maria Martinez - Cañas, Saya Woolfalk, Jun Nguyen - Hatsushiba, and Sanford Biggers to name a few.
ExTV is a student - run time - arts platform that broadcasts online and on campus. Its broadcasts are available via monitors located throughout the 112 S. Michigan building, the 37 S Wabash building, and the 280 S. Columbus building. It is available on campus and off campus at extvsaic.org and on cantv.
F Newsmagazine is a student - run newspaper with both paid and volunteer positions. The magazine is a monthly publication with a run of 12,000 copies. Copies are distributed throughout the city, mainly at locations frequented by students such as popular diners and movie theaters.
Free Radio SAIC is the student - run Internet radio station of The School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Free Radio uses an open programming format and encourage its DJs to explore and experiment with the medium of live radio. Program content and style vary but generally include music from all genres, sound art, narratives, live performances, current events and interviews. (1)
Featured bands and guests on Free Radio SAIC include Nü Sensae, The Black Belles, Thomas Comerford, Kevin Michael Richardson, Jeff Bennett, Carolyn Lawrence, and much more.
The student government of SAIC is unique in that its constitution resembles a socialist republic, in which four officers hold equal power and responsibility. Elections are held every year. There are no campaign requirements. Any group of four students may run for office, but there must always be four students.
The student government is responsible for hosting a school - wide student meeting once a month. At these meetings students discuss school concerns of any nature. The predominant topic is funding for the various student organizations. Organizations which desire funding must present a proposal at the meeting by which the students vote whether they should receive monies or not. The student government can not participate in the vote: only oversee it.
The student government is also responsible for the distribution of the Peanut Butter & Jelly Fund, Welcome Back to School Party, Monthly Morning Coffees, Open Forums, Barbecues in the Pit (the outdoor area at the entrance of the 280 S Columbus Building), Holiday Art Sale, and a Materials Event. In the past Student Government has accomplished such things as campus - wide recycling, and access to the Chicago Transit Authority 's U-Pass.
In a survey conducted by the National Arts Journalism Program at Columbia University, SAIC was named the "most influential art school '' by art critics at general interest news publications from across the United States.
In 2017, US News ranked SAIC the fourth best overall graduate program for fine arts in the U.S. tying with the Rhode Island school of Design. In January 2013, The Global Language Monitor ranked SAIC as the # 5 college in the U.S., the highest ever for an art or design school in a general college ranking.
On May 11, 1988, a student painting depicting Harold Washington, the first black mayor of Chicago, was torn down by some of the city 's African - American aldermen -- over the protests of many who attempted to block them -- based on its content. The painting, titled Mirth & Girth by David Nelson, was of Washington clad only in women 's underwear holding a pencil. Washington died on November 25, 1987.
The painting was returned after a day, and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed a lawsuit against the Chicago Police Department and the aldermen. The ACLU claimed the removal violated Nelson 's First, Fourth, and Fourteenth amendment rights. Nelson ended up receiving a monetary settlement for damage to the painting which occurred during its confiscation.
In February 1989, a student named "Dread '' Scott Tyler draped the Flag of the United States across the floor for a piece titled What Is the Proper Way to Display a U.S. Flag? The piece consisted of a podium with a notebook for viewers to express how they felt about the exhibit. However, the podium was set upon a flag laid on the floor. In order for viewers to write in the notebook, they would have to walk on the flag. Viewers were occasionally arrested at the request of veterans. The school stood by the student 's art in the face of protests and threats. That year, the school 's federal funding was cut from $70,000 to $1 and many benefactors pulled donations.
In 2017, a controversy arose over the resignation of Michael Bonesteel, an adjunct professor specializing in outsider art and comics after two Title IX complaints were filed. Bonesteel described the SAIC investigation as a "Kafkaesque trial '' in which he was never shown copies of the complaints and in which he was guilty until proven innocent and that SAIC "feels more like a police state than a place where academic freedom and the open exchange of ideas is valued ''. Laura Kipnis, author of a book on Title IX cases, described SAIC as displaying "jawdropping cowardice '' and said "The idea that students are trying to censor or curb a professor 's opinions or thinking is appalling ''. The School said the claims made against it were "problematic '' and "misleading '' and said it supports academic freedom.
This is a list of property in order of acquisition:
SAIC also owns these properties outside of the immediate vicinity of the Chicago Loop:
SAIC leases:
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how many different species of mosquitoes are there | Mosquito - wikipedia
Mosquitoes are small, midge - like flies that constitute the family Culicidae. Females of most species are ectoparasites, whose tube - like mouthparts (called a proboscis) pierce the hosts ' skin to consume blood. The word "mosquito '' (formed by mosca and diminutive - ito) is Spanish for "little fly ''. Thousands of species feed on the blood of various kinds of hosts, mainly vertebrates, including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and even some kinds of fish. Some mosquitoes also attack invertebrates, mainly other arthropods. Though the loss of blood is seldom of any importance to the victim, the saliva of the mosquito often causes an irritating rash that can be a nuisance. Much more serious, though, is the role of many species of mosquitoes as vectors of diseases. In passing from host to host, some transmit extremely harmful infections such as malaria, yellow fever, Chikungunya, West Nile virus, dengue fever, filariasis, Zika virus and other arboviruses, rendering the Culicidae the deadliest animal family in the world.
The oldest known mosquito with an anatomy similar to modern species was found in 79 - million - year - old Canadian amber from the Cretaceous. An older sister species with more primitive features was found in Burmese amber that is 90 to 100 million years old. Two mosquito fossils have been found that show very little morphological change in modern mosquitoes against their counterpart from 46 million years ago. These fossils are also the oldest ever found to have blood preserved within their abdomens. Despite no fossils being found earlier than the Cretaceous, recent studies suggest that the earliest divergence of mosquitoes between the lineages leading to Anophelinae and Culicinae occurred 226 million years ago.
The Old and New World Anopheles species are believed to have subsequently diverged about 95 million years ago.
The mosquito Anopheles gambiae is currently undergoing speciation into the M (opti) and S (avanah) molecular forms. Consequently, some pesticides that work on the M form no longer work on the S form. Over 3,500 species of the Culicidae have already been described. They are generally divided into two subfamilies which in turn comprise some 43 genera. These figures are subject to continual change, as more species are discovered, and as DNA studies compel rearrangement of the taxonomy of the family. The two main subfamilies are the Anophelinae and Culicinae, with their genera as shown in the subsection below. The distinction is of great practical importance because the two subfamilies tend to differ in their significance as vectors of different classes of diseases. Roughly speaking, arboviral diseases such as yellow fever and dengue fever tend to be transmitted by Culicine species, not necessarily in the genus Culex. Some transmit various species of avian malaria, but it is not clear that they ever transmit any form of human malaria. Some species do however transmit various forms of filariasis, much as many Simuliidae do.
Anopheline mosquitoes, again not necessarily in the genus Anopheles, sometimes bear pathogenic arboviruses, but it is not yet clear that they ever transmit them as effective vectors. However, all the most important vectors of human malaria are Anopheline.
Mosquitoes are members of a family of nematocerid flies: the Culicidae (from the Latin culex, genitive culicis, meaning "midge '' or "gnat ''). Superficially, mosquitoes resemble crane flies (family Tipulidae) and chironomid flies (family Chironomidae). In particular, the females of many species of mosquitoes are blood - eating pests and dangerous vectors of diseases, whereas members of the similar - looking Chironomidae and Tipulidae are not. Many species of mosquitoes are not blood eaters and of those that are, many create a "high to low pressure '' in the blood to obtain it and do not transmit disease. Also, in the bloodsucking species, only the females suck blood. Furthermore, even among mosquitoes that do carry important diseases, neither all species of mosquitoes, nor all strains of a given species transmit the same kinds of diseases, nor do they all transmit the diseases under the same circumstances; their habits differ. For example, some species attack people in houses, and others prefer to attack people walking in forests. Accordingly, in managing public health, knowing which species or even which strain of mosquito one is dealing with is important.
Over 3,500 species of mosquitoes have already been described from various parts of the world. Some mosquitoes that bite humans routinely act as vectors for a number of infectious diseases affecting millions of people per year. Others that do not routinely bite humans, but are the vectors for animal diseases, may become disastrous agents for zoonosis of new diseases when their habitats are disturbed, for instance by sudden deforestation.
Like all flies, mosquitoes go through four stages in their lifecycles: egg, larva, pupa, and adult or imago. In most species, adult females lay their eggs in stagnant water; some lay eggs near the water 's edge; others attach their eggs to aquatic plants. Each species selects the situation of the water into which it lays its eggs and does so according to its own ecological adaptations. Some are generalists and are not very fussy. Some breed in lakes, some in temporary puddles. Some breed in marshes, some in salt - marshes. Among those that breed in salt water, some are equally at home in fresh and salt water up to about one - third the concentration of seawater, whereas others must acclimatize themselves to the salinity. Such differences are important because certain ecological preferences keep mosquitoes away from most humans, whereas other preferences bring them right into houses at night.
Some species of mosquitoes prefer to breed in phytotelmata (natural reservoirs on plants), such as rainwater accumulated in holes in tree trunks, or in the leaf - axils of bromeliads. Some specialize in the liquid in pitchers of particular species of pitcher plants, their larvae feeding on decaying insects that had drowned there or on the associated bacteria; the genus Wyeomyia provides such examples -- the harmless Wyeomyia smithii breeds only in the pitchers of Sarracenia purpurea.
However, some of the species of mosquitoes that are adapted to breeding in phytotelmata are dangerous disease vectors. In nature, they might occupy anything from a hollow tree trunk to a cupped leaf. Such species typically take readily to breeding in artificial water containers. Such casual puddles are important breeding places for some of the most serious disease vectors, such as species of Aedes that transmit dengue and yellow fever. Some with such breeding habits are disproportionately important vectors because they are well - placed to pick up pathogens from humans and pass them on. In contrast, no matter how voracious, mosquitoes that breed and feed mainly in remote wetlands and salt marshes may well remain uninfected, and if they do happen to become infected with a relevant pathogen, might seldom encounter humans to infect, in turn.
The first three stages -- egg, larva, and pupa -- are largely aquatic. These stages typically last 5 to 14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature, but there are important exceptions. Mosquitoes living in regions where some seasons are freezing or waterless spend part of the year in diapause; they delay their development, typically for months, and carry on with life only when there is enough water or warmth for their needs. For instance, Wyeomyia larvae typically get frozen into solid lumps of ice during winter and only complete their development in spring. The eggs of some species of Aedes remain unharmed in diapause if they dry out, and hatch later when they are covered by water.
Eggs hatch to become larvae, which grow until they are able to change into pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the mature pupa as it floats at the water surface. Bloodsucking mosquitoes, depending on species, sex, and weather conditions, have potential adult lifespans ranging from as short as a week to as long as several months.
Some species can overwinter as adults in diapause.
Mosquito habits of oviposition, the ways in which they lay their eggs, vary considerably between species, and the morphologies of the eggs vary accordingly. The simplest procedure is that followed by many species of Anopheles; like many other gracile species of aquatic insects, females just fly over the water, bobbing up and down to the water surface and dropping eggs more or less singly. The bobbing behavior occurs among some other aquatic insects as well, for example mayflies and dragonflies; it is sometimes called "dapping ''. The eggs of Anopheles species are roughly cigar - shaped and have floats down their sides. Females of many common species can lay 100 -- 200 eggs during the course of the adult phase of their lifecycles. Even with high egg and intergenerational mortality, over a period of several weeks, a single successful breeding pair can create a population of thousands.
Some other species, for example members of the genus Mansonia, lay their eggs in arrays, attached usually to the under - surfaces of waterlily pads. Their close relatives, the genus Coquillettidia, lay their eggs similarly, but not attached to plants. Instead, the eggs form layers called "rafts '' that float on the water. This is a common mode of oviposition, and most species of Culex are known for the habit, which also occurs in some other genera, such as Culiseta and Uranotaenia. Anopheles eggs may on occasion cluster together on the water, too, but the clusters do not generally look much like compactly glued rafts of eggs.
In species that lay their eggs in rafts, rafts do not form adventitiously; the female Culex settles carefully on still water with its hind legs crossed, and as it lays the eggs one by one, it twitches to arrange them into a head - down array that sticks together to form the raft.
Aedes females generally drop their eggs singly, much as Anopheles do, but not as a rule into water. Instead, they lay their eggs on damp mud or other surfaces near the water 's edge. Such an oviposition site commonly is the wall of a cavity such as a hollow stump or a container such as a bucket or a discarded vehicle tire. The eggs generally do not hatch until they are flooded, and they may have to withstand considerable desiccation before that happens. They are not resistant to desiccation straight after oviposition, but must develop to a suitable degree first. Once they have achieved that, however, they can enter diapause for several months if they dry out. Clutches of eggs of the majority of mosquito species hatch as soon as possible, and all the eggs in the clutch hatch at much the same time. In contrast, a batch of Aedes eggs in diapause tends to hatch irregularly over an extended period of time. This makes it much more difficult to control such species than those mosquitoes whose larvae can be killed all together as they hatch. Some Anopheles species do also behave in such a manner, though not to the same degree of sophistication.
The mosquito larva has a well - developed head with mouth brushes used for feeding, a large thorax with no legs, and a segmented abdomen.
Larvae breathe through spiracles located on their eighth abdominal segments, or through a siphon, so must come to the surface frequently. The larvae spend most of their time feeding on algae, bacteria, and other microbes in the surface microlayer.
They dive below the surface only when disturbed. Larvae swim either through propulsion with their mouth brushes, or by jerky movements of their entire bodies, giving them the common name of "wigglers '' or "wrigglers ''.
Larvae develop through four stages, or instars, after which they metamorphose into pupae. At the end of each instar, the larvae molt, shedding their skins to allow for further growth.
Mosquito larvae and pupa resting at water surface
Anopheles larva from southern Germany, about 8 mm long
Aedes aegypti larva
Culex larva and pupa
Culex larvae plus one pupa
Electron micrograph of a mosquito egg
As seen in its lateral aspect, the mosquito pupa is comma - shaped. The head and thorax are merged into a cephalothorax, with the abdomen curving around underneath. The pupa can swim actively by flipping its abdomen, and it is commonly called a "tumbler '' because of its swimming action. As with the larva, the pupa of most species must come to the surface frequently to breathe, which they do through a pair of respiratory trumpets on their cephalothoraxes. However, pupae do not feed during this stage; typically they pass their time hanging from the surface of the water by their respiratory trumpets. If alarmed, say by a passing shadow, they nimbly swim downwards by flipping their abdomens in much the same way as the larvae do. If undisturbed, they soon float up again.
After a few days or longer, depending on the temperature and other circumstances, the pupa rises to the water surface, the dorsal surface of its cephalothorax splits, and the adult mosquito emerges. The pupa is less active than the larva because it does not feed, whereas the larva feeds constantly.
The period of development from egg to adult varies among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Some species of mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as few as five days, but a more typical period of development in tropical conditions would be some 40 days or more for most species. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water.
Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.
Males typically live for about 5 -- 7 days, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature, but usually takes two to three days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host - seeking.
The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than one to two weeks in nature. Their lifespans depend on temperature, humidity, and their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses and predators.
The length of the adult is typically between 3mm and 6mm. The smallest known mosquitoes are around 2 mm (0.1 in), and the largest around 19 mm (0.7 in). Mosquitoes typically weigh around 5 mg. All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three segments: a head, a thorax and an abdomen.
The head is specialized for receiving sensory information and for feeding. It has eyes and a pair of long, many - segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors, as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the females.
The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit - eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head. New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye. During the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.
The head also has an elongated, forward - projecting, stinger - like proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscises, whereas the females ' maxillary palps are much shorter. In typical bloodsucking species, the female has an elongated proboscis.
The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at 1 to 2 km / h (0.6 -- 1 mph), traveling up to 12 km (7.5 mi) in a night. Males beat their wings between 450 and 600 times per second.
The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development; the abdomen of a mosquito can hold three times its own weight in blood. This segment expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time, serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.
Typically, both male and female mosquitoes feed on nectar and plant juices, but in many species the mouthparts of the females are adapted for piercing the skin of animal hosts and sucking their blood as ectoparasites. In many species, the female needs to obtain nutrients from a blood meal before it can produce eggs, whereas in many other species, it can produce more eggs after a blood meal. A mosquito has a variety of ways of finding its prey, including chemical, visual, and heat sensors. Both plant materials and blood are useful sources of energy in the form of sugars, and blood also supplies more concentrated nutrients, such as lipids, but the most important function of blood meals is to obtain proteins as materials for egg production.
The feeding preferences of mosquitoes include those with type O blood, heavy breathers, those with a lot of skin bacteria, people with a lot of body heat, and the pregnant. Individuals ' attractiveness to mosquitoes also has a heritable, genetically - controlled component.
When a female reproduces without such parasitic meals, it is said to practice autogenous reproduction, as in Toxorhynchites; otherwise, the reproduction may be termed anautogenous, as occurs in mosquito species that serve as disease vectors, particularly Anopheles and some of the most important disease vectors in the genus Aedes. In contrast, some mosquitoes, for example, many Culex, are partially anautogenous: they do not need a blood meal for their first cycle of egg production, which they produce autogenously; however, subsequent clutches of eggs are produced anautogenously, at which point their disease vectoring activity becomes operative.
Female mosquitoes hunt their blood host by detecting organic substances such as carbon dioxide (CO) and 1 - octen - 3 - ol produced from the host, and through visual recognition. Mosquitoes prefer some people over others. The preferred victim 's sweat simply smells better than others ' because of the proportions of the carbon dioxide, octenol and other compounds that make up body odor. The most powerful semiochemical that triggers the keen sense of smell of Culex quinquefasciatus is nonanal. Another compound identified in human blood that attracts mosquitoes is sulcatone or 6 - methyl - 5 - hepten - 2 - one, especially for Aedes aegypti mosquitoes with the odor receptor gene Or4. A large part of the mosquito 's sense of smell, or olfactory system, is devoted to sniffing out blood sources. Of 72 types of odor receptors on its antennae, at least 27 are tuned to detect chemicals found in perspiration. In Aedes, the search for a host takes place in two phases. First, the mosquito exhibits a nonspecific searching behavior until the perception of host stimulants, then it follows a targeted approach.
Most mosquito species are crepuscular (dawn or dusk) feeders. During the heat of the day, most mosquitoes rest in a cool place and wait for the evenings, although they may still bite if disturbed. Some species, such as the Asian tiger mosquito, are known to fly and feed during daytime.
Prior to and during blood feeding, blood - sucking mosquitoes inject saliva into the bodies of their source (s) of blood. This saliva serves as an anticoagulant; without it the female mosquito 's proboscis might become clogged with blood clots. The saliva also is the main route by which mosquito physiology offers passenger pathogens access to the hosts ' bloodstream. The salivary glands are a major target to most pathogens, whence they find their way into the host via the saliva.
A mosquito bite often leaves an itchy weal, a raised bump, on the victim 's skin, which is caused by histamines trying to fight off the protein left by the attacking insect.
Mosquitoes of the genus Toxorhynchites never drink blood. This genus includes the largest extant mosquitoes, the larvae of which prey on the larvae of other mosquitoes. These mosquito eaters have been used in the past as mosquito control agents, with varying success.
Many, if not all, blood - sucking species of mosquitoes are fairly selective feeders that specialise in particular host species, though they often relax their selectivity when they experience severe competition for food, defensive activity on the part of the hosts, or starvation. Some species feed selectively on monkeys, while others prefer particular kinds of birds, but they become less selective as conditions become more difficult. For example, Culiseta melanura sucks the blood of passerine birds for preference, and such birds are typically the main reservoir of the Eastern equine encephalitis virus in North America. Early in the season while mosquito numbers are low, they concentrate on passerine hosts, but as mosquito numbers rise and the birds are forced to defend themselves more vigorously, the mosquitoes become less selective of hosts. Soon the mosquitoes begin attacking mammals more readily, thereby becoming the major vector of the virus, and causing epidemics of the disease, most conspicuously in humans and horses.
Even more dramatically, in most of its range in North America, the main vector for the Western equine encephalitis virus is Culex tarsalis, because it is known to feed variously on mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Even fish may be attacked by some mosquito species if they expose themselves above water level, as mudskippers do.
Some species of blood - sucking flies, such as many of the Ceratopogonidae, will attack large, live insects and suck their haemolymph and others, such as the so - called "jackal flies '' (Milichiidae), will attack the recently dead prey of say, crab spiders (Thomisidae). In 1969 it was reported that some species of anautogenous mosquitoes would feed on the haemolymph of caterpillars. Other observations include mosquitoes feeding on cicadas and mantids. In 2014 it was shown that malaria - transmitting mosquitoes actively seek out some species of caterpillars and feed on their haemolymph, and do so to the caterpillar 's apparent physical detriment.
Mosquito mouthparts are very specialized, particularly those of the females, which in most species are adapted to piercing skin and then sucking blood. Apart from bloodsucking, the females generally also drink assorted fluids rich in dissolved sugar, such as nectar and honeydew, to obtain the energy they need. For this, their blood - sucking mouthparts are perfectly adequate. In contrast, male mosquitoes are not bloodsuckers; they only drink sugary fluids. Accordingly, their mouthparts do not require the same degree of specialization as those of females.
Externally, the most obvious feeding structure of the mosquito is the proboscis. More specifically, the visible part of the proboscis is the labium, which forms the sheath enclosing the rest of the mouthparts. When the mosquito first lands on a potential host, its mouthparts are enclosed entirely in this sheath, and it will touch the tip of the labium to the skin in various places. Sometimes, it will begin to bite almost straight away, while other times, it will prod around, apparently looking for a suitable place. Occasionally, it will wander for a considerable time, and eventually fly away without biting. Presumably, this probing is a search for a place with easily accessible blood vessels, but the exact mechanism is not known. It is known that there are two taste receptors at the tip of the labium which may well play a role.
The female mosquito does not insert its labium into the skin; it bends back into a bow when the mosquito begins to bite. The tip of the labium remains in contact with the skin of the victim, acting as a guide for the other mouthparts. In total, there are six mouthparts besides the labium: two mandibles, two maxillae, the hypopharynx, and the labrum.
The mandibles and the maxillae are used for piercing the skin. The mandibles are pointed, while the maxillae end in flat, toothed "blades ''. To force these into the skin, the mosquito moves its head backwards and forwards. On one movement, the maxillae are moved as far forward as possible. On the opposite movement, the mandibles are pushed deeper into the skin by levering against the maxillae. The maxillae do not slip back because the toothed blades grip the skin.
The hypopharynx and the labrum are both hollow. Saliva with anticoagulant is pumped down the hypopharynx to prevent clotting, and blood is drawn up the labrum.
To understand the mosquito mouthparts, it is helpful to draw a comparison with an insect that chews food, such as a dragonfly. A dragonfly has two mandibles, which are used for chewing, and two maxillae, which are used to hold the food in place as it is chewed. The labium forms the floor of the dragonfly 's mouth, the labrum forms the top, while the hypopharynx is inside the mouth and is used in swallowing. Conceptually, then, the mosquito 's proboscis is an adaptation of the mouthparts that occur in other insects. The labium still lies beneath the other mouthparts, but also enfolds them, and it has been extended into a proboscis. The maxillae still "grip '' the "food '' while the mandibles "bite '' it. The top of the mouth, the labrum, has developed into a channeled blade the length of the proboscis, with a cross-section like an inverted "U ''. Finally, the hypopharynx has extended into a tube that can deliver saliva at the end of the proboscis. Its upper surface is somewhat flattened so, when pressed against it, the labrum forms a closed tube for conveying blood from the victim.
For the mosquito to obtain a blood meal, it must circumvent the vertebrate 's physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood - feeding arthropods, has mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva, which contains a mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva acts to reduce vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, angiogenesis and immunity, and creates inflammation. Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anti-clotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding, and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal. The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple, as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins. As of the early 2000s, scientists still were unable to ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva. One promising application of components of mosquito saliva is the development of anti-clotting drugs, such as clotting inhibitors and capillary dilators, that could be useful for cardiovascular disease.
It is now well recognized that feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes, have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) on which they feed. The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory / immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva - induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data have become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF - α release, but not antigen - induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells. Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of Ae. aegypti mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL) - 2 and IFN - γ production, while the cytokines IL - 4 and IL - 5 are unaffected. Cellular proliferation in response to IL - 2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with mosquito salivary gland extract. Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either Ae. aegypti or Cx. pipiens mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL - 4 and IL - 10 concurrent with suppressed IFN - γ production. Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.
T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing increased mortality and decreased division rates. Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T and B cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1 / 7 of the saliva in a single mosquito. Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody - specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL - 10 expression.
A 2006 study suggests mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon − α / β during early mosquito - borne virus infection. The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated in vivo by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN inducers or IFN itself, and different research suggests mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection, as well as other mosquito - transmitted viruses.
Studies in humanized mice bearing a reconstituted human immune system have suggested potential impact of mosquito saliva in humans. Work published in 2018 from the Baylor College of Medicine using such humanized mice came to several conclusions, among them being that mosquito saliva led to an increase in natural killer T cells in peripheral blood; to an overall decrease in ex vivo cytokine production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs); changes to proportions of subsets of PBMCs; changes in the prevalence of T cell subtypes across organs; and changes to circulating levels of cytokines.
Female mosquitoes use two very different food sources. They need sugar for energy, which is taken from sources such as nectar, and they need blood as a source of protein for egg development. Because biting is risky and suitable hosts may be difficult to find, mosquitoes take as much blood as possible when they have the opportunity. Digesting large volumes of blood takes time, requiring the use of energy from sugars during the feeding process. To avoid this problem, mosquitoes possess a digestive system which can store both food types, giving access to both as needed. When the mosquito drinks a sugar solution, it is directed to a crop. The crop can release sugar into the stomach as it is required. At the same time, the stomach never becomes full of sugar solution, which would prevent the mosquito taking a blood meal. Blood is directed straight into the mosquito 's stomach. In species that feed on mammalian or avian blood, hosts whose blood pressure is high, the mosquito feeds selectively from active blood vessels, where the pressure assists in filling the gut rapidly.
Upon completion of feeding, the mosquito will withdraw her proboscis, and as the gut fills up, the stomach lining secretes a peritrophic membrane that surrounds the blood. This membrane keeps the blood separate from anything else in the stomach. However, like certain other insects that survive on dilute, purely liquid diets, notably many of the Hemiptera, many adult mosquitoes must excrete unwanted aqueous fractions even as they feed. (See the photograph of a feeding Anopheles stephensi: Note that the excreted droplet patently is not whole blood, being far more dilute). As long as they are not disturbed, this permits mosquitoes to continue feeding until they have accumulated a full meal of nutrient solids. As a result, a mosquito replete with blood can continue to absorb sugar, even as the blood meal is slowly digested over a period of several days. Once blood is in the stomach, the midgut of the female synthesizes proteolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids. These are used as building blocks for the synthesis of egg yolk proteins.
In the mosquito Anopheles stephensi Liston, trypsin activity is restricted entirely to the posterior midgut lumen. No trypsin activity occurs before the blood meal, but activity increases continuously up to 30 hours after feeding, and subsequently returns to baseline levels by 60 hours. Aminopeptidase is active in the anterior and posterior midgut regions before and after feeding. In the whole midgut, activity rises from a baseline of approximately three enzyme units (EU) per midgut to a maximum of 12 EU at 30 hours after the blood meal, subsequently falling to baseline levels by 60 hours. A similar cycle of activity occurs in the posterior midgut and posterior midgut lumen, whereas aminopeptidase in the posterior midgut epithelium decreases in activity during digestion. Aminopeptidase in the anterior midgut is maintained at a constant, low level, showing no significant variation with time after feeding. Alpha - glucosidase is active in anterior and posterior midguts before and at all times after feeding. In whole midgut homogenates, alpha - glucosidase activity increases slowly up to 18 hours after the blood meal, then rises rapidly to a maximum at 30 hours after the blood meal, whereas the subsequent decline in activity is less predictable. All posterior midgut activity is restricted to the posterior midgut lumen. Depending on the time after feeding, greater than 25 % of the total midgut activity of alpha - glucosidase is located in the anterior midgut. After blood meal ingestion, proteases are active only in the posterior midgut. Trypsin is the major primary hydrolytic protease and is secreted into the posterior midgut lumen without activation in the posterior midgut epithelium. Aminoptidase activity is also luminal in the posterior midgut, but cellular aminopeptidases are required for peptide processing in both anterior and posterior midguts. Alpha - glucosidase activity is elevated in the posterior midgut after feeding in response to the blood meal, whereas activity in the anterior midgut is consistent with a nectar - processing role for this midgut region.
In the sense of the entire family Culicidae, mosquitoes are cosmopolitan; in every land region except for Antarctica and a few islands, mainly in polar or subpolar climates, at least some species of mosquito will be present. Iceland is such an island, being essentially free of mosquitoes. In warm and humid tropical regions, some mosquito species are active for the entire year, but in temperate and cold regions they hibernate or enter diapause. Arctic or subarctic mosquitoes, like some other arctic midges in families such as Simuliidae and Ceratopogonidae may be active for only a few weeks annually as melt - water pools form on the permafrost. During that time, though, they emerge in huge numbers in some regions and may take up to 300 ml of blood per day from each animal in a caribou herd.
The absence of mosquitoes from Iceland and similar regions is probably because of quirks of their climate, which differs in some respects from mainland regions. At the start of the uninterrupted continental winter of Greenland and the northern regions of Eurasia and America, the pupa enters diapause under the ice that covers sufficiently deep water. The imago ecloses only after the ice breaks in late spring. In Iceland however, the weather is less predictable. In mid-winter it frequently warms up suddenly, causing the ice to break, but then to freeze again after a few days. By that time the mosquitoes will have emerged from their pupae, but the new freeze sets in before they can complete their life cycle. Any anautogenous adult mosquito would need a host to supply a blood meal before it could lay viable eggs; it would need time to mate, mature the eggs and oviposit in suitable wetlands. These requirements would not be realistic in Iceland and in fact the absence of mosquitoes from such subpolar islands is in line with the islands ' low biodiversity; Iceland has fewer than 1,500 described species of insects, many of them probably accidentally introduced by human agency. In Iceland most ectoparasitic insects live in sheltered conditions or actually on mammals; examples include lice, fleas and bedbugs, in whose living conditions freezing is no concern, and most of which were introduced inadvertently by humans.
Some other aquatic Diptera, such as Simuliidae, do survive in Iceland, but their habits and adaptations differ from those of mosquitoes; Simuliidae for example, though they, like mosquitoes, are bloodsuckers, generally inhabit stones under running water that does not readily freeze and which is totally unsuited to mosquitoes; mosquitoes are generally not adapted to running water.
Eggs of species of mosquitoes from the temperate zones are more tolerant of cold than the eggs of species indigenous to warmer regions. Many even tolerate subzero temperatures. In addition, adults of some species can survive the winter by taking shelter in suitable microhabitats such as buildings or hollow trees.
Worldwide introduction of various mosquito species over large distances into regions where they are not indigenous has occurred through human agencies, primarily on sea routes, in which the eggs, larvae, and pupae inhabiting water - filled used tires and cut flowers are transported. However, apart from sea transport, mosquitoes have been effectively carried by personal vehicles, delivery trucks, trains, and aircraft. Man - made areas such as storm water retention basins, or storm drains also provide sprawling sanctuaries. Sufficient quarantine measures have proven difficult to implement. In addition, outdoor pool areas make a perfect place for them to grow.
Mosquitoes can act as vectors for many disease - causing viruses and parasites. Infected mosquitoes carry these organisms from person to person without exhibiting symptoms themselves. Mosquito - borne diseases include:
Potential transmission of HIV was originally a public health concern, but practical considerations and detailed studies of epidemiological patterns suggest that any transmission of the HIV virus by mosquitoes is at worst extremely unlikely.
Various species of mosquitoes are estimated to transmit various types of disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico, Russia, and much of Asia, with millions of resultant deaths. At least two million people annually die of these diseases, and the morbidity rates are many times higher still.
Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where disease is endemic, include:
Since most such diseases are carried by "elderly '' female mosquitoes, some scientists have suggested focusing on these to avoid the evolution of resistance.
A recent study collected and identified 20,551 adult female mosquitoes in five neighborhoods of the city of Baltimore over 2 years. Most of these mosquitos (73 %) were invasive Asian tiger mosquitoes (Aedes albopictus), but samples also included Culex (24 %) and Aedes japonicus (2.4 %) mosquitoes, both of which carry West Nile virus. The hosts of these mosquitos were determined by isolating DNA from the former. Invasive brown rats made up 71.7 % of all Asian tiger blood meals. By contrast, birds were the most common victims of Culex, while Aedes appears to avoid birds altogether. Humans and cats each made up 13.3 percent of Aedes blood meals, while deer and dogs were bitten less frequently by all mosquito species. Notably, the study showed that different neighborhoods in Baltimore had different abundances and composition of mosquito species, dependent on the abundance of neglected containers for mosquito breeding, and how people choose to spend time outside.
Many measures have been tried for mosquito control, including the elimination of breeding places, exclusion via window screens and mosquito nets, biological control with parasites such as fungi and nematodes, or predators such as fish, copepods, dragonfly nymphs and adults, and some species of lizard and gecko. Another approach is to introduce large numbers of sterile males. Genetic methods including cytoplasmic incompatibility, chromosomal translocations, sex distortion and gene replacement have been explored. They are cheaper and not subject to vector resistance.
Insect repellents are applied on skin and give short - term protection against mosquito bites. The chemical DEET repels some mosquitoes and other insects. Some CDC - recommended repellents are picaridin, eucalyptus oil (PMD) and IR3535. Others are indalone, dimethyl phthalate, dimethyl carbate, and ethyl hexanediol.
In 2015, researchers at New Mexico State University tested 10 commercially available products for their effectiveness at repelling mosquitoes. On the mosquito Aedes aegypti, the vector of Zika virus, only one repellent that did not contain DEET had a strong effect for the duration of the 240 minutes test: a lemon eucalyptus oil repellent. All DEET - containing mosquito repellents were active.
There are also electronic insect repellent devices which produce ultrasounds that were developed to keep away insects (and mosquitoes). However, no scientific research based on the EPA 's and many universities ' studies has ever provided evidence that these devices prevent a human from being bitten by a mosquito. In 2005, the British consumer magazine Holiday reported the results of its test of a range of mosquito deterrents. The magazine 's editor Lorna Cowan described the four appliances that used a buzzer as "a shocking waste of money '' which "should be removed from sale ''.
Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito 's saliva. Some of the sensitizing antigens are common to all mosquito species, whereas others are specific to certain species. There are both immediate hypersensitivity reactions (types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity reactions (type IV) to mosquito bites. Both reactions result in itching, redness and swelling. Immediate reactions develop within a few minutes of the bite and last for a few hours. Delayed reactions take around a day to develop, and last for up to a week. Several anti-itch medications are commercially available, including those taken orally, such as diphenhydramine, or topically applied antihistamines and, for more severe cases, corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone. A common topical remedy in camping gear is aqueous ammonia.
Ancient Greek beast fables including "The Elephant and the Mosquito '' and "The Bull and the Mosquito '', with the general moral that the large beast does not even notice the small one, derive ultimately from Mesopotamia.
Winsor McCay 's 1912 film How a Mosquito Operates was one of the earliest works of animation, far ahead of its time in technical quality. It depicts a giant mosquito tormenting a sleeping man.
The de Havilland Mosquito was a high - speed aircraft manufactured between 1940 and 1950, and used in many roles.
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who won the war between japan and china | Second Sino - Japanese War - wikipedia
Pacific War
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Begun in 1931 -- 37
Begun in 1937 -- 39
Begun in 1940 -- 42
Begun in 1943 -- 45
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Manchuria
The Second Sino - Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan from July 7, 1937, to September 2, 1945. It began with the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937 in which a dispute between Japanese and Chinese troops escalated into a battle.
During the Marco Polo Bridge Incident Japanese military demanded permission to enter the Chinese city of Wanping to search for a missing soldier. The Chinese refused. Later in the night, a unit of Japanese infantry attempted to breach Wanping 's walled defences and were repulsed. An ultimatum by the Japanese was issued before they would declare war. The Chinese still refused.
Although Private Shimura returned to his unit, by this point both sides were mobilising, with the Japanese deploying reinforcements and surrounding Wanping. The conflict then escalated further into a full - scale war.
China fought Japan, with aid from the Soviet Union and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the war merged with other conflicts of World War II as a major sector known as the China Burma India Theater. Some scholars consider the start of the full - scale Second Sino - Japanese War in 1937 to have been the beginning of World War II. The Second Sino - Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th century. It accounted for the majority of civilian and military casualties in the Pacific War, with between 10 and 25 million Chinese civilians and over 4 million Chinese and Japanese military personnel dying from war - related violence, famine, and other causes.
The war was the result of a decades - long Japanese imperialist policy to expand its influence politically and militarily in order to secure access to raw material reserves, food, and labor. The period after World War I brought about increasing stress on the Japanese polity. Leftists sought universal suffrage and greater rights for workers. Increasing textile production from Chinese mills was adversely affecting Japanese production. The Great Depression brought about a large slowdown in exports. All of this contributed to militant nationalism, culminating in the rise to power of a militarist fascist faction. This faction was led at its height by the Hideki Tojo cabinet of the Imperial Rule Assistance Association under edict from Emperor Hirohito. In 1931, the Mukden Incident helped spark the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. The Chinese were defeated and Japan created a new puppet state, Manchukuo; many historians cite 1931 as the beginning of the war. The view has been adopted by the PRC government. From 1931 to 1937, China and Japan continued to skirmish in small, localized engagements, so - called "incidents ''.
Initially the Japanese scored major victories, capturing both Shanghai and the Chinese capital of Nanking in 1937. After failing to stop the Japanese in the Battle of Wuhan, the Chinese central government was relocated to Chongqing (Chungking) in the Chinese interior. By 1939, after Chinese victories in Changsha and Guangxi, and with Japan 's lines of communications stretched deep into the Chinese interior, the war reached a stalemate. The Japanese were also unable to defeat the Chinese communist forces in Shaanxi, which waged a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the invaders. While Japan ruled the large cities, they lacked sufficient manpower to control China 's vast countryside. During this time, Chinese communist forces launched a counter offensive in Central China while Chinese nationalist forces launched a large scale winter offensive.
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and the following day the United States declared war on Japan. The United States began to aid China by airlifting material over the Himalayas after the Allied defeat in Burma that closed the Burma Road. In 1944 Japan launched the invasion, Operation Ichi - Go, that conquered Henan and Changsha. However, this failed to bring about the surrender of Chinese forces. In 1945, the Chinese Expeditionary Force resumed its advance in Burma and completed the Ledo Road linking India to China. At the same time, China launched large counteroffensives in South China and retook West Hunan and Guangxi.
Despite continuing to occupy part of China 's territory, Japan eventually surrendered on September 2, 1945, to Allied forces following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the Soviet invasion of Japanese - held Manchuria. The remaining Japanese occupation forces (excluding Manchuria) formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, with the following International Military Tribunal for the Far East convened on April 29, 1946. At the outcome of the Cairo Conference of November 22 -- 26, 1943, the Allies of World War II decided to restrain and punish the aggression of Japan by restoring all the territories that Japan annexed from China, including Manchuria, Taiwan / Formosa, and the Pescadores, to China, and to expel Japan from the Korean Peninsula. China was recognized as one of the Big Four of the Allies during the war and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
In China, the war is most commonly known as the "War of Resistance against Japan '' (simplified Chinese: 抗日 战争; traditional Chinese: 抗日 戰爭), and shortened to the "Resistance against Japan '' (Chinese: 抗日) or the "War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 抗战; traditional Chinese: 抗戰). It was also called the "Eight Years ' War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 八 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 八 年 抗戰), but in 2017 the Chinese Ministry of Education issued a directive stating that textbooks were to refer to the war as the "Fourteen Years ' War of Resistance '' (simplified Chinese: 十 四 年 抗战; traditional Chinese: 十 四 年 抗戰), reflecting a focus on the broader conflict with Japan going back to 1931. It is also referred to as part of the "Global Anti-Fascist War '', which is how World War II is perceived by the Communist Party of China and the PRC government.
In Japan, nowadays, the name "Japan -- China War '' (Japanese: 日 中 戦 爭, translit. Nitchū Sensō) is most commonly used because of its perceived objectivity. When the invasion of China proper began in earnest in July 1937 near Beijing, the government of Japan used "The North China Incident '' (Japanese: 北 支 事變 / 華北 事變, translit. Hokushi Jihen / Kahoku Jihen), and with the outbreak of the Battle of Shanghai the following month, it was changed to "The China Incident '' (Japanese: 支那 事變, translit. Shina Jihen).
The word "incident '' (Japanese: 事變, translit. jihen) was used by Japan, as neither country had made a formal declaration of war. From the Japanese perspective, localizing these conflicts was beneficial in preventing intervention from other nations, particularly the United Kingdom and the United States, which were its primary source of petroleum and steel respectively. A formal expression of these conflicts would potentially lead to American embargo in accordance with the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s. In addition, due to China 's fractured political status, Japan often claimed that China was no longer a recognizable political entity on which war could be declared.
In Japanese propaganda, the invasion of China became a "holy war '' (Japanese: 聖戦, translit. seisen), the first step of the "eight corners of the world under one roof '' slogan (Japanese: 八紘 一 宇, translit. Hakkō ichiu). In 1940, Japanese Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe launched the Taisei Yokusankai. When both sides formally declared war in December 1941, the name was replaced by "Greater East Asia War '' (Japanese: 大 東亞 戰爭, translit. Daitōa Sensō).
Although the Japanese government still uses the term "China Incident '' in formal documents, the word Shina is considered derogatory by China and therefore the media in Japan often paraphrase with other expressions like "The Japan -- China Incident '' (Japanese: 日 華 事變 / 日 支 事變, translit. Nikka Jiken / Nisshi Jiken), which were used by media as early as the 1930s.
The name "Second Sino - Japanese War '' is not commonly used in Japan as the war it fought with the Qing dynasty in 1894 is called the Qing - Japanese War (Japanese: 日 清 戦争, translit. Nisshin -- Sensō) rather than the First Sino - Japanese War.
The origin of the Second Sino - Japanese War can be traced to the First Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895, in which China, then under the Qing dynasty, was defeated by Japan and was forced to cede Formosa, and to recognize the full and complete independence of Korea in the Treaty of Shimonoseki; Japan had also allegedly annexed the Diaoyudao / Senkaku islands in early 1895 as a result being the victors of this war (Japan claims the islands to have been uninhabited in 1895). The Qing dynasty was on the brink of collapse from internal revolts and foreign imperialism, while Japan had emerged as a great power through its effective measures of modernization.
The Republic of China was founded in 1912, following the Xinhai Revolution which overthrew the last imperial dynasty of China, the Qing dynasty (1644 -- 1911). However, central authority disintegrated and the Republic 's authority succumbed to that of regional warlords, mostly from the former Beiyang Army. Unifying the nation and repelling imperialism seemed a very remote possibility. Some warlords even aligned themselves with various foreign powers in their battles with each other. For example, the warlord Zhang Zuolin of Manchuria from the Fengtian clique openly cooperated with the Japanese for military and economic assistance.
In 1915, Japan issued the Twenty - One Demands to extort further political and commercial privilege from China, which was accepted by Yuan Shikai. Following World War I, Japan acquired the German Empire 's sphere of influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China. Under the Beiyang government, China remained fragmented and was unable to resist foreign incursions. For the purpose of unifying China and defeating the regional warlords, the Kuomintang (KMT, alternatively known as the Chinese Nationalist Party) in Guangzhou launched the Northern Expedition from 1926 to 1928 with limited assistance from the Soviet Union.
The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928, during which time the Japanese military violently killed several Chinese officials and fired artillery shells into Jinan. Between 2,000 and 11,000 Chinese and Japanese civilians were believed to have been killed during these conflicts. The Jinan incident severely deteriorated the relations between the Chinese Nationalist government and Japan.
As the National Revolutionary Army approached Beijing, Zhang Zuolin decided to retreat back to Manchuria, before he was assassinated by the Kwantung Army in 1928. His son, Zhang Xueliang, took over as the leader of the Fengtian clique in Manchuria. Later in the same year, Zhang decided to declare his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanking under Chiang Kai - shek, and consequently, China was nominally reunified under one government.
The July -- November 1929 conflict over the Chinese Eastern Railroad (CER) further increased the tensions in the Northeast that would lead to the Mukden Incident and eventually the Second Sino - Japanese War. The Soviet Red Army victory over Zhang Xueiliang 's forces not only reasserted Soviet control over the CER in Manchuria but revealed Chinese military weaknesses that Japanese Kwantung Army officers were quick to note.
The Soviet Red Army performance also stunned the Japanese. Manchuria was central to Japan 's East Asia policy. Both the 1921 and 1927 Imperial Eastern Region Conferences reconfirmed Japan 's commitment to be the dominant power in the Northeast. The 1929 Red Army victory shook that policy to the core and reopened the Manchurian problem. By 1930, the Kwantung Army realized they faced a Red Army that was only growing stronger. The time to act was drawing near and Japanese plans to conquer the Northeast were accelerated.
In 1930, the Central Plains War broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanking government under Chiang. The Communist Party of China (CPC) previously fought openly against the Nanking government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927, and they continued to expand during this civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanking decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance '' (Chinese: 攘 外 必 先 安 內).
The internecine warfare in China provided excellent opportunities for Japan, which saw Manchuria as a limitless supply of raw materials, a market for its manufactured goods (now excluded from the influence of many Western countries in Depression - era tariffs), and as a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in Siberia. Japan invaded Manchuria outright after the Mukden Incident in September 1931. Japan charged that their rights in Manchuria, established by the Russo - Japanese War, had been systematically violated and that there were "more than 120 cases of infringement of rights and interests, interference with business, boycott of Japanese goods, unreasonable taxation, detention of individuals, confiscation of properties, eviction, demand for cessation of business, assault and battery, and the oppression of Korean residents ''.
After five months of fighting, Japan established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932, and installed the last Emperor of China, Puyi, as its puppet ruler. Militarily too weak to challenge Japan directly, China appealed to the League of Nations for help. The League 's investigation led to the publication of the Lytton Report, condemning Japan for its incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from the League of Nations. No country took action against Japan beyond tepid censure.
Incessant fighting followed the Mukden Incident. In 1932, Chinese and Japanese troops fought the January 28 Incident battle. This resulted in the demilitarisation of Shanghai, which forbade the Chinese from deploying troops in their own city. In Manchukuo there was an ongoing campaign to defeat the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies that arose from widespread outrage over the policy of non-resistance to Japan.
In 1933, the Japanese attacked the Great Wall region. The Tanggu Truce established in its aftermath, gave Japan control of Jehol province as well as a demilitarized zone between the Great Wall and Beiping - Tianjin region. Japan aimed to create another buffer zone between Manchukuo and the Chinese Nationalist government in Nanking.
Japan increasingly exploited China 's internal conflicts to reduce the strength of its fractious opponents. Even years after the Northern Expedition, the political power of the Nationalist government was limited to just the area of the Yangtze River Delta. Other sections of China were essentially in the hands of local Chinese warlords. Japan sought various Chinese collaborators and helped them establish governments friendly to Japan. This policy was called the Specialization of North China (Chinese: 華北 特殊 化; pinyin: huáběitèshūhùa), more commonly known as the North China Autonomous Movement. The northern provinces affected by this policy were Chahar, Suiyuan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shandong.
This Japanese policy was most effective in the area of what is now Inner Mongolia and Hebei. In 1935, under Japanese pressure, China signed the He -- Umezu Agreement, which forbade the KMT from conducting party operations in Hebei. In the same year, the Chin -- Doihara Agreement was signed expelling the KMT from Chahar. Thus, by the end of 1935 the Chinese government had essentially abandoned northern China. In its place, the Japanese - backed East Hebei Autonomous Council and the Hebei -- Chahar Political Council were established. There in the empty space of Chahar the Mongol Military Government was formed on May 12, 1936. Japan provided all the necessary military and economic aid. Afterwards Chinese volunteer forces continued to resist Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan.
On the night of July 7, 1937, Chinese and Japanese troops exchanged fire in the vicinity of the Lugou (or Marco Polo) bridge, a crucial access - route to Beijing. What began as confused, sporadic skirmishing soon escalated into a full - scale battle in which Beijing and its port city of Tianjin fell to Japanese forces (July -- August 1937). On July 29, some 5,000 troops of the 1st and 2nd Corps of the East Hopei Army mutinied, turning against the Japanese garrison. In addition to Japanese military personnel, some 260 civilians living in Tongzhou in accordance with the Boxer Protocol of 1901, were killed in the uprising (predominantly Japanese including the police force and also some ethnic Koreans). The Chinese then set fire to and destroyed much of the city. Only around 60 Japanese civilians survived, who provided both journalists and later historians with firsthand witness accounts. As a result of the violence of the mutiny against Japanese civilians, the Tungchow mutiny, as it came to be called, strongly shook public opinion within Japan.
The Imperial General Headquarters (GHQ) in Tokyo, content with the gains acquired in northern China following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, initially showed reluctance to escalate the conflict into full - scale war. The KMT, however, determined that the "breaking point '' of Japanese aggression had been reached. Chiang Kai - shek quickly mobilized the central government 's army and air force, placed them under his direct command, and laid siege to the Japanese area of Shanghai International Settlement, where 30,000 Japanese civilians lived with 30,000 troops on August 12, 1937.
On August 13, 1937, Kuomintang soldiers and warplanes attacked Japanese Marine positions in Shanghai, leading to the Battle of Shanghai. On August 14, Kuomintang planes accidentally bombed the Shanghai International Settlement, which led to more than 3,000 civilian deaths. In the three days from August 14 through 16, 1937, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) sent many sorties of the then - advanced long - ranged G3M medium - heavy land - based bombers and assorted carrier - based aircraft with the expectation of destroying the Chinese Air Force. However, the Imperial Japanese Navy encountered unexpected resistance from the defending Chinese Hawk III and P - 26 / 281 Peashooter fighter squadrons; suffering heavy (50 %) losses from the defending Chinese pilots (August 14 was subsequently commemorated by the KMT as China 's Air Force Day).
The skies of China had become a testing zone for advanced biplane and new - generation monoplane combat - aircraft designs. The introduction of the advanced A5M "Claude '' fighters into the Shanghai - Nanking theater of operations, beginning on September 18, 1937, helped the Japanese achieve a certain level of air superiority. However the few experienced Chinese veteran pilots, even in their older and slower biplanes, proved more than able to hold their own against the sleek A5Ms in dogfights, and it also proved to be a battle of attrition against the Chinese Air Force. At the start of the battle, the local strength of the NRA was around five divisions, or about 70,000 troops, while local Japanese forces comprised about 6,300 marines. On August 23, Japanese Army reinforcements succeeded in landing in northern Shanghai. The Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) ultimately committed over 200,000 troops, along with numerous naval vessels and aircraft, to capture the city. After more than three months of intense fighting, their casualties far exceeded initial expectations. On October 26, the Japanese Army captured Dachang, an important strong - point within Shanghai, and on November 5, additional reinforcements of Japan landed from Hangzhou Bay. Finally, on November 9, the NRA began a general retreat.
Building on the hard - won victory in Shanghai, the IJA captured the KMT capital city of Nanking (Nanjing) (December 1937) and Northern Shanxi (September -- November 1937). These campaigns involved approximately 350,000 Japanese soldiers, and considerably more Chinese. Historians estimate that between December 13, 1937, and late January 1938, Japanese forces tortured and murdered up to 300,000 Chinese (mostly civilians and surrendered soldiers) and raped tens of thousands of women during the Nanking Massacre (also known as the "Rape of Nanking ''), after its fall.
In 2005, a history textbook prepared by the Japanese Society for History Textbook Reform which had been approved by the government in 2001, sparked huge outcry and protests in China and Korea. It referred to the Nanking Massacre as an "incident '', glossed over the issue of comfort women, and made only brief references to the death of Chinese soldiers and civilians in Nanking. A copy of the 2005 version of a junior high school textbook titled New History Textbook found that there is no mention of the "Nanjing Massacre '' or the "Nanjing Incident ''. Indeed, the only one sentence that referred to this event was: "they (the Japanese troops) occupied that city in December ''. As of 2015, some right - wing Japanese negationists deny that the massacre occurred, and have successfully lobbied for revision and exclusion of information in Japanese schoolbooks.
At the start of 1938, the leadership in Tokyo still hoped to limit the scope of the conflict to occupy areas around Shanghai, Nanking and most of northern China. They thought this would preserve strength for an anticipated showdown with the Soviet Union, but by now the Japanese government and GHQ had effectively lost control of the Japanese army in China. With many victories achieved, Japanese field generals escalated the war in Jiangsu in an attempt to wipe out Chinese resistance, but were defeated at the Battle of Taierzhuang (March -- April 1938). Afterwards the IJA changed its strategy and deployed almost all of its existing armies in China to attack the city of Wuhan, which had become the political, economic and military center of rump China, in hopes of destroying the fighting strength of the NRA and of forcing the KMT government to negotiate for peace. The Japanese captured Wuhan on October 27, 1938, forcing the KMT to retreat to Chongqing (Chungking), but Chiang Kai - shek still refused to negotiate, saying he would only consider talks if Japan agreed to withdraw to the pre-1937 borders.
With Japanese casualties and costs mounting, the Imperial General Headquarters attempted to break Chinese resistance by ordering the air branches of their navy and army to launch the war 's first massive air raids on civilian targets. Japanese raiders hit the Kuomintang 's newly established provisional capital of Chongqing and most other major cities in unoccupied China, leaving millions dead, injured, and homeless.
From the beginning of 1939, the war entered a new phase with the unprecedented defeat of the Japanese at Battle of Suixian -- Zaoyang, 1st Battle of Changsha, Battle of South Guangxi and Battle of Zaoyi. These outcomes encouraged the Chinese to launch their first large - scale counter-offensive against the IJA in early 1940; however, due to its low military - industrial capacity and limited experience in modern warfare, this offensive was defeated. Afterwards Chiang could not risk any more all - out offensive campaigns given the poorly trained, under - equipped, and disorganized state of his armies and opposition to his leadership both within the Kuomintang and in China in general. He had lost a substantial portion of his best trained and equipped troops in the Battle of Shanghai and was at times at the mercy of his generals, who maintained a high degree of autonomy from the central KMT government.
During the offensive, Hui forces in Suiyuan under generals Ma Hongbin and Ma Buqing routed the Imperial Japanese Army and their puppet Inner Mongol forces and prevented the planned Japanese advance into northwest China. Ma Hongbin 's father Ma Fulu had fought against Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion. General Ma Biao led Hui, Salar and Dongxiang cavalry to defeat the Japanese at the Battle of Huaiyang. Ma Biao fought against the Japanese in the Boxer Rebellion.
After 1940, the Japanese encountered tremendous difficulties in administering and garrisoning the seized territories, and tried to solve its occupation problems by implementing a strategy of creating friendly puppet governments favourable to Japanese interests in the territories conquered, most prominently the Nanking Nationalist Government headed by former KMT premier Wang Jingwei. However, atrocities committed by the Imperial Japanese Army, as well as Japanese refusal to delegate any real power, left the puppets very unpopular and largely ineffective. The only success the Japanese had was to recruit a large Collaborationist Chinese Army to maintain public security in the occupied areas.
By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and Vietnam, but guerilla fighting continued in these occupied areas. Japan had suffered high casualties from unexpectedly stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift progress in the manner of Nazi Germany in Western Europe.
The basis of Chinese strategy before the entrance of the Western Allies can be divided into two periods as follows:
Unlike Japan, China was unprepared for total war and had little military - industrial strength, no mechanized divisions, and few armoured forces. Up until the mid-1930s, China had hoped that the League of Nations would provide countermeasures to Japan 's aggression. In addition, the Kuomintang (KMT) government was mired in a civil war against the Communist Party of China (CPC), as Chiang Kai - shek was quoted: "the Japanese are a disease of the skin, the Communists are a disease of the heart ''. The Second United Front between the KMT and CPC was never truly unified, as each side was preparing for a showdown with the other once the Japanese were driven out.
Even under these extremely unfavorable circumstances, Chiang realized that to win support from the United States and other foreign nations, China had to prove it was capable of fighting. Knowing a hasty retreat would discourage foreign aid, Chiang resolved to make a stand at Shanghai, using the best of his German - trained divisions to defend China 's largest and most industrialized city from the Japanese. The battle lasted over three months, saw heavy casualties on both sides, and ended with a Chinese retreat towards Nanking, but proved that China would not be easily defeated and showed its determination to the world. The battle became an enormous morale booster for the Chinese people, as it decisively refuted the Japanese boast that Japan could conquer Shanghai in three days and China in three months.
Afterwards, China began to adopt the Fabian strategy of "trading space for time '' (simplified Chinese: 以 空间 换取 时间; traditional Chinese: 以 空間 換取 時間). The Chinese army would put up fights to delay the Japanese advance to northern and eastern cities, allowing the home front, with its professionals and key industries, to retreat west into Chongqing. As a result of Chinese troops ' scorched earth strategies, in which dams and levees were intentionally sabotaged to create massive flooding, Japanese advances began to stall in late 1938.
During this period, the main Chinese objective was to drag out the war for as long as possible in a war of attrition, thereby exhausting Japanese resources while building up Chinese military capacity. American general Joseph Stilwell called this strategy "winning by outlasting ''. The NRA adopted the concept of "magnetic warfare '' to attract advancing Japanese troops to definite points where they were subjected to ambush, flanking attacks, and encirclements in major engagements. The most prominent example of this tactic was the successful defense of Changsha in 1939 (and again in 1941), in which heavy casualties were inflicted on the IJA.
Local Chinese resistance forces, organized separately by both the communists and KMT, continued their resistance in occupied areas to pester the enemy and make their administration over the vast land area of China difficult. In 1940, the Chinese Red Army launched a major offensive in north China, destroying railways and a major coal mine. These constant harassment and sabotage operations deeply frustrated the Imperial Japanese Army and led them to employ the "Three Alls Policy '' (kill all, loot all, burn all) (三光 政策, Hanyu Pinyin: Sānguāng Zhèngcè, Japanese On: Sankō Seisaku). It was during this period that the bulk of Japanese war crimes were committed.
By 1941, Japan had occupied much of north and coastal China, but the KMT central government and military had retreated to the western interior to continue their resistance, while the Chinese communists remained in control of base areas in Shaanxi. In the occupied areas, Japanese control was mainly limited to railroads and major cities ("points and lines ''). They did not have a major military or administrative presence in the vast Chinese countryside, where Chinese guerrillas roamed freely.
After the Mukden Incident in 1931, Chinese public opinion was strongly critical of Manchuria 's leader, the "young marshal '' Zhang Xueliang, for his nonresistance to the Japanese invasion, even though the Kuomintang central government was also responsible for this policy, giving Zhang an order to "improvise '' while not offering support. After losing Manchuria to the Japanese, Zhang and his Northeast Army were given the duty of suppressing the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) in Shaanxi after their Long March. This resulted in great casualties for his Northeast Army, which received no support in manpower or weaponry from Chiang Kai - shek.
On December 12, 1936, a deeply disgruntled Zhang Xueliang kidnapped Chiang Kai - shek in Xi'an, hoping to force an end to the conflict between KMT and CPC. To secure the release of Chiang, the KMT agreed to a temporary end to the Chinese Civil War and, on December 24, the creation of a United Front between the CPC and KMT against Japan. The alliance having salutary effects for the beleaguered CPC, they agreed to form the New Fourth Army and the 8th Route Army and place them under the nominal control of the NRA. The CPC 's Red Army fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan, and the high point of their cooperation came in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan.
Despite Japan 's steady territorial gains in northern China, the coastal regions, and the rich Yangtze River Valley in central China, the distrust between the two antagonists was scarcely veiled. The uneasy alliance began to break down by late 1938, partially due to the Communists ' aggressive efforts to expand their military strength by absorbing Chinese guerrilla forces behind Japanese lines. Chinese militia who refused to switch their allegiance were often labelled "collaborators '' and attacked by CPC forces. For example, the Red Army led by He Long attacked and wiped out a brigade of Chinese militia led by Zhang Yin - wu in Hebei in June 1939. Starting in 1940, open conflict between Nationalists and Communists became more frequent in the occupied areas outside of Japanese control, culminating in the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941.
Afterwards, the Second United Front completely broke down and Chinese Communists leader Mao Zedong outlined the preliminary plan for the CPC 's eventual seizure of power from Chiang Kai - shek. Mao began his final push for consolidation of CPC power under his authority, and his teachings became the central tenets of the CPC doctrine that came to be formalized as "Mao Zedong Thought ''. The communists also began to focus most of their energy on building up their sphere of influence wherever opportunities were presented, mainly through rural mass organizations, administrative, land and tax reform measures favoring poor peasants; while the Nationalists attempted to neutralize the spread of Communist influence by military blockade of areas controlled by CPC and fighting the Japanese at the same time.
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States declared war against Japan, and within days China joined the Allies in formal declaration of war against Japan, Germany and Italy. As the Western Allies entered the war against Japan, the Sino - Japanese War would become part of a greater conflict, the Pacific theatre of World War II. Almost immediately, Chinese troops achieved another decisive victory in the Battle of Changsha, which earned the Chinese government much prestige from the Western Allies. President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union and China as the world 's "Four Policemen '', elevating the international status of China to an unprecedented height after the century of humiliation at the hands of various imperialist powers.
Knowledge of Japanese naval movements in the Pacific was provided to the American Navy by the Sino - American Cooperative Organization (SACO) which was run by the Chinese intelligence head Dai Li. Philippine and Japanese ocean weather was affected by weather originating near northern China. The base of SACO located in Yangjiashan.
Chiang Kai - shek continued to receive supplies from the United States. However, in contrast to the Arctic supply route to the Soviet Union which stayed open through most of the war, sea routes to China and the Yunnan -- Vietnam Railway had been closed since 1940. Therefore, between the closing of the Burma Road in 1942 and its re-opening as the Ledo Road in 1945, foreign aid was largely limited to what could be flown in over "The Hump ''. In Burma, on April 16, 1942, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. After the Doolittle Raid, the Imperial Japanese Army conducted a massive sweep through Zhejiang and Jiangxi of China, now known as the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, with the goal of finding the surviving American airmen, applying retribution on the Chinese who aided them and destroying air bases. The operation started May 15, 1942, with 40 infantry battalions and 15 -- 16 artillery battalions but was repelled by Chinese forces in September. During this campaign, the Imperial Japanese Army left behind a trail of devastation and had also spread cholera, typhoid, plague and dysentery pathogens. Chinese estimates put the death toll at 250,000 civilians.
Most of China 's industry had already been captured or destroyed by Japan, and the Soviet Union refused to allow the United States to supply China through Kazakhstan into Xinjiang as the Xinjiang warlord Sheng Shicai had turned anti-Soviet in 1942 with Chiang 's approval. For these reasons, the Chinese government never had the supplies and equipment needed to mount major counter-offensives. Despite the severe shortage of matériel, in 1943, the Chinese were successful in repelling major Japanese offensives in Hubei and Changde.
Chiang was named Allied commander - in - chief in the China theater in 1942. American general Joseph Stilwell served for a time as Chiang 's chief of staff, while simultaneously commanding American forces in the China - Burma - India Theater. For many reasons, relations between Stilwell and Chiang soon broke down. Many historians (such as Barbara W. Tuchman) have suggested it was largely due to the corruption and inefficiency of the Kuomintang (KMT) government, while others (such as Ray Huang and Hans van de Ven) have depicted it as a more complicated situation. Stilwell had a strong desire to assume total control of Chinese troops and pursue an aggressive strategy, while Chiang preferred a patient and less expensive strategy of outwaiting the Japanese. Chiang continued to maintain a defensive posture despite Allied pleas to actively break the Japanese blockade, because China had already suffered tens of millions of war casualties and believed that Japan would eventually capitulate in the face of America 's overwhelming industrial output. For these reasons the other Allies gradually began to lose confidence in the Chinese ability to conduct offensive operations from the Asian mainland, and instead concentrated their efforts against the Japanese in the Pacific Ocean Areas and South West Pacific Area, employing an island hopping strategy.
Longstanding differences in national interest and political stance among China, the United States, and the United Kingdom remained in place. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was reluctant to devote British troops, many of whom had been routed by the Japanese in earlier campaigns, to the reopening of the Burma Road; Stilwell, on the other hand, believed that reopening the road was vital, as all China 's mainland ports were under Japanese control. The Allies ' "Europe First '' policy did not sit well with Chiang, while the later British insistence that China send more and more troops to Indochina for use in the Burma Campaign was seen by Chiang as an attempt to use Chinese manpower to defend British colonial holdings. Chiang also believed that China should divert its crack army divisions from Burma to eastern China to defend the airbases of the American bombers that he hoped would defeat Japan through bombing, a strategy that American general Claire Lee Chennault supported but which Stilwell strongly opposed. In addition, Chiang voiced his support of Indian independence in a 1942 meeting with Mahatma Gandhi, which further soured the relationship between China and the United Kingdom.
American and Canadian - born Chinese were recruited to act as covert operatives in Japanese - occupied China (Canadian - born Chinese who had not been granted citizenship were trained by the British army). Employing their racial background as a disguise, their mandate was to blend in with local citizens and wage a campaign of sabotage. Activities focused on destruction of Japanese transportation of supplies (signaling bomber destruction of railroads, bridges). Chinese forces invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina and captured Mount Song. The British and Commonwealth forces had their operation in Mission 204 which attempted to provide assistance to the Chinese Nationalist Army. The first phase in 1942 under command of SOE achieved very little, but lessons were learned and a second more successful phase, commenced in February 1943 under British Military command, was conducted before the Japanese Operation Ichi - Go offensive in 1944 compelled evacuation.
The United States saw the Chinese theater as a means to tie up a large number of Japanese troops, as well as being a location for American airbases from which to strike the Japanese home islands. In 1944, with the Japanese position in the Pacific deteriorating rapidly, the IJA mobilized over 500,000 men and launched Operation Ichi - Go, their largest offensive of World War II, to attack the American airbases in China and link up the railway between Manchuria and Vietnam. This brought major cities in Hunan, Henan and Guangxi under Japanese occupation. The failure of Chinese forces to defend these areas encouraged Stilwell to attempt to gain overall command of the Chinese army, and his subsequent showdown with Chiang led to his replacement by Major General Albert Coady Wedemeyer.
By the end of 1944 Chinese troops under the command of Sun Li - jen attacking from India, and those under Wei Lihuang attacking from Yunnan, joined forces in Mong - Yu, successfully driving the Japanese out of North Burma and securing the Ledo Road, China 's vital supply artery. In Spring 1945 the Chinese launched offensives that retook Hunan and Guangxi. With the Chinese army progressing well in training and equipment, Wedemeyer planned to launch Operation Carbonado in summer 1945 to retake Guangdong, thus obtaining a coastal port, and from there drive northwards toward Shanghai. However, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Soviet invasion of Manchuria hastened Japanese surrender and these plans were not put into action.
Germany and the Soviet Union provided aid to China at the start of the Second Sino - Japanese War. By 1940 the United States had become China 's main diplomatic, financial and military supporter.
Prior to the war, Germany and China were in close economic and military cooperation, with Germany helping China modernize its industry and military in exchange for raw materials. More than half of German arms exports during its rearmament period were to China. Germany sent military advisers such as Alexander von Falkenhausen to China to help the KMT government reform its armed forces. Some divisions began training to German standards and were to form the core of modernized forces in the NRA. While 30 German - trained divisions were proposed originally, the plan failed to materialize as Germany withdrew its support in 1938 in favor of an alliance with Japan against the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union defeated Japan in the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in May -- September 1939, leaving the Japanese reluctant to fight the Soviets again. After Germany and Japan signed the anti-communist Anti-Comintern Pact, the Soviet Union hoped to keep China fighting, in order to deter a Japanese invasion of Siberia and save itself from a two - front war. In September 1937, they signed the Sino - Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and approved Operation Zet, the formation of a secret Soviet volunteer air force, in which Soviet technicians upgraded and ran some of China 's transportation systems. Bombers, fighters, supplies and advisors arrived, including Soviet general Vasily Chuikov, future victor in the Battle of Stalingrad. Prior to the Western Allies, the Soviets provided the most foreign aid to China: some $250 million in credits for munitions and other supplies. In April 1941, Soviet aid ended with the Soviet -- Japanese Neutrality Pact and the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. This pact enabled the Soviet Union to avoid fighting against Germany and Japan at the same time. In August 1945, the Soviet Union annulled the neutrality pact with Japan and invaded Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, the Kuril Islands, and northern Korea. The Soviets also continued to support the Chinese Communist Party. In total, 3,665 Soviet advisors and pilots served in China, and 227 of them died fighting there.
From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on the USS Panay and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan and increased their fear of Japanese expansion, which prompted the United States, the United Kingdom, and France to provide loan assistance for war supply contracts to China. Australia also prevented a Japanese government - owned company from taking over an iron mine in Australia, and banned iron ore exports in 1938. However, in July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, Robert Craigie, led to an agreement by which Great Britain recognized Japanese conquests in China. At the same time, the US government extended a trade agreement with Japan for six months, then fully restored it. Under the agreement, Japan purchased trucks for the Kwantung Army, machine tools for aircraft factories, strategic materials (steel and scrap iron up to October 16, 1940, petrol and petroleum products up to June 26, 1941), and various other much - needed supplies.
Japan invaded and occupied the northern part of French Indochina (present - day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia) in September 1940 to prevent China from receiving the 10,000 tons of materials delivered monthly by the Allies via the Haiphong -- Yunnan Fou Railway line.
On June 22, 1941, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. In spite of non-aggression pacts or trade connections, Hitler 's assault threw the world into a frenzy of re-aligning political outlooks and strategic prospects.
On July 21, Japan occupied the southern part of French Indochina (southern Vietnam and Cambodia), contravening a 1940 "gentlemen 's agreement '' not to move into southern French Indochina. From bases in Cambodia and southern Vietnam, Japanese planes could attack Malaya, Singapore, and the Dutch East Indies. As the Japanese occupation of northern French Indochina in 1940 had already cut off supplies from the West to China, the move into southern French Indochina was viewed as a direct threat to British and Dutch colonies. Many principal figures in the Japanese government and military (particularly the navy) were against the move, as they foresaw that it would invite retaliation from the West.
On July 24, 1941, Roosevelt requested Japan withdraw all its forces from Indochina. Two days later the USA and the UK began an oil embargo; two days after that the Netherlands joined them. This was a decisive moment in the Second Sino - Japanese War. The loss of oil imports made it impossible for Japan to continue operations in China on a long term basis. It set the stage for Japan to launch a series of military attacks against the Allies, including the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
In mid-1941, the United States government financed the creation of the American Volunteer Group (AVG), or Flying Tigers, to replace the withdrawn Soviet volunteers and aircraft. Contrary to popular perception, the Flying Tigers did not enter actual combat until after the United States had declared war on Japan. Led by Claire Lee Chennault, their early combat success of 300 kills against a loss of 12 of their newly introduced shark painted P - 40 fighters heavily armed with 6X50 caliber machine guns and very fast diving speeds earned them wide recognition at a time when the Chinese Air Force and Allies in the Pacific and SE Asia were suffering heavy losses, and soon afterwards their "boom and zoom '' high - speed hit - and - run dissimilar air combat tactics would be adopted by the United States Army Air Forces.
The Sino - American Cooperative Organization was an organization created by the SACO Treaty signed by the Republic of China and the United States of America in 1942 that established a mutual intelligence gathering entity in China between the respective nations against Japan. It operated in China jointly along with the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), America 's first intelligence agency and forerunner of the CIA while also serving as joint training program between the two nations. Among all the wartime missions that Americans set up in China, SACO was the only one that adopted a policy of "total immersion '' with the Chinese. The "Rice Paddy Navy '' or "What - the - Hell Gang '' operated in the China - Burma - India theater, advising and training, forecasting weather and scouting landing areas for USN fleet and Gen Claire Chennault 's 14th AF, rescuing downed American flyers, and intercepting Japanese radio traffic. An underlying mission objective during the last year of war was the development and preparation of the China coast for Allied penetration and occupation. The Foochow (Fujian Province) was scouted as a potential staging area and springboard for the future military landing of Allies of World War II to Japan.
A British - Australian commando operation, Mission 204, was initialized in February 1942 to provide training to Chinese guerrilla troops. Commandos working with the Free Thai Movement also operated in China, mostly while on their way into Thailand.
The Chinese Kuomintang also supported the Vietnamese Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (VNQDD) in its battle against French and Japanese imperialism.
In Guangxi, Chinese military leaders were organizing Vietnamese nationalists against the Japanese. The VNQDD had been active in Guangxi and some of their members had joined the KMT army. Under the umbrella of KMT activities, a broad alliance of nationalists emerged. With Ho at the forefront, the Viet Nam Doc Lap Dong Minh Hoi (Vietnamese Independence League, usually known as the Viet Minh) was formed and based in the town of Jingxi. The pro-VNQDD nationalist Ho Ngoc Lam, a KMT army officer and former disciple of Phan Bội Châu, was named as the deputy of Phạm Văn Đồng, later to be Ho 's Prime Minister. The front was later broadened and renamed the Viet Nam Giai Phong Dong Minh (Vietnam Liberation League).
The Viet Nam Revolutionary League was a union of various Vietnamese nationalist groups, run by the pro Chinese VNQDD. Chinese KMT General Zhang Fakui created the league to further Chinese influence in Indochina, against the French and Japanese. Its stated goal was for unity with China under the Three Principles of the People, created by KMT founder Dr. Sun and opposition to Japanese and French Imperialists. The Revolutionary League was controlled by Nguyen Hai Than, who was born in China and could not speak Vietnamese. General Zhang shrewdly blocked the Communists of Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh from entering the league, as Zhang 's main goal was Chinese influence in Indochina. The KMT utilized these Vietnamese nationalists during World War II against Japanese forces. Franklin D. Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that they preferred that the French not reacquire French Indochina (modern day Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt offered Chiang Kai - shek control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang Kai - shek replied: "Under no circumstances! ''
After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang Kai - shek to northern Indochina (north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned. The Chinese used the VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese Kuomintang, to increase their influence in French Indochina and to put pressure on their opponents. Chiang Kai - shek threatened the French with war in response to manoeuvering by the French and Ho Chi Minh 's forces against each other, forcing them to come to a peace agreement. In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. Following France 's agreement to these demands, the withdrawal of Chinese troops began in March 1946.
The Chinese were not entirely devoting all their resources to the Japanese, because they were fighting several other wars at the same time.
Rebellion occurred in the Xinjiang province in 1937 when a pro-Soviet Hui general Ma Zhanshan invaded the province accompanied by Soviet troops. The invasion was resisted by another Hui general Ma Hushan of the KMT 36th Division.
General Ma Hushan was expecting help from Nanking, as he exchanged messages with Chiang regarding the Soviet attack. But, both the Second Sino - Japanese War and the Xinjiang War erupted simultaneously leaving Chiang and Ma Hushan each on their own to confront the Japanese and Soviet forces.
The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province, and Soviet troops moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but it was forced to mask these maneuvers to the public as "Japanese propaganda '' to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets.
Because the pro-Soviet governor Sheng Shicai controlled Xinjiang, which was garrisoned with Soviet troops in Turfan, the Chinese government had to keep troops stationed there as well.
General Ma Buqing was in virtual control of the Gansu corridor at that time. Ma Buqing had earlier fought against the Japanese, but because the Soviet threat was great, Chiang changed Ma 's position, in July 1942, by instructing Ma to move 30,000 of his troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. Chiang named Ma as Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng Shicai 's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam.
After Ma evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area, and infiltrated Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaiming it and forcing Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets. The Kuomintang ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the pro-Soviet Governor Sheng Shicai. This helped provide protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang.
The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when the Kuomintang Hui Officer Liu Bin - Di was killed while fighting Turkic Uyghur rebels in November 1944. The Soviet Union supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces were fighting back.
Japan attempted to reach out to Chinese ethnic minorities in order to rally them to their side against the Han Chinese, but only succeeded with certain Manchu, Mongol, Uyghur and Tibetan elements.
The Japanese attempt to get the Muslim Hui people on their side failed, as many Chinese generals such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, and Ma Bufang were Hui. The Japanese attempted to approach Ma Bufang but were unsuccessful in making any agreement with him. Ma Bufang ended up supporting the anti-Japanese Imam Hu Songshan, who prayed for the destruction of the Japanese. Ma became chairman (governor) of Qinghai in 1938 and commanded a group army. He was appointed because of his anti-Japanese inclinations, and was such an obstruction to Japanese agents trying to contact the Tibetans that he was called an "adversary '' by a Japanese agent.
Hui cemeteries were destroyed for military reasons. Many Hui fought in the war against the Japanese such as Bai Chongxi, Ma Hongbin, Ma Hongkui, Ma Bufang, Ma Zhanshan, Ma Biao, Ma Zhongying, Ma Buqing and Ma Hushan. Qinghai Tibetans served in the Qinghai army against the Japanese. The Qinghai Tibetans view the Tibetans of Central Tibet (Tibet proper, ruled by the Dalai Lamas from Lhasa) as distinct and different from themselves, and even take pride in the fact that they were not ruled by Lhasa ever since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire.
Xining was subjected to aerial bombardment by Japanese warplanes in 1941, causing all ethnicities in Qinghai to unite against the Japanese. General Han Youwen directed the defense of the city of Xining during air raids by Japanese planes. Han survived an aerial bombardment by Japanese planes in Xining while he was being directed via telephone by Ma Bufang, who hid in an air raid shelter in a military barrack. The bombing resulted Han being buried in rubble, though he was later rescued.
The United States and the Soviet Union put an end to the war by attacking the Japanese with a new weapon (on the United States ' part) and an incursion into Manchuria (on the Soviet Union 's part). On August 6, 1945, an American B - 29 bomber, the Enola Gay, dropped the first atomic bomb used in combat on Hiroshima, killing tens of thousands and leveling the city. On August 9, 1945, the Soviet Union renounced its non-aggression pact with Japan and attacked the Japanese in Manchuria, fulfilling its Yalta Conference pledge to attack the Japanese within three months after the end of the war in Europe. The attack was made by three Soviet army groups. On that same day, a second equally destructive atomic bomb was dropped by the United States on Nagasaki.
In less than two weeks the Kwantung Army, which was the primary Japanese fighting force, consisting of over a million men but lacking in adequate armor, artillery, or air support, had been destroyed by the Soviets. Japanese Emperor Hirohito officially capitulated to the Allies on August 15, 1945. The official surrender was signed aboard the battleship USS Missouri on September 2, 1945, in a ceremony where several Allied commanders including Chinese general Hsu Yung - chang were present.
After the Allied victory in the Pacific, General Douglas MacArthur ordered all Japanese forces within China (excluding Manchuria), Formosa and French Indochina north of 16 ° north latitude to surrender to Chiang Kai - shek, and the Japanese troops in China formally surrendered on September 9, 1945, at 9: 00. The ninth hour of the ninth day of the ninth month was chosen in echo of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 (on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month) and because "nine '' is homophone of the word for "long lasting '' in Chinese (to suggest that the peace won would last forever).
In 1945, China emerged from the war nominally a great military power but economically weak and on the verge of all - out civil war. The economy was sapped by the military demands of a long costly war and internal strife, by spiraling inflation, and by corruption in the Nationalist government that included profiteering, speculation and hoarding.
Furthermore, as part of the Yalta Conference, which allowed a Soviet sphere of influence in Manchuria, the Soviets dismantled and removed more than half of the industrial equipment left there by the Japanese before handing over Manchuria to China. Large swathes of the prime farming areas had been ravaged by the fighting and there was starvation in the wake of the war. Many towns and cities were destroyed, and millions were rendered homeless by floods.
The problems of rehabilitation and reconstruction after the ravages of a protracted war were staggering, and the war left the Nationalists severely weakened, and their policies left them unpopular. Meanwhile, the war strengthened the Communists both in popularity and as a viable fighting force. At Yan'an and elsewhere in the communist controlled areas, Mao Zedong was able to adapt Marxism -- Leninism to Chinese conditions. He taught party cadres to lead the masses by living and working with them, eating their food, and thinking their thoughts.
The Chinese Red Army fostered an image of conducting guerrilla warfare in defense of the people. Communist troops adapted to changing wartime conditions and became a seasoned fighting force. With skillful organization and propaganda, the Communists increased party membership from 100,000 in 1937 to 1.2 million by 1945.
Mao also began to execute his plan to establish a new China by rapidly moving his forces from Yan'an and elsewhere to Manchuria. This opportunity was available to the Communists because although Nationalist representatives were not invited to Yalta, they had been consulted and had agreed to the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in the belief that the Soviet Union would cooperate only with the Nationalist government after the war.
However, the Soviet occupation of Manchuria was long enough to allow the Communist forces to move in en masse and arm themselves with the military hardware surrendered by the Imperial Japanese Army, quickly establish control in the countryside and move into position to encircle the Nationalist government army in major cities of northeast China. Following that, the Chinese Civil War broke out between the Nationalists and Communists, which concluded with the Communist victory in mainland China and the retreat of the Nationalists to Taiwan in 1949.
The question as to which political group directed the Chinese war effort and exerted most of the effort to resist the Japanese remains a controversial issue.
In the Chinese People 's War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial near the Marco Polo Bridge and in mainland Chinese textbooks, the People 's Republic of China (PRC) claims that the Nationalists mostly avoided fighting the Japanese to preserve their strength for a final showdown with the Communist Party of China (CPC or CCP), while the Communists were the main military force in the Chinese resistance efforts. Recently, however, with a change in the political climate, the CPC has admitted that certain Nationalist generals made important contributions in resisting the Japanese. The official history in mainland China now states that the KMT fought a bloody, yet indecisive, frontal war against Japan, while the CPC engaged the Japanese forces in far greater numbers behind enemy lines. For the sake of Chinese reunification and appeasing the Republic of China (ROC) on Taiwan, the PRC has begun to "acknowledge '' the Nationalists and the Communists as "equal '' contributors, because the victory over Japan belonged to the Chinese people, rather than to any political party.
The Nationalists suffered higher casualties because they were the main combatants opposing the Japanese in each of the 22 major battles (involving more than 100,000 troops on both sides) between China and Japan. The Communist forces, by contrast, usually avoided pitched battles with the Japanese and generally limited their combat to guerilla actions (the Hundred Regiments Offensive and the Battle of Pingxingguan are notable exceptions). The Nationalists committed their strongest divisions in early battle against the Japanese (including the 36th, 87th, 88th divisions, the crack divisions of Chiang 's Central Army) to defend Shanghai and continued to deploy most of their forces to fight the Japanese even as the Communists changed their strategy to engage mainly in a political offensive against the Japanese while declaring that the CPC should "save and preserve our strength and wait for favorable timing '' by the end of 1941.
Today, the war is a major point of contention and resentment between China and Japan. The war remains a major roadblock for Sino - Japanese relations, and many people, particularly in China, still harbor grudges over the war and related issues.
Issues regarding the current historical outlook on the war exist. For example, the Japanese government has been accused of historical revisionism by allowing the approval of a few school textbooks omitting or glossing over Japan 's militant past, although the most recent controversial book, the New History Textbook was used by only 0.039 % of junior high schools in Japan and despite the efforts of the Japanese nationalist textbook reformers, by the late 1990s the most common Japanese schoolbooks contained references to, for instance, the Nanking Massacre, Unit 731, and the comfort women of World War II, all historical issues which have faced challenges from ultranationalists in the past. In response to criticism of Japanese textbook revisionism, the PRC government has been accused of using the war to stir up already growing anti-Japanese sentiments in order to spur nationalistic feelings.
Formosa and the Penghu islands were put under the administrative control of the Republic of China (ROC) government in 1945 by the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. The ROC proclaimed Taiwan Retrocession Day on October 25, 1945. However, due to the unresolved Chinese Civil War, neither the newly established People 's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China nor the Nationalist ROC that retreated to Taiwan was invited to sign the Treaty of San Francisco, as neither had shown full and complete legal capacity to enter into an international legally binding agreement. Since China was not present, the Japanese only formally renounced the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan and Penghu islands without specifying to which country Japan relinquished the sovereignty, and the treaty was signed in 1951 and came into force in 1952.
In 1952, the Treaty of Taipei was signed separately between the ROC and Japan that basically followed the same guideline of the Treaty of San Francisco, not specifying which country has sovereignty over Taiwan. However, Article 10 of the treaty states that the Taiwanese people and the juridical person should be the people and the juridical person of the ROC. Both the PRC and ROC governments base their claims to Taiwan on the Japanese Instrument of Surrender which specifically accepted the Potsdam Declaration which refers to the Cairo Declaration. Disputes over the precise de jure sovereign of Taiwan persist to the present. On a de facto basis, sovereignty over Taiwan has been and continues to be exercised by the ROC. Japan 's position has been to avoid commenting on Taiwan 's status, maintaining that Japan renounced all claims to sovereignty over its former colonial possessions after World War II, including Taiwan.
Traditionally, the Republic of China government has held celebrations marking the Victory Day on September 9 (now known as Armed Forces Day) and Taiwan 's Retrocession Day on October 25. However, after the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the presidential election in 2000, these national holidays commemorating the war have been cancelled as the pro-independent DPP does not see the relevancy of celebrating events that happened in mainland China.
Meanwhile, many KMT supporters, particularly veterans who retreated with the government in 1949, still have an emotional interest in the war. For example, in celebrating the 60th anniversary of the end of war in 2005, the cultural bureau of KMT stronghold Taipei held a series of talks in the Sun Yat - sen Memorial Hall regarding the war and post-war developments, while the KMT held its own exhibit in the KMT headquarters. Whereas the KMT won the presidential election in 2008, the ROC government resumed commemorating the war.
Several thousand Japanese who were sent as colonizers to Manchukuo and Inner Mongolia were left behind in China. The majority of Japanese left behind in China were women, and these Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives '' (zanryu fujin). Because they had children fathered by Chinese men, the Japanese women were not allowed to bring their Chinese families back with them to Japan so most of them stayed. Japanese law only allowed children fathered by Japanese fathers to become Japanese citizens.
In China some Korean comfort women stayed behind instead of going back to their native land. Most Korean comfort women left behind in China married Chinese men.
Numerous monuments and memorials throughout China, including the Museum of the War of Chinese People 's Resistance Against Japanese Aggression in Beijing 's Wanping Fortress.
The conflict lasted for eight years, two months and two days (measured from July 7, 1937, to September 9, 1945). The casualties from this war in 1937 -- 1945 were more that half of total casualties of the Pacific War.
The Japanese recorded around 1.1 to 1.9 million military casualties during all of World War II (which include killed, wounded and missing). The official death toll of Japanese men killed in China, according to the Japan Defense Ministry, is 480,000. Based on the investigation of Japanese Yomiuri Shimbun, the military death toll of Japan in China is about 700,000 since 1937 (excluding the death in Manchuria).
Another source from Hilary Conroy claim that a total of 447,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of the 1,130,000 Imperial Japanese Army soldiers who died during World War II, 39 percent died in China.
Then in War Without Mercy, John W. Dower claim that a total of 396,000 Japanese soldiers died in China during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Of this number, the Imperial Japanese Army lost 388,605 soldiers and the Imperial Japanese Navy lost 8,000 soldiers. Another 54,000 soldiers also died after the war had ended, mostly from illness and starvation. Of the 1,740,955 Japanese soldiers who died during World War II, 22 percent died in China.
Japanese statistics, however, lack complete estimates for the wounded. From 1937 to 1941, 185,647 Japanese soldiers were killed in China and 520,000 were wounded. Disease also incurred critical losses on Japanese forces. From 1937 to 1941, 430,000 Japanese soldiers were recorded as being sick. In North China alone, 18,000 soldiers were evacuated back to Japan for illnesses in 1938, 23,000 in 1939, and 15,000 in 1940. From 1941 to 1945: 202,958 dead; another 54,000 dead after war 's end. Chinese forces also report that by May 1945, 22,293 Japanese soldiers were captured as prisoners. Many more Japanese soldiers surrendered when the war ended.
Contemporary studies from the Beijing Central Compilation and Translation Press have revealed that the Japanese suffered a total of 2,227,200 casualties, including 1,055,000 dead and 1,172,341 injured. This Chinese publication analyses statistics provided by Japanese publications and claimed these numbers were largely based on Japanese publications.
Both Nationalist and Communist Chinese sources report that their respective forces were responsible for the deaths of over 1.7 million Japanese soldiers. Nationalist War Minister He Yingqin himself contested the Communist 's claim, finding it impossible for a force of "untrained, undisciplined, poorly equipped '' guerrillas of Communist forces to have killed so many enemy soldiers.
The National Chinese authorities ridiculed Japanese estimates of Chinese casualties. In 1940, the National Herald stated that the Japanese exaggerated Chinese casualties, while deliberately concealing the true amount of Japanese casualties, releasing false figures that made them appear lower. The article reports on the casualty situation of the war up to 1940.
Despite Article 23 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, article V of the Treaty in Relation to the Use of Submarines and Noxious Gases in Warfare, article 171 of the Treaty of Versailles and a resolution adopted by the League of Nations on May 14, 1938, condemning the use of poison gas by the Empire of Japan, the Imperial Japanese Army frequently used chemical weapons during the war.
According to historians Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Seiya Matsuno, the chemical weapons were authorized by specific orders given by Japanese Emperor Hirohito himself, transmitted by the Imperial General Headquarters. For example, the Emperor authorized the use of toxic gas on 375 separate occasions during the Battle of Wuhan from August to October 1938. They were also used during the invasion of Changde. Those orders were transmitted either by Prince Kan'in Kotohito or General Hajime Sugiyama.
Bacteriological weapons provided by Shirō Ishii 's units were also profusely used. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague. During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, some 40 members of Unit 731 air - dropped plague - contaminated fleas on Changde. These attacks caused epidemic plague outbreaks. In the Zhejiang - Jiangxi Campaign, of the 10,000 Japanese soldiers who fell ill with the disease, about 1,700 Japanese troops died when the biological weapons rebounded on their own forces.
Chinese armies deployed "dare to die corps '' (traditional Chinese: 敢死隊; simplified Chinese: 敢死队; pinyin: gǎnsǐduì) or "suicide squads '' against the Japanese.
A "dare to die corps '' was effectively used against Japanese units at the Battle of Taierzhuang.
Suicide bombing was also used against the Japanese. A Chinese soldier detonated a grenade vest and killed 20 Japanese at Sihang Warehouse. Chinese troops strapped explosives like grenade packs or dynamite to their bodies and threw themselves under Japanese tanks to blow them up. This tactic was used during the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers destroyed four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles.
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who plays joey in nicky ricky dicky and dawn | Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn - wikipedia
Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn is an American comedy television series developed by Michael Feldman and created by Matt Fleckenstein that premiered on Nickelodeon on September 13, 2014. The series stars Brian Stepanek, Allison Munn, Aidan Gallagher, Casey Simpson, Mace Coronel, Lizzy Greene, Gabrielle Elyse, and Kyla - Drew Simmons.
The series focuses on quadruplets Nicky, Ricky, Dicky, and Dawn Harper, 10 - years - old at the start of the series, who have nothing in common and often fight, but must work together to solve everyday situations.
The series was originally picked up for 13 episodes on March 13, 2014, but was later increased to 20 episodes. The series premiered on September 13, 2014. On November 18, 2014, the series was renewed for a second season. The second season premiered on May 23, 2015. On February 9, 2016, Nickelodeon renewed Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn for a third season of 14 episodes. It was also confirmed that Matt Fleckenstein would step down as show runner. Actress Lizzy Greene announced on her Twitter account that production for season three started on April 26, 2016. The third season premiered on January 7, 2017. The series was renewed for a fourth season and had its episode order for the third season increased from 14 to 24 by Nickelodeon on March 20, 2017. On October 4, 2017, it was announced that Mace Coronel would be leaving both Nicky, Ricky, Dicky & Dawn and Nickelodeon. On November 15, 2017, Nickelodeon announced that the fourth season will be the last.
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who has not had 7 consecutive us$100 million films | 1000 crore club - Wikipedia
1000 Crore Club is an unofficial designation by the Indian film trade and the media, related to Indian language films that have grossed ₹ 1000 crore (10 billion Indian rupees) or more worldwide. It emerged in May 2017, when two Indian films crossed the ₹ 1,000 crore (US $150 million) milestone. The Telugu film Baahubali 2: The Conclusion became the first Indian film to gross over 1000 crore worldwide. It was followed by the Aamir Khan starring Bollywood film Dangal, which is the highest grossing Indian film, expanding the club to 1700 crore, 1800 crore and 1900 crore, before creating the ₹ 2,000 crore (US $290 million) club, and becoming the fifth highest - grossing non-English language film of all time. The 1000 crore club was preceded by the 100 crore club.
Baahubali 2: The Conclusion (2017), which released on 28 April 2017, became the first Indian film to cross the ₹ 1,000 crore (US $150 million) and ₹ 1,500 crore (US $220 million) marks, in May 2017, and briefly became the highest - grossing Indian film worldwide, before being overtaken by Dangal. Baahubali 2 is the highest - grossing film in India, where it has grossed ₹ 1,417 crore (US $210 million). Overseas, it is the highest - grossing Indian film in the United States ($21 million), where it became the first Indian film to cross $20 million, as well as becoming the first Indian film to gross over $10 million in the United Arab Emirates. Baahubali 2 sold an estimated 105 million tickets (10.5 crore) during its box office run, the highest footfalls for any film in India.
Dangal (2016), following its Chinese release on 5 May 2017, became the highest - grossing Indian film and fifth highest - grossing non-English language film of all time, crossing ₹ 2,000 crore (US $290 million) worldwide, making it the first Indian film to gross $300 million worldwide and one of the top 30 highest - grossing 2016 films (surpassing the $299.5 million gross of Alice Through the Looking Glass, starring Johnny Depp and Mia Wasikowska). Dangal is also the highest - grossing sports film of 2017, and Disney 's fourth highest - grossing film of 2017.
Dangal is the first Indian film to exceed $100 million and ₹ 1,000 crore overseas, crossing ₹ 1,400 crore (US $200 million) in international markets, including ¥ 1.29 billion (US $191 million) in China and ₹ 41 crore (US $6.0 million) in Taiwan. Its overseas gross in China more than doubled its domestic gross of $84.4 million in India. In China, Dangal became the 16th highest - grossing film of all time, the 8th highest - grossing foreign film, the highest - grossing non-Hollywood foreign film (surpassing Japanese anime film Your Name), the leggiest box office release (cumulative gross 83 times its opening day haul, surpassing Zootopia), had the most consecutive days with a ¥ 10 million (US $1 million) gross (surpassing the 30 days of Transformers: Age of Extinction) and $1 million gross (38 days), was the highest - grossing film in May 2017 (ahead of Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Men Tell No Tales and Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2), and is the year 's second highest - grossing foreign film (after The Fate of the Furious). In 47 days, the film had 44,445,270 admissions at the Chinese box office. Aamir Khan 's earnings from Dangal is estimated to be ₹ 300 crore (US $44 million), the highest payday for a non-Hollywood actor.
When adjusted for inflation, the first Indian film to gross an adjusted ₹ 1,000 crore was the 1960 Dilip Kumar starrer Mughal - e-Azam, which earned an estimated ₹ 2,000 crore in 2016 value. Mughal - e-Azam 's adjusted gross was the highest in Indian cinema for more than five decades, up until Dangal surpassed it in 2017. The first Indian film to gross an adjusted ₹ 1,000 crore overseas was the 1982 Mithun Chakraborty starrer Disco Dancer at the Soviet box office, which made it the highest - grossing Indian film overseas up until it was surpasssed by Dangal in 2017.
This is a list of the films in the 1000 crore club, adjusted for inflation. For the list of the highest - grossing Indian films in terms of nominal value (without adjusted inflation), see List of highest - grossing Indian films.
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what is the population of st thomas virgin islands | Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands - wikipedia
Saint Thomas (Danish: Sankt Thomas) is one of the Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea and, together with Saint John, Water Island and Saint Croix, a former Danish colony, form a county and constituent district of the United States Virgin Islands (USVI), an unincorporated territory of the United States. Located on the island is the territorial capital and port of Charlotte Amalie. As of the 2010 census, the population of Saint Thomas was 51,634 about 48.5 % of the US Virgin Islands total. The district has a land area of 32 square miles (83 km).
The island was originally settled around 1500 BC by the Ciboney people. They were later replaced by the Arawaks and then the Caribs. Christopher Columbus sighted the island in 1493 on his second voyage to the "New World ''.
The Dutch West India Company established a post on Saint Thomas in 1657. The first congregation was the St. Thomas Reformed Church, which was established in 1660 and was associated with the Dutch Reformed Church.
Denmark - Norway conquered the island in 1666, and by 1672 had established control over the entire island through the Danish West India and Guinea Company. The land was divided into plantations and sugarcane production became the primary economic activity. As a result, the economies of Saint Thomas and the neighboring islands of Saint John and Saint Croix became highly dependent on slave labor and the slave trade. In 1685, the Brandenburgisch - Africanische Compagnie took control of the slave trade on Saint Thomas, and for some time the largest slave auctions in the world were held there.
Saint Thomas 's fine natural harbor became known as "Taphus '' for the drinking establishments located nearby. ("Tap Hus '' translates as "rum shop '' or "tap house '' referring to the drinking establishments.) In 1691, the primary settlement there was renamed Charlotte Amalie in honor of the wife of Denmark 's King Christian V. It was later declared a free port by Frederick V. In December 1732, the first two of many Moravian Brethren missionaries came from Herrnhut Saxony in present - day Germany to minister to them. Distrusted at first by the white masters, they lived among the slaves and soon won their confidence.
From 1796 a small Jewish community developed in Charlotte Amalie. It established a historic synagogue, Beracha Veshalom Vegmiluth Hasidim, the oldest synagogue in continuous use anywhere in the United States or its external territories.
The first British invasion and occupation of the Danish West Indies occurred at the end of March 1801 when a British fleet arrived at St Thomas. Denmark - Norway accepted the Articles of Capitulation the British proposed and the British occupied the islands without a shot being fired. The British occupation lasted until April 1802, when the British returned the islands to Denmark - Norway.
The second British invasion of the Danish West Indies took place in December 1807 when a British fleet captured St Thomas on 22 December and Santa Cruz on 25 December. Denmark - Norway did not resist and the invasion was bloodless. This British occupation of the Danish West Indies lasted until 20 November 1815, when Britain returned the islands to Denmark.
While the sugar trade had brought prosperity to the island 's free citizens, by the early 19th century Saint Thomas was in decline. The continued export of sugar was threatened by hurricanes, drought, and American competition. Following the Danish Revolution of 1848, slavery was abolished and the resulting rise in labor costs further weakened the position of Saint Thomas 's sugar producers.
Given its harbors and fortifications, Saint Thomas still retained a strategic importance, and thus, in the 1860s, during the American Civil War and its aftermath, the United States government considered buying the island and its neighbors from Denmark for $7.5 million. However, the proponents of the purchase failed to gain legislative support for the bid.
As the islands were poorly managed by the Danes, a local islander, David Hamilton Jackson, was instrumental in persuading the Danish to allow the US to purchase the islands of Saint Thomas, Saint John, and Saint Croix. In 1915, he traveled to Denmark and convinced the King of Denmark to allow freedom of the press in the islands. He began the first newspaper in the islands, known as The Herald. After this, he organized labor unions among the islanders for better working conditions. The islands now have an annual celebration in November to honor the legacy of David Hamilton Jackson.
In 1917, Saint Thomas was purchased (along with Saint John and Saint Croix) by the United States for $25 million in gold, as part of a defensive strategy to maintain control over the Caribbean and the Panama Canal during the First World War. The transfer occurred on March 31, 1917, behind Fort Christian before the barracks that now house the Legislature of the U.S Virgin Islands. The baccalaureate service for the transfer was held at the St. Thomas Reformed Church as it was identified as the American church in the Danish West Indies.
The United States granted citizenship to the residents in 1927. The U.S. Department of the Interior took over administrative duties in 1931. American forces were based on the island during the Second World War. In 1954, passage of the U.S. Virgin Islands Organic Act officially granted territorial status to the three islands, and allowed for the formation of a local senate with politics dominated by the American Republican and Democratic parties. Full home rule was achieved in 1970.
The post-war era also saw the rise of tourism on the island. With relatively cheap air travel and the American embargo on Cuba, the numbers of visitors greatly increased. Despite natural disasters such as Hurricane Hugo (1989) and Hurricanes Luis and Marilyn (1995), the island 's infrastructure continues to improve as the flow of visitors continues. Hotels have been built from the West End to the East End.
The island has a number of natural bays and harbors including Magens Bay, Great Bay, Jersey Bay, Long Bay, Fortuna Bay, and Hendrik Bay. Passenger ships dock and anchor in Long Bay, near Charlotte Amalie. Ships dock at Havensight Pier.
Saint Thomas is divided into the following subdistricts (with population as per the 2010 U.S. Census):
The island is serviced by the Cyril E. King International Airport.
Passenger and limited car - ferry services to neighboring islands such as Water Island, Saint John, Saint Croix, and the British Virgin Islands run regularly out of the Red Hook Terminal, Charlotte Amalie, and Crown Bay Marina.
The United States Virgin Islands is the only place under United States jurisdiction where the rule of the road is to drive on the left. This was inherited from what was the then - current Danish practice at the time of the American acquisition in 1917. However, because Saint Thomas is a U.S. territory, most cars are imported from the mainland United States and therefore the steering column is located on the left side of the vehicle.
The island has many regular taxis from compact size to large vans, as well as open - air, covered trucks called "safaris '' with bench seats. The latter usually operate only between high - traffic points, e.g., cruise - ship terminals at Havensight and Crown Bay and downtown Charlotte Amalie.
St. Thomas - St. John School District operates public schools on Saint Thomas.
Private schools:
Parochial schools:
Colleges and universities:
Blackbeard 's Castle in Charlotte Amalie.
Magens Bay as seen from Drake 's Seat, St. Thomas, USVI.
View From Bluebeard 's Castle, St Thomas US Virgin Islands
Magens Bay
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when did the united states purchase the louisiana territory | Louisiana Purchase - wikipedia
The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana '') was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory (828,000 square miles or 2.14 million km2) by the United States from France in 1803. The U.S. paid fifty million francs ($11,250,000 USD) and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs ($3,750,000 USD) for a total of sixty - eight million francs ($15,000,000 USD, or around $250 m in 2016 dollars). The Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The territory contained land that forms Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; a large portion of North Dakota; a large portion of South Dakota; the northeastern section of New Mexico; the northern portion of Texas; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; Louisiana west of the Mississippi River (plus New Orleans); and small portions of land within the present Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves.
The Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, French Emperor Napoleon, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, regained ownership of Louisiana. However, France 's failure to put down the revolt in Saint - Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the port city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands, but quickly accepted the bargain. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. Before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition; they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Jefferson agreed that the U.S. Constitution did not contain explicit provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient.
Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics. It was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. Following French defeat in the Seven Years ' War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi and the British the territory to the east of the river.
Following the establishment of the United States, the Americans controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea. As the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired "piece by piece. '' The risk of another power taking it from a weakened Spain made a "profound reconsideration '' of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney 's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit '' in New Orleans, granting them use of the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, which had become vital to the growing trade of the western territories.
In 1798, Spain revoked the treaty allowing American use of New Orleans, greatly upsetting Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, and restored the American right to deposit goods. However, in 1800 Spain had ceded the Louisiana territory back to France as part of Napoleon 's secret Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. The territory nominally remained under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on 30 November 1803, just three weeks before the formal cession of the territory to the United States on 20 December 1803. A further ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later partially due to winter conditions impeding the arrival of news, Upper Louisiana, regarding the New Orleans formalities. The 9 - 10 March 1804 event is remembered as Three Flags Day.
James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger acquisition which would follow.
The Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U.S. history. Stretching from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, the purchase doubled the size of the United States. Before 1803, Louisiana had been under Spanish control for forty years. Although Spain aided the rebels in the American Revolutionary War, the Spanish did n't want the Americans to settle in their territory.
Although the purchase was thought of by some as unjust and unconstitutional, Jefferson determined that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties allowed the purchase of what became fifteen states. In hindsight, the Louisiana Purchase could be considered one of his greatest contributions to the United States. On April 18, 1802, Jefferson penned a letter to United States Ambassador to France Robert Livingston. It was an intentional exhortation to make this supposedly mild diplomat strongly warn the French of their perilous course. The letter began:
The cession of Louisiana and the Floridas by Spain to France works most sorely on the U.S. On this subject the Secretary of State has written to you fully. Yet I can not forbear recurring to it personally, so deep is the impression it makes in my mind. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S. and will form a new epoch in our political course. Of all nations of any consideration France is the one which hitherto has offered the fewest points on which we could have any conflict of right, and the most points of a communion of interests. From these causes we have ever looked to her as our natural friend, as one with which we never could have an occasion of difference. Her growth therefore we viewed as our own, her misfortunes ours. There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans, through which the produce of three - eighths of our territory must pass to market, and from its fertility it will ere long yield more than half of our whole produce and contain more than half our inhabitants. France placing herself in that door assumes to us the attitude of defiance. Spain might have retained it quietly for years. Her pacific dispositions, her feeble state, would induce her to increase our facilities there, so that her possession of the place would be hardly felt by us, and it would not perhaps be very long before some circumstance might arise which might make the cession of it to us the price of something of more worth to her. Not so can it ever be in the hands of France. The impetuosity of her temper, the energy and restlessness of her character, placed in a point of eternal friction with us...
Jefferson 's letter went on with the same heat to a much quoted passage about "the day that France takes possession of New Orleans. '' Not only did he say that day would be a low point in France 's history, for it would seal America 's marriage with the British fleet and nation, but he added, astonishingly, that it would start a massive shipbuilding program.
While the transfer of the territory by Spain back to France in 1800 went largely unnoticed, fear of an eventual French invasion spread nationwide when, in 1801, Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans. Southerners feared that Napoleon would free all the slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere. Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner and threatened an alliance with the United Kingdom, although relations were uneasy in that direction. In 1801 Jefferson supported France in its plan to take back Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti), then under control of Toussaint Louverture after a slave rebellion.
Jefferson sent Livingston to Paris in 1801 after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans.
In January 1802, France sent General Charles Leclerc to Saint - Domingue (present - day Haiti) to re-establish slavery, which had been abolished by the constitution of the French Republic of 1795, as well as to reduce the rights of free people of color and take back control of the island from Toussaint Louverture. Louverture had fended off invasions of St. Domingue by the Spanish and British empires, but had also begun to consolidate power for himself on the island. Before the Revolution, France had derived enormous wealth from St. Domingue at the cost of the lives and freedom of the slaves. Napoleon wanted its revenues and productivity for France restored. Alarmed over the French actions and its intention to re-establish an empire in North America, Jefferson declared neutrality in relation to the Caribbean, refusing credit and other assistance to the French, but allowing war contraband to get through to the rebels to prevent France from regaining a foothold.
In November 1803, France withdrew its 7,000 surviving troops from Saint - Domingue (more than two - thirds of its troops died there) and gave up its ambitions in the Western Hemisphere. In 1804 Haiti declared its independence; but, fearing a slave revolt at home, Jefferson and Congress refused to recognize the new republic, the second in the Western Hemisphere, and imposed a trade embargo against it. This, together with later claims by France to reconquer Haiti, encouraged by UK, made it more difficult for Haiti to recover after ten years of wars.
In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to Jefferson as well as the prominent politicians in France. He engaged in back - channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson 's behalf during a visit to France and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.
Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France, as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson had concerns that a U.S. president did not have the constitutional authority to make such a deal. He also thought that to do so would erode states ' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there.
Throughout this time, Jefferson had up - to - date intelligence on Napoleon 's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two. Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris in 1803 to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain 's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness.
Napoleon needed peace with the UK to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for the UK or even for the United States. But in early 1803, continuing war between France and the UK seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade the UK.
As Napoleon had failed to re-enslave the emancipated population of Haiti, he abandoned his plans to rebuild France 's New World empire. Without sufficient revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain had not yet completed the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and the UK was imminent. Out of anger towards Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, Napoleon decided to sell the entire territory.
Although the foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803, Napoleon told the Treasury Minister François de Barbé - Marbois that he was considering selling the entire Louisiana Territory to the United States. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe 's arrival, Barbé - Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana for $15 million, equivalent to about $233 million in 2011 dollars which averages to less than three cents per acre.
The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the United States would accept the offer.
The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington, D.C.. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert 's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States, at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.
Henry Adams and other historians have argued that Jefferson acted hypocritically with the Louisiana Purchase, due to his position as a strict constructionist regarding the Constitution since he stretched the intent of that document to justify his purchase. This argument goes as follows:
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson 's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed that he and others, including James Madison, were doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and were concerned that the United States had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain.
Both Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned over the purchase 's constitutionality. Many members of the House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes, 59 -- 57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain, not France, but available records proved otherwise.
The Federalists also feared that the power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens in the West, whose political and economic priorities were bound to conflict with those of the merchants and bankers of New England. There was also concern that an increase in the number of slave - holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between North and South as well. A group of Northern Federalists led by Senator Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy.
Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners '', unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.
Spain protested the transfer on two grounds: First, France had previously promised in a note not to alienate Louisiana to a third party and second, France had not fulfilled the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso by having the King of Etruria recognized by all European powers. The French government replied that these objections were baseless since the promise not to alienate Louisiana was not in the treaty of San Ildefonso itself and therefore had no legal force, and the Spanish government had ordered Louisiana to be transferred in October 1802 despite knowing for months that Britain had not recognized the King of Etruria in the Treaty of Amiens.
Henry Adams claimed "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the French Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless. '' The sale of course was not "worthless '' -- the U.S. actually did take possession. Furthermore, the Spanish prime minister had authorized the U.S. to negotiate with the French government "the acquisition of territories which may suit their interests. '' Spain turned the territory over to France in a ceremony in New Orleans on November 30, a month before France turned it over to American officials.
Other historians counter the above arguments regarding Jefferson 's alleged hypocrisy as follows:
Countries change their borders in two ways: (1) conquest, or (2) an agreement between nations, otherwise known as a treaty. The Louisiana Purchase was the latter, a treaty. The Constitution specifically grants the president the power to negotiate treaties (Art. II, Sec. 2), which is just what Jefferson did.
Jefferson 's Secretary of State, James Madison (the "Father of the Constitution ''), assured Jefferson that the Louisiana Purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution. Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin added that since the power to negotiate treaties was specifically granted to the president, the only way extending the country 's territory by treaty could not be a presidential power would be if it were specifically excluded by the Constitution (which it was not). Jefferson, as a strict constructionist, was right to be concerned about staying within the bounds of the Constitution, but felt the power of these arguments and was willing to "acquiesce with satisfaction '' if the Congress approved the treaty.
The Senate quickly ratified the treaty, and the House, with equal alacrity, authorized the required funding, as the Constitution specifies.
The opposition of New England Federalists to the Louisiana Purchase was primarily economic self - interest, not any legitimate concern over constitutionality or whether France indeed owned Louisiana or was required to sell it back to Spain should it desire to dispose of the territory. The Northerners were not enthusiastic about Western farmers gaining another outlet for their crops that did not require the use of New England ports. Also, many Federalists were speculators in lands in upstate New York and New England and were hoping to sell these lands to farmers, who might go west instead, if the Louisiana Purchase went through. They also feared that this would lead to Western states being formed, which would likely be Republican, and dilute the political power of New England Federalists.
When Spain later objected to the United States purchasing Louisiana from France, Madison responded that America had first approached Spain about purchasing the property, but had been told by Spain itself that America would have to treat with France for the territory.
The Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed on 30 April by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives... From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank. ''
The United States Senate ratified the treaty with a vote of twenty - four to seven on October 20. The Senators who voted against the treaty were: Simeon Olcott and William Plumer of New Hampshire, William Wells and Samuel White of Delaware, James Hillhouse and Uriah Tracy of Connecticut, and Timothy Pickering of Massachusetts.
On the following day, October 21, 1803, the Senate authorized Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
France turned over New Orleans, the historic colonial capital, on December 20, 1803, at the Cabildo, with a flag - raising ceremony in the Plaza de Armas, now Jackson Square. Just three weeks earlier, on November 30, 1803, Spanish officials had formally conveyed the colonial lands and their administration to France.
On March 9 and 10, 1804, another ceremony, commemorated as Three Flags Day, was conducted in St. Louis, to transfer ownership of Upper Louisiana from Spain to the French First Republic, and then from France to the United States. From March 10 to September 30, 1804, Upper Louisiana was supervised as a military district, under Commandant Amos Stoddard.
Effective October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which would become the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under control of the governor and judicial system of the Indiana Territory. The following year, the District of Louisiana was renamed the Territory of Louisiana, aka Louisiana Territory (1805 -- 1812).
New Orleans was the administrative capital of the Orleans Territory, and St. Louis was the capital of the Louisiana Territory.
A dispute soon arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory 's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor in the 1801 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.
The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande and West Florida. Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis. The dispute was ultimately resolved by the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819, with the United States gaining most of what it had claimed in the west.
The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered one of New Spain 's internal provinces.
If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill - defined British possession -- Rupert 's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo - American Convention of 1818.
The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, though the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear. The U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed that the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi River. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act, which recognized West Florida as part of the United States. The Adams -- Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida.
Because the western boundary was contested at the time of the Purchase, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams -- Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and due west to its previous boundary.
Governing the Louisiana Territory was more difficult than acquiring it. Its European peoples, of ethnic French, Spanish and Mexican descent, were largely Catholic; in addition, there was a large population of enslaved Africans made up of a high proportion of recent arrivals, as Spain had continued the international slave trade. This was particularly true in the area of the present - day state of Louisiana, which also contained a large number of free people of color. Both present - day Arkansas and Missouri already had some slaveholders in the early 19th century.
During this period, south Louisiana received an influx of French - speaking refugee planters, who were permitted to bring their slaves with them, and other refugees fleeing the large slave revolt in Saint - Domingue, today 's Haiti. Many Southern slaveholders feared that acquisition of the new territory might inspire American - held slaves to follow the example of those in Saint - Domingue and revolt. They wanted the US government to establish laws allowing slavery in the newly acquired territory so they could be supported in taking their slaves there to undertake new agricultural enterprises, as well as to reduce the threat of future slave rebellions.
The Louisiana Territory was broken into smaller portions for administration, and the territories passed slavery laws similar to those in the southern states but incorporating provisions from the preceding French and Spanish rule (for instance, Spain had prohibited slavery of Native Americans in 1769, but some slaves of mixed African - Native American descent were still being held in St. Louis in Upper Louisiana when the U.S. took over). In a freedom suit that went from Missouri to the US Supreme Court, slavery of Native Americans was finally ended in 1836. The institutionalization of slavery under U.S. law in the Louisiana Territory contributed to the American Civil War a half century later. As states organized within the territory, the status of slavery in each state became a matter of contention in Congress, as southern states wanted slavery extended to the west, and northern states just as strongly opposed new states being admitted as "slave states. ''
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was a temporary solution.
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders from Canada and allied Indians, especially the Sauk and Fox. The U.S. adapted the former Spanish facility at Fort Bellefontaine as a fur trading post near St. Louis in 1804 for business with the Sauk and Fox. In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River in western present - day Missouri and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River in eastern present - day Iowa. With tensions increasing with Great Britain, in 1809 Fort Bellefontaine was converted to a U.S. military fort, and was used for that purpose until 1826.
During the War of 1812, Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; the U.S. abandoned Forts Osage and Madison, as well as several other U.S. forts built during the war, including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including adding to Fort Bellefontaine, and constructing Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government 's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the U.S. asked the Baring firm to handle the transaction. Francis Baring 's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations. Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase.
Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and shipped the gold to France. Napoleon used the money to finance his planned invasion of England, which never took place.
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who won the most matches in el clasico | El Clásico - wikipedia
El Clásico (Spanish pronunciation: (el ˈklasiko); Catalan: El Clàssic, pronounced (əɫ ˈkɫasik); "The Classic '') is the name given in football to any match between fierce rivals Real Madrid and FC Barcelona. Originally it referred only to those competitions held in the Spanish championship, but nowadays the term has been generalized, and tends to include every single match between the two clubs: UEFA Champions League, Copa del Rey, etc. Other than the UEFA Champions League Final, it is considered one of the biggest club football games in the world, and is among the most viewed annual sporting events. The match is known for its intensity.
The rivalry comes about as Madrid and Barcelona are the two largest cities in Spain, and they are sometimes identified with opposing political positions, with Real Madrid viewed as representing Spanish nationalism and Barcelona viewed as representing Catalan nationalism. The rivalry is regarded as one of the biggest in world sport. The two clubs are among the richest and most successful football clubs in the world; in 2014 Forbes ranked them the world 's two most valuable sports teams. Both clubs have a global fanbase; they are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media.
Real Madrid leads the head to head results in competitive matches with 95 wins to Barcelona 's 91, while Barcelona leads in total matches with 111 wins to Real Madrid 's 99. Along with Athletic Bilbao, they are the only clubs in La Liga to have never been relegated.
The conflict between Real Madrid and Barcelona has long surpassed the sporting dimension, so that elections to the clubs ' presidencies are strongly politicized.
As early as the 1930s, Barcelona "had developed a reputation as a symbol of Catalan identity, opposed to the centralising tendencies of Madrid ''. In 1936, when Francisco Franco started the Coup d'état against the democratic Second Spanish Republic, the president of Barcelona, Josep Sunyol, member of the Republican Left of Catalonia and Deputy to The Cortes, was arrested and executed without trial by Franco 's troops (Sunyol was exercising his political activities, visiting Republican troops north of Madrid).
Barcelona was on top of the list of organizations to be purged by the National faction, just after communists, anarchists, and independentists. During the Franco dictatorship, most citizens of Barcelona were in strong opposition to the fascist - like régime. Phil Ball, the author of Morbo: The Story of Spanish Football, says about the match; "they hate each other with an intensity that can truly shock the outsider ''.
During the dictatorships of Miguel Primo de Rivera and of Francisco Franco, all regional languages and identities in Spain were frowned upon and restrained. In this period, Barcelona gained their motto Més que un club (English: More than a club) because of its alleged connection to Catalan nationalist as well as to progressive beliefs. During Franco 's regime, however, Barcelona was granted profit due to its good relationship with the dictator at management level, even giving two awards to him. The links between senior Real Madrid representatives and the Francoist regime were undeniable; for most of the Catalans, Real Madrid was regarded as "the establishment club '', despite the fact that presidents of both clubs like Josep Sunyol and Rafael Sánchez Guerra, suffered at the hands of Franco 's supporters in the Spanish Civil War.
The image for both clubs was further affected by the creation of Ultras groups, some of which became hooligans. In 1980, Ultras Sur was founded as a far - right - leaning Real Madrid ultras group, followed in 1981 by the foundation of the initially left - leaning and later on far - right, Barcelona ultras group Boixos Nois. Both groups became known for their violent acts, and one of the most conflictive factions of Barcelona supporters, the Casuals, became a full - fledged criminal organisation.
For many people, Barcelona is still considered as "the rebellious club '', or the alternative pole to "Real Madrid 's conservatism ''. According to polls released by CIS (Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas), Real Madrid is the favorite team of most of the Spanish residents, while Barcelona stands in the second position. In Catalonia, forces of all the political spectrum are overwhelmingly in favour of Barcelona. Nevertheless, the support of the blaugrana club goes far beyond from that region, earning its best results among young people, sustainers of a federal structure of Spain and citizens with left - wing ideology, in contrast with Real Madrid fans which politically tend to adopt right - wing views.
On 13 June 1943, Real Madrid beat Barcelona 11 -- 1 at home in the second leg of a semi-final of the Copa del Generalísimo, the Copa del Rey having been renamed in honour of General Franco. The first leg, played at Barcelona 's Les Corts stadium in Catalonia, had ended with Barcelona winning 3 -- 0. Madrid complained about all the three goals that referee Fombona Fernández had allowed for Barcelona, with the home supporters also whistling Madrid throughout, whom they accused of employing roughhouse tactics, and Fombona for allowing them to. A campaign began in Madrid. Barcelona player Josep Valle recalled: "The press officer at the DND and ABC newspaper wrote all sorts of scurrilous lies, really terrible things, winding up the Madrid fans like never before ''. While former Real Madrid goalkeeper Eduardo Teus, who admitted that Madrid had "above all played hard '', wrote in a newspaper: "the ground itself made Madrid concede two of the three goals, goals that were totally unfair ''.
Barcelona fans were banned from traveling to Madrid. Real Madrid released a statement after the match which former club president (1985 -- 1995) Ramón Mendoza explained, "The message got through that those fans who wanted to could go to El Club bar on Calle de la Victoria where Madrid 's social center was. There, they were given a whistle. Others had whistles handed to them with their tickets. '' The day of the second leg, the Barcelona team were insulted and stones were thrown at their bus as soon as they left their hotel. Barcelona 's striker Mariano Gonzalvo said of the incedent, "Five minutes before the game had started, our penalty area was already full of coins. '' Barcelona goalkeeper Lluis Miró rarely approached his line -- when he did, he was armed with stones. As Francisco Calvet told the story, "They were shouting: Reds! Separatists!... a bottle just missed Sospedra that would have killed him if it had hit him. It was all set up. '' Down in the Barcelona dugout, Ángel Mur who watched events unfold, stated, "When I took up my place on the bench, a policeman came up to me and said ' Today you 're going to lose '... another armed police lieutenant spent the whole game calling me a Catalan dog and a red separatist. When I got up to treat an injured player, he grabbed me and told me to sit back down again. At which point, Piñeyro intervened. '' The policeman told the Barcelona president to shut up or he would be arrested. Piñeyro was assaulted by Madrid fans.
Real Madrid went 2 -- 0 up within half an hour. The third goal brought with it a sending off for Barcelona 's Benito García after he made what Calvet claimed was a "completely normal tackle ''. Madrid 's José Llopis Corona recalled, "At which point, they got a bit demoralized, '' while Mur countered, "at which point, we thought: ' go on then, score as many as you want '. '' Madrid scored in minutes 31 ', 33 ', 35 ', 39 ', 43 ' and 44 ', as well as two goals ruled out for offside, made it 8 -- 0. Basilo de la Morena had been caught out by the speed of the goals. At half - time, Barcelona 's players decided that they were not going out for the second half. According to an interview Valle and Calvet gave to La Vanguardia in May 2000, a colonel appeared in the dressing room and said, "Go back out on to the pitch or you 're all going to jail. '' Calvet later added an important detail when he told the story to his biographer Guillem Gómez, noting that when he questioned why there were not more police on duty given the atmosphere, he was told, "Shut up, obey, go out there and play... and lose!. '' Juan Antonio Samaranch, former Spanish minister of sports and International Olympic Committee (IOC) president, wrote, "Barcelona did not exist and the same would have happened to any team. In that atmosphere and with a referee who wanted to avoid any complications, it was humanly impossible to play... If the azulgranas had played badly, really badly, the scoreboard would still not have reached that astronomical figure. The point is that they did not play at all. '' Both clubs were fined 2,500 pesetas by the Royal Spanish Football Federation and, although Barcelona appealed, it made no difference. Piñeyro resigned in protest, complaining of "a campaign that the press has run against Barcelona for a week and which culminated in the shameful day at Chamartín ''.
The match report in the newspaper La Prensa described Barcelona 's only goal as a "reminder that there was a team there who knew how to play football and that if they did not do so that afternoon, it was not exactly their fault ''. Another newspaper called the scoreline "as absurd as it was abnormal ''. According to football writer Sid Lowe, "There have been relatively few mentions of the game (since) and it is not a result that has been particularly celebrated in Madrid. Indeed, the 11 -- 1 occupies a far more prominent place in Barcelona 's history. This was the game that first formed the identification of Madrid as the team of the dictatorship and Barcelona as its victims. '' Fernando Argila, Barcelona 's reserve goalkeeper from the game, said, "There was no rivalry. Not, at least, until that game. ''
The rivalry was intensified during the 1950s when the clubs disputed the signing of Alfredo Di Stéfano. Di Stéfano had impressed both Barcelona and Real Madrid while playing for Los Millionarios in Bogotá, Colombia, during a players ' strike in his native Argentina. Both Real Madrid and Barcelona attempted to sign him and, due to confusion that emerged from Di Stéfano moving to Millonarios from River Plate following the strike, both clubs claimed to own his registration. After intervention from FIFA representative Muñoz Calero, it was decided that both Barcelona and Real Madrid had to share the player in alternate seasons. Barcelona 's humiliated president was forced to resign by the Barcelona board, with the interim board cancelling Di Stéfano 's contract. This ended the long struggle for Di Stéfano, as he moved definitively to Real Madrid.
Di Stéfano became integral in the subsequent success achieved by Real Madrid, scoring twice in his first game against Barcelona. With him, Real Madrid won the initial five European Champions Cup competitions. The 1960s saw the rivalry reach the European stage when they met twice at the European Cup, Real Madrid winning in 1960 and Barcelona winning in 1961.
On 5 July 1968, Barcelona beat Real Madrid 1 -- 0 in the Copa del Generalísimo final at the Santiago Bernabéu. Angry about the refereeing, Real Madrid supporters began throwing glass bottles at the referee and at Barcelona players in the last minutes of the match. Antonio Rigo, referee of the final, was accused of being favourable towards Barcelona. He said of the incident, "After the final of 1968, I became more ' antimadridista ', rather than a fan of Barcelona. But for a reason, I noticed that Madrid 's ' hand ' reached far and harmed me... Barça never offered me anything, not even a badge. However, Antonio Calderón, I think he was Real Madrid 's manager, came to my room in the dugout before the game, and said ' I want to give you a good gift '. It was Madrid 's custom of giving a golden watch. I guess it was conditioned on the victory of his team because I am still waiting for that gift. '' Regarding the moments of two not - given penalties, he said, "I did n't see a penalty in Amancio, and Serena stumbled. Serena wanted to deceive me falling when he entered 7mm in the area. '' General Franco handed Barcelona the cup with the pitch full of bottles, hence the name.
In 2000, Real Madrid 's then - presidential candidate, Florentino Pérez, offered Barcelona 's vice-captain Luís Figo $2.4 million just to sign an agreement binding him to Madrid if he won the elections. If the player broke the deal, he would have to pay Pérez $30 million in compensation. When his agent confirmed the deal, Figo denied everything, insisting, "I 'll stay at Barcelona whether Pérez wins or loses. '' He accused the presidential candidate of "lying '' and "fantasizing ''. He told Barcelona teammates Luis Enrique and Pep Guardiola he was not leaving and they conveyed the message to the Barcelona squad.
On 9 July, Sport ran an interview in which he said, "I want to send a message of calm to Barcelona 's fans, for whom I always have and always will feel great affection. I want to assure them that Luís Figo will, with absolute certainty, be at the Camp Nou on the 24th to start the new season... I 've not signed a pre-contract with a presidential candidate at Real Madrid. No. I 'm not so mad as to do a thing like that. ''
The only way Barcelona could prevent Figo 's transfer to Real Madrid was to pay the penalty clause, $30 million. That would have effectively meant paying the fifth highest transfer fee in history to sign their own player. Barcelona 's new president, Joan Gaspart, called the media and told them, "Today, Figo gave me the impression that he wanted to do two things: get richer and stay at Barça. '' Only one of them happened. The following day, 24 July, Figo was presented in Madrid and handed his new shirt by Alfredo Di Stéfano. His buyout clause was set at $180 million. Gaspart later admitted, "Figo 's move destroyed us. ''
On his return to Barcelona in a Real Madrid shirt, banners with "Judas '', "Scum '' and "Mercenary '' were hung around the stadium. Thousands of fake 10,000 peseta notes had been printed and emblazoned with his image, were among the missiles of oranges, bottles, cigarette lighters, even a couple of mobile phones were thrown at him. In his third season with Real Madrid, the 2002 Clásico at Camp Nou produced one of the defining images of the rivalry. Figo was mercilessly taunted throughout; missiles of coins, a knife, a whisky bottle, were raining down from the stands, mostly from areas populated by the Boixos Nois where he had been taking a corner. Among the debris was a pig 's head.
During the last three decades, the rivalry has been augmented by the modern Spanish tradition of the Pasillo, where one team is given the guard of honor by the other team, once the former clinches the La Liga trophy before El Clásico takes place. This has happened in three occasions. First, during El Clásico that took place on 30 April 1988, where Real Madrid won the championship on the previous round. Then, three years later, when Barcelona won the championship two rounds before El Clásico on 8 June 1991. The last pasillo, and most recent, took place on 7 May 2008, and this time Real Madrid had won the championship.
The two teams met again in the UEFA Champions League semi-final in 2002, with Real Madrid winning 2 -- 0 in Barcelona and a 1 -- 1 draw in Madrid. The match was dubbed by Spanish media as the "Match of the Century ''.
While El Clásico is regarded as one of the fiercest rivalries in world football, there have been rare moments when fans have shown praise for a player on the opposing team. In 1980, Laurie Cunningham was the first Real Madrid player to receive applause from Barcelona fans at Camp Nou; after excelling during the match, and with Madrid winning 2 -- 0, Cunningham left the field to a standing ovation from the locals. On 26 June 1983, during the second leg of the Copa de la Liga final at the Santiago Bernabéu in Madrid, having dribbled past the Real Madrid goalkeeper, Barcelona star Diego Maradona ran towards an empty goal before stopping just as the Madrid defender came sliding in an attempt to block the shot and crashed into the post, before Maradona slotted the ball into the net. The manner of Maradona 's goal led to many Madrid fans inside the stadium start applauding. In November 2005, Ronaldinho became the second Barcelona player to receive a standing ovation from Madrid fans at the Santiago Bernabéu. After dribbling through the Madrid defence twice to score two goals in a 3 -- 0 win, Madrid fans paid homage to his performance with applause. On 21 November 2015, Andrés Iniesta became the third Barcelona player to receive applause from Real Madrid fans while he was substituted during a 4 -- 0 away win, with Iniesta scoring Barça 's third.
A 2007 survey by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas showed that 32 % of the Spanish population supported Real Madrid, while 25 % supported Barcelona. In third place came Valencia, with 5 %. According to a poll performed by Ikerfel in 2011, Barcelona is the most popular team in Spain with 44 % of preferences, while Real Madrid is second with 37 %. Atlético Madrid, Valencia and Athletic Bilbao complete the top five. Both clubs have a global fanbase and are the world 's two most followed sports teams on social media -- on Facebook, as of March 2016, Barcelona has 91 million fans, Real Madrid has 87 million fans.
The rivalry intensified in 2011 where, due to the final of the Copa Del Rey and the meeting of the two in the UEFA Champions League, Barcelona and Real Madrid were scheduled to meet each other four times in 18 days. Several accusations of unsportsmanlike behaviour from both teams and a war of words erupted throughout the fixtures which included four red cards. Spain national team coach Vicente del Bosque stated that he was "concerned '' that due to the rising hatred between the two clubs, that this could cause friction in the Spain team.
In recent years, the rivalry has been "encapsulated '' by the rivalry between Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi. Following the star signings of Neymar and Luis Suárez to Barcelona, and Gareth Bale and Karim Benzema to Madrid, the rivalry has been expanded to a battle of the clubs attacking trios, "BBC '' (Bale, Benzema, Cristiano) against "MSN '' (Messi, Suárez, Neymar).
The rivalry reflected in El Clásico matches comes about as Real Madrid and Barcelona are the most successful football clubs in Spain. As seen below, Barcelona leads Real Madrid 90 -- 87 in terms of official overall trophies. While the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is recognised as the predecessor to the UEFA Cup, it was not organised by UEFA. Consequently, UEFA does not consider clubs ' records in the Fairs Cup to be part of their European record. However, FIFA does view the competition as a major honour.
Note: FC Barcelona won the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup three times, but it does n't count towards their UEFA European Record.
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when was the last time england won ashes in australia | List of Ashes series - wikipedia
The Ashes is a Test cricket series played between England and Australia. The series have varied in length, consisting of between one and six Test matches, but since 1998 have been consistently five matches. It is one of sport 's most celebrated rivalries and dates back to 1882. It is generally played biennially, alternating between the United Kingdom and Australia. England are the current holders of the Ashes, having won the 2015 series.
Although the first Test series played between England and Australia was in the 1876 -- 77 season, the Ashes originated from the solitary Test which the two nations contested in 1882. England lost the match, played at The Oval, and a mock obituary was posted in The Sporting Times, declaring the death of English cricket. It stated that: "The body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia. '' The Honourable Ivo Bligh adopted the term and, as captain of the English party that travelled to Australia the following winter, promised to bring the "Ashes '' home.
After their loss to Australia in 1882, England won the next eight series between the two sides, during which time they lost only four of the 22 Tests. Australia won an Ashes series for the first time in 1891 -- 92, when they beat England 2 -- 1. The 1932 -- 33 tour was known as the "Bodyline series '' as, in response to the talented Australian batsman Don Bradman, England developed a tactic of bowling quickly at the body of the batsmen with most of the fielders placed in a close ring on the leg side. England won the series, but the tactic prompted changes to the laws of cricket, and the Australians, buoyed by the batting of Bradman, regained the Ashes during the next series and then held them for six series, spanning nineteen years. It was during this period that the Australians travelled to England in 1948, and remained unbeaten during the whole tour, gaining the nickname of "The Invincibles ''. In addition to winning the five match Test series 4 -- 0, Australia won or drew all of their 29 other matches against county and representative sides.
Australia have won more Ashes Tests than England, winning 130 of the 325 matches, compared to England 's 106 victories. Australia and England have each won an Ashes series on 32 occasions. There have been five drawn series, and on four of these occasions, Australia have retained the Ashes due to being holders going into the series. England have retained the Ashes after a drawn series once. On only three occasions has a team won all the Tests in an Ashes series; Australia won all five matches in 1920 -- 21, then repeated the feat in 2006 -- 07 and in 2013 -- 14. England 's largest winning margin in an Ashes series was in 1978 -- 79, when they won 5 -- 1. Both England and Australia have held the Ashes for eight series in a row, England doing so between 1882 -- 83 and 1890, while Australia achieved the feat from 1989 to 2002 -- 03. Since 1882, a small number of Test series have been played between the two sides that have not been allocated as Ashes series; those played in 1976 -- 77, 1979 -- 80, 1980 and 1987 -- 88, these series are not listed in the table below.
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what types of school are there in england | Education in England - wikipedia
Level 2 and above: 87.4 % Level 3 and above: 60.3 % (of 19 year olds in 2015)
Education in England is overseen by the United Kingdom 's Department for Education. Local government authorities are responsible for implementing policy for public education and state - funded schools at a local level.
England also has a tradition of independent schools (sometimes termed "public schools '') and home schooling alongside state schools; legally, parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means. State - funded schools can be categorised as grammar schools, which are selective, or comprehensive schools, which are not. These can be further subdivided into free schools, other academies and state - run schools. More freedom is given to free schools, including most religious schools, and other academies in terms of curriculum, but all are subject to assessment and inspection by Ofsted.
The state - funded education system is divided into stages based upon age: Early Years Foundation Stage (ages 3 -- 5); primary education (ages 5 to 11), subdivided into Key Stage 1 (KS1) Infants (ages 5 to 7) and Key Stage 2 (KS2) Juniors (ages 7 to 11); secondary education (ages 11 to 16), subdivided into Key Stage 3 (KS3; ages 11 to 14) and Key Stage 4 (KS4; ages 14 to 16); Key Stage 5 is post-16 education (ages 16 to 18); and tertiary education (for ages 18 +).
At age 16 the students typically take exams for the General Certificate of Secondary Education or other Level 1 / 2 qualifications. While education is compulsory until 18, schooling is only compulsory to 16, thus post-16 education can take a number of forms, and may be academic or vocational. This can involve continued schooling, known as "sixth form '' or "college '', leading (typically after two years of further study) to A-level qualifications (similar to a high school diploma in some other countries), or a number of alternative Level 3 qualifications such as BTEC, the International Baccalaureate or the Cambridge Pre-U. It can also include work - based apprenticeships or traineeships, or volunteering.
Higher education often begins with a three - year bachelor 's degree. Postgraduate degrees include master 's degrees, either taught or by research, and doctoral level research degrees that usually take at least three years. Tuition fees for first degrees are up to £ 9,000 per academic year for English, Welsh and European Union students, although these are set to rise to £ 9,250 for students starting from 2017.
The Regulated Qualifications Framework (RQF) covers national school examinations and vocational education qualifications. It is referenced to the European Qualifications Framework, and thus to other qualifications frameworks across the European Union. The Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ), which is tied to the RQF, covers degrees and other qualifications from degree - awarding bodies. This is referenced to the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area developed under the Bologna process.
Until 1870 all schools were charitable or private institutions, but in that year the Elementary Education Act 1870 permitted local governments to complement the existing elementary schools in order to fill any gaps. The Education Act 1902 allowed local authorities to create secondary schools. The Education Act 1918 abolished fees for elementary schools.
Full - time education is compulsory for all children aged 5 to 18, either at school or otherwise, with a child beginning primary education during the school year they turn 5. Children between the ages of 3 and 5 are entitled to 600 hours per year of optional, state - funded, pre-school education. This can be provided in "playgroups '', nurseries, community childcare centres or nursery classes in schools.
The age at which a student may choose to stop education is commonly known as the "leaving age '' for compulsory education. This age was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008; the change took effect in 2013 for 16 - year - olds and 2015 for 17 - year - olds. From this time, the school leaving age (which remains 16) and the education leaving age (which is now 18) have been separated. State - provided schooling and sixth - form education are paid for by taxes.
All children in England must currently therefore receive an effective education (at school or otherwise) from the first "prescribed day '', which falls on or after their fifth birthday until their 18th birthday, and must remain in school until the last Friday in June of the school year in which they turn 16. The education leaving age was raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to their 18th birthday for those born on or after 1 September 1997. The prescribed days are 31 August, 31 December and 31 March. The school year begins on 1 September (or 1 August if a term starts in August).
The Compulsory stages of education are broken into a Foundation Stage (actually covering the last part of optional and first part of compulsory education), 4 Key Stages, and post-16 education (sometimes unofficially termed Key Stage Five, which takes a variety of forms including 6th Form (covering the last 2 years of Secondary Education in schools).
Below is a table summarizing the most common names of the various schools and stages. Grammar schools are normally state - funded but selective schools, admitting children from 11 years old onward, but there are exceptions such as Manchester Grammar School.
Some 93 % of children between the ages of 3 and 18 are in education in state - funded schools without charge (other than for activities such as swimming, theatre visits and field trips for which a voluntary payment can be requested, and limited charges at state - funded boarding schools).
Since 1998, there have been six main types of maintained (state - funded) school in England:
In addition, 3 of the 15 City Technology Colleges established in the 1980s still remain, the rest having converted to academies. These are state - funded all - ability secondary schools which charge no fees but which are independent of local authority control. There are also a small number of state - funded boarding schools.
English state - funded primary schools are almost all local schools with a small catchment area. More than half are owned by the Local Authority, though many are (nominally) voluntary controlled and some are voluntary aided. Some schools just include infants (aged 4 to 7) and some just juniors (aged 7 to 11). Some are linked, with automatic progression from the infant school to the junior school, and some are not. A few areas still have first schools for ages around 4 to 8 and middle schools for ages 8 or 9 to 12 or 13.
English secondary schools are mostly comprehensive, although the intake of comprehensive schools can vary widely, especially in urban areas with several local schools. Nearly 90 % of state - funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises, which can select up to 10 % of their intake for aptitude in the specialism (though relatively few of them have taken up this option). In a few areas children can enter a grammar school if they pass the eleven plus exam; there are also a number of isolated fully selective grammar schools and a few dozen partially selective schools. A significant minority of state - funded schools are faith schools, which are attached to religious groups, most often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church.
All state - funded schools are regularly inspected by the Office for Standards in Education, often known simply as Ofsted. Ofsted publish reports on the quality of education at a particular school on a regular basis. Schools judged by Ofsted to be providing an inadequate standard of education may be subject to special measures, which could include replacing the governing body and senior staff.
Approximately 7 % of school children in England attend privately run, fee - paying independent schools. Some independent schools for 13 -- 18 - year - olds are known for historical reasons as ' public schools ' and for 8 -- 13 - year - olds as ' prep schools '. Some schools offer scholarships for those with particular skills or aptitudes, or bursaries to allow students from less financially well - off families to attend. Independent schools do not have to follow the National Curriculum, and their teachers are not required or regulated by law to have official teaching qualifications. ''
The 1944 Education Act (Section 36) stated that parents are responsible for the education of their children, "by regular attendance at school or otherwise '', which allows children to be educated at home. The legislation places no requirement for parents who choose not to send their children to school to follow the National Curriculum, or to give formal lessons, or to follow school hours and terms, and parents do not need to be qualified teachers. A small but increasing numbers of parents do choose to educate their children outside the conventional school systems. Officially referred to as "Elective Home Education '', teaching ranges from structured homeschooling (using a school - style curriculum) to less - structured unschooling. Education Otherwise has supported parents who wished to educate their children outside school since the 1970s. The state provides no financial support to parents who choose to educate their children outside of school.
Students at both state schools and independent schools typically take GCSE examinations, which mark the end of compulsory education in school. Above school - leaving age, the independent and state sectors are similarly structured. In the 16 -- 18 age group, sixth form education is not compulsory, but mandatory education or training until the age of 18 is being phased in under the Education and Skills Act 2008.
This took effect for 16 - year - olds in 2013 and for 17 - year - olds in September 2015. While students may still leave school on the last Friday in June, they must remain in education of some form until their 18th birthday.
Students over 16 typically study in the sixth form of a school, in a separate sixth form college, or in a Further Education (FE) College. Courses at FE colleges, referred to as further education courses, can also be studied by adults over 18. Students typically study Level 3 qualifications such as A-levels, BTEC National awards and level 3 NVQs. Some 16 -- 18 students will be encouraged to study Key Skills in Communication, Application of Number, and Information Technology at this time.
The National Apprenticeship Service helps people 16 or more years of age enter apprenticeships in order to learn a skilled trade. Traineeships are also overseen by the National Apprenticeship Service, and are education and a training programmes that are combined with work experience to give trainees the skills needed to get an apprenticeship.
Apprenticeships come in four levels: Intermediate (level 2), Advanced (level 3), Higher (level 4 -- 7) and Degree (level 6 -- 7). Intermediate apprenticeships are equivalent to 5 GCSEs at A * -- C, Advanced to 2 A-levels, Higher to a foundation degree or above, and Degree apprenticeships to a bachelor 's or master 's degree.
A study in 2014 found that unemployment rates among former apprentices one year after completing their apprenticeships were one - third those of university graduates one year after finishing their degrees. A 2015 study by the Sutton Trust found that, while average net lifetime earnings for those who had completed level 5 apprenticeships were higher than those for graduates from non-Russell Group universities, most apprenticeships offered were at levels 2 and 3, providing little improvement over earnings from secondary school qualifications. The report also found that apprenticeships had a lower perceived value compared to degrees in Britain than in many other countries.
In 2015, the Department announced a major restructuring of the further education sector, through 37 area reviews of post-16 provision. The proposals were criticised by NUS Vice President for Further Education Shakira Martin for not sufficiently taking into account the impact on learners; the Sixth Form Colleges ' Association similarly criticised the reviews for not directly including providers of post-16 education other than colleges, such as school and academy sixth forms and independent training providers.
Higher education in England is provided by Higher Education (HE) colleges, university colleges, universities and private colleges. Students normally enter higher education as undergraduates from age 18 onwards, and can study for a wide variety of vocational and academic qualifications, including certificates of higher education and higher national certificates at level 4, diplomas of higher education, higher national diplomas and foundation degrees at level 5, bachelor 's degrees (normally with honours) at level 6, and integrated master 's degrees and degrees in medicine, dentistry, and veterinary science at level 7.
Historically, undergraduate education outside a small number of private colleges and universities has been largely state - financed since the 1960s, with a small contribution from top - up fees introduced in the 1990s, however fees of up to £ 9,000 per annum have been charged from October 2012. There is a perceived hierarchy among universities, with the Russell Group seen as being composed of the country 's more prestigious universities. League tables of universities are produced by private companies and generally cover the whole UK.
The state does not control university syllabuses, but it does influence admission procedures through the Office for Fair Access (OFFA), which approves and monitors access agreements to safeguard and promote fair access to higher education. The independent Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education inspects universities to assure standards, advises on the granting of degree awarding powers and University title, and maintains the Quality Code for Higher Education, which includes the Framework for Higher Education Qualification. Unlike most degrees, the state has control over teacher training courses, and standards are monitored by Ofsted inspectors.
The typical first degree offered at English universities is the bachelor 's degree with honours, which usually lasts for three years, although more vocational foundation degrees, typically lasting two years (or full - time equivalent) are also available in some institutions. Many institutions now offer an integrated master 's degree, particularly in STEM subjects, as a first degree, which typically lasts for four years, the first three years running parallel to the bachelor 's course. During a first degree students are known as undergraduates. The difference in fees between integrated and traditional postgraduate master 's degrees (and that fees are capped at the first degree level for the former) makes taking an integrated master 's degree as a first degree a more attractive option. Integrated master 's degrees are often the standard route to chartered status for STEM professionals in England.
Students who have completed a first degree can apply for postgraduate and graduate courses. These include:
Postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the state.
Until the academic year 2011 - 2012 most undergraduates paid fees that were set at a maximum of £ 3,375 per annum. These fees are repayable after graduation, contingent on attaining a certain level of income, with the state paying all fees for students from the poorest backgrounds. UK students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance. Undergraduates admitted from the academic year 2012 - 2013 have paid tuition fees set at a maximum of up to £ 9,000 per annum, with most universities charging over £ 6,000 per annum, and other higher education providers charging less.
Postgraduate fees vary but are generally more than undergraduate fees, depending on the degree and university. There are numerous bursaries (awarded to low income applicants) to offset undergraduate fees and, for postgraduates, full scholarships are available for most subjects, and are usually awarded competitively.
Different arrangements apply to English students studying in Scotland, and to Scottish and Welsh students studying in England. Students from outside the UK and the EU attending English universities are charged differing amounts, often in the region of £ 5,000 - £ 20,000 per annum for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The actual amount differs by institution and subject, with the lab based subjects charging a greater amount.
Adult education, continuing education or lifelong learning is offered to students of all ages. This can include the vocational qualifications mentioned above, and also:
The two qualifications frameworks in England are the Regulated Qualifications Framework (RQF), for qualifications regulated by Ofqual, and the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ) for qualifications granted by bodies with degree awarding powers, overseen by the Quality Assurance Agency. These share a common numbering scheme for their levels, which was also used for the earlier Qualifications and Credit Framework. The RQF is linked to the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) and the FHEQ to the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area (QF - EHEA).
According to the Schools Minister, "strong evidence has been emerging of grade inflation across subjects '' in recent years. The Confederation of British Industry, the EEF and the British Chambers of Commerce are also complaining of falling academic standards. Employers often experience difficulty in finding young people who have such basic employability skills as literacy, numeracy, problem solving, teamworking and time management. As a result, employers either have to pay for employees ' remedial education, or they must hire foreign candidates.
Katharine Birbalsingh has written of the problems she perceives in many community schools. She cites the impossibility of effective classroom management, bad teachers who can not be dismissed, and government policies encouraging "soft '' subjects. Birbalsingh has visited schools in Jamaica and India where pupils are desperate to gain the kind of education to which pupils in her own school (and their parents) were indifferent. She was a deputy head teacher in south London until she spoke at a Conservative Party conference in 2010 and was quickly sacked. Frank Chalk, who taught at an inner - city school for ten years before resigning in frustration, makes similar claims.
An analysis of 2010 school data by The Guardian found that state faith schools were not taking a fair share of the poorest pupils in their local areas, as indicated by free school meal entitlement. Not only was this so at an overall national level, but also in the postcode areas nearby the schools. This suggested selection by religion was leading to selection of children from more well - off families.
A survey of 2000 teachers by The Guardian in 2011 identified a widespread reason for not enjoying the job: lack of trust and respect by senior staff, parents and governments. Writing about her own reasons for leaving teaching, a contributing editor to the newspaper 's Guardian Teacher Network described the realisation of needing to leave the profession as having slowly crept up on her. Being a mature entrant, she questioned things in her aspiration to improve education and was reluctant to "be moulded into a standard shape ''.
Continual government changes in assessment and accountability also heap additional pressure on teachers, with many having to change their teaching materials continuously, purely to keep up with new initiatives, which seem to be driven more by politics than academic research.
Throughout the time they are in full - time education children in the north of England do less well than children in the south east. There are also variations in attainment between towns in the north. Calls have been made to remedy this.
Many teachers claim they are working 55 or 60 hours a week and many are leaving the profession due to work pressure and fear for their mental health. The Institute for Fiscal Studies claims plans for school spending would cause a "real - terms cut of 2.8 % in per - pupil funding between 2016 and 2022 ''. Just under a quarter of teachers who qualified since 2011 have left the profession. Schools are asking parents for money because funding is falling short of what they need.
There is a gap in performance between pupils from better off families and poorer pupils. To counter this a cross party committee of MP 's suggested giving subsidized housing to teachers willing to work in deprived schools. Also it was suggested would - be head teachers should spend time in senior positions in struggling schools before they qualify to be heads.
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where was the 2018 world cup final held | 2018 FIFA World Cup final - wikipedia
The 2018 FIFA World Cup Final was a football match that took place on 15 July 2018 to determine the winners of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. It was the final of the 21st FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial tournament contested by the men 's national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The match was contested by France and Croatia, and held at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, Russia.
Before 2018, France 's only World Cup victory was in 1998 -- though they had also reached the final in 2006 -- while Croatia were playing in their first World Cup final. Both teams had defeated former World Cup champions on their way to the final: France defeated 1930 and 1950 winners Uruguay, Croatia defeated 1966 winners England and both teams defeated 1978 and 1986 winners Argentina. Croatia became the third Eastern European nation to reach the World Cup final, and the first since Czechoslovakia lost the final in 1962 to Brazil.
France won the match 4 -- 2, having taken a 2 -- 1 lead during the first half on an own goal and penalty awarded by the video assistant referee (VAR), both firsts in a World Cup final. France also became the second team in the 32 - team World Cup to win all their knockout matches without any extra time or penalty shoot - out after Brazil in 2002. As winners, France qualified for the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup.
The final was played at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, located in the Khamovniki District of the Central Administrative Okrug. An expanded version of the stadium was named as the provisional final venue in Russia 's World Cup bid, which was selected by FIFA on 2 December 2010. Luzhniki Stadium was confirmed as the final venue on 14 December 2012, following a meeting of the now - erswthile FIFA Executive Committee held in Tokyo, Japan. The stadium also hosted six other matches, including the opening match on 14 June, three group stage matches, a round of 16 match, and the second semi-final match.
The Luzhniki Stadium, previously known as the Grand Arena of the Central Lenin Stadium until 1992, originally opened in 1956 as part of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex to host the USSR Summer Spartakiade. The stadium has served as the national stadium of the country, hosting many matches for the Russia national team and its predecessor, the Soviet Union national team. In the past, the stadium has been used as the home ground at various times for CSKA Moscow, Torpedo Moscow, and Spartak Moscow. However, there are currently no clubs based at the stadium.
The stadium has hosted numerous international sporting events. The stadium was the main venue for the 1980 Summer Olympics, hosting the opening and closing ceremonies, athletics, football (four matches, including the gold medal match), and the Individual Jumping Grand Prix. The stadium hosted the 1999 UEFA Cup Final, as well as the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final. Other events staged include the Spartakiad, the final game of the 1957 Ice Hockey World Championships, the 1973 Summer Universiade, the Friendship Games in 1984, the 1986 Goodwill Games, and the 1998 World Youth Games. In 2013, the Rugby World Cup Sevens and World Athletics Championships were held at the ground in front of sparse crowds. The stadium has also served as a venue for many concerts, including Western artists after the fall of the Soviet Union, as well as political rallies.
Rated as a category 4 stadium by UEFA, the Luzhniki Stadium is the largest in Russia and at the 2018 World Cup; it usually has a maximum capacity of 81,006, but was reduced to 78,011 for the World Cup. This also makes the stadium the largest in Eastern Europe, and among the largest in Europe. To prepare for the World Cup, the stadium was closed for extensive renovations in August 2013. The spectator stands were moved closer to the pitch, which was converted from artificial turf to natural grass, after the removal of the athletic track. The historic facade of the stadium was preserved due to its architectural value, while the roof was upgraded using a new polycarbonate skin with exterior lighting. The Luzhniki did not host any matches at the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup due to the ongoing project. The renovation project cost € 341 million, and the stadium officially reopened with an international friendly between Russia and Argentina on 11 November 2017.
After Uruguay and Brazil were eliminated in the quarter - finals, a European side was ensured to win the World Cup for a fourth consecutive tournament. The match was also the ninth all - European World Cup final, which most recently occurred in 2006 and 2010.
The match was the third World Cup final for France, first appearing in the 1998 final as hosts, winning 3 -- 0 against reigning champions Brazil. France also contested the 2006 final, where they lost to Italy in a penalty shoot - out following a 1 -- 1 draw. Only Germany (eight) and Italy (six) have reached more finals among European nations. Didier Deschamps became the fourth person to reach a World Cup final as both a player and as a manager, after Franz Beckenbauer, Rudi Völler, and Mário Zagallo.
The match was the first World Cup final for Croatia in their fifth World Cup appearance. They are the 10th European country and 13th overall to reach a World Cup final, and the first new finalist since Spain in 2010. With a population of 4.17 million, Croatia is the second least - populated country to play in a World Cup final, behind Uruguay (victors in 1930 and 1950). Croatia 's previous best performance was as World Cup debutants in 1998, when they finished in third place, losing 2 -- 1 to hosts France in the semi-finals before beating the Netherlands 2 -- 1 in the third place play - off.
The final was the sixth meeting between France and Croatia, with France undefeated in the previous fixtures with three wins and two draws. The two sides first met in the 1998 World Cup semi-final, with hosts France winning 2 -- 1. Their only other competitive meeting was during the group stage of Euro 2004, which finished as a 2 -- 2 draw. Their next, and most recent, meeting was in a March 2011 friendly match, which finished as a 0 -- 0 draw.
France entered the 2018 World Cup as one of the favourites to win the tournament, particularly for their strong squad featuring several youth talents. The team finished as runners - up to Portugal at Euro 2016, which the country hosted. The team qualified for the World Cup proper after finishing first in their qualification group, ahead of Sweden and the Netherlands.
At the World Cup, France were drawn into Group C alongside Australia, Denmark, and Peru. The team defeated Australia 2 -- 1 in its opening match in Kazan, with a penalty called by the video assistant referee and scored by Antoine Griezmann followed by an own goal deflected by Australian defender Aziz Behich. In its second match, France won 1 -- 0 over Peru on a goal scored by 19 - year - old Kylian Mbappé, who became France 's youngest goalscorer at a major tournament. The victory over Peru qualified France for the knockout stage, allowing manager Didier Deschamps to rest several starting players for the final group stage match against Denmark. The match at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow finished in a scoreless draw marked by misplaced passes and goalkeeping mistakes. The team 's group stage performance was characterised as lacking cohesion and failing to use its star players effectively.
Finishing as winners of Group C, France were matched in the round of 16 with Group D runners - up Argentina. France won 4 -- 3 on two goals scored by Mbappé, who also won a penalty in the opening minutes. Defender Benjamin Pavard also scored in the match, with his strike later voted as goal of the tournament. Mbappé 's performance drew comparisons to Brazilian stars Ronaldo and Pelé, who in 1958 was the most recent teenager to score twice in a World Cup match. In the quarter - finals, France defeated Uruguay 2 -- 0 on a goal and assist by Griezmann. The team advanced to a semi-final match against Belgium in St. Petersburg, which ended in a 1 -- 0 win for the French with a corner kick headed into the goal by defender Samuel Umtiti. The French team, particularly Mbappé, were criticised for timewasting and other unsportsmanlike conduct in the semi-finals after taking the lead in the second half.
Croatia entered the 2018 World Cup as dark horses, with their golden generation led by forward Mario Mandžukić and midfielders Marcelo Brozović, Mateo Kovačić, Luka Modrić, Ivan Perišić, and Ivan Rakitić. The team had been eliminated in the group stage at the 2014 tournament, but reached the round of 16 at Euro 2016. In their qualification group, Croatia scored 15 goals and finished second to Iceland after appointing manager Zlatko Dalić amid a series of poor away results. However, Croatia managed to advance past Greece in the qualifying play - offs, winning the first leg 4 -- 1 and drawing 0 -- 0 in the second.
Croatia were drawn into Group D with Argentina, Iceland, and Nigeria, considered a difficult draw due to Argentina 's talent and Nigeria 's historic performances. In their opening match, the team earned a 2 -- 0 victory over Nigeria, with an own goal by Oghenekaro Etebo caused by Mandžukić and a penalty scored by Modrić. Striker Nikola Kalinić refused to enter the match as a substitute, citing back pain as his reason for not playing, and was expelled from the team by Dalić, leaving Croatia with only 22 players for the remainder of the tournament. Croatia went on to upset Argentina with a 3 -- 0 win, thanks to an effective game plan that used the "height and strength of their players to dominate the game in aerial duels '', playing a "pressing game, counter-attacking, and more direct play in possession '' to counter Lionel Messi, scoring all their goals in the second half. Croatia finished atop the group with a 2 -- 1 win over Iceland, resting several starting players in the final group match.
In the round of 16, Croatia played Denmark and earned a 1 -- 1 draw after the two teams exchanged goals in the opening five minutes and a missed penalty from Modrić in extra time. Croatia won the subsequent penalty shootout 3 -- 2, with three saves by goalkeeper Danijel Subašić and two saves by Danish goalkeeper Kasper Schmeichel. The team advanced to a quarter - final fixture with hosts Russia, who had defeated Spain in the round of 16, in Sochi. The Russians scored their first in the 31st minute, but Andrej Kramarić equalised for Croatia eight minutes later and kept the score at 1 -- 1 through the end of regular time. Croatia took a 2 -- 1 lead in extra time with a header by Domagoj Vida, but Russian defender Mário Fernandes equalised in stoppage time to trigger a penalty shootout. The shootout was won 4 -- 3 by Croatia after two misses by Russia and a shot by Modrić that rebounded off the post and into the goal. Croatia became the second team in World Cup to win two shootouts in a tournament, after Argentina in 1990. After the match, a video of Vida saying "Glory to Ukraine '' prompted controversy among Russians and a warning from FIFA 's disciplinary committee, which enforces a ban on political slogans. Croatia 's semi-final match against England at the Luzhniki began with a free kick goal by English defender Kieran Trippier in the fifth minute. Croatia resisted several attempts by England to score a second goal and earned an equalising goal of their own through a shot by Perišić in the 68th minute. The match was won 2 -- 1 by Croatia after a 109th minute goal by Mandžukić.
The official match ball for the final was the Telstar Mechta (Russian: Мечта; lit. dream or ambition), a red - coloured variant of the Adidas Telstar 18 introduced for the knockout stage. The Telstar family, a homage to the original 1970 Telstar, was designed similarly to 2014 's Brazuca, but with longer seams and additional panels.
Argentine referee Néstor Pitana was selected to lead the officiating team for the final, which was announced on 12 July 2018 by the FIFA Referees Committee. The final is Pitana 's fifth match as referee during the tournament, becoming only the second referee to officiate the opening match and the final. Pitana officiated an additional group stage match, along with two knockout stage matches in the round of 16 and quarter - finals. Pitana has been a FIFA referee since 2010, and officiated four matches at the 2014 FIFA World Cup. His compatriots Hernán Maidana and Juan Pablo Belatti were chosen as assistant referees. Björn Kuipers of the Netherlands was chosen as the fourth official, with his fellow countryman Erwin Zeinstra as the reserve assistant. Italian Massimiliano Irrati was named the video assistant referee, presiding over the first use of the technology at a World Cup final. Argentine Mauro Vigliano was chosen as the assistant video assistant referee, while Carlos Astroza of Chile was appointed as the second assistant and Danny Makkelie of the Netherlands as the third assistant.
The tournament 's closing ceremony was held prior to the start of the match, featuring a performance of "Live It Up '', the official song of the tournament, by Will Smith, Nicky Jam, and Era Istrefi. Jam also performed "X (Equis) '', wearing a shirt honouring J Balvin. Opera singer Aida Garifullina sang the Russian folk song "Kalinka '', accompanied by a children 's choir and percussion section that featured a cameo by Brazilian star Ronaldinho.
Croatia kicked off the final at 18: 00 local time (15: 00 UTC), with the ground temperature reported at 27 ° C (81 ° F). The match was played through a minor thunderstorm, which produced several visible lightning strikes. An audience of 78,011 spectators at the Luzhniki Stadium watched the match, including ten heads of state, among them Russian president Vladimir Putin, French president Emmanuel Macron, and Croatian president Kolinda Grabar - Kitarović. The starting line - ups for both teams were identical to those fielded in the semi-finals.
Croatia had the majority of possession and chances early in the first half, with the ball staying mostly in France 's half. An attack by French midfielder Antoine Griezmann was stopped by a challenge from Marcelo Brozović, which was called as a foul despite claims that Griezmann dived. In the incident, Griezmann began falling before Brozović made contact. Griezmann took the ensuing 30 - yard (27 m) free kick, which was diverted by the head of Mario Mandžukić into the left corner of his own net to give France the lead in the 18th minute. It was the first own goal to be scored in a World Cup final and the 12th of the tournament, the most of any World Cup.
Ten minutes later, Croatia equalised with a left - footed strike by Ivan Perišić to the right corner of the net, assisted by Domagoj Vida after a free kick by Luka Modrić on the right. In the 34th minute, a penalty was awarded against Croatia after Perišić 's handball in the box from a corner on the right was reviewed by the video assistant referee. Griezmann scored the penalty in the 38th minute with a low finish to the left, giving France a 2 -- 1 lead at half - time; the first half 's three goals were the most of any World Cup final since 1974. France led at half - time despite having only one shot on goal and with only 34 % of possession.
A Croatian counter-attack was stopped early in the second half after several pitch invaders were chased onto the field by security officers; Russian feminist rock band and protest group Pussy Riot claimed responsibility for the interruption. In the 59th minute, France extended their lead to 3 -- 1 with a left - foot strike to the left of the net from the edge of the penalty area by Paul Pogba after his initial shot had been blocked. Six minutes later, Kylian Mbappé scored France 's fourth goal, with a low right - foot shot from outside the box to the left of the net; Mbappé became the first teenager to score in a World Cup final since Pelé in 1958. Croatia scored their second goal in the 69th minute, as from a back - pass, France goalkeeper Hugo Lloris failed to dribble around Mandžukić, who poked the loose ball into the unguarded net with his right leg. Despite a late push by Croatia, the match finished as a 4 -- 2 victory for France and the highest - scoring World Cup final since 1966.
Man of the Match: Antoine Griezmann (France)
Assistant referees: Hernán Maidana (Argentina) Juan Pablo Belatti (Argentina) Fourth official: Björn Kuipers (Netherlands) Reserve assistant referee: Erwin Zeinstra (Netherlands) Video assistant referee: Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Assistant video assistant referees: Mauro Vigliano (Argentina) Carlos Astroza (Chile) Danny Makkelie (Netherlands)
Match rules
France became the sixth country to win the World Cup more than once and qualified for the 2021 FIFA Confederations Cup with their win. Didier Deschamps became the third person to have won the World Cup as both a player and manager, after Franz Beckenbauer and Mário Zagallo. The final was the highest scoring since 1966, and the highest score in regular time since 1958. The winner 's medals were presented on the pitch stage to the French team by presidents Putin, Macron, and Grabar - Kitarović amid a heavy rainstorm. FIFA president Gianni Infantino handed the trophy to French captain Hugo Lloris. As Lloris raised the trophy, a short version of the tournament 's official song "Live It Up '' was played.
Croatian captain Luka Modrić won the Golden Ball as best player of the tournament. France 's Antoine Griezmann, the final 's man of the match, also won the Bronze Ball and the Silver Boot award with four goals and two assists. Kylian Mbappé won the Best Young Player award for the tournament.
Large crowds, including 90,000 people at the Eiffel Tower fanzone and an estimated million on the Champs - Élysées, celebrated the victory in Paris. The celebrations were marred by instances of rioting that were broken up by police, as well as the deaths of at least two people during celebrations elsewhere in the country, one man died after diving into a shallow canal and another died after crashing his car into a tree, RATP, the operator of the Paris Métro system, temporarily renamed several stations in honour of the team and its World Cup victory. On 16 July, more than 550,000 fans welcomed the Croatian team home in the capital city of Zagreb, in the single largest public gathering in Croatia 's history, where a six - hour - long bus tour brought them from Zagreb Airport to Ban Jelačić Square.
In France, the final was televised on TF1 and BeIN Sports and drew an average of 26.1 million viewers, making it the most watched event ever in French television history. In England, the final had an average viewership of 10.5 million and a peak viewership of 13.8 million, split between free - to - air broadcasters BBC One and ITV, almost half that of the viewership of England -- Croatia semi-final. In Germany, the match drew a viewership of 21.3 million, which was around 76 % of the market share, on state - owned ZDF. In Spain, the match had a 57.3 % share, with 8.2 million viewers on Mediaset España Comunicación 's Telecinco. In Croatia, the match drew around 1.538 million viewers -- more than 38 % of the population -- on national broadcaster HTV2 for a 89.3 % market share. In Italy, it drew 11.7 million viewers on Canale 5. In the Netherlands, the match had a viewership of 3.1 million on NPO1. In the host nation of Russia, the final was the third-most watched match of the 2018 World Cup and accounted for around 50 % of the nation 's population.
In total, the final drew more than 160 million viewers in 20 European territories, including Russia, the United Kingdom and Germany.
In the United States of America, the match was broadcast on NBCUniversal - owned Telemundo and 21st Century Fox - owned Fox and Fox Sports, the match averaged 16.6 million viewers combined, with Telemundo reaching a total of 57 % of the country 's Latino population. In India, 70 million viewers streamed the match online, through Sony Picture Networks India 's (SPN) Sony Liv application, which was a record for a football match; an additional 22.4 million viewers watched the match on Sony Ten 2, Sony Ten 3 and Sony ESPN. In China, the match drew a combined of 56 million viewers on state - broadcasters CCTV - 1 and CCTV - 5, the most - watched sporting event in China since 2008 Beijing Olympics; an additional 24 million viewers streamed the match through Youku, a video - service and an Alibaba Group subsidiary. In Australia, the final was watched by an average of 2.2 million viewers -- with a peak of 3.4 million viewers -- on national public broadcaster SBS. Whereas, in Canada, the final was watched by an average of 3.9 million viewers, with a peak of 5.4 million viewers on CTV, TSN and RDS.
In the United States, Fox received between US $ 399,000 and $750,000 for a 30 - second advertisement spot during the World Cup final; whereas in France, TF1 got up to $300,000 for a 30 - second ad - spot.
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how many episodes of death note are there on netflix | List of Death Note episodes - wikipedia
Death Note is a 37 - episode anime series based on the manga series of the same name written by Tsugumi Ohba and illustrated by Takeshi Obata. Death Note aired in Japan on the Nippon Television (NTV) network every Tuesday, from October 3, 2006, to June 26, 2007. The plot of the series primarily revolves around high school student Light Yagami, who decides to rid the world of evil with the help of a supernatural notebook called a Death Note. This book causes the death of anyone whose name is written in it and is passed on to Light by the Shinigami Ryuk after he becomes bored within the Shinigami world.
A three - hour "Director 's Cut '' compilation TV special, titled "Death Note: Relight: Visions of a God '', aired on NTV a few months after the anime concluded. Although advertised to be the "complete conclusion '', the popularity of the series inspired the release of a second TV special, titled "Death Note: Relight 2: L 's Successors '' nearly a year later. These specials recap the first and second arcs of the anime respectively, with new scenes added to fill in any plot holes resulted from omitted footage.
In 2007, Viz Media licensed the series for a bilingual release in North America. Episodes of the series were officially available for download soon after they aired in Japan; according to Viz, this was "significant because it (marked) the first time a well known Japanese anime property (was) made legally available to domestic audiences for download to own while the title still (aired) on Japanese television. '' Viz Media began releasing these episodes via Direct2Drive on May 10, 2007. In addition to this downloadable release of a subtitled version of the series, Viz also acquired the rights for the home video release of both the subtitled and dubbed version of the series.
On October 21, 2007, Death Note premiered on Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim. Death Note episodes were also added to Adult Swim 's streaming video service, Adult Swim Video, on Fridays before airing on television. On November 9, 2008, Death Note began airing weekly, at 3: 30 a.m. Eastern Standard Time, starting with episode 1, "Rebirth '', on Adult Swim. In Canada, the series premiered on YTV 's Bionix block on October 26, 2007. On October 2007, Hong Kong began airing the Cantonese version of Death Note at 12: 00 am Saturday nights on TVB. On April 14, 2008, Death Note premiered in Australia, where it aired on ABC 2 on Mondays at 9: 30 pm.
Five pieces of theme music are used for the series. The first opening theme, titled "The World '', is performed by Nightmare. Nightmare also perform the first ending theme, "Alumina '' (アルミナ, Arumina), which reappears as the ending theme in the TV special "Death Note: Relight: Visions of a God '' and as an insert in episodes 12 and 19. Both songs appear on their album The World Ruler. The second opening theme from episode 20 onwards is "What 's Up, People?! '' and the second ending theme is "Zetsubō Billy '' (絶望 ビリー, Zetsubō Birī, "Desperate Billy ''), which also appears as an insert in the TV special "Death Note: Relight: Visions of a God ''. Both themes are performed by Maximum the Hormone and appear on their album Bu - ikikaesu. The final episode 's ending theme is "Coda ~ Death Note '' by series co-composer Yoshihisa Hirano. "Misa 's Song '', performed by Misa 's voice actress Aya Hirano, is heard as an insert for episode 25. The English version of the song is performed by the character 's English voice actress, Shannon Chan - Kent.
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who does the voice of elsa in the movie frozen | Elsa (Frozen) - Wikipedia
Queen Elsa of Arendelle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 53rd animated film Frozen. She is voiced primarily by Broadway actress and singer Idina Menzel. At the beginning of the film, she is voiced by Eva Bella as a young child and by Spencer Lacey Ganus as a teenager.
Created by directors Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, Elsa is loosely based on the title character of "The Snow Queen '', a Danish fairytale by Hans Christian Andersen. In the Disney film adaptation, she is introduced as the princess of the fictional Scandinavian kingdom of Arendelle, heiress to the throne and the elder sister of Princess Anna (Kristen Bell). Elsa has the magical ability to create and manipulate ice and snow. She inadvertently sends Arendelle into an eternal winter on the evening of her coronation. Throughout the film, she struggles first with controlling and concealing her abilities and then with liberating herself from her fears of unintentionally harming others, especially her younger sister.
The Snow Queen character, neutral but cold - hearted in the original fairytale and villain in numerous adaptations of the character, proved difficult to adapt to film due to her transparent depiction. Several film executives, including Walt Disney, attempted to build on the character, and a number of scheduled film adaptions were shelved when they could not work out the character. Buck and his co-director, Jennifer Lee, were ultimately able to solve the dilemma by depicting Elsa and Anna as sisters. As much as Anna 's struggle is external, Elsa 's is internal. This led to Elsa being gradually rewritten as a sympathetic, misunderstood character.
Elsa has received largely positive reception from reviewers, who praised her complex characterization and vulnerability. Menzel was also widely praised for her vocal performance of Elsa, especially that of her performance of the song "Let It Go '', with critics frequently calling her a "powerhouse ''.
Attempts were made as early as 1937 by Walt Disney to adapt Hans Christian Andersen 's fairy tale, "The Snow Queen '', into a film. The tale focuses on two children, one named Gerda, who served as the basis for Princess Anna, and the other named Kai, who is "cursed with negativity '' after his heart is pierced with a shard of glass from an enchanted mirror and is later kidnapped by the Snow Queen. However, Disney struggled with creating a believable, multi-dimensional adaption of the fairy tale 's title character, who was intended to be a villain. In the story, she is described as "a woman, dressed in garments of white gauze, which looked like millions of starry snow - flakes linked together. She was fair and beautiful, but made of ice -- shining and glittering ice. Still she was alive and her eyes sparkled like bright stars, but there was neither peace nor rest in their glance. '' Disney was unable to find a way to make the Snow Queen more real and eventually abandoned film plans.
Several film executives later made efforts towards the project, including Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag, Glen Keane, and Dave Goetz. In 2011, director Chris Buck began work on another attempted adaption and also faced challenges with the Snow Queen character. Producer Peter Del Vecho explained that this was primarily because she was not relatable and too isolated, having no personal connections. As a result, they could not explain her motivations. After several changes were proposed, someone on the writing team suggested making the Snow Queen Anna 's sister. "Once we realized that these characters could be siblings and have a relationship, everything changed, '' Del Vecho relayed.
The Snow Queen, now given the name Elsa, continued to be cast as a villain, and Disney released the following synopsis for Frozen in May 2013:
When Anna is cursed by her estranged sister, the cold - hearted Snow Queen, Anna 's only hope of reversing the curse is to survive a perilous but thrilling journey across an icy and unforgiving landscape. Joined by a rugged, thrill - seeking outdoorsman, his one - antlered reindeer and a hapless snowman, Anna must race against time, conquer the elements and battle an army of menacing snowmen if she ever hopes to melt her frozen heart.
Earlier manuscripts included more antagonistic actions by Elsa, such as intentionally cursing Arendelle with an eternal winter. Additionally, she is shown creating an army of snowmen similar to the original Snow Queen 's army of snowflakes; the comedic character of Olaf was at the time written as a smaller snowman who was cast out by Elsa for being too unintimidating. Within two months, however, scripts were altered to give emphasis to her lack of control over her powers. Olaf was reduced to the only snowman created by Elsa, and he instead serves as a reminder of the sisters ' childhood friendship. In the final version, Elsa creates a single giant snow creature that Olaf nicknames "Marshmallow '' to act as a guard after being branded as a monster for her powers. According to director Jennifer Lee, the character ultimately became more of a composite of both Kai and the Snow Queen, enhancing her increasingly sympathetic portrayal. Del Vecho added, "There are times when Elsa does villainous things but because you understand where it comes from, from this desire to defend herself, you can always relate to her. ''
Eva Bella and Spencer Lacey Ganus were cast to portray Elsa as a young child and as a teenager, respectively. Actress and singer Megan Mullally was originally cast to voice an adult Elsa. but was replaced by Idina Menzel, a Broadway actress and singer best known for performing as Elphaba in Wicked. Menzel already knew Kristen Bell, who voiced Anna, and had previously auditioned for a lead role in the 2010 Disney film Tangled. She was not cast for the part, but the casting director recorded her singing and later showed the recording to Frozen 's film executives. Menzel was surprised when she was subsequently asked to audition, and she received the role after reading the script out loud. In interviews, she acknowledged similarities between Elsa, her then - current role, and Elphaba, her previous role. Namely, she said, they were both very powerful and very misunderstood individuals. She further said that she related to the characters, having hidden her singing talent from her peers at school. "I did n't want to alienate anyone, '' she explained. "If everyone was singing along in the car to a Madonna song, I did n't join in because when we 're younger we 're afraid of sticking out or showing off, when in fact we should own those things that make us really unique. ''
Director Chris Buck believed that Menzel 's vocals would help in the portrayal of the character, saying, "Idina has a sense of vulnerability in her voice. She plays a very strong character, but someone who lives in fear -- so we needed someone who could portray both sides of the character, and Idina was just amazing. '' Menzel was unaccustomed to working with animated films and being required to portray her character 's feelings with her voice alone, though she did not find it particularly challenging. While recording, she was able to "play '' with her voice, trying various tones to establish the ranges in Elsa 's emotions. For example, Menzel wanted there to be a difference between the ways she sounded when she was being bold and when she was angry. She would also physically restrict her hands from moving as she recorded the film 's early scenes in order to project how her character was "so afraid to move and feel anything that it would come out and hurt people ''.
During production, Menzel and Jonathan Groff, who portrays Kristoff, went to the animation studio to explain to the animators how they were approaching their characters. Animators asked Menzel questions about her singing, observed how she breathed as she sang live, and made videorecordings of her recording sessions; they then animated Elsa 's breathing to match Menzel 's breathing, for further realism. Her voice supplied inspiration for Elsa 's most prominent song, "Let It Go ''. According to composer Robert Lopez, Menzel 's vocal range was able to clearly convey Elsa 's "low, vulnerable, fragile side '' as well as her power and self - realization. Menzel commented that it was "an honor '' to have the song and that she enjoyed recording it. "It 's a collision of a bunch of forces that are all coming together in the right way, '' she explained. "The character, what she is singing and what she is experiencing; beautiful lyrics, beautiful melody and a little bit of me. '' Buck and Lee were also surprised by how compatible Menzel and Kristen Bell 's voices were. At one point during a table read, they sang a ballad (later revealed as "Wind Beneath My Wings '') back and forth to one another with so much sentiment that it reportedly left everyone who was present with tears in their eyes. Subsequently, Lee wanted Menzel and Bell to be in the same room when they were recording the important emotional scenes of the film.
All over the world, Elsa was dubbed in 46 languages.
Dutch singer and actress Willemijn Verkaik dubbed Elsa in Dutch (both speaking and singing) and German (singing only), Spanish singer Gisela sang both for the Castilian Spanish and Catalan versions and French singer Anaïs Delva 's singing lines were also used in the Canadian French version.
Both Anaïs Delva (French) and Jelena Gavrilović (Serbian) had originally auditioned for Anna 's role, but were eventually called back to dub Elsa instead.
Just like Idina Menzel, four of Elsa 's dubbers also played the role of Elphaba in the Musical "Wicked '', that is: Maria Lucia Rosenberg (Danish), Willemijn Verkaik (Dutch and German), Mona Mor (Hebrew) and Hyena Park (ko) (Korean).
Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs (namely: Albanian, Arabic TV, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog).
Following the casting of Idina Menzel, Elsa 's characterization underwent several alterations. According to Menzel, she was originally scripted as a one - dimensional antagonist but was gradually revised as a more vulnerable, multifaceted figure. Menzel further described her character as "extremely complicated and misunderstood ''. Director Jennifer Lee stated that Elsa is largely driven by fear throughout the film, while Menzel added that she was also struggling with her potential to be "a strong, powerful, extraordinary woman ''. Executive producer and animator John Lasseter became very "protective of Elsa '' and was adamant about portraying her in a more favorable, sympathetic light. Writer and director Jennifer Lee stated on Twitter that Elsa 's body language and mannerisms were "intentional to show anxiety and depression ''. In July 2013, Disney released images of the film 's main characters along with outlines of their roles in the story. Elsa received the following description:
From the outside, Elsa looks poised, regal and reserved, but in reality, she lives in fear as she wrestles with a mighty secret -- she was born with the power to create ice and snow. It 's a beautiful ability, but also extremely dangerous. Haunted by the moment her magic nearly killed her younger sister Anna, Elsa has isolated herself, spending every waking minute trying to suppress her growing powers. Her mounting emotions trigger the magic, accidentally setting off an eternal winter that she ca n't stop. She fears she 's becoming a monster and that no one, not even her sister, can help her.
Elsa 's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by her complexity. Unten carefully developed Elsa 's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna 's fearlessness. For their work on designing and animating Elsa, Unten and three other Disney Animation employees later won an award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards: Joy Johnson, character technical director (rigging); Alexander Alvarado, look development artist (Disney 's job title for texture artists); and Chad Stubblefield, modeling supervisor. FX technical director Yoo Jae - hyun worked for a year - and - a-half on creating Elsa 's ice - based special effects, including effects associated with her dress.
Producers identified the scene in which Elsa sings "Let It Go '' as a pivotal point in the character 's development. The scene depicts her choice to "let go '' of her fear of using her powers. Character design supervisor Bill Schwab said, "Before ' Let It Go ', Elsa is really buttoned up, her hair is up -- everything is perfect. During the song, she gives herself permission to be who she is and everything changes -- her hair is more wild, her gown is magical. She 's finally free -- even if she is all alone. '' Animators designed Elsa 's appearance to reflect her metamorphosis; in the beginning, she is shown primarily in restrictive and confining outfits. Menzel said that, after accepting her abilities, Elsa 's appearance becomes "very vampy '', continuing, "She 's quite sexy for Disney, I have to say -- they 're pushing the limits there a little bit! But there 's a gleam in her eye and a supermodel walk that goes with it and, for me, it was fun to be a blonde because I 'm not in real life. '' In a January 2014 interview with John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Lee disclosed that Lasseter personally helped with conceptualizing Elsa 's physical transformation: "(M) y favorite thing about it... is the actual model for doing it was John Lasseter... he was a huge help in talking through how we translate that emotional journey... with the animation... (H) e got up and he 's like,... ' her hair goes, and she transforms, and she struts, ' and he 's doing it. He 's acting it out. ''
The scene was also a pivotal point in the development of Elsa 's character and was initially planned to depict her becoming evil. Robert Lopez, who composed the song with his wife, Kristen Anderson - Lopez, explained, "Elsa was going to go from being this perfect princess that had tried to keep her personality down her whole life to saying, ' Screw it. I 'm gon na be me. ' '' They had wanted to use the song as a way to gain a better understanding of the character and what she would be like if she was no longer living in fear, which ultimately resulted in her becoming much more complex. The final lyrics and Menzel 's "ability to be so fragile and vulnerable and then break into this powerhouse voice '' turned the plot around and led to Elsa being revised as a "good '' character. She initially attempts to suppress her powers in order to avoid hurting others, particularly Anna, and when she is no longer able to do so, she banishes herself from the kingdom to protect those around her. Lead writer Paul Briggs said that Anna 's support is what Elsa needs most when her secret is exposed. "The strength of the family bond is what makes this story so powerful, '' he explained, "because it 's her sibling who 's willing to look beyond her powers and stand between her and the world if that 's what it takes. ''
Elsa 's appearance had to be redesigned following her transition from antagonist to protagonist. She was originally drawn in a style similar to other Disney villains, with blue skin and spiky black hair. A few months after the film 's release, visual development artist Claire Keane (the daughter of Disney Legend Glen Keane) published early concept art of Elsa that was modeled after the singer Amy Winehouse. At the time, she was imagined as having blue "bouffant '' hair as well as "a deep, soulful voice and dramatic mood swings ''. Lasseter reportedly influenced the creation of the character 's much softer final appearance, particularly in regards to her very thick platinum blonde hair, which animators found difficult to design. Art director Michael Giaimo said that while a number of strategies were proposed for Elsa 's hair, Lasseter would push the animation team to continue making improvements, saying, "It 's not aspirational enough. We want people to feel like this hair is a beautiful statement. '' During a research trip, producers found that "there are lots of braids '' worn by women in Norway; they then hired a stylist from New York named "Danilo '' who helped to create a style that would reflect that while still being "a little different ''. A new animation program called Tonic was invented to assist with the task, and the character 's hair ultimately required 420,000 CGI threads. By contrast, Anna was given roughly 140,000 hairs while Rapunzel from Tangled had only required 27,000 CGI threads for her hair.
Since Elsa is introduced as a young child at the beginning of the film, animators wanted the first glimpse of her powers to reflect her innocent and fanciful state of mind at the time. This included giving her first snowflakes a simple design. Her snow and ice patterns later become more intricate and complex when she is an adult. Co-effects supervisor Marlon West elaborated, "When Elsa finally lets go and really starts owning her cryokinetic abilities, we wanted the ice and snow that she make to get across the idea that Elsa has now grown up and become this beautiful, elegant, confident and powerful young woman. ''
Her ice castle, which she creates while singing "Let It Go '', was designed to illustrate the maturing of her powers as well as to be "a manifestation of her feelings to the world ''. The palace is initially beautiful; however, after she is made aware of the destruction she has inadvertently caused, and as she is increasingly vilified and hunted by others, it becomes darker and more distorted, with jagged icicles forming on the walls. The film 's design team was uncertain about how it should look and drew out designs for various ice castles filled with snow. Lasseter suggested basing the structure and patterns on snowflakes. For example, an enormous snowflake would serve as the foundation, and the palace would be hexagon - shaped. Lasseter also wanted snowflake patterns to influence the manner in which Elsa creates the palace. "Snowflakes are these tiny little ice crystals that form in mid-air. And when there are changes in temperature and humidity, these snowflakes start growing in a pattern that 's known as branching and plating, '' said co-effects supervisor Dale Mayeda. "(Lasseter) said ' You know, when Elsa builds her ice palace, it would be so amazing if -- every step of the way as this castle forms out of thin air -- it 's just branching and plating, branching and plating all along the way. ''
Fifty animators worked on the scene in which the castle is built, and one frame required 30 hours to render. They later extended similar techniques to Elsa 's clothing. While the traditional Norwegian rosemaling was the inspiration for her costuming early in the film, her ice gown was designed similarly to her palace, with snowflakes heavily influencing the style. Her cape itself is a large snowflake.
Elsa, princess of Arendelle and heiress to the throne, is born with the ability to create and control ice and snow. As a child, she uses her abilities to create a winter wonderland to play in with her younger sister and best friend, Princess Anna. One night, Elsa accidentally harms Anna with her powers. The king and queen of Arendelle hurriedly take Anna to a tribe of mountain trolls to be healed. While healing Anna, the trolls inform the royals present that Elsa 's abilities will grow, becoming both beautiful and very dangerous so she must learn to control them. While the trolls erase Anna 's memory of the incident and of her elder sister 's powers in general, Elsa is traumatized by the event. The king and queen take steps to control and hide Elsa 's ice powers: the castle gates are locked, Elsa is shut away in her bedroom for most of the time, she is given gloves to help suppress her powers and is told to hold in her emotions as well. Nonetheless her powers continue to grow even stronger and so she becomes fearful of harming those she cares about most. Meanwhile, her sister Anna is less happy and confused by the loss of contact with her elder sister and tries, without success, to coax her out of her room. When the sisters grow into teenagers, the ship in which the king and queen are sailing is capsized in a storm and they drown, leaving Anna and Elsa feeling even more lonely.
Three years pass, and Elsa, now of age, is set to formally succeed her father as the monarch of Arendelle. Though she is afraid of opening the castle to the large crowds, her coronation goes on relatively peacefully. However, at the reception party, Anna asks for Elsa 's blessing to marry Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, whom Anna had met earlier that day. Elsa refuses to bless Hans 's offer to marry Anna; he is someone she barely knows, prompting an argument between the two. Being so upset Elsa accidentally reveals her power. Upon the guests ' and her subjects ' horror and being accused of sorcery and called a monster, Elsa flees the castle and retreats into the icy mountains. In the process, her emotions unleash an "eternal '' winter throughout Arendelle. While there, she decides to embrace, finally, all her powers and builds an enormous ice palace where she believes she can live freely without fear of hurting people. She also rebuilds her childhood snowman, Olaf, and unknowingly brings him to life.
Anna, determined to find Elsa and bring her back, travels through the mountains, encountering Olaf and a mountain man named Kristoff. They reach the ice palace, where Anna attempts to persuade Elsa to return home and mend their relationship. When Elsa ultimately resists (due to her memory of hurting Anna as a child with her powers resurfacing) Anna tells her about the state that Arendelle and all its people was left in. Horrified, Elsa lashes out and accidentally freezes Anna 's heart. Now even more horrified at the prospect of hurting her sister and people with her powers, Elsa forces Anna, Kristoff and Olaf out by creating a gigantic snow creature (called Marshmallow by Olaf), that is a symbol of her desire to be alone so as to be able to use her powers without hurting anyone. After this, her ice castle evidently becomes darker and more grotesque, reflecting her torment and re-ignited fears. Meanwhile, Anna becomes weaker day by day and Kristoff takes her back to the trolls, who tell them that only an "act of true love '' can save her life.
Hans and a group of soldiers attack the now ugly ice palace. Elsa seizes two soldiers who attempt to assassinate her. Hans convinces her to spare them to prove that she is not a monster. However, she is knocked unconscious and taken to her castle 's dungeon. Hans visits her and urges her to end the winter; Elsa admits that she has no idea how to do so. After he leaves, she is able to break free from the chains by freezing them and escapes the cell, though her fears trigger a massive blizzard. Anna returns to the castle, believing that a romantic kiss from Hans will be the "act of true love '' to save her. Instead, he informs her that his offer of marriage (engagement) had been the first step of a plot to get him the throne of Arendelle. Olaf tells Anna that Kristoff is in love with her and she believes that his kiss will cure her. They rush to find Kristoff. Hans confronts Elsa and tells her that she has killed Anna. Devastated, Elsa collapses and the blizzard stops suddenly. Hans approaches her and swings his sword to kill her, but Anna turns away from an approaching Kristoff with her last bit of strength and blocks Hans ' attack as she freezes solid.
Moments later, Anna begins to thaw, as her choice to save her sister rather than herself constituted the necessary "act of true love ''. Elsa realizes that love is the key to controlling her powers and is able to end the kingdom 's eternal winter. Summer returns to Arendelle, Elsa regains the throne and is able to use and safely control her powers, while the sisters ' bond is restored. She exiles Hans back to the Southern Isles to face punishment from his family and cuts off trade with the Duke of Weselton 's town for his earlier behavior towards her.
Nearly a year after the events of the first film, Elsa tries to make Anna 's 19th birthday as perfect as possible a way of making up for the years they spent apart. To do so, she works heavily with Kristoff, Sven and Olaf to make this a reality. Upon making sure that her surprise party in the palace courtyard is ready, she leaves Kristoff in charge while she goes to get Anna. However, Elsa starts to come down with a cold as she leads Anna on a treasure hunt to find all the gifts that have been made for her. Without realizing it, each sneeze she makes creates small snowmen called "snowgies '', which create trouble for Kristoff, Sven and Olaf. As Anna notices Elsa 's cold getting worse, she tries in vain to get Elsa to stop exerting herself, even taking medicine from Oaken in case Elsa gets sicker. Unfortunately, Elsa 's cold cause her to become very tired and behave in a seemingly intoxicated - like manner, and she nearly falls from Arendelle 's clock tower only for Anna to save her. Upon finally admitting to Anna that she is indeed sick after the previous incident, she allows Anna to escort her home feeling she has ruined everything, and finds that the party has gone off successfully for Anna (as well as discovering her snowgie creations), and still slightly intoxicated, she ends the party by accidentally sneezing into the birthday bugle horn, which inadvertently sends a gigantic snowball all the way to the Southern Isles and hits the now - demoted Hans, causing him to fall into a pile of horse manure. Afterwards, Anna tells a now bed - ridden Elsa that she has given her the best birthday ever by letting her take care of her.
Elsa appeared in a 21 - minute holiday film along with Anna, Kristoff, Sven, and Olaf, which debuted in theaters for a limited time engagement with Disney Pixar 's Coco on November 22, 2017. It made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017.
In December 2013, Disney began releasing "Musical Magic Elsa and Anna Dolls '', which played their signature songs that appear in the film. Numerous other doll versions of Elsa were released for purchase, including fashion doll sets, mini dolls, plush dolls, and Elsa - as - a-toddler dolls. A dress up costume for children was modeled after Elsa 's ice gown along with gloves similar to ones she wears in the film. Together with Anna, she was depicted on various Frozen - inspired dishware such as plates and coffee mugs. Other Elsa - inspired merchandise includes luggage, nightgowns, and home décor. Additionally, simplified versions of the film were adapted to children 's storybooks, including one with voice audio and another called A Sister More Like Me that was illustrated by Brittney Lee. Elsa and Anna also both appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity through the use of their corresponding figurines.
In early 2014, most Frozen merchandise, including dolls and dresses, were sold out nearly everywhere, including Disney stores and theme parks. In early November 2014, Disney announced that it had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone, of which Elsa was the no. 1 best - selling Disney costume of all time, followed by Anna at no. 2. Hallmark created a Queen Elsa Christmas tree ornament after much interest was expressed when the Olaf ornament was announced in 2014.
In November, before the release of Frozen, Anna and Elsa began making appearances at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in Florida and California through meet and greets. In Walt Disney World, the attractions were set up in the Norway Pavilion of Epcot in recognition of the Scandinavian cultural elements that went into the film 's design. In Disneyland, a winter - themed cottage was set up in the Fantasyland section, with a talking audio - animatronic Olaf sitting on the cottage roof. In February 2014, these meet - and - greet sessions were extended indefinitely, with wait time to meet the princesses frequently exceeding two hours, which is longer than any previous Disney characters. Additionally, Elsa, Anna, and Olaf were given a Frozen - themed float for Disneyland Paris ' Disney Magic on Parade. On March 9, 2014, the three made appearances again on their own Frozen parade float in Festival of Fantasy Parade at Magic Kingdom theme park. On April 20, 2014, Anna and Elsa moved from Epcot to the Princess Fairytale Hall at Magic Kingdom, with wait time to see the characters amounted to three hours, compared to Cinderella 's and Rapunzel 's 15 minutes.
Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' became the central feature in Disney California Adventure 's Winter Dreams, a 30 - minute, winter - themed adaption of the nighttime show World of Color, which showcases scenes from Disney films. Disneyland Paris ' nighttime spectacular, Disney Dreams!, also added Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' to their attractions, and she was given a similar role during the Magic Kingdom show, Celebrate the Magic, with her singing interspersed with scenes from the movie.
On May 16, 2014, it was announced that Disneyland would debut a Frozen pre-parade featuring Elsa, Anna and Olaf. It premiered June 13, 2014, and preceded performances of Mickey 's Soundsational Parade. From July 5 to September 1, 2014, as part of ' Frozen ' Summer Fun show at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, Anna and Elsa will appear in a horse - drawn sleigh making their way down Hollywood Boulevard, alongside Kristoff and skaters, skiers and ice cutters in the Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome section. The sisters also made appearances in For the First Time in Forever: A "Frozen '' Sing - Along Celebration, where they were joined by royal historians to retell the history of Arendelle; and "Frozen '' Fireworks Spectacular alongside Kristoff and Olaf, a fireworks display set to the music of Frozen. In response to strong demand, Disney Parks subsequently announced on August 7 that Frozen Summer Fun would be extended to September 28.
On August 19, 2014, it was initially announced that Elsa & Anna 's Boutique (replacing Studio Disney 365) would open mid-September in Downtown Disney at the Disneyland Resort. The opening date was later changed to October 6, 2014, and the store name was changed to "Anna & Elsa 's Boutique ''. The location includes products inspired by Anna, Elsa, and Olaf.
While there had not been any official announcements from Disney regarding a coronation for Anna and Elsa, it had been announced in late August 2014 that a special character meal would be held by a group of travel agents in the morning of September 24, 2014. While not officially organized by Disney, the event, called My Royal Coronation, would feature the official Anna and Elsa characters owned by Disney with assistance from the company. On September 12, 2014, Walt Disney World announced that a Frozen attraction was scheduled to open in early 2016 at Epcot 's World Showcase in the Norway pavilion, replacing the park 's Maelstrom ride. The attraction features the kingdom of Arendelle with music and scenes from the film, as well as meet - and - greets with Anna and Elsa. Anna, Elsa, Kristoff, and Olaf will make appearances in Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmastime Parade, offered during Mickey 's Very Merry Christmas Party at Magic Kingdom in November and December 2014 (from November 7 to December 31). Also starting from November, every night Elsa will use her powers to transform Cinderella Castle into an ice palace.
On November 13, 2014, prior to "A Sparkling Christmas '' Evert, Anna and Elsa began meet - and - greet sessions at Hong Kong Disneyland.
Beginning December 20, 2014, the Anna and Elsa meet and greet at Disneyland Resort was moved from Disneyland park to a new location in the Disney Animation Building called "Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome '' in Disney California Adventure. In addition, the Storybook Land Canal Boats at Disneyland were updated to include the village of Arendelle from the film, including Anna and Elsa 's castle and Elsa 's ice palace. Officially starting January 7, 2015, Elsa began making appearances alongside Anna and Kristoff at Disney California Adventure in "For the First Time in Forever -- A Frozen Sing - Along Celebration '' in Hollywood Land as part of the park 's "Frozen Fun '' event. Also starting January 7, Anna and Elsa made appearances in a Frozen play at the Royal Theatre in Disneyland park.
Beginning May 22, 2015, Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called "Paint the Night '', which includes a Frozen float featuring Anna, Elsa, and Olaf, as part of the park 's 60th anniversary celebration.
Elsa has become very popular in the cosplaying community. Cosplayer Anna Faith is well known for cosplaying as Elsa at charities, comic - cons, and other events.
Caissie Levy originated the role of Elsa in the Broadway musical, which opened in March 2018.
The character of Elsa was widely praised by reviewers for her multifaceted, evolving personality. Matt Goldberg of Collider.com commented that she was "an incredibly sympathetic character '', while Deepanjana Pal of First Post (India) praised the decision to rewrite her as a protagonist and said, "Elsa is no evil, frosty vision of twisted and toxic maternity like the original Snow Queen. She 's a young woman in difficult circumstances, frightened, trying to understand her abilities and burdened by expectation and convention. It 's easy to sympathise with her and marvel at her ability when she builds her spectacular palace in the mountains. Next to her, Anna is very much a child who needs to grow up and she does in the course of the film. '' Stuff.co.nz 's James Croot compared her "humiliation and exile '' to that of Simba in The Lion King. Katherine Webb, a reviewer for Wall St. Cheat Sheet, said that the scenes depicting Elsa gaining confidence and individuality delivered "an exciting message to send to young girls looking for a new princess role model ''. Gary Wright of Rotoscopers state "Her mental anguish and uncontrollable powers define modern feminism. Elsa represents the boundless female spirit - strong and graceful, with the power to change the world. ''
Travis Bean of Cedar Falls Times suggested that Elsa 's ice powers, a "personal oddity '' that made her self - conscious, as well as her selflessness in withdrawing into isolation in order to avoid hurting others allowed children to connect more with the plot of Frozen. Laurie Levy from Chicago Now wrote that her young grandchildren "admired Elsa for being smart, strong, magical, and powerful '' and did not care that she had no romantic subplot. Magdalena Lachowicz, a film critic for The Heights, opined that Elsa 's relationship with Anna was the most important part of the movie, and Stephen Holden of The New York Times liked that, in departure from traditional Disney formula, it was a sibling 's love rather than romantic love that was able to "thaw the icy heart of the frightened Elsa ''. Tony Hicks of San Jose Mercury News wrote, "(Anna 's) confusion and Elsa 's anguish as she shuts herself away from the world -- and her sister -- is palatable. '' Emma Koonse of Christian Post opined that together the sisters were Disney 's "most lovable and charismatic characters yet '', and Debbie Lynn Elias of Culver City Observer commented, "Elsa and Anna are like two sides of a coin, both strong, albeit one through power and confidence and the other through clumsy sticktuitiveness and love. ''
Several reviewers commented that Elsa was more interesting than Anna, Frozen 's primary protagonist. ABS - CBN writer Fred Hawson described Elsa as "an incredible character with a unique and interesting predicament because of the powers she possessed '' and expressed the opinion that Frozen should have focused more on her rather than Anna. Samra Muslim of The Express Tribune wrote that it was her presence that kept viewers "hooked '' throughout the movie, elaborating, "Her character is complex and sympathetic and deserved to be explored even further. Instead the story revolves more around the relationship of the two sisters and Anna who is the typical, feisty, charming Disney heroine and her love trysts -- instead of the alluring Elsa. ''
The character was not devoid of criticism. Charlotte O'Sullivan from the London Evening Standard gave a more negative assessment of Elsa, saying that she "resembles one of those brittle mentors on The X Factor. Purple eyeshadow, tiny waist, kitten heels ''. Anna Smith of The Guardian disliked that both Elsa and Anna were drawn with slender figures and large eyes as is typical of Disney princesses. Slate 's Dana Stevens wrote that "it 's impossible not to thrill to Elsa 's surging sense of power '' but criticized the choice to illustrate her growing confidence by changing her appearance; Stevens further expressed concern that the switch from the character 's modest coronation gown to "a slinky, slit - to - the - thigh dress with a transparent snowflake - patterned train and a pair of silver - white high heels '' and a hairstyle that suggested "come - hither bad - girl seduction '' was overly sexual. Christy Lemire compared Elsa to Carrie White, another well - known fictional female who unleashes magical powers when agitated.
Idina Menzel also received praise for her singing, with Amon Warmann of Cine Vue saying her voice "positively soars in these musical ballads ''. Reviewers frequently focused on her performance of "Let It Go '', described by Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' in which Elsa decides to no longer fear her powers. Various critics said that Menzel had been a "powerhouse '' during the scene; Linda Barnard from The Star commented that Menzel "can shatter icicles with her powerful voice ''.
Matt DeTruck of The Rochester City Newspaper wrote, "Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Donald Clark of Irish Times added, "Elsa 's flight to the glaciers triggers a song that, in its defiant paean to self - reliance, could play comfortably beside camp showtune anthems such as I Am What I Am and Do n't Rain on My Parade. The opening and closing choruses of Let It Go end with a sly, spat - out refrain: ' The cold never bothered me anyway! ' You go, girl. '' Nasim Asl of The Oxford Student continued, "Menzel, especially, steals the show with her performance of ' Let It Go '. Her Wicked-esque belting out works perfectly with such an incredible animated sequence -- the building of the ice castle really demonstrates the prowess of Disney animation, and results in, arguably, one of the most spectacular power ballads seen by any animated character, ever. ''
In December 2013, Elsa and Anna were both nominated for Best Animated Female by the Alliance of Women Film Journalists, with only Anna winning the award, a few weeks later. Elsa won all three awards out of three nominations at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards, including Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture, Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her ice palace, and Outstanding FX and Simulation Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her blizzard. Her signature song, "Let It Go '', won Best Original Song at the Academy Awards, the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards and the Critics ' Choice Awards, and also received Golden Globe Award, the Satellite Awards, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, and the Houston Film Critics Society Award nominations.
Time ranked Elsa as the most influential fictional character of 2014.
Media related to Elsa (Frozen) at Wikimedia Commons
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when did smash mouth all star come out | All Star (song) - wikipedia
"All Star '' is a song by American rock band Smash Mouth. It was released on May 4, 1999, as the second single from their album Astro Lounge and it is one of the group 's most successful songs, peaking at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100.
"All Star '' is composed in the key of F ♯ major with a tempo of 104 beats per minute. According to a 2017 interview, songwriter Greg Camp was interested in exploring several layers of meaning with the stripped - down song: the social battle cry, the sports anthem, the fanbase affirmation, the poetic lyricism, the sweeping melody, the inclusion, the artistic music videos, and more.
The music video (directed by McG) features cameos by William H. Macy, Ben Stiller, Hank Azaria, Diane Rehm, Paul Reubens, Kel Mitchell, Janeane Garofalo, Doug Jones, and Dane Cook from the film Mystery Men (1999), which prominently featured the song. As of April 2018, the video has received over 160 million views on Smash Mouth 's YouTube channel.
The song reached No. 2 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart and No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100. In Canada, it peaked at No. 2 on the RPM singles chart.
In Mystery Men, "All Star '' is played during a scene in which the titular superhero team holds auditions to recruit new members. The final scene of Rat Race (2001) revolves around Smash Mouth performing the song at a charity concert.
The song is heavily used in the Shrek franchise to promote the series, especially during the first film 's opening credits introducing the title character. Devotion towards the song has been considered a factor in the Internet 's obsession towards the series and titular character. In turn, it has since been dubbed a popular "internet meme '', resurfacing on the internet and becoming prevalent in media in 2017, usually focused on remixes and edits of the song and its music video.
The season five premiere episode of Last Week Tonight with John Oliver features a performance of "All Star '' by the New York City Gay Men 's Chorus, intended to demonstrate that the United States is "a beautiful mess of contradictions '' in that it is "a terrible, stupid song being sung absolutely beautifully (by the chorus). ''
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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how old do you have to be to do lazer tag | Laser tag - wikipedia
Laser tag is a tag game played with guns which fire infrared beams. Infrared - sensitive targets are commonly worn by each player and are sometimes integrated within the arena in which the game is played. Since its birth in 1979, with the release of the Star Trek Electronic Phasers toy manufactured by the South Bend Electronics brand of Milton Bradley, laser tag has evolved into both indoor and outdoor styles of play, and may include simulations of combat, role play - style games, or competitive sporting events including tactical configurations and precise game goals.
Laser tag is popular with a wide range of ages. When compared to paintball, laser tag is painless because it uses no physical projectiles, and indoor versions may be considered less physically demanding because most indoor venues prohibit running or roughhousing.
In late 1970s and early ' 80s, the United States Army deployed a system using infrared beams for combat training. The MILES system functions like laser tag in that beams are "fired '' into receivers that score hits. Similar systems are now manufactured by several companies and used by various armed forces around the world.
The first known toy to use infrared light and a corresponding sensor was manufactured and marketed in 1979 as the Star Trek Electronic Phaser Guns set.
In 1982, George Carter III began the process of designing an arena - based system for playing a scored version of the game, a possibility which had initially occurred to him in 1977 while watching the film Star Wars Episode IV. The Grand Opening for the first Photon center in Dallas, Texas on March 28, 1984. Carter was honored by the International Laser Tag Association on November 17, 2005 for his contribution to the laser tag industry. The award is engraved "Presented to George A. Carter III in recognition for being the Inventor and Founder of the laser tag industry ''.
In 1986, the first Photon toys hit the market, nearly simultaneously with the Lazer Tag toys from Worlds of Wonder and several other similar infrared and visible light - based toys. Worlds of Wonder went out of business around 1988, and Photon soon followed in 1989, as the fad of the games wore off. Today there are laser tag arenas all over the world bearing various names and brands, as well as a large variety of consumer equipment for home play and professional grade equipment for outdoor laser tag arenas and businesses.
In 2010, a news article appeared claiming that Lee Weinstein developed and opened the first commercial laser tag facility. In June, 2011, the ILTA posted the results of a public record request from the City of Houston showing the opening date for Weinstein 's "Star Laser Force '' to have been April 16, 1985.
Laser tag systems vary widely in their technical capabilities and their applications. The game mechanics in laser tag are closely linked to the hardware used, the communication capabilities of the system, the embedded software that runs the equipment, the integration between the player 's equipment and devices in the facility, the environment, and the configuration of the software that runs the equipment.
The resulting game play mechanics can result in anything from the highly realistic combat simulation used by the military to fantasy scenarios inspired by science fiction and video games.
Rate of fire, objectives, effects of being tagged, the number of lives, and other parameters can often be altered on the fly to provide for varied game play.
Along with standard team or solo matches, where one team or individuals try to tag the members of the other team or players repetitively, many laser tag venues will feature specialty matches. These matches vary based on equipment manufacturer and the level of technology of the system. Often they have various objectives and missions and demonstrate the technological capability of each system.
Specialty games include:
Capture the flag -- this is where a player steals the opponents ' flag and takes it back to his or her own base in order to score a point or win the match (depending on score system).
Protect the VIP -- The team with the VIP must hide and conceal them for a set length of time while the opposing team tries to eliminate the VIP within the given time limit.
Stealth or Invisibility matches -- Where the lights indicating a player 's target sensors are deactivated.
Base - centric matches -- where a team must defend a base while simultaneously attacking the opponent 's base. Many prominent laser tag game systems, including LASERTRON, LaserBlast and Zone utilize this game format.
"Borg '' matches -- where players on a team share a pool of commonly held resources.
Juggernaut matches - One player is allocated as the ' juggernaut ' and gains points for staying as the juggernaut. Other players attempt to eliminate this player and thus become the juggernaut themselves. Similar to Domination - style games.
Elimination matches -- where a player is eliminated if tagged a certain number of times.
Domination matches -- where a player gains points for possessing a field target for certain lengths of time.
Role - Playing or Character Class - based games -- where each player 's equipment performs a different function.
At their core, laser tag systems typically use infrared signaling to track firing of the beam. In indoor play, a visible light combined with theatrical fog typically provide the visual effect of firing, while having no actual role in transmitting the fire signal.
In all but the most basic of systems, the infrared signal sent by the gun when it fires is encoded with information such as the identity of the pack from which it originated. This coding allows for scoring and may also act to discourage interference from unauthorized devices in the playing area.
Despite the name, laser tag equipment does not fire lasers, due to the potential dangers involved.
Indoor laser tag is typically played in a large arena (may or may not be dark) run by a commercial laser tag operator. The packs are tightly integrated with the devices inside the arena. The arena devices, and the packs themselves may be linked into a control computer for scoring and control over game parameters using radio equipment or infrared links. The game computer often serves to control other game effects and to manage player scores.
The dimensions of an indoor laser tag arena makes for close quarters, so there is a large design focus on performance and game play under these conditions.
Outdoor laser tag equipment reflects design concerns that are different from indoor equipment. The equipment is generally expected to function well at longer ranges, even in daylight, so higher output power and specially designed optics are often a requirement. The units themselves are normally constructed of machined aluminum or a poly - carbonated plastic to withstand the abuse the outdoors brings. Players usually wear lightweight head sensors to receive hits. Operators typically either run games like indoor laser tag where you count the number of times you tag other players, or scenarios often approximate real - world combat, or a laser tag version of paintball games. Many paintball fields are adding laser tag to attract and groom players who are too young to play paintball. Some theme parks are adding outdoor laser tag facilities.
Competitions and tournaments are staged for local, regional / state, inter-regional, national, bi-lateral international, and international levels.
The First Zone Worlds Laser Tag Championships were hosted in the United States. Ultrazone 's San Diego site in California hosted Worlds I from 2 -- 7 August 2003.
Worlds I featured 12 teams from Sweden, Finland, Canada and the United States. The tournament was played on v5 equipment and took place between 11pm to 6am.
Results:
The Second Zone World Laser Tag Championships were staged at Megazone in Tampere, Finland during 30 May -- 4 June 2009, with teams including Australia, Sweden, U.S., and the host country Finland.
Results:
The Third Zone Worlds Laser Tag Championships were hosted in the United States. Syracuse, New York site hosted Worlds III in 2011.
Results:
The Fourth Zone Worlds Laser Tag Championships took place at Sunshine Coast, Australia from 31 August 2014 to 5 September 2014.
Results:
The Fifth Zone Worlds Laser Tag Championships is locked in to be hosted in Belfort, France http://worlds.neo-center.fr/ Dates are set to Sunday August 20 to Friday August 25, 2017.
The Armageddon cross-system tournament format was created in 2000 and is hosted yearly as a tournament that did not rely on a specific set of equipment or arena, for teams to play. The US Armageddon tournament typically judges cross-system teams on 10 different systems over the course of several days. The UK, Swedish, and Russian versions of the Armageddon tournament are typically smaller scale to the American one.
The location and route of the tournaments is traditionally varied every couple of years to provide a more varied scope to the equipment and arenas that are a part of the tournament.
Bi-lateral international championships have included:
National tournaments are conducted in various countries, including:
Individual Laser Tag systems often develop active tournament scenes. Unfortunately, due to the business practice of manufacturers not owning sites, these scenes tend to last only a few years and are player - organized and run. Ultrazone, when it had corporate - owned sites, ran tournaments up until about 2000. Laser Quest, with corporately - owned sites across North America, have operated the North American Challenge (or NAC for short) since 1995 and many local tournaments throughout the year. Laserforce has also maintained an international tournament scene for many years. LaserTron has also supported a tournament program for the past three years.
LaserStorm may have the most successful tournament scene, as they have regularly held ongoing regional tournaments in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Colorado, Michigan, Florida, Kansas, California, Wisconsin, and New York for the past decade. The "LaserStorm National Championship '' is entering its 16th consecutive year (2012), with the best teams from those regions traveling to one chosen host site every summer for a week long tournament to crown the yearly National Champions, and the best player in the country. The most recent Laser Storm National Tournament took place in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in July 2011, with Pennsylvania team "Extreme Dump Truck On Fire '' taking the 1st place title. This was the 15th annual national - level Laser Storm tournament. Florida still holds the record for the most undefeated wins in any national laser storm tournament.
Darkzone (the Australian name for Ultrazone) has recently had its 10th annual National tournament also cementing it as one of the most stable competitions running in the world.
Around the world clubs have come and gone with the different eras of one brand or another becoming popular and then fading again. The early Worlds of Wonder, or ' WoW ', Lazer Tag brand gear sparked up clubs around the world and inspired development of other gear that is still in use today. Laser Challenge and Electronic Survivor Shot also inspired many clubs to form in the US. More recently the Lazer Tag Team Ops gear by Hasbro sparked multiple clubs across the United States. Home made or "Do it yourself '' DIY gear has also been popular. In the U.K. the WoW signature is still in use by many clubs today, however much of the gear is manufactured by club individuals from scratch. In the US, Miles Tag was created as a DIY gear which was adopted by other clubs such as the Australian group that calls their gear FragTag. Although many clubs, and there events, there are a few events that have become large enough to stand the test of time. Among these are:
There are Laser Tag groups across the globe in many countries. Most clubs have some sort of site taking advantage of tools on sites like Yahoo, Google, Facebook, and Meetup, and a few have websites of their own.
In March 2009, upon the Winnenden school shooting, the German government announced that it would ban games such as laser tag and paintball, claiming that they trivialize and encourage violence. It later retracted this assertion.
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muscles are made of bundles of muscle fibers | Muscle - wikipedia
Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion. They are primarily responsible for maintaining and changing posture, locomotion, as well as movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis.
Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as myogenesis. There are three types of muscle, skeletal or striated, cardiac, and smooth. Muscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary. Cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thought and are termed involuntary, whereas the skeletal muscles contract upon command. Skeletal muscles in turn can be divided into fast and slow twitch fibers.
Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used to power the movement of the myosin heads.
The term muscle is derived from the Latin musculus meaning "little mouse '' perhaps because of the shape of certain muscles or because contracting muscles look like mice moving under the skin.
The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle.
Muscle tissue is a soft tissue, and is one of the four fundamental types of tissue present in animals. There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates:
Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated '' in that they contain sarcomeres that are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; the myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged in sarcomeres and so are not striated. While the sarcomeres in skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle sarcomeres connect at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near - permanent contractions.
Skeletal (voluntary) muscle is further divided into two broad types: slow twitch and fast twitch:
The density of mammalian skeletal muscle tissue is about 1.06 kg / liter. This can be contrasted with the density of adipose tissue (fat), which is 0.9196 kg / liter. This makes muscle tissue approximately 15 % denser than fat tissue.
Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous. It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium. Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle. The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells (myocytes), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers. Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles. At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle. Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system. (This grouping structure is analogous to the organization of nerves which uses epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium).
This same bundles - within - bundles structure is replicated within the muscle cells. Within the cells of the muscle are myofibrils, which themselves are bundles of protein filaments. The term "myofibril '' should not be confused with "myofiber '', which is a simply another name for a muscle cell. Myofibrils are complex strands of several kinds of protein filaments organized together into repeating units called sarcomeres. The striated appearance of both skeletal and cardiac muscle results from the regular pattern of sarcomeres within their cells. Although both of these types of muscle contain sarcomeres, the fibers in cardiac muscle are typically branched to form a network. Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by intercalated discs, giving that tissue the appearance of a syncytium.
The filaments in a sarcomere are composed of actin and myosin.
The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. There is an important distinction seen between pennate muscles and other muscles. In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion. However, In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris.
Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the biceps brachii (biceps). The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the tendons. In turn, the tendons connect to the periosteum layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton. Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep fascia of the body.
The muscular system consists of all the muscles present in a single body. There are approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, but an exact number is difficult to define. The difficulty lies partly in the fact that different sources group the muscles differently and partly in that some muscles, such as palmaris longus, are not always present.
A muscular slip is a narrow length of muscle that acts to augment a larger muscle or muscles.
The muscular system is one component of the musculoskeletal system, which includes not only the muscles but also the bones, joints, tendons, and other structures that permit movement.
All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo 's length into somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body (most obviously seen in the vertebral column. Each somite has 3 divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle). The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively. The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small intervertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and inervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves.
During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells.
The three types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) have significant differences. However, all three use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction. In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motoneurons (motor nerves) in particular. Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
The action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of "sarcomeres '' which can operate in parallel. Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres. Since contraction occurs at the same time for all connected sarcomeres in a muscles cell, these chains of sarcomeres shorten together, thus shortening the muscle fiber, resulting in overall length change. The amount of force applied to the external environment is determined by lever mechanics, specifically the ratio of in - lever to out - lever. For example, moving the insertion point of the biceps more distally on the radius (farther from the joint of rotation) would increase the force generated during flexion (and, as a result, the maximum weight lifted in this movement), but decrease the maximum speed of flexion. Moving the insertion point proximally (closer to the joint of rotation) would result in decreased force but increased velocity. This can be most easily seen by comparing the limb of a mole to a horse - in the former, the insertion point is positioned to maximize force (for digging), while in the latter, the insertion point is positioned to maximize speed (for running).
The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement. Nerves move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the brain. Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes.
In addition, muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that do not always send signals all the way to the brain. In this case, the signal from the afferent fiber does not reach the brain, but produces the reflexive movement by direct connections with the efferent nerves in the spine. However, the majority of muscle activity is volitional, and the result of complex interactions between various areas of the brain.
Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain 's cerebral cortex. Commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles. Along the way, feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response.
Deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal ganglia.
In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the "unconscious '' awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion.
Muscular activity accounts for much of the body 's energy consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. Muscles have a short - term store of energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle). Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during aerobic exercise. The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a ' warm up ' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise.
At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 kJ / kg (13.0 kcal / kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 kJ / kg (4.5 kcal / kg), and bone at 9.6 kJ / kg (2.3 kcal / kg).
The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18 % to 26 %. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40 % efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast - twitch or slow - twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis.
Muscle is a result of three factors that overlap: physiological strength (muscle size, cross sectional area, available crossbridging, responses to training), neurological strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle 's force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint capabilities).
Vertebrate muscle typically produces approximately 25 -- 33 N (5.6 -- 7.4 lb) of force per square centimeter of muscle cross-sectional area when isometric and at optimal length. Some invertebrate muscles, such as in crab claws, have much longer sarcomeres than vertebrates, resulting in many more sites for actin and myosin to bind and thus much greater force per square centimeter at the cost of much slower speed. The force generated by a contraction can be measured non-invasively using either mechanomyography or phonomyography, be measured in vivo using tendon strain (if a prominent tendon is present), or be measured directly using more invasive methods.
The strength of any given muscle, in terms of force exerted on the skeleton, depends upon length, shortening speed, cross sectional area, pennation, sarcomere length, myosin isoforms, and neural activation of motor units. Significant reductions in muscle strength can indicate underlying pathology, with the chart at right used as a guide.
Since three factors affect muscular strength simultaneously and muscles never work individually, it is misleading to compare strength in individual muscles, and state that one is the "strongest ''. But below are several muscles whose strength is noteworthy for different reasons.
Exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint function. Exercise has several effects upon muscles, connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate the muscles. One such effect is muscle hypertrophy, an increase in size. This is used in bodybuilding.
Various exercises require a predominance of certain muscle fiber utilization over another. Aerobic exercise involves long, low levels of exertion in which the muscles are used at well below their maximal contraction strength for long periods of time (the most classic example being the marathon). Aerobic events, which rely primarily on the aerobic (with oxygen) system, use a higher percentage of Type I (or slow - twitch) muscle fibers, consume a mixture of fat, protein and carbohydrates for energy, consume large amounts of oxygen and produce little lactic acid. Anaerobic exercise involves short bursts of higher intensity contractions at a much greater percentage of their maximum contraction strength. Examples of anaerobic exercise include sprinting and weight lifting. The anaerobic energy delivery system uses predominantly Type II or fast - twitch muscle fibers, relies mainly on ATP or glucose for fuel, consumes relatively little oxygen, protein and fat, produces large amounts of lactic acid and can not be sustained for as long a period as aerobic exercise. Many exercises are partially aerobic and partially anaerobic; for example, soccer and rock climbing involve a combination of both.
The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long - term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue.
Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build - up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise.
Humans are genetically predisposed with a larger percentage of one type of muscle group over another. An individual born with a greater percentage of Type I muscle fibers would theoretically be more suited to endurance events, such as triathlons, distance running, and long cycling events, whereas a human born with a greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers would be more likely to excel at sprinting events such as 100 meter dash.
Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres can not be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.
Biological factors such as age and hormone levels can affect muscle hypertrophy. During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an accelerated rate as the levels of growth - stimulating hormones produced by the body increase. Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens. As testosterone is one of the body 's major growth hormones, on average, men find hypertrophy much easier to achieve than women. Taking additional testosterone or other anabolic steroids will increase muscular hypertrophy.
Muscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education.
Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease.
In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30 % of mass in some muscles. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden - mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.
During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "satellite cells '' that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life.
There are also many diseases and conditions that cause muscle atrophy. Examples include cancer and AIDS, which induce a body wasting syndrome called cachexia. Other syndromes or conditions that can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are congestive heart disease and some diseases of the liver.
Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and / or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson 's disease to Creutzfeldt -- Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination.
Symptoms of muscle diseases may include weakness, spasticity, myoclonus and myalgia. Diagnostic procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and electromyography (measuring electrical activity in muscles). In some cases, muscle biopsy may be done to identify a myopathy, as well as genetic testing to identify DNA abnormalities associated with specific myopathies and dystrophies.
A non-invasive elastography technique that measures muscle noise is undergoing experimentation to provide a way of monitoring neuromuscular disease. The sound produced by a muscle comes from the shortening of actomyosin filaments along the axis of the muscle. During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface.
The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and even the mesoderm - the germ layer from which many scientists believe true muscle cells derive.
Schmid and Seipel argue that the origin of muscle cells is a monophyletic trait that occurred concurrently with the development of the digestive and nervous systems of all animals and that this origin can be traced to a single metazoan ancestor in which muscle cells are present. They argue that molecular and morphological similarities between the muscles cells in cnidaria and ctenophora are similar enough to those of bilaterians that there would be one ancestor in metazoans from which muscle cells derive. In this case, Schmid and Seipel argue that the last common ancestor of bilateria, ctenophora, and cnidaria was a triploblast or an organism with three germ layers and that diploblasty, meaning an organism with two germ layers, evolved secondarily due to their observation of the lack of mesoderm or muscle found in most cnidarians and ctenophores. By comparing the morphology of cnidarians and ctenophores to bilaterians, Schmid and Seipel were able to conclude that there were myoblast - like structures in the tentacles and gut of some species of cnidarians and in the tentacles of ctenophores. Since this is a structure unique to muscle cells, these scientists determined based on the data collected by their peers that this is a marker for striated muscles similar to that observed in bilaterians. The authors also remark that the muscle cells found in cnidarians and ctenophores are often contests due to the origin of these muscle cells being the ectoderm rather than the mesoderm or mesendoderm. The origin of true muscles cells is argued by others to be the endoderm portion of the mesoderm and the endoderm. However, Schmid and Seipel counter this skepticism about whether or not the muscle cells found in ctenophores and cnidarians are true muscle cells by considering that cnidarians develop through a medusa stage and polyp stage. They observe that in the hydrozoan medusa stage there is a layer of cells that separate from the distal side of the ectoderm to form the striated muscle cells in a way that seems similar to that of the mesoderm and call this third separated layer of cells the ectocodon. They also argue that not all muscle cells are derived from the mesendoderm in bilaterians with key examples being that in both the eye muscles of vertebrates and the muscles of spiralians these cells derive from the ectodermal mesoderm rather than the endodermal mesoderm. Furthermore, Schmid and Seipel argue that since myogenesis does occur in cnidarians with the help of molecular regulatory elements found in the specification of muscles cells in bilaterians that there is evidence for a single origin for striated muscle.
In contrast to this argument for a single origin of muscle cells, Steinmetz et al. argue that molecular markers such as the myosin II protein used to determine this single origin of striated muscle actually predate the formation of muscle cells. This author uses an example of the contractile elements present in the porifera or sponges that do truly lack this striated muscle containing this protein. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. present evidence for a polyphyletic origin of striated muscle cell development through their analysis of morphological and molecular markers that are present in bilaterians and absent in cnidarians, ctenophores, and bilaterians. Steimetz et al. showed that the traditional morphological and regulatory markers such as actin, the ability to couple myosin side chains phosphorylation to higher concentrations of the positive concentrations of calcium, and other MyHC elements are present in all metazoans not just the organisms that have been shown to have muscle cells. Thus, the usage of any of these structural or regulatory elements in determining whether or not the muscle cells of the cnidarians and ctenophores are similar enough to the muscle cells of the bilaterians to confirm a single lineage is questionable according to Steinmetz et al. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. explain that the orthologues of the MyHc genes that have been used to hypothesize the origin of striated muscle occurred through a gene duplication event that predates the first true muscle cells (meaning striated muscle), and they show that the MyHc genes are present in the sponges that have contractile elements but no true muscle cells. Furthermore, Steinmetz et all showed that the localization of this duplicated set of genes that serve both the function of facilitating the formation of striated muscle genes and cell regulation and movement genes were already separated into striated myhc and non-muscle myhc. This separation of the duplicated set of genes is shown through the localization of the striated myhc to the contractile vacuole in sponges while the non-muscle myhc was more diffusely expressed during developmental cell shape and change. Steinmetz et al. found a similar pattern of localization in cnidarians with except with the cnidarian N. vectensis having this striated muscle marker present in the smooth muscle of the digestive track. Thus, Steinmetz et al. argue that the pleisiomorphic trait of the separated orthologues of myhc can not be used to determine the monophylogeny of muscle, and additionally argue that the presence of a striated muscle marker in the smooth muscle of this cnidarian shows a fundamentally different mechanism of muscle cell development and structure in cnidarians.
Steinmetz et al. continue to argue for multiple origins of striated muscle in the metazoans by explaining that a key set of genes used to form the troponin complex for muscle regulation and formation in bilaterians is missing from the cnidarians and ctenophores, and of 47 structural and regulatory proteins observed, Steinmetz et al. were not able to find even on unique striated muscle cell protein that was expressed in both cnidarians and bilaterians. Furthermore, the Z - disc seemed to have evolved differently even within bilaterians and there is a great deal diversity of proteins developed even between this clade, showing a large degree of radiation for muscle cells. Through this divergence of the Z - disc, Steimetz et al. argue that there are only four common protein components that were present in all bilaterians muscle ancestors and that of these for necessary Z - disc components only an actin protein that they have already argued is an uninformative marker through its pleisiomorphic state is present in cnidarians. Through further molecular marker testing, Steinmetz et al. observe that non-bilaterians lack many regulatory and structural components necessary for bilaterians muscle formation and do not find any unique set of proteins to both bilaterians and cnidarians and ctenophores that are not present in earlier, more primitive animals such as the sponges and amoebozoans. Through this analysis the authors conclude that due to the lack of elements that bilaterians muscles are dependent on for structure and usage, nonbilaterian muscles must be of a different origin with a different set regulatory and structural proteins.
In another take on the argument, Andrikou and Arnone use the newly available data on gene regulatory networks to look at how the hierarchy of genes and morphogens and other mechanism of tissue specification diverge and are similar among early deuterostomes and protostomes. By understanding not only what genes are present in all bilaterians but also the time and place of deployment of these genes, Andrikou and Arnone discuss a deeper understanding of the evolution of myogenesis.
In their paper Andrikou and Arnone argue that to truly understand the evolution of muscle cells the function of transcriptional regulators must be understood in the context of other external and internal interactions. Through their analysis, Andrikou and Arnone found that there were conserved orthologues of the gene regulatory network in both invertebrate bilaterians and in cnidarians. They argue that having this common, general regulatory circuit allowed for a high degree of divergence from a single well functioning network. Andrikou and Arnone found that the orthologues of genes found in vertebrates had been changed through different types of structural mutations in the invertebrate deuterostomes and protostomes, and they argue that these structural changes in the genes allowed for a large divergence of muscle function and muscle formation in these species. Andrikou and Arnone were able to recognize not only any difference due to mutation in the genes found in vertebrates and invertebrates but also the integration of species specific genes that could also cause divergence from the original gene regulatory network function. Thus, although a common muscle patterning system has been determined, they argue that this could be due to a more ancestral gene regulatory network being coopted several times across lineages with additional genes and mutations causing very divergent development of muscles. Thus it seems that myogenic patterning framework may be an ancestral trait. However, Andrikou and Arnone explain that the basic muscle patterning structure must also be considered in combination with the cis regulatory elements present at different times during development. In contrast with the high level of gene family apparatuses structure, Andrikou and Arnone found that the cis regulatory elements were not well conserved both in time and place in the network which could show a large degree of divergence in the formation of muscle cells. Through this analysis, it seems that the myogenic GRN is an ancestral GRN with actual changes in myogenic function and structure possibly being linked to later coopts of genes at different times and places.
Evolutionarily, specialized forms of skeletal and cardiac muscles predated the divergence of the vertebrate / arthropod evolutionary line. This indicates that these types of muscle developed in a common ancestor sometime before 700 million years ago (mya). Vertebrate smooth muscle was found to have evolved independently from the skeletal and cardiac muscle types.
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who won the mens doubles at wimbledon 2018 | 2018 Wimbledon Championships -- men 's doubles - wikipedia
Łukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo were the defending champions, but they were defeated in the second round by Jonathan Erlich and Marcin Matkowski.
Mike Bryan and Jack Sock won the title, defeating Raven Klaasen and Michael Venus in the final, 6 -- 3, 6 -- 7, 6 -- 3, 5 -- 7, 7 -- 5. It was Bryan 's 17th Grand Slam men 's doubles title (a new Open Era record), and his first with a partner other than his brother Bob.
Bryan regained the ATP No. 1 doubles ranking at the end of the tournament, becoming the oldest no. 1 player in the history of the ATP rankings. Mate Pavić, John Peers and Nicolas Mahut were also in contention for the top ranking at the start of the tournament.
Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.
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in which one of the following four periods of time are we now living | Yuga - wikipedia
Yuga in Hinduism is an epoch or era within a four - age cycle. A complete Yuga starts with the Satya Yuga, via Treta Yuga and Dvapara Yuga into a Kali Yuga. Our present time is a Kali Yuga, which started at 3102 BCE with the end of the Kurukshetra War (or Mahabharata war).
There are four Yugas in one cycle:
According to one Puranic astronomical estimate, the four Yuga have the following durations:
Together, these four yuga constitute one Mahayuga and equal 4.32 million human years. According to one version, there are 1,000 Mahayugas in one day of Brahma or 4.32 billion human years. A Mahakalpa consists of 100 years of Brahma.
According to Srimad Bhagavatam 3.11. 19, which is dated around the 400 -- 500 BC, the Yugas are much longer, using a divine year in which one day is equal to one human year, thus:
one year of the demigods is equal to 360 years of the human beings. The duration of the Satya - yuga is therefore 4,800 x 360, or 1,728,000 years. The duration of the Tretā - yuga is 3,600 x 360, or 1,296,000 years. The duration of the Dvāpara - yuga is 2,400 x 360, or 864,000 years.
The Viṣṇu Purāṇa Time measurement section of the Viṣṇu Purāṇa Book I Chapter III adds:
While the long yuga count is the most popular, it does not correlate to any known celestial motion found in the Astronomical Almanac. The value of 24,000 years fits relatively close with the modern astronomical calculation of one full precession of the equinox, which takes 25,772 years. Thus the yuga cycle may have some basis in known terrestrial cycles. Srimad Bhagavatam 3.11. 19 describes the timespans of the demigods, in which a year of a yuga is a year of the demigods. It is this second sloka which appears to have been modified over the years.
The ages see a gradual decline of dharma, wisdom, knowledge, intellectual capability, life span, emotional and physical strength.
In the present days we may be said to live in a Kali Yuga, which is said to have started in 3102 BCE with the end of the Mahabharata war. This date is also considered by many Hindus to be the day that Krishna left Earth and went to his abode.
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which article of indian constitution deals with reservation | Reservation in India - wikipedia
The system of reservation in India comprises a series of affirmative action measures, also known as ' positive discrimination ' in the UK, such as reserving access to seats in the various legislatures, to government jobs, and to enrollment in higher educational institutions. The societal inequality in India is represented by the grossly inadequate representation of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Castes in employment and education due to historic, societal and cultural reasons even though their share in total population is more than two third. The reservation is intended to balance this with respect to their population size and hence favours the historically disadvantaged castes and tribes, listed as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes by the Government of India. The reservation is undertaken to address the historic oppression, inequality and discrimination faced by members of those communities and to give these communities voice. It is intended to realise the promise of equality enshrined in the Constitution.
The Constitution prohibits untouchability under its Article 17, and obligates the state to make special provision for the betterment of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, also spelling out that such special provisions would not be considered discriminatory, as it would address existing inequality.
Over the years, the categories for affirmative action have been expanded beyond the lists of Scheduled castes and tribes to include a special category of Other Backward Classes (OBC). Consideration has also been given to economically backward in providing reservations.
Reservation is governed by constitutional laws, statutory laws, and local rules and regulations. The Scheduled castes (SC), scheduled tribes (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC), and in some states Backward Classes among Muslims under a category called BC (M), are the primary beneficiaries of the reservation policies under the Constitution -- with the objective of ensuring a level playing field. However, in the recent years there have been Reservation Inclusion Agitations among some of the other general section of population due to misconcieved notion of denying them the access to opportunity, without realising that they are actually competing on intra-community basis rather than inter-community basis.
The primary objective of the present - day Indian reservation system is to enhance the social and educational status of underprivileged communities and thus improve their lives.
Quota systems favouring certain castes and other communities existed before independence in several areas of British India. Demands for various forms of positive discrimination had been made, for example, in 1882 and 1891. Shahu, the Maharaja of the princely state of Kolhapur, introduced reservation in favour of non-Brahmin and backward classes, much of which came into force in 1902. He provided free education to everyone and opened several hostels to make it easier for them to receive it. He also tried to ensure that people thus educated were suitably employed, and he appealed both for a class - free India and the abolition of untouchability. His 1902 measures created 50 per cent reservation for backward communities.
The British Raj introduced elements of reservation in the Government of India Act of 1909 and there were many other measures put in place prior to independence. A significant one emerged from the Round Table Conference of June 1932, when the Prime Minister of Britain, Ramsay Macdonald, proposed the Communal Award, according to which separate representation was to be provided for Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo - Indians, and Europeans. The depressed classes were assigned a number of seats to be filled by election from constituencies in which only they could vote, although they could also vote in other seats. The proposal was controversial: Savarna Hindu Leader Mahatma Gandhi fasted in protest against it but many among the depressed classes, including their leader, B.R. Ambedkar, favoured it. After negotiations, Gandhi reached an agreement with Ambedkar to have a single Hindu electorate, with Dalits having seats reserved within it. Electorates for other religions, such as Islam and Sikhism, remained separate. This became known as the Poona Pact.
India 's affirmative action programme was launched in 1950 and is the oldest such programme in the world.
After the independence of India in 1947 there were some major changes in favour of the Scheduled Tribes (ST), Scheduled Castes (SC) and Other Backward Classes (OBC).
A common form of caste discrimination in India has been the practice of untouchability. SCs were the primary targets of the practice, which was outlawed by the new Constitution of India.
In 1954, the Ministry of Education suggested that 20 per cent of places should be reserved for the SCs and STs in educational institutions with a provision to relax minimum qualifying marks for admission by 5 per cent wherever required. In 1982, it was specified that 15 per cent and 7.5 per cent of vacancies in public sector and government - aided educational institutes should be reserved for the SC and ST candidates, respectively.
A significant change began in 1978 when the Mandal Commission was established to assess the situation of the socially - and educationally - backward classes. The commission did not have exact population figures for the OBCs and so used data from the 1931 census, thus estimating the group 's population at 52 per cent. In 1980 the commission 's report recommended that a reserved quota for OBCs of 27 per cent should apply in respect of services and public sector bodies operated by the Union Government. It called for a similar change to admissions to institutes of higher education, except where states already had more generous requirements. It was not until the 1990s that the recommendations were implemented in Union Government jobs.
The Constitution of India states in article 15 (4): "Nothing in (article 15) or in clause (2) of article 29 shall prevent the State from making any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. '' Article 46 of the Constitution states that "The State shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people, and, in particular, of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. ''
The Supreme Court of India ruled in 1992 that reservations could not exceed 50 per cent, anything above which it judged would violate equal access as guaranteed by the Constitution. It thus put a cap on reservations. However, there are state laws that exceed this 50 per cent limit and these are under litigation in the Supreme Court. For example, in the State of Tamil Nadu the caste - based reservation stands at 69 per cent and applies to about 87 per cent of the population.
In parliament, caste and tribe based reservations are provided to make it more representative... Today, out of 543 seats in India 's parliament, 84 (15.47 %) are reserved for SC / Dalits and 47 (8.66 %) for ST / Tribes. Allocation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the Lok Sabha are made on the basis of proportion of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in the State concerned to that of the total population.
A similar percentage of exclusive seats has been provided for members of designated castes and tribes in each state legislature. Local self - governments have caste, tribe and gender based reservation system in place.
A fixed percentage of India 's government and public sector jobs are made exclusive for categories of people largely based on their caste or tribe.
The 1992 Supreme Court ruling in the Indra Sawhney case said that reservations in job promotions are "unconstitutional '' but allowed its continuation for five years. In 1995, the 77th amendment to the Constitution was made to amend Article 16 before the five - year period expired to continue with reservations for SC / STs in promotions. It was further modified through the 85th amendment to give the benefit of consequential seniority to SC / ST candidates promoted by reservation.
The 81st amendment was made to the Constitution to permit the government to treat the backlog of reserved vacancies as a separate and distinct group, to which the ceiling of 50 per cent did not apply. The 82nd amendment inserted a provision in Article 335 to enable states to give concessions to SC / ST candidates in promotion.
The validity of all the above four amendments was challenged in the Supreme Court through various petitions clubbed together in M. Nagaraj & Others vs. Union of India & Others, mainly on the ground that these altered the Basic Structure of the Constitution. In 2006, the Supreme Court upheld the amendments but stipulated that the concerned state will have to show, in each case, the existence of "compelling reasons '' - which include "backwardness '', "inadequacy of representation '' and overall "administrative efficiency - before making provisions for reservation. The court further held that these provisions are merely enabling provisions. If a state government wishes to make provisions for reservation to SC / STs in promotion, the state has to collect quantifiable data showing backwardness of the class and inadequacy of representation of that class.
In 2007, the Government of Uttar Pradesh introduced reservation in job promotions. However, citing the Supreme Court decision, the policy was ruled to be unconstitutional by the Allahabad High Court in 2011. The decision was challenged in the Supreme Court, which upheld it in 2012 by rejecting the government 's argument because it failed to furnish sufficient valid data to justify the move to promote employees on a caste basis.
In India most of the scholarships or student aid is available only to -- SCs, STs, BCs, OBCs, women, Muslims, and other minorities. Only about 0.7 % of scholarships or student aid in India is based on merit, given the grossly inadequate representation of above mentioned categories in employment and education due to historic, societal and cultural reasons even though their share in total population is more than two third.
The University Grants Commission (UGC) provides financial assistance to universities for the establishment of Special Cells for SC / STs. The cells help universities implement the reservation policy in student admission and staff recruitment processes for teaching and non-teaching jobs. They also help the SC / ST categories integrate with the university community and help remove the difficulties SC / ST individuals may have experienced.
New rules implementation of UPA Government do not provide scholarship scheme and reservation quota of students and employees of colleges under central University and State University approved by the UGC.
The quota system sets aside a proportion of all possible positions for members of a specific group. Those not belonging to the designated communities can compete only for the remaining positions, while members of the designated communities can compete for either reserved or open position.
Seats are reserved for people under the following criteria:
In central - government funded higher education institutions, 22.5 % of available seats are reserved for Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) students (7.5 % for STs, 15 % for SCs). This reservation percentage has been raised to 49.5 % by including an additional 27 % reservation for OBCs. This ratio is followed even in Parliament and all elections where a few constituencies are earmarked for those from certain communities (which will next rotate in 2026 per the Delimitation Commission).
The exact percentages vary from state to state:
The Women 's Reservation Bill was passed by the Rajya Sabha on 9 March 2010 by a majority vote of 186 members in favour and 1 against. As of March 2013, the Lok Sabha has not voted on the bill. Critics say gender can not be held as a basis for reservation alone other factors should also be considered e.g. economic, social conditions of woman candidate especially when applying reservation for educated women. There also is a growing demand for women reservation in pre-existing reservations like OBC, SC / ST, physically handicapped etc. Some groups still demand that reservation for women should be at least 50 per cent as they comprise 50 per cent of the population.
In Gujarat, 33 % of posts are reserved for females in all government departments and services, such as police, health, education and general administration.
There is no reservation granted on the basis of religion in the Central educational institutions at the national level, although reservation has been extended to religious minorities in some states. The Tamil Nadu government has allotted 3.5 % of seats each to Muslims and Christians, thereby altering the OBC reservation to 23 % from 30 % (since it excludes persons belonging to Other Backward Castes who are either Muslims or Christians).
The Government of Andhra Pradesh introduced a law enabling 4 per cent reservations for Muslims in 2004. This law was upheld by the Supreme Court in an interim order in 2010 but it constituted a Constitution bench to look further into the issue. The referral was to examine the constitutional validity of quotas based on religion. Kerala Public Service Commission has a quota of 12 % for Muslims. Religious minority (Muslim or Christian) educational institutes also have 50 % reservation for Muslim or Christian religions. The Central government has listed a number of Muslim communities as backward Muslims, making them eligible for reservation.
The Union Government on 22 December 2011 announced establishment of a sub-quota of 4.5 % for religious minorities within the existing 27 % reservation for Other Backward Classes. The reasoning given was that Muslim communities that have been granted OBC status are unable to compete with Hindu OBC communities. It was alleged that the decision was announced as the Election Commission announced Assembly elections in five states on 24 December 2011. The government would not have been able to announce this due to the model code of conduct. On 12 January 2012, the Election Commission stayed implementation of this decision for violation of the model code of conduct. Later, Justice Sachar, head of the Sachar Committee that was commissioned to prepare a report on the latest social, economic and educational condition of the Muslim community of India, criticised the government decision, saying "Such promises will not help the backward section of minorities. It is like befooling them. These people are making tall claims just to win elections ''. He suggested that instead of promising to give reservations, the government should focus on basic issues of improving administration and governance.
On 28 May 2012, the Andhra Pradesh High Court quashed the sub-quota. The court said that the sub-quota has been carved out only on religious lines and not on any other intelligible basis. The court criticised the decision: "In fact, we must express our anguish at the rather casual manner in which the entire issue has been taken up by the central government. ''
Some reservations are also made for:
The state of Andhra Pradesh has one of the highest percentage of reservations in India in any form. 66.66 % reservations are applicable in the state, as follows:
The reservation for women cuts across all classes and communities and is a horizontal and not vertical reservation. As such the total % of reservations has to be counted at 50 % only; and that is in consonance with the Supreme Court dicta that reservations in general ought not to exceed 50 % of the posts / seats if the right to equal opportunity to all without discrimination guaranteed under Article 16 is to be vindicated and respected.
Reservations in Maharashtra as of 5 March 2015.
Maharashtra has 52 % reservation in educational institutions and government jobs. The government of Maharashtra added Marathas (16 %) and some Muslim subcastes (5 %) to the reservation in 2014 but the move was rejected by the Mumbai High Court later. If this reservation to Maratha implemented, it will leave the remaining 23 % to General / Open category.
People in the following categories are not entitled to take advantage of the reservation system for OBCs:
The term creamy layer was first coined in 1975 in the State of Kerala vs N.M. Thomas case when a judge said that the "benefits of the reservation shall be snatched away by the top creamy layer of the backward class, thus leaving the weakest among the weak and leaving the fortunate layers to consume the whole cake ''. The 1992 Indra Sawhney vs Union of India judgement laid down the limits of the state 's powers: it upheld the ceiling of 50 per cent quotas, emphasised the concept of "social backwardness '', and prescribed 11 indicators to ascertain backwardness. The judgement also established the concept of qualitative exclusion, such as "creamy layer ''. The creamy layer applies only to OBCs. The creamy layer criteria was introduced at Rs 1 lakh in 1993, and revised to Rs 2.5 lakh in 2004, Rs 4.5 lakh in 2008 and Rs 6 lakh in 2013, but now the ceiling has been raised to ₹ 8 lakh (in Sep., 2017). In October 2015, the National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) proposed that a person belonging to OBC with an annual family income of up to Rs 15 lakh should be considered as minimum ceiling for OBC. The NCBC also recommended sub-division of OBCs into "backward '', "more backward '' and "extremely backward '' groups and to divide the 27 per cent quota amongst them in proportion to their population, to ensure that stronger OBCs do not corner the quota benefits.
The following institutions have been kept out of the purview of Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006:,
The following institutions though not specified in the Central Educational Institutions (Reservation in Admission) Act, 2006:, do not have reservation in admission.
On 27 October 2015 the Supreme Court directed the state and the Central governments to end the regional quota and to ensure that super-speciality medical courses are kept "unreserved, open and free '' from any domicile status after the court had allowed petitions files by some MBBS doctors.
The public sector jobs are divided into 4 categories: Class I (or Group A), Class II (or Group B), Class III (or Group C) and Class IV (or Group D). The Class I employees take up 2.2 % of the public sector workforce, the Class II employees take up 3.3 % of the public sector workforce, the Class III employees take up 66.8 % of the public sector workforce, and the Class IV employees take up 27.2 % of the public sector workforce. Below are the percentages of the SC employees in the Central government:
excludes sweepers
The above table shows that over time as the new laws for the reservation systems were passed employment of SC 's in Class I, II, III, and IV public sectors increased substantially.
Notes
Citations
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who argued that we are born with intellectual blank slates | Tabula rasa - wikipedia
Tabula rasa (/ ˈtæbjələ ˈrɑːsə, - zə, ˈreɪ - /) refers to the epistemological idea that individuals are born without built - in mental content and that therefore all knowledge comes from experience or perception. Proponents of tabula rasa generally disagree with the doctrine of innatism which holds that the mind is born already in possession of certain knowledge. Generally, proponents of the tabula rasa theory also favour the "nurture '' side of the nature versus nurture debate when it comes to aspects of one 's personality, social and emotional behaviour, knowledge and sapience.
Tabula rasa is a Latin phrase often translated as "blank slate '' in English and originates from the Roman tabula used for notes, which was blanked by heating the wax and then smoothing it. This roughly equates to the English term "blank slate '' (or, more literally, "erased slate '') which refers to the emptiness of a slate prior to it being written on with chalk. Both may be renewed repeatedly, by melting the wax of the tablet or by erasing the chalk on the slate.
In Western philosophy, the concept of tabula rasa can be traced back to the writings of Aristotle who writes in his treatise "Περί Ψυχῆς '' (De Anima or On the Soul) of the "unscribed tablet. '' In one of the more well - known passages of this treatise he writes that:
Have n't we already disposed of the difficulty about interaction involving a common element, when we said that mind is in a sense potentially whatever is thinkable, though actually it is nothing until it has thought? What it thinks must be in it just as characters may be said to be on a writing - tablet on which as yet nothing stands written: this is exactly what happens with mind.
This idea was further developed in Ancient Greek philosophy by the Stoic school. Stoic epistemology emphasizes that the mind starts blank, but acquires knowledge as the outside world is impressed upon it. The doxographer Aetius summarizes this view as "When a man is born, the Stoics say, he has the commanding part of his soul like a sheet of paper ready for writing upon. '' Diogenes Laërtius attributes a similar belief to the Stoic Zeno of Citium when he writes in Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers that:
Perception, again, is an impression produced on the mind, its name being appropriately borrowed from impressions on wax made by a seal; and perception they divide into, comprehensible and incomprehensible: Comprehensible, which they call the criterion of facts, and which is produced by a real object, and is, therefore, at the same time conformable to that object; Incomprehensible, which has no relation to any real object, or else, if it has any such relation, does not correspond to it, being but a vague and indistinct representation.
In the eleventh century, the theory of tabula rasa was developed more clearly by the Persian philosopher Avicenna (Ibn Sina in Arabic). He argued that the "... human intellect at birth resembled a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know, '' and that knowledge is attained through "... empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts, '' which develops through a "... syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to propositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts. '' He further argued that the intellect itself "... possesses levels of development from the static / material intellect (al - ' aql al - hayulani), that potentiality can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (al - ' aql al - fa'il), the state of the human intellect at conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge. ''
In the twelfth century, the Andalusian - Islamic philosopher and novelist, Ibn Tufail, known as "Abubacer '' or "Ebn Tophail '' in the West, demonstrated the theory of tabula rasa as a thought experiment through his Arabic philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society '' on a desert island, through experience alone. The Latin translation of his philosophical novel, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke 's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.
In the thirteenth century, St. Thomas Aquinas brought the Aristotelian and Avicennian notions to the forefront of Christian thought. These notions sharply contrasted with the previously held Platonic notions of the human mind as an entity that preexisted somewhere in the heavens, before being sent down to join a body here on Earth (see Plato 's Phaedo and Apology, as well as others). St. Bonaventure (also thirteenth century) was one of the fiercest intellectual opponents of Aquinas, offering some of the strongest arguments toward the Platonic idea of the mind.
The writings of Avicenna, Ibn Tufail, and Aquinas on the tabula rasa theory stood unprogressed and untested for several centuries. For example, the late medieval English jurist Sir John Fortescue, in his work In Praise of the Laws of England (Chapter VI), takes for granted the notion of tabula rasa, stressing it as the basis of the need for the education of the young in general, and of young princes specifically. "Therefore, Prince, whilst you are young and your mind is as it were a clean slate, impress on it these things, lest in future it be impressed more pleasurably with images of lesser worth. '' (His igitur, Princeps, dum Adolescens es, et Anima tua velut Tabula rasa, depinge eam, ne in futurum ipsa Figuris minoris Frugi delectabilius depingatur.)
The modern idea of the theory, however, is attributed mostly to John Locke 's expression of the idea in Essay Concerning Human Understanding (he uses the term "white paper '' in Book II, Chap. I, 2). In Locke 's philosophy, tabula rasa was the theory that at birth the (human) mind is a "blank slate '' without rules for processing data, and that data is added and rules for processing are formed solely by one 's sensory experiences. The notion is central to Lockean empiricism. As understood by Locke, tabula rasa meant that the mind of the individual was born blank, and it also emphasized the freedom of individuals to author their own soul. Individuals are free to define the content of their character -- but basic identity as a member of the human species can not be altered. This presumption of a free, self - authored mind combined with an immutable human nature leads to the Lockean doctrine of "natural '' rights. Locke 's idea of tabula rasa is frequently compared with Thomas Hobbes 's viewpoint of human nature, in which humans are endowed with inherent mental content -- particularly with selfishness.
The eighteenth - century Swiss philosopher Jean - Jacques Rousseau used tabula rasa to support his argument that warfare is an advent of society and agriculture, rather than something that occurs from the human state of nature. Since tabula rasa states that humans are born with a "blank - slate '', Rousseau uses this to suggest that humans must learn warfare.
Tabula rasa also features in Sigmund Freud 's psychoanalysis. Freud depicted personality traits as being formed by family dynamics (see Oedipus complex). Freud 's theories imply that humans lack free will, but also that genetic influences on human personality are minimal. In Freudian psychoanalysis, one is largely determined by one 's upbringing.
The tabula rasa concept became popular in social sciences during the twentieth century. Early ideas of eugenics posited that human intelligence correlated strongly with social class, but these ideas were rejected, and the idea that genes (or simply "blood '') determined a person 's character became regarded as racist. By the 1970s, scientists such as John Money had come to see gender identity as socially constructed, rather than rooted in genetics.
Psychologists and neurobiologists have shown evidence that initially, the entire cerebral cortex is programmed and organized to process sensory input, control motor actions, regulate emotion, and respond reflexively (under predetermined conditions). These programmed mechanisms in the brain subsequently act to learn and refine the ability of the organism. For example, psychologist Steven Pinker showed that -- in contrast to written language -- the brain is "programmed '' to pick up spoken language spontaneously.
There have been claims by a minority in psychology and neurobiology, however, that the brain is tabula rasa only for certain behaviours. For instance, with respect to one 's ability to acquire both general and special types of knowledge or skills, Howe argued against the existence of innate talent. There also have been neurological investigations into specific learning and memory functions, such as Karl Lashley 's study on mass action and serial interaction mechanisms.
Important evidence against the tabula rasa model of the mind comes from behavioural genetics, especially twin and adoption studies (see below). These indicate strong genetic influences on personal characteristics such as IQ, alcoholism, gender identity, and other traits. Critically, multivariate studies show that the distinct faculties of the mind, such as memory and reason, fractionate along genetic boundaries. Cultural universals such as emotion and the relative resilience of psychological adaptation to accidental biological changes (for instance the David Reimer case of gender reassignment following an accident) also support basic biological mechanisms in the mind.
Twin studies have resulted in important evidence against the tabula rasa model of the mind, specifically, of social behaviour.
The social pre-wiring hypothesis refers to the ontogeny of social interaction. Also informally referred to as, "wired to be social. '' The theory questions whether there is a propensity to socially oriented action already present before birth. Research in the theory concludes that newborns are born into the world with a unique genetic wiring to be social.
Circumstantial evidence supporting the social pre-wiring hypothesis can be revealed when examining newborns ' behaviour. Newborns, not even hours after birth, have been found to display a preparedness for social interaction. This preparedness is expressed in ways such as their imitation of facial gestures. This observed behaviour can not be contributed to any current form of socialization or social construction. Rather, newborns most likely inherit to some extent social behaviour and identity through genetics.
Principal evidence of this theory is uncovered by examining twin pregnancies. The main argument is, if there are social behaviours that are inherited and developed before birth, then one should expect twin fetuses to engage in some form of social interaction before they are born. Thus, ten fetuses were analyzed over a period of time using ultrasound techniques. Using kinematic analysis, the results of the experiment were that the twin fetuses would interact with each other for longer periods and more often as the pregnancies went on. Researchers were able to conclude that the performance of movements between the co-twins were not accidental but specifically aimed.
The social pre-wiring hypothesis was proved correct, "The central advance of this study is the demonstration that ' social actions ' are already performed in the second trimester of gestation. Starting from the 14th week of gestation twin fetuses plan and execute movements specifically aimed at the co-twin. These findings force us to predate the emergence of social behaviour: when the context enables it, as in the case of twin fetuses, other - directed actions are not only possible but predominant over self - directed actions. ''.
In computer science, tabula rasa refers to the development of autonomous agents with a mechanism to reason and plan toward their goal, but no "built - in '' knowledge - base of their environment. Thus they truly are a blank slate.
In reality autonomous agents possess an initial data - set or knowledge - base, but this can not be immutable or it would hamper autonomy and heuristic ability. Even if the data - set is empty, it usually may be argued that there is a built - in bias in the reasoning and planning mechanisms. Either intentionally or unintentionally placed there by the human designer, it thus negates the true spirit of tabula rasa.
A synthetic (programming) language parser (LR (1), LALR (1) or SLR (1), for example) could be considered a special case of a tabula rasa, as it is designed to accept any of a possibly infinite set of source language programs, within a single programming language, and to output either a good parse of the program, or a good machine language translation of the program, either of which represents a success, or, alternately, a failure, and nothing else. The "initial data - set '' is a set of tables which are generally produced mechanically by a parser table generator, usually from a BNF representation of the source language, and represents a "table representation '' of that single programming language.
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who did the voice of slappy in goosebumps | Slappy the Dummy - wikipedia
Slappy the Dummy is a fictional character and antagonist in the Goosebumps children 's series by R.L. Stine. He is one of the series ' most popular villains and the main antagonist of the Night of the Living Dummy saga and a major villain in later series. He is also the main antagonist of the Goosebumps movie. He is a "ventriloquist 's dummy with a serious Napoleonic complex '' that comes alive by these words, "Karru Marri Odonna Loma Molanu Karrano '' (which roughly translate as "You and I are one now ''), and they can be found on a sheet of paper in Slappy 's jacket pocket. After coming to life, Slappy will try to make the person who brought him back to life serve him as a slave, to the point that he will frame that person for things he did.
According to R.L. Stine, Slappy was inspired by the literary classic The Adventures of Pinocchio. He liked the idea of a wooden puppet coming to life due to the book so he decided to create Slappy.
A girl named Jillian takes her little sisters Katie and Amanda, accompanied by their doll Mary - Ellen, to a puppet show of a teenager named Jimmy O'James, with Slappy the Dummy as his partner. At the show, Slappy spies the twins and Jillian with Mary - Ellen. Slappy then pulls the twins up on stage with Mary - Ellen and makes fun of them. The twins who are hurt by what he said, take - off after the show to give him a piece of their minds and Jillian has to find them. While trying to find her twin sisters Jillian finds Jimmy and Slappy 's dressing room and walks in on Slappy giving Jimmy a punch in the nose. Jimmy tells her that he and Slappy are just working on a new act. She asks if they have seen her sisters. Jimmy responds with that he has not seen them since they were on stage. After she leaves, Jimmy puts Slappy to sleep and throws him out. Jillian 's friend Harrison finds Slappy and brings him to Jillian 's house as he believes that Slappy is broken and wants Jillian 's dad to fix him. After a series of troublesome events Jillian and Harrison host a birthday party and try to put on a show only to have it be revealed that Mary - Ellen is alive and that she re-awoke Slappy so she could marry him, but Slappy hates Mary - Ellen and desires to marry Jillian.
Slappy New Year was a book in a planned to be released series called, Goosebumps Gold. The series was never released due to the expired contract that R.L. Stine had with Scholastic at the time. However R.L. Stine did release the book, but changed the plotline. It was originally going to be the sequel to Slappy 's Nightmare, but over the years since R.L. Stine changed the book 's plot he dropped the idea of it being a sequel. It was released on November 1, 2010.
He also appears in his own series Goosebumps SlappyWorld where he serves as the narrator.
Slappy has also been made into an actual ventriloquist doll available from major retailers. He was first manufactured by Goldberger Doll corporation after a nine - year - old boy from Long Island sent them a letter suggesting the idea in 1998. There is also a mask and a full costume available for sale. Night of the Living Dummy 3 and Bride of the Living Dummy have also been adapted for VHS and DVD, the second on DVD includes "Bride of the Living Dummy ''.
Authors Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child recently posted an announcement via their Facebook status:
This was published 30 September 2014 as Gaslighted: Slappy the Ventriloquist Dummy vs. Aloysius Pendergast.
He was voiced by both Ron Stefanuik and Cathal J. Dodd in the Goosebumps television series and appeared in four episodes:
The original "Night of the Living Dummy '' story was not adapted to television, nor were the six post-Bride stories.
He is the main antagonist in the 2015 Goosebumps movie, where he was voiced by Jack Black, who also is R.L Stine, and the Invisible Boy, from My Best Friend is Invisible. Slappy will also appear in the sequel.
Slappy appears in the comic book series made by IDW and appear in the Goosebumps graphix.
Slappy appears in the video games.
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list of senators who voted against the civil rights act of 1964 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 - wikipedia
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88 -- 352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and US labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools, employment, and public accommodations.
Powers given to enforce the act were initially weak, but were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its power to regulate interstate commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the Fourteenth Amendment and its duty to protect voting rights under the Fifteenth Amendment.
The legislation had been proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but opposed by filibuster in the Senate. Thereafter, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward, which in its final form was passed in the U.S. Congress by a Senate vote of 73 - 27 and House vote of 289 - 126 (70 % - 30 %). The Act was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964, at the White House.
The bill was called for by President John F. Kennedy in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights of June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public -- hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments '', as well as "greater protection for the right to vote ''. Kennedy delivered this speech following the immediate aftermath of the Birmingham campaign and the growing number of demonstrations and protests throughout the southern United States. Kennedy was moved to action following the elevated racial tensions and wave of black riots in the spring 1963.
Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, Kennedy 's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations, and to enable the U.S. Attorney General to join in lawsuits against state governments which operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. However, it did not include a number of provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.
On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with the Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president 's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Congressmen drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative ''. The president 's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by Emanuel Celler, a Democrat from New York. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler 's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III '' that had been removed from the 1957 and 1960 Acts. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.
Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October, 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963, and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and avid segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.
The assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy 's successor as president, Lyndon Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy 's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long. ''
Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many congressmen who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.
After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.
Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell, Sr. of the NAACP.
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Senator James O. Eastland, Democrat from Mississippi. Given Eastland 's firm opposition, it seemed impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the bill from being relegated to Judiciary Committee limbo. Having initially waived a second reading of the bill, which would have led to it being immediately referred to Judiciary, Mansfield gave the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, and then proposed, in the absence of precedent for instances when a second reading did not immediately follow the first, that the bill bypass the Judiciary Committee and immediately be sent to the Senate floor for debate.
When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc '' of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D - GA) launched a filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states. ''
Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond (D - SC): "This so - called Civil Rights Proposals, which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil - rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress. ''
After 54 days of filibuster, Senators Hubert Humphrey (D - MN), Mike Mansfield (D - MT), Everett Dirksen (R - IL), and Thomas Kuchel (R - CA), introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would attract enough Republican swing votes in addition to the core liberal Democrats behind the legislation to end the filibuster. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version in regard to government power to regulate the conduct of private business, but it was not so weak as to cause the House to reconsider the legislation.
On the morning of June 10, 1964, Senator Robert Byrd (D-W.Va.) completed a filibustering address that he had begun 14 hours and 13 minutes earlier opposing the legislation. Until then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. A day earlier, Democratic Whip Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, the bill 's manager, concluded he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and end the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four - vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.
On June 19, the substitute (compromise) bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73 -- 27, and quickly passed through the House -- Senate conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill. The conference bill was passed by both houses of Congress, and was signed into law by President Johnson on July 2, 1964.
Totals are in "Yea -- Nay '' format:
The original House version:
Cloture in the Senate:
The Senate version:
The Senate version, voted on by the House:
Note: "Southern '', as used in this section, refers to members of Congress from the eleven states that made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern '' refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of the geographic location of those states.
The original House version:
The Senate version:
Just one year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and who strongly opposed the legislation. Smith 's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate Smith 's motivation, whether it was a cynical attempt to defeat the bill by someone opposed to civil rights both for blacks and women, or an attempt to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party 's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because the clause was opposed by labor unions. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later claimed, "Smith did n't give a damn about women 's rights... he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who did n't favor women 's rights, '' and the Congressional Record records that Smith was greeted by laughter when he introduced the amendment.
Smith asserted that he was not joking; he sincerely supported the amendment and, indeed, along with Rep. Martha Griffiths, he was the chief spokesperson for the amendment. For twenty years Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. He for decades had been close to the National Woman 's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who was also the leader in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, the author of the first Equal Rights Amendment, and a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 trying to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category. Now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that was unfair to white women. Furthermore, she argued that the laws "protecting '' women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist explained in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives... the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act 's prohibition against discrimination based on ' sex. ' ''
One of the most damaging arguments by the bill 's opponents was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. Proponents of the bill, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said that the bill would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Senator Hubert Humphrey (D - MN) wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation (of the Constitution), because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race. '' While Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself, '' two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.
The bill divided and engendered a long - term change in the demographic support of both parties. President Johnson realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South 's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway. '' Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election ''. Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.
Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill, remarking, "You ca n't legislate morality. '' Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states ' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 83 - day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D - TN) and J. William Fulbright (D - AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D - WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
(The full text of the Act is available online.)
Barred unequal application of voter registration requirements.
Title I did not eliminate literacy tests, which were one of the main methods used to exclude Black voters, other racial minorities, and poor Whites in the South, nor did it address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification '', that is to say, it accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but rather might have to meet some standard beyond citizenship. It was the Voting Rights Act, enacted one year later in 1965, that directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship.
Outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; exempted private clubs without defining the term "private ''.
Prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin.
Encouraged the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.
Expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules and procedures.
Prevents discrimination by government agencies that receive federal funds. If an agency is found in violation of Title VI, that agency may lose its federal funding.
General
This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 -- This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.
Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.
Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency 's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion, '' which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10 (e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.
Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 2). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year '' as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of his or her association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage. The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (See Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).
In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait where the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To prove the bona fide occupational qualifications defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the protected trait and the ability to perform the duties of the job, the BFOQ relates to the "essence '' or "central mission of the employer 's business '', and there is no less - restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991) 111 S. Ct. 1196). The Bona Fide Occupational Qualification exception is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer 's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School -- Bishop Estate, 990 F. 2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).
Title VII allows for any employer, labor organization, joint labor - management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice '' for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist - action or Communist - front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.
There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs) enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e - 4). The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on behalf of employees. Where a state law is contradicted by a federal law, it is overridden. Every state, except Arkansas and Mississippi, maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. An individual must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or the individual may lose the right to file a lawsuit. Title VII only applies to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e (b)).
In the early 1980s, the EEOC and some federal courts began holding that sexual harassment is also prohibited under the Act. In 1986, the Supreme Court held in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986), that sexual harassment is sex discrimination and is prohibited by Title VII. This case filed by plaintiff Mechelle Vinson was the first in the history of the court to recognize sexual harassment as actionable. Following 1986, court cases in which the plaintiff suffers no economic loss can potentially argue for a violation of Title VII if the discrimination resulted in a hostile work environment. Same - sex sexual harassment has also been held in a unanimous decision written by Justice Scalia to be prohibited by Title VII (Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998), 118 S. Ct. 998).
In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with the fact of an individual 's transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual 's sex. In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration. As of November 2014, Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.
On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DoJ) took a position that aligned with the EEOC, namely the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DoJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.
In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions issued a directive that withdrew the Holder memorandum. According to a copy of the directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, Sessions stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women ''. Attorney General Session stated as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se. '' Devin O'Malley, speaking on behalf of the DoJ, stated "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle (that the Department of Justice can not expand the law beyond what Congress has provided), which necessitated today 's action. '' Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DoJ, rejected that argument, saying "(T) his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is -- it 's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were '' and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court. ''
On December 11, 2017, the United States Supreme Court refused to hear an appeal in Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital, in which a lower court ruled against the plaintiff, who had argued Title VII protections applied to sexual orientation. The 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals stated in its earlier ruling that only the Supreme Court could determine if Title VII applied.
Required compilation of voter - registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.
Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.
Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 should not be confused with Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities.
Established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination.
Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.
There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question... is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers ''. Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process ''. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution 's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston 's claims.
Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre. '' Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black - white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.
Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.
In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act. The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation. The commission was also permitted for the first time to define "discrimination, '' a term excluded from the 1964 Act.
The Constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was, at the time, in some dispute as it applied to the private sector. In the landmark Civil Rights Cases the United States Supreme Court had ruled, in 1883, that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.
In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the commerce clause, thus paving the way for the Federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.
After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law 's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the constitutionality of the law, but it did not settle all of the legal questions surrounding the law.
In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case regarding the gender provisions of the Act, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool - age child unless they did the same with potential male employees. A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs which required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women to take lunch breaks when men were not required to. In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the United States Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women was illegal, which ended that practice among the country 's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice among federal jobs which designated them "women only '' or "men only ''.
In 1974, the Supreme Court also ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students ' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.
In 1975, a federal civil rights agency warned a Phoenix, Arizona school that its end - of - year father - son and mother - daughter baseball games were illegal according to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. President Gerald Ford intervened, and the games were allowed to continue.
In 1977, the Supreme Court struck down state minimum height requirements for police officers as violating the Act; women usually could not meet these requirements.
On April 4, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit in Chicago, sitting en banc, ruled that Title VII of the Act forbids discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation by a vote of 8 -- 3. Over the prior month, panels of both the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in Atlanta and the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in New York City had reached the opposite conclusion, finding that Title VII sex discrimination does not include claims based on sexual orientation.
Despite its lack of influence during its time, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had considerable impact on later civil rights legislation in the United States. It paved the way for future legislation that was not limited to African American civil rights. The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 -- which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964 '' -- was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation (Civil Rights Act of 1964) ''. The Americans With Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act ''. Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered. '' The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities '', an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Act also influenced later civil rights legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968, aiding not only African Americans, but also women.
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is there a marks and spencer in usa | Marks & Spencer - wikipedia
Marks and Spencer plc (also known as M&S) is a major British multinational retailer headquartered in the City of Westminster, London. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.
It specialises in the selling of clothing, home products and luxury food products. M&S was founded in 1884 by Michael Marks and Thomas Spencer in Leeds. The company also began to sell branded goods like Kellogg 's Corn Flakes in November 2008. M&S currently has 979 stores across the U.K. including 615 that only sell food products.
In 1998, the company became the first British retailer to make a pre-tax profit of over £ 1 billion, although subsequently it went into a sudden slump, which took the company, its shareholders, who included hundreds of thousands of small investors, and nearly all retail analysts and business journalists, by surprise. In November 2009, it was announced that Marc Bolland, formerly of Morrisons, would take over as chief executive from executive chairman Stuart Rose in early 2010; Rose remained in the role of non-executive chairman until he was replaced by Robert Swannell in January 2011.
In recent years its clothing sales have fallen whilst food sales have increased after the axing of "St. Michael 's '' naming for their own brand.
The company was founded by a partnership between Michael Marks, a Polish Jew from Słonim (Marks was born into a Polish - Jewish family, a Polish refugee living in the Russian Empire, now in Belarus), and Thomas Spencer, a cashier from the English market town of Skipton in North Yorkshire. On his arrival in England, Marks worked for a company in Leeds, called Barran, which employed refugees (see Sir John Barran, 1st Baronet). In 1884 he met Isaac Jowitt Dewhirst while looking for work. Dewhirst lent Marks £ 5 which he used to establish his Penny Bazaar on Kirkgate Market, in Leeds. Dewhirst also taught him a little English. Dewhirst 's cashier was Tom Spencer, a bookkeeper, whose second wife, Agnes, helped improve Marks ' English. In 1894, when Marks acquired a permanent stall in Leeds ' covered market, he invited Spencer to become his partner.
In 1901 Marks moved to the Birkenhead open market where he amalgamated with Spencer. The pair were allocated stall numbers 11 & 12 in the centre aisle in 1903, and there they opened the famous Penny Bazaar. The company left Birkenhead Market on 24 February 1923.
The next few years saw Michael Marks and Tom Spencer open market stalls in many locations around the North West of England and move the original Leeds Penny Bazaar to 20, Cheetham Hill Road, Manchester.
Marks and Spencer, known colloquially as "Marks and Sparks '', or "M&S '', made its reputation in the early 20th century with a policy of only selling British - made goods (it started to back down from this policy in the 1990s.) It entered into long - term relationships with British manufacturers, and sold clothes and food under the "St Michael '' brand, which was introduced in 1928. The brand honours Michael Marks. It also accepted the return of unwanted items, giving a full cash refund if the receipt was shown, no matter how long ago the product was purchased, which was unusual for the time.
M&S staff raised £ 5,000 to pay for a Supermarine Spitfire fighter aircraft called The Marksman in 1941.
By 1950, virtually all goods were sold under the "St Michael '' label. M&S lingerie, women 's clothes and girls ' school uniform were branded under the "St Margaret '' label until the whole range of general merchandise became "St Michael ''. Simon Marks, son of Michael Marks, died in 1964, after fifty - six years ' service. Israel Sieff, the son - in - law of Michael Marks, took over as chairman and in 1968, John Salisse became the company Director. A cautious international expansion began with the introduction of Asian food in 1974. M&S opened stores in continental Europe in 1975 and in Ireland four years later.
The company put its main emphasis on quality, including a 1957 stocking size measuring system. For most of its history, it also had a reputation for offering fair value for money. When this reputation began to waver, it encountered serious difficulties. Arguably, M&S has historically been an iconic retailer of ' British Quality Goods '.
The uncompromising attitude towards customer relations was summarised by the 1953 slogan: "The customer is always and completely right! ''
Energy efficiency was improved by the addition of thermostatically controlled refrigerators in 1963.
M&S began selling Christmas cakes and Christmas puddings in 1958. In an effort to improve the quality of their Swiss rolls, they hired the food expert Nat Goldberg, who made a major improvement across their entire cake range, which had lost the public 's favour a few years earlier. As a later measure to improve food quality, food labelling was improved and "sell by dates '' were phased in between 1970 and 1972.
Smoking was banned from all M&S shops in 1959 because of the fire hazards it posed.
In 1972, Marcus Sieff became Chairman, remaining in place until 1984, and emphasising the importance of good staff relations to the tradition of the store, while extending staff benefits to areas such as restaurants and chiropody.
M&S opened its first Asian store in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1960. The company expanded into Canada in 1973, and at one point had forty - seven stores across Canada. Despite various efforts to improve its image, the chain was never able to move beyond its reputation there as a stodgy retailer, one that catered primarily to senior citizens and expatriate Britons. The shops in Canada were smaller than British outlets, and did not carry the same selection. In the late 1990s, further efforts were made to modernise them and also expand the customer base. Unprofitable locations were closed. Nonetheless, the Canadian operations continued to lose money, and the last 38 shops in Canada were closed in 1999.
Expansion into France began with shops opening in Paris at Boulevard Haussmann and Lyon in 1975, followed by a second Paris shop at Rosny 2 in 1977. Further expansion into other French and Belgian cities followed into the 1980s. Although the Paris shops remained popular and profitable, the Western European operation as a whole did not fare as well and eighteen shops were sold in 2001. However, in April 2011, M&S changed directions again with an announcement to reopen a store that will not only sell clothing but food as well. In addition the group will also open several food outlets throughout the French capital. The first branch opened on 24 November 2011 at the Champs - Élysées in a ceremony attended by the company 's CEO Marc Bolland, the model Rosie Huntington - Whiteley and the British Ambassador to France, Sir Peter Westmacott. The Daily Mail reported that 1,000 customers queued outside for over 2 hours at the opening of the 1,400 m (15,000 sq ft) store.
In 1988, the company acquired Brooks Brothers, an American clothing company and Kings Super Markets, a US food chain.
In 2016 M&S expanded to sell through European marketplace Zalando on their German, French, Dutch, Belgian and Austrian sites with a range of kidswear and lingerie.
M&S 's profits peaked in the financial year 1997 / 1998. At the time it was seen as a continuing success story, but with hindsight it is considered that during Sir Richard Greenbury 's tenure as head of the company, profit margins were pushed to untenable levels, and the loyalty of its customers was seriously eroded. The rising cost of using British suppliers was also a burden, as rival retailers increasingly imported their goods from low - cost countries, but M&S 's belated switch to overseas suppliers undermined a core part of its appeal to the public. Another factor was the company 's refusal until 2001 to accept any credit cards except its own chargecard.
These factors combined to plunge M&S into a sudden slump, which took the company, its shareholders, who included hundreds of thousands of small investors, and nearly all retail analysts and business journalists, by surprise. The company 's share price fell by more than two thirds, and its profits fell from more than a billion pounds in 1997 and 1998 to £ 145 million in the year ended 31 March 2001.
Marks & Spencer launched an online shopping service in 1999.
In 2001, with changes in its business focus such as accepting credit cards, the introduction of the "Per Una '' clothing range designed by George Davies, and a redesign of its underlying business model, profits recovered somewhat.
In 2004, M&S was in the throes of an attempted takeover by Arcadia Group and BHS boss, Philip Green. On 12 July a recovery plan was announced which would involve selling off its financial services business M&S Money to HSBC Bank plc, buying control of the Per Una range, closing the Gateshead Lifestore and stopping the expansion of its Simply Food line of shops. Philip Green withdrew his takeover bid after failing to get sufficient backing from shareholders.
In February 2007, M&S announced the opening of the world 's largest M&S shop outside the UK at Dubai Festival City. On 2 October 2008, M&S opened its first mainland China shop in Shanghai. Problems with the supply chain for the first few months of opening led Stuart Rose, M&S chairman, to describe failures in "basic shopkeeping ''.
Twenty - two unprofitable and minor food stores, such as the ones at Ripon and Balham, were closed in early 2009 as part of a cost cutting measure. In August 2010, it was confirmed that the Grantham branch of M&S would close, along with two other Lincolnshire branches in Skegness and Scunthorpe due to low sales in these older format stores. The closures were met with protests from the local communities and petitions were signed in support of retaining the stores, although they went ahead.
The Retail Knowledge Bank conducted an audit of the company 's brands in August 2010, and revealed that sales of womenswear were at a 10 - year low. The audit covered both the Limited Collection, Autograph, Autograph Weekend, Classic Collection, Per Una, Portfolio and Indigo. Draper magazine claimed that Per Una was the only clothing brand not at risk of being axed while Marc Bolland considered which brands would be retained. Per Una was planned to stay due to its successful and distinctive flair, but Portfolio and Indigo were planned to go due to poor sales. Both the Limited Collection, Autograph, Autograph Weekend, Classic Collection brands were being considered for the cull during mid-2010, but were later given a reprieve.
On 9 November 2010, chief executive Marc Bolland revealed plans to strengthen the company 's overall brand image and targeting sales of between £ 800m and £ 1bn for which company will increase capital expenditure to £ 850m to £ 900m over the next three years to fund the plans. The plan also involved the discontinuation of its ' Portfolio ' fashion brand and the sale of electrical products. The company also announced a new marketing strapline, ' Only at M&S ', and that it would revamp its website.
Bolland ordered a new store design in May 2011, and it was announced that the company would spend around £ 600 million between 2011 and 2014 on its UK stores, involving the launch of a range of different store formats based on the age, affluence and demographics of people in those areas. The design also included the trial of a new in - store "navigation scheme '', which followed research showing that shoppers found M&S store layouts confusing and "difficult to shop (in) ''. It also confirmed that the amount of money - off promotions and deals offered would be increased, and that it would replace the Marks & Spencer label on clothing with "M&S Woman '' and "M&S Man ''.
By 2013, M&S 's clothing division had an 11 % market share in the UK.
In May 2013 saw the launch of the Best of British range as well as the overhaul of Per Una and Indigo. Patrick Bousquet - Chavanne became the new marketing director, succeeding Steven Sharp in July. Mark Bolland also vowed to bring "quality and style back '' M&S also stated it intended to increase its number of UK suppliers from the 20 it had at the time.
In November 2013, it was revealed that Bill Adderley, founder of homeware chain Dunelm Group, had amassed a £ 250m stake in M&S over the past 18 months. This disclosure was made as stock market rules mean that any holding over 3 per cent share must be made public.
On 7 January 2016 it was announced that Marc Bolland, who has been CEO since 2010 would step down on 2 April 2016, and be replaced by Steve Rowe, head of clothing, and previously head of the food business.
Stores identified for closure in July 2015 included Woolwich, Walsall, Erdington, Aldershot (which was there since 1922), Pontypridd in Wales, Hounslow in west London, and Royal Quays in North Shields, the three full - line stores in Stevenage, Wood Green in north London, and The Fort shopping park in Castle Bromwich and the Simply Food in Castle Bromwich. The Lewisham store also lost a floor. The closures in 2015 also included three traditional food and clothing shops, one Simply Food store and four Outlet stores that sell end - of - season clothing. Some 430 workers were affected by the closures. The cull cost up to £ 200m to implement; the closure included loss - making stores in European markets such as France, Belgium and the Netherlands as well as outposts in China.
Several were smaller stores identified for closure in November 2017. On 31 January 2018, fourteen stores were identified for closure. Stores due for closure in April included one of their oldest presences, that in the town centre of Birkenhead. Other stores due for closure, in the same month, were those in Bournemouth, Durham, Fforestfach, Putney and Redditch. Meanwhile, eight other stores were earmarked for closure at a later date, pending consultation; those in Andover, Basildon, Bridlington, Falmouth, Fareham, Keighley, Stockport and an outlet store in Denton, Greater Manchester.
The headquarters of M&S was for a hundred years at Michael House, 55 Baker Street, London. In 2004 the company moved to a new headquarters designed by mossessian & partners at Waterside House, in the new Paddington Basin, London.
As well as the main offices in London, there are a number of other head office sites across the UK; Stockley Park (IT Services), Salford Quays and Spinningfields, Greater Manchester (Marks & Spencer Shared Services Ltd. which provides human resources, and finance administration) and Chester (HSBC 's M&S Money and Retail Customer Services).
The company has overseas sourcing offices in Malaysia, Hong Kong, Thailand, India, Bangladesh, Turkey, China, Italy, Indonesia and Sri Lanka.
M&S is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. Financial performance has been as follows:
Until 1999 M&S 's financial year ended on 31 March. Since then, the company has changed to reporting for 52 - or 53 - week periods, ending on variable dates.
In 2006, the Look Behind the Label marketing campaign was introduced. The aim of this campaign was to highlight to customers the various ethical and environmentally friendly aspects of the production and sourcing methods engaged in by M&S including: Fairtrade products, sustainable fishing and environmentally friendly textile dyes. All coffee and tea sold in M&S stores is now Fairtrade. In addition, the company offers clothing lines made from Fairtrade cotton in selected departments.
At Christmas, the company introduces a range of food products to support the housing charity Shelter.
On 15 January 2007, M&S launched an initiative, known as "Plan A '', to dramatically increase the environmental sustainability of the business within 5 years and expected to cost £ 200 million.
The plan covers "100 commitments over 5 years to address the key social and environmental challenges facing M&S today and in the future '' with the tag - line "Because there is no Plan B ''. The commitments span five themes: climate change, waste, sustainable raw materials, ' fair partnership ' and health, with the aim that, by 2012, it will:
Despite an 18 % fall in the share price in January 2008, following publication of their latest trading statement, the company confirmed that they would be continuing with the plan, saying that there were ' compelling commercial -- as well as moral -- reasons to do so '.
M&S introduced a reusable hessian bag in 2007 as part of the plan, aiming to reduce the number of plastic bags used within five years. This was followed in May 2008 by the introduction of a 5p charge for standard sized carrier bags used for food purchases (before this charge became compulsory). All profits from the sale of food bags originally went to the charity Groundwork UK; M&S launched the "Forever Fish '' campaign in June 2011 and switched funding to that campaign to promote protection of marine wildlife in the UK.
In becoming carbon neutral the company has committed to only use carbon offsetting as a last resort, restricted to cases "where it is required by government or where the technology for green air or road transport will not be available for the foreseeable future ''.
As of August 2008, M&S had three wind turbines in operation, one at Methlick and two near Strichen, generating enough power to supply three stores via the National Grid. In April 2009 the company began purchasing 2.6 TWh of renewable energy (wind and hydroelectric) from Npower, enough to power all Marks & Spencer stores and offices in England and Wales.
In 2012 the company was awarded European Business Award for the Environment (Management category) by the European Union for Plan A.
M&S has sold a wide range of charitable women 's clothes for Breakthrough Breast Cancer for many years and the Ashbourne store collected a total of £ 2,000 for a local Derbyshire hospital 's new ECG machine in 2010. In 2011 M&S launch Oxfam 's clothes recycling initiative.
On 29 July 2015, the company organised their first ' Spark Something Good ' event as part of the ' Plan A ' initiative. Hundreds of volunteers worked for "... 24 hours on 24 projects '' at a variety of charities across the UK.
The following have served as the Chairman of the company since it was founded:
The largest shop is at Marble Arch, on Oxford Street in London, which has around 16,000 square metres (170,000 sq ft) of shop floor. The second largest is in Cheshire Oaks, Ellesmere Port, which is the largest outside London. The third largest shop is at the Gemini Retail Park in Warrington. In 1999 M&S opened its shop in Manchester 's Exchange Square, which was destroyed in the 1996 Manchester bombing and rebuilt. At re-opening, it was the largest M&S shop with 23,000 m (250,000 sq ft) of retail space, but half was subsequently sold to Selfridges, the company 's second site in Manchester. The smallest branch is an outlet located in the Grainger Market in Newcastle upon Tyne.
M&S has opened a number of stores at out of town locations since the trend to build shopping centres away from town centres became popular in the 1980s. The first was at the MetroCentre, Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, which opened in 1986. Another notable example is the store at the Merry Hill Shopping Centre at Brierley Hill, West Midlands. This store opened on 23 October 1990 shortly after the closure of stores in the nearby town centres of Dudley and West Bromwich; the Merry Hill store was not originally intended to replace these two town centre stores, but both the Dudley and West Bromwich stores had experienced a downturn in trade as the opening of the Merry Hill store loomed, and both stores were closed on 25 August 1990.
Before Christmas 2006, twenty - two M&S shops were open for 24 - hour trading including the recently opened new retail park stores at Bolton Middlebrook and at the Abbey Centre, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland.
The company 's website has received criticism for having its prices in Pound sterling and not in euro, and for providing a search for its Irish stores through a "UK Store Finder ''. The Irish Times pointed out that M&S failed to explain why the company is in a position to deliver goods ordered from its website to Brazil, Argentina, Iraq and Afghanistan but not to Ireland. M&S did not comment.
The company reopened its store in Paris on 24 November 2011, following the launch of a new French website on 11 October 2011. In the Philippines there are 18 M&S shops, the largest of which is located in Greenbelt Mall. A new store opened on 17 April 2013 in Kalverstraat in Amsterdam, Netherlands, more than 10 years after closure of the previous store. On 17 September 2013 the British ambassador to the Netherlands, Sir Geoffrey Adams, opened the first Dutch Marks & Spencer Food pilot store at a BP petrol station in Bijleveld beside the A12 motorway. There are over 300 stores in some 40 overseas locations.
On 11 November 2013, Marks & Spencer announced "that it is set to have about 80 stores open in the region by 2016 as part of its strategy to become a leading international, multichannel retailer '' with partner Reliance Retail. It opened a flagship store in Bandra in Mumbai. M&S sales of lingerie accounts for more than a fifth of the sales in the Indian market, with total lingerie sales increasing by a third during the last six months of 2013. In May 2014 Marks & Spencer announced that their intention was now to open 100 stores in the country by 2016.
In the Netherlands, as of 2015, M&S have a supermarket in the expensive Kalverstraat shopping street in Amsterdam, as well as a larger store including clothing in The Hague. A number of BP gas stations in the Western area of the Netherlands include M&S convenience food stores. In 2016, M&S is due to open a much larger store in Amsterdam, with a direct underground link to a new metro station.
Number of Marks & Spencer stores, as of 14 January 2016.
Africa
Oceania
Asia
Europe
M&S core shops typically feature a selection of the company 's clothing ranges and an M&S food hall. The range of clothing sold and the space given to it depends on the location and customer demographic (an example would be that some London shops do not stock the Classic Collection, but stock Limited Collection and a full Autograph range). Most core shops feature a Food hall. The current store format was designed by Urban Salon Architects in 2009.
All the St Michael Food hall supermarkets were renamed M&S Food hall when Marks & Spencer dropped the St Michael brand in 2000. Each M&S Foodhall sells groceries, which are all under the Marks & Spencer brand. However, in 2009 the company began selling a limited range of other brands, such as Coca - Cola and Stella Artois, without reducing the number of M&S goods they sold. This marked the first time in its 125 - year history that Marks & Spencer had sold any brands other than its own.
M&S introduced self check - out tills in the food - halls of a small number of trial stores in 2002. Self check - out was implemented in the general merchandise sections in three trial stores in 2006.
Many large shops, such as Lisburn Sprucefield, Westfield, White City, Cribbs Causeway and Newcastle - upon - Tyne, also offer other hospitality outlets, such as a modern Deli Bar (champagne, canapés, seafood), Restaurant (table service -- the first of which was opened in Newcastle) M&S Kitchen (traditional home cooking & lunches) or Hot Food To Go (burgers, chips, soups). Many of these outlets are run in conjunction with Compass Group under franchise arrangements.
In 2007, M&S announced that new, dedicated shops for home furnishings were to be launched. Shops have now been opened in Cheltenham in Gloucestershire, Tunbridge Wells in Kent, Lisburn Sprucefield in Northern Ireland and in the Barton Square section of The Trafford Centre, Manchester.
As of 2010, M&S have 50 outlet stores and growth expansion plans for future. The Outlet division offers M&S products with the majority of them discounting at least 30 % from the original selling price. The first of these stores opened at Ashford in Kent in 2000. Many of the Outlet shops are in locations such as retail parks and outlet centres, though some, including the shop in Woolwich, South London and Newton Abbot, Devon were previously main M&S shops which converted to the Outlet format. Meadow Bank Outlet Store in Edinburgh became the model for all the Marks and Spencer Outlet shop in the early months of 2010. There are now also stores which combine a mainline M&S store and an Outlet store to create a store which offers both the main current full - price M&S ranges and the discounted Outlet ranges: one such store is at the Lewisham Shopping Centre, where the previously closed upper level of the M&S store was reopened in January 2009 as an Outlet format sub-store;
M&S launched a convenience format, branded Simply Food in 2001, with the first stores opening in Twickenham and Surbiton. The stores predominantly sell food but also carry a small selection of general merchandise.
A number of these are run under franchise agreements:
Orders from M&S accounted for more than half of Uniq 's food product supplies to UK retailers in 2010 after several years service as a major M&S food product supplier.
In 2011 it was noted that M&S were operating express pricing; i.e., charging more in their Simply Food branches than in regular branches. A spokesperson stated that "prices are a little higher than at our high street stores but this reflects the fact that these stores are open longer and are highly convenient for customers on the move ''.
The Simply Food brand has been phased out in all stand - alone larger stores since the rebrand in 2015 and the stores have now been branded as "M&S Foodhall. ''
Products could be ordered online since the mid-2000s, in response to Tesco launching their pioneering Tesco.com home shopping delivery service in the early 2000s. Both Tesco, M&S and others are expanding rapidly into this new niche market. The online flower service was accused of unfair trading and using Google to piggy - back advertise on online searches aimed at Interflora online in 2010.
The John Lewis shopping chain beat M&S to the title of the UK 's best high - street website by late 2010.
As of May 2013, the Republic of Ireland now handles more than 50 % of online trade.
The company 's ranges include clothing for men, woman and children, as well as home products and food. Within these ranges, M&S use a number of own brands, such as those used within its womenswear division, including Indigo Collection Junior, Indigo Collection and Portfolio. Indigo Collection is aimed at women over 30s, while Portfolio is aimed at those aged over 45. By 2010, M&S had 10 sub-brands within womenswear and 6 sub-brands within menswear, following a reduction in brands.
Marks & Spencer were selling clothes under the St Margaret and St Michael label by the mid-1950s and launched their school uniforms in the early 1950s, but would be scrapped in the early 2000s as part of the corporate modernisation plan.
Within Marks & Spencer 's food ranges, it first pioneered boil - in - the - bag and sachet meals in 1972. The company also sells main meals, lunches, sweets and other savoury items. It launched its "Percy Pigs '' sweets in 1995, and the billionth "Percy Pig '' sweet was sold by October 2007. M&S also has an extensive wine and beer range, which was first started in 1973. In 2006 and 2007, M&S entered over a hundred of its own wines into two wine competitions, The Decanter World Wine Awards and the International Wine Challenge. Both years, almost every wine won an award, ranging from the 2005 Secano Pinot Noir, Leyda Valley, Chile (Best Pinot Noir in the world for under £ 10) to the Rosada Cava (Commended).
M&S 's relatively successful interior design ' Home ' brand was launched in 2005 and featured products like vases, furniture and beds.
The children 's online only ' Living the Dream ' range of Lewis Hamilton and Heikki Kovalainen memorabilia and merchandise was launched in September 2009. Merchandise also relating to fellow racing driver Jenson Button was added to the range during April 2010.
M&S launched its "Plus Fit '' range for overweight children in selected stores in July 2010. It has proven to be a popular line.
"Per Una '' was launched on 28 September 2001 as a joint venture between M&S and Next founder George Davies with the contribution of Julie Strang. The Per Una brand has been a major success for the company, and in October 2004, M&S bought the brand in a £ 125 million, two - year service contract with George Davies. Mr Davies was to stay on for at least two years to run the company, with 12 months notice required if he wished to leave.
The "St Michael '' brand was introduced by Simon Marks in 1928 in honour of his father and co-founder of Marks & Spencer, Michael Marks. By 1950, virtually all goods were sold under the St Michael brand. M&S lingerie, women 's clothing and girls ' uniform were branded under the St Margaret brand, until the whole range of general merchandise became St Michael. The synthetic fibre Tricell was first used in 1957 and lasted until the 1970s. and another synthetic fibre called Courtelle was first launched, nationally, by Marks & Spencer during 1960 and also lasted well into the 1970s. Machine washable wool first appeared in 1972 and Lycra hosiery first came in during 1986.
M&S launched their own brands of domestic products, such as washing powder and aluminium foil in 1972, under the brand name of ' House - care '. The 1996 -- 1997 ' Orient Express Tagged ' brand was the first of numerous new brands, most of which were in feminine and children 's clothes. The ' Orient Express Tagged ' brand was part of the inspiration behind the ' Portfolio ' brand. The men 's Autograph brand was then launched in 2000 and continues to this day.
In 2004, Sir Stuart Rose axed a number of brands including the menswear brand "SP Clothing '', the "View From '' sportswear range, the David Beckham children 's range "DB07 '' and several food lines as he thought the company 's stock inventory management had become ' too complicated '. A version of Per Una aimed at teenagers, "Per Una Due '', was also discontinued, despite having launched earlier in the year, due to poor sales.
The company also began to sell branded goods like Kellogg 's Corn Flakes in November 2008. Following a review by Marc Bolland in 2011, M&S confirmed it would begin to reduce the number of branded items on sale, instead offering only those that it did not have an M&S alternative for.
During the height of the company 's troubles at the beginning of the 21st century, the St Michael brand used as the selling label for all M&S products was discontinued in favour of Marks & Spencer and a new logo in the Optima typeface was introduced and began to appear in place of St Michael on product packaging. The same logo was also applied to store fascias and carrier bags. The St Michael name was subsequently adopted as a ' quality guarantee ' and appeared as the St Michael Quality Promise on the back of food products, on the side of delivery vehicles and on in - store ordering receipts.
When Steve Sharp joined as marketing director in 2004, after being hired by new Chief Executive Sir Stuart Rose, he introduced a new promotional brand under the Your M&S banner, with a corresponding logo.
M&S has always run newspaper and / or Magazine ads since the early 1950s, but the introduction of some famous stars such as Twiggy and David Jason in various TV ads has helped raise the company 's profile. Twiggy first appeared in 1967, returning later in 1995 and 2005. Anne Grierson first featured in adverts during the late 1950s and most of the 1960s. In later years, Erin O'Connor, Myleene Klass, Tanja Nadjila, Peter Kay, David Beckham, Antonio Banderas, Claudia Schiffer, Helena Christensen, Tatjana Patitz, Lisa Snowdon, Dannii Minogue, VV Brown and Carmen Kass have also featured in a few ads, along with many others. John Sergeant, David Jason and Joanna Lumley have either appeared in or voiced over adverts since 2008.
The new look has been instrumental in the company 's recent resurgence, particularly with the success of a new clothing campaign featuring the celebrated model, Twiggy, and younger models associated with the bohemian styles of 2005 -- 6, and the new TV ad campaign for its food range. These adverts have the tag - line "This is not just food, this is M&S food '' and feature slow motion, close - up footage of various food products, described in a sultry voice - over by Dervla Kirwan, to an enticing instrumental song -- most notably Fleetwood Mac 's "Albatross '' as well as Santana 's "Samba Pa Ti '', Olly Murs ' "Busy '', Groove Armada 's "At the River '' or Spandau Ballet 's "True ''. These adverts have been referred to by both fans and critics as being food porn, with a number of other companies copying the idea, such as Aldi and, most recently, Waitrose.
The 2009 TV advertising campaign drew complaints, leading to national press coverage, regarding sexism.
In 2010, it was confirmed that Dannii Minogue would be one of the new faces of Marks & Spencer. She filmed her first commercial in South Africa, which featured Cheryl Lynn 's "Got to Be Real '', for their Spring campaign that aired on 24 March. Dannii travelled to Miami, Florida in January 2011 to shoot the commercial for M&S for the 2011 Spring collection, prior to her contractual termination. In August 2011, M&S announced the new faces of their campaigns would be Rosie Huntington - Whiteley, Ryan Reynolds and David Gandy.
Marks & Spencer dropped a series of planned television adverts in the July 2011, featuring Twiggy, Dannii Minogue and VV Brown as it started its corporate image revamp. It confirmed that Twiggy, Lisa Snowden and Jamie Redknapp would return for future advertising.
On 31 March 2014, M&S launched the new iteration of its ' Leading Ladies ' marketing campaign featuring figures including Emma Thompson, Annie Lennox, Rita Ora and Baroness Lawrence.
Marks & Spencer has been criticised by pro-Palestinian activists over what they claim is its past support for Zionism, and for fruit trading with Israel. A shop in Brighton was vandalised in 2004 with pro-Palestinian and anti-Zionist graffiti.
The company states, "We deal with politicians and officials, in government and opposition. We do not support or align ourselves to political parties and make no political donations ''.
In October 2010, chairman Sir Stuart Rose was a signatory to a controversial letter to The Daily Telegraph which claimed that "The private sector should be more than capable of generating additional jobs to replace those lost in the public sector, and the redeployment of people to more productive activities will improve economic performance, so generating more employment opportunities '', despite recent job cuts of 1,000 staff. This prompted calls for a boycott of Marks & Spencer and the companies represented by the other signatories to the letter.
Some Marks & Spencer customers claim that the chain 's contactless payment terminals have taken money from cards other than the ones intended for payment. Contactless cards are supposed to be within about 4 cm of the front of the terminal to work. M&S investigated the incident and confirmed the new system had been extensively tested and was robust. It had recently rolled out the contactless payments system, provided by Visa Europe, to 644 UK stores.
In December 2013, Marks & Spencer announced that Muslim checkout staff in the UK could refuse to sell pork products or alcohol to customers at their till. The policy was announced after at least one news outlet reported that customers waiting with goods that included pork or alcohol were refused service, and were told by a Muslim checkout worker to wait until another till became available. The policy applied across all 703 UK M&S stores and prompted a strong backlash by customers.
A company spokesman subsequently apologised and stated that they will attempt to reassign staff whose beliefs may impact their work to different departments, such as clothing.
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who sang the part of ash in sing | Sing (disambiguation) - wikipedia
Sing may refer to:
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who becomes the president in house of cards season 5 | House of Cards (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American web television drama series House of Cards was announced by Netflix on January 28, 2016, and released on May 30, 2017.
Casting began for the season on June 17, 2016. Filming had begun by July 20, 2016, and finished by February 14, 2017.
On January 28, 2016, Netflix renewed House of Cards for a fifth season. It was also announced that series creator Beau Willimon would step down as showrunner following the fourth season. It was announced in February 2016 that Melissa James Gibson and Frank Pugliese, who both joined the show in the third season, would serve as co-showrunners for the fifth season, which was released on May 30, 2017. In October 2016, it was announced that Patricia Clarkson and Campbell Scott had been cast for the fifth season. The first trailer for the season was released on May 1, 2017.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 69 % based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The consensus reads, "House of Cards enjoys a confident return to form this season, though its outlandish edge is tempered slightly by the current political climate. '' On Metacritic, the season has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
House of Cards received four major nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, Kevin Spacey for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Robin Wright for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and Michael Kelly for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.
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where is state farm mutual automobile insurance company incorporated | State Farm - wikipedia
State Farm is a large group of insurance and financial services companies in the United States.
The group 's main business is State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company, a mutual insurance firm that also owns the other State Farm companies. The corporate headquarters are in Bloomington, Illinois.
State Farm is ranked 44th in the 2013 Fortune 500, which lists American companies by revenue.
In 2014, the company sold its Canadian operations to the Desjardins Group, which is continuing to use the State Farm name.
State Farm was founded in 1922 by retired farmer George J. Mecherle as a mutual automobile insurance company owned by its policyholders. The firm specialized in auto insurance for farmers, and later expanded its services into other types of insurance, such as homeowners and life insurance, and to banking and financial services.
The State Farm jingle ("Like a good neighbor, State Farm is there '') was written by American songwriter Barry Manilow in 1971. A cover was released by Weezer in 2011. In the 1960s State Farm 's first commercial jingle was originally created for The Jack Benny Program.
As of December 2013 State Farm had 65,000 employees and 18,000 agents. February 2014 figures show the group servicing 80 million policies in the United States and Canada, of which over 44,000,000 are for automobiles, 27,000,000 are for fire, 7,000,000 for life, and more than 2 million bank accounts.
Michael Tipsord is Chairman and CEO of State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company, and president and chief executive officer of State Farm Fire and Casualty Company, State Farm Life Insurance Company, and other principal State Farm affiliates.
In 2014, the company sold its operations in Canada to Desjardins Group. Canadian policies were transferred to be underwritten by Desjardins Group on January 1, 2015. The State Farm brand continues to be used for agents and marketing.
The State Farm interlocked tri-oval logo was created in the mid-to - late 1940s and was updated in 1953. For nearly 60 years, this design was critical to its brand image.
On December 23, 2011, State Farm decided to transform its interlocked tri-oval logo to a contemporary logo to showcase the company 's core service offerings of auto, fire, and life. The new logo was introduced January 1, 2012, marking the company 's 90th anniversary. It consists of a simple three - oval design adjacent to the State Farm wordmark. According to Pam El, Marketing Vice President at State Farm, a change in image was needed to employ a bolder presence that could compete in today 's digital world.
State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company is the parent company of several wholly owned State Farm subsidiaries:
This commercial structure is from State Farm 's "Get to a Better State '' campaign that premiered in June 2011, with an increased spending budget. As a result, State Farm 's brand awareness and favorability has gone up considerably. This campaign focuses on making humor out of unfortunate problems that are commonly faced. These commercials then make light of the situation by demonstrating how easy it is to contact an agent and correct the problem that has occurred. Each of these commercials follows a similar structure. A group of one to three people find themselves in an unfortunate situation. Someone in the group will then call on their State Farm agent by singing the jingle "like a good neighbor, State Farm is there ''. A State Farm agent will then appear and help the group out with their problem. There are a few commercials that deviate from this structure, but still follow the same ultimate pattern.
State Farm also has commercials beginning with the words "State of... '' and another word describing the certain commercial. One notable commercial shows a man awake at 3: 00 in the morning on the phone with a State Farm representative. This certain commercial begins with State of Unrest. The man 's wife sees him talking on the phone in a secretive manner. She is suspicious and asks who is on the phone, to which her husband says: "It 's Jake from State Farm ''. The man 's wife then takes the phone and asks, "What are you wearing, ' Jake from State Farm? ' '', to which the agent responds in a timid way, "Uh, khakis ''. Still believing he 's a female, the wife says, "She sounds hideous '', where the husband replies, "Well she 's a guy, so... '' In May 2015, a variation of State of Unrest premiered, starring The Coneheads from Saturday Night Live, with Dan Aykroyd and Jane Curtin reprising their respective roles as Beldar and Prymaat. This started an ad campaign with that later added Laraine Newman as Connie.
In late 2014, State Farm released a critically acclaimed commercial showing a man (played by Justin Bartha) who says that he will "never '' do something (such as getting married, having kids, moving to the suburbs, and buying a minivan), only to do all of those. At the end of the commercial, he admits that he is "never letting go. '' The commercial is based on the saying "never say never '' and how people say that they will "never '' do something, only to do it anyway.
The Hoopers is a series of State Farm commercials focusing on a family, including NBA players Chris Paul playing the father, DeAndre Jordan playing the mother, Kevin Love playing the son, Kevin Garnett playing the grandfather and Damian Lillard playing the baby. Additionally, a State Farm agent plays the role of a helpful neighbor in the set of commercials.
The commercial series currently has four commercials made, including "Robbed '', "Dropping Dimes '', "No Good Clipper '' and "The Hawks and The Hornets ''.
State Farm has expanded into the financial services arena, such as banking and mutual funds.
The bank opened in May 1999 and is operated by State Farm Financial Services, FSB, a subsidiary of State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Co. These are separate from its insurance products. State Farm Bank does not have branch offices. Its regular banking services, which include checking and savings accounts, certificates of deposit, and money market accounts, are available to consumers countrywide via the Internet or over the phone, and through agents. Home mortgages are available countrywide over the phone or through agents.
Back in the 1950s, State Farm held a contest, among the agents, to come up with ideas to expand the State Farm business. Robert H Kent, agent in Chicago, came up with the idea of providing auto loans to existing policyholders. Robert H Kent was friends with a local bank president at LaSalle NW, and the two teamed up to pilot the auto finance program. State Farm liked the idea so much, that it was rolled out to all the agents. Robert H Kent received royalties on the program for 20 years. This is a significant event, as it created the first marketing partnership between insurance companies and banks.
In early 2009, the State Farm Florida subsidiary, the state 's largest insurer, threatened to withdraw from writing property insurance business in Florida after state regulators refused to approve a 47 % property rate increase. State Farm said that, in Florida, it had paid out $1.21 in claims for every dollar in premiums since 2000. Several other home insurers have pulled out of Florida as well; many homeowners are now using the Citizens Property Insurance Corporation run by the state government. State Farm has since decided to remain in Florida, although with a reduced amount of property policies.
In 2010, State Farm and Renaissance jointly formed DaVinci Reinsurance Ltd. which insured more than 3.5 million homes in 2010.
A 2007 investigation by CNN reported that major car insurance companies, including State Farm and Allstate Insurance, are increasingly fighting claims from those alleging injury. Some injured parties argued these were unfair practices. State Farm and Allstate have denied these allegations. This followed on the heels of criminal investigations by the states of Louisiana and Mississippi, alleging that State Farm had wrongly denied claims stemming from Hurricane Katrina. Plaintiff 's attorney Richard F "Dickie '' Scruggs later pleaded guilty in March for his role in trying to pay Judge Henry Lackey of Mississippi a $50,000 bribe for a favorable ruling in a related case involving a $26.5 million settlement after Hurricane Katrina.
State Farm 's top automobile insurance competitors, based on premium written, include Farmers Insurance, Allstate, Progressive, GEICO, Zurich Financial Services, Reliance Partners, Nationwide, USAA, Liberty Mutual, American International Group, and American Family Insurance Group.
State Farm Safety Patrol -- State Farm, in partnership with several U.S. highway authorities, operates a service called the State Farm Safety Patrol which provides free roadside assistance to stranded motorists on participating highways, when you call the designated telephone number for the Safety Patrol they will respond and provide the following services: fuel refills; radiator refills; engine oil refills. Most Safety Patrol personnel are also CPR and Automated External Defibrillator certified. They work to reduce accident rates, minimize the duration time of incidents, assist disabled drivers and remove road debris. Turnpikes which currently participate include, Florida 's Turnpike in the State of Florida and the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In Ohio, State Farm -- branded safety patrol vans service major highways in the Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, Columbus, Dayton, Akron, and Canton areas on weekdays.
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which datum does the global positioning system reference in north america | North American datum - wikipedia
The North American Datum (NAD) is the datum now used to define the geodetic network in North America. A datum is a formal description of the shape of the Earth along with an "anchor '' point for the coordinate system. In surveying, cartography, and land - use planning, two North American Datums are in use: the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27) and the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Both are geodetic reference systems based on slightly different assumptions and measurements.
In 1901 the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey adopted a national horizontal datum called the United States Standard Datum, based on the Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866. It was fitted to data previously collected for regional datums, which by that time had begun to overlap. In 1913, Canada and Mexico adopted that datum, so it was also renamed the North American Datum.
As more data were gathered, discrepancies appeared, so the datum was recomputed in 1927, using the same spheroid and origin as its predecessor.
The North American Datum of 1927 (NAD 27) was based on surveys of the entire continent from a common reference point that was chosen in 1901, because it was as near the center of the contiguous United States as could be calculated: It was based on a triangulation station at the junction of the transcontinental triangulation arc of 1899 on the 39th parallel north and the triangulation arc along the 98th meridian west that was near the geographic center of the contiguous United States. The datum declares the Meades Ranch Triangulation Station to be 39 ° 13 ′ 26.686 '' north latitude, 98 ° 32 ′ 30.506 '' west longitude (NGS data). NAD 27 is oriented by declaring the azimuth from Meades Ranch to Waldo to be 255 ° 28 ′ 14.52 '' from north. The latitude and longitude of every other point in North America is then based on its distance and direction from Meades Ranch: If a point was X meters in azimuth Y degrees from Meades Ranch, measured on the Clarke Ellipsoid of 1866, then its latitude and longitude on that ellipsoid were defined and could be calculated.
† By definition. † † Calculated.
These are the defining dimensions for NAD 27, but Clarke actually defined his 1866 spheroid as a = 20,926,062 British feet, b = 20,855,121 British feet. The conversion to meters uses Clarke 's 1865 inch - meter ratio of 39.370432. (The length of a foot or meter at the time could not practically be benchmarked to better than about 0.02 mm.)
Most USGS topographic maps were published in NAD 27 and many major projects by the United States Army Corps of Engineers and other agencies were defined in NAD 27, so the datum remains important, despite more refined datums being available.
Because Earth deviates significantly from a perfect ellipsoid, the ellipsoid that best approximates its shape varies region by region across the world. Clarke 1866, and North American Datum of 1927 with it, were surveyed to best suit North America as a whole. Likewise, historically, most regions of the world used ellipsoids measured locally to best suit the vagaries of Earth 's shape in their respective locales. While ensuring the most accuracy locally, this practice makes integrating and disseminating information across regions troublesome.
As satellite geodesy and remote sensing technology reached high precision and were made available for civilian applications, it became feasible to acquire information referred to a single global ellipsoid. This is because satellites naturally deal with Earth as a monolithic body. Therefore, the GRS 80 ellipsoid was developed for best approximating the Earth as a whole, and it became the foundation for the North American Datum of 1983. Though GRS 80 and its close relative, WGS 84, are generally not the best fit for any given region, a need for the closest fit largely evaporates when a global survey is combined with computers, databases, and software able to compensate for local conditions.
† By definition. † † Calculated.
A point having a given latitude and longitude in NAD 27 may be displaced on the order of many tens of meters from another point having the identical latitude and longitude in NAD 83, so it is important to specify the datum along with the coordinates. The North American Datum of 1927 is defined by the latitude and longitude of an initial point (Meades Ranch Triangulation Station in Kansas), the direction of a line between this point and a specified second point, and two dimensions that define the spheroid. The North American Datum of 1983 is based on a newer defined spheroid (GRS 80); it is an Earth - centered (or "geocentric '') datum having no initial point or initial direction.
NOAA provides a converter between the two systems. The practical impact is that if you use current GPS device set to work in NAD 83 or WGS 84 to navigate to NAD 27 coordinates (as from a topo map) in Seattle, you would be off by about 95 meters (not far enough west), and you 'd be about 47 meters off in Miami (not far enough north - northeast), whereas you would be much closer for points near Chicago.
The initial definition of NAD 83 (1986) was intended to match GRS 80 and WGS 84, so many older publications indicate no difference. Subsequent measurements found a difference on the order of a meter over much of the United States. Each datum has undergone refinements with more accurate and later measurements.
NAD 83 is defined to remain constant over time for points on the North American Plate, whereas WGS 84 is defined with respect to the average of stations all over the world. Thus the two systems naturally diverge over time. For much of the United States the relative rate is on the order of 1 to 2 cm per year. Hawaii and the coastal portions of central and southern California west of the San Andreas Fault are not on the North American plate, so their divergence rate differs.
The United States National Spatial Reference System NAD 83 (2011 / MA11 / PA11) epoch 2010.00, is a refinement of the NAD 83 datum using data from a network of very accurate GPS receivers at Continuously Operating Reference Stations (CORS).
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what is the purpose of the wedding veil | Veil - wikipedia
A veil is an article of clothing or hanging cloth that is intended to cover some part of the head or face, or an object of some significance. Veiling has a long history in European, Asian, and African societies. The practice has been prominent in different forms in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The practice of veiling is especially associated with women and sacred objects, though in some cultures it is men rather than women who are expected to wear a veil. Besides its enduring religious significance, veiling continues to play a role in some modern secular contexts, such as wedding customs.
Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Greek and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status. The earliest attested reference to veiling is found a Middle Assyrian law code dating from between 1400 and 1100 BC. Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman 's class, rank, and occupation in society. Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so. Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between ' respectable ' women and those who were publicly available ''. The veiling of matrons was also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 B.C.E, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.
The Mycenaean Greek term 𐀀𐀢𐀒𐀺𐀒, a-pu - ko - wo - ko, possibly meaning "headband makers '' or "craftsmen of horse veil '', and written in Linear B syllabic script, is also attested since ca. 1300 BC. In ancient Greek the word for veil was καλύπτρα (kalyptra; Ionic Greek: καλύπτρη, kalyptrē; from the verb καλύπτω, kalyptō, "I cover '').
Classical Greek and Hellenistic statues sometimes depict Greek women with both their head and face covered by a veil. Caroline Galt and Lloyd Llewellyn - Jones have both argued from such representations and literary references that it was commonplace for women (at least those of higher status) in ancient Greece to cover their hair and face in public. Roman women were expected to wear veils as a symbol of the husband 's authority over his wife; a married woman who omitted the veil was seen as withdrawing herself from marriage. In 166 BC, consul Sulpicius Gallus divorced his wife because she had left the house unveiled, thus allowing all to see, as he said, what only he should see. Unmarried girls normally did n't veil their heads, but matrons did so to show their modesty and chastity, their pudicitia. Veils also protected women against the evil eye, it was thought.
A veil called flammeum was the most prominent feature of the costume worn by the bride at Roman weddings. The veil was a deep yellow color reminiscent of a candle flame. The flammeum also evoked the veil of the Flaminica Dialis, the Roman priestess who could not divorce her husband, the high priest of Jupiter, and thus was seen as a good omen for lifelong fidelity to one man. The Romans apparently thought of the bride as being "clouded over with a veil '' and connected the verb nubere (to be married) with nubes, the word for cloud.
Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East. Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians, before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses. In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.
For many centuries, until around 1175, Anglo - Saxon and then Anglo - Norman women, with the exception of young unmarried girls, wore veils that entirely covered their hair, and often their necks up to their chins (see wimple). Only in the Tudor period (1485), when hoods became increasingly popular, did veils of this type become less common. This depended greatly from one country to the other. In Italy, veils, including face veils, were worn in some regions until the 1970s. Women in southern Italy often covered their heads to show that they were modest, well - behaved and pious. They generally wore a cuffia (cap), then the fazzoletto (kerchief / head scarves) a long triangular or rectangular piece of cloth that could be tied in various way, and sometimes covered the whole face except the eyes, sometimes bende (lit. swaddles, bandages) or a wimple underneath too.
For centuries, European women have worn sheer veils, but only under certain circumstances. Sometimes a veil of this type was draped over and pinned to the bonnet or hat of a woman in mourning, especially at the funeral and during the subsequent period of "high mourning ''. They would also have been used, as an alternative to a mask, as a simple method of hiding the identity of a woman who was traveling to meet a lover, or doing anything she did n't want other people to find out about. More pragmatically, veils were also sometimes worn to protect the complexion from sun and wind damage (when un-tanned skin was fashionable), or to keep dust out of a woman 's face, much as the keffiyeh is used today.
In Judaism, Christianity and Islam the concept of covering the head is or was associated with propriety and modesty. Most traditional depictions of the Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ, show her veiled. During the Middle Ages most European married women covered their hair rather than their face, with a variety of styles of wimple, kerchiefs and headscarfs. Veiling, covering the hair rather than the face, was a common practice with church - going women until the 1960s, Catholic women typically using lace, and a number of very traditional churches retain the custom. Bonnets were the rule in non-Catholic churches. Lace face - veils are still often worn by female relatives at funerals in some Catholic countries.
Christian Byzantine literature expressed rigid norms pertaining to veiling of women, which have been influenced by Persian traditions, although there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice. Since Islam identified with the monotheistic religions practiced in the Byzantine and Sassanian empires, in the aftermath of the early Muslim conquests veiling of women was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety. Veiling gradually spread to upper - class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities. Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields. Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle. '' By the 19th century, upper - class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth). Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a face veil when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization ''. The practice of veiling gradually declined in much of the Muslim world during the 20th century before making a comeback in recent decades.
Although religion is a common reason for choosing to veil, the practice also reflects political and personal conviction, so that it can serve as a medium through which personal character can be revealed.
Among the Tuareg, Songhai, Hausa, and Fulani of West Africa, women do not traditionally wear the veil, while men do. Male veiling was also common among the Berber Sanhaja tribes. The North African male veil, which covers the mouth and sometimes part of the nose, is called litham is Arabic and tagelmust by the Tuareg. Tuareg boys start wearing the veil at the onset of puberty and veiling is regarded as a mark of manhood. It is considered improper for a man to appear unveiled in front of elders, especially those from his wife 's family.
Ancient African rock engravings depicting human faces with eyes but no mouth or nose suggest that the origins of litham are not only pre-Islamic but even pre-historic. Wearing of the litham is not viewed as a religious requirement, although it was apparently believed to provide magical protection against evil forces. In practice, the litham has served as protection from the dust and extremes of temperature characterizing the desert environment. Its use by the Almoravids gave it a political significance during their conquests.
In some parts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, men wear a sehra on their wedding day. This is a male veil covering the whole face and neck. The sehra is made from either flowers, beads, tinsel, dry leaves, or coconuts. The most common sehra is made from fresh marigolds. The groom wears this throughout the day concealing his face even during the wedding ceremony. In Northern India today you can see the groom arriving on a horse with the sehra wrapped around his head.
Biblical references include:
Note: Genesis 20: 16, which the King James Version renders as: "And unto Sarah he said, Behold, I have given thy brother a thousand pieces of silver: behold, he is to thee a covering of the eyes, unto all that are with thee, and with all other: thus she was reproved '' has been interpreted in one source as implied advice to Sarah to conform to a supposed custom of married women, and wear a complete veil, covering the eyes as well as the rest of the face, but the phrase is generally taken to refer not to Sarah 's eyes, but to the eyes of others, and to be merely a metaphorical expression concerning vindication of Sarah (NASB, RSV), silencing criticism (GWT), allaying suspicions (NJB), righting a wrong (BBE, NLT), covering or recompensing the problem caused her (NIV, New Life Version, NIRV, TNIV, JB), a sign of her innocence (ESV, CEV, HCSB). The final phrase in the verse, which KJV takes to mean "she was reproved '', is taken by almost all other versions to mean instead "she was vindicated '', and the word "הוא '', which KJV interprets as "he '' (Abraham), is interpreted as "it '' (the money). Thus, the general view is that this passage has nothing to do with material veils.
After the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, the synagogues that were established took the design of the Tabernacle as their plan. The Ark of the Law, which contains the scrolls of the Torah, is covered with an embroidered curtain or veil called a parokhet. (See also below regarding the veiling -- and unveiling -- of the bride.)
Among Christian churches which have a liturgical tradition, several different types of veils are used. These veils are often symbolically tied to the veils in the Tabernacle in the wilderness and in Solomon 's Temple. The purpose of these veils was not so much to obscure as to shield the most sacred things from the eyes of sinful men. In Solomon 's Temple the veil was placed between the "Inner Sanctuary '' and the "Holy of Holies ''. According to the New Testament, this veil was torn when Jesus Christ died on the cross.
The Veil of our Lady is a liturgical feast celebrating the protection afforded by the intercessions of the Virgin Mary.
Traditionally, in Christianity, women were enjoined to cover their heads in church, just as it was (and still is) customary for men to remove their hat as a sign of respect. This practice is based on 1 Corinthians 11: 4 -- 16, where St. Paul writes:
Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered brings shame upon his head. But any woman who prays or prophesies with her head unveiled brings shame upon her head, for it is one and the same thing as if she had had her head shaved. For if a woman does not have her head veiled, she may as well have her hair cut off. But if it is shameful for a woman to have her hair cut off or her head shaved, then she should wear a veil. A man, on the other hand, should not cover his head, because he is the image and glory of God, but woman is the glory of man. For man did not come from woman, but woman from man; nor was man created for woman, but woman for man; for this reason a woman should have a sign of authority on her head, because of the angels. Woman is not independent of man or man of woman in the Lord. For just as woman came from man, so man is born of woman; but all things are from God. Judge for yourselves: is it proper for a woman to pray to God with her head unveiled? Does not nature itself teach you that if a man wears his hair long it is a disgrace to him, whereas if a woman has long hair it is her glory, because long hair has been given (her) for a covering? But if anyone is inclined to be argumentative, we do not have such a custom, nor do the churches of God (New American Bible translation)
In many traditional Eastern Orthodox Churches, and in some very conservative Protestant churches as well, the custom continues of women covering their heads in church (or even when praying privately at home).
In the Roman Catholic Church, it was customary in most places before the 1960s for women to wear a headcovering in the form of a scarf, cap, veil or hat when entering a church. The practice now continues in isolated parishes where it is seen as a matter of etiquette, courtesy, tradition or fashionable elegance. The Declaration Inter-Insigniores by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith has made it clear that the practice of headcovering for women was a matter of ecclesiastical discipline and not of Divine law.
The wearing of a headcovering was for the first time mandated as a universal rule for the Latin Rite by the Code of Canon Law of 1917, which code was abrogated by the advent of the present (1983) Code of Canon Law. Traditionalist Catholics still follow it, generally as a matter of custom and biblically approved aptness; some also suppose that St. Paul 's directive is in full force today as an ordinance of its own right, despite the teaching of the Congregation for Doctrine of the Faith 's pronouncement on the matter.
A veil over the hair rather than the face forms part of the headdress of some orders of nuns or religious sisters; this is why a woman who becomes a nun is said "to take the veil ''. In medieval times married women normally covered their hair outside the house, and a nun 's veil is based on secular medieval styles, often reflecting the fashion of widows in their attire. In many institutes, a white veil is used as the "veil of probation '' during novitiate, and a dark veil for the "veil of profession '' once religious vows are taken; the color scheme varies with the color scheme of the habit of the order. A veil of consecration, longer and fuller, is used by some orders for final profession of solemn vows.
Nuns are the female counterparts of monks, and many monastic orders of women have retained the veil. Regarding other institutes of religious sisters who are not cloistered but who work as teachers, nurses or in other "active '' apostolates outside of a nunnery or monastery, some wear the veil, while some others have abolished the use of the veil, and a few never had a veil to start with, but used a bonnet - style headdress as in the case of St. Elizabeth Ann Seton.
The fullest versions of the nun 's veil cover the top of the head and flow down around and over the shoulders. In western Christianity, it does not wrap around the neck or face. In those orders that retain one, the starched white covering about the face neck and shoulders is known as a wimple and is a separate garment.
The Catholic Church has revived the ancient practice of allowing women to be consecrated by their bishop as a consecrated virgin. These women are set aside as sacred persons who belong only to Christ and the service of the church. The veil is a bridal one, because the velatio virginum primarily signified the newly consecrated virgin as the Bride of Christ. At one point this veil was called the flammeum because it was supposed to remind the virgin of the indissoluble nuptial bond she was contracting with Christ. The wearing of the flammeum for the sacred virgin Bride of Christ arose from the bridal attire of the strictest pagan marriage which did not permit of divorce at the time. The flammeum was a visible reminder that divorce was not possible with Christ, their Divine Spouse. Consecrated virgins are under the direct care of the local bishop, without belonging to a particular order, and they receive the veil as a bridal sign of consecration.
There has also been renewed interest in the last half century in the ancient practice of women and men dedicating themselves as anchorites or hermits, and there is a formal process whereby such persons can seek recognition of their vows by the local bishop; a veil for these women would be traditional.
Some Anglican women 's religious orders also wear a veil, differing according to the traditions of each order.
In Eastern Orthodoxy and in the Eastern Rites of the Catholic Church, a veil called an epanokamelavkion is used by both nuns and monks, in both cases covering completely the kamilavkion, a cylindrical hat they both wear. In Slavic practice, when the veil is worn over the hat, the entire headdress is referred to as a klobuk. Nuns wear an additional veil under the klobuk, called an apostolnik, which is drawn together to cover the neck and shoulders as well as the head, leaving the face itself open.
A variety of headdresses worn by Muslim women and girls in accordance with hijab (the principle of dressing modestly) are sometimes referred to as veils. The principal aim of the Muslim veil is to cover the Awrah (parts of the body that are considered private). Many of these garments cover the hair, ears and throat, but do not cover the face.
Depending on geography and culture, the veil is referenced and worn in different ways. The khimar is a type of headscarf. The niqāb and burqa are two kinds of veils that cover most of the face except for a slit or hole for the eyes. In Algeria, a larger veil called the haïk includes a triangular panel to cover the lower part of the face. In the Arabian Peninsula and parts of North Africa (specifically Saudi Arabia), the abaya is worn constructed like a loose robe covering everything but the face itself. In another location, such as Iran, the chador is worn as the semicircles of fabric are draped over the head like a shawl and held in place under the neck by hand. The two terms for veiling that are directly mentioned in the Quran is the jilbab and the khimar. In these references, the veiling is meant to promote modesty by covering the genitals and breasts of women.
The Afghan burqa covers the entire body, obscuring the face completely, except for a grille or netting over the eyes to allow the wearer to see. The boshiya is a veil that may be worn over a headscarf; it covers the entire face and is made of a sheer fabric so the wearer is able to see through it. It has been suggested that the practice of wearing a veil -- uncommon among the Arab tribes prior to the rise of Islam -- originated in the Byzantine Empire, and then spread.
In Central Asian sedentary Muslim areas (today Uzbekistan and Tajikistan) women wore veils which when worn the entire face was shrouded, called Paranja or faranji. The traditional veil in Central Asia worn before modern times was the faranji but it was banned by the Soviet Communists.
The wearing of head and especially face coverings by Muslim women has raised political issues in the West; including in Quebec, and across Europe. Countries and territories that have banned or partially banned the veil include, among others:
Places where headscarves continue to be a contentious political issue include:
In Indian subcontinent, from 1st century B.C. societies advocated the use of the veil for married Hindu women which came to be known as Ghoonghat. Buddhists attempted to counter this growing practice around 3rd century CE. Rational opposition against veiling and seclusion from spirited ladies resulted in system not becoming popular for several centuries. Under the Medieval Islamic Mughal Empire, various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana, partly as an additional protection for women. Purdah became common in the 15th and 16th century, as both Vidyāpati and Chaitanya mention it. Sikhism was highly critical of all forms of strict veiling, Guru Amar Das condemned it and rejected seclusion and veiling of women, which saw decline of veiling among some classes during late medieval period.
In the 19th century, wedding veils came to symbolize the woman 's virginity and modesty. The tradition of a veiled bride 's face continues even today wherein, a virgin bride, especially in Christian or Jewish culture, enters the marriage ritual with a veiled face and head, and remains fully veiled, both head and face, until the ceremony concludes. After the full conclusion of the wedding ceremony, either the bride 's father lifts the veil giving the bride to the groom who then kisses her, or the new groom lifts her face veil in order to kiss her, which symbolizes the groom 's right to enter into conjugal relations with his bride.
In Judaism, the tradition of wearing a veil dates back to biblical times. According to the Torah in Genesis 24: 65, Isaac is brought Rebekah to marry by his father Abraham 's servant. It is important to note that Rebekah did not veil herself when traveling with her lady attendants and Abraham 's servant and his men to meet Isaac, but she only did so when Isaac was approaching. Just before the wedding ceremony the badeken or bedeken is held. The groom places the veil over the bride 's face, and either he or the officiating Rabbi gives her a blessing. The veil stays on her face until just before the end of the wedding ceremony -- when they are legally married according to Jewish law -- then the groom helps lift the veil from off her face.
The most often cited interpretation for the badeken is that, according to Genesis 29, when Jacob went to marry Rachel, his father in law Laban tricked him into marrying Leah, Rachel 's older and homlier sister. Many say that the veiling ceremony takes place to make sure that the groom is marrying the right bride. Some say that as the groom places the veil over his bride, he makes an implicit promise to clothe and protect her. Finally, by covering her face, the groom recognizes that he his marrying the bride for her inner beauty; while looks will fade with time, his love will be everlasting. In some ultra-orthodox traditions the bride wears an opaque veil as she is escorted down the aisle to meet her groom. This shows her complete willingness to enter into the marriage and her absolute trust that she is marrying the right man. In Judaism, a wedding is not considered valid unless the bride willingly consents to it.
In ancient Judaism the lifting of the veil took place just prior to the consummation of the marriage in sexual union. The uncovering or unveiling that takes place in the wedding ceremony is a symbol of what will take place in the marriage bed. Just as the two become one through their words spoken in wedding vows, so these words are a sign of the physical oneness that they will consummate later on. The lifting of the veil is a symbol and an anticipation of this.
In Christian theology, St. Paul 's words concerning how marriage symbolizes the union of Christ and His Church may underlie part of the tradition of veiling in the marriage ceremony. In this respect, veiling may signify the waters of baptism, with the wedding dress (& veil) being but a larger version of the First Communion dress (& veil), which in turn is but a larger version of a baby 's baptismal garment, which is the distinguishing garment of all Christians, signifying the presence of Sanctifying Grace and the Holy Spirit. At an even deeper level, the waters of baptism themselves symbolize the waters of death, which must be accepted in faith, and passed through, before truly complete joy can be experienced in Heaven. In this respect, the religious veil is a reminder to the bride that she is dying to her previous life, and being admitted to a new kind of life, symbolic of eternal life in Heaven. For this reason, nuns are veiled -- often with a black veil -- with the veil not merely signifying the veil of death, but actually -- in some real way -- being that veil, since they will one day be buried in it. The wedding veil is also a symbol of the veil of faith in Jesus Christ, the Heavenly bridegroom, that He will one day come and redeem our mortal bodies, by the lifting of that veil, so that we shall see Him face to face in Heaven. Sacred virgins receive not the religious veil - unless they are also nuns - but a bridal veil because they are espoused to Christ in the solemn rite of Consecration of Virgins. The consecrated virgins ' veil has always symbolized being a bride of Christ and the indissoluble nuptial bond the sacred virgin enjoys with Christ. Lastly, the wedding dress, either with, or even without a veil, may be a symbol of the radiance of the resurrected body in Heaven, which will not be a mortal body, but which will have been changed "in the twinkling of an eye '' into something new that we can not now even imagine.
An occasion on which a Western woman is likely to wear a veil is on her white wedding day. Brides once used to wear their hair flowing down their back at their wedding to symbolize their virginity. Veils covering the hair and face became a symbolic reference to the virginity of the bride thereafter. A bride may wear the face veil through the ceremony. Then either her father lifts the veil, presenting the bride to her groom, or the groom lifts the veil to symbolically consummate the marriage. Brides may make use of the veil to symbolize and emphasize their status of purity during their wedding however, and if they do, the lifting of the veil may be ceremonially recognized as the crowning event of the wedding, when the beauty of the bride is finally revealed to the groom and the guests.
In modern weddings, the ceremony of removing a face veil after the wedding to present the groom with the bride may not occur, since couples may have entered into conjugal relations prior to the wedding and it may also be considered sexist for the bride to have her face covered whether or not the veil is a sign of virginity. In Scandinavia, brides wear a veil usually under a traditional crown but do not have their face covered (instead the veil is attached to and hangs from the back).
Veils remained a part of Western mourning dress customs into the modern times. The tradition of widow 's veiling has its roots in nun 's attire, which symbolized modesty and chastity. The mourning veil was commonly seen as a means of shielding the mourner and hiding her grief, and, on the contrary, seen by some women as a means of publicly expressing their emotions. Mourning veils have also been sometimes perceived as expressions of elegance or even sex appeal. In a 19th - century American etiquette book one finds: "Black is becoming, and young widows, fair, plump, and smiling, with their roguish eyes sparkling under their black veils are very seducing ''.
One view is that as a religious item, it is intended to honor a person, object or space. The actual sociocultural, psychological, and sociosexual functions of veils have not been studied extensively but most likely include the maintenance of social distance and the communication of social status and cultural identity.
A veil also has symbolic interpretations, as something partially concealing, disguising, or obscuring.
The English word veil ultimately originates from Latin vēlum, which also means "sail, '' from Proto - Indo - European * weghslom, from the verbal root * wegh - "to drive, to move or ride in a vehicle '' (compare way and wain) and the tool / instrument suffix * - slo -, because the sail makes the ship move. Compare the diminutive form vexillum, and the Slavic cognate veslo "oar, paddle '', attested in Czech and Serbo - Croatian.
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when was the people's republic of china founded | History of the People 's Republic of China - wikipedia
The history of the People 's Republic of China details the history of mainland China since October 1, 1949, when, after a near complete victory by the Communist Party of China (CPC) in the Chinese Civil War, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People 's Republic of China (PRC) from atop Tiananmen. The PRC has for several decades been synonymous with China, but it is only the most recent political entity to govern mainland China, preceded by the Republic of China (ROC) and thousands of years of imperial dynasties.
Following the Chinese Civil War and the victory of Mao Zedong 's Communist forces over the Kuomintang forces of Generalissimo Chiang Kai - shek, who fled to Taiwan, Mao declared the founding of the People 's Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Mao 's first goal was a total overhaul of the land ownership system, and extensive land reforms. China 's old system of gentry landlord ownership of farmland and tenant peasants was replaced with a distribution system in favor of poor / landless peasants which significantly reduced economic inequality. Over a million landlords were executed. In Zhangzhuangcun, in the more thoroughly reformed north of the country, most "landlords '' and "rich peasants '' had lost all their land and often their lives or had fled. All formerly landless workers had received land, which eliminated this category altogether. As a result, "middling peasants, '' who now accounted for 90 percent of the village population, owned 90.8 percent of the land. Mao laid heavy theoretical emphasis on class struggle, and in 1953 began various campaigns to persecute former landlords and merchants, including the execution of more powerful landlords. Drug trafficking in the country as well as foreign investment were largely wiped out.
Mao believed that socialism would eventually triumph over all other ideologies, and following the First Five - Year Plan based on a Soviet - style centrally controlled economy, Mao took on the ambitious project of the Great Leap Forward in 1958, beginning an unprecedented process of collectivization in rural areas. Mao urged the use of communally organized iron smelters to increase steel production, pulling workers off of agricultural labor to the point that large amounts of crops rotted unharvested. Mao decided to continue to advocate these smelters despite a visit to a factory steel mill which proved to him that high quality steel could only be produced in a factory. He thought that ending the program would dampen peasant enthusiasm for his political mobilization, the Great Leap Forward.
The implementation of Maoist thought in China may have been responsible for over 40 -- 70 million deaths including famine during peacetime, with the Great Leap Forward, Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957 -- 1958, and the Cultural Revolution. Millions died from both executions and forced labour. Because of Mao 's land reforms during the Great Leap Forward, which resulted in massive famines, thirty million perished between 1958 and 1961. By the end of 1961 the birth rate was nearly cut in half because of malnutrition. Active campaigns, including party purges and "reeducation '' resulted in the imprisonment or execution of those deemed to hold views contrary to Maoist ideals. Mao 's failure with the Leap reduced his power in government, whose administrative duties fell to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping.
To impose socialist orthodoxy and rid China of "old elements '', and at the same time serving certain political goals, Mao began the Cultural Revolution in May 1966. The campaign was far reaching into all aspects of Chinese life. Red Guards terrorized the streets as many ordinary citizens were deemed counter-revolutionaries. Education and public transportation came to a nearly complete halt. Daily life involved shouting slogans and reciting Mao quotations. Many prominent political leaders, including Liu and Deng, were purged and deemed "capitalist - roaders ''. The campaign would not come to a complete end until the death of Mao in 1976.
Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China 's unity and sovereignty was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, education (only 20 % of the population could read in 1949, compared to 65.5 % thirty years later), which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. They also claimed that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward -- an example of the concept New Democracy -- and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China 's development and "purifying '' its culture. Others claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a "clean slate '' on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters often also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao 's campaigns, attributing the high death toll to natural disasters, famine, or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai - shek.
Mao Zedong 's death was followed by a power struggle between the Gang of Four, Hua Guofeng, and eventually Deng Xiaoping. Deng would maneuver himself to the top of China 's leadership by 1980. At the Third Plenum of the Eleventh National Party Congress Central Committee, Deng embarked China on the road to Economic Reforms and Openness (改革 开放 Gaige Kaifang), policies that began with the de-collectivization of the countryside, followed with industrial reforms aimed at decentralizing government controls in the industrial sector. A major document presented at the September 1979 Fourth Plenum, gave a "preliminary assessment '' of the entire 30 - year period of Communist rule. At the plenum, party Vice Chairman Ye Jianying declared the Cultural Revolution "an appalling catastrophe '' and "the most severe setback to (the) socialist cause since (1949). '' The Chinese government 's condemnation of the Cultural Revolution culminated in the Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People 's Republic of China, adopted by the Sixth Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party of China. This stated that "Comrade Mao Zedong was a great Marxist and a great proletarian revolutionary, strategist and theorist. It is true that he made gross mistakes during the "cultural revolution '', but, if we judge his activities as a whole, his contributions to the Chinese revolution far outweigh his mistakes. His merits are primary and his errors secondary. ''
On the subject of Mao 's legacy Deng coined the famous phrase "7 parts good, 3 parts bad '' and avoided denouncing Mao altogether. Deng championed the idea of Special Economic Zones (SEZs), areas where foreign investment would be allowed to pour in without strict government restraint and regulations, running on a basically capitalist system. Deng laid emphasis on light industry as a stepping stone to the development of heavy industries.
Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15 % of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms.
Although standards of living improved significantly in the 1980s, Deng 's reforms were not without criticism. Hard - liners asserted that Deng opened China once again to various social evils, and an overall increase in materialistic thinking, while liberals attacked Deng 's unrelenting stance on political reform. Liberal forces began gathering in different forms to protest against the Party 's authoritarian leadership. In 1989, the death of Hu Yaobang, a liberal figure, triggered weeks of spontaneous protests in the Tiananmen Square. The government imposed martial law and sent in tanks and soldiers to suppress the demonstrations. Western countries and multilateral organizations briefly suspended their formal ties with China 's government under Premier Li Peng 's leadership, which was directly responsible for the military curfew and bloody crackdown.
Critics of the economic reforms, both in China and abroad, claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state - owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently, they believe that China 's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved at least superficially; images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable, commonly used on novelty items and even as talismans. However, the path of modernization and market - oriented economic reforms that China started since the early 1980s appears to be fundamentally unchallenged. Even critics of China 's market reforms do not wish to see a backtrack of these two decades of reforms, but rather propose corrective measures to offset some of the social issues caused by existing reforms.
In 1979, the Chinese government instituted a one child policy to try to control its rapidly increasing population. The controversial policy resulted in a dramatic decrease in child poverty. The law currently applies to about a third of mainland Chinese, with plans in place to ease it to a two - child limit.
The achievements of Lee Kuan Yew to create an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound effect on the Communist leadership in China. They made a major effort, especially under Deng Xiaoping, to emulate his policies of economic growth, entrepreneurship, and subtle suppression of dissent. Over 22,000 Chinese officials were sent to Singapore to study its methods.
After the events at Tiananmen, Deng Xiaoping retired from public view. While keeping ultimate control, power was passed onto the third generation of leadership led by Jiang Zemin, who was hailed as its "core ''. Economic growth, despite foreign trade embargoes, returned to a fast pace by the mid-1990s. Jiang 's macroeconomic reforms furthered Deng 's vision for "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics ''. At the same time, Jiang 's period saw a continued rise in social corruption in all areas of life. Unemployment skyrocketed as unprofitable SOE 's were closed to make way for more competitive ventures, internally and abroad. The ill - equipped social welfare system was put on a serious test. Jiang also laid heavy emphasis on scientific and technological advancement in areas such as space exploration. To sustain vast human consumption, the Three Gorges Dam was built, attracting supporters and widespread criticism. Environmental pollution became a very serious problem as Beijing was frequently hit by sandstorms as a result of desertification.
The 1990s saw two foreign colonies returned to China, Hong Kong from Britain in 1997, and Macau from Portugal in 1999. Hong Kong and Macau mostly continued their own governance, retaining independence in their economic, social, and judicial systems.
Jiang and President Clinton exchanged state visits, but Sino - American relations took very sour turns at the end of the decade. On May 7, 1999, during the Kosovo War, US aircraft bombed the Chinese embassy in Belgrade. The U.S. government claimed the strike was due to bad intelligence and false target identification.
Inside the US, the Cox Report stated that China had been stealing various top US military secrets.
In 2001, a US surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet over international waters near Hainan, inciting further outrage with the Chinese public, already dissatisfied with the US.
On the political agenda, China was once again put on the spotlight for the banning of public Falun Gong activity in 1999. Silent protesters from the spiritual movement sat outside of Zhongnanhai, asking for dialogue with China 's leaders. Jiang saw it as threatening to the political situation and outlawed the group altogether, while using the mass media to denounce it as an evil cult.
Conversely, Premier Zhu Rongji 's economic policies held China 's economy strong during the Asian Financial Crisis. Economic growth averaged at 8 % annually, pushed back by the 1998 Yangtze River Floods. After a decade of talks, China was finally admitted into the World Trade Organization. Standards of living improved significantly, although a wide urban - rural wealth gap was opened, as China saw the reappearance of the middle class. Wealth disparity between East and the Western hinterlands continued to widen by the day, prompting government programs to "develop the West '', taking on such ambitious projects such as the Qinghai - Tibet Railway. The burden of education was greater than ever. Rampant corruption continued despite Premier Zhu 's anti-corruption campaign that executed many officials.
The first major issue faced by China in the 21st century as a new generation of leaders led by Hu Jintao after assuming power was the public health crisis involving SARS, an illness that seemed to have originated out of Guangdong province. China 's position in the war on terror drew the country closer diplomatically to the United States. The economy continues to grow in double - digit numbers as the development of rural areas became the major focus of government policy. In gradual steps to consolidate his power, Hu Jintao removed Shanghai Party Chief Chen Liangyu and other potential political opponents amidst the fight against corruption, and the ongoing struggle against once powerful Shanghai clique. The assertion of the Scientific Perspective to create a Socialist Harmonious Society is the focus of the Hu - Wen administration, as some Jiang - era excesses are slowly reversed. In the years after Hu 's rise to power, respect of basic human rights in China continue to be a source of concern.
The political status and future of Taiwan remain uncertain, but steps have been taken to improving relations between the Communist Party and several of Taiwan 's parties that hold a less antagonistic view towards China, notably former rival Kuomintang.
The continued economic growth of the country as well as its sporting power status gained China the right to host the 2008 Summer Olympics. However, this also put Hu 's administration under intense spotlight. While the 2008 Olympic was commonly understood to be a come - out party for People 's Republic of China, in light of the March 2008 Tibet protests, the government received heavy scrutiny. The Olympic torch was met with protest en route. Within the country these reactions were met with a fervent wave of nationalism with accusations of Western bias against China.
In May 2008, a massive earthquake registering 8.0 on the Richter scale hit Sichuan province of China, exacting a death toll officially estimated at approximately 70,000. The government responded more quickly than it did with previous events, and has allowed foreign media access to the regions that were hit the hardest. The adequacy of the government response was generally praised, and the relief efforts extended to every corner of Chinese life. In May and June 2008, heavy rains in southern China caused severe flooding in the provinces of Anhui, Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian and Guangdong, with dozens of fatalities and over a million people forced to evacuate. As of 2009 China has increased its internet monitoring capabilities by adding hundreds of new monitoring stations.
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who becomes president if the president and vice president are impeached | United States Presidential line of succession - wikipedia
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which persons may become or act as President of the United States if the incumbent President becomes incapacitated, dies, resigns or is removed from office. (A President can be removed from office by impeachment by the House of Representatives and subsequent conviction by the Senate.) The line of succession is set by the United States Constitution and the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 as subsequently amended to include newly created cabinet offices. The succession follows the order of Vice President, Speaker of the House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Senate, and then the heads of federal executive departments who form the Cabinet of the United States, which currently has fifteen members, beginning with the Secretary of State. Those heads of departments who are ineligible to act as President are also ineligible to succeed the President by succession, for example most commonly if they are not a natural - born U.S. citizen.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency, and in 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission raised a number of other issues with the current line of succession.
The current presidential order of succession is as follows:
Cabinet officers are in line according to the chronological order of their department 's creation or the department of which their department is the successor (the Department of Defense being successor to the Department of War, and the Department of Health and Human Services being successor to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare).
To be eligible to serve as President, a person must be a natural - born U.S. citizen, at least 35 years of age, and a resident within the United States for at least 14 years. These eligibility requirements are specified both in the U.S. Constitution, Article II, Section 1, Clause 5, and in the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 (3 U.S.C. § 19 (e)).
Acting officers may be eligible. In 2009, the Continuity of Government Commission, a private non-partisan think tank, reported,
The language in the current Presidential Succession Act is less clear than that of the 1886 Act with respect to Senate confirmation. The 1886 Act refers to "such officers as shall have been appointed by the advice and consent of the Senate to the office therein named... '' The current act merely refers to "officers appointed, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Read literally, this means that the current act allows for acting secretaries to be in the line of succession as long as they are confirmed by the Senate for a post (even for example, the second or third in command within a department). It is common for a second in command to become acting secretary when the secretary leaves office. Though there is some dispute over this provision, the language clearly permits acting secretaries to be placed in the line of succession. (We have spoken to acting secretaries who told us they had been placed in the line of succession.)
Two months after succeeding Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Harry S. Truman proposed that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate be granted priority in the line of succession over the Cabinet so as to ensure the President would not be able to appoint his successor to the Presidency.
The Secretary of State and the other Cabinet officials are appointed by the President, while the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate are elected officials. The Speaker is chosen by the U.S. House of Representatives, and every Speaker has been a member of that body for the duration of their term as Speaker, though this is not technically a requirement; the President pro tempore is chosen by the U.S. Senate and customarily the Senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service fills this position. The Congress approved this change and inserted the Speaker and President pro tempore in line, ahead of the members of the Cabinet in the order in which their positions were established.
In his speech supporting the changes, Truman noted that the House of Representatives is more likely to be in political agreement with the President and Vice President than the Senate. The succession of a Republican to a Democratic Presidency would further complicate an already unstable political situation. However, when the changes to the succession were signed into law, they placed Republican House Speaker Joseph W. Martin first in the line of succession after the Vice President.
Some of Truman 's critics said that his ordering of the Speaker before the President pro tempore was motivated by his dislike of the then - current holder of the latter rank, Senator Kenneth McKellar. Further motivation may have been provided by Truman 's preference for House Speaker Sam Rayburn to be next in the line of succession, rather than Secretary of State Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.
The line of succession is mentioned in three places in the Constitution:
Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution provides that:
In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President... until the disability be removed, or a President elected.
This originally left open the question whether "the same '' refers to "the said office '' or only "the powers and duties of the said office. '' Some historians, including Edward Corwin and John D. Feerick, have argued that the framers ' intention was that the Vice President would remain Vice President while executing the powers and duties of the Presidency; however, there is also much evidence to the contrary, the most compelling of which is Article I, section 3, of the Constitution itself, the relevant text of which reads:
The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse (sic) their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States.
This text appears to answer the hypothetical question of whether the office or merely the powers of the Presidency devolved upon the Vice President on his succession. Thus, the 25th Amendment merely restates and reaffirms the validity of existing precedent, apart from adding new protocols for Presidential disability. Not everyone agreed with this interpretation when it was first actually tested, and it was left to Vice President John Tyler, the first presidential successor in U.S. history, to establish the precedent that was respected in the absence of the 25th Amendment.
Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison in 1841 and after a brief hesitation, Tyler took the position that he was the President and not merely acting President upon taking the presidential oath of office. However, some contempories -- including John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and other members of Congress Whig party leaders and even Tyler 's own cabinet -- believed that he was only acting as President and did not have the office itself.
Nonetheless, Tyler adhered to his position, even returning, unopened, mail addressed to the "Acting President of the United States '' sent by his detractors. Tyler 's view ultimately prevailed when the Senate voted to accept the title "President, '' and this precedent was followed thereafter. The question was finally resolved by Section 1 of the 25th Amendment, which specifies that "In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President. '' The Amendment does not specify whether officers other than the Vice President can become President rather than Acting President in the same set of circumstances. The Presidential Succession Act refers only to other officers acting as President rather than becoming President.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1792 was the first succession law passed by Congress. The act was contentious because the Federalists did not want the then Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, who had become the leader of the Democratic - Republicans, to follow the Vice President in the succession. There were also separation of powers concerns over including the Chief Justice of the United States in the line. The compromise they worked out established the President pro tempore of the Senate as next in line after the Vice President, followed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
In either case, these officers were to "act as President of the United States until the disability be removed or a president be elected. '' The Act called for a special election to be held in November of the year in which dual vacancies occurred (unless the vacancies occurred after the first Wednesday in October, in which case the election would occur the following year; or unless the vacancies occurred within the last year of the presidential term, in which case the next election would take place as regularly scheduled). The people elected President and Vice President in such a special election would have served a full four - year term beginning on March 4 of the next year, but no such election ever took place.
In 1881, after the death of President Garfield, and in 1885, after the death of Vice President Hendricks, there had been no President pro tempore in office, and as the new House of Representatives had yet to convene, no Speaker either, leaving no one at all in the line of succession after the vice president. When Congress convened in December 1885, President Cleveland asked for a revision of the 1792 act, which was passed in 1886. Congress replaced the President pro tempore and Speaker with officers of the President 's Cabinet with the Secretary of State first in line. In the first 100 years of the United States, six former Secretaries of State had gone on to be elected President, while only two congressional leaders had advanced to that office. As a result, changing the order of the line of succession seemed reasonable.
The Presidential Succession Act of 1947, signed into law by President Harry S. Truman, added the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore back in the line, but switched the two from the 1792 order. It remains the sequence used today. Since the reorganization of the military in 1947 had merged the War Department (which governed the Army) with the Department of the Navy into the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense took the place in the order of succession previously held by the Secretary of War. The office of Secretary of the Navy, which had existed as a Cabinet - level position since 1798, had become subordinate to the Secretary of Defense in the military reorganization, and so was dropped from the line of succession in the 1947 Succession Act.
Until 1971, the Postmaster General, the head of the Post Office Department, was a member of the Cabinet, initially the last in the presidential line of succession before new officers were added. Once the Post Office Department was re-organized into the United States Postal Service, a special agency independent of the executive branch, the Postmaster General ceased to be a member of the Cabinet and was thus removed from the line of succession.
The United States Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. On March 9, 2006, pursuant to the renewal of the Patriot Act as Pub. L. 109 -- 177, the Secretary of Homeland Security was added to the line of succession. The order of Cabinet members in the line has always been the same as the order in which their respective departments were established. Despite custom, many in Congress had wanted the Secretary to be placed at number eight on the list -- below the Attorney General, above the Secretary of the Interior, and in the position held by the Secretary of the Navy prior to the creation of the Secretary of Defense -- because the Secretary, already in charge of disaster relief and security, would presumably be more prepared to take over the presidency than some of the other Cabinet secretaries. Despite this, the 2006 law explicitly specifies that the "Secretary of Homeland Security '' follows the "Secretary of Veterans Affairs '' in the succession, effectively at the end of the list.
While nine Vice Presidents have succeeded to the office upon the death or resignation of the President, and two Vice Presidents have temporarily served as acting President, no other officer has ever been called upon to act as President. On March 4, 1849, President Zachary Taylor 's term began, but he declined to be sworn in on a Sunday, citing religious beliefs, and the Vice President was not sworn either. As the last President pro tempore of the Senate, David Rice Atchison was thought by some to be next in line after the Vice President, and his tombstone claims that he was US President for the day. However, Atchison took no oath of office to the presidency either, and his term as Senate President pro tempore had by then expired.
In 1865, when Andrew Johnson assumed the Presidency on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the office of Vice President became vacant. At that time, the Senate President pro tempore was next in line to the presidency. In 1868, Johnson was impeached by the House of Representatives and subjected to impeachment trial in the Senate, and if he had been convicted and thereby removed from office, Senate President pro tempore Benjamin Wade would have become acting President. This posed a conflict of interest, as Wade 's own vote on removal could have helped to determine whether he would have assumed the presidential powers and duties.
In his book The Shadow Presidents, which he published in 1979, Michael Medved describes a situation that arose prior to the 1916 election, when the First World War was raging in Europe. In view of the current international turmoil, President Woodrow Wilson thought that if he lost the election it would be better for his opponent to begin his administration straight away, instead of waiting through the lame duck period, which at that time had a duration of almost four months. President Wilson and his aides formed a plan to exploit the rule of succession so that his rival Charles Evans Hughes could take over the Presidency as soon as the result of the election was clear. The plan was that Wilson would appoint Hughes to the post of Secretary of State. Wilson and his Vice President Thomas R. Marshall would then resign, and as the Secretary of State was at that time designated next in line of succession, Hughes would become President immediately. As it happened, President Wilson won re-election, so the plan was never put into action.
Since the 25th Amendment 's ratification, its Second Section, which addresses Vice Presidential succession as noted above, has been invoked twice.
During the 1973 Vice Presidential vacancy, House Speaker Carl Albert was first in line. As the Watergate scandal made President Nixon 's removal or resignation possible, Albert would have become Acting President and -- under Title 3, Section 19 (c) of the U.S. Code -- would have been able to "act as President until the expiration of the then current Presidential term '' on January 20, 1977. Albert openly questioned whether it was appropriate for him, a Democrat, to assume the powers and duties of the presidency when there was a public mandate for the Presidency to be held by a Republican. Albert announced that should he need to assume the Presidential powers and duties, he would do so only as a caretaker. However, with the nomination and confirmation of Gerald Ford to the Vice Presidency, which marked the first time the Second Section of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked, these series of events were never tested. Albert again became first - in - line during the first four months of Ford 's Presidency, before the confirmation of Vice President Nelson Rockefeller, which marked the second time Section 2 of the Twenty - fifth Amendment was invoked.
In 1981, when President Ronald Reagan was shot, Vice President George H.W. Bush was traveling in Texas. Secretary of State Alexander Haig responded to a reporter 's question regarding who was running the government by stating:
"Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the President, the Vice President and the Secretary of State in that order, and should the President decide he wants to transfer the helm to the Vice President, he will do so. He has not done that. As of now, I am in control here, in the White House, pending return of the Vice President and in close touch with him. If something came up, I would check with him, of course. ''
A bitter dispute ensued over the meaning of Haig 's remarks. Most people believed that Haig was referring to the line of succession and erroneously claimed to have temporary Presidential authority, due to his implied reference to the Constitution. Haig and his supporters, noting his familiarity with the line of succession from his time as White House Chief of Staff during Richard Nixon 's resignation, said he only meant that he was the highest - ranking officer of the Executive branch on - site, managing things temporarily until the Vice President returned to Washington.
Several constitutional law experts have raised questions as to the constitutionality of the provisions that the Speaker of the House and the President pro tempore of the Senate succeed to the presidency. James Madison, one of the authors of the Constitution, raised similar constitutional questions about the Presidential Succession Act of 1792 in a 1792 letter to Edmund Pendleton. Two of these issues can be summarized:
In 2003 the Continuity of Government Commission suggested that the current law has "at least seven significant issues... that warrant attention '', specifically:
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who is sonny from a bronx tale based on | A Bronx Tale - wikipedia
A Bronx Tale is a 1993 American crime drama film, adapted from Chazz Palminteri 's 1989 play of the same name. It tells the coming of age story of an Italian - American boy, Calogero Anello, who, after encountering a local mafia boss, is torn between the temptations of organized crime and the values of his honest, hardworking father. The Broadway production was converted to film with limited changes, and starred Palminteri and Robert De Niro.
De Niro, who first viewed the play in Los Angeles in 1990, acquired the rights from Palminteri, intent on making the play his directorial debut. The duo then worked heavily together on the screenplay, with Palminteri aiming to retain many of the aspects of the original script, as it was based largely on his own childhood. Production began in 1991, and was funded in collaboration with De Niro 's TriBeCa Productions and Savoy Pictures, as the first film released by each studio.
Upon its release on September 29, A Bronx Tale achieved limited commercial success, grossing over $17 million domestically. However, it fared much better with critics, who praised the performances of the leads, and launched Palminteri 's acting career, while also helping De Niro gain acceptance as a director. A Bronx Tale is considered to be one of the greatest gangster films ever made, and was ranked in the top - ten in the genre by the American Film Institute in 2008.
In 1960, Lorenzo Anello lives in Belmont, an Italian - American neighborhood in The Bronx, with his wife Rosina and his 9 - year old young son Calogero, who is fascinated by the local mobsters led by Sonny LoSpecchio. One day, Calogero witnesses a murder committed by Sonny in defense of an assaulted friend in his neighborhood. When Calogero chooses to keep quiet when questioned by NYPD detectives, Sonny takes a liking to him and gives him the nickname "C ''. Sonny 's men offer Lorenzo a better paying job, but Lorenzo, preferring a law - abiding life as an MTA bus driver, politely declines. Sonny befriends Calogero and introduces him to his crew. Calogero earns tips amounting to $600 working in the Mafia bar and throwing dice, and is admonished harshly by Lorenzo when he discovers it. Lorenzo speaks severely to Sonny, returns the money, and angrily warns him to keep away from Calogero.
Eight years later, Calogero has grown into a young man who has been visiting Sonny regularly without his father 's knowledge. Calogero is also part of a gang of local Italian - American boys, which concerns Sonny, who warns Calogero to keep away from them and focus more on his schoolwork. Later on, Calogero meets an African American girl named Jane Williams, and is smitten with her. Despite the high level of racial tension and dislike between Italian Americans and African Americans, Calogero arranges a date with Jane. He asks for advice from both his father and Sonny, with the latter lending Calogero his car. Later, Calogero 's friends beat up the black cyclists who ride through their neighborhood, despite Calogero 's attempts to defend them. One of the cyclists is revealed to be Jane 's brother, Willie. Willie mistakes Calogero for one of the assailants. He then accuses "C '' of beating him up when Calogero and Jane meet for their date. Calogero loses his temper over the accusation and Willie 's lack of gratitude, responding by accidentally addressing him with a racial slur. He instantly regrets it, but it 's too late. Heartbroken, Jane walks back to the car with Willie and leaves Calogero.
At home, Calogero is confronted by his father who just saw him driving Sonny 's car. An argument ensues and Calogero storms out. Shortly thereafter, Calogero is confronted by Sonny and his crew, who found a bomb in Sonny 's car and suspected Calogero of planning to assassinate him. Calogero tearfully proclaims his love for and dedication to Sonny. Sonny recognizes Calogero 's innocence and allows him to leave. Lorenzo emerges to defend his son, but is held back by Sonny 's men. The African - American boys egg the Italian - American boys ' usual spot in retaliation for the previous beating, and Calogero 's friends make a plan to strike back using Molotov cocktails. They try to force Calogero to participate, but Sonny stops the car and orders Calogero out. Calogero catches up with Jane, who tells him that Willie had since admitted that the boy who beat him up was n't Calogero. Jane and Calogero make amends, but Calogero suddenly remembers his friends ' plans to attack Jane 's neighborhood, and the two rush to stop them. Calogero and Jane arrive to find the Italian - American boys ' car in flames. During the attack, someone threw one of the Molotov cocktails back into the car window, igniting the remaining bottles. The resulting crash and explosion killed everyone in the vehicle.
Calogero rushes into the crowded bar to thank Sonny for saving his life, but an unnamed assailant shoots Sonny in the back of the head before Calogero can warn him. Calogero later learns that the assailant was the son of the man Sonny killed in front of Calogero 's house eight years earlier. At Sonny 's funeral, countless people come to pay their respects. When the crowd disperses, Carmine visits the funeral, claiming that Sonny once saved his life as well. Calogero does not recognize Carmine until he sees a scar on his forehead and realizes he was the assaulted man whom Sonny had defended eight years ago. Carmine tells Calogero that he will be taking care of the neighborhood for the time being, and promises Calogero help should he ever need anything. Carmine leaves just as Calogero 's father unexpectedly arrives to pay his respects to Sonny, thanking him for saving his son 's life. Lorenzo later says that he had never hated Sonny, but merely resented him for making Calogero grow up so quickly. Calogero makes peace with his father, and the two walk home together as Calogero narrates the lessons he learned from his two mentors.
After acquiring the rights to create the film, with De Niro famously claiming the deal was struck solely with a gentlemen 's agreement with Palminteri, the duo began crafting the screenplay. Prior to partnering with De Niro, Palminteri rejected several offers for the film 's rights, including some as high as $1 million, if he was not granted the roles of primary screenwriter and Sonny, the gangster Calogero meets. This was due to the original play, which was performed as a one - man show, being largely inspired by or drawn from his own childhood, specifically the shooting Calogero witnesses as a child, as well as the occupation and name of his father.
A Bronx Tale received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gave the film an approval rating of 96 % based on 28 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads, "A Bronx Tale sets itself apart from other coming - of - age dramas thanks to a solid script, a terrific cast, and director Robert De Niro 's sensitive work behind the camera. '' Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "generally positive reviews ''.
Critic Roger Ebert gave the film four stars, calling it "a very funny (and) very touching. It is filled with life and colorful characters and great lines of dialogue, and De Niro, in his debut as a director, finds the right notes as he moves from laughter to anger to tears (while) retaining its values. ''
In 2008, the American Film Institute nominated this film for its Top 10 Gangster Films list.
Sometime after the film 's theatrical run, HBO released the movie on VHS, CD and in 1998 on DVD. The DVD is out of print, but in January 2010, Focus Features released a DVD copy of the film exclusive to online - retailer Amazon.
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which of the following cities was the major southern center for steel production | Steel City - wikipedia
The Steel City is a common nickname for many cities that were once known for their production of large amounts of steel. With industrial production also in developing countries, like those in Eastern Europe and Asia, most of these cities do not produce as much steel as they used to. It is possible there will be new steel cities in those developing countries.
Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States; Pueblo, Colorado, United States; and Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada are the cities most commonly referred to with this name, in their respective countries.
Steel City is also the name of the primary setting in Jules Verne 's novel The Begum 's Fortune and is the location of the Titans East headquarters in the Teen Titans animated series.
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which of the following will have a management team which reports to a parks and recreation director | National Park Service - wikipedia
The National Park Service (NPS) is an agency of the United States federal government that manages all national parks, many national monuments, and other conservation and historical properties with various title designations. It was created on August 25, 1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. The NPS is charged with a dual role of preserving the ecological and historical integrity of the places entrusted to its management, while also making them available and accessible for public use and enjoyment.
As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, of which 59 are designated national parks.
National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior. The movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior. They wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service. On August 25, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill that mandated the agency "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein, and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations. '' Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS.
On March 3, 1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933. The act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It was n't until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, made use of this power. Deputy Director Horace M. Albright had suggested to President Roosevelt that the historic sites from the American Civil War should be managed by the National Park Service, rather than the War Department. President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. These two executive orders not only transferred to the National Park Service all the War Department historic sites, but also the national monuments managed by the Department of Agriculture and the parks in and around the capital, which had been run by an independent office.
In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service and went to work on bringing park facilities up to the standards that the public expected. The demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, a ten - year effort to upgrade and expand park facilities for the 50th anniversary of the Park Service. New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded.
In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery and unique natural features to making parks accessible to the public. Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas.
Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States ' national parks, which have grown in number over the years to 59.
Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no state government to manage it, so the federal government assumed direct control. Yosemite National Park began as a state park; the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership.
At first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the civilian staff was replaced by the U.S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the federal government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, the National Park Service, to manage all national parks and some national monuments. Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, many with varying designations as Congress created them.
The National Park System (NPS) includes all properties managed by the National Park Service (also, confusingly, "NPS ''). The title or designation of a unit need not include the term park; indeed, most do not. The System as a whole is considered to be a national treasure of the United States, and some of the more famous national parks and monuments are sometimes referred to metaphorically as "crown jewels ''. The system encompasses approximately 84.4 million acres (338,000 km2), of which more than 4.3 million acres (17,000 km2) remain in private ownership. The largest unit is Wrangell - St. Elias National Park and Preserve, Alaska. At 13,200,000 acres (53,000 km2), it is over 16 percent of the entire system. The smallest unit in the system is Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial, Pennsylvania, at 0.02 acre (80 m2).
In addition to administering its units and other properties, the National Park Service also provides technical and financial assistance to several "affiliated areas '' authorized by Congress. The largest affiliated area is New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve at 1,164,025 acres (4711 km2). The smallest is Benjamin Franklin National Memorial at less than 0.01 acres (40 m).
Although all units of the National Park System in the United States are the responsibility of a single agency, they are all managed under individual pieces of authorizing legislation or, in the case of national monuments created under the Antiquities Act, presidential proclamation. For example, because of provisions within their enabling legislation, Congaree National Park is almost entirely wilderness area devoid of development, yet Yosemite allows unique developments such as the Badger Pass Ski Area and the O'Shaughnessy Dam within its boundaries. Death Valley National Park has an active mine legislated within its boundaries. Such irregularities would not be found in other parks unless specifically provided for with exceptions by the legislation that created them.
For current specifics and a multitude of information, see the Quick Facts section of the NPS website.
Most units of the National Park Service have been established by an act of Congress, with the president confirming the action by signing the act into law. The exception, under the Antiquities Act, allows the president to designate and protect areas as National Monuments by executive order. Regardless of the method used, all parks are to be of national importance.
A potential park should meet all four of the following standards:
Wilderness areas are covered by the US National Wilderness Preservation System, which protects federally managed lands that are of a pristine condition, established by the Wilderness Act (Public Law 88 - 577) in 1964. The National Wilderness Preservation System originally created hundreds of wilderness zones within already protected federally administered property, consisting of over 9 million acres (36,000 km2).
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) began with Executive Order 13158 in May 2000, when official MPAs were established for the first time. The initial listing of U.S. areas was presented in 2010, consisting of areas already set aside under other legislation. The National Park Service has 19 park units designated as MPAs.
As of 2016, the National Park Service has an annual budget of about $3 billion and an estimated $12 billion maintenance backlog.
The National Park Services budget is divided into two primary areas, discretionary and mandatory spending. Within each of these areas, there are numerous specific purposes to which Congress directs the services activities. The budget of the National Park Service includes discretionary spending which is broken out into two portions: the direct operations of the National Parks and the special initiatives. Listed separately are the special initiatives of the service for the year specified in the legislation. For Fiscal Year 2010, the service has been charged with five initiatives. They include: Stewardship and Education; Professional Excellence; Youth Programs; Climate Impacts; and Budget Restructure and Realignment.
Discretionary spending includes the Operations of the National Parks (ONPS), from which all park operations are paid. The United States Park Police funds cover the high - profile law enforcement operations at some of the large parks; i.e., Gateway National Recreation Area, Golden Gate National Recreation Area, and the National Mall. The National Recreation and Preservation Program and the Urban Park and Recreation Fund are outreach programs to support state and local outdoor recreational activities.
The ONPS section of the budget is divided into five operational areas. These areas include:
These are funds and people directed towards the restoration, preservation, and maintenance of natural and cultural resources. The resource staff includes biologists, geologists, archeologists, preservation specialists and a variety of specialized employees to restore and preserve cultural buildings or natural features.
Funds go towards providing for public programs and educational programs for the general public and school groups. This area is commonly staffed by park rangers, who are trained in providing walks, talks, and educational programs to the public. There is an increased number of media specialists, who provide for the exhibits along trails, roads and in visitor contact facilities, as well as the written brochures and web - sites.
This includes the staff responding to visitor emergencies (medical and criminal), and the protection of the park 's natural and cultural resources from damage by those persons visiting the park. The staff includes park rangers, park police, criminal investigators, and communication center operators.
This is the cost of maintaining the necessary infrastructure within each park that supports all the services provided. It includes the plows and heavy equipment for road clearing, repairs and construction. There are buildings, trails, roads, docks, boats, utility pipes and wires, and a variety of hidden systems that make a park accessible by the public. The staff includes equipment operators, custodians, trail crews, electricians, plumbers, engineers, architects, and other building trade specialists.
This is the staff that provides for the routine logistical needs of the parks. There are human resource specialists, contracting officers, property specialists, budget managers, accountants and information technology specialists.
These costs are bills that are paid directly to outside organizations as part of the logistical support needed to run the parks. It includes rent payments to the General Services Administration for building space; postage payments to the postal machine vendor, and other direct payments.
These funds support the use of partnerships to achieve park preservation. 25 million dollars have been provided for FY 2010. These funds require matching grants from individuals, foundations, businesses, and the private sector.
The LWCF supports Land Acquisition and State Conservation Assistance grant programs. The 2010 funds are the beginning of an incremental process to fully fund LWCF programs at $900 million. The Department of the Interior and the U.S. Forest Service use these funds to purchase critical lands to protect existing public lands. Grants will be made to states and local communities to preserve and protect Civil War battlefield sites that are not part of the national park system. The NPS State Conservation Assistance program distributes funding to States for land preservation.
This segment of the budget provides for the construction of new facilities or the replacement of aging and unsafe facilities. Additionally, there are funds in the recreation fees, park roads funding, and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act that provide for other specific facilities / infrastructure work. Additional funds come from the Federal Land Highway Administration for the construction and repair of Park roads.
As the nation 's leader in cultural preservation, funds are provided for a variety of programs to meet these needs nationwide. Two specific programs include the Save America 's Treasures and the Preserve America. The Historic Preservation Offices makes grants available to the States, territories, and tribal lands.
These funds go to local communities to preserve natural and cultural resources. Among the programs supported are the Rivers, Trails, and Conservation Assistance programs that promote community links to parks, natural resource conservation and outdoor recreation across America.
Within this category are a number of one - time events, which are added or removed as the events require. Notably in the FY 2009 and FY 2010 is the removal of the costs for the presidential inaugural. Other savings are identified through reduced operational costs from energy - efficient retro - fitting and the demolition of structures beyond repair.
Otherwise known as "stimulus funds, '' the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provides funds to restore and preserve major infrastructures within the national parks.
The Great Lakes Restoration Initiative, is a $475.0 million proposal included in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency budget. The park service will participate through the EPA in restoration activities in those parks that are within the watershed of the Great Lakes. Activities will include such actions as removal of dumps and fuel spills. Park will monitor mercury, lead, DDT, and other contaminants in six parks on the Great Lakes. Work also includes the removal of invasive species and education on how to prevent their spread. There are YouTube videos about the work being done in this field.
Mandatory appropriations are those items created by other congressional legislation that must be paid for. They include the Recreational Fee Demonstration Program, which requires the distribution and expenditure of fees collected by the National Park Service. Other Permanent Appropriations includes special funding categories to non-profit and state entities, which have been assigned to the National Park Service to manage. Miscellaneous Trust Funds includes funding sources that have been created by the federal government or private citizen, where the National Park Service or a specific park have been identified as the beneficiaries. And there is also the L&WCF Contract Authority which is the Land and Water Conservation Fund, a congressionally created source of revenues, managed by the National Park Service.
Annually, the NPS employs over 20,000 Americans with an additional 221,000 Volunteers - In - Parks who contribute about 6.4 million hours annually.
According to a 2011 Michigan State University report prepared for the NPS, for each $1 invested in the NPS, the American public receives $4 in economic value. In 2011, national parks generated $30.1 billion in economic activity and 252,000 jobs nationwide. Thirteen billion of that amount went directly into communities within 60 miles of a NPS unit.
The National Park Service uses over 20 different titles for the park units it manages, including national park and national monument.
National Parks preserve nationally and globally significant scenic areas and nature reserves.
National Monuments preserve a single unique cultural or natural feature. Devils Tower National Monument was the first in 1906.
National Historic Sites protect a significant cultural resource that is not a complicated site. Examples of these types of parks include Ford 's Theatre National Historic Site and William Howard Taft National Historic Site.
National Historical Parks are larger areas with more complex subjects. Appomattox Court House National Historical Park was created in 1940. George Rogers Clark National Historical Park was dedicated in 1936. Historic sites may also be protected in national parks, monuments, seashores, and lakeshores.
National Military Parks, Battlefield Parks, Battlefield Sites, and Battlefields preserve areas associated with military history. The different designations reflect the complexity of the event and the site. Many of the sites preserve important Revolutionary War battles and Civil War battlefields. Military parks are the sites of larger actions, such as Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, Vicksburg National Military Park, Gettysburg National Military Park, and Shiloh National Military Park -- the original four from 1890. Examples of battlefield parks, battlefield sites, and national battlefields include Richmond National Battlefield Park, Brices Cross Roads National Battlefield Site, and Antietam National Battlefield.
National Seashores and National Lakeshores offer preservation of the national coast line, while supporting water -- based recreation. Cape Hatteras National Seashore was created in 1937. Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore and Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, created in 1966, were the first national lakeshores.
National Rivers and Wild and Scenic Riverways protect free - flowing streams over their length. The riverways may not be altered with dams, channelization, or other changes. Recreational pursuits are encouraged along the waterways. Ozark National Scenic Riverways was established in 1964.
National Recreation Areas originally were units (such as Lake Mead National Recreation Area) surrounding reservoirs impounded by dams built by other federal agencies. Many of these areas are managed under cooperative agreement with the National Park Service. Now some national recreation areas are in urban centers, because of the recommendations of a Presidential commission, the Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission (ORRRC). These include Gateway National Recreation Area and Golden Gate National Recreation Area, which encompass significant cultural as well as natural resources.
The National Trails System preserves long - distance routes across America. The system was created in 1968 and consists of two major components: National Scenic Trails are long - distance trails through some of the most scenic parts of the country. They received official protection in 1968. The Appalachian Trail and the Continental Divide Trail are the best known. National Historic Trails commemorate the routes of major historic events. Some of the best known are the Trail of Tears, the Mormon Trail, and the Santa Fe Trail. These trails are administered by several federal agencies.
National Preserves are for the protection of certain resources. Activities like hunting, fishing, and some mining are allowed. Big Cypress National Preserve and Big Thicket National Preserve were created in 1974 as the first national preserves.
National Reserves are similar to national preserves, but the operational authority can be placed with a local government. New Jersey Pinelands National Reserve was the first to be established in 1978.
The National Park System receives over 280 million visits each year throughout the 413 units, with over 307 million visitors in 2015. Park visitation (recreational only) grew 64 percent between 1979 and 2015.
The 10 most - visited units of the National Park System handle over 28 percent of the visits to the 413 park units. The top 10 percent of parks (41) handle 62.8 percent of all visits, leaving the remaining 372 units to accommodate 37.2 percent of visits.
Overnight stays Over 15 million visitors spent a night in one of the National Park Units during 2015. The largest number (3.68 million) were tent campers. The second largest group (3.38 million) stayed in one of the lodges, followed by Miscellaneous stays (on boats, group sites -- 2.15 million). The last three groups of over-night visitors included RV Campers (2.26 million), Back country campers (2.02 million) and users of the Concession run campgrounds (1.42 million). Previous years of statistics are below.
Annually, visitors are surveyed for their satisfaction with services and facilities provided.
Services Consistently, the highest ranked service has been Assistance from Park Employees (82 % very good, 2007).
Facilities Among facilities, the park Visitor Centers obtain a consistent 70 % very good rating (73 % in 2007).
The National Park Service offers a variety of youth oriented programs. They range from the Web Ranger on - line program to many programs in each National Park Unit. The primary work opportunities for youth are through the Youth Corp networks.
The oldest serving group is the Student Conservation Association (SCA). It was established in 1957, committed to conservation and preservation. The SCA 's goal is to create the next generation of conservation leaders. SCA volunteers work through internships, conservation jobs, and crew experiences. Volunteers conduct resource management, historic preservation, cultural resources and conservation programs to gain experience, which can lead to career development and further educational opportunities. The SCA places volunteers in more than 350 national park units and NPS offices each year.
The Corps Network, formerly known as the National Association for Service and Corps (NASCC), represents 136 Service and Conservation Corps. These groups have programs in 42 states and the District of Columbia. Corpsmembers are between the ages of 16 -- 25. Service and Conservation Corps are direct descendants of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) of the 1930s that built park facilities in the national parks and other public parks around the country. The Corps Network was established in 1985.
The Access Pass offers free, lifetime admission to federal areas of the National Park Service, Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, and Tennessee Valley Authority.
Service animals are allowed in all facilities and on most trails, with the exceptions of stock trails and areas closed by the superintendent to protect park resources. Service animals must always be leashed. Service animals in training and pets are subject to other park regulations. When traveling with an animal, carry water, and allow for stops. Dispose of pet feces in a trash bin.
The National Park System offers numerous accessible camping opportunities. In over 120 units, campgrounds have sites specifically designed for tent camper accessibility. Special camp sites are located near restrooms with paved walkways to and from the restroom and water sources. Sites have hardened tenting sites that provide for easy access, but allow for tents to be erected on soil. Many additional units have pull - through trailer sites, providing for motorized use, but may have limited access to the rest of the campground facilities.
Many National Park units have fully accessible trails. Visitors should check the park 's web - site to insure that the trail is designed to meet their individual needs. Trails may have a compacted gravel surface, paved with asphalt, or a board walk. Many will have guardrails, others may have a ridge along the edge, detectable by the visually impaired using a cane and capable of stopping a wheelchair. Many have no detectable edge when there is a stable surface.
Parks that are known for their scenic vistas make them available through a variety of designs. Paved overlooks with accessible parking is the most common, and not always identified in written material. Road designs are configured to provide for mountain and landscape vistas from a vehicle.
Additional information at "The Disabled Traveler 's Companion ''.
In an effort to increase visitation and allow for a larger audience to enjoy national park land, the National Park Service has numerous concession contracts with private businesses to bring recreation, resorts and other compatible amenities to their parks. NPS lodging opportunities exist at places such as the Wawona Hotel in Yosemite National Park and the Fort Baker Retreat and Conference Center in Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Adaptive reuses like those at Fort Baker, have raised some controversy from concerns about the historical integrity of these buildings, after extensive renovations and whether such alterations fall within the spirit and / or the letter of the preservation laws they are protected by.
In 2015, Delaware North sued the NPS in the United States Court of Claims for breach of contract, alleging that the NPS had undervalued its trademarks of the names of iconic Yosemite National Park concession facilities. When it offered for bid the contract to operate these facilities, the National Park Service estimated the value of the intangible assets including the names "Ahwahnee, '' "Badger Pass, '' "Curry Village, '' and "Yosemite Lodge '' at $3.5 million. Delaware North lost the contract, and asserted that the historic names were worth $51 million and maintained that the incoming concessioner had to be paid that amount. The Justice Department and the NPS asserted that this was an "improper and wildly inflated '' value. Rather than pay Delaware North 's demanded valuation, in January 2016 the NPS instead opted to rename the famous landmarks, effective in March. The Ahwahnee Hotel is slated to become The Majestic Yosemite Hotel, Curry Village will become Half Dome Village, and the Wawona Hotel will become Big Trees Lodge. Widespread public outcry focused on Delaware North 's decision to claim ownership of names within a national park.
At many Park Service sites a bookstore is operated by a non-profit cooperating association. The largest example is Eastern National, which runs bookstores in 30 states with 178 stores.
Park specific:
Publisher of National Parks Interpretive Books
Books written by individual National Park interpreters or experts on specific parks are published for each park by KC Publications.
Headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., with regional offices in Anchorage, Atlanta, Lakewood, CO (Denver), Omaha, NE, Philadelphia, San Francisco and Seattle. The headquarters building of the National Park Service Southwest Regional Office is architecturally significant and is designated a National Historic Landmark.
The National Park Service is a bureau of the U.S. Department of the Interior. The Director is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Director is supported by six senior executives. They manage national programs, policy, and budget from the Washington, DC, headquarters. Under the Deputy Director of Operations are seven regional directors, who are responsible for national park management and program implementation. Together this group is called the National Leadership Council.
The national office is located in the Main Interior Building, 1849 C Street NW, several blocks southwest of the White House. The central office is composed of eleven directorates: Director / Deputy Directors; Business Services; Workforce Management; Chief Information Officer; Cultural Resources; Natural Resource Stewardship and Science; Office of the Comptroller; Park Planning, Facilities, and Lands; Partnerships and Visitor Experience; Visitor and Resource Protection; and the United States Park Police.
By the mid-1950s, the primary employees of the Service were the Park Rangers, who had broad responsibilities on the parks ' behalf. They cleaned up trash, operated heavy equipment, fought fires, managed traffic, cleared trails and roads, provided information to visitors, managed museums, performed rescues, flew aircraft, and investigated crime.
The National Park Service employs many kinds of workers, as shown below.
Locations are varied. Parks exist in the nation 's larger cities like New York City (Federal Hall Memorial National Historic Site), Atlanta (Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site), and San Diego (Cabrillo National Monument) to some of the remotest areas of the continent like Hovenweep National Monument in southeastern Utah, to Aniakchak National Monument in King Salmon, Alaska.
The Volunteers - In - Parks program was authorized in 1969 by the Volunteers in the Parks Act of 1969. for the purpose of allowing the public to serve in the nations parks providing support and skills for their enhancement and protection.
Volunteers come from all walks of life and include professionals, artists, laborers, homemakers and students, performing varied duties. Many come from surrounding communities and some travel significant distances. In a 2005 annual report, the National Park Service reported that,
... 137,000 VIPs contributed 5.2 million hours of service (or 2500 FTEs) valued at $91,260,000 based on the private sector value figure of $17.55 as used by AARP, Points of Light Foundation, and other large - scale volunteer programs including many federal agencies. There are 365 separate volunteer programs throughout the National Park Service. Since 1990, the number of volunteers has increased an average of 2 % per year.
FTE stands for Full Time Equivalency or 1 work year. In 2012, the National Park Service reported that over 221,000 volunteers contributed about 6.4 million hours annually.
Additionally, other types of volunteers also conduct offsite NPS public outreach and education, such as the Trails & Rails program guides on board certain segments of long - haul Amtrak routes, who offer passengers insights to the travel area 's natural resources and heritage.
Across the nation, there are special opportunities for artists (visual artists, photographers, sculptors, performers, writers, composers, and crafts) to live and work in a park. Twenty - nine parks currently participate in the Artist - In - Residence program.
The National Park Service commonly refers to law enforcement operations in the agency as Visitor and Resource Protection. There are several different types of law enforcement employees including Type I and Type II Law Enforcement Rangers and Special Agents. The United States Park Police is a unit of the National Park Service, with jurisdiction in all National Park Service areas and certain other Federal and State lands. Most Law Enforcement Rangers, Park Police Officers, and Special Agents Receive their training through Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). Type II Law Enforcement Rangers receive their training through FLETC accredited Seasonal Law Enforcement Academies.
There are several types of National Park Service jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is set by the enabling legislation for each individual unit of the NPS and is considered part of the Special Maritime and Territorial Jurisdiction of the United States. Law enforcement on NPS lands with exclusive jurisdiction is solely conducted by NPS Law Enforcement Rangers (field officers) or the US Park Police. Many NPS units have concurrent jurisdiction and share law enforcement authority with their state and / or local county law enforcement agencies. Some National Park Service units have proprietary or partial jurisdiction where law enforcement authority for certain serious incidents lies with the state or county. Most NPS units have memorandums of understanding with outside law enforcement agencies, so that policies are in place when and if outside agency assistance is needed.
Uniformed Law Enforcement Rangers, Park Police Officers and Special Agents enforce Federal laws and regulations governing NPS lands and resources. These personnel can also enforce some or all state laws on NPS lands. As part of that mission, LEOs carry firearms, defensive equipment, make arrests, execute search warrants, complete reports and testify in court. They establish a regular and recurring presence on a vast amount of public lands, roads, and recreation sites. The primary focus of their jobs is the protection of natural resources, protection of NPS employees and the protection of visitors. To cover the vast and varied terrain under their jurisdiction, NPS employees use numerous types of vehicles, horses, aircraft, UTV / ATV 's, snowmobiles, dirt bikes and boats.
Special Agents are criminal investigators who plan and conduct investigations concerning possible violations of criminal and administrative provisions of the NPS and other statues under the United States Code and / or Code of Federal Regulations. Special agents can be uniformed or plain clothes officers. Special Agents often carry concealed firearms, and other defensive equipment, make arrests, carry out complex criminal investigations, present cases for prosecution to U.S. Attorneys, and prepare investigative reports. Field agents travel a great deal and typically cover several NPS units and several states. Criminal investigators occasionally conduct internal and civil claim investigations.
Generally speaking the laws enforced on NPS lands are covered in Title 36 Code of Federal Regulations. The NPS also enforces United States Code. Title 16 of the United States Code, Title 18 of the United States Code and Title 21 of the United States Code are enforced most commonly. The National Park Service generally also has the authority to enforce any state law not covered already by federal laws under the Assimilative Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § 13. However, by policy the National Park Service can not charge violators with a state offense that has a harsher penalty than an equivalent federal law already on the books. Commissioned National Park Service employees must follow all policies outlined in DOI reference manuals and directors orders in performance of their duties.
The United States Park Police (USPP) is the oldest uniformed federal law enforcement agency in the United States. It functions as a full service law enforcement agency with responsibilities and jurisdiction in those National Park Service areas primarily located in the Washington, D.C., San Francisco, and New York City areas. In addition to performing the normal crime prevention, investigation, and apprehension functions of an urban police force, the Park Police are responsible for policing many of the famous monuments in the United States and share law enforcement jurisdiction in all lands administered by the Service with a force of National Park Rangers tasked with the same law enforcement powers and responsibilities.
Other special NPS divisions include the Archeology Program, Historic American Buildings Survey, National Register of Historic Places, National Natural Landmarks, the Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program, the Challenge Cost Share Program, the Federal Lands to Parks, the Hydropower Relicensing Program, the Land and Water Conservation Fund, the National Trails System, the Partnership Wild and Scenic Rivers Program, and the Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division.
The National Park Service operates four archeology - related centers: Harpers Ferry Center in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, the Midwest Archeological Center in Lincoln, Nebraska, the Southeast Archeological Center in Tallahassee, Florida and the Western Archeological and Conservation Center in Tucson, Arizona. The Harpers Ferry Center specializes in interpretive media development and object conservation. The other three focus to various degrees on archaeological research and museum object curation and conservation.
National Park Service training centers include: Horace Albright Training Center, Grand Canyon; Stephen Mather Training Center, Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Historic Preservation Training Center, Frederick, Maryland and Capital Training Center, Washington, D.C.
The Submerged Resources Center is the unit responsible for inventory and evaluation of submerged resources throughout the National Park system. The SRC is based out of the Intermountain Region 's headquarters in Lakewood, Colorado.
The National Center for Preservation Technology and Training, located in Natchitoches, Louisiana, conducts research and training in the fields of archeology, architecture, landscape architecture and materials conservation.
The oldest federal preservation program, the Historic American Buildings Survey / Historic American Engineering Record (HABS / HAER), produces graphic and written documentation of historically significant architectural, engineering and industrial sites and structures. Dating from 1934, the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) was chartered to document historic architecture -- primarily houses and public buildings -- of national or regional significance. Originally a New Deal employment / preservation program, after World War II, HABS employed summer teams of advanced undergraduate and graduate students to carry out the documentation, a tradition followed to this day. Many of the structures they documented no longer exist.
HABS / HAER produces measured drawings, large - format photographs and written histories of historic sites, structures and objects, that are significant to the architectural, engineering and industrial heritage of the U.S. Its 25,000 records are part of the Library of Congress. HABS / HAER is administered by the NPS Washington office and five regional offices.
Historic American Buildings Survey In 1933, the National Park Service, Department of the Interior, established the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS), based on a proposal by Charles E. Peterson, Park Service landscape architect. It was founded as a make - work program for architects, draftsmen and photographers left jobless by the Great Depression. Guided by field instructions from Washington, D.C., the first recorders were tasked with documenting a representative sampling of America 's architectural heritage. After 70 years, there is now an archive of historic architecture. HABS provided a database of primary source material for the then fledgling historic preservation movement.
Historic American Engineering Record Recognizing a similar fragility in our national industrial and engineering heritage, the National Park Service, the Library of Congress and the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) formed the HAER program in 1969, to document nationally and regionally significant engineering and industrial sites. A short while later, HAER was ratified by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) and the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers (AIME). HAER documentation, in the forms of measured and interpretive drawings, large - format photographs and written histories, is archivally preserved in the Prints and Photographs Division of the Library of Congress, where it is readily available to the public.
Rivers, Trails and Conservation Assistance Program The RTCA program of the National Park Service is designed to assist local communities and the public in preservation of rivers, trails and greenways. Unlike the mainline National Park Programs, these programs take place on non-federal property at the request of the local community. One of their better known programs is Rails to Trails, where unused railroad right - of - ways are converted into public hiking and biking trails.
The National Trails System is a joint mission of the National Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management and the U.S. Forest Service. It was created in 1968 to establish a system of long - distance National Scenic and National Historic Trails, as well as to recognize existing trails in the states as National Recreation Trails. Several additional trails have been established since 1968, and in 2009 Congress established the first National Geologic Trail.
National Heritage Areas are a unique blend of natural, cultural, historic, and scenic resources. Having developed out of a shared historic, they create a unique whole. Currently (2015) there are 49 designated heritage areas.
World Heritage Sites have enough universally recognized natural and cultural features that they are considered to merit the protection of all the peoples in the world. The National Park Service is responsible for 16 of the 19 World Heritage Sites in the United States.
In September 2010, the NPS released its Climate Change Response Strategy, followed in April 2012 by the Green Parks Plan.
The Climate Friendly Parks Program is a subset of the Green Parks plan. It was created in collaboration between the National Park Service and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The program is meant to measure and reduce greenhouse gases to help slow the effects of climate change. Parks in the CFP program create and implement plans to reduce greenhouse gases through reducing energy and water use. Facilities are designed and retrofitted using sustainable materials. Alternative transportation systems are developed to reduce dependency on fossil fuels. Parks in the program offer public education programs about how the parks are already affected. The program provides climate friendly solutions to the visiting public, like using clean energy, reducing waste, and making smart transportation choices. The CFP program can provide technical assistance, tools and resources for the parks and their neighboring communities to protect the natural and cultural resources.
The large, isolated parks typically generate their own electricity and heat and must do so without spoiling the values that the visitors have come to experience. Pollution is emitted by the vehicles used to transport visitors around the often - vast expanses of the parks. Many parks have converted vehicles to electric hybrids, and substitute diesel / electric hybrid buses for private automobiles. In 2001 it was estimated that replacement with electric vehicles would eliminate 25 TPY emissions entirely.
In 2010, the National Park Service estimated that reducing bottled water could eliminate 6,000 tons of carbon emissions and 8 million kilowatt hours of electricity every year. The NPS Concessions office voiced concerns about concessions impacts.
By 2014, 23 parks had banned disposable water bottles. In 2015, the International Bottled Water Association stated the NPS was "leaving sugary drinks as a primary alternative '', even though the Park Service provides water stations to refill bottles, "encouraging visitors to hydrate for free. '' The Water Association made the national parks one of its top lobbying targets and in July 2015 Rep. Keith Rothfus added a "last - minute '' amendment into Congress 's appropriations bill, blocking the National Park Service from funding or enforcing the program. The National Park Service discontinued its ban on disposable water bottles in August 2017.
Other sources.
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is outlook included in microsoft office home and student 2016 | Microsoft Office 2016 - wikipedia
Microsoft Office 2016 (codenamed Office 16) is a version of the Microsoft Office productivity suite, succeeding both Office 2013 and Office for Mac 2011. It was released on macOS on 9 July 2015 and on Microsoft Windows on 22 September 2015 for Office 365 subscribers. Mainstream support ends on 13 October 2020, and extended support ends on 14 October 2025. The perpetually licensed version on macOS and Windows was released on 22 September 2015. Since its successor Office 2019 will only support Windows 10 or Windows Server 2016, this is the last version of Microsoft Office compatible with Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows Server 2012, and Windows Server 2012 R2.
New features in the Windows release include the ability to create, open, edit, and save files in the cloud straight from the desktop, a new search tool for commands available in Word, PowerPoint, Excel, Outlook and Access named "Tell Me '', more "Send As '' options in Word and PowerPoint, and co-authoring in real time with users connected to Office Online. Other smaller features include Insights, a feature powered by Bing to provide contextual information from the web, a Designer sidebar in PowerPoint to optimize the layout of slides, new chart types and templates in Excel (such as treemap, sunburst chart (also known as a ring chart), waterfall chart, box plot and histogram, and financial and calendar templates), new animations in PowerPoint (such as the Morph transition), the ability to insert online video in OneNote, and a data loss prevention feature in Word, Excel, and PowerPoint.
Microsoft Office 2016 is the first in the series to support the verctor graphic format SVG.
Microsoft Office 2016 can not coexist with Microsoft Office 2013 apps, but it can coexist with earlier versions of Microsoft Office, such as 2003, 2007, and 2010. Microsoft requires that any 2013 versions be uninstalled, which it will offer to do automatically, before the 2016 versions can be installed.
Despite not supporting Windows XP anymore, tooltips for various ribbon items (e.g. Paragraph, Font, Footnotes or Page Setup) still show screenshots of Office on Windows XP.
New features in the Mac release include an updated user interface that uses ribbons, full support for Retina Display, and new sharing features for Office documents.
In Word, there is a new Design tab, an Insights feature, which is powered by Bing, and real - time co-authoring. In Excel, there is a Recommended Charts feature, and PivotTable Slicers. In PowerPoint, there are theme variants, which provide different color schemes for a theme. In Outlook, there is a Propose New Time feature, the ability to see calendars side by side, and a weather forecast in the calendar view.
Outlook 2016 for Mac has very limited support for synchronization of collaboration services outside basic email.
With version 15.25, Office for Mac transitioned from 32 - bit to 64 - bit by default. Users that require a 32 - bit version for compatibility reasons will be able to download the 15.25 version as a manual, one - time update from the Microsoft Office website. All versions following 15.25 will be 64 - bit only. Office for Mac received Touch Bar support in an update on February 16, 2017, following the launch of the 2016 MacBook Pro models.
As with previous versions, Office 2016 is made available in several distinct editions aimed towards different markets. All traditional editions of Microsoft Office 2016 contain Word, Excel, PowerPoint and OneNote and are licensed for use on one computer.
Five traditional editions of Office 2016 were released for Windows:
Three traditional editions of Office 2016 were released for Mac:
The Office 365 subscription services, which were previously aimed towards business and enterprise users, were expanded for Office 2016 to include new plans aimed at home use. The subscriptions allow use of the Office 2016 applications by multiple users using a software as a service model. Different plans are available for Office 365, some of which also include value - added services, such as 1 TB of OneDrive storage and 60 Skype minutes per month on the Home Premium plan.
The user interface design of Office 2016 for Windows is relatively unchanged from its predecessor, Microsoft Office 2013. It retains the flat design that was introduced along with the Metro design language, albeit with a few modifications to the layout, in order to conform with the design of Microsoft Office Mobile. When Office 2016 was released, it came with three themes. The default theme, known as "colorful '', features a solid color on the top band of the ribbon, corresponding to the color of the Office application being used, for example, a solid dark blue is featured prominently in Microsoft Word. The theme had been described as useful in making the tab headings more distinct. In addition, both the "white '' and "dark grey '' themes from Office 2013 are available as well, though no new backgrounds have been added, nor have any existing backgrounds been removed. A fourth "black '' theme was added as part of an update in January 2016. The update was not released to users of the traditional editions.
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most runs in a single season of ipl | List of Indian Premier League records and statistics - wikipedia
This is an overall list of statistics and records of the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 cricket competition based in India.
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Minimum balls faced -- 125
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Hat - tricks in IPL
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where is the rose bowl being played at this year | 2018 Rose Bowl - wikipedia
Offensive: Sony Michel, RB
The 2018 Rose Bowl was a college football bowl game between the Oklahoma Sooners and the Georgia Bulldogs, played on January 1, 2018 at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena, California. The 104th Rose Bowl Game was a semifinal for the College Football Playoff (CFP), matching two of the top four teams selected by the system 's selection committee. Georgia and Oklahoma competed for a spot at the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship game, to be played on January 8, 2018 at Mercedes - Benz Stadium in Atlanta, Georgia. The Georgia Bulldogs won the game with a 27 - yard run by Sony Michel, shortly after Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma Sooners ' field goal attempt in the second overtime. The game lasted four hours and five minutes. With 26.8 million viewers on ESPN, the game ranked as the fifth most - viewed cable program of all time.
The game was one of the 2017 -- 18 bowl games that concluded the 2017 FBS football season. It was televised on ESPN and ESPN Deportes, and broadcast on ESPN Radio and XM Satellite Radio, with the kickoff at 5 p.m. ET (2 p.m. local time). The Pasadena Tournament of Roses Association organized the game. Sponsored by the Northwestern Mutual financial services organization, the game was officially known as the College Football Playoff Semifinal at the Rose Bowl Game presented by Northwestern Mutual.
In the 2018 Rose Bowl, the # 2 - ranked Oklahoma Sooners, champions of the Big 12 Conference, faced the # 3 - ranked Georgia Bulldogs, champions of the Southeastern Conference. This was the first meeting between the University of Georgia and the University of Oklahoma football teams.
Traditionally, the Rose Bowl pits the winners of the Big Ten Conference and Pac - 12 Conference. However, any teams may be selected every three years, when the Rose Bowl is a CFP semifinal. The Big 12 and SEC champions traditionally meet in the Sugar Bowl. The 2018 Sugar Bowl was used as the other semifinal this year, allowing any team to be selected.
The matchups for the semifinals are geographically selected to ensure the top two teams do not play in road environments. More than one team from the same conference may participate in the game, and avoiding rematches is not a selection factor.
Georgia won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 1942 team, which claims a national championship, beat the Pacific Coast Conference (predecessor to the Pac - 12) champion UCLA 9 -- 0 in 1943, a matchup which occurred prior to the Big Nine - PCC agreement. Oklahoma won their only previous Rose Bowl appearance when their 2002 team beat the then Pac - 10 champion Washington State 34 -- 14 in 2003, a matchup which occurred since Big Ten champion Ohio State was selected for the Fiesta Bowl, which was being used as that year 's BCS National Championship Game, and Oklahoma was selected to replace them.
Georgia opened the 2017 season as the No. 15 team in both the AP and Coaches Polls. In the season opener, the Georgia Bulldogs faced the Appalachian State Mountaineers. During the first quarter, starting quarterback Jacob Eason was injured in an out - of - bounds hit that strained his knee. Freshman quarterback Jake Fromm replaced Eason. Fromm started as quarterback the rest of the season.
Georgia traveled to its first away and out - of - conference game against the No. 24 Notre Dame Fighting Irish on September 9, 2017. The score was back - and - forth the whole game, until Rodrigo Blankenship scored a field goal with 3: 34 to go in the fourth quarter, giving Georgia a 20 -- 19 lead. On 1st - and - 10, Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy sacked quarterback Brandon Wimbush, and forced a fumble, which Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter recovered. The Bulldogs held the field, winning the game. The Bulldogs returned home for the next two weeks, beating the Samford Bulldogs 42 -- 14 and the No. 17 Mississippi State Bulldogs 31 -- 3.
On September 30, 2017, No. 7 Georgia traveled to Knoxville to play longtime SEC East rival the Tennessee Volunteers after losing to them at home in 2016. The Bulldogs defeated the Volunteers in a 41 -- 0 shutout, which was Tennessee 's worst home loss since 1905. The following week, Georgia returned to Tennessee to play the Vanderbilt Commodores, winning 45 -- 14. Undefeated No. 4 Georgia faced the Missouri Tigers back home in Athens, winning 53 -- 28. During that game, Georgia gained 696 total yards, the second - highest in school history. When Georgia faced their biggest rival, the Florida Gators, in the annual neutral - location game, Georgia remained undefeated and beat Florida 42 -- 7, the biggest win in the rivalry since 1982. After Florida 's loss to Georgia, they fired head coach Jim McElwain. The following week, Georgia beat the South Carolina Gamecocks 24 -- 10, clinching the SEC East and their spot in the SEC Championship.
On November 11, 2017, Georgia lost to the Auburn Tigers 17 -- 40 in what would be their only loss of the regular season. Georgia wrapped up the regular season by beating the Kentucky Wildcats 42 -- 13 and the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets 38 -- 7. On December 2, 2017, No. 6 Georgia joined No. 4 Auburn in the SEC Championship, the only team who beat them during the regular season. In the rematch, Georgia took the lead in the second quarter when Georgia linebacker Davin Bellamy stripped the ball from Auburn quarterback Jarrett Stidham, recovered by Roquan Smith and leading to Georgia 's drive that tied the score. Georgia took the SEC title for the first time since 2005, almost certainly securing their spot in the playoffs.
In the 2017 preseason polls, Oklahoma was ranked No. 7 in the AP Poll and No. 8 in the Coaches Poll. Oklahoma opened the season against the University of Texas at El Paso Miners, winning 56 -- 7 and showcasing a strong offense. Next, No. 6 Oklahoma traveled to the No. 2 Ohio State Buckeyes and won 31 -- 16. In Oklahoma 's first meeting with the Tulane Green Wave, No. 2 Oklahoma won 56 -- 14. They went on to play the Baylor Bears, eking out an expected blowout but still winning 44 -- 34.
In Oklahoma 's big upset of the season, they lost to the Iowa State Cyclones 31 -- 38. They went on to beat the Texas Longhorns 29 -- 24 after Texas recovered from a 20 - point deficit. The Sooners also began the next game against the Kansas State Wildcats with a 14 - point deficit in the first half, but in a second - half comeback, Rodney Anderson scored a 22 - yard touchdown with seven seconds left in the game, winning 42 -- 35. Against the Texas Tech Red Raiders, Mayfield led the team to a 49 -- 27 victory.
Oklahoma met the Oklahoma State Cowboys for their annual rivalry game, and quarterback Baker Mayfield completed 598 yards, winning 62 -- 52. The No. 5 Sooners beat the No. 8 Texas Christian University Horned Frogs 38 -- 20, taking 1st place in the Big 12. In the next away game against the Kansas Jayhawks, Mayfield accounted for his 127th touchdown, breaking Landry Jones 's record as completing the most touchdowns in school history, and they won the game 41 -- 3. During the game, Mayfield lost his captaincy for the following game against the West Virginia Mountaineers when he screamed profanity and grabbed his crotch, which he directed at the Kansas sideline. Mayfield 's replacement, Kyler Murray, started the game, but Mayfield returned and won 59 -- 31.
On December 2, 2017, No. 2 Oklahoma joined No. 10 TCU in a rematch in the Big 12 Championship, winning 41 -- 17. The game secured Oklahoma 's spot in the College Football Playoff semifinals.
Oklahoma scored on five of six possessions in the first half, and they entered halftime leading Georgia by 14 points.
The 54 -- 48 score made this the highest - scoring Rose Bowl, edging out 2017 's University of Southern California 52 -- 49 win over Penn State.
After winning the coin toss, Oklahoma elected to defer and kick off. Georgia was forced to punt the ball on the first drive of the game, giving Oklahoma its first possession. Oklahoma 's quarterback Baker Mayfield completed three passes, the third to Marquise Brown in the end zone, scoring the first touchdown of the day.
Sony Michel rushed for a 75 - yard touchdown.
At the end of the second quarter, the Sooners employed a double reverse, and Baker Mayfield caught his first pass in college to score a 2 - yard touchdown.
Georgia received its possession with only 6 seconds on the clock, and Rodrigo Blankenship scored a 55 - yard field goal. Blankenship set a Rose Bowl record for longest field goal kick.
The Sooners led 31 - 17 at halftime but the Bulldogs scored fourteen unanswered points in the third quarter.
The game went back and forth in the last quarter. Baker Mayfield threw the first interception of the game, as Dominick Sanders intercepted his pass. Jake Fromm completed a 4 - yard pass to Javon Wims, taking the lead for the first time in the game, at 38 -- 31.
Oklahoma tied the game back up, with Dimitri Flowers scoring a touchdown with 8: 47 left in the game. Sony Michel fumbled in the next possession, and Oklahoma 's Steven Parker recovered the fumble and returned it 46 yards to score a touchdown, putting the Sooners in the lead again.
With fifty - five seconds left in the game, Nick Chubb took a direct snap and rushed for two yards for a game - tying touchdown. Oklahoma did not score on its last drive of regulation game, forcing overtime.
The game went into overtime and was the first Rose Bowl in history to do so. The Sooners won the overtime coin toss and elected to play defense first. The teams traded field goals in the first overtime, sending the game into a second overtime.
Georgia 's Lorenzo Carter blocked Oklahoma kicker Austin Seibert 's 27 - yard field goal attempt, meaning Georgia would win the game with any points during its possession. When Georgia had the ball, Sony Michel took a direct snap on a second down and rushed for a 27 - yard touchdown, winning the game for the Bulldogs.
In this game, a number of Rose Bowl records were set:
Pre-game activities were held at the Rose Bowl parking lots and at Brookside Golf Course. The 2017 Rose Bowl Hall of Fame Induction Ceremony was held at the Rose Bowl Stadium Lot K on December 30, 2017 from 12: 00 to 1: 30 PM. The 2017 Class members were Mack Brown (Texas), Cade McNown (UCLA), Charles Woodson (Michigan) and Dr. Charles West (Washington & Jefferson), represented by his daughter.
The 2018 Rose Parade started at 8: 00 a.m. Pacific Time and featured floral floats, marching bands, and equestrian units marching down the 5.5 mile route of the parade down Colorado Boulevard.
The 2018 Rose Parade 's theme was "Making A Difference, '' and actor Gary Sinise was its Grand Marshal.
# denotes national championship game / denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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frankie valli & the 4 seasons greatest hits | The Very Best of Frankie Valli & the Four Seasons - wikipedia
The Very Best of Frankie Valli & The Four Seasons is a 2002 music album by Frankie Valli & the Four Seasons, released by Rhino Records. In June 2012 due to the success of Jersey Boys in Auckland, New Zealand the album went number one in New Zealand and was certified Platinum. It has also sold over 500,000 copies in the US.
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who carried the us flag at opening ceremony | List of flag bearers for the United States at the Olympics - wikipedia
This is a list of flag bearers who have represented United States at the Olympics. Flag bearers carry the national flag of their country at the opening ceremony and closing ceremony of the Olympic Games. Men and women from across the country and from a variety of sports have carried the flag at both the Summer Olympic Games and the Winter Olympic Games. More than half of those representing the teams at the Summer Olympics are track or field athletes, though that sport does account for the most competitors at the Games.
James Bickford, Norman Armitage, and Pat McDonald have all performed the duty twice. Several athletes born in other countries have carried the flag, including those from Norway, Ireland, Sudan, Germany, and Czechoslovakia.
US team manager Matthew Halpin was the first to carry the flag at the 1906 Intercalated Games, though that event is no longer considered by the International Olympic Committee to be part of Olympic history. Ralph Rose became the first competitor to have the honor when he led the team out at the 1908 Summer Games, the first official Olympic Games to feature a parade of nations. The first woman to represent the United States was fencer Janice Romary in 1968, her sixth consecutive Summer Olympics. Taffy Abel was the first person to represent the United States at the Winter Olympics when he was chosen to carry the flag at the inaugural Games in Chamonix in 1924.
Irish - born Pat McDonald, one of the "Irish Whales '', became the first athlete to be selected as the flag bearer twice when he performed his second duty in 1924. In 1956 two other athletes led the U.S. team out for a second time, James Bickford at the Winter Olympics and Norman Armitage at the Summer Games.
The flag bearers are chosen by a vote of the team captains of each sport.
Athletes view their selection of flag bearer as a great honour:
"It 's more than a dream. "I keep saying, I 'm not sure if this is true or not true. I 'm making the team and now I 'm the first guy coming to the stadium and the whole world will be watching me carry the flag. There are no words to describe it. '' "I feel happy, honored. I 'm feeling so blessed to get an opportunity to present the United States of America, to present the United States flag in front of my team. ''
"I 'm still shaking. I was incredibly surprised when Brian (Martin) told me, and I 'm still trying to process it all. To be the person leading the U.S. team into the opening ceremony is just such a great honor. ''
Olympic protocol is that the flag bearer dips their flag to the head of state as part of the parade. It has become tradition that the U.S. flag is not dipped, though the origins of this are surrounded by legend and are widely misreported:
"The motives for the original refusal, the identity of the flag - bearer and the truth behind the quotation and other issues remain much murkier in the historical record than legend - tellers portray... The evolution of this flag mythology reveals a great deal about the complex strains of early 20th century American nationalism. ''
The parade of nations was introduced at the 1906 Intercalated Games with Matthew Halpin as the U.S. flag bearer. Halpin gladly dipped the flag, noting that when he did so King George I of Greece "staked me to a smile that made me feel like I belonged ''. The controversy began at the 1908 Summer Olympics in London where flag bearers were expected to dip the flag to Edward VII on two occasions. Research by the International Society of Olympic Historians concluded that the flag bearer was Ralph Rose and that he might not have dipped the flag to the British King on one of those occasions. Martin Sheridan is often attributed with the explanation of this supposed disrespect by stating at the time "This flag dips to no earthly king '' but no evidence of this can be found. Modern versions of the story describe how the Stars and Stripes have never been dipped during the parade of nations since 1908 but this is apocryphal. It has been dipped on three occasions since then: 1912, 1924, and 1932.
The 1932 winter games were held in Lake Placid and, though head of state President Herbert Hoover would normally have greeted the parade of nations, the duty was passed to New York governor Franklin Roosevelt. This was the last time that the flag was dipped at the Olympics as political forces intervened thereafter. The head of state awaiting the athletes at the 1936 Summer Games was Adolf Hitler, to whom the U.S. refused to lower their flag. The 1940 Olympics were cancelled due to the onset of World War II and, in 1942, the United States Congress introduced the United States Flag Code which stated: "That no disrespect should be given to the flag of the United States of America, the flag should not be dipped to any person or thing. '' However, since the Flag Code is legally unenforceable, it appears to be merely codified tradition.
Several foreign - born athletes have represented the United States at the opening ceremonies. Irishman Pat McDonald was the first in 1920 and he, at the age of 42, became the oldest Olympic track & field champion. Though he did not compete, he also went on to lead the U.S. team at the following Summer Olympics.
Rolf Monsen, a multi-discipline Winter sports athlete born in Oslo, Norway, competed as an American in 1928 and 1932. He qualified for the 1936 Games and though an injury prevented him from taking part, he was still chosen to carry the flag.
The American team at the 1936 Summer Games were led by Berlin - born, highly regarded gymnast Al Jochim.
Olga Fikotová was a discus - thrower at the 1956 Summer Olympics and the only athlete to win a gold medal for her home country Czechoslovakia in that year. She began a much - publicised romance with American athlete Harold Connolly, much to the frustration of the Communist authorities. Fikotová was accused of being a traitor and the Czechoslovak Olympic Committee banned her from representing her country again. Now living in the U.S., she would go on to compete for her adopted country in the next four Summer Games. Despite not being able to replicate her success, Fikotová was chosen to lead the American team at the 1972 Games in Munich, West Germany.
Lopez Lomong carried the flag at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China and became the fifth flag bearer to be born outside the United States. As a teenager in war - torn Sudan, Lomong was one of several thousand boys brought to America as a refugee in 2001. His selection came during a time when the U.S. and other Western countries had been critical of the Chinese government 's close links with Sudan, a country accused of human rights violations and war crimes.
Godfrey Dewey, son of Melvil Dewey the inventor of Dewey Decimal Classification, was the president of the Lake Placid Organizing Committee and was largely responsible for the successful candidature of Lake Placid for the 1932 Winter Olympics. In addition to his role as the U.S. ski team manager he was chosen as the flag bearer for the 1928 Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
List of flag bearers:
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how far is chardon ohio from cleveland ohio | Geauga County, Ohio - wikipedia
Geauga County (/ dʒ iˈɔːɡə / jee - AW - gə) is a county located in the U.S. state of Ohio. As of the 2010 census, the population was 93,389. The county seat is Chardon. The county is named for a Onondaga or Seneca language word meaning ' raccoon ', originally the name of the Grand River.
Geauga County is part of the Cleveland - Elyria, OH Metropolitan Statistical Area.
In 2008, Forbes Magazine ranked Geauga County as the fourth best place in America to raise a family.
Geauga County is named after the Onondaga word jyo'ä gak or Seneca jo'ä ka, both meaning ' raccoon ' (originally the name of the Grand River).
After the discovery of the New World, the land that became Geauga County was originally part of the French colony of Canada (New France), which was ceded in 1763 to Great Britain and renamed Province of Quebec. In the late 18th century the land became part of the Connecticut Western Reserve in the Northwest Territory, and then was purchased by the Connecticut Land Company in 1795.
Geauga County was founded on March 1, 1806 as the second county in the Connecticut Western Reserve, originating from Trumbull County, Ohio. In 1808, the size of Geauga County was reduced by the creation of Ashtabula County, Cuyahoga County, and Lake County.
The present - day boundaries were established in 1840 following the creation of Lake County. A disagreement about the location of the county seat began in 1808 when commissioners from Trumbull County began the process of identifying the seat of justice. Residents in the northern townships wanted the seat in Champion, renamed Painesville, Ohio in 1832. Residents in southern townships desired a centrally located county seat and took advantage of a tract of land donated by Peter Chardon Brooks called Chardon, Ohio. Despite Chardon being selected in 1809, the argument was never really settled. Over the next two decades, population growth in the seven northern townships exceeded the remaining sixteen southern townships, further fueling the disagreement. On January 21, 1840, a petition to create Lake County from seven townships in northern Geauga County and Willoughby Township from Cuyahoga County were presented to the Ohio House of Representatives. Seabury Ford presented petitions against its creation. Lake County was established in March 1840 by the Ohio state legislature. As the newly formed Lake County did not have sufficient territory to meet the requirements for a county, the northern border included submerged land beneath the waters of Lake Erie.
The first settlement in Geauga was at Burton, Ohio in the year 1798, when three families settled there from Connecticut.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 408 square miles (1,060 km), of which 400 square miles (1,000 km) is land and 8.1 square miles (21 km) (2.0 %) is water.
Geauga County receives the most precipitation of any county in northern Ohio, with most of the county receiving over 42 inches annually in an average year, and some parts exceeding 44 inches.
The geography of Geauga County was radically changed by Illinoian and Wisconsinan glaciation, which is evident in the deranged drainage system, landscape change, and glacial till. The headwaters of three watercourses in the Lake Erie basin are located in Geauga County. These include the Cuyahoga River, Chagrin River, and Grand River. Portions of all three are designated Ohio Scenic Rivers.
Point sources of the east branch of the Cuyahoga River are located in Hambden Township, Claridon Township, and Burton Township,. The point source of the west branch of the Cuyahoga River is near the intersection of Pond and Rapids Roads in Burton Township.
The point sources of the east branch of the Chagrin River are at Bass Lake in Munson Township and the southwest corner of the City of Chardon. McFarland Creek in Bainbridge Township, sometimes referred to as Chagrin Falls because of the postal zip code, is a tributary of the Aurora branch of the Chagrin River.
Point sources of the Grand River are located in Parkman Township, Troy Township, and Swine Creek in Middlefield Township.
While the majority of waterways in Geauga County are part of the Lake Erie watershed, the Silver Creek in Troy Township is a tributary to the west branch of the Mahoning River, part of the Ohio River watershed, the largest tributary to the Mississippi River. There is another Silver Creek in Geauga County located in Russell Township, which is a tributary to the east branch of the Chagrin River.
As of the census of 2010, there were 93,389 people, 34,264 households, and 25,654 families residing in the county. The population density was 231.1 people per square mile (89.3 / km2). There were 34,264 occupied housing units at an average density of 84.8 per square mile (32.8 / km2). The racial makeup of the county was 97.0 % White, 1.4 % Black or African American, 0.1 % Native American, 0.6 % Asian, 0.001 % Pacific Islander, 0.3 % from other races, and 0.8 % from two or more races. 88.1 % spoke English, 4.6 % German, 1.2 % Spanish, and 3.3 % spoke other West Germanic languages.
There were 34,264 households out of which 31.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.8 % were married couples living together, 7.70 % had a female householder with no husband present, 3.50 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 25.10 % were non-families. 25.10 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.50 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.16.
In the county, the population was spread out with 26.0 % under the age of 18, 6.60 % from 18 to 24, 20.1 % from 25 to 44, 31.8 % from 45 to 64, and 15.50 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.3 years. For every 100 females there were 96.85 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.72 males.
As of the census of 2000, 0.59 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, 26.8 % were of German, 15.3 % Irish, 14.3 % English, 10.8 % Italian 7.5 % Polish and 5.2 % American ancestry. According to Census 2000, 89.4 % spoke English, 5.1 % German, 1.5 % Pennsylvania Dutch and 1.0 % Spanish as their first language.
As of the census of 2000, the median income for a household in the county was $60,200, and the median income for a family was $67,427. Males had a median income of $48,443 versus $30,567 for females. The per capita income for the county was $27,944. About 2.80 % of families and 4.60 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.10 % of those under age 18 and 5.10 % of those age 65 or over. The median household income and per capita income were the second highest among Ohio counties after Delaware, and 74th and 79th in the country, respectively.
As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 93,389 people, 34,264 households, and 25,654 families residing in the county. The population density was 233.4 inhabitants per square mile (90.1 / km). There were 36,574 housing units at an average density of 91.4 per square mile (35.3 / km). The racial makeup of the county was 96.9 % white, 1.3 % black or African American, 0.6 % Asian, 0.1 % American Indian, 0.3 % from other races, and 0.8 % from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 1.1 % of the population. In terms of ancestry, 27.4 % were German, 17.1 % were Irish, 13.8 % were Italian, 13.8 % were English, 8.3 % were Polish, 5.5 % were Hungarian, and 3.6 % were American.
Of the 34,264 households, 33.6 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.8 % were married couples living together, 7.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, 25.1 % were non-families, and 21.2 % of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.16. The median age was 43.3 years.
The median income for a household in the county was $89,663 and the median income for a family was $101,780. Males had a median income of $94,863 versus $40,565 for females. The per capita income for the county was $32,735. About 5.0 % of families and 7.6 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.8 % of those under age 18 and 6.4 % of those age 65 or over.
There is a large Amish settlement founded in 1886 in Geauga County. It is the fourth largest of all Amish settlements with 8,537 people in 2010. In 2010 the Amish accounted for 8.62 percent of the population of Geauga County.
Geauga County is a Republican stronghold, having voted Democratic only once since 1912, in Lyndon Johnson 's landslide.
An official Geauga County Road Map
The mostly rural nature of Geauga County limits the feasibility of a fixed - route transit system. Instead, Geauga County Transit offers a demand - responsive door - to - door transit system within the County with some out - of - county service. As of 2015, one - way fares for door - to - door service were $6.00, with 50 % discounts for the elderly, disabled, or children 6 years to 17 years old. Children 5 - years and younger are free. Out - of - county fares are two times the posted in - county fares. Service is provided 6: 00 AM to 9: 00 PM Monday through Friday. Reservations are suggested with at least three days notice, but can be made up to one week in advance.
Geauga County is home to one public airport located in Middlefield, Ohio. The Geauga County Airport call sign is 7G8. It is home to Experimental Aircraft Association Chapter 5.
The Geauga County Airport sits on 41 acres purchased by the Middlefield Chamber of Commerce and donated to Geauga County. Ground was broken August 31, 1967 and it was officially opened September 29, 1968. The airport has one 3500 ' long by 65 ' wide runway. Runway numbers are 11 on the west end and 29 on the east end. There are two T - hangars, one private hangar, two community hangars, a pilot lounge and restroom facility.
Geauga County is home to seven public school districts as illustrated in this list of school districts in Ohio.
The Geauga County Educational Service Center provides collaborative programs and services for the seven local school districts in Geauga County, leveraging resources to reduce overall costs to each district. The ESC has formed a P - 16 bridge initiative whose mission is to create workforce readiness in our youth and adults through substantive partnerships between educators, businesses, community organizations, parents focusing on important transitions experienced at each level. Geauga County P - 16 will develop a sustainable process and program to insure its continued success.
In addition, there are five neighboring public school districts that serve portions of Geauga County residents.
Taxpayers in six of the seven school districts in Geauga County support a Joint Vocational School District (JVSD) at the Auburn Career Center in Concord Township, Ohio. The career center offers a variety of programs in health, education, and hands - on technology.
Geauga County is home to eight private, parochial, and / or specialized schools.
Geauga County has one institution of higher learning:
Ohio 's 14th Congressional District
U.S. Senate
76th Ohio House District - Official Web site
99th Ohio House District - Official Web site
18th Ohio Senate District - Official Web site
32nd Ohio Senate District - Official Web site
U.S. 6th Circuit Court of Appeals - Official Web site
Ohio 11th District Courts of Appeals - Official Web site
Coordinates: 41 ° 30 ′ N 81 ° 10 ′ W / 41.50 ° N 81.17 ° W / 41.50; - 81.17
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the number one best player in the world | List of world number one male golfers - wikipedia
The following is a list of golfers who have been top of the Official World Golf Ranking. As of August 12, 2018, Dustin Johnson is the number one ranked golfer. Tiger Woods has spent the most consecutive weeks (281) and most total weeks (683) in that position. Three golfers have spent an entire calendar year atop the rankings: Nick Faldo (1993), Greg Norman (1996), and Woods (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009).
Order -- indicates the sequence in which the players first reached number 1. Majors -- number of major championships each player has won throughout his golfing career.
Order -- indicates the sequence in which the country first had a number 1 player. Majors -- number of major championships the country 's world - ranked number 1 players have won throughout their golfing careers. Players -- number of players from that country who have been world - ranked number 1. Top player -- the player from that country who has spent most weeks as the world - ranked number 1 player. First player -- the player from that country who was first to be world - ranked number 1 player, left blank if that country has only one such player. Latest player -- the player from that country who was most recently world - ranked number 1 player, left blank if that country has only one such player. Zone -- The zone to which that country now belongs for Ryder Cup or Presidents Cup purposes:
Weeks -- the total number of weeks players from the zone have been world - ranked number 1, including any weeks Australia 's Greg Norman was world - ranked number 1 before the Presidents Cup and its International Team zone were first created. It was first played in September 1994, shortly after the August 1994 end of Greg Norman 's first 7 periods (starting in September 1986) and 209 weeks at Number 1 (out of his total of 11 periods and 331 weeks). Order -- indicates the sequence in which the zone first had a number 1 player. Majors -- number of major championships the zone 's world - ranked number 1 players have won throughout their golfing careers. Players -- number of players from that zone who have been world - ranked number 1. Top player -- the player from that zone who has spent most weeks as the world - ranked number 1 player. First player -- the player from that zone who was first to be world - ranked number 1 player. Latest player -- the player from that zone who was most recently world - ranked number 1 player.
Before the start of the Official World Golf Ranking in 1986, unofficial world golf rankings were published in Mark McCormack 's World of Professional Golf Annual from 1968 to 1985. These annual world golf rankings gave Jack Nicklaus as the number one from 1968 to 1977, Tom Watson from 1978 to 1982 and Seve Ballesteros from 1983 to 1985.
Player in bold denotes current number one
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where does the winning lottery money come from | Lottery - wikipedia
A lottery is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers for a prize. Lotteries are outlawed by some governments, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of regulation of lottery by governments; the most common regulation is prohibition of sale to minors, and vendors must be licensed to sell lottery tickets. Though lotteries were common in the United States and some other countries during the 19th century, by the beginning of the 20th century, most forms of gambling, including lotteries and sweepstakes, were illegal in the U.S. and most of Europe as well as many other countries. This remained so until well after World War II. In the 1960s casinos and lotteries began to re-appear throughout the world as a means for governments to raise revenue without raising taxes.
Lotteries come in many formats. For example, the prize can be a fixed amount of cash or goods. In this format there is risk to the organizer if insufficient tickets are sold. More commonly the prize fund will be a fixed percentage of the receipts. A popular form of this is the "50 -- 50 '' draw where the organizers promise that the prize will be 50 % of the revenue. Many recent lotteries allow purchasers to select the numbers on the lottery ticket, resulting in the possibility of multiple winners.
The first recorded signs of a lottery are keno slips from the Chinese Han Dynasty between 205 and 187 BC. These lotteries are believed to have helped to finance major government projects like the Great Wall of China. From the Chinese "The Book of Songs '' (2nd millennium BC.) comes a reference to a game of chance as "the drawing of wood '', which in context appears to describe the drawing of lots.
From the Celtic era, the Cornish words "teulel pren '' translates into "to throw wood '' and means "to draw lots ''.
The Iliad of Homer refers to lots being placed into Agamemnon 's helmet to determine who would fight Hector.
The first known European lotteries were held during the Roman Empire, mainly as an amusement at dinner parties. Each guest would receive a ticket, and prizes would often consist of fancy items such as dinnerware. Every ticket holder would be assured of winning something. This type of lottery, however, was no more than the distribution of gifts by wealthy noblemen during the Saturnalian revelries. The earliest records of a lottery offering tickets for sale is the lottery organized by Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar. The funds were for repairs in the City of Rome, and the winners were given prizes in the form of articles of unequal value.
The first recorded lotteries to offer tickets for sale with prizes in the form of money were held in the Low Countries in the 15th century. Various towns held public lotteries to raise money for town fortifications, and to help the poor. The town records of Ghent, Utrecht, and Bruges indicate that lotteries may be even older. A record dated 9 May 1445 at L'Ecluse refers to raising funds to build walls and town fortifications, with a lottery of 4,304 tickets and total prize money of 1737 florins (worth about $170 thousand in 2014 US dollars). In the 17th century it was quite usual in the Netherlands to organize lotteries to collect money for the poor or in order to raise funds for all kinds of public usages. The lotteries proved very popular and were hailed as a painless form of taxation. The Dutch state - owned Staatsloterij is the oldest running lottery. The English word lottery is derived from the Dutch noun "lot '' meaning "fate ''.
The first recorded Italian lottery was held on 9 January 1449 in Milan organized by the Golden Ambrosian Republic to finance the war against the Republic of Venice. However, it was in Genoa that Lotto became very popular. People used to bet on the name of Great Council members, who were drawn by chance, five out of ninety candidates every six months. This kind of gambling was called Lotto or Semenaiu. When people wanted to bet more frequently than twice a year, they began to substitute the candidates names with numbers and modern lotto was born, to which both modern legal lotteries and the illegal Numbers game can trace their ancestry.
English Lottery 1566 Scroll.
English State Lottery Ticket 1814 issued by broker Swift & Co.
Massachusetts Lottery Ticket 1758 French & Indian Wars
1776 Lottery ticket issued by the Continental Congress to finance the American Revolutionary War.
Harvard Lottery Ticket 1811
Ticket from an 1814 lottery to raise money for Queen 's College, New Jersey.
New Hampshire Lottery Ticket 1964
King Francis I of France discovered the lotteries during his campaigns in Italy and decided to organize such a lottery in his kingdom to help the state finances. The first French lottery, the Loterie Royale, was held in 1539 and was authorized with the edict of Châteaurenard. This attempt was a fiasco, since the tickets were very costly and the social classes which could afford them opposed the project. During the two following centuries lotteries in France were forbidden or, in some cases, tolerated.
Although the English probably first experimented with raffles and similar games of chance, the first recorded official lottery was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I, in the year 1566, and was drawn in 1569. This lottery was designed to raise money for the "reparation of the havens and strength of the Realme, and towardes such other publique good workes ''. Each ticket holder won a prize, and the total value of the prizes equalled the money raised. Prizes were in the form of silver plate and other valuable commodities. The lottery was promoted by scrolls posted throughout the country showing sketches of the prizes.
Thus, the lottery money received was an interest free loan to the government during the three years that the tickets (' without any Blankes ') were sold. In later years, the government sold the lottery ticket rights to brokers, who in turn hired agents and runners to sell them. These brokers eventually became the modern day stockbrokers for various commercial ventures. Most people could not afford the entire cost of a lottery ticket, so the brokers would sell shares in a ticket; this resulted in tickets being issued with a notation such as "Sixteenth '' or "Third Class ''.
Many private lotteries were held, including raising money for The Virginia Company of London to support its settlement in America at Jamestown. The English State Lottery ran from 1694 until 1826. Thus, the English lotteries ran for over 250 years, until the government, under constant pressure from the opposition in parliament, declared a final lottery in 1826. This lottery was held up to ridicule by contemporary commentators as "the last struggle of the speculators on public credulity for popularity to their last dying lottery ''.
An English lottery, authorized by King James I in 1612, granted the Virginia Company of London the right to raise money to help establish settlers in the first permanent English colony at Jamestown, Virginia.
Lotteries in colonial America played a significant part in the financing of both private and public ventures. It has been recorded that more than 200 lotteries were sanctioned between 1744 and 1776, and played a major role in financing roads, libraries, churches, colleges, canals, bridges, etc. In the 1740s, the foundation of Princeton and Columbia Universities was financed by lotteries, as was the University of Pennsylvania by the Academy Lottery in 1755.
During the French and Indian Wars, several colonies used lotteries to help finance fortifications and their local militia. In May 1758, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts raised money with a lottery for the "Expedition against Canada ''.
Benjamin Franklin organized a lottery to raise money to purchase cannon for the defense of Philadelphia. Several of these lotteries offered prizes in the form of "Pieces of Eight ''. George Washington 's Mountain Road Lottery in 1768 was unsuccessful, but these rare lottery tickets bearing Washington 's signature became collectors ' items; one example sold for about $15,000 in 2007. Washington was also a manager for Col. Bernard Moore 's "Slave Lottery '' in 1769, which advertised land and slaves as prizes in The Virginia Gazette.
At the outset of the Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress used lotteries to raise money to support the Colonial Army. Alexander Hamilton wrote that lotteries should be kept simple, and that "Everybody... will be willing to hazard a trifling sum for the chance of considerable gain... and would prefer a small chance of winning a great deal to a great chance of winning little ''. Taxes had never been accepted as a way to raise public funding for projects, and this led to the popular belief that lotteries were a form of hidden tax.
At the end of the Revolutionary War the various states had to resort to lotteries to raise funds for numerous public projects.
The first big lottery on German soil was held in 1614 in Hamburg.
In Austria the first lottery was drawn in 1751, during the reign of Empress Maria Theresia, and was named Lotto di Genova since it was based on 90 numbers.
Spain offers a wealth of lottery games, the majority of which are operated by Loterías y Apuestas del Estado with the remaining lotteries operated by the ONCE and the Catalan government. The first Spanish lottery game was played back in 1763 and, over the last two centuries, playing the lottery in Spain has developed into a tradition.
The Spanish Christmas Lottery (officially Sorteo Extraordinario de Navidad (soɾˈteo ekstɾaorðiˈnaɾjo ðe naβiˈðað) or simply Lotería de Navidad (loteˈɾia ðe naβiˈðað)) is a national lottery. It is organized every year since 1812 by a branch of the Spanish Public Administration, now called Loterías y Apuestas del Estado. The name Sorteo de Navidad was used for the first time in 1892.
The Spanish Christmas lottery is the second longest continuously running lottery in the world. This includes the years during the Spanish Civil War when the lottery draw was held in Valencia after the Republicans were forced to relocate their capital from Madrid. After the overthrow of the Republican government the lottery continued uninterrupted under the Franco regime.
Notable prizes on different continents are:
(local currency)
The first lottery in Australia took place in the 1880s in Sydney. It was a private sweepstakes that was quickly prohibited, despite being moved to other areas such as Queensland and Victoria. In 1916, the Australian government started their own lottery, named the ' Golden Casket Art Union ', with the intention of raising money for charities and projects. Its first draw is credited with raising funds for veterans of World War One.
Lotteries in Canada are administered by five regional organizations; the Atlantic Lottery Corporation (which serves Atlantic Canada), Loto - Québec, the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation, the Western Canada Lottery Corporation (which serves Western and Northern Canada, excluding British Columbia), and the British Columbia Lottery Corporation. The five regional lotteries are members of a consortium known as the Interprovincial Lottery Corporation, which administrates national games, including the flagship Lotto 6 / 49 and Lotto Max. The five lotteries offer draw games, scratch cards, and sports betting -- the latter primarily under the brand Sport Select.
The largest single jackpot record in Canadian lottery history was a Lotto 6 / 49 drawing on October 17, 2015 for a jackpot of $64 million.
The Mexican Lotería Nacional dates back to the late 18th century. The goal of the Lotería is to create jobs and to "impulse the wealth redistribution process ''. The Lotería is also a member of the North American Association of State and Provincial Lotteries.
As measured by the total prize payout, the Spanish Christmas Lottery is considered the biggest lottery worldwide. In 2012, if all of the tickets had been sold, the total amount payout of prizes would have been worth € 2.52 billion (70 % of ticket sales). The total amount of all prizes of the first category called El Gordo ("the fat one '') was € 720 million which was distributed among 180 winning tickets (billetes) that win € 4 million each.
For 2013, due to falling demand, the number of € 20 tickets available was reduced from 180 million to 160 million, reducing the potential maximum prize pool to € 2.24 billion (70 % of ticket sales), with a maximum potential El Gordo of € 720 million.
A lottery was first held in Thailand (then known as Siam) in 1874 during the reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), as part of an international fair organised for his birthday. A lottery was organised in 1917 by the British government with Thai consent to help finance Britain 's war effort. Lotteries were held intermittently until 1933, when they became regularised under the finance department.
The present Thai lottery is managed by The Government Lottery Office, a state enterprise managed by the Ministry of Finance. The drawings take place on the 1st and 16th of each month, with the top price now up to 32 million baht.
Shrines of local folklore and popular religion, such as Nang Ta - Khian, are often propitiated in order to be lucky in the Thai lottery draw.
The principal lottery in the United Kingdom is the National Lottery, a state - franchised lottery sanctioned by the Gambling Commission (formerly the National Lottery Commission), and established in 1994. It is operated by the Camelot Group, which was first granted the franchise in 1994. Camelot 's current franchise agreement runs through 2019. 28 % of National Lottery revenue, along with all unclaimed prizes, are distributed as grants to charitable causes. 12 % of the revenue from the National Lottery is expected to go to the government, 5 % goes to lottery retailers, 5 % is retained by Camelot Group for operating costs, and 50 % remains for the total prize fund of which 5 % is diverted to a Super Draw fund, leaving 45 % for normal prizes.
Northern & Shell also operates a commercial lottery known as The Health Lottery, which distributes its revenue to support health - related charities and causes. To comply with the Gambling Act, which forbids other parties from operating a national lottery, The Health Lottery operates as an umbrella corporation representing a group of 51 society lotteries across the United Kingdom with a common drawing and prize pool. Each drawing is held on behalf of one or more of the society lotteries, whose revenues go to support health - related causes in their respective area. The Health Lottery received criticism on launch for only pledging to donate 20.3 % of ticket costs to charity, compared to the National Lottery 's 28 %, and that the lottery 's structure was designed to contravene British law regarding lotteries.
Lotteries are operated at the state level in the U.S.; 44 states and 3 territories operate state lotteries, and nearly all of them are members of consortiums that operate regional games, and the two near - national games Mega Millions and Powerball. In January 2016, Powerball set a record for the largest lottery jackpot in U.S. history, with its January 13, 2016 draw having an estimated jackpot of US $ 1.5 billion.
The precursor to legal lotteries were the underground "numbers game '' of the 1800s, which operated out of "Policy shops '' where bettors choose numbers. In 1875, a report of a select committee of the New York State Assembly stated that "the lowest, meanest, worst form... (that) gambling takes in the city of New York, is what is known as policy playing ''. The game was also popular in Italian neighborhoods known as the Italian lottery, and it was known in Cuban communities as bolita ("little ball ''). By the early 20th century, the game was associated with poor communities, and could be played for as little as $0.01. The game 's attractions to low income and working class bettors were the ability to bet small amounts of money, and that bookies could extend credit to the bettor. In addition, policy winners could avoid paying income tax. Different policy banks would offer different rates, though a payoff of 600 to 1 was typical. Since the odds of winning were 1000: 1, the expected profit for racketeers was enormous.
The first modern government - run US lottery was established in Puerto Rico in 1934, followed by New Hampshire in 1964.
The purchase of lottery tickets can not be accounted for by decision models based on expected value maximization. The reason is that lottery tickets cost more than the expected gain, as shown by lottery mathematics, so someone maximizing expected value should not buy lottery tickets. Yet, lottery purchases can be explained by decision models based on expected utility maximization, as the curvature of the utility function can be adjusted to capture risk - seeking behavior. More general models based on utility functions defined on things other than the lottery outcomes can also account for lottery purchase. In addition to the lottery prizes, the ticket may enable some purchasers to experience a thrill and to indulge in a fantasy of becoming wealthy. If the entertainment value (or other non-monetary value) obtained by playing is high enough for a given individual, then the purchase of a lottery ticket could represent a gain in overall utility. In such a case, the disutility of a monetary loss could be outweighed by the combined expected utility of monetary and non-monetary gain, thus making the purchase a rational decision for that individual.
The chances of winning a lottery jackpot can vary widely depending on the lottery design, and are determined by several factors, including the count of possible numbers, the count of winning numbers drawn, whether or not order is significant, and whether drawn numbers are returned for the possibility of further drawing.
In a simple 6 - from - 49 lotto, a player chooses six numbers from 1 to 49 (no duplicates are allowed). If all six numbers on the player 's ticket match those produced in the official drawing (regardless of the order in which the numbers are drawn), then the player is a jackpot winner. For such a lottery, the chance of being a jackpot winner is 1 in 13,983,816.
In bonusball lotteries where the bonus ball is compulsory, the odds are often even lower. In the Mega Millions multi-state lottery in the United States, 5 numbers are drawn from a group of 75 and 1 number is drawn from a group of 15, and a player must match all 6 balls to win the jackpot prize. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 258,890,850.
The odds of winning can also be reduced by increasing the group from which numbers are drawn. In the SuperEnalotto of Italy, players must match 6 numbers out of 90. The chance of winning the jackpot is 1 in 622,614,630.
Most lotteries give lesser prizes for matching just some of the winning numbers. The Mega Millions game gives a payout (US $1) if a player matches only the bonus ball. The weekly 6 / 49 lottery operated by the ILLF offers a two - ball cash prize, for which the odds is 1 in 6.63. In the UK National Lottery the smallest prize is £ 25 for matching three balls. Recently the organizers have changed the rules and they offer £ 2 for matching 2 numbers.
Matching more numbers, the payout goes up. Although none of these additional prizes affect the chances of winning the jackpot, they do improve the odds of winning something and therefore add a little to the value of the ticket. On the other hand, multiple smaller prizes usually mean smaller jackpots. It is common for the jackpot to be split evenly if multiple players have tickets with all the winning numbers.
Lotteries, like any form of gambling, are susceptible to fraud, despite the high degree of scrutiny claimed by the organizers. Numerous lottery scams exist.
Some advance fee fraud scams on the Internet are based on lotteries. The fraud starts with spam congratulating the recipient on their recent lottery win. The email explains that in order to release funds the email recipient must part with a certain amount (as tax / fees) as per the rules or risk forfeiture.
Another form of scam involves the selling of "systems '' which purport to improve a player 's chances of selecting the winning numbers in a Lotto game. These scams are generally based on the buyer 's (and perhaps the seller 's) misunderstanding of probability and random numbers. Sale of these systems or software is legal, however, since they mention that the product can not guarantee a win, let alone a jackpot.
There have also been several cases of cashiers at lottery retailers who have attempted to scam customers out of their winnings. Some locations require the patron to hand the lottery ticket to the cashier to determine how much they have won, or if they have won at all, the cashier then scans the ticket to determine one or both. In cases where there is no visible or audible cue to the patron of the outcome of the scan some cashiers have taken the opportunity to claim that the ticket is a loser or that it is worth far less than it is and offer to "throw it away '' or surreptitiously substitute it for another ticket. The cashier then pockets the ticket and eventually claims it as their own.
The BBC TV series The Real Hustle showed a variation of the lottery scam in which a group of scammers pretended to have won a lottery, but was prevented from claiming the prize as the person who wrote the name on the back of the ticket was supposedly out of the country on that date. They were able to persuade a stranger to put up money as collateral in order to share in the prize pool.
Eddie Tipton, the former security director of the US Multi-State Lottery Association, in the Hot Lotto fraud scandal, installed software code to the Hot Lotto random number generator that allowed him to predict winning numbers on specific days of the year.
In 2003, Mohan Srivastava, a Canadian geological statistician, found non-random patterns in "Tic - Tac - Toe '' tickets sold by the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation. "Tic - Tac - Toe '' was pulled off the shelves, and became the first game ever recalled by the OLG.
Winnings (in the U.S.) are not necessarily paid out in a lump sum, contrary to the expectation of many lottery participants. In certain countries, mainly the U.S., the winner gets to choose between an annuity payment and a one - time payment. The one - time payment (cash or lump sum) is a "smaller '' amount than the advertised (annuity) jackpot, even before applying any withholdings to which the prize is subject. While withholdings vary by jurisdiction and how winnings are invested, it is suggested that a winner who chooses lump sum expects to pocket 1 / 3 of the advertised jackpot at the end of the tax year. Therefore, a winner of a $100,000,000 jackpot who chooses cash can expect $33,333,333.33 net after filing income tax document (s) for the year in which the jackpot was won.
Lottery annuities are often for a period from 20 to 30 years. Some U.S. lottery games, especially those offering a "lifetime '' prize, do not offer a lump - sum option.
In some online lotteries, the annual payments are only $25,000, with a balloon payment in the final year. This type of installment payment is often made through investment in government - backed securities. Online lotteries pay the winners through their insurance backup. However, many winners choose lump sum, since they believe they can get a better rate of return on their investment elsewhere.
In some countries, lottery winnings are not subject to personal income tax, so there are no tax consequences to consider in choosing a payment option. In France, Canada, Australia, Germany, Ireland, Italy, New Zealand, Finland, and the United Kingdom all prizes are immediately paid out as one lump sum, tax - free to the winner. In Liechtenstein, all winnings are tax - free and the winner may opt to receive a lump sum or an annuity with regard to the Jackpot prizes.
In the US, federal courts have consistently held that lump sum payments received from third parties in exchange for the rights to lottery annuities are not capital assets for tax purpose. Rather, the lump sum is subject to ordinary income tax treatment.
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who played simon barlow's mother in coronation street | Simon Barlow - wikipedia
Simon Barlow is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street, and has been played by Alex Bain since 2008. The character was originally played by twins, Jake and Oscar Hartley, on his birth in 2003. Simon is the son of Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne) and Lucy Richards (Katy Carmichael), the adoptive son of Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson) and the grandson of Ken Barlow (William Roache). His storylines have included his mother 's death, a custody battle between Peter and his maternal grandfather, a custody battle between Peter and Leanne and Simon physically abusing Leanne.
Simon is born in July 2003 to Lucy Richards (Katy Carmichael), who had already split up with Simon 's father Peter Barlow (Chris Gascoyne). On learning that he had married his girlfriend, Shelley, when they had married first - she told Shelley that her marriage was illegal. In revenge, Lucy tricked Peter into thinking they had a future together, then, in front of pub regulars, announced she and Simon were emigrating to Australia. Peter resigned himself to the fact that he would never know Simon, and left the Street soon after.
Peter is given custody of Simon when Lucy died from ovarian cancer in October 2008 and they move in Peter 's father, Ken Barlow (William Roache), his wife Deirdre Barlow (Anne Kirkbride) and her mother Blanche Hunt (Maggie Jones). Peter, at first reluctant to take an active role in raising Simon, changes his mind when he found out that Lucy had left her estate to him, on the condition that he raises Simon. Peter buys the local bookmaker 's shop and moves in there, with Simon. Peter 's drinking problem becomes evident when he comes to Simon 's Nativity play, drunk and has a row with teaching staff in December 2008. Simon stays with Ken, Deirdre and Blanche until Peter agrees to stop drinking, but in March 2009, Peter passes out with a lit cigarette in his hand, and the flat caught fire. Luke Strong (Craig Kelly) and Tony Gordon (Gray O'Brien) break the door down, after Deirdre alerts them as Simon had telephoned her before he passed out due to smoke inhalation. Peter and Simon are rushed to hospital and made a full recovery. Peter vows once more to give up alcohol.
Learning that he had a grandson, Peter is surprised to meet Lucy 's father, George Wilson (Anthony Valentine) in November 2009. He had separated from Lucy 's mother when she was very young and their relationship had suffered but George is determined not to make the same mistake with Simon and Peter 's girlfriend Leanne Battersby (Jane Danson) persuades Peter to allow George and his partner, Eve, access. George also invests in the bar that Peter and Leanne intended to open but Ken 's worst fears came true when Peter falls off the wagon again and George wins interim custody of Simon in February 2010. In March 2010, while on holiday in Blackpool, Simon runs away after hearing George telling Eve that he intends to take Simon down to Kent to live and he makes his way home alone, scaring everyone in the process. While Peter and Leanne are proud that Simon travelled all that way alone, they made sure he knew that was very wrong. Simon is devastated when Blanche died in May 2010. In August 2010, Simon had a fight with Aadi Alahan (Zennon Ditchett) whilst playing a game and Aadi hits his head on a table, leading him to be rushed to hospital when he fell unconscious. Simon does not tell anyone and feels guilty over the incident, while Aadi 's parents Dev (Jimmi Harkishin) and Sunita Alahan (Shobna Gulati) accuse Claire Peacock (Julia Haworth) of negligence. Simon revealed the truth about Aadi 's injury after Peter questions him about his erratic behaviour. Peter tells Dev and Sunita the facts, clearing Claire 's name.
In December 2010, Peter was in the Joinery bar when it exploded and causes part of the viaduct to collapse and a tram comes off the viaduct, crashing into the Corner Shop and The Kabin: the results of the destruction brought down a power line (plunging the street into darkness in the process), destroyed the post box and set No. 13 on fire. Simon is found at home and rescued by Jason Grimshaw (Ryan Thomas). He is devastated to find Peter on his death - bed, but relieved when Peter pulled through; his severe injuries left Peter temporarily unable to walk. Simon is thrilled when Peter and Leanne renew their vows in February 2011. In June 2011, Simon meets Stella Price (Michelle Collins), her boyfriend Karl Munro (John Michie) and her daughter Eva Price (Catherine Tyldesley). Stella is revealed to be Leanne 's mother at Leanne 's birthday in July 2011. Simon is impressed and Stella later gets him a Nintendo DS game for his birthday. Just before Christmas 2011, Peter begins a clandestine affair with Carla Connor (Alison King), and Simon is devastated when Leanne, learning the truth, leaves the Street in February 2012. Simon gives Carla a frosty reception when she moves in, insisting that he wants Leanne back and spends as much time as he could at Ken and Deirdre 's house. Peter, however, does everything he can to make Simon spend more time with Carla, in the hope that Simon will warm to her. Eventually, however, in July 2012, Peter allows Simon to go and live with Leanne, and Peter and Carla leave the country as Peter took an opportunity to sail a yacht from Southampton down to Lanzarote in the Canary Islands.
Simon lives with Leanne and her boyfriend Nick Tilsley (Ben Price) until Peter and Carla return in December 2012, out of the blue, just as they are about to leave for Las Vegas, where Leanne and Nick plan to get married but Simon now refuses to leave as he wants to see Peter, so they stay. Carla is unhappy as they had only planned to stay in Weatherfield for a couple of days but Peter ca n't bring himself to leave Simon again so Carla returns to Los Angeles alone. Leanne and Nick reschedule their marriage for Christmas Day 2012 but after what Peter said on her hen night, Leanne visits Peter and suggests they get back together but Carla has returned and is having none of it! She runs back to the car and plans to marry Nick but before she can say "I do '', Eva proclaims what Leanne had done that morning and Nick refuses to go through with the wedding. Simon is devastated and blames Carla. In November 2013, Simon fell victim of a happy slapping attack, orchestrated by Faye Windass (Ellie Leach) and Grace Piper (Ella - Grace Gregoire). He was beaten, forced into a dress and then had lipstick forced over his face. He is later delighted, however, when Peter and Carla hire Tina McIntyre (Michelle Keegan) as Simon 's nanny. Simon confides in Tina about the happy slapping attack, which later leads to Faye and Grace being questioned by the police. Unknown to Carla nor Simon, Peter begins an affair with Tina, which is n't revealed until May 2014.
In June 2014, Carla 's brother, Rob Donovan (Marc Baylis), later confronts Tina and attacks her in her own home, leading to an argument on the balcony of her flat. After a scuffle, Rob pushes Tina away, causing her to lose her balance and plummet onto the cobbles below. Tina survives the fall, but Rob later beats her with a metal pipe, when she threatens to tell the police that he tried to kill her. Tina later dies in hospital, devastating Simon, who believes that Peter murdered her. Peter 's relationship with Simon thaws a little and he promises him that he did not kill Tina. However, in July 2014, Simon is even more devastated when Peter is arrested and charged on suspicion of killing Tina. When Ken returns from Canada in August 2014, he persuades Simon to go and visit Peter in prison. He agrees at first, but Rob, wanting Peter to plead guilty, asks Simon if he would like to go to Chester Zoo, with him, his fiancee and Ken 's daughter Tracy Barlow Kate Ford) and her daughter Amy Barlow (Elle Mulvaney). Leanne eventually takes Simon to visit Peter, but he does not want anything to do with him, after discovering that he has been drinking. Simon is devastated when Peter ends up in hospital and eventually believes that he did not kill Tina. Maddie Heath (Amy Kelly) begins to babysit Simon and he also shares a bond with Deirdre 's dog, Eccles. In September 2014, when Amy thinks that Eccles loves Simon more than she loves her, she tells Tracy that Eccles bit her. Tracy tells Deirdre that Eccles must be put down but Amy is later forced to tell truth, horrifying Simon. When Rob and Tracy go on a week 's holiday in Swansea, Amy 's father, Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson), asks Ken to babysit Amy for the night, the same night that Deirdre had agreed to babysit Simon. When they arrive together, they immediately clash and when Simon unfolds the sofa into a bed, Amy sits on him. Deirdre, unable to cope with Amy 's behavior, sends her back to the Rovers, much to Simon 's delight.
After the explosion at Victoria Court in May 2015, Simon is unaware that Leanne 's partner, Kal Nazir (Jimi Mistry), has died after saving Amy from the fire. He learns Kal has died from Kal 's mother, Yasmeen Nazir and Simon is devastated. In June 2015, when Leanne asks Simon to do a simple job whilst sorting out Kal 's belongings with Kal 's children, Alya and Zeedan Nazir, Simon refuses. Simon later storms out of the flat and when he returns, Leanne is annoyed that Simon has eaten and she asks him to wash up. When Leanne tries to talk to Simon about how she knows he has lost Lucy, Simon angrily points out she died and he throws a remote at Leanne. Leanne takes Simon to the Barlows house and when asked about the bruise, Leanne lies that it was caused by a cupboard door. Later, Simon apologises to Leanne and she apologises to him for what he 's been through, but she warns him he ca n't do what he did again, no matter how angry he gets. The next day, Leanne and Simon go to France to visit Leanne 's grandmother Gloria Price to forget about recent events. In July 2015, Simon is later given a shattering blow when he discovers that Deirdre died on the day of her birthday and homecoming party.
Simon 's behavior and attitude towards Leanne worsens. He kicks Leanne 's leg and it causes a severe bleed in August 2015. Later he shouts in Leanne 's face, pushing her and thus beginning to scare her more. After Simon plays a game of football, Leanne says he and some of his friends can come to the Bistro for dinner. Simon 's friend peer pressures him into stealing a bottle of vodka, from which Simon and his friends get drunk. Leanne takes Simon home and tries discussing issues, but he walks out. Another row leads to a physical altercation on both sides, Leanne pushes Simon away in self - defence, unfortunately he cuts his arm as he falls to the ground. In September 2015, when Leanne and Simon argue again, Simon pushes Leanne against a table and she is later found unconscious by Dev and Mary and she is taken to hospital, with Zeedan accompanying her. Leanne finally admits to Zeedan what Simon has been doing and Leanne decides to send Simon to stay with Peter in Portsmouth. When Simon returns in November 2015, his behaviour has n't improved and he tells Eva about his time in Portsmouth and that Peter was too busy with his girlfriend. Eva informs Leanne and when Leanne tries to talk to Simon further about it, Simon storms out. Simon skips school and when Leanne returns home, she finds Simon in the flat with some friends causing chaos. Simon ignores Leanne and walks out and when he comes home, he locks himself in his bedroom. Leanne finally admits to Eva that Simon has been physically abusing her and she does n't know how much more she can take. When graffiti is sprayed outside the Bistro, Leanne believes Simon is responsible and she later finds a can of red spray paint in his bag. When Leanne confronts Simon, he makes cruel remakes about her infertility and Leanne almost hits him. Leanne arranges for Simon to live with Ken and when Leanne drops Simon at Ken 's, Simon tells Leanne that if she walks away, he will never speak to her again, but Leanne leaves him.
When Amy annoys Simon with her violin, he tries to take to violin from Amy, however Ken catches them arguing and they come up with a solution. Simon ignores a text from Leanne, which makes Leanne believe she has lost Simon. Simon arrives home from school early and Robert Preston (Tristan Gemmill) talks to Simon in an attempt to understand how he is feeling. When Simon spots Leanne with Eva looking relaxed, he soon gets angry again. Simon and Amy are left alone at Ken 's house and Simon ends up hurting Amy. Amy tells Ken and Tracy, who contact Leanne and Leanne is encouraged by Eva Price (Catherine Tyldesley) to admit Simon has been hurting her. Leanne has to take Simon home and the family agree to get Simon help. Leanne arranges for both her and Simon to see a counsellor. In February 2016, Leanne encourages Simon to do football trials and Simon is successful getting onto the team. On the day of his football match, Simon insists that Leanne does n't come, however, she does and brings Ken and Zeedan. At the match, Leanne meets Tom (Daniel Casey) again and Simon receives taunts off a teammate. Simon hurts the boy and Leanne is horrified when Simon believes the boy deserved it. After talking to both Ken and Zeedan about her fears, Leanne decides to report Simon to the police. Despite Simon claiming it was an accident, Leanne goes to the police and she is forced to reveal that Simon abused her. The following day, the police visit Simon and Simon is taken to the station with Ken. In the interview, Simon loses his temper and he is later released on bail pending an investigation. Simon refuses to go home with Leanne and decides to stay with Ken. Later, Leanne gets a visit from Tom, who shows them footage of the incident and Leanne realises Simon was telling the truth. Leanne apologises to Simon, but he refuses to forgive her and Simon contacts his dad. Leanne gives Simon the choice of staying with Peter during the half term and he decides to go.
In July 2016, after noticing Leanne has been feeling unwell, Simon confides in Amy about his fears that Leanne has cancer. Amy tries to reassure him, but he finds a message on Leanne 's phone confirming a doctor 's appointment. Simon goes to the medical centre and wants Leanne to tell him what is wrong. At home, Leanne tells him she is pregnant. Leanne avoids telling Simon about the baby 's father and he buys a baby grow. Leanne reassures Simon that he is her first child and she wo n't love him any less. In August 2016, Leanne decides to move to Liverpool with Simon. Simon takes a set of tickets, forcing Leanne to buy more and he secretly phones Nick and Leanne admits she loves him. Nick arrives at the coach station, knowing about the baby and persuades Leanne to stay. Simon is thrilled when Leanne and Nick decide to move in together and when Nick says he is the father of Leanne 's baby. In October 2016, Simon is upset when Peter fails to come and watch Simon collect an award, but is pleased when he returns. In December 2016, Simon witnesses Peter kissing his step - aunt, Toyah Battersby (Georgia Taylor), with his new drone. In January 2017, Peter leaves cigarettes at Leanne 's flat and Toyah attempts to take the blame, but Simon is forced to cover for her. Simon confides in Eva about Peter and Toyah 's relationship. When Leanne finds out about Toyah and Peter, and that Eva knew, she disowns them and when they attempt to apologise, Simon warns them Leanne 's blood pressure is too high. Peter allows Simon to go to a party, but his family struggle to get hold of him and he is returned home by the police after the group split and his phone died. In March 2017, when Ken is found unconscious at the bottom of the stairs, the police believe he was pushed and the family are made suspects. Simon 's mobile phone is confiscated by his teacher, but Peter gets it back and smashes it. In April 2017, Simon buys a new one and he finds a voice message from Peter, explaining he has done a bad thing and needs to leave. Leanne and Nick take the mobile phone to the police. In May 2017, Leanne decides to get Peter, Nick and Steve McDonald (Simon Gregson) to make up caused by the revelation that Steve is the father of Oliver, Simon 's adoptive half - brother and they bring Simon to the beach after he missed out on a trip. Simon is annoyed when Peter and Nick argue. Nick leaves Weatherfield in June 2017 and sells the flat, so Simon moves in with Peter and Toyah whilst Leanne and Oliver move in with Steve.
In October 2017, Simon attempts to force Summer Spellman (Matilda Freeman), who has been placed into the care of Billy Mayhew (Daniel Brocklebank) and Todd Grimshaw (Bruno Langley), to smoke cigarettes he found, but Summer takes them for herself and smokes them when she is emotional. Summer is found unconscious by Amy and Simon and is taken to hospital, where it turns out she smoked spice and Billy and Todd make amends. Simon 's father, Peter and Toyah find out from the children that Simon had the cigarette. Billy is furious about what Simon did and when Peter blames Billy and Todd 's arguments for Summer 's actions, Billy beats Peter up. Simon overhears Billy and Peter talk about the attack and when social services are left satisfied with their visit to Summer, Billy and Todd, Simon tells them what Billy did. The social worker tells Billy and Todd that it will threaten the adoption. In January 2018, Simon tricks Leanne, Eva and Toyah into giving him money for false reasons to buy headphones to block out noise made by them all. Simon is expelled from school and placed in a pupil referral unit, which angers Peter and Leanne. Simon begins misbehaving and rebelling. In March 2018, he hangs around with a gang of boys and they mug Audrey Roberts (Sue Nicholls), who is pushed to the floor by one of the boys and is rushed to hospital. Roy Cropper (David Neilson), who saw the incident, tells Leanne and Peter that Simon was one of the attackers and Peter confronts Simon, who is worried that the police will be involved. He apologises to Audrey and Roy at the hospital. When Carla catches Simon with the gang and confronts them to keep away from Simon, who is taken to the factory. He is offered a job there to help Carla. Leanne and Peter are pleased that Simon is behaving well and sees him looking after Hope Stape (Isabella Flanagan) and Ruby Dobbs (Macy Alabi) after the couple, Ruby 's father Tyrone Dobbs (Alan Halsall) and Hope 's mother Fiz Brown (Jennie McAlpine) row. That night, Simon hangs around with the gang again and forced him to smash the car window, which he did and runs off with the gang.
In April 2018, Simon steals money from Toyah 's purse and overhears Eva and Toyah 's deal about either of them wanting Eva 's baby. Peter and Leanne found out about Toyah 's stolen money and suspect and accuse Simon. Simon tells Toyah that he knows about hers and Eva 's deal and is going to blackmail her. Simon hangs around with Tyler Jefferies (Will Barnett) and they skip school together but are caught by Toyah. Simon hacks Tyler 's phone and messages Summer that Tyler lovers her. Simon picks on Summer in front of Tyler, who realises that Simon went on his phone to message Summer. Toyah tells Peter that Simon is blackmailing her and Peter confronts Simon, getting him to apologise to Toyah. When Toyah is about to go to a cottage, where Eva is to have her baby, she finds her car missing, which Simon and Tyler joyride on. Simon finds out that Toyah has rented a cottage for Eva. Toyah lies to Peter and Leanne that Simon has been helping her to take stuff for the baby so that they wo n't find out that Simon and Tyler have been joyriding. When Eva 's daughter Suzie Barlow is born, Toyah shows her to Peter and a jealous Simon. Peter announces in the pub that Suzie is born, leaving Simon frustrated. When Toyah returns with Suzie, Peter asks her to marry him, which Simon is not happy about. Simon tells Leanne that he thinks that Toyah is having a affair and that she has rented a cottage, without Peter knowing. Toyah lies to Leanne that the cottage is for her friend from Liverpool, who is having a abusive relationship. When everyone finds out about the death of Suzie 's father and Carla 's brother Aidan Connor (Shayne Ward), Peter tells Simon about opening up to people, which a tearful Eva overhears after they talk about Suzie.
The character of Simon was re-introduced in late 2008 when his on - screen father Peter (Chris Gascoyne) also returned to the soap. Peter had been given custody of his son after his mother Lucy (Katy Carmichael) was diagnosed with terminal cancer. Both characters ' returns saw them slowly develop a father - son relationship.
In March 2015, it was announced that the character of Simon would be involved in a domestic abuse, with it being where Simon is the perpetrator and his mother Leanne would be the victim. Executive producer Kieran Roberts said "It 's a really interesting story. It 's come from character, as Simon is a child who has obviously been through a very difficult few years with the death of his mother, his dad 's alcoholism and then being passed around by the adults in his life. He 's seen a lot of difficult things and he 's got some more difficult things to go through this year in the next few months. I ca n't give much away, but there is at least one other major trauma that Simon is going to have to go through. I think it 's fair to say that he 's going to come through all of this a little bit damaged. We 're going to explore how that impacts on his relationship with Leanne, and we 're going to touch on this issue of domestic violence from a child against a parent. ''
Jane Danson, who plays Leanne Tilsley, said of the storyline in September 2015 that she had doubts when she heard about the domestic abuse plot "It 's quite interesting. When they proposed this storyline, I was a bit concerned because I thought historically, as we 've seen, Leanne 's quite a strong character. I thought, ' She would n't take that from a child! ' But the way it 's been done is quite clever. He 's a child who 's been through so much with his dad, with the alcoholism, and he 's lost so many people in his life. She 's been the one constant, so she 'll never give up on him. It 's been really great to play out, because they 've pretty much done it in real time. It 's not just been two weeks of a storyline, they 've played it out and we continue to play it out with what we 're filming at the moment. It 's been quite interesting to see a different side of Leanne as well. ''
In November 2015, it was announced that Simon would lash out at Amy at Christmas as part of the domestic abuse plot. A source said that "The Barlows are going to be central to Coronation Street in the run up to Christmas. The close - knit family will be put under extreme strain and viewers will be left wondering if they can get through the turmoil. ''
An article discussing young child actors published to The Guardian claimed that Bain 's performance as a child actor in the role of Simon "seems to be the nation 's favourite ''. It also described the character as "undeniably cute '' and "wise beyond his years '', with "great onscreen chemistry with his dad ''. The author opined that his father Peter 's breakup with Leanne would have been "much more tedious '' without Simon 's performance. The same article pointed out that Simon "has learned to be resourceful... he has survived a fire, a kidnapping, and has gone missing in Blackpool -- from where he managed to make his way back to Weatherfield. '' It also stated that when Simon "joined forces '' with Joshua Peacock, they made "a formidable team. ''
When the character of Simon ran away whilst in Blackpool and later returned on his own to his father Peter 's doorstep, he said "Ah 've been on two trains and a bendy bus... Nightmare. Do n't suppose there 's any chocolate milk going? ''. An article published to The Independent opined that it was "a line that sums up the sweet - and - sour storylines that have kept Coronation Street going for nigh on half a century: 50 years of chocolate milk and nightmares ''.
Bain won the "Best Young Performance '' award in the British Soap Awards 2011 for his portrayal of Simon.
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who are the two jesuit saints who worked in india | Society of Jesus - wikipedia
The Society of Jesus (S.J. -- from Latin: Societas Iesu) is a scholarly religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in sixteenth - century Spain. The members are called Jesuits. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents. Jesuits work in education (founding schools, colleges, universities, and seminaries), intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, sponsor direct social ministries, and promote ecumenical dialogue.
Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque nobleman from the Pyrenees area of northern Spain, founded the society after discerning his spiritual vocation while recovering from a wound sustained in the Battle of Pamplona. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. In 1534, Ignatius and six other young men, including Francis Xavier and Peter Faber, gathered and professed vows of poverty, chastity, and later obedience, including a special vow of obedience to the Pope in matters of mission direction and assignment. Ignatius 's plan of the order 's organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the "Formula of the Institute ''.
Ignatius was a nobleman who had a military background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world, where they might be required to live in extreme conditions. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine. '' Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God 's soldiers '', "God 's marines '', or "the Company '', which evolved from references to Ignatius ' history as a soldier and the society 's commitment to accepting orders anywhere and to endure any conditions. The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.
The Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome. The historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit mother church.
In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit to be elected Pope, taking the name Pope Francis.
The Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church, (although they are surpassed by the Franciscan family of orders of Friars Minor, Capuchins, and Conventuals). The Jesuits have experienced a decline in numbers in recent decades. As of 2016 the society had 16,378 members, 11,785 priests and 4,593 brothers and scholastics. This represents a 41.5 % decline since 1977, when the society had a total membership of 28,038, of which, 20,205 were priests. This decline is most pronounced in Europe and the Americas, with relatively modest membership gains occurring in Asia and Africa. There seems to be no "Pope Francis effect '' in counteracting the free fall of vocations among the Jesuits.
The society is divided into 83 provinces along with six independent regions and ten dependent regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and the US. Their average age was 57.3 years: 63.4 years for priests, 29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers.
The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa. The society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in various countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines and India. In the United States the Jesuits have historical ties to 28 colleges and universities and 61 high schools. The degree to which the Jesuits are involved in the administration of each institution varies. As of 2016, 12 of the 28 Jesuit universities in the US had non-Jesuit lay presidents. According to a 2014 article in The Atlantic, "the number of Jesuit priests who are active in everyday operations at the schools is n't nearly as high as it once was ''. Worldwide it runs 322 secondary schools and 172 colleges and universities. A typical conception of the mission of a Jesuit school will often contain such concepts as proposing Christ as the model of human life, the pursuit of excellence in teaching and learning, lifelong spiritual and intellectual growth, and training men and women for others.
Ignatius laid out his original vision for the new order in the "Formula of the Institute of the Society of Jesus '', which is "the fundamental charter of the order, of which all subsequent official documents were elaborations and to which they had to conform. '' He ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life, and apostolate of the new religious order. Its famous opening statement echoed Ignatius ' military background:
Whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God beneath the banner of the Cross in our Society, which we desire to be designated by the Name of Jesus, and to serve the Lord alone and the Church, his spouse, under the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth, should, after a solemn vow of perpetual chastity, poverty and obedience, keep what follows in mind. He is a member of a Society founded chiefly for this purpose: to strive especially for the defence and propagation of the faith and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine, by means of public preaching, lectures and any other ministration whatsoever of the Word of God, and further by means of retreats, the education of children and unlettered persons in Christianity, and the spiritual consolation of Christ 's faithful through hearing confessions and administering the other sacraments. Moreover, he should show himself ready to reconcile the estranged, compassionately assist and serve those who are in prisons or hospitals, and indeed, to perform any other works of charity, according to what will seem expedient for the glory of God and the common good.
A fresco depicting Ignatius of Loyola receiving the papal bull Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from Pope Paul III was created after 1743 by Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in Olomouc.
On 15 August 1534, Ignatius of Loyola (born Íñigo López de Loyola), a Spaniard from the Basque city of Loyola, and six others mostly of Castilian origin, all students at the University of Paris, met in Montmartre outside Paris, in a crypt beneath the church of Saint Denis, now Saint Pierre de Montmartre, to pronounce the religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Ignatius ' six companions were: Francisco Xavier from Navarre (modern Spain), Alfonso Salmeron, Diego Laínez, Nicolás Bobadilla from Castile (modern Spain), Peter Faber from Savoy, and Simão Rodrigues from Portugal. The meeting has been commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre. They called themselves the Compañía de Jesús, and also Amigos en El Señor or "Friends in the Lord '', because they felt "they were placed together by Christ. '' The name "company '' had echoes of the military (reflecting perhaps Ignatius ' background as Captain in the Spanish army) as well as of discipleship (the "companions '' of Jesus). The Spanish "company '' would be translated into Latin as societas like in socius, a partner or comrade. From this came "Society of Jesus '' (SJ) by which they would be known more widely.
Religious orders established in the medieval era were named after particular men: Francis of Assisi (Franciscans), Domingo de Guzmán, later canonized as St Dominic (Dominicans); and Augustine of Hippo (Augustinians). Ignatius of Loyola and his followers appropriated the name of Jesus for their new order, provoking resentment by other religious who considered it presumptuous. The resentment was recorded by Jesuit José de Acosta of a conversation with the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In the words of one historian: "The use of the name Jesus gave great offense. Both on the Continent and in England, it was denounced as blasphemous; petitions were sent to kings and to civil and ecclesiastical tribunals to have it changed; and even Pope Sixtus V had signed a Brief to do away with it. '' But nothing came of all the opposition; there were already congregations named after the Trinity and as "God 's daughters ''.
In 1537, the seven travelled to Italy to seek papal approval for their order. Pope Paul III gave them a commendation, and permitted them to be ordained priests. These initial steps led to the official founding in 1540.
They were ordained at Venice by the bishop of Arbe (24 June). They devoted themselves to preaching and charitable work in Italy. The Italian War of 1535 - 1538 renewed between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Venice, the Pope, and the Ottoman Empire, had rendered any journey to Jerusalem impossible.
Again in 1540, they presented the project to Paul III. After months of dispute, a congregation of cardinals reported favourably upon the Constitution presented, and Paul III confirmed the order through the bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae ("To the Government of the Church Militant ''), on 27 September 1540. This is the founding document of the Society of Jesus as an official Catholic religious order. Ignatius was chosen as the first Superior General. Paul III 's bull had limited the number of its members to sixty. This limitation was removed through the bull Exposcit debitum of Julius III in 1550.
In fulfilling the mission of the "Formula of the Institute of the Society '', the first Jesuits concentrated on a few key activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were trained in both classical studies and theology, and their schools reflected this. Second, they sent out missionaries across the globe to evangelize those peoples who had not yet heard the Gospel, founding missions in widely diverse regions such as modern - day Paraguay, Japan, Ontario, and Ethiopia. One of the original seven arrived in India already in 1541. Finally, though not initially formed for the purpose, they aimed to stop Protestantism from spreading and to preserve communion with Rome and the successor of Saint Peter. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the movement toward Protestantism in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth and southern Germany.
Ignatius wrote the Jesuit Constitutions, adopted in 1553, which created a centralised organization and stressed acceptance of any mission to which the Pope might call them. His main principle became the unofficial Jesuit motto: Ad Maiorem Dei Gloriam ("For the greater glory of God ''). This phrase is designed to reflect the idea that any work that is not evil can be meritorious for the spiritual life if it is performed with this intention, even things normally considered of little importance.
The Society of Jesus is classified among institutes as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body of priests organized for apostolic work, following a religious rule, and relying on alms, or donations, for support.
The term "Jesuit '' (of 15th - century origin, meaning one who used too frequently or appropriated the name of Jesus) was first applied to the society in reproach (1544 -- 52). The term was never used by Ignatius of Loyola, but over time, members and friends of the society adopted the name with a positive meaning.
The Jesuits were founded just before the Council of Trent (1545 -- 1563) and ensuing Counter-Reformation that would introduce reforms within the Catholic Church, and so counter the Protestant Reformation throughout Catholic Europe.
Ignatius and the early Jesuits did recognize, though, that the hierarchical church was in dire need of reform. Some of their greatest struggles were against corruption, venality, and spiritual lassitude within the Catholic Church. Ignatius insisted on a high level of academic preparation for the clergy in contrast to the relatively poor education of much of the clergy of his time. And the Jesuit vow against "ambitioning prelacies '' can be seen as an effort to counteract another problem evidenced in the preceding century.
St. Ignatius and the Jesuits who followed him believed that the reform of the church had to begin with the conversion of an individual 's heart. One of the main tools the Jesuits have used to bring about this conversion is the Ignatian retreat, called the Spiritual Exercises. During a four - week period of silence, individuals undergo a series of directed meditations on the purpose of life and contemplations on the life of Christ. They meet regularly with a spiritual director who guides their choice of exercises and helps them to develop a more discerning love for Christ.
The retreat follows a "Purgative - Illuminative - Unitive '' pattern in the tradition of the spirituality of John Cassian and the Desert Fathers. Ignatius ' innovation was to make this style of contemplative mysticism available to all people in active life. Further, he used it as a means of rebuilding the spiritual life of the church. The Exercises became both the basis for the training of Jesuits and one of the essential ministries of the order: giving the exercises to others in what became known as "retreats ''.
The Jesuits ' contributions to the late Renaissance were significant in their roles both as a missionary order and as the first religious order to operate colleges and universities as a principal and distinct ministry. By the time of Ignatius ' death in 1556, the Jesuits were already operating a network of 74 colleges on three continents. A precursor to liberal education, the Jesuit plan of studies incorporated the Classical teachings of Renaissance humanism into the Scholastic structure of Catholic thought.
In addition to the teachings of faith, the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum (1599) would standardize the study of Latin, Greek, classical literature, poetry, and philosophy as well as non-European languages, sciences, and the arts. Furthermore, Jesuit schools encouraged the study of vernacular literature and rhetoric, and thereby became important centres for the training of lawyers and public officials.
The Jesuit schools played an important part in winning back to Catholicism a number of European countries which had for a time been predominantly Protestant, notably Poland and Lithuania. Today, Jesuit colleges and universities are located in over one hundred nations around the world. Under the notion that God can be encountered through created things and especially art, they encouraged the use of ceremony and decoration in Catholic ritual and devotion. Perhaps as a result of this appreciation for art, coupled with their spiritual practice of "finding God in all things '', many early Jesuits distinguished themselves in the visual and performing arts as well as in music. The theater was a form of expression especially prominent in Jesuit schools.
Jesuit priests often acted as confessors to kings during the Early Modern Period. They were an important force in the Counter-Reformation and in the Catholic missions, in part because their relatively loose structure (without the requirements of living and celebration of the Liturgy of Hours in common) allowed them to be flexible and meet diverse needs arising at the time.
Early missions in Japan resulted in the government granting the Jesuits the feudal fiefdom of Nagasaki in 1580. However, this was removed in 1587 due to fears over their growing influence.
Francis Xavier, one of the original companions of Loyola, arrived in Goa, in Portuguese India, in 1541 to consider evangelical service in the Indies. In a 1545 letter to John III of Portugal, he requested an Inquisition to be installed in Goa (see Goa Inquisition). He died in China after a decade of evangelism in Southern India. The Portuguese Jesuit, António de Andrade founded a mission in Western Tibet in 1624. Two Jesuit missionaries, Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville, reached Lhasa in Tibet in 1661. The Italian Jesuit Ippolito Desideri established a new Jesuit mission in Lhasa and Central Tibet (1716 -- 21) and gained an exceptional mastery of Tibetan language and culture, writing a long and very detailed account of the country and its religion as well as treatises in Tibetan that attempted to refute key Buddhist ideas and establish the truth of Roman Catholic Christianity.
Jesuit missions in America became controversial in Europe, especially in Spain and Portugal where they were seen as interfering with the proper colonial enterprises of the royal governments. The Jesuits were often the only force standing between the Native Americans and slavery. Together throughout South America but especially in present - day Brazil and Paraguay, they formed Christian Native American city - states, called "reduction s ''. These were societies set up according to an idealized theocratic model. The efforts of Jesuits like Antonio Ruiz de Montoya to protect the natives from enslavement by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers would contribute to the call for the society 's suppression. Jesuit priests such as Manuel da Nóbrega and José de Anchieta founded several towns in Brazil in the 16th century, including São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and were very influential in the pacification, religious conversion, and education of Indian nations.
Jesuit scholars working in foreign missions were very important in studying their languages and strove to produce Latinized grammars and dictionaries. This included: Japanese (see Nippo jisho also known as Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam, Vocabulary of the Japanese Language, a Japanese -- Portuguese dictionary written 1603); Vietnamese (French Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes formalized the Vietnamese alphabet in use today with his 1651 Vietnamese -- Portuguese -- Latin dictionary Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum); Tupi (the main language of Brazil); and the pioneering study of Sanskrit in the West by Jean François Pons in the 1740s.
Under Portuguese royal patronage, Jesuits thrived in Goa and until 1759 successfully expanded their activities to education and healthcare. In 1594 they founded the first Roman - style academic institution in the East, St. Paul Jesuit College in Macau, China. Founded by Alessandro Valignano, it had a great influence on the learning of Eastern languages (Chinese and Japanese) and culture by missionary Jesuits, becoming home to the first western sinologists such as Matteo Ricci. Jesuit efforts in Goa were interrupted by the expulsion of the Jesuits from Portuguese territories in 1759 by the powerful Marquis of Pombal, Secretary of State in Portugal.
Jesuit missionaries were active among indigenous peoples in New France in North America, many of them compiling dictionaries or glossaries of the First Nations and Native American languages they had learned. For instance, before his death in 1708, Jacques Gravier, vicar general of the Illinois Mission in the Mississippi River valley, compiled a Kaskaskia Illinois -- French dictionary, considered the most extensive among works of the missionaries. Extensive documentation was left in the form of The Jesuit Relations, published annually from 1632 until 1673.
The Jesuits first entered China through the Portuguese possession of Macau where they founded St. Paul 's College of Macau.
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. The scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when scientific innovation had declined in China:
(The Jesuits) made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.
The Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge and philosophy to Europe. Confucius 's works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China, which is why Kǒng Fūzǐ is known in the West under his Latinized name to this day.
Matteo Ricci started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius in Latin in 1687. It is thought that such works had considerable influence on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the Deists and other philosophical groups of the Enlightenment intrigued by the integration of the Confucian system of morality into Catholicism.
The extent to which the Jesuits accommodated Chinese beliefs and rituals resulted in the Chinese Rites controversy. The Vatican 's condemnations of these accommodations insulted the Chinese emperors, relations soured, and Jesuits were expelled from China after 1721.
During the French colonisation of New France in the 17th century, Jesuits played an active role in North America. When Samuel de Champlain established the foundations of the French colony at Québec, he was aware of native tribes who possessed their own languages, customs, and traditions. These natives that inhabited modern day Ontario, Québec, and the areas around Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay were the Montagnais, the Algonquins, and the Huron. Champlain believed that these had souls to be saved, so in 1614 he initially obtained the Recollects, a reform branch of the Franciscans in France, to convert the native inhabitants. In 1624 the French Recollects realized the magnitude of their task and sent a delegate to France to invite the Society of Jesus to help with this mission. The invitation was accepted, and Jesuits Jean de Brébeuf, Ennemond Masse, and Charles Lalemant arrived in Quebec in 1625. Lalemant is considered to have been the first author of one of the Jesuit Relations of New France, which chronicled their evangelization during the seventeenth century.
The Jesuits became involved in the Huron mission in 1626 and lived among the Huron peoples. Brébeuf learned the native language and created the first Huron language dictionary. Outside conflict forced the Jesuits to leave New France in 1629 when Quebec was captured by the Kirke brothers under the English flag. But in 1632 Quebec was returned to the French under the Treaty of Saint Germain - en - Laye and the Jesuits returned to Huron territory, modern Huronia.
In 1639, Jesuit Jerome Lalemant decided that the missionaries among the Hurons needed a local residence and established Sainte - Marie, which expanded into a living replica of European society. It became the Jesuit headquarters and an important part of Canadian history. Throughout most of the 1640s the Jesuits had great success, establishing five chapels in Huronia and baptising over one thousand Huron natives. However, as the Jesuits began to expand westward they encountered more Iroquois natives, rivals of the Hurons. The Iroquois grew jealous of the Hurons ' wealth and fur trade system, began to attack Huron villages in 1648. They killed missionaries and burned villages, and the Hurons scattered. Both Jean de Brébeuf and Gabriel Lalemant were tortured and killed in the Iroquois raids; they have been canonized as martyrs in the Catholic Church. With the knowledge of the invading Iroquois, the Jesuit Paul Ragueneau burned down Sainte - Marie instead of allowing the Iroquois the satisfaction of destroying it. By late June 1649, the French and some Christian Hurons built Sainte - Marie II on Christian Island (Isle de Saint - Joseph). However, facing starvation, lack of supplies, and constant threats of Iroquois attack, the small Sainte - Marie II was abandoned in June 1650; the remaining Hurons and Jesuits departed for Quebec and Ottawa. After a series of epidemics, beginning in 1634, some Huron began to mistrust the Jesuits and accused them of being sorcerers casting spells from their books. As a result of the Iroquois raids and outbreak of disease, many missionaries, traders, and soldiers died. Today, the Huron tribe, also known as the Wyandot, have a First Nations reserve in Quebec, Canada, and three major settlements in the United States.
After the collapse of the Huron nation, the Jesuits were to undertake the task of converting the Iroquois, something they had attempted in 1642 with little success. In 1653 the Iroquois nation had a fallout with the Dutch. They then signed a peace treaty with the French and a mission was established. The Iroquois took the treaty lightly and soon turned on the French again. In 1658, the Jesuits were having very little success and were under constant threat of being tortured or killed, but continued their effort until 1687 when they abandoned their permanent posts in the Iroquois homeland.
By 1700, Jesuits turned to maintaining Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa without establishing new posts. During the Seven Years ' War, Quebec fell to the English in 1759 and New France was under British control. The English barred the immigration of more Jesuits to New France. By 1763, there were only twenty - one Jesuits stationed in New France. By 1773 only eleven Jesuits remained. During the same year the English crown laid claim to New France and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved. The Jesuit mission in Quebec was re-established in 1842. There were a number of Jesuit colleges founded in the decades following; one of these colleges evolved into present - day Universite Laval. (source: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/jesuits/)
In 1647 the Massachusetts Bay Colony passed a law prohibiting any Jesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory under Puritan jurisdiction. Anti-Catholic sentiment had appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers. Any suspected Jesuit who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offence carried a death penalty. There were about two dozen Jesuits in 1760, and they kept a low profile.
Former Jesuit John Carroll (1735 -- 1815) became the first Catholic archbishop in the young republic. He founded Georgetown University in 1789, and it remains a pre-eminent Jesuit school.
The Jesuit Père Marquette and Louis Jolliet were the first Europeans to explore and chart the northern portion of the Mississippi River, as far as the Illinois River.
Peter De Smet was a Jesuit active in missionary work among the Plains Indians in the mid-19th century. His extensive travels as a missionary were said to total 180,000 miles. He was known as the "Friend of Sitting Bull '' because he persuaded the Sioux war chief to participate in negotiations with the United States government for the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie.
The Jesuits in New Spain distinguished themselves in several ways. They had high standards for acceptance to the order and many years of training. They attracted the patronage of elite families whose sons they educated in rigorous newly founded Jesuit colegios ("colleges ''), including Colegio de San Pedro y San Pablo, Colegio de San Ildefonso, and the Colegio de San Francisco Javier, Tepozotlan. Those same elite families hoped that a son with a vocation to the priesthood would be accepted as a Jesuit. Jesuits were also zealous in evangelization of the indigenous, particularly on the northern frontiers.
To support their colegios and members of the Society of Jesus, the Jesuits acquired landed estates that were run with the best - practices for generating income in that era. A number of these haciendas were donated by wealthy elites. The donation of a hacienda to the Jesuits was the spark igniting a conflict between seventeenth - century bishop of Puebla Don Juan de Palafox and the Jesuit colegio in that city. Since the Jesuits resisted paying the tithe on their estates, this donation effectively took revenue out of the church hierarchy 's pockets by removing it from the tithe rolls.
Many of Jesuit haciendas were huge, with Palafox asserting that just two colleges owned 300,000 head of sheep, whose wool was transformed locally in Puebla to cloth; six sugar plantations worth a million pesos and generating an income of 100,000 pesos. The immense Jesuit hacienda of Santa Lucía produced pulque, the fermented juice of the agave cactus whose main consumers were the lower classes and Indians in Spanish cities. Although most haciendas had a free work force of permanent or seasonal labourers, the Jesuit haciendas in Mexico had a significant number of black slaves.
The Jesuits operated their properties as an integrated unit with the larger Jesuit order; thus revenues from haciendas funded their colegios. Jesuits did significantly expand missions to the indigenous in the northern frontier area and a number were martyred, but the crown supported those missions. Mendicant orders that had real estate were less economically integrated, so that some individual houses were wealthy while others struggled economically. The Franciscans, who were founded as an order embracing poverty, did not accumulate real estate, unlike the Augustinians and Dominicans in Mexico.
The Jesuits engaged in conflict with the episcopal hierarchy over the question of payment of tithes, the ten percent tax on agriculture levied on landed estates for support of the church hierarchy from bishops and cathedral chapters to parish priests. Since the Jesuits were the largest religious order holding real estate, surpassing the Dominicans and Augustinians who had accumulated significant property, this was no small matter. They argued that they were exempt, due to special pontifical privileges. In the mid-seventeenth century, bishop of Puebla, Don Juan de Palafox took on the Jesuits over this matter and was so soundly defeated that he was recalled to Spain, where he became the bishop of the minor diocese of Osma.
As elsewhere in the Spanish empire, the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1767. Their haciendas were sold off and their colegios and missions in Baja California were taken over by other orders. Exiled Mexican - born Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero wrote an important history of Mexico while in Italy, a basis for creole patriotism. Andrés Cavo also wrote an important text on Mexican history that Carlos María de Bustamante published in the early nineteenth - century. An earlier Jesuit who wrote about the history of Mexico was Diego Luis de Motezuma (1619 -- 99), a descendant of the Aztec monarchs of Tenochtitlan. Motezuma 's Corona mexicana, o Historia de los nueve Motezumas was completed in 1696. He "aimed to show that Mexican emperors were a legitimate dynasty in the 17th - century in the European sense. ''
The Jesuits were allowed to return to Mexico in 1840 when General Antonio López de Santa Anna was once more president of Mexico. Their re-introduction to Mexico was "to assist in the education of the poorer classes and much of their property was restored to them. ''
The Jesuits arrived in the Viceroyalty of Peru by 1571; it was a key area of Spanish empire, with not only dense indigenous populations but also huge deposits of silver at Potosí. A major figure in the first wave of Jesuits was José de Acosta (1540 -- 1600), whose book Historia natural y moral de las Indias (1590) introduced Europeans to Spain 's American empire via fluid prose and keen observation and explanation, based on fifteen years in Peru and a bit of time in New Spain (Mexico). Viceroy of Peru Don Francisco de Toledo urged the Jesuits to evangelize the indigenous peoples of Peru, wanting to put them in charge of parishes, but Acosta adhered to the Jesuit position that they were not subject to the jurisdiction of bishops and to catechize in Indian parishes would bring them into conflict with the bishops. For that reason, the Jesuits in Peru focused on education of elite men rather than the indigenous populations.
To minister to newly arrived African slaves, Alonso de Sandoval (fr) (1576 -- 1651) worked at the port of Cartagena de Indias. Sandoval wrote about this ministry in De instauranda Aethiopum salute (1627), describing how he and his assistant Pedro Claver, later canonized, met slave transport ships in the harbour, went below decks where 300 - 600 slaves were chained, and gave physical aid with water, while introducing the Africans to Christianity. In his treatise, he did not condemn slavery or the ill - treatment of slaves, but sought to instruct fellow Jesuits to this ministry and describe how he catechized the slaves.
Rafael Ferrer was the first Jesuit of Quito to explore and found missions in the upper Amazon regions of South America from 1602 to 1610, which belonged to the Audiencia (high court) of Quito that was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until it was transferred to the newly created Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. In 1602, Ferrer began to explore the Aguarico, Napo, and Marañon rivers (Sucumbios region, in what is today Ecuador and Peru), and between 1604 and 1605 set up missions among the Cofane natives. He was martyred by an apostate native in 1610.
In 1639, the Audiencia of Quito organized an expedition to renew its exploration of the Amazon river and the Quito Jesuit (Jesuita Quiteño) Cristóbal de Acuña was a part of this expedition. The expedition disembarked from the Napo river 16 February 1639 and arrived in what is today Pará Brazil on the banks of the Amazon river on 12 December 1639. In 1641, Acuña published in Madrid a memoir of his expedition to the Amazon river entitled Nuevo Descubrimiento del gran rio de las Amazonas, which for academics became a fundamental reference on the Amazon region.
In 1637, the Jesuits Gaspar Cugia and Lucas de la Cueva from Quito began establishing missions in Maynas territories, on the banks of the Marañón River, around the Pongo de Manseriche region, close to the Spanish settlement of Borja. Between 1637 and 1652 there were 14 missions established along the Marañón River and its southern tributaries, the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers. Jesuit Lucas de la Cueva and Raimundo de Santacruz opened up two new routes of communication with Quito, through the Pastaza and Napo rivers.
Between 1637 and 1715, Samuel Fritz founded 38 missions along the length of the Amazon river, between the Napo and Negro rivers, that were called the Omagua Missions. These missions were continually attacked by the Brazilian Bandeirantes beginning in the year 1705. In 1768, the only Omagua mission that was left was San Joaquin de Omaguas, since it had been moved to a new location on the Napo river away from the Bandeirantes.
In the immense territory of Maynas, the Jesuits of Quito made contact with a number of indigenous tribes which spoke 40 different languages, and founded a total of 173 Jesuit missions encompassing 150,000 inhabitants. Because of the constant epidemics (smallpox and measles) and warfare with other tribes and the Bandeirantes, the total number of Jesuit Missions were reduced to 40 by 1744. At the time when the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767, the Jesuits of Quito registered 36 missions run by 25 Jesuits of Quito in the Audiencia of Quito -- 6 in the Napo and Aguarico Missions and 19 in the Pastaza and Iquitos Missions, with the population at 20,000 inhabitants.
The first Jesuits arrived in 1588, and in 1610 Philip III proclaimed that only the "sword of the word '' should be used to subdue Paraguayan Indians, mostly Guarani. The church granted Jesuits extensive powers to phase out the encomienda system of forced labor, angering settlers dependent on a continuing supply of Indian labor and concubines. The first Jesuit mission in the Paraguay area (which encompassed the border regions of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil) was founded in 1609. By 1732, the Jesuits had gathered into 30 missions or reductions a total of 141,382 Guarani. Due to disease, European politics, and internal discord, the population in the missions declined afterwards. At their apogee, the Jesuits dreamed of a Jesuit empire that would stretch from the Paraguay - Paraná confluence to the coast and back to the Paraná headwaters.
In the early years the new Jesuit reductions were threatened by the slave - raiding bandeirantes. The bandeirantes captured Indians and sold them as slaves to planters in Brazil. Having depleted the Indian population near Sâo Paulo, they discovered the richly populated reductions. The Spanish authorities chose not to defend the settlements, and the Jesuits and their thousands of neophytes thus had little means to protect themselves. Thousands of Guarani were captured by the bandeirantes before, organized and armed by the Jesuits, a Guarani army defeated the slave raiders at the battle of Mbororé. Subsequently, the viceroy of Peru conceded the right of bearing arms to the Guarani. Thereafter, well - trained and highly motivated Indian units were able to defend themselves from slavers and other threats. The victory at Mbororé set the stage for the golden age of the Jesuits in Paraguay. Life in the reductions offered the Guaraní higher living standards, protection from settlers, and physical security. These reductions, which became quite wealthy, exported goods, and supplied Indian armies to the Spanish on many occasion.
The reductions, where the Jesuits created orchestras, musical ensembles, and actors ' troupes, and in which virtually all the profits derived from Indian labor were distributed to the labourers, earned praise from some of the leaders of the French enlightenment, who were not predisposed to favour Jesuits. "By means of religion, '' d'Alembert wrote, "the Jesuits established a monarchical authority in Paraguay, founded solely on their powers of persuasion and on their lenient methods of government. Masters of the country, they rendered happy the people under their sway; they succeeded in subduing them without ever having recourse to force. '' And Jesuit - educated Voltaire called the Jesuit government "a triumph of humanity. ''
Because of their success, the Paraguayan Jesuits gained many enemies, and the Reductions fell prey to changing times. During the 1720s and 1730s, Paraguayan settlers rebelled against Jesuit privileges in the Revolt of the Comuneros and against the government that protected them. Although this revolt failed, it was one of the earliest and most serious risings against Spanish authority in the New World and caused the crown to question its continued support for the Jesuits. The Jesuit - inspired War of the Seven Reductions (1750 -- 61) increased sentiment in Madrid for suppressing this "empire within an empire. ''
The Spanish king Charles III (1759 -- 88) expelled the Jesuits in 1767 from Spain and its territories. Within a few decades of the expulsion, most of what the Jesuits had accomplished was lost. The missions were mismanaged and abandoned by the Guaraní. Today, these ruins of a 160 - year experiment have become a tourist attraction.
Tomé de Sousa, first Governor General of Brazil, brought the first group of Jesuits to the colony. The Jesuits were officially supported by the King, who instructed Tomé de Sousa to give them all the support needed to Christianize the indigenous peoples.
The first Jesuits, guided by Manuel da Nóbrega, Juan de Azpilcueta Navarro, Leonardo Nunes, and later José de Anchieta, established the first Jesuit missions in Salvador and in São Paulo dos Campos de Piratininga, the settlement that gave rise to the city of São Paulo. Nóbrega and Anchieta were instrumental in the defeat of the French colonists of France Antarctique by managing to pacify the Tamoio natives, who had previously fought the Portuguese. The Jesuits took part in the foundation of the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1565.
The success of the Jesuits in converting the indigenous peoples is linked to their efforts to understand the native cultures, especially their languages. The first grammar of the Tupi language was compiled by José de Anchieta and printed in Coimbra in 1595. The Jesuits often gathered the aborigines in communities (the Jesuit Reductions) where the natives worked for the community and were evangelised.
The Jesuits had frequent disputes with other colonists who wanted to enslave the natives. The action of the Jesuits saved many natives from being enslaved by Europeans, but also disturbed their ancestral way of life and inadvertently helped spread infectious diseases against which the aborigines had no natural defenses. Slave labor and trade were essential for the economy of Brazil and other American colonies, and the Jesuits usually did not object to the enslavement of African peoples, but rather critiqued the conditions of slavery.
The Suppression of the Jesuits in Portugal, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire by 1767 was troubling to the society 's defender, Pope Clement XIII. On 21 July 1773 Pope Clement XIV issued the papal brief Dominus ac Redemptor, decreeing:
Having further considered that the said Company of Jesus can no longer produce those abundant fruits,... in the present case, we are determining upon the fate of a society classed among the mendicant orders, both by its institute and by its privileges; after a mature deliberation, we do, out of our certain knowledge, and the fulness of our apostolical power, suppress and abolish the said company: we deprive it of all activity whatever... And to this end a member of the regular clergy, recommendable for his prudence and sound morals, shall be chosen to preside over and govern the said houses; so that the name of the Company shall be, and is, for ever extinguished and suppressed.
The suppression was carried out in all countries except Prussia and Russia, where Catherine the Great had forbidden its promulgation. Because millions of Catholics (including many Jesuits) lived in the Polish provinces recently annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia, the society was able to maintain its existence and carry on its work all through the period of suppression. Subsequently, Pope Pius VI would grant formal permission for the continuation of the society in Russia and Poland, with Stanislaus Czerniewicz elected superior of the society in 1782. Pope Pius VII had resolved during his captivity in France to restore the Jesuits universally, and after his return to Rome he did so with little delay. On 7 August 1814, by the bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum, he reversed the suppression of the society, and therewith another Polish Jesuit, Thaddeus Brzozowski, who had been elected to Superior in Russia in 1805, acquired universal jurisdiction.
The period following the Restoration of the Jesuits in 1814 was marked by tremendous growth, as evidenced by the large number of Jesuit colleges and universities established in the 19th century. In the United States, 22 of the society 's 28 universities were founded or taken over by the Jesuits during this time. It has been suggested that the experience of suppression served to heighten orthodoxy among the Jesuits upon restoration. While this claim is debatable, Jesuits were generally supportive of papal authority within the church, and some members were associated with the Ultramontanist movement and the declaration of Papal Infallibility in 1870.
In Switzerland, following the defeat of the Sonderbund Catholic defense alliance, the constitution was modified and Jesuits were banished in 1848. The ban was lifted on 20 May 1973, when 54.9 % of voters accepted a referendum modifying the Constitution.
In the Constitution of Norway from 1814, a relic from the earlier anti-Catholic laws of Denmark - Norway, Paragraph 2 originally read: "The Evangelical - Lutheran religion remains the public religion of the State. Those inhabitants, who confess thereto, are bound to raise their children to the same. Jesuits and monastic orders are not permitted. Jews are still prohibited from entry to the Realm. '' Jews were first allowed into the Realm in 1851 after the famous Norwegian poet Henrik Wergeland had campaigned for it. Monastic orders were permitted in 1897, but the ban on Jesuits was only lifted in 1956.
Republican Spain in the 1930s passed laws banning the Jesuits on grounds that they were obedient to a power different from the state. Pope Pius XI wrote about this: "It was an expression of a soul deeply hostile to God and the Catholic religion, to have disbanded the Religious Orders that had taken a vow of obedience to an authority different from the legitimate authority of the State. In this way it was sought to do away with the Society of Jesus -- which can well glory in being one of the soundest auxiliaries of the Chair of Saint Peter -- with the hope, perhaps, of then being able with less difficulty to overthrow in the near future, the Christian faith and morale in the heart of the Spanish nation, which gave to the Church of God the grand and glorious figure of Ignatius Loyola. ''
The 20th century witnessed both growth and decline. Following a trend within the Catholic priesthood at large, Jesuit numbers peaked in the 1950s and have declined steadily since. Meanwhile, the number of Jesuit institutions has grown considerably, due in large part to a post -- Vatican II focus on the establishment of Jesuit secondary schools in inner - city areas and an increase in voluntary lay groups inspired in part by the Spiritual Exercises. Among the notable Jesuits of the 20th century, John Courtney Murray was called one of the "architects of the Second Vatican Council '' and drafted what eventually became the Council 's endorsement of religious freedom, Dignitatis Humanae Personae.
In Latin America, the Jesuits had significant influence in the development of liberation theology, a movement that was controversial in the Catholic community after the negative assessment of it by Pope John Paul II in 1984.
Under Superior General Pedro Arrupe, social justice and the preferential option for the poor emerged as dominant themes of the work of the Jesuits. When Arrupe was paralyzed by a stroke in 1981, Pope John Paul II, not entirely pleased with the progressive turn of the Jesuits, took the unusual step of appointing the venerable and aged Paolo Dezza for an interim to oversee "the authentic renewal of the Church '', instead of the progressive American priest Vincent O'Keefe whom Arrupe had preferred. In 1983 John Paul gave leave for the Jesuits to appoint a successor to Arrupe.
On 16 November 1989, six Jesuit priests (Ignacio Ellacuria, Segundo Montes, Ignacio Martin - Baro, Joaquin López y López, Juan Ramon Moreno, and Amado López), Elba Ramos their housekeeper, and Celia Marisela Ramos her daughter, were murdered by the Salvadoran military on the campus of the University of Central America in San Salvador, El Salvador, because they had been labeled as subversives by the government. The assassinations galvanized the society 's peace and justice movements, including annual protests at the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation at Fort Benning, Georgia, United States, where several of the assassins had been trained under US government sponsorship.
On 21 February 2001, the Jesus priest Avery Dulles, an internationally known author, lecturer, and theologian, was created a Cardinal of the Catholic Church by Pope John Paul II. The son of former Secretary of State John Foster Dulles, Avery Dulles was long known for his carefully reasoned argumentation and fidelity to the teaching office of the church. An author of 22 books and over 700 theological articles, Dulles died on 12 December 2008 at Fordham University, where he taught for twenty years as the Laurence J. McGinley Professor of Religion and Society. He was, at his passing, one of ten Jesuit cardinals in the Catholic Church.
In 2002, Boston College president and Jesuit priest William P. Leahy initiated the Church in the 21st Century program as a means of moving the church "from crisis to renewal ''. The initiative has provided the society with a platform for examining issues brought about by the worldwide Catholic sex abuse cases, including the priesthood, celibacy, sexuality, women 's roles, and the role of the laity.
In April 2005, Thomas J. Reese, editor of the American Jesuit weekly magazine America, resigned at the request of the society. The move was widely published in the media as the result of pressure from the Vatican, following years of criticism by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on articles touching subjects such as HIV / AIDS, religious pluralism, homosexuality, and the right of life for the unborn. Following his resignation, Reese spent a year - long sabbatical at Santa Clara University before being named a fellow at the Woodstock Theological Center in Washington, D.C., and later Senior Analyst for the National Catholic Reporter '. President Barack Obama appointed him to the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom in 2014 and again in 2016.
On 2 February 2006, Peter Hans Kolvenbach informed members of the Society of Jesus that, with the consent of Pope Benedict XVI, he intended to step down as Superior General in 2008, the year he would turn 80.
On 22 April 2006, Feast of Our Lady, Mother of the Society of Jesus, Pope Benedict XVI greeted thousands of Jesuits on pilgrimage to Rome, and took the opportunity to thank God "for having granted to your Company the gift of men of extraordinary sanctity and of exceptional apostolic zeal such as St Ignatius of Loyola, St Francis Xavier, and Bl Peter Faber. '' He said "St Ignatius of Loyola was above all a man of God, who gave the first place of his life to God, to his greater glory and his greater service. He was a man of profound prayer, which found its center and its culmination in the daily Eucharistic Celebration. ''
In May 2006, Benedict XVI also wrote a letter to Superior General Peter Hans Kolvenbach on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Pope Pius XII 's encyclical Haurietis aquas, on devotion to the Sacred Heart, because the Jesuits have always been "extremely active in the promotion of this essential devotion. '' In his 3 November 2006 visit to the Pontifical Gregorian University, Benedict XVI cited the university as "one of the greatest services that the Society of Jesus carries out for the universal Church ''.
The 35th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus convened on 5 January 2008, and elected Adolfo Nicolás as the new Superior General on 19 January 2008. In a letter to the Fathers of the Congregation, Benedict XVI wrote:
As my Predecessors have said to you on various occasions, the Church needs you, relies on you and continues to turn to you with trust, particularly to reach those physical and spiritual places which others do not reach or have difficulty in reaching. Paul VI 's words remain engraved on your hearts: "Wherever in the Church, even in the most difficult and extreme fields, at the crossroads of ideologies, in the social trenches, there has been and there is confrontation between the burning exigencies of man and the perennial message of the Gospel, here also there have been, and there are, Jesuits '' (Address to the 32nd General Congregation of the Jesuits, 3 December 1974; ORE, 12 December, n. 2, p. 4.)
In 2013, Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio became Pope Francis. Before he became Pope, he was appointed bishop when he was in "virtual estrangement from the Jesuits '' since he was "seen as an enemy of liberation theology... and viewed by others as still far too orthodox '', trying to protect Jesuits but not approving of their participation in violent groups. Once elected, there was an immediate reconciliation, and Pope Francis has been bringing the Jesuit simplicity, love for the poor, and service of the flock into the papacy.
On 2 October 2016, General Congregation 36 convened in Rome, convoked by Superior General Adolfo Nicolás, who had announced his intention to resign at age 80. On October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Arturo Sosa, a Venezuelan, as its thirty - first Superior General.
The spirituality practiced by the Jesuits, called Ignatian spirituality, ultimately based on the Catholic faith and the gospels, is drawn from the Constitutions, The Letters, and Autobiography, and most specially from St. Ignatius ' Spiritual Exercises, whose purpose is "to conquer oneself and to regulate one 's life in such a way that no decision is made under the influence of any inordinate attachment. '' The Exercises culminate in a contemplation whereby one develops a facility to "find God in all things. ''
The formation (training) of Jesuits seeks to prepare men spiritually, academically, and practically for the ministries they will be called to offer the church and world. Saint Ignatius was strongly influenced by the Renaissance, and he wanted Jesuits to be able to offer whatever ministries were most needed at any given moment and, especially, to be ready to respond to missions (assignments) from the pope. Formation for priesthood normally takes between eight and fourteen years, depending on the man 's background and previous education, and final vows are taken several years after that, making Jesuit formation among the longest of any of the religious orders.
The society is headed by a Superior General with the formal title Praepositus Generalis, Latin for "provost - general '', more commonly called Father General or General. He is elected by the General Congregation for life or until he resigns; he is confirmed by the Pope and has absolute authority in running the society. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is the Venezuelan Arturo Sosa who was elected on 14 October 2016.
The Father General is assisted by "assistants '', four of whom are "assistants for provident care '' and serve as general advisors and a sort of inner council, and several other regional assistants, each of whom heads an "assistancy '', which is either a geographic area (for instance the North American Assistancy) or an area of ministry (for instance higher education). The assistants normally reside with Father General in Rome and along with others form an advisory council to the General. A vicar general and secretary of the society run day - to - day administration. The General is also required to have an admonitor, a confidential advisor whose task is to warn the General honestly and confidentially when he might be acting imprudently or contrary to the church 's magisterium. The central staff of the General is known as the Curia.
The society is divided into geographic provinces, each of which is headed by a Provincial Superior, generally called Father Provincial, chosen by the General. He has authority over all Jesuits and ministries in his area, and is assisted by a socius who acts as a sort of secretary and chief of staff. With the approval of the General, the provincial appoints a novice master and a master of tertians to oversee formation, and rectors of local communities of Jesuits. For better cooperation and apostolic efficacy in each continent, the Jesuit provinces are grouped into six Jesuit Conferences worldwide.
Each Jesuit community within a province is normally headed by a rector who is assisted by a "minister '', from the Latin for "servant '', a priest who helps oversee the community 's day - to - day needs.
The General Congregation is a meeting of all of the assistants, provincials, and additional representatives who are elected by the professed Jesuits of each province. It meets irregularly and rarely, normally to elect a new superior general and / or to take up some major policy issues for the Order. The General meets more regularly with smaller councils composed of just the provincials.
Jesuits do not have an official habit. The society 's Constitutions gives the following instructions: "The clothing too should have three characteristics: first, it should be proper; second, conformed to the usage of the country of residence; and third, not contradictory to the poverty we profess. '' (Const. 577)
Historically, a "Jesuit - style cassock '' became "standard issue '': it was wrapped around the body and was tied with a cincture, rather than the customary buttoned front. A tuftless biretta (only diocesan clergy wore tufts) and a ferraiolo (cape) completed the look. As such, though it was the common priestly dress of Ignatius ' day, Jesuit garb appeared distinctive, and became identifiable over time. During the missionary periods of North America, the various native peoples referred to Jesuits as "Blackrobes '' because of their black cassocks.
Today, most Jesuits in the United States wear the clerical collar and black clothing of ordinary priests, although some still wear the black cassock. Jesuits in tropical countries may use a white cassock when ministering outdoors.
The Monita Secreta (Secret Instructions of the Jesuits), published in 1612 and in 1614 in Kraków, is alleged to have been written by Claudio Acquaviva, the fifth general of the society, but was probably written by former Jesuit Jerome Zahorowski. It purports to describe the methods to be adopted by Jesuits for the acquisition of greater power and influence for the society and for the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Encyclopedia states the book is a forgery, fabricated to ascribe a sinister reputation to the Society of Jesus.
The Jesuits were temporarily banished from France in 1594 after a man named Jean Châtel tried to assassinate the king of France, Henri IV. Under questioning, Châtel revealed that he had been educated by the Jesuits of the Collège de Clermont. The Jesuits were accused of inspiring Châtel 's attack. Two of his former teachers were exiled and a third was hanged. The Collège de Clermont was closed, and the building was confiscated. The Jesuits were banned from France, although this ban was quickly lifted.
In England, Henry Garnet, one of the leading English Jesuits, was hanged for misprision of treason because of his knowledge of the Gunpowder Plot (1605). The Plot was the attempted assassination of King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in a single attack, by exploding the Houses of Parliament. Another Jesuit, Oswald Tesimond, managed to escape arrest for his involvement in this plot.
Jesuits have been accused of using casuistry to obtain justifications for unjustifiable actions (cf. formulary controversy and Lettres Provinciales, by Blaise Pascal). Hence, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of the English language lists "equivocating '' as a secondary denotation of the word "Jesuit ''. Modern critics of the Society of Jesus include Avro Manhattan, Alberto Rivera, and Malachi Martin, the latter being the author of The Jesuits: The Society of Jesus and the Betrayal of the Roman Catholic Church (1987).
Although in the first 30 years of the existence of the Society of Jesus there were many Jesuits who were conversos (Catholic - convert Jews), an anti-converso faction led to the Decree de genere (1593) which proclaimed that either Jewish or Muslim ancestry, no matter how distant, was an insurmountable impediment for admission to the Society of Jesus. This new rule was contrary to the original wishes of Ignatius who "said that he would take it as a special grace from our Lord to come from Jewish lineage. '' The 16th - century Decree de genere remained in exclusive force until it was repealed in 1946.
Within the Roman Catholic Church, there has existed a sometimes tense relationship between Jesuits and the Holy See due to questioning of official church teaching and papal directives, such as those on abortion, birth control, women deacons, homosexuality, and liberation theology. Usually, this theological free thinking is academically oriented, being prevalent at the university level. From this standpoint, the function of this debate is less to challenge the magisterium than to publicize the results of historical research or to illustrate the church 's ability to compromise in a pluralist society based on shared values that do not always align with religious teachings. This has not prevented Popes from appointing Jesuits to powerful positions in the church. John Paul II and Benedict XVI together appointed ten Jesuit Cardinals to notable jobs. Under Benedict, Archbishop Luis Ladaria Ferrer was Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and Federico Lombardi was Vatican Press Secretary.
The Society of Jesus has been implicated in the Catholic Church sexual abuse cases, please see Sexual abuse scandal in the Society of Jesus for more information.
The Catholic Church faced persecution in Nazi Germany. Hitler was anticlerical and had particular disdain for the Jesuits. According to John Pollard, the Jesuit 's "ethos represented the most intransigent opposition to the philosophy of Nazism '', and so the Nazis considered them as one of their most dangerous enemies. A Jesuit college in the city of Innsbruck served as a center for anti-Nazi resistance and was closed down by the Nazis in 1938. Jesuits were a target for Gestapo persecution, and many Jesuit priests were deported to concentration camps. Jesuits made up the largest contingent of clergy imprisoned in the Priest Barracks of Dachau Concentration Camp. Lapomarda lists some 30 Jesuits as having died at Dachau. Of the total of 152 Jesuits murdered by the Nazis across Europe, 43 died in the concentration camps and an additional 27 died from captivity or its results.
The Superior General of Jesuits at the outbreak of war was Wlodzimierz Ledochowski, a Pole. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was particularly severe. Vincent Lapomarda wrote that Ledochowski helped "stiffen the general attitude of the Jesuits against the Nazis '' and that he permitted Vatican Radio to carry on its campaign against the Nazis in Poland. Vatican Radio was run by the Jesuit Filippo Soccorsi and spoke out against Nazi oppression, particularly with regard to Poland and to Vichy - French anti-Semitism.
Several Jesuits were prominent in the small German Resistance. Among the central membership of the Kreisau Circle of the Resistance were the Jesuit priests Augustin Rösch, Alfred Delp, and Lothar König. The Bavarian Jesuit Provincial, Augustin Rosch, ended the war on death row for his role in the July Plot to overthrow Hitler. Another non-military German Resistance group, dubbed the "Frau Solf Tea Party '' by the Gestapo, included the Jesuit priest Friedrich Erxleben. The German Jesuit Robert Leiber acted as intermediary between Pius XII and the German Resistance.
Among the Jesuit victims of the Nazis, Germany 's Rupert Mayer has been beatified. Mayer was a Bavarian Jesuit who clashed with the Nazis as early as 1923. Continuing his critique following Hitler 's rise to power, Mayer was imprisoned in 1939 and sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. As his health declined, the Nazis feared the creation of a martyr and sent him to the Abbey of Ettal in 1940. There he continued to give sermons and lectures against the evils of the Nazi régime, until his death in 1945.
In his history of the heroes of the Holocaust, the Jewish historian Martin Gilbert notes that in every country under German occupation, priests played a major part in rescuing Jews, and that the Jesuits were one of the Catholic Orders that hid Jewish children in monasteries and schools to protect them from the Nazis. Fourteen Jesuit priests have been formally recognized by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs ' and Heroes ' Remembrance Authority in Jerusalem, for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust of World War II: Roger Braun (1910 -- 1981) of France; Pierre Chaillet (1900 -- 1972) of France; Jean - Baptist De Coster (1896 -- 1968) of Belgium; Jean Fleury (1905 -- 1982) of France; Emile Gessler (1891 -- 1958) of Belgium; Jean - Baptiste Janssens (1889 -- 1964) of Belgium; Alphonse Lambrette (1884 -- 1970) of Belgium; Emile Planckaert (1906 -- 2006) of France; Jacob Raile (1894 -- 1949) of Hungary; Henri Revol (1904 -- 1992) of France; Adam Sztark (1907 -- 1942) of Poland; Henri Van Oostayen (1906 -- 1945) of Belgium; Ioannes Marangas (1901 -- 1989) of Greece; and Raffaele de Chantuz Cubbe (1904 -- 1983) of Italy. For more information on them see 100 Heroic Jesuits of the Second World War (2015) by Vincent A. Lapomarda.
Several other Jesuits are known to have rescued or given refuge to Jews during that period. A plaque commemorating the 152 Jesuit priests who gave of their lives during the Holocaust was installed in April 2007 at the Jesuits ' Rockhurst University in Kansas City, Missouri, United States.
The Jesuits have made numerous significant contributions to the development of science. For example, the Jesuits have dedicated significant study to earthquakes, and seismology has been described as "the Jesuit science ''. The Jesuits have been described as "the single most important contributor to experimental physics in the seventeenth century. '' According to Jonathan Wright in his book God 's Soldiers, by the eighteenth century the Jesuits had "contributed to the development of pendulum clocks, pantographs, barometers, reflecting telescopes and microscopes -- to scientific fields as various as magnetism, optics and electricity. They observed, in some cases before anyone else, the colored bands on Jupiter 's surface, the Andromeda nebula, and Saturn 's rings. They theorized about the circulation of the blood (independently of Harvey), the theoretical possibility of flight, the way the moon affected the tides, and the wave - like nature of light. ''
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar - making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography. '' The Society of Jesus introduced, according to Thomas Woods, "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible. '' Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China.
Notable Jesuits include missionaries, educators, scientists, artists, philosophers, and Pope Francis. Among many distinguished early Jesuits was St. Francis Xavier, a missionary to Asia who converted more people to Catholicism than anyone before, and St. Robert Bellarmine, a doctor of the Church. José de Anchieta and Manuel da Nóbrega, founders of the city of São Paulo, Brazil, were Jesuit priests. Another famous Jesuit was St. Jean de Brebeuf, a French missionary who was martyred during the 17th century in what was once New France (now Ontario) in Canada.
In Spanish America, José de Acosta wrote a major work on early Peru and New Spain with important material on indigenous peoples. In South America, Saint Peter Claver was notable for his mission to African slaves, building on the work of Alonso de Sandoval (fr). Francisco Javier Clavijero was expelled from New Spain during the Suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 and wrote an important history of Mexico during his exile in Italy. Eusebio Kino is renowned in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico (an area then called the Pimeria Alta). He founded numerous missions and served as the peace - bringer between the tribes and the government of New Spain. Antonio Ruiz de Montoya was an important missionary in the Jesuit reduction s of Paraguay.
Baltasar Gracián was a 17th - century Spanish Jesuit and baroque prose writer and philosopher. He was born in Belmonte, near Calatayud (Aragon). His writings, particularly El Criticón (1651 - 7) and Oráculo Manual y Arte de Prudencia ("The Art of Prudence '', 1647) were lauded by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche.
In Scotland, John Ogilvie (saint), a Jesuit, is the nation 's only native saint.
There are notable Jesuits in the modern era, the most prominent being Pope Francis. Cardinal Jorge Bergoglio of Argentina was elected Pope Francis on 13 March 2013 and is the first Jesuit to be elected pope.
Gerard Manley Hopkins was one of the first English poets to use sprung verse. Anthony de Mello was a Jesuit priest and psychotherapist who became widely known for his books which introduced Westerners to the East Indian traditions of spirituality.
The Feast of All Jesuit Saints and Blesseds is celebrated on November 5.
Although the work of the Jesuits today embraces a wide variety of apostolates, ministries, and civil occupations, they are probably most well known for their educational work. Since the inception of the order, Jesuits have been teachers. Besides serving on the faculty of Catholic and secular schools, the Jesuits are the Catholic religious order with the second highest number of schools which they run: 168 tertiary institutions in 40 countries and 324 secondary schools in 55 countries. (The Brothers of the Christian Schools have over 560 Lasallian educational institutions.) They also run elementary schools at which they are less likely to teach. Many of the schools are named after St. Francis Xavier and other prominent Jesuits.
Jesuit educational institutions aim to promote the values of Eloquentia Perfecta. This is a Jesuit tradition that focuses on cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good.
Since the Second Vatican Council and their own General Congregations which followed it, Jesuits have become increasingly involved in works directed primarily toward social and economic development for the poor and marginalized. Included in this would be research, training, advocacy, and action for human development, as well as direct services. Most Jesuit schools have an office that fosters social awareness and social service in the classroom and through extracurricular programs, usually detailed on their websites. The Jesuits also run over 500 notable or stand - alone social or economic development centres in 56 countries around the world.
Since the Second Vatican Council, Jesuits have founded many schools with the special purpose of serving the poor or marginalized, as among the Dalits in India and the Cristo Rey Network in the United States.
Jesuits are also known for their involvement in publications. La Civiltà Cattolica, a periodical produced in Rome by the Jesuits, has often been used as a semi-official platform for popes and Vatican officials to float ideas for discussion or hint at future statements or positions. In the United States, America magazine has long had a prominent place in Catholic intellectual circles. Most Jesuit colleges and universities have their own presses which produce a variety of books, book series, textbooks, and academic publications. Ignatius Press, founded by a Jesuit, is an independent publisher of Catholic books, most of which are of the popular academic or lay - intellectual variety.
In Australia, the Jesuits produce a number of magazines, including Eureka Street, Madonna, Australian Catholics, and Province Express.
In Sweden the Catholic cultural magazine Signum, edited by the Newman Institute, covers a broad spectrum of issues concerning faith, culture, research, and society. The printed version of Signum is published eight times per year. In addition, there is an up - to - date website (www.signum.se) containing an article archive dating from 1975 to the present.
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when did led zeppelin play madison square garden | Led Zeppelin concerts - wikipedia
From September 1968 until the summer of 1980, English rock band Led Zeppelin were one of the world 's most popular live music attractions, performing hundreds of sold - out concerts around the world.
Throughout the late 1960s and 1970s, Led Zeppelin made numerous concert tours of the United States, the United Kingdom and Europe in particular. They performed over 600 concerts, initially playing small clubs and ballrooms and then, as their popularity increased, larger venues and arenas as well.
In the early years of their existence, Led Zeppelin made a concerted effort to establish themselves as a compelling live music act. As was recalled by bass player John Paul Jones:
(Led) Zeppelin was a live band and that 's how we got our reputation. The press hated us in the early days. Our only way of promotion was to play a lot of live shows, especially in the UK. It used to spread by word - of - mouth.
However, though the band made several early tours of the UK, the majority of Led Zeppelin 's live concerts were performed in the United States, which was settled on as the primary foundation for their fame and accomplishment. In 1969, for example, all but 33 of the band 's 139 shows were performed in the U.S., and between the years 1968 and 1971 they made no fewer than nine tours of North America. "It felt like a vacuum and we 'd arrived to fill it '', guitarist Jimmy Page once told journalist Cameron Crowe. "It was like a tornado, and it went rolling across the country. '' After touring almost incessantly during its early years, Led Zeppelin later limited its tour appearances to alternating years: 1973, 1975, 1977 and 1979.
From the early 1970s, the commercial and popular drawing power of Led Zeppelin was such that the band began to embark on major stadium tours which attracted vast crowds, more than they had previously performed to. During their 1973 tour of the United States, they played to 56,800 fans at Tampa Stadium, Florida, breaking the record set by The Beatles at Shea Stadium in 1965. Similar crowds were drawn on Led Zeppelin 's subsequent U.S. tours, and they continued to break attendance records (on April 30, 1977 they played to 76,229 fans at the Pontiac Silverdome, Michigan, a world record attendance for a solo indoor attraction). It is for these reasons that Led Zeppelin, as much as any other band or artist in this era, is credited for helping to establish what has come to be known as stadium rock. Many critics attribute the band 's rapid rise as much to their tremendous appeal as a live act as they do to the quality of their studio albums.
Led Zeppelin also performed at several music festivals over the years, including the Atlanta International and the Texas International Pop Festivals in 1969, the Bath Festival of Blues in 1969 and the next one in 1970, the "Days on the Green '' in Oakland, California in 1977, and the Knebworth Music Festival in 1979.
Led Zeppelin 's reputation as a compelling live act is often attributed to the tight understanding and musical chemistry achieved between all four group members, combined with a shared willingness to try new things on - stage, which resulted in dynamic, unpredictable performances. As is noted by Led Zeppelin archivists Dave Lewis and Simon Pallett:
Led Zeppelin live was an extraordinary animal. From the very beginning no two performances were alike. Such was the creative spark between the four that the basic structures of their songs were repeatedly reworked, extended and improvised on, making their studio counterparts almost unrecognisable.
Led Zeppelin have been described as the kind of group that actually rehearsed on stage, experimenting with the reaction of the audiences to new material and letting the pieces mature through the live experience. Several tracks from their albums were debuted on stage well before their official release on vinyl. Jimmy Page himself has said that most of the band 's songs were designed for live performance.
Every show we did was different. You never knew when you went onstage what you might do by the end of it... Once a song was recorded, and it went into the set, it began to mutate. The whole improvisational aspect, the riffs coming out of the ether... it was a magical vehicle collectively soaring into the stratosphere. And as more albums came out, the set got longer and longer.
In an interview he gave to Uncut magazine in 2005, Page elaborated:
The beauty of playing in the band was that when we went onstage we never actually knew what was going to go on within the framework of the songs. They were constantly changing. New parts would come out on the night. The spontaneity was on the level of ESP, which meant it was always exciting.
As described by Cameron Crowe, "(Led) Zeppelin live was a direct descendant from Elvis ' early shows. Raw, direct, a reminder of when rock was young. ''
With such shared enthusiasm for playing a diverse range of musical styles coupled with their emphasis on extended improvisation, Led Zeppelin 's concerts frequently extended for several hours. Recalled Jones:
Things got extended a lot to keep ourselves from going mad. Every tour we tried to cut it down, especially in the later years. We 'd say we 're only going to play an - hour - and - a-half. After a week, it would creep back up to two hours. By the end of the tour it 's three hours!
During the 1977 tour of the U.S., Peter Grant 's 11 - year - old son Warren was physically assaulted by promoter Bill Graham 's right - hand man Jim Matzorkis. As a result, from that time onwards, the band refused to allow family members to join them on tour. After their 1977 tour of the U.S. -- their last major tour -- the band chose to abandon much of the "mystical '' image that surrounded them up to that point. Instead members would wear ordinary street clothes during their concerts and the setlist was toned down by excluding long, elaborate solo numbers like Bonham 's "Moby Dick '' and Page 's trademark bowed guitar solo accompanied by a laser show.
Many of the band 's shows have been preserved as Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings, which continue to be prized by collectors and fans. In addition, footage of Led Zeppelin concerts has been released officially on the band 's 1973 concert film The Song Remains the Same, and on the Led Zeppelin DVD (2003). However, unlike other artists of the era such as The Who and The Rolling Stones, comparatively little official concert footage exists of Led Zeppelin. This is largely because of the successful efforts of manager Peter Grant to limit the exposure of the band to television appearances, in order to encourage fans who wanted to see the band to attend Led Zeppelin concerts. Of the few professionally shot concerts the band did, (excluding their July 1973 concert at Madison Square Garden on The Song Remains the Same) six are today available to fans through bootlegs. These concerts include the last two nights of their five - concert run at Earls Court Arena in London in May 1975, their show in Seattle 's Kingdome in 1977 and their two shows at Knebworth in August 1979. In addition to these, their Royal Albert Hall performance from January 1970 is available.
Since Led Zeppelin disbanded following the death of drummer John Bonham in 1980, the three surviving members of the band have reunited publicly on - stage on just a few occasions.
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when did the movie romeo and juliet come out | Romeo and Juliet (1968 film) - wikipedia
Romeo and Juliet is a 1968 British - Italian romance film based on the tragic play of the same name (1591 -- 1595) by William Shakespeare.
The film was directed and co-written by Franco Zeffirelli, and stars Leonard Whiting and Olivia Hussey. It won Academy Awards for Best Cinematography (Pasqualino De Santis) and Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati); it was also nominated for Best Director and Best Picture, making it the last Shakespearean film to be nominated for Best Picture to date. Sir Laurence Olivier spoke the film 's prologue and epilogue and reportedly dubbed the voice of the Italian actor playing Lord Montague, but was not credited in the film.
Being the most financially successful film adaptation of a Shakespeare play at the time of its release, it was popular among teenagers partly because it was the first film to use actors who were close to the age of the characters from the original play. Several critics also welcomed the film enthusiastically.
One summer morning in Verona, Italy, a longstanding feud between the Montague and the Capulet clans breaks out in a street brawl. The brawl is broken up by the Prince, who warns both families that any future violence between them will result in harsh consequences. That night, two teenagers of the two families -- Romeo and Juliet -- meet at a Capulet masked ball and become deeply infatuated. Later, Romeo stumbles into the secluded garden under Juliet 's bedroom balcony and the two exchange impassioned pledges. They are secretly married the next day by Romeo 's confessor and father figure, Friar Laurence, with the assistance of Juliet 's nursemaid.
That afternoon, Juliet 's first cousin Tybalt, enraged that Romeo had attended his family 's ball, insults him and challenges him to a brawl. Romeo sees Tybalt as family and he refuses to fight him, which leads Romeo 's best friend, Mercutio, to fight Tybalt instead. Despite Romeo 's efforts to stop the fight, Tybalt badly wounds Mercutio, who curses both the Montague and Capulet houses before dying. Enraged over his friend 's death, Romeo retaliates by fighting Tybalt and killing him. Romeo is subsequently punished by the Prince with banishment from Verona, with the threat of death if he ever returns. Romeo, however, sees his banishment as worse than the death penalty, as Verona is the only home he has known and he does not want to be separated from Juliet. Friar Laurence eventually convinces Romeo that he is very lucky and that he should be more thankful for what he has. Romeo then secretly spends his wedding night together with Juliet and the couple consummate their marriage before Romeo flees.
Juliet 's father and mother, unaware of their daughter 's secret marriage, have arranged for Juliet to marry wealthy Count Paris. Juliet pleads with her parents to postpone the marriage, but they refuse and threaten to disown her. Juliet seeks out Friar Laurence for help, hoping to escape her arranged marriage to Paris and remain faithful to Romeo. At Friar Laurence 's behest, she reconciles with her parents and agrees to their wishes. On the night before the wedding, Juliet consumes a potion prepared by Friar Laurence intended to make her appear dead for forty - two hours. Friar Laurence plans to inform Romeo of the hoax so that Romeo can meet Juliet after her burial and escape with her when she recovers from her swoon, so he sends Friar John to give Romeo a letter describing the plan. However, when Balthasar, Romeo 's servant, sees Juliet being buried under the impression that she is dead, he goes to tell Romeo and reaches him before Friar John. In despair, Romeo goes to Juliet 's tomb and kills himself by drinking poison. Soon afterwards, Juliet awakens and discovers her husband dead. Juliet refuses to leave Romeo and kills herself by piercing her abdomen with his dagger. Later, the two families attend their joint funeral and agree to end their feud.
Although it is often rumored that Franco Zeffirelli considered Paul McCartney of The Beatles for the role of Romeo, he does not mention it in his autobiography, and as McCartney was 25 at the time, it is unlikely to be true, especially since the director engaged in a worldwide search for unknown teenage actors to play the parts of the two lovers. Leonard Whiting was 17 at the time, and Olivia Hussey was 15, and Zeffirelli adapted the play in such a way as to play to their strengths and hide their weaknesses: for instance, long speeches were trimmed, and he emphasized reaction shots.
Laurence Olivier 's involvement in the production was by happenstance. He was in Rome to film The Shoes of the Fisherman and visited the studio where Romeo and Juliet was being shot. He asked Zeffirelli if there was anything he could do, and was given the Prologue to read, then ended up dubbing the voice of Lord Montague as well as other assorted roles.
Set in a 14th - century Renaissance Italy in varying locations:
The film earned $14.5 million in domestic rentals at the North American box office during 1969. It was re-released in 1973 and earned $1.7 million in rentals.
Film critic Roger Ebert has written: "I believe Franco Zeffirelli 's Romeo and Juliet is the most exciting film of Shakespeare ever made ''.
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a ' Fresh ' score of 97 % based on 34 reviews, with an average rating of 7.8 / 10; it is accompanied by the consensus: "The solid leads and arresting visuals make a case for Zeffirelli 's Romeo and Juliet as the definitive cinematic adaptation of the play. ''.
Academy Awards
Golden Globe Awards
BAFTA Awards
Other accolades for Romeo and Juliet included the David di Donatello and National Board of Review awards for Best Director for Zeffirelli, as well as appearing on the National Board of Review 's Top Ten Films list for 1968.
Two releases of the score of the film, composed by Nino Rota, have been made.
"Love Theme from Romeo and Juliet '' The film 's love theme was widely disseminated, notably in "Our Tune '', a segment of BBC disc jockey Simon Bates 's radio show. In addition, various versions of the theme have been recorded and released, including a highly successful one by Henry Mancini, whose instrumental rendition was a Number One success in the United States during June 1969.
There are two different sets of English lyrics to the song.
Notes
Further reading
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when was five nights at freddy's 1 made | Five Nights at Freddy 's - wikipedia
Five Nights at Freddy 's (often abbreviated to FNaF) is a media franchise based around an indie video game series created, designed, developed and published by Scott Cawthon for Microsoft Windows, iOS and Android.
The series is centered on the story of a fictional restaurant named Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza (a pastiche of restaurants like Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza Place). The first three games involve the player working as a nighttime security guard, in which they must utilize several tools, most notably checking security cameras, to survive against animatronic characters, which become mobile and homicidal after - hours. The fourth game, which uses different gameplay mechanics from its predecessors, takes place in the house of a child who must defend against nightmarish versions of the animatronics by closing doors and fleeing on foot. The fifth game takes place in a maintenance facility owned by a sister company of Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. In this game, the player character is a technician instead of a night guard, who must do different tasks as told by an AI voice heard in the game.
The series gained widespread popularity shortly after its release. Two novel adaptations, Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes and Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones, were released on December 17, 2015 and June 27, 2017, respectively. A guidebook based on the series, The Freddy Files, has also been released.
A horror attraction based on the series featured in the Adventuredome in Halloween of 2016. Additionally, the series appeared in the Guinness Book of Records: Gamer 's Edition, breaking the record for the largest number of sequels released in a year.
The idea for Five Nights at Freddy 's stems from the negative reception towards Scott Cawthon 's previous game, the family friendly Chipper & Sons Lumber Co., as players commented that the main character (a young beaver) looked like "a scary animatronic animal '', with reviewer Jim Sterling calling the game unintentionally "terrifying ''. Although initially discouraged by the poor reception to Chipper & Sons, Cawthon, who had previously mainly developed Christian - oriented games, eventually used it to inspire himself to make something intentionally scarier.
The first Five Nights at Freddy 's game was released via Desura on August 8, 2014. On August 20, 2014, after it was approved by the service 's crowdsourcing platform Greenlight, Five Nights at Freddy 's was also released via Steam. The games that followed were released on November 10, 2014; March 2, 2015; July 23, 2015; and October 7, 2016, respectively. A spin - off to the series, FNaF World was announced on a Steam post by Cawthon in September 2015, and was released in January 2017. Cawthon releases most pictorial teasers of his games to his website, "Scott Games '', and releases teaser trailers on his YouTube channel.
Cawthon uses Clickteam Fusion 2.5 to create the Five Nights at Freddy 's games and Autodesk 3ds Max to model and render the 3D graphics of the games. For the enhancement of FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, Cawthon hired professional voice actors. Cawthon has announced that all titles will be remade by third - party companies for release on consoles.
The main Five Nights at Freddy 's series consists of horror - themed video games, in which the player usually takes on the role of a night guard at a certain location canonically connected to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, a fictional children 's - oriented restaurant and game arcade similar to Chuck E. Cheese 's and ShowBiz Pizza. The restaurant uses life - size animatronic characters that sing and dance for children 's parties. These animatronics wander the restaurant at night, and the guard is instructed to keep watch on these, as the restaurants have had "incidents '' of previous guards being attacked and killed by these characters. To progress through the games, the player must guard themself from the animatronics by using various tools to their advantage. In most games, the player must remain stationary while attempting to defend themselves, excluding Sister Location. In the first game, the player can control the two security doors that connect the office to the adjacent hallways, and may close them to provide a barricade against any animatronics in the vicinity. Each night, the player has a limited power supply that depletes quicker when a tool is used; if the player exhausts the power supply, the doors permanently open for the rest of the night, allowing any animatronic to breach the office.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 provides different tools to work with. In the second game, protective doors are not present in the office, and the player must instead defend themselves with an empty Freddy Fazbear head, which fools most animatronics. The power usage is also removed, instead being replaced with a limited flashlight, which is used to ward off Foxy and brighten darker areas of the pizzeria. The game also introduces the music box, which must be kept wound to prevent an attack from a certain animatronic. 8 - bit minigames make their inauguration, in which the player can interact with randomly after death.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 replaces these tools with a monitor panel, where the player must keep certain systems from malfunctioning, so as not to hinder the player 's ability to successfully complete the night. These malfunctions can be triggered randomly, or by hallucinations of past iterations of the animatronics. The ability to seal vents is also added, and must be used to prevent the sole tangible animatronic from entering the office. The player can also use an audio - based function as a means of defense, in which triggers a childlike voice to play, luring the animatronic away from the player 's office. The 8 - bit minigames return, and are activated via completing certain side - tasks, such as clicking on a poster or inputting a code into the wall. If the player fully completes all minigames, they unlock a secret ending.
Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 is the first game to reintroduce removed tools, specifically the doors and flashlight, albeit with slightly altered mechanics. The doors can now only be closed when the player is next to them, and will re-open if the player moves away. However, if the player shuts the doors too early, the animatronics will jump scare the player when the door is opened. The flashlight can no - longer run out, but only alerts player to the presence of animatronics as opposed to warding them away, excluding the miniature Freddies that appear on the bed. If the player flashes the flashlight while an animatronic is in the doorway, the player will be jumpscared. There is one new mechanic, where the player must listen for breathing. This can determine whether to use the flashlight or close the door.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location once again keeps the doors, albeit for the secret ending. The flashlight returns, but now loses all functionality, now being stuck permanently on when in certain rooms, and permanently off in others. An elevated control pad is introduced in this game, with the ability to light up rooms and / or shock the animatronics. Other mechanics include another control pad inside the "breaker room '', controlling the power to the whole facility, and a flash beacon, which allows the player to see in the darkened "Funtime auditorium '' and avoid the sole animatronic in that room. This is also the only game where the player is able to move between rooms.
Each game requires the player to survive five nights, with each night increasing the difficulty. There is an unlockable sixth night present in all games (excluding Sister Location), with further additional nights varying between games: the first two games feature a customizable seventh night which allows the player to customize the AI level of each animatronic. A custom night DLC is also available for Sister Location. The third game does not feature any night after the sixth, while the fourth game includes a seventh and eighth night, neither of which are customizable. The fifth game is currently the only game with only five nights, if the custom night DLC is not included.
The spin - off game, FNaF World, has the player explore a light - hearted RPG world battling for experience points. The player unlocks different areas as they continue on their adventure. Eventually, after completing certain tasks, the player wins one of eight different endings, all of which will unlock a trophy on the title screen once completed. The game also received an update titled "Update 2 '' which introduced the animatronic characters in the FNAF4 Halloween Edition and some characters from Scott Cawthon 's older games. The update also introduced another boss character which the player must defeat as well as minigames to unlock the aforementioned new characters.
The ability to use a security camera system is found in all of the main games except the fourth, and is used to observe the positions of the animatronic characters through security cameras that are set throughout the location. However, only one location can be viewed at a time, and some areas are not visible on the aforementioned cameras. Most camera feeds are dull, sometimes close to black and white in color, and covered in static. In the third game, cameras become dysfunctional if the associated system fails. Security cameras are only used in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location as a mechanic in the "Fake Ending '' and custom night DLC, not in the main game.
The lights, and, by extension, the flashlight and flash beacon, are found in all main games, excluding the third. While use varies per game, lights are generally used to ward of animatronics, or warn the player of their presence. Lights in the first game and second games are activated via buttons mounted into the walls, and light up the player 's ' blind spot ', being the doorway or vent exit, respectively. The fifth game has the lights work similarly, however, they are now mounted onto a control pad, and serve no purpose other than the ability to see the animatronics, due to the different gameplay style. The flashlight in the second and fourth game works in the same fashion as its real life counterpart, in the sense that it has a limited battery life, albeit only in the second game, and must be toggled on and off. The flash beacon was introduced in Sister Location, and is used to quickly gather bearings in the pitch black room seen on the third and fifth nights.
Jumpscares are present in all of the series ' main games, and occur when any animatronic manages to reach and attack the player - character. Most jumpscares involve an animatronic character suddenly appearing in the player 's view, followed by a loud, bellowing sound. Some jumpscares, including those of Golden Freddy, Nightmare and Nightmarionne, consist of a single screen supplemented with shrill, distorted audio. These jumpscares usually crash or restart the game. The player can utilise the tools listed above to prevent attacks, thus preventing any jumpscares from occurring.
In all games from the second onwards, the player will gain access to a series of (predominantly 8 - bit) minigames, sometimes randomly after death, as in the second game, and sometimes once the player has completed a specific task. These minigames usually tell a story or event relevant to the game 's lore, although mostly presented in a cryptic way. For example, minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 are speculated to portray the homicidal incidents previously mentioned in the games. Minigames in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 tell the story of a character, possibly the player character, who dies in a tragic accident.
In all main games except for the fourth and fifth, the player receives a telephone voice message from a previous worker, or owner of the location. These "phone calls '' act as a tutorial to the player, and usually go through several gameplay mechanics, and outline the backstory of the players ' location. In the first and second game, the voice heard in the messages remains the same, while in the third game, it holds a strong Californian accent. Sister Location uses something similar, an A.I. voice which acts as a tutor for the player, although it is not from a telephone. Phone calls from the first game can be heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4, albeit only as an easter egg.
In the first three main games, the location in which the player character is based in closes down shortly after the end of the game. In the first Five Nights at Freddy 's, the location is said to close by the year 's end, due to a "tragedy that took place there many years ago ''. The location of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 closes down due to malfunctions of the animatronics. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's location closed down after it was unexpectedly burnt down. In Sister Location 's case, the location in which the game 's story is centered around, "Circus Baby 's Pizza World '', was closed down prior to the game, apparently due to gas leaks.
The main characters in the Five Nights at Freddy 's series are generally security guards working at a Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza or related location. None of them have distinct personalities and most of the gameplay takes place from their point of view. In Five Nights at Freddy 's, the guard 's name is Mike Schmidt. In Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, the guard is named Jeremy Fitzgerald for all of the main five nights and the bonus sixth night, though he is replaced in the custom seventh night by another guard, Fritz Smith. The security guard for Fazbear 's Fright: The Horror Attraction in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3, is unknown. The main character of Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 is an unnamed boy, who experiences nightmares of the animatronics. The player in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location is a technician who has their name jokingly autocorrected to Eggs Benedict. The technician 's name is assumed, although not confirmed to be, Mike.
Apart from Mike Schmidt, Jeremy Fitzgerald, Fritz Smith and Michael (a character whose voice is heard in Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location), none of the other human characters in the series have any real, or at least confirmed, names. In the first three games, a man simply identified as "Phone Guy '' leaves a recording over the phone at the beginning of each night which serves as advice to the player on how to deal with the animatronics. Phone Guy is present through all five nights of Five Nights at Freddy 's 2, four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's, and four of the main nights in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 (as well as in Night 6 for the second and third games.) He is not present in the fourth and fifth games, though his first night recording from the original game is sometimes played backwards as ambiance in Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. His call at the start of Night 4 in Five Nights at Freddy 's implies that he was killed by the animatronics. In the third game, he is heard over archival recordings discovered by the creators of Fazbear 's Fright. Sister Location instead features a human A.I. named "HandUnit '', who like Phone Guy, acts as a tutor to the player. The first two nights of the third game also feature "Phone Dude '', one of the creators of Fazbear 's Fright.
The main antagonist of the series is "Purple Guy '', who is presumably a former Fazbear Entertainment employee who murdered at least five children, whose spirits now inhabit the animatronics. In mini-games from the second game, he murders a child, whose spirit is largely believed to inhabit the Puppet. In the third game, it is revealed that he returned to Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza after it closed down to dismantle the animatronics. This released the spirits of the children he murdered, scaring him into hiding inside a spring lock suit, where he was crushed to death by the suit 's faulty internal workings. It is believed that his body resides in Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 's main antagonist, Springtrap. In the novel adaptation of the series, Purple Guy receives a possible identity, with the name William Afton. It was also revealed that he was the co-owner of Fazbear Entertainment. Scott Cawthon has stated that although "the book is canon, just as the games are (, t) hat does n't mean that they are intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. Most of the gaming community accepts it as Purple Guy 's true name and work. A certain "Mr. Afton '', mentioned in Sister Location 's prologue, is thought to be Purple Guy, creating the possibility of him being the creator of the animatronics seen in game.
A character named Michael was introduced in Sister Location, whose identity and motives are currently unknown. The character was introduced in a cutscene, in which he seems to be speaking to his father.
There are four main animatronics in the first game: Freddy Fazbear, Bonnie the Bunny (referred to as "Bonnie the Rabbit '' in copyright catalogs), Chica the Chicken, and Foxy the Pirate Fox. A fifth animatronic, Golden Freddy, occasionally appears, albeit it in the form of a hallucination. His jumpscare is capable of crashing the game. The animatronics return in various forms throughout the following games, except in the fifth installment, in which Chica is completely absent.
Despite being a prequel, the second game introduces upgraded versions of the original characters called Toy Freddy, Toy Bonnie, Toy Chica and Mangle, along with old, ripped and worn out versions of the original animatronics. Mangle is meant to be a "toy '' version of Foxy, but was ripped apart so much by children that the staff got tired of reassembling it and left it as a "take apart, put back together '' attraction, according to Phone Guy. He also mentions that the employees nicknamed it "the Mangle ''. Two new characters are also introduced: BB (known as Balloon Boy), who has no jumpscare and can only disable the players ' lights, and The Puppet (also known as The Marionette), who must be quelled by constantly winding up a music box.
The only true animatronic in the third game is Springtrap, who looks like a decayed golden version of Bonnie. Additionally, Freddy, Chica, Foxy, Balloon Boy, Mangle, and The Puppet return as hallucinations (or "phantoms ''), and although their jumpscares do n't kill the player, they can disable certain features that are essential for the player to complete the night easily.
In the fourth game, nightmare versions of the original four animatronics - Nightmare Bonnie, Nightmare Chica, Nightmare Foxy, and Nightmare Freddy -- appear, haunting a small boy. A nightmare version of Golden Freddy is also featured, identified as Nightmare Fredbear, who replaces all animatronics on the fifth night. Two new animatronics also make their debut: Plushtrap, a finger trap toy version of Springtrap, and Nightmare, a version of Nightmare Fredbear whose jumpscare causes the game to reset. The "Halloween Edition '' of the game also features Nightmare Balloon Boy (who replaces Plushtrap), Nightmare Mangle (who replaces Nightmare Foxy), and Nightmarionne, a nightmare version of the Puppet, who replaces Nightmare. Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica also receive reskins in the Halloween Edition, giving them a resemblance to Jack - O ' - Lanterns.
In the fifth game, Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, Funtime versions of Freddy and Foxy appear as well as multiple new characters: Circus Baby, who is the main animatronic and appears to be a female circus clown, Ballora, who appears to be a dancing female ballerina animatronic, Bonnet, a miniature rabbit animatronic, similar to Bon - Bon, Electrobab, an electrified BidyBab capable of draining power, a completely naked endoskeleton named Yenndo, Lolbit, an alternately coloured Funtime Foxy, and Ennard, who is a hive - mind animatronic and is made of the endoskeletons of other animatronics from the game. Three of these animatronics are accompanied with smaller companion animatronics: Funtime Freddy, who is accompanied by "Bon - Bon '', a hand - puppet version of Bonnie; Ballora, who is accompanied by Minireenas (small, ballet - dancer like animatronics); and Baby, who is accompanied by multiple baby - shaped animatronics called Bidybabs.
In the spin - off game, FNaF World, there are up to 30 characters the player can unlock, consisting of characters from the first four games, as well as Coffee from The Desolate Hope, Chipper from Chipper and Sons Lumber Co, Funtime Foxy from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, and Animdude, the character in Scott Cawthon 's logo. Lolbit (a character from Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location 's custom night) is also featured in its debut appearance, but is only an NPC, and thus is not playable. Enemies in FNaF World either resemble original characters in some way, for example "Ballboy '' to Balloon Boy, and "White Rabbit '' to Toy Bonnie, or are designed and named to match their home location, for example "Chop ' N Roll '' in the wood predominated forest, and "Chillax '' in the snowy fields.
After Scott Cawthon 's previous game (Chipper & Sons Lumber Co.) received bad reception for the unsettling appearance of the supposedly kid - friendly characters, Cawthon decided to use these ideas to create an intentionally scary game, Five Nights at Freddy 's.
The game involves a character, whose name is later revealed to be Mike Schmidt, who has started a job working as a night watch security guard at the restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza, where the animatronics move at night and will kill anyone they see by stuffing them in a spare animatronic suit. Apparently, this is due to their misinterpretation of the player character as a metal endoskeleton without their costume on. Animatronic movement is explained to the player as a purposely programmed "free - roaming '' mode, as to prevent animatronic servomotors from locking up. The player must survive from midnight to 6 AM.
The player is not able to leave the room, and must use a camera system and two doors with lights in order to defend themselves from the animatronics. The hostility of the animatronics appear to be the result of possession by the vengeful souls of children who were killed on the restaurant 's site. The player is guided by an unknown entity known as "Phone Guy '', who assists them in their defense from the animatronics. Mike is fired from his job after the seventh night, due to tampering with the animatronics, odor and general unprofessionalism.
Five Nights at Freddy 's was first released for Microsoft Windows on August 8, 2014, followed by ports for Android and iOS on August 27, 2014 and September 11, 2014, respectively. A version for the Windows Phone was also released, but was taken down soon after due to the down - scaled graphics of the port.
Shortly after the release of the first game, developer Cawthon began to confirm rumors of a sequel. Just one month after the original game 's release, Cawthon posted a teaser of the sequel on his webpage, and continued to post teasers until the game 's release. A teaser trailer was released on October 21, 2015, introducing various new animatronic characters and the absence of doors. Five Nights at Freddy 's 2 was first released for Microsoft Windows on November 10, 2014, earlier of its planned release of December 25, 2014. Ports for Android and iOS were released on November 13 and November 20 of the same year. A Windows Phone port was also released, but was taken down for the same reasons as the first game.
Set some time before the events of the first game, the main character, whose name is later revealed to be Jeremy Fitzgerald, has started working as a night watch security guard at the "new and improved '' Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The "upgraded '' versions of the animatronic characters, which have special facial recognition software to protect the children from potential harm, were not programmed with a proper night mode; when things go silent, their programming tells them that they are in the wrong room and they seek out the nearest source of noise to find people to entertain, which happens to be in the player 's office. The player must again listen to the instructions of a "phone guy '', and attempt to defend themselves from the animatronics using several mechanics. Like the previous game, the player must survive from midnight to 6 AM. Jeremy is apparently moved to day shift after Night 6 as the animatronics ' hostility becomes too dangerous, with the restaurant closing down soon after.
8 - bit minigames are made available randomly after death, which are thought to portray the restaurants ' past and the several murders that occurred on site. An entity portrayed as a purple sprite is also introduced, who is speculated to be the culpable murderer who murdered the children.
In January 2015, a new image was uploaded to Cawthon 's website, teasing a third entry in the series. Various teaser images followed, before a trailer was released on January 26, 2015. On February 15, 2015, Cawthon made a post on Steam stating that Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 had been cancelled after a hacker supposedly leaked the game. This was later discovered to be a joke, as the "leaked '' download link lead to a humorous clone of Scott 's previous game, There is No Pause Button!. Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 was legitimately released for Microsoft Windows on March 3, 2015, with Android and iOS ports following on March 7, 2015 and March 12, 2015.
Set thirty years after the events of the first game, the main character (who remains unnamed) works at "Fazbear 's Fright '', a horror attraction based off the long - gone Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. The player must defend themselves from a deteriorated animatronic - costume hybrid known as "Springtrap '', which was the sole animatronic the attraction workers were able to discover. Burnt and tattered hallucinations of previous games ' animatronics also appear, but can not directly kill the player, and instead hinder ventilation, sound and camera systems, which may also fail by other means. Failure to maintain these systems can create many issues for the player, including dysfunctional cameras, and the inability to play audio in order to lure away the animatronic. The player receives guidance from a founder of the horror attraction for the first couple of nights, but also listens to old tape recordings discovered by the attraction workers related to the backstory of previous locations.
The game has two endings, a good ending, and bad ending. The good ending can only be achieved by completing secret minigames, in which various animatronic characters bring a cake to what seems to be a sorrowful child 's soul. This ending is thought to imply that the souls of the murdered children have been set free, although connoted meanings are disputed.
Beginning April 27, 2015, Cawthon posted images on his website teasing at another game in the series, originally known as Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Final Chapter. A trailer was released on July 13, 2015, hinting that the game took place in the main character 's house. Five Nights at Freddy 's 4 was first announced with a release date of October 31, 2015, before being pushed forward to August 8, 2015, and again to July 23 of the same year, when the game was unexpectedly released on Microsoft Windows through Steam. Android and iOS ports were released on July 25, 2015 and August 3, 2015.
The player character is a young boy suffering from delusions of being attacked by nightmarish versions of the original animatronic characters. The player must defend themselves using only a flashlight, doors, and their sense of hearing, to attempt to locate the animatronics. The story of possibly the same young boy is told through minigames, in which he is shown to be bullied due to his irrational fear of a restaurant featuring a yellow animatronic bear and rabbit. He is guided by an animatronic plush toy, whom speaks to the character in times when he is alone. The child is eventually killed by the bear animatronic, "Fredbear '', in a freak accident.
The game received a Halloween - style DLC, in which features "nightmare '' versions of animatronics from the Five Nights at Freddy 's 2. The DLC also gives halloween - themed reskins to Nightmare Bonnie and Nightmare Chica.
In April 2016, Cawthon released a teaser image of an upcoming game on his website, entitled Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location, featuring a clown - like animatronic, revealed to be named "Circus Baby ''. Several teaser images followed, revealing different characters and hints at their origins. The trailer for the game was released on Cawthon 's official YouTube page featuring new animatronics and a new location. The release date was later confirmed to be October 7, 2016. Cawthon made a joke release of the game on October 5, apparently releasing a "mature '' edition of the game after the decision to delay the game to make it more "kid friendly ''. The download link led to a clone of Cawthon 's previous game, Sit ' N Survive. Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location was first released for Microsoft Windows on October 7, 2016, followed by ports for Android and iOS on December 22, 2016 and January 3, 2017, respectively.
The player character, seemingly named Mike, and jokingly referred to as "Eggs Benedict '', is a new employee of the underground Circus Baby 's Rentals and Entertainment, a sister company of Fazbear Entertainment featuring animatronics that are rented out to children 's birthday parties; they were originally intended for use in a pizzeria called Circus Baby 's Pizza World, but the pizzeria never officially opened due to gas leaks. ' Mike ' is guided by HandUnit, an AI character similar to the Phone ' Guy ' from previous games. HandUnit instructs him about his job, often telling the player to disregard safety, however, an animatronic called Circus Baby often gives instructions that directly contradict that of HandUnit 's, and are vital to survival.
The game also offers a "custom night '' DLC, in which the player is able to use mechanics reminiscing those of the first game (such as interactive doors and a camera system), which were absent from the main game. New minigames are also made available in this DLC, describing the fate of ' Mike ' after the events of Sister Location. A cutscene is also shown after the completion of the "Golden Freddy '' custom night preset, in which a character named "Michael '' speaks to his father in a foreboding manner.
On September 15, 2015, Cawthon announced a spin - off of his series, entitled FNAF World. Unlike the main series, the game is a RPG - based video game, using the various animatronic characters from the first four games. The game takes place in a fanciful world, where the characters must fight enemies and progress through the game by unlocking certain perks and items. Though originally planned for release on February 2, 2016, Cawthon rescheduled the release to January 22, 2016, but eventually launched yet another day earlier, on January 21, 2016, respectively.
Post-release, community and critics criticized the game for missing key features, being unstable and unfinished, which Cawthon later apologized for, stating, "I got too eager to show the things that were finished, that I neglected to pay attention to the things that were n't. '' The game was subsequently removed by Steam per Cawthon 's decision, and he stated that the game would be improved upon and re-released for no charge at a later date. Cawthon also announced that he asked Valve to refund everyone 's money who bought the game.
In February 2016, Cawthon released a free version of the game, which featured a 3D overworld and an updated character selection screen. In March 2016, Cawthon updated his website with a new teaser, which featured new characters, like the infamous "Purple Guy '' from the main series, and most of the characters from the Halloween update for Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. Cawthon also created minigames for the second update of the game, including Foxy Fighters, FOXY. exe, Chica 's Magic Rainbow and FNAF 57: Freddy In Space.
In June 2017, Cawthon hinted towards the development of a sixth main game in the series. On July 2, 2017, he reported his decision to cancel this game, stating that he had been "neglecting other things in (his) life for the sake of trying to keep up with (the) mounting expectations ''. Cawthon noted that he was not planning on abandoning the series, and may even return with a game of a different style, such as one similar to FNaF World. He also announced his plans to develop a virtual reality Five Nights at Freddy 's game in the future.
Ambient music for the first four Five Nights at Freddy 's games consisted mostly of stock music, altered by Cawthon according to the game 's needs. Notable music found in the games include the "Toreador Song '', which is played when the player runs out of power in the first game, and a music box rendition of "My Grandfather 's Clock '', played from The Puppet 's music box as it winds down in Five Nights at Freddy 's 2.
FNaF World and Five Nights at Freddy 's: Sister Location instead receive their own OST, composed by Leon Riskin specifically for the games. Music created for FNaF World varied from battle themes to general ambience for various locations, for example "Dungeon Theme '', for when the player is in the Mysterious Mine, and "Water Theme '', for when they are in Lilygear Lake. Music in Sister Location had a variety of uses: music such as "Turtle Crusher '' and "MVP '' are used for minigames, while ambiance such as "Crumbling Dreams '' play during the main game. A musical piece titled "Dramatic Soap Opera '' was created specifically for the between - night soap opera, The Immortal and The Restless. Additional numbers were added in the Custom Night DLC, notably "Watch Your 6 '', the main ambiance for Custom Night (although this music was also used for the main game 's alternate ending), and "Demolition Inevitable '', music played in the final cutscene of the game.
On June 20 2016, Scholastic announced that it would be collaborating with Scott Cawthon on a multi-book deal. A paperback edition of the first novel, Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes was to be released on October that year. The next two books were scheduled to be released on 2017 and 2018 respectively.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Silver Eyes is the first novel written by Scott Cawthon and Kira Breed - Wrisley, released earlier than planned on December 17, 2015 for the Amazon Kindle and with a printed paperback released on September 27, 2016. The story follows a group of childhood friends who meet in their hometown and discover unnerving secrets of the once - loved restaurant Freddy Fazbear 's Pizza. According to Cawthon, the novel "expands the mythos and reveals a human element never before seen in the games ''. However, he stated that, though the book is technically canon to the FNaF universe, the book and the game series may not be "intended to fit together like two puzzle pieces ''. The novel became a # 1 The New York Times best seller in Young Adult Paperbacks soon after its release.
Five Nights at Freddy 's: The Twisted Ones is the second novel written by Cawthon and Breed - Wrisley. The book had an early release in some bookstores, but was released publicly on June 27, 2017. The book involves Charlie, the main character from The Silver Eyes, who is inevitably "drawn back into the world of her father 's frightening creations '' after trying to move on.
The Freddy Files is the first official guidebook of the series, containing character profiles, outlining several in - game mechanics and expanding on fan theories sprouted from the games. The book was again released in some bookstores earlier than planned, but released publicly on August 29, 2017.
Warner Bros. Pictures announced in April 2015 that it had acquired the rights to adapt the series to film. Roy Lee, David Katzenberg and Seth Grahame - Smith were set to produce. Grahame - Smith stated that they would collaborate with Cawthon "to make an insane, terrifying and weirdly adorable movie ''. In July 2015, Gil Kenan signed to direct the adaptation and co-write it with Tyler Burton Smith.
In January 2017, Cawthon stated that partially due to "problems within the movie industry as a whole '', the film "was met with several delays and roadblocks '' and it was "back at square one '', but promised "to be involved with the movie from day one this time, and that 's something extremely important to me. I want this movie to be something that I 'm excited for the fanbase to see. ''
In March 2017, Cawthon tweeted a picture at Blumhouse Productions, suggesting the film had a new production company. In May 2017, producer Jason Blum confirmed the news, claiming he was excited and working closely with Cawthon on the adaptation. In June 2017, Kenan said he was no longer directing the film after Warner Bros. Pictures ' turnaround.
The first game has been praised by critics. Indie Game Magazine praised the first game 's artistic design, commenting that "it 's an incredibly terrifying experience to try to save yourself from the single jump scare that ends the game '' and that it was a "fantastic example of how cleverness in design and subtlety can be used to make an experience terrifying ''. PC Gamer, when reviewing the first game, commented on the fact that players will likely experience familiarity with the setting due to restaurants such as Chuck E. Cheese 's. They also noted that while "the AI is n't some masterwork of procedural unpredictability, it would (still) head straight to you and eat your face off, or it 'll play around like an innocent child before closing in for the kill. Your mind will fill in the rest. ''
The second game received mixed to positive reviews, with PC Gamer commenting that what he had hoped for in the sequel "was more mind games and more uncertainty. I wanted the plodding animatronic suits to find me and rip my face off in new and interesting ways. I wanted working legs '', and that "what I got was a horror game dipping heavily into deception and subtlety ''. However, he also noted that "enjoying the good parts, though, comes with a cost of a frustratingly steep difficulty ''. Destructoid also gave the game a positive review, saying that "It 's absolutely terrifying to know that you could be attacked at any moment from multiple avenues '' and also praised the introduction of new animatronics and mechanics, but also criticizing the jumpscares and called the game "too hard for its own good ''.
The third game has, however, proven to be slightly less popular among critics, though it received similar reception to the first two games. Critics from PC Gamer stated that although they enjoyed the new reworked camera system, the jumpscares from the animatronics "felt a little stale by the third night '', to the point of becoming a mere annoyance. Destructoid commented that while Five Nights at Freddy 's 3 is "by far the most technically proficient and mechanically satisfying installment yet '', he was disappointed that Fazbear 's Fright and Springtrap "(lacked) charm of the original cast and locations ''.
The fourth game received mixed reviews from critics. Destructoid criticized the fourth game for its excessively - loud jumpscares and the breathing mechanic being too difficult and confusing for players. Despite this, it was praised by one reviewer at GameZebo for its intense environment and creepy sounds and graphics, as well as its jumpscares. It was also given a mixed review by PC Gamer, who called it "another rivet in the series ' steel - clad design which immortalized its Let 's Play legacy in a few short months '' and "certainly the scariest of the four (games) '', but also criticized the gameplay, saying that "the humdrum repetition of the same sequence over and over... is too much of a chore to fully pull me in '', as well as criticizing the game 's lack of the series 's signature camera system.
The fifth game has also received mixed reviews. Destructoid called it "slightly above average '' and noted that "fans of the genre should enjoy this game, but a fair few will be left unfulfilled. '' GameCrate summarized that "Sister Location is a fantastic horror game, even if it does n't particularly feel like the rest of the FNaF series. ''
In 2016, a horror attraction based on the series was featured in the Adventuredome during the Halloween season.
From the first game 's release, the Five Nights at Freddy 's series has become increasingly popular among a large group of people, effectively creating a "fan base '' for the game. The series is discussed by fans on many platforms such as Reddit.
The Five Nights at Freddy 's games have proven popular to be played by video streamers to their audience, so as to capture the players ' jump scares and other frightened reactions, becoming a common game for Let 's Play videos. Popular video streamers such as PewDiePie, Markiplier, and Jacksepticeye helped the games to receive additional attention through their playthroughs. In May 2015, YouTube reported that playthroughs of the Five Nights at Freddy 's series were the eighth most - watched of all video game series on the service. Channels such as Game Theory do occasionally feature Five Nights at Freddy 's related videos, although they seldom provide gameplay footage, giving more attention to discussion of the game.
There are a number of fan made games based on the series, inspired by what is often described as the viable, yet intriguing game mechanics Five Nights at Freddy 's offers.
The Five Nights at Freddy 's fandom is often criticized, mostly due to negative generalization of the community. Scott Cawthon made a post on Steam regarding these claims, defending the fandom and criticizing the wider community for the unfair generalization.
In April 2015, fans mistook random numbers that were placed by Cawthon into the source code of the game 's official website to be coordinates that pointed to a location significant to the games. Fans entered these numbers into Google Maps and consequently discovered a pizzeria in Virginia. Mass phone calls were made to the pizzeria by fans, attempting to discover if the company had a connection to the upcoming installment, Five Nights at Freddy 's 4. It was later confirmed by Cawthon that this pizzeria had no connection with the Five Nights at Freddy 's series.
In June the next year, fans discovered a pizzeria and restaurant in Long Branch, New Jersey called Freddie 's, and again called the restaurant in mass numbers to determine affiliation to Five Nights at Freddy 's. The hundreds of phone calls received by the restaurant each day caused difficulty for legitimate customers to be able to place orders through the phone line. A pizzeria called Freddie 's Pizza & Pasta in Roseville, California also suffered from this. Cawthon has since asked fans to refrain from calling numbers that they believe are associated with the game, as seen in the footer of his webpage.
Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise is predominantly produces by two companies, Sanshee and Funko. Products created through these companies include stuffed toys, action figures, posters, clothing, keychains, and even stationery. McFarlane also has a line of Five Nights at Freddy 's merchandise, consisting mostly of construction sets. These merchandise items are available internationally, and have been a large factor for the franchise 's commercial success.
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who is the heroine of is pyaar ko kya naam doon | Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3 - Wikipedia
Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? 3 (English: What Name Shall I Give To This Love? 3) is an Indian Hindi romance drama finite television series that airs on Star Plus since 2017. The show stars Barun Sobti and Shivani Tomar in the lead roles of Advay and Chandni, and Ritu Shivpuri plays the central antagonist as Chandni 's mother Indrani. The story is set in Allahabad and Mumbai in the same world as another Star Plus show, Ishqbaaaz. The series is the third incarnation of the ' Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? franchise made by 4 Lions Films. The show is going off air on 6 October 2017 due to low rate TRP.
The show is the story of two childhood friends Dev and Chandni Yash Narayan Vashist, set in Allahabad. Dev 's father is the Mahant (chief priest of a temple) of a fictitious Shiv temple in Allahabad which is known for its hidden treasure. On the day of opening of the temple 's entrance door, an occasion which comes once every 16 years, Dev 's father is charged of changing the idol 's jewelry and Dev 's mother is accused of being a witch. Dev 's parents are killed by a mysterious person after which Chandni 's father the deputy Mahant (Second in command chief priest of a temple) becomes the Mahant. Dev is forced to run away with his younger brother Meeku. While travelling by train, Dev throws his brother out to save him from the mob.
16 years later, Dev has returned to Allahabad disguised as Advay Singh Raizada, a Maths Professor from a London university. Holding Chandni and her family responsible for what his family had to go through and his separation from his brother, he has returned to take revenge and destroy their lives. He buys the house the Vashishts are living in, also his childhood home, but lets them continue to stay while moving in with his staff, Murli and Shilpa. Chandini 's wedding has been fixed to a sleazy boy just because his family was going to pay off her stepmom 's huge debt. Advay saves her from the sleazeball every time, but also insults her and gets angry at her. Chandni is confused about his behaviour and why he hates her so much. He breaks up her wedding and later forcibly marries her by blackmailing her that he will reveal the truth of her child born out of wedlock, currently in an orphanage. Chandni agrees in order to save the respect of her mother and family but does n't tell Advay that the child is actually her sister 's. Advay anyways exposes this one day later in order to spoil the Vashist family 's reputation, throws them out of the house and uses it as a pretext to disown Chandni. But his Nani comes and asks Chandni to come with her to Mumbai where Advay stays with his Maasi, cousin Pooja and nephew Adi. Nani believes Chandni 's innocence and only her to be the one capable of removing the hatred filled in his heart to bring back Dev. She asks Chandni to be a faithful wife and never leave him no matter what happens.
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how did the first continental congress get its name | Continental Congress - wikipedia
The Continental Congress, also known as the Philadelphia Congress, was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies. It became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution.
The Congress met from 1774 to 1789 in three incarnations. The first call for a convention was made over issues of the blockade and the Intolerable Acts penalizing the Province of Massachusetts, which in 1774 enabled Benjamin Franklin to convince the colonies to form a representative body. The Congress met in Carpenters Hall, Philadelphia. Much of what we know today comes from the yearly log books printed by the Continental Congress called Resolutions, Acts and Orders of Congress, which gives a day to day description of debates and issues.
Although the delegates were divided early on as to whether to break from Crown rule, the second Continental Congress on July 2, 1776, passed a resolution asserting independence, with no opposing vote recorded. The Declaration of Independence was issued two days later declaring themselves a new nation: the United States of America. It established a Continental Army, giving command to one of its members, George Washington of Virginia. It waged war with Great Britain, made a militia treaty with France, and funded the war effort with loans and paper money.
The third Continental Congress was the Congress of the Confederation, under the Articles of Confederation.
The idea of a congress of British North American Colonies was first broached in 1754 at the start of the French and Indian war. It met in Albany, New York from June 18 to July 11, 1754, and was attended by seven colonies. Among the delegates was Benjamin Franklin, who proposed that the colonies join together in a confederation. While this idea was rejected by the Albany congress, it would be revived in the remaining colonies of British North America 113 years later to create Canada.
To present a united front in their opposition to the Stamp act, the Provinces of British North America again met in the Stamp Act Congress, which convened in New York City from 7 through 25 October 1765. It issued a Declaration of Rights and Grievances, which it sent to the British Parliament in London. While the act was repealed, the First Rockingham ministry rejected the Congress ' authority.
The First Continental Congress met briefly in Carpenter 's Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from September 5 to October 26, 1774. It consisted of fifty - six delegates from twelve of the thirteen colonies that were to become the United States of America. The delegates, who included George Washington (then a colonel of the Virginia Colony 's volunteers), Patrick Henry, and John Adams, were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts Bay Colony, and Joseph Galloway and John Dickinson from the Province of Pennsylvania. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was its president.
Benjamin Franklin had put forth the idea of such a meeting the year before, but he was unable to convince the colonies of its necessity until the 1773 British blockade at the port of Boston in response to the Boston Tea Party. All of the colonies sent delegates except the newest and most southerly one, the Province of Georgia -- which needed the British Army 's protection in order to contend with attacks from several Native American tribes. Most of the delegates were not yet ready to break away from Great Britain, but they wanted the King and Parliament to act in what they considered a fairer manner.
Convened in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by Parliament in 1774, the delegates organized an economic boycott of Great Britain in protest and petitioned the King for a redress of grievances. The colonies were united in their effort to demonstrate to the mother country their authority by virtue of their common causes and their unity; but their ultimate objectives were not consistent. The Pennsylvania and New York provinces had sent with their delegates firm instructions to pursue a resolution with Great Britain. While the other colonies all held the idea of colonial rights as paramount, they were split between those who sought legislative equality with Britain and those who instead favored independence and a break from the Crown and its excesses.
On October 26, 1774, the First Continental Congress adjourned; but it agreed to reconvene in May 1775, if Parliament still had not addressed their grievances.
In London, Parliament debated the merits of meeting the demands made by the colonies; however, it took no official notice of Congress 's petitions and addresses. On November 30, 1774, King George III opened Parliament with a speech condemning Massachusetts and the Suffolk Resolves. At that point it became clear that the Continental Congress would have to convene once again.
The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775, at Philadelphia 's State House, passing the resolution for independence the following year on July 2, 1776, and publicly asserting the decision two days later with the Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson of Virginia drafted the declaration, and John Adams was a leader in the debates in favor of its adoption. John Hancock of Massachusetts was the president during those debates. To govern during the American Revolutionary War, the Second Continental Congress continued, meeting at various locations, until it became the Congress of the Confederation when the Articles of Confederation were ratified on March 1, 1781.
The newly founded country of the United States next had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament / 13 colonies government that it was in rebellion against. After much debate, the Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government made up of a one - house legislature known as the Congress of the Confederation. It met from 1781 to 1789. The Confederation Congress helped guide the United States through the final stages of the Revolutionary War, but during peacetime, the Continental Congress steeply declined in importance.
During peacetime, there were two important, long - lasting acts of the Confederation Congress:
Under the Articles of Confederation, the Confederation Congress had little power to compel the individual states to comply with any of its decisions. More and more prospective delegates elected to the Confederation Congress declined to serve in it. The leading men in each State preferred to serve in the state governments, and thus the Continental Congress had frequent difficulties in establishing a quorum. When the Articles of Confederation were superseded by the Constitution of the United States, the Confederation Congress was superseded by the United States Congress.
The Confederation Congress finally set up a suitable administrative structure for the Federal government. It put into operation a departmental system, with ministers of finance, of war, and of foreign affairs. Robert Morris was selected as the new Superintendent of Finance, and then Morris used some ingenuity and initiative -- along with a loan from the French Government -- to deal with his empty treasury and also runaway inflation, for a number of years, in the supply of paper money.
As the ambassador to France, Benjamin Franklin not only secured the "bridge loan '' for the national budget, but he also persuaded France to send an army of about 6,000 soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean to America -- and also to dispatch a large squadron of French warships under Comte de Grasse to the coasts of Virginia and North Carolina. These French warships were decisive at the Battle of Yorktown along the coast of Virginia by preventing Lord Cornwallis 's British troops from receiving supplies, reinforcements, or evacuation via the James River and Hampton Roads, Virginia.
Robert Morris, the Minister of Finance, persuaded Congress to charter the Bank of North America on Dec. 31, 1781. Although a private bank, the Federal Government acquired partial ownership with money lent by France. The Bank of North America played a major role in financing the war against Great Britain. The combined armies of George Washington and Nathanael Greene, with the help of the French Army and Navy, defeated the British in the Battle of Yorktown during October 1781. Lord Cornwallis was forced to sue for peace and to surrender his entire army to General Washington. During 1783, the Americans secured the official recognition of the independence of the United States from the United Kingdom via negotiations with British diplomats in Paris, France. These negotiations culminated with the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, and this treaty was soon ratified by the British Parliament.
The delegates to the Continental Congress had extensive experience in deliberative bodies before coming to Congress, with "a cumulative total of nearly 500 years of experience in their colonial legislatures, and fully a dozen of them had served as Speakers of the houses of their legislatures. '' Both the Parliament of Great Britain and many of their own Colonial assemblies had powerful Speakers of the House and standing committees with strong chairmen, with executive power held by the British Monarch or the colonial Governor. However, the organization of the Continental Congress was based less on the British Parliament or on local state assemblies than on the nine - colony Stamp Act Congress. Nine of the 56 delegates who attended the First Congress in 1774 had previously attended the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. These were some of the most respected of the delegates, and they influenced the direction of the organization from its opening day, when decisions were made on organization and procedures that lasted over fourteen years until the Congress was adjourned on March 2, 1788.
The delegates chose a presiding President of the Continental Congress to monitor the debate, maintain order, and make sure journals were kept and documents and letters were published and delivered. Otherwise, the President had little power, and he was largely a figurehead used to meet visiting dignitaries: the office was "more honorable than powerful ''. The job was not much sought after or retained for long: there were 16 Presidents in 14 years.
The turnover of delegates was enormously high as well, with an average year - to - year churn rate of 37 % by one calculation, and 39 % by session - to - session. Of the 343 serving delegates, only 55 % (187 delegates) spent 12 or more months in Philadelphia at the Congress. Only 25 of the delegates served longer than 35 months. This high rate of turnover or churn was not just a characteristic; it was made into a deliberate policy of term limits. In the Confederation phase of the Congress "no delegate was permitted to serve more than three years in any six ''. Attendance was variable: while in session, between 54 and 22 delegates were in attendance at any one time, with an average of only 35.5 members attending between 1774 and 1788.
Between 1775 and 1781 they created a few standing committees to handle war related activities, such as the committee of secret correspondence, the treasury board, the board of war and ordnance, and the navy board. However, most of their work was done in small "ad hoc '' committees consisting of members nominated from the floor. The delegate with the most votes became the chair of the committee. Committees typically had 3 to 5 members: roughly 77 % of the committees had only 3 members. They created 3,294 committees over the 14.5 year calendar life of the congress -- nearly 19 committees a month.
At the opening of the Congress, when one delegate suggested they appoint a committee on rules and voting, the motion was rejected, as "every Gent. was acquainted '' with the British House of Commons usage, and such a committee would be a "waste of time. '' They did write up rules of debate that guaranteed equal rights to debate and open access to the floor for each delegate. Voting was by the "unit rule '': each state cast a single vote. Votes were first taken within each state delegation. The majority determined vote was considered the vote of the state on a motion: in cases of a tie the vote for the state was not counted.
The Continental Congress took on powers normally held by the British monarch and his council, such as the conduct of foreign and military affairs. However, the right to tax and regulate trade was reserved for the states, not the Congress. They had no formal way to enforce their motions on the state governments. Delegates did not report directly to the President, but to their home state assemblies: its organizational structure has been described as "an extreme form of matrix management ''. It ran with very low overhead of 4 men for the 56 delegates, having only Secretary Charles Thomson as its operating officer for the whole period from 1774 to 1789, supported by a scribe, a doorman, and a messenger. They also appointed initially one, and later two, Congressional Chaplains.
There is a long running debate on how effective the Congress was as an organization. The first critic may have been General George Washington. In an address to his officers, at Newburgh, New York, on March 15, 1783, responding to complaints that Congress had not funded their pay and pensions, he stated that he believed that Congress will do the army "complete justice '' and eventually pay the soldiers. "But, like all other large Bodies, where there is a variety of different Interests to reconcile, their deliberations are slow. ''
In addition to their slowness, the lack of coercive power in the Continental Congress was harshly criticized by James Madison when arguing for the need of a Federal Constitution. His comment in Vices of the Political System of April 1787 set the conventional wisdom on the historical legacy of the institution for centuries to come:
A sanction is essential to the idea of law, as coercion is to that of Government. The federal system being destitute of both, wants the great vital principles of a Political Cons (ti) tution. Under the form of such a Constitution, it is in fact nothing more than a treaty of amity of commerce and of alliance, between so many independent and Sovereign States. From what cause could so fatal an omission have happened in the Articles of Confederation? From a mistaken confidence that the justice, the good faith, the honor, the sound policy, of the several legislative assemblies would render superfluous any appeal to the ordinary motives by which the laws secure the obedience of individuals: a confidence which does honor to the enthusiastic virtue of the compilers, as much as the inexperience of the crisis apologizes for their errors.
Many commentators take for granted that the leaderless, weak, slow, and small - committee driven, Continental Congress was a failure, largely because after the end of the war the Articles of Confederation no longer suited the needs of a peacetime nation, and the Congress itself, following Madison 's recommendations, called for its revision and replacement. Some also suggest that the Congress was inhibited by the formation of contentious partisan alignments based on regional differences. Others claim that Congress was less ideological than event driven. Others note that the Congress was successful in that the American people "came to accept Congress as their legitimate institution of Government '', but the "rather poor governmental record '' of the Congress forced the constitutional convention of 1787.
Political scientists Calvin Jillson and Rick Wilson in the 1980s accepted the conventional interpretation on the weakness of the Congress due to the lack of coercive power. They explored the role of leadership, or rather the lack of it, in the Continental Congress. Going beyond even Madison 's harsh critique, they used the "analytical stance of what has come to be called the new institutionalism '' to demonstrate that "the norms, rules, and institutional structures of the Continental Congress '' were equally to blame "for the institution 's eventual failure '', and that the "institutional structure worked against, rather than with, the delegates in tackling the crucial issues of the day. ''
The Historian Richard P. McCormick rendered a more nuanced judgment. He suggested that Madison 's "extreme judgment '' on the Congress was "motivated no doubt by Madison 's overriding desire to create a new central government that would be empowered veto the acts of state legislatures, '' but that it fails "to take any notice of the fact that while the authority of the Confederation Congress was ambiguous, it was not a nullity ''.
Benjamin Irvin in his social and cultural history of the Continental Congress, praised "the invented traditions by which Congress endeavored to fortify the resistance movement and to make meaning of American independence. '' But he noted that after the war 's end, "Rather than passively adopting the Congress 's creations, the American people embraced, rejected, reworked, ridiculed, or simply ignored them as they saw fit. ''
An organizational culture analysis of the Continental Congress by Neil Olsen, looking for the values, norms, and underlying assumptions that drive an organization 's decisions, noted that "the leaderless Continental Congress outperformed not only the modern congress run by powerful partisan hierarchies, but modern government and corporate entities, for all their coercive power and vaunted skills as ' leaders '. '' Looking at their the mission as defined by state resolutions and petitions entered into the Congressional Journal on its first day, it found that on the common issues of the relief of Boston, securing Colonial rights, eventually restoring harmonious relations with Great Britain, and repealing taxes, they overachieved their mission goals, defeated the largest army and navy in the world, and created two new types of republic. Olsen suggests that the Congress, if slow, when judged by its many achievements -- not the least being recognizing its flaws, then replacing and terminating itself -- was a success.
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who says i will be brief for my short date of breath | Sonnet 18 - wikipedia
Q1 Q2 Q3
Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate: Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, And summer 's lease hath all too short a date: Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimm 'd; And every fair from fair sometime declines, By chance, or nature 's changing course, untrimm 'd: But thy eternal summer shall not fade, Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st; Nor shall Death brag thou wander'st in his shade, When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st: So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.
8 12 14
Sonnet 18, sometimes titled Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day?, is one of the best - known of 154 sonnets written by the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare. It is part of the Fair Youth sequence, which comprises sonnets 1 -- 126 in the accepted numbering, which occurs in the first edition in 1609. Sonnet 18 is the first of the cycle that follows the opening sequence of seventeen sonnets, which is sometimes referred to as the procreation sonnets.
In the sonnet, the speaker asks whether he should compare the young man to a summer 's day, but notes that the young man has qualities that surpass a summer 's day. The speaker then states that the young man will live on forever in the lines of the poem. Scholars have found parallels within the poem to Ovid 's Tristia and Amores, both of which have love themes. Sonnet 18 is written in a form that is known as the Shakespearean sonnet, having 14 lines of iambic pentameter ending in a rhymed couplet. The form is also known as the English Sonnet, or the Elizabethan Sonnet.
The poem starts with the speaker posing a question to the young man, "Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day? '' The young man is "more lovely and more temperate '' than a summer 's day. The speaker lists some negative aspects of summer: it is short ("summer 's lease hath all too short a date '') and sometimes the sun is too hot ("Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines ''). However, the young man has qualities that, unlike the fleeting beauty of a summer 's day, will last forever; they will last forever by the poet preserving it in verse. "So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee. '' The young man 's aspects of loveliness, temperateness, and fairness (or beauty), which are mentioned earlier in the poem, will live on through the poem which will last as long as it can be read.
Sonnet 18 is a typical English or Shakespearean sonnet. It consists of three quatrains followed by a couplet, and it has the characteristic rhyme scheme: abab cdcd efef gg. The poem reflects the rhetorical tradition of an Italian or Petrarchan Sonnet. Petrarchan sonnets typically discussed the love and beauty of a beloved, often an unattainable love, but not always. It also contains a volta, or shift in the poem 's subject matter, beginning with the third quatrain.
The couplet 's first line exemplifies a regular iambic pentameter rhythm:
The poem is part of the Fair Youth sequence (which comprises sonnets 1 -- 126 in the accepted numbering stemming from the first edition in 1609). It is also the first of the cycle after the opening sequence now described as the procreation sonnets. Some scholars, however, contend that it is part of the procreation sonnets, as it addresses the idea of reaching eternal life through the written word, a theme they find in sonnets 15 -- 17. In this view, it can be seen as part of a transition to sonnet 20 's time theme.
There are many, varying theories about the identity of the 1609 Quarto 's enigmatic dedicatee, Mr. W.H. Some scholars have suggested that this poem may be expressing a hope that they interpret the procreation sonnets as having despaired of: the hope of metaphorical procreation in a homosexual relationship. Professor Michael Schoenfeldt of the University of Michigan, characterizes the Fair Youth sequence sonnets as "the articulation of a fervent same - sex love, '' and some scholars, noting the romantic language used in the sequence, refer to it as a "daring representation of homoerotic... passions, '' of "passionate, erotic love, '' suggesting that the relationship between the speaker and the Fair Youth is sexual. The true character of this love remains unclear, however, and others interpret the relationship as one of purely platonic love, while yet others see it as describing a woman. Scholars have pointed out that the order in which the sonnets are placed may have been the decision of the publishers, and not of Shakespeare, which would further support the interpretation that Sonnet 18 was addressed to a woman.
Line one is paradoxical, because the implied answer to the poet 's question, "Shall I compare thee to a summer 's day '', is in the negative, even though the point is illustrated by comparisons.
"Complexion '' in line six, can have two meanings:
In Shakespeare 's time "complexion '' carried both outward and inward meanings, as did the word "temperate '' (externally, a weather condition; internally, a balance of humours). The second meaning of "complexion '' would communicate that the beloved 's inner, cheerful, and temperate disposition is constant, unlike the sun, which may be blotted out on a cloudy day. The first meaning is more obvious, meaning of a negative change in his outward appearance.
The word, "untrimmed '' in line eight, can be taken two ways: First, in the sense of loss of decoration and frills, and second, in the sense of untrimmed sails on a ship.In the first interpretation, the poem reads that beautiful things naturally lose their fanciness over time. In the second, it reads that nature is a ship with sails not adjusted to wind changes in order to correct course. This, in combination with the words "nature 's changing course '', creates an oxymoron: the unchanging change of nature, or the fact that the only thing that does not change is change. This line in the poem creates a shift from the mutability of the first eight lines, into the eternity of the last six. Both change and eternity are then acknowledged and challenged by the final line.
"Ow'st '' in line ten can also carry two meanings equally common at the time: "ownest '' and "owest ''. Many readers interpret it as "ownest '', as do many Shakespearean glosses ("owe '' in Shakespeare 's day, was sometimes used as a synonym for "own ''). However, "owest '' delivers an interesting view on the text. It conveys the idea that beauty is something borrowed from nature -- that it must be paid back as time progresses. In this interpretation, "fair '' can be a pun on "fare '', or the fare required by nature for life 's journey. Other scholars have pointed out that this borrowing and lending theme within the poem is true of both nature and humanity. Summer, for example, is said to have a "lease '' with "all too short a date. '' This monetary theme is common in many of Shakespeare 's sonnets, as it was an everyday theme in his budding capitalistic society.
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when did the federal reserve stop using gold | Gold standard - Wikipedia
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished: specie, bullion, and exchange.
Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century, although many hold substantial gold reserves. A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American.
The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form. Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.
The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.
During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.
Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa 757 -- 796 CE. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros, circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and, later, the United States trade dollar.
In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.
A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1854, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.
Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits.
The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.
From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.
In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.
The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.
In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both. The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.
From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.
The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.
Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.
In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver. Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.
The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.
Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks ''.
After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ' 73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.
The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862 -- 1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.
Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.
Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903. Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.
When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria - Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.
Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey.
By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War 1 was "the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard. '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America 's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.
Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.
For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.
The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to "sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War 1 the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.
The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.
The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy (12 kg) of fine gold ''. John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake ''.
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.
The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.
In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.
Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump '' for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes. Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.
Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.
The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.
In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.
Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40 %.
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from. 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.
The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.
Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.
After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.
Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock '').
This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries ' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.
An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.
World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period) although it has lagged behind world economic growth (approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s, and 4x since 1980).
Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.
Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.
Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.
Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income. '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.
In an international gold - standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.
A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24 - carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom '', Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '', rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.
Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution '' is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes -- for example, a gold standard, some other commodity - based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important.
The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free - market libertarians and some supply - siders.
In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy - based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.
Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term, high - profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.
In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.
In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.
In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.
In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price - stability and employment outcomes (that) would be better for the average American. '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well - known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American. '')
The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "(W) e do n't have the gold standard. It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard, it 's because we do. ''
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chronicles of riddick escape from butcher bay xbox one | The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay - wikipedia
The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay is a first - person action and stealth video game developed by Starbreeze Studios and published by Vivendi Universal Games. Released for the Xbox and Windows in 2004, the game is a tie - in prequel to the futuristic science fiction film The Chronicles of Riddick. Actor Vin Diesel -- who was involved in the game 's development -- reprises his role as that film 's protagonist, Richard B. Riddick.
The game follows Riddick, the anti-hero of the two films Pitch Black and The Chronicles of Riddick, as he attempts to escape from a maximum - security prison called Butcher Bay. Escape from Butcher Bay 's designers focused on exploring Riddick 's character in a prison break setting to differentiate the game from the film. The game 's influences include the film Escape from Alcatraz, and video games such as Half - Life and Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell.
Escape from Butcher Bay was praised by critics, who lauded its graphics and its implementation of stealth, action and adventure elements. However, they commonly lamented its brevity and lack of multiplayer components. The game went on to win several accolades, including the Golden Joystick Award for Unsung Hero Game of the Year and the Spike Video Game Award for Best Game Based on a Movie. An enhanced remake of the game, included in The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena, was released in 2009.
In Escape from Butcher Bay, the player takes the role of Richard B. Riddick and attempts to break out of Butcher Bay prison. The game incorporates elements from video game genres such as first - person shooter, adventure and stealth, and is played primarily from a first - person perspective, though the camera switches to a third - person perspective during certain scenes. Unlike many first - person shooters, the game contains no head - up display; on - screen cues are limited to flashes when a new weapon is selected, and small, white boxes that display the player character 's health when damage is taken. Health can be replenished in designated areas throughout the game. By finding cigarette packs hidden in levels, the player can unlock concept art and video files.
The player may interact with and receive quests from the prison 's residents, and earns information, tools and other rewards by completing quests. Violent conflict often occurs between the player, inmates and prison guards. The player attacks with Riddick 's bare hands, or with improvised weapons such as shivs and clubs. Combos are created by stringing together punches. A DNA - scanning security system initially prevents Riddick from using firearms, but a limited arsenal later becomes available.
A "stealth mode '' is activated when the player character crouches, allowing the player to move silently and tinting the edges of the screen blue when the player is hidden. While in stealth mode, the player can drag bodies out of sight and hide from enemies. The mode grants attacks that quickly kill enemies; the player may drop on enemies from above, or execute them from behind. During the game, Riddick acquires eyeshine, allowing him to see in the dark but temporarily blinding him if used in brightly lit areas.
Escape from Butcher Bay is set in the futuristic science fiction universe of the Chronicles of Riddick franchise, and is a prequel to the film Pitch Black. The game takes place inside Butcher Bay, a maximum - security prison from which no prisoner has escaped. The facility -- constructed on a barren planet -- contains three increasingly secure holding areas, and a subterranean mining operation.
The game 's protagonist is Richard B. Riddick (reprised by Vin Diesel), a murderer recently confined in Butcher Bay. Riddick is resourceful, and seeks to break out of the prison by any means necessary. His capturer is the bounty hunter William J. Johns (Cole Hauser); the two have had previous encounters. Butcher Bay 's warden is a man named Hoxie (Dwight Schultz), while Abbott (Xzibit) is a prison guard disliked by the inmates. The inmate Pope Joe (Willis Burks II) is an insane old man, who lives in the sewer tunnels beneath the prison.
The opening cinematic shows Riddick in hiding, having grown out his hair and beard, before the opening scene of the Chronicles of Riddick movie. He hunts an animal and after killing it, a disembodied voice starts talking to him asking him where he got his eyes. He states that he received them from a "slam preacher '' and this causes him to remember his time at Butcher Bay. The game takes place in a flashback.
Another opening cinematic takes place in which Riddick is being transported for collection on the bounty. He and Johns have a brief conversation in which Riddick tells Johns that there is no way he is going to get the price he wants. Riddick wakes up as they land and stands out front of Butcher Bay waiting for the warden. He sneaks up behind Johns and breaks his neck and proceeds to escape. After getting his hands on a gun, he goes through the ventilation ducts and seemingly escapes into the desert. Everything fades to white as Riddick hears Johns saying "Rise and shine, Riddick. '' It turns out this escape was simply a dream.
Riddick wakes up and Johns escorts him off the ship. Johns meets with Hoxie to negotiate his pay, while Abbott escorts Riddick to his cell in the "single - max '' security area. After making enemies with and killing a gang leader named Rust, Riddick familiarizes himself with the facility, and soon instigates a riot; during the confusion, he escapes into the prison 's sewer system. Armed with a shotgun and a dying flashlight, Riddick discovers he is not alone in the sewers. Fighting through the sewers against mutant "dwellers '', Riddick eventually meets Pope Joe, for whom he retrieves a lost radio, which Joe calls a blessed voicebox. A woman named Shirah (Kristin Lehman) tells Riddick that he "has been blind too long '', and he gains his trademark "eyeshine '' night vision. Afterwards, he accuses Pope Joe of tampering with his eyes; Joe says that he merely treated Riddick 's injured arm. Riddick then continues his escape, while using the eyeshine to his advantage.
After emerging from a manhole in the showers of the guard living quarters, Riddick uses a guard uniform to blend in as he makes his way to the space port and his chance at escape. Realizing he requires a guard to get through the retinal scanner that locks the doors to the space port, Riddick decides to go after Abbott and take his eyes. He gains access to Abbott 's apartment by telling him there is a delivery for him. A fire fight ensues and after that, as Abbott bleeds out on the floor, Riddick moves in for the kill but is stopped by Johns.
Riddick is captured and transferred to the "double - max '' security area. Gaining the trust of the inmates by participating in fighting matches, Riddick eventually kills the champion of the fighting matches, a guard named Bam. This leads him to be taken to a room where no surveillance is seen and several guards await to kill Riddick. Abbott walks into the room, fully healed, holding a baseball bat. Shirah returns to him and tells him that the fury of all of his kind is within him, and he can release it if he chooses. A blast of energy called the ' Rage of Furya ' kills all the guards around him except Abbott, who hides and then panics and attacks Riddick. Riddick kills Abbott and proceeds to find another way to escape. Using a secret entrance to an elevator, he infiltrates a mining facility. He meets an inmate of great influence in the area named Jagger Valance (Ron Perlman), who wishes to escape with him. He makes a bomb and plants it in a mining site with a massive gas leak. However, Riddick is discovered and caught by the guards. During his transfer to another section, the prison is disrupted by an outbreak of creatures called "Xeno '', due to the bomb Riddick planted, in order to create the confusion necessary for his escape, and Riddick attempts to escape with Valance. His plans are foiled again by Johns. After a fist fight, Riddick and Johns are both shot by Valance (who only meant to hit Johns) and Valance is killed by the guards. After meeting again with the warden, and telling him that he is just getting started, Riddick is placed in the "triple - max '' area, where inmates are kept in cryonic sleep. They are awakened daily for two minutes of exercise; during this time, Riddick discovers a flaw in the system and escapes. He then hijacks a large robot and fights his way through Butcher Bay to reach Hoxie.
Tired of dealing with the prison officials, Johns helps Riddick to elude the guards. Riddick knocks Johns out and flies the ship into the warden 's office. The warden calls in two robot guards with cloaking abilities and Riddick defeats them. After Hoxie surrenders, Riddick receives the codes to Hoxie 's ship and Riddick and Johns escape disguised as a guard and prisoner. Two guards enter Hoxie 's room, where Hoxie is bound and covered in Riddick 's former attire. They mistake him for Riddick and kill him. Riddick and Johns take off in Hoxie 's ship, ending the game.
Escape from Butcher Bay was developed by Swedish company Starbreeze Studios, and published by Vivendi Games and the Vin Diesel - founded Tigon Studios. Universal Studios Consumer Products Group granted The Chronicles of Riddick license to Vivendi Games; both companies were owned by Vivendi Universal. The game was announced in March 2004 as an Xbox title. Tigon Studios ' Cos Lazouras said, "(The game) features an original storyline that provides insight into how Riddick evolved into such a complex character ''.
In contrast to other film tie - in games, which often closely follow the events of their source material, the development team of Escape from Butcher Bay focused on differentiating the game from The Chronicles of Riddick. They sought to explore Riddick 's character in a prison break setting, and took inspiration from films such as Escape from Alcatraz. Starbreeze was also inspired by video games such as GoldenEye 007 and the Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell series. The opening sequence, in which Riddick is escorted into Butcher Bay, is a tribute to Half - Life, and the game 's hand - to - hand combat was inspired by Punch - Out!!. Starbreeze focused solely on developing the game 's single - player mode, and did not include multiplayer; the company believed that such a mode would require a design team twice as large and another year of development.
Vin Diesel, the lead actor of The Chronicles of Riddick, provided his voice and likeness for Riddick. He and director David Twohy also contributed to the game 's plot and character design; the game 's story was developed in conjunction with the film 's. Per the filmmakers ' instructions, the designers made the origin of Riddick 's "eyeshine '' vague. Diesel offered guidance to the game 's lead writer during voice recording sessions; this included dialogue rewrites to reduce Riddick 's lines, as Diesel believed the character spoke too often.
Starbreeze intended for Escape from Butcher Bay to feature more complex role - playing game systems, but feedback from Diesel and game testers dissuaded them. Starbreeze senior producer Peter Wanat said, "We tried to limit the number of really hard or really intricate RPG elements, and that was a choice because we wanted the game to be playable. '' Other removed features include an electric bullwhip for the guard Abbott, and a 25 - minute final boss fight. A PlayStation 2 version that was in development was cancelled so the company could focus on the Xbox version.
The game uses normal mapping, which allows detailed textures to be drawn on models with lower polygon counts; this increases visual fidelity, without sacrificing higher frame rates. It also featured dynamic lighting with per - pixel stencil shadowing and self - shadowing
Escape from Butcher Bay was completed in 18 months. Vin Diesel promoted the game and the accompanying movie at the May 2004 Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3) video game convention. The game was released in North America on June 1, 2004, shortly before The Chronicles of Riddick. North American pre-orders of the game included a DVD of promotional content, such as a partial interactive walkthrough and footage from the film. The game 's soundtrack, composed by Gustaf Grefberg, was released by Vivendi as a free download on June 24, 2004.
Following rumors, Vivendi confirmed in July 2004 that a Windows port of Escape from Butcher Bay was in development, entitled "The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay Director 's Cut ''. The game features a higher display resolution, additional cigarette packs, and new scenes where Riddick steals mechanized riot armor. It includes developer commentary which details the game 's creation and design decisions. The game was released on December 8 in North America.
-- Ian Stevens, Starbreeze Studios
In May 2007, Vivendi announced that Escape from Butcher Bay was being remade by Starbreeze Studios for PC, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. Entitled The Chronicles of Riddick: Assault on Dark Athena, the game was referred to by Vivendi as a "reinvention '' of Escape from Butcher Bay; it would include a multiplayer mode and new single - player content. It was planned that Vivendi - subsidiary Sierra Entertainment would publish the game in late 2007.
In December 2007, Activision and Vivendi Games merged to become Activision Blizzard; the new company announced the dismissal of Assault on Dark Athena, Brütal Legend, Ghostbusters: The Video Game and others from its roster in July 2008. The titles were put up for sale to other publishers. In September 2008, Starbreeze Studios confirmed that the game was still in development, and that it was nearing completion. The following month, Atari reportedly paid a flat fee for the publishing rights to Assault on Dark Athena and Ghostbusters: The Video Game; Atari later confirmed that it had picked up both titles. The company also stated that it had struck a deal with Universal Studios to develop more Chronicles of Riddick games. Assault on Dark Athena was released in April 2009 in North America, Europe, and Australia.
Escape from Butcher Bay received critical acclaim. Certain reviewers preferred the game over its film counterpart, and considered it an exception to the general mediocrity of film tie - in games. The Xbox version of the game sold 159,000 copies in August 2004, and was among the best - selling games on any platform during June 2004; it was later re-released as a Platinum Hits title. Conversely, the PC version sold 32,500 after six months on shelves.
Escape from Butcher Bay 's gameplay was compared to first - person shooters like Far Cry and Half - Life, and to stealth game series like Splinter Cell, Metal Gear, and Thief. Reviewers enjoyed the variety of gameplay elements: Game Informer 's Jeremy Zoss noted that "every aspect of play is expertly implemented '', and GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin believed that the game "effectively and innovatively combines excellent shooting, hand - to - hand combat, stealth, and adventure elements ''. While the game 's stealth mechanics were praised, certain critics received its first - person shooter elements with less enthusiasm. Reviewers applauded the control scheme, such as the Xbox version 's analog stick - based hand - to - hand combat. The implementation of Riddick 's eyeshine ability was also generally praised, but Computer and Video Games believed that it was no different from night vision goggles in other first - person shooters, and said that it "could 've been developed into so much more. ''
The game 's visuals -- particularly the Xbox version 's -- were acclaimed, and compared to those of Doom 3 and Half - Life 2. GameZone 's Michael Lafferty said that the game 's graphics "(take) the genre to the next level ''. The textures and lighting were cited as high points, particularly because of the gameplay role of shadows. Character models and facial animations were considered highly realistic; much praise was given to those of Riddick. GameSpot appreciated the developers ' attention to graphical detail; they noted that recent bullet - holes glow red and smoke, but gradually cool and darken. Certain reviewers complained about graphical glitches, such as "seams '' and "clipping '', and gave as an example the visibility of bullet tracers through walls. The portrayal of Butcher Bay was considered convincing, and 1UP 's Shawn Elliott compared it to the settings of the Alien franchise.
"You can almost smell the thick stink of Butcher Bay and its inhabitants from the grime on the walls, dirty clothes of the inmates, and environmental textures. This place oozes with style and creates sense of reality in which it 's easy to become immersed. ''
The audio of Escape from Butcher Bay was generally well received, and critics praised its voice acting; the performances of Vin Diesel and Cole Hauser were given special commendation. In regard to the music, FiringSquad 's Jakub Wojnarowicz stated, "It 's not good enough to sweep you away (,) but it 's also not bad enough to stick out like a sore thumb ''. IGN said, "The music is n't memorable, but it 's not bad ''. The Sunday Herald Sun called the voice acting "Surprisingly good ''. The game 's length was commonly criticized. Reviewers noted that it could be completed in eight to fifteen hours, and IGN said, "If you consider around 12 hours of gameplay short, then Riddick is just that. '' Several reviewers were displeased by the game 's lack of multiplayer components; Computer and Video Games referred to it as a "missed opportunity ''. Game Informer said, "Since the main quest is short (...) and there is no multiplayer, it 's not a ton of game for your money. ''
Professor James Paul Gee, a researcher of video games, has used Escape from Butcher Bay in his studies. He discussed the relation of Garrett from Thief and the nameless soldier from Full Spectrum Warrior with the character of Riddick, saying that the games "allow players to take a projective stance to the (virtual) world, but a stance that is rooted in the knowledge, values, and ways of seeing and being in the world of an authentic professional, an ' expert '. ''
Both versions of the game were given editor 's choice awards from IGN, GameSpot, and GameSpy. The PC version was IGN 's PC Game of the Month for December 2004. The editors of Computer Gaming World presented Butcher Bay with their 2004 "Action Game of the Year '' award, and hailed it as "the best movie prequel ever produced ''. Computer Games Magazine named Escape from Butcher Bay the tenth - best computer game of 2004.
IGN later ranked Butcher Bay 12th on its list of the 25 greatest Xbox games of all time. Game Informer placed Escape from Butcher Bay as the 8th best on their list of 25 greatest Xbox games of all time. Escape from Butcher Bay was nominated for GameSpot 's Game of the Year award for 2004, but it lost to World of Warcraft. Computer and Video Games called the PC version the 98th best PC game of all time. Billboard 's Digital Entertainment Conference nominated Riddick as its Best Character in a Game and a Golden Joystick Award for "Unsung Hero Game of the Year ''. GamesRadar placed Escape from Butcher Bay in their "Top 7 movie games that do n't suck '' list, and said that "Escape from Butcher Bay was a triumph on almost every level. '' In 2013, IGN ranked Escape from Butcher Bay as the 27th greatest first - person shooter of all time.
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when did king size candy bars come out | Snickers - wikipedia
Snickers is a brand name chocolate bar made by the American company Mars, Incorporated, consisting of nougat topped with caramel and peanuts that has been enrobed in milk chocolate. The annual global sales of Snickers was $2 billion as of 2004.
In the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, and Ireland, Snickers was sold under the brand name Marathon until 1990. Snickers - brand Marathon energy bars have since been sold in some markets.
In 1930, Mars introduced Snickers, named after the favorite horse of the Mars family. The Snickers chocolate bar consists of nougat, peanuts, and caramel with a chocolate coating. The bar was marketed under the name "Marathon '' in the UK and Ireland until 1990, when Mars decided to align the UK product with the global Snickers name (Mars had marketed and discontinued an unrelated bar named Marathon in the United States during the 1970s). There are also several other Snickers products such as Snickers mini, dark chocolate, ice cream bars, Snickers with almonds, Snickers with hazelnuts, Snickers peanut butter bars, Snickers protein and Snickers with Extra Caramel, as well as espresso, fiery, and sweet & salty versions.
A replacement for the king size Snickers bar was launched in the UK in 2004 and designed to conform to the September 2004 Food and Drink Federation (FDF) "Manifesto for Food and Health ''. Part of the FDF manifesto was seven pledges of action to encourage the food and drink industry to be more health conscious. Reducing portion size, clearer food labels, and reduction of the levels of fat, sugar, and salt were among the FDF pledges. Mars Incorporated pledged to phase out their king - size bars in 2005 and replace them with shareable bars. A Mars spokesman said: "Our king - size bars that come in one portion will be changed so they are shareable or can be consumed on more than one occasion. The name king - size will be phased out. ''
These were eventually replaced by the ' Duo ', a double bar pack. Though this change to Duos reduced the weight from 3.5 to 3.29 ounces (99 to 93 g), the price remained the same. The packaging has step - by - step picture instructions of how to open a Duo into two bars, in four simple actions. As Mars stated fulfillment of their promise, the Duo format was met with criticism by the National Obesity Forum and National Consumer Council.
In December 2000, tens of thousands of Snickers and Mars Bars were removed from New South Wales store shelves due to a series of threatening letters which resulted in fears that the chocolate bars had been poisoned. Mars received letters from an unidentified individual indicating that they planned to plant poisoned chocolate bars on store shelves. The last letter sent included a Snickers bar contaminated with a substance which was later identified as rat poison. The letters claimed that there were seven additional chocolate bars which had been tampered with and which were for sale to the public. As a precautionary measure, Mars issued a massive recall. Mars said that there had been no demand for money and complaints directed to an unidentified third party.
The USDA lists the caloric value of a 2 - ounce (57 gram) Snickers bar as 280 kilocalories (1,200 kJ). As of 2018, the United Kingdom bar has a weight of 48g, with 245 kcal, and the Canadian bar 52g with 250 kcal.
Over the years, the bar weight has decreased: Before 2009, in the UK a single Snickers bar had a weight of 62.5 g. This weight was subsequently reduced to 58g in 2009, and to 48g in 2013.
Containing approximately 450 calories (1,900 J) per bar, deep fried chocolate bars (including Snickers and Mars bars) became a specialty in fish and chips shops in Scotland in 1995, and in the early 2000s, became popular at American state fairs.
In 2012, the British Food Commission highlighted celebrity chef Antony Worrall Thompson 's "Snickers pie '', which contained five Snickers bars among other ingredients, suggesting it was one of the unhealthiest desserts ever; one slice providing "over 1,250 calories (5,200 kJ) from sugar and fat alone '', more than half a day 's requirement for an average adult. The pie had featured on his BBC Saturday programme some two years earlier and the chef described it as an occasional treat only.
In 1980, Snickers ran ads which featured a variety of everyday people discussing why they like Snickers. The ads featured a jingle that said "It 's so satisfying '' and had the classic hand that would open and close showing a handful of peanuts converting to a Snickers bar. "Packed with peanuts, Snickers really satisfies '' was shown in the commercials.
Mars paid $5 million to have Snickers and M&M 's named the "official snack '' of the 1984 Summer Olympics, outraging nutritionists. Sports promotions in international games continued to be a prominent marketing tool for Mars, that would keep Snickers as an international brand while also selling local bars in some markets.
Beginning in 1995, Snickers ran ads which featured someone making a self - inflicted mistake, with the voice - over saying "Not going anywhere for a while? Grab a Snickers! '' The tag line at the end of each ad proclaimed, "Hungry? Why Wait? ''
One such ad had a player for a fictional American football team showing off his new tattoo of the team 's logo on his back to his teammates. He then shows it to his head coach who, after complimenting the tattoo, immediately tells him that he 's been traded to Miami. The player then goes to have his old team 's logo replaced with the new team 's logo.
Some of the ads were done in conjunction with the National Football League, with whom Snickers had a sponsorship deal at the time. One ad featured a member of the grounds crew at Arrowhead Stadium painting the field for an upcoming Kansas City Chiefs game in hot, late - summer weather. After finishing one of the end zones, and visibly exhausted, one of the Chiefs players walks up to him and says the field looks great, "but who are the Chefs? '', showing that despite all the hard work the painter accidentally omitted the "i '' in Chiefs. Another had Marv Levy in the Buffalo Bills locker room lecturing his team that "no one 's going anywhere '' until the Bills figure out how to actually win a Super Bowl.
In 2007, Snickers launched a campaign which featured Henry the VIII and a Viking among others who attend the "Snickers Feast ''. It consisted of various commercials of the gang and their adventures on the feast.
On February 4, 2007, during Super Bowl XLI, Snickers commercials aired which resulted in complaints by gay and lesbian groups against the maker of the candy bar, Masterfoods USA of Hackettstown, New Jersey, a division of Mars, Incorporated. The commercial showed a pair of auto mechanics accidentally touching lips while sharing a Snickers bar. After quickly pulling away, one mechanic says, "I think we just accidentally kissed. '', and another mechanic exclaims, "Quick! Do something manly! '' and in three of the four versions, they do so mostly in the form of injury, including tearing out chest hair, striking each other with a very large pipe wrench, and drinking motor oil and windshield washer fluid. In the fourth version, however, a third mechanic shows up and asks "Is there room for three in this Love Boat? ''
Complaints were lodged against Masterfoods that the ads were homophobic. Human Rights Campaign president Joe Solmonese is quoted as saying
"This type of jeering from professional sports figures at the sight of two men kissing fuels the kind of anti-gay bullying that haunts countless gay and lesbian school children on playgrounds all across the country. ''
Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) president Neil Giuliano said "That Snickers, Mars and the NFL would promote and endorse this kind of prejudice is simply inexcusable. '' Masterfoods has since pulled the ads and the website.
In 2006, Mr. T starred in a Snickers advert in the UK where he rides up in an army tank and shouts abuse at a football player who appears to be faking an injury, threatening to introduce him to his friend Pain. Another advert featured Mr. T launching bars at a swimmer who appeared to refuse to get in a swimming pool because of the cold temperature of the water. In 2008, a European Snickers commercial in which Mr. T uses a Jeep - mounted Minigun to fire Snickers bars at a speedwalker for being a "disgrace to the man race '' was pulled after complaints from a US pressure group that the advertisement was homophobic. These adverts usually ended with Mr. T saying "Snickers: Get Some Nuts! ''
In NASCAR racing, Snickers (and the rest of the Mars affiliated brands) sponsor Kyle Busch 's # 18 Toyota for Joe Gibbs Racing. Prior to that the brand served as a primary sponsor for Ricky Rudd 's # 88 Robert Yates Racing Ford as well as an associate sponsor for the team 's # 38 car driven first by Elliott Sadler and then by David Gilliland, and an associate sponsor for the MB2 Motorsports # 36 Pontiac driven by Derrike Cope, Ernie Irvan, Ken Schrader, and others. In 1990, Bobby Hillin drove for Stavola Brothers Racing in the # 8 Snickers Buick, marking the candy 's first appearance as a sponsor; it had since been driven by Rick Wilson and Dick Trickle.
Snickers was the Official Sponsor of the FIFA World Cup from 1990 until 1998 editions and the UEFA European Championship from 1996 until 2000.
In 2010, a new advertising campaign was launched, based around people turning into different people (usually celebrities) when they 're hungry (taking the new campaign 's name "You 're Not You When You 're Hungry '' quite literally). In 2010, Betty White and Abe Vigoda appeared in the first Snickers commercial in this campaign, playing American football. The commercial was ranked by ADBOWL as the best advertisement of the year. This commercial was also briefly spoofed in an episode of SportsNation on ESPN2 with Michelle Beadle playing the role instead of Betty White in 2011. Later that year, Snickers commercials featured singers Aretha Franklin and Liza Minnelli, and comedians Richard Lewis and Roseanne Barr. A 2011 commercial featured actors Joe Pesci and Don Rickles.
The tagline varied depending on the commercial 's location or what variety the commercial is showing. The UK version (featuring men in a changing room turning into Joan Collins and Stephanie Beacham as a result of hunger) retains Mr. T 's slogan. In Latin America, the slogan was the same as in the UK version, except that men doing extreme sports turning into the Mexican singer Anahí as a result of hunger.
In 2013, the late Robin Williams and Bobcat Goldthwait also appeared in a Snickers football commercial. In March 2014, a commercial featuring Godzilla was released to promote the 2014 Godzilla film. In the commercial, Godzilla is shown hanging out with humans on the beach, riding dirt bikes, and water skiing; he only begins rampaging once he 's hungry. After being fed a Snickers bar, he resumes having fun with the humans.
In October 2014, Rowan Atkinson as Mr. Bean returned on television by appearing on several UK Snickers commercials and cinema spots.
In February 2015, Snickers ' Super Bowl XLIX commercial featured a parody of a scene from an episode of The Brady Bunch entitled "Subject Was Noses. '' In the commercial, Carol and Mike try to calm down a hungry and angry Danny Trejo. When the parents give Trejo a Snickers bar, he reverts into Marcia before an irate Jan (played by Steve Buscemi) rants upstairs and walks away.
In 2016, for Super Bowl 50, another Snickers commercial was made, featuring Willem Dafoe (as Marilyn Monroe) and Eugene Levy, where "Marilyn '' complains about filming the iconic "subway grate '' scene in The Seven Year Itch. After being given a Snickers, Marilyn goes ahead with the scene, with Levy operating the fan below, commenting that the scene wo n't make the movie 's final cut, that nobody would want to see it.
Snickers has been an official sponsor of WWE 's WrestleMania events, including WrestleMania 2000, 22, 32, 33 and 34, while its Cruncher variant sponsored WrestleMania X-Seven, XIX, XX and 21. Since then, Snickers has sponsored superstars such as Enzo Amore and Big Cass with their signature term, SAWFT, which is labelled at the back of the chocolate bar.
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where are the phosphodiester bonds located in the double helix of dna | Phosphodiester bond - wikipedia
A phosphodiester bond occurs when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups in phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds.
Phosphodiester bonds are central to all life on Earth, as they make up the backbone of the strands of nucleic acid. In DNA and RNA, the phosphodiester bond is the linkage between the 3 ' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5 ' carbon atom of another, deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA. Strong covalent bonds form between the phosphate group and two 5 - carbon ring carbohydrates (pentoses) over two ester bonds.
The phosphate groups in the phosphodiester bond are negatively charged. Because the phosphate groups have a pK near 0, they are negatively charged at pH 7. This repulsion forces the phosphates to take opposite sides of the DNA strands and is neutralized by proteins (histones), metal ions such as magnesium, and polyamines.
In order for the phosphodiester bond to be formed and the nucleotides to be joined, the tri-phosphate or di - phosphate forms of the nucleotide building blocks are broken apart to give off energy required to drive the enzyme - catalyzed reaction. When a single phosphate or two phosphates known as pyrophosphates break away and catalyze the reaction, the phosphodiester bond is formed.
Hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds can be catalyzed by the action of phosphodiesterases which play an important role in repairing DNA sequences.
The phosphodiester linkage between two ribonucleotides can be broken by alkaline hydrolysis, whereas the linkage between two deoxyribonucleotides is more stable under these conditions. The relative ease of RNA hydrolysis is an effect of the presence of the 2 ' hydroxyl group.
A phosphodiesterase is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds, for instance a bond in a molecule of cyclic AMP or cyclic GMP.
An enzyme that plays an important role in the repair of oxidative DNA damage is the 3 ' - phosphodiesterase.
During the replication of DNA, there is a hole between the phosphates in the backbone left by DNA polymerase I. DNA ligase is able to form a phosphodiester bond between the nucleotides.
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by which name the river brahmaputra enters into india | Brahmaputra river - wikipedia
The Brahmaputra (/ ˌbrɑːməˈpuːtrə /) is one of the major rivers of Asia, a trans - boundary river which flows through China, India and Bangladesh. As such, it is known by various names in the region: Assamese: ব্ৰহ্মপুত্ৰ নদ (' নদ ' nôd, masculine form of ' নদী ' nôdi "river '') Brôhmôputrô (bɹɔɦmɔputɹɔ); Sanskrit: ब्रह्मपुत्र, IAST: Brahmaputra; Tibetan: ཡར ་ ཀླུངས ་ གཙང ་ པོ ་, Wylie: yar klung gtsang po Yarlung Tsangpo; simplified Chinese: 布 拉 马 普 特 拉 河; traditional Chinese: 布 拉 馬 普 特 拉 河; pinyin: Bùlāmǎpǔtèlā Hé. It is also called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra (when referring to the whole river including the stretch within Tibet). The Manas River, which runs through Bhutan, joins it at Jogighopa, in India. It is the ninth largest river in the world by discharge, and the 15th longest.
With its origin in the Manasarovar Lake region, located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet as the Yarlung Tsangpo River, it flows across southern Tibet to break through the Himalayas in great gorges (including the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon) and into Arunachal Pradesh (India). It flows southwest through the Assam Valley as Brahmaputra and south through Bangladesh as the Jamuna (not to be mistaken with Yamuna of India). In the vast Ganges Delta, it merges with the Padma, the popular name of the river Ganges in Bangladesh, and finally the Meghna and from here it is known as Meghna before emptying into the Bay of Bengal.
About 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, the Brahmaputra is an important river for irrigation and transportation. The average depth of the river is 38 m (124 ft) and maximum depth is 120 m (380 ft). The river is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when Himalayas snow melts. The average discharge of the river is about 19,800 m / s (700,000 cu ft / s), and floods can reach over 100,000 m / s (3,500,000 cu ft / s). It is a classic example of a braided river and is highly susceptible to channel migration and avulsion. It is also one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. It is navigable for most of its length.
The river drains the Himalaya east of the Indo - Nepal border, south - central portion of the Tibetan plateau above the Ganga basin, south - eastern portion of Tibet, the Patkai - Bum hills, the northern slopes of the Meghalaya hills, the Assam plains, and the northern portion of Bangladesh. The basin, especially south of Tibet, is characterized by high levels of rainfall. Kangchenjunga (8,586 m) is the only peak above 8,000 m, hence is the highest point within the Brahmaputra basin.
The Brahmaputra 's upper course was long unknown, and its identity with the Yarlung Tsangpo was only established by exploration in 1884 -- 86. This river is often called Tsangpo - Brahmaputra river.
The lower reaches are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name, as it means "son of Brahma '' in Sanskrit (putra means "son '').
The Brahmaputra River, also called Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibetan language, originates on the Angsi Glacier located on the northern side of the Himalayas in Burang County of Tibet. The source of the river was earlier thought to be on the Chemayungdung glacier, which covers the slopes of the Himalayas about 97 km (60 mi) southeast of Lake Manasarovar in southwestern Tibet. The river is 3,848 km (2,391 mi) long, and its drainage area is 712,035 km (274,918 sq mi) according to the new findings, while previous documents showed its length varied from 2,900 to 3,350 km and its drainage area between 520,000 and 1.73 million km. This finding has been given by Liu Shaochuang, a researcher with the Institute of Remote Sensing Applications under the analysis using expeditions and satellite imagery from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).
From its source, the river runs for nearly 1,100 km (680 mi) in a generally easterly direction between the main range of the Himalayas to the south and the Kailas Range to the north. Throughout its upper course, the river is generally known as the Tsangpo ("Purifier ''); it is also known by its Chinese name (Yarlung Zangbo) and by other local Tibetan names.
In Tibet, the Tsangpo receives a number of tributaries. The most important left - bank tributaries are the Raka Zangbo (Raka Tsangpo), which joins the river west of Xigazê (Shigatse), and the Lhasa (Kyi), which flows past the Tibetan capital of Lhasa and joins the Tsangpo at Qüxü. The Nyang Qu (Gyamda) River joins the river from the north at Zela (Tsela Dzong). On the right bank, a second river called the Nyang Qu (Nyang Chu) meets the Tsangpo at Xigazê.
After passing Pi (Pe) in Tibet, the river turns suddenly to the north and northeast and cuts a course through a succession of great narrow gorges between the mountainous massifs of Gyala Peri and Namcha Barwa in a series of rapids and cascades. Thereafter, the river turns south and southwest and flows through a deep gorge (the "Grand Canyon '' of the Tsangpo) across the eastern extremity of the Himalayas with canyon walls that extend upward for 5,000 m (16,000 ft) and more on each side. During that stretch, the river enters northern Arunachal Pradesh state in northeastern India, where it is known as the Dihang (or Siang) River, and turns more southerly.
The Brahmaputra enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, where it is called Siang. It makes a very rapid descent from its original height in Tibet, and finally appears in the plains, where it is called Dihang. It flows for about 35 km (22 mi) and is joined by the Dibang River and the Lohit River at the head of the Assam Valley. Below the Lohit, the river is called Brahmaputra and Burlung - Buthur by native Bodo tribals, it then enters the state of Assam, and becomes very wide -- as wide as 20 km (12 mi) in parts of Assam.
The Dihang, winding out of the mountains, turns toward the southeast and descends into a low - lying basin as it enters northeastern Assam state. Just west of the town of Sadiya, the river again turns to the southwest and is joined by two mountain streams, the Lohit and the Dibang. Below that confluence, about 1,450 km (900 mi) from the Bay of Bengal, the river becomes known conventionally as the Brahmaputra ("Son of Brahma ''). In Assam, the river is mighty, even in the dry season, and during the rains, its banks are more than 8 km (5.0 mi) apart. As the river follows its braided 700 m (2,300 ft) course through the valley, it receives several rapidly rushing Himalayan streams, including the Subansiri, Kameng, Bhareli, Dhansiri, Manas, Champamati, Saralbhanga, and Sankosh Rivers. The main tributaries from the hills and from the plateau to the south are the Burhi Dihing, the Disang, the Dikhu, and the Kopili.
Between Dibrugarh and Lakhimpur Districts, the river divides into two channels -- the northern Kherkutia channel and the southern Brahmaputra channel. The two channels join again about 100 km (62 mi) downstream, forming the Majuli island, which is the largest river island in the world. At Guwahati, near the ancient pilgrimage centre of Hajo, the Brahmaputra cuts through the rocks of the Shillong Plateau, and is at its narrowest at 1 km (1,100 yd) bank - to - bank. Because of the river 's narrow width, the Battle of Saraighat was fought here in March 1671. The first combined rail / road bridge across the Brahmaputra was opened to traffic in April 1962 at Saraighat.
The environment of the Brahmaputra floodplains in Assam have been described as the Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests ecoregion.
In Bangladesh, the Brahmaputra is joined by the Teesta River (or Tista), one of its largest tributaries. Below the Tista, the Brahmaputra splits into two distributary branches. The western branch, which contains the majority of the river 's flow, continues due south as the Jamuna (Jomuna) to merge with the lower Ganga, called the Padma River (Pôdda). The eastern branch, formerly the larger, but now much smaller, is called the lower or old Brahmaputra (Brommoputro). It curves southeast to join the Meghna River near Dhaka. The Padma and Meghna converge near Chandpur and flow out into the Bay of Bengal. This final part of the river is called Meghna.
The Brahmaputra enters the plains of Bangladesh after turning south around the Garo Hills below Dhuburi, India. After flowing past Chilmari, Bangladesh, it is joined on its right bank by the Tista River and then follows a 240 km (150 - mi) course due south as the Jamuna River. (South of Gaibanda, the Old Brahmaputra leaves the left bank of the main stream and flows past Jamalpur and Mymensingh to join the Meghna River at Bhairab Bazar.) Before its confluence with the Ganga, the Jamuna receives the combined waters of the Baral, Atrai, and Hurasagar Rivers on its right bank and becomes the point of departure of the large Dhaleswari River on its left bank. A tributary of the Dhaleswari, the Buriganga ("Old Ganga ''), flows past Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, and joins the Meghna River above Munshiganj.
The Jamuna joins with the Ganga north of Goalundo Ghat, below which, as the Padma, their combined waters flow to the southeast for a distance of about 120 km (75 mi). After several smaller channels branch off to feed the Ganga - Brahmaputra delta to the south, the main body of the Padma reaches its confluence with the Meghna River near Chandpur and then enters the Bay of Bengal through the Meghna estuary and lesser channels flowing through the delta. The growth of the Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta is dominated by tidal processes.
The Ganga Delta, fed by the waters of numerous rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, is 59,570 square kilometres (23,000 sq mi) the largest river deltas in the world.
The basin of the Brahmaputra river is 651 334 km and it is a good example of a braided river and meanders quite a bit and frequently forms temporary sand bars. A region of significant tectonic activity has developed in the Jamuna River and is associated with the Himalayan uplift and development of the Bengal foredeep. Several researchers has hypothesized that the underlying structural control on the location of the major river systems of Bangladesh. A zone of ' structural weakness ' along the present course of the Ganga - Jamuna - Padma Rivers due to either a subsiding trough or a fault at depth has been observed by Morgan and Melntire. (1959). Scijmonsbergen (1999) contends that width changes in the Jamuna may respond to these faults and they may also cause increased sedimentation upstream of the fault. He presented a few images to argue that a fault downstream of the Bangabandhu Multipurpose Bridge has affected channel migration. Huge accumulations of sediment that have been fed from Himalayan erosion has been produced due to the deepening of the Bengal Basin, with the thickness of sediment above the Precambrian basement increasing from a few hundred metres in the shelf region to over 18 km in the Bengal foredeep to the south. The tectonic and climatic context for the large water and sediment discharges in the rivers of Bangladesh was set by the ongoing subsidence in the Bengal Basin, combined with high rates of Himalayan uplift. The control of uplift and subsidence is, however, clear. The courses of the Jamuna and Ganga Rivers are first - order controls due to the fact that they are most influenced by the uplifted Plcistoccnc terraces of the Barind and Madhupur tracts.
The Ganga - Brahmaputra system has the third - greatest average discharge of the world 's rivers -- roughly 30,770 m (1,086,500 ft) per second; and the river Brahmaputra alone supplies about 19,800 m (700,000 ft) per second of the total discharge. The rivers ' combined suspended sediment load of about 1.87 billion tonnes (1.84 billion tons) per year is the world 's highest.
In the past, the lower course of the Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. In a 7.5 magnitude earthquake on 2 April 1762, however, the main channel of the Brahmaputra at Bhahadurabad point was switched southwards and opened as Jamuna due to the result of tectonic uplift of the Madhupur tract.
Rising temperature is one of the major cause of snow - melting at the upper Brahmaputra catchment. The discharge of the river Brahmaputra is highly affected by the melting of snow at the upper part of its catchment. The attenuation of river flow due to the melting of snow in the river Brahmaputra basin affects the downstream discharge of the river. This increase in discharge due to significant retreat of snow gives rise to severe catastrophic problems such as flood and erosion.
The hydrology of the Brahmaputra River is characterized by its significant rates of sediment discharge, the large and variable flows, along with its rapid channel aggradations and accelerated rates of basin denudation. Over time, the deepening of the Bengal Basin caused by erosion will results in the increase in hydraulic radius, and hence allowing for the huge accumulation of sediments fed from the Himalayan erosion by efficient sediment transportation. The thickness of the sediment accumulated above the Precambrian basement has increased over the years from a few hundred meters to over 18 km in the Bengal fore - deep to the south. The ongoing subsidence of the Bengal Basin and the high rate of Himalayan uplift continues to contribute to the large water and sediment discharges of fine sand and silt, with 1 % clay, in the Brahmaputra River.
Climatic change plays a crucial role in affecting the basin hydrology. Throughout the year, there is a significant rise in hydrograph, with a broad peak between July and September. The Brahmaputra River experiences two high - water seasons, one in early summer caused by snow melt in the mountains, and one in late summer caused by runoff from monsoon rains. The river flow is strongly influenced by snow and ice melting of the glaciers, which are located mainly on the eastern Himalaya regions in the upstream parts of the basin. The snow and glacier melt contribution to the total annual runoff is about 27 %, while the annual rainfall contributes to about 1.9 m and 19,830 m3 / s of discharge. The highest recorded daily discharge in the Brahmaputra at Pandu was 72,726 m3 / s August 1962 while the lowest was 1,757 m3 / s in February 1968. The increased rates of snow and glacial melt are likely to increase summer flows in some river systems for a few decades, followed by a reduction in flow as the glaciers disappear and snowfall diminishes. This is particularly true for the dry season when water availability is crucial for the irrigation systems.
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed drastically in the past two and a half centuries, moving its river course westwards for a distance of about 80 km (50 mi), leaving its old river course, appropriately named the old Brahmaputra river, behind. In the past, the floodplain of the old river course had soils which were more properly formed compared to graded sediments on the operating Jamuna river. This change of river course resulted in modifications to the soil - forming process, which include acidification, breakdown of clays and buildup of organic matter, with the soils showing an increasing amount of biotic homogenization, mottling, coating arounds Peds and maturing soil arrangement, shape and pattern. In the future, the consequences of local ground subsidence coupled with flood prevention propositions, for instance localised breakwaters, that increase flood - plain water depths outside the water breakers, may alter the water levels of the floodplains. Throughout the years, bars, scroll bars and sand dunes are formed at the edge of the flood plain by deposition. The height difference of the channel topography is often not more than 1m - 2m. Furthermore, flooding over history of the river has caused the formation of river levees due to deposition from overbank flow. The height difference between the levee top and the surrounding floodplains is typically 1m along small channels and 2 - 3m along major channels. Crevasse splay, a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural or artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain, are often formed due to a breach in levee, forming a lobe of sediments which progrades onto the adjacent floodplain. Lastly, flood basins are often formed between the levees of adjacent rivers.
During the monsoon season (June -- October), floods are a very common occurrence. Deforestation in the Brahmaputra watershed has resulted in increased siltation levels, flash floods, and soil erosion in critical downstream habitat, such as the Kaziranga National Park in middle Assam. Occasionally, massive flooding causes huge losses to crops, life, and property. Periodic flooding is a natural phenomenon which is ecologically important because it helps maintain the lowland grasslands and associated wildlife. Periodic floods also deposit fresh alluvium, replenishing the fertile soil of the Brahmaputra River Valley. Thus flooding, agriculture, and agricultural practices are closely connected.
The effects of flooding can be devastating and cause significant damage to crops and houses, serious bank erosive with consequent loss of homesteads, school and land, and loss of many lives, livestock and fisheries. During the 1998 flood, over 70 % of the land area of Bangladesh was inundated, affecting 31 million people and 1 million homesteads. In the 1998 flood which had an unusually long duration from July to September, claimed 918 human lives and was responsible for damaging 16 00 and 6000 km of roads and embankments respectively, and affecting 6000 km of standing crops. The 2004 floods, over 25 % of the population of Bangladesh or 36 million people, was affected by the floods; 800 lives were lost; 952 000 houses were destroyed and 1.4 million were badly damaged; 24 000 educational institutions were affected including the destruction of 1200 primary schools, 2 million governments and private tubewells were affected, over 3 million latrines were damaged or washed away, this increases the risks of waterborne diseases including diarrhea and cholera. Also, 1.1 M ha of rice crop was submerged and lost before it could be harvested, with 7 % of the yearly aus (early season) rice crop lost; 270 000 ha of grazing land was affected, 5600 livestock perished together with 254 00 poultry and 63 MT of lost fish production.
Flood - control measures are taken by water resource department and the Brahmaputra Board, but until now the flood problem remains unsolved. At least a third of the land of Majuli island has been eroded by the river. Recently, it is suggested that a highway protected by concrete mat along the river bank and excavation of the river bed can curb this menace. This project, named the Brahmaputra River Restoration Project, is yet to be implemented by the government. Recently the Central Government approved the construction of Brahmaputra Express Highways.
The course of the Brahmaputra River has changed dramatically over the past 250 years, with evidence of large - scale avulsion, in the period 1776 -- 1850, of 80 km from east of the Madhupur tract to the west of it. Prior to 1843, the Brahmaputra flowed within the channel now termed the "old Brahmaputra ''. The banks of the river are mostly weakly cohesive sand and silts, which usually erodes through large scale slab failure, where previously deposited materials undergo scour and bank erosion during flood periods. Presently, the river 's erosion rate has decreased to 30m per year as compared to 150m per year from 1973 to 1992. This erosion has, however, destroyed so much land that it has caused 0.7 million people to become homeless due to loss of land.
Several studies have discussed the reasons for the avulsion of the river into its present course, and have suggested a number of reasons including tectonic activity, switches in upstream course of the Teesta River, the influence of increased discharge, catastrophic floods and river capture into an old river course. From an analysis of maps of the river between 1776 and 1843, it was concluded in a study that the river avulsion was more likely gradual than catastrophic and sudden, and may have been generated by bank erosion, perhaps around a large mid-channel bar, causing a diversion of the channel into the existing floodplain channel.
The Brahmaputra channel is governed by the peak and low flow periods during which its bed undergoes tremendous modification. The Brahmaputra 's bankline migration is inconsistent with time. The Brahmaputra river bed has widened significantly since 1916 and appears to be shifting more towards the south than towards the north. Together with the contemporary slow migration of the river, the left bank is being eroded away faster than the right bank.
The Brahmaputra River experiences high levels of bank erosion (usually via slab failure) and channel migration caused by its strong current, lack of river bank vegetation, and loose sand and silt which compose its banks. It is thus difficult to build permanent structures on the river, and protective structures designed to limit the river 's erosional effects often face numerous issues during and after construction. In fact, a 2004 report by the Bangladesh Disaster and Emergency Sub-Group (BDER) has stated that several of such protective systems have ' just failed '. However, some progress has been made in the form of construction works which stabilize sections of the river, albeit the need for heavy maintenance. The Bangabandhu Bridge, the only bridge to span the river 's major distributary, the Jamuna, was thus opened in June 1998. Constructed at a narrow braid belt of the river, it is 4.8 km long with a platform 18.5 m wide, and it is used to carry railroad traffic as well as gas, power and telecommunication lines. Due to the variable nature of the river, prediction of the river 's future course is crucial in planning upstream engineering to prevent flooding on the bridge.
China had built the Zangmu Dam in the upper course of the Brahmaputra River in the Tibet region and it was operationalised on 13 October 2015. The main purpose of the dam was to generate electricity for China and its operation has caused concerns for downstream neighbours like India as the presence of dams in the upper course of the river will mean unpredictability in the dynamics of downstream flows.
Early accounts give its name as Dyardanes. In the past, the course of the lower Brahmaputra was different and passed through the Jamalpur and Mymensingh districts. Some water still flows through that course, now called the Old Brahmaputra, as a distributary of the main channel.
A question about the river system in Bangladesh is when and why the Brahmaputra changed its main course, at the site of the Jamuna and the "Old Brahmaputra '' fork that can be seen by comparing modern maps to historic maps before the 1800s. The Brahmaputra likely flowed directly south along its present main channel for much of the time since the last glacial maximum, switching back and forth between the two courses several times throughout the Holocene.
One idea about the most recent avulsion is that the change in the course of the main waters of the Brahmaputra took place suddenly in 1787, the year of the heavy flooding of the river Tista.
In the middle of the 18th century, at least three fair - sized streams flowed between the Rajshahi and Dhaka Divisions, viz., the Daokoba, a branch of the Tista, the Monash or Konai, and the Salangi. The Lahajang and the Elengjany were also important rivers. In Renault 's time, the Brahmaputra as a first step towards securing a more direct course to the sea by leaving the Mahdupur Jungle to the east began to send a considerable volume of water down the Jinai or Jabuna from Jamalpur into the Monash and Salangi. These rivers gradually coalesced and kept shifting to the west till they met the Daokoba, which was showing an equally rapid tendency to cut towards the east. The junction of these rivers gave the Brahmaputra a course worthy of her immense power, and the rivers to right and left silted up. In Renault 's Altas they very much resemble the rivers of Jessore, which dried up after the hundred - mouthed Ganga had cut her new channel to join the Meghna at the south of the Munshiganj subdivision.
In 1809, Francis Buchanan - Hamilton wrote that the new channel between Bhawanipur and Dewanranj "was scarcely inferior to the mighty river, and threatens to sweep away the intermediate country ''. By 1830, the old channel had been reduced to its present insignificance. It was navigable by country boats throughout the year and by launches only during rains, but at the point as low as Jamalpur it was formidable throughout the cold weather. Similar was the position for two or three months just below Mymensingh also.
The waters of the River Brahmaputra are shared by China, India, and Bangladesh. In the 1990s and 2000s, there was repeated speculation that mentioned Chinese plans to build a dam at the Great Bend, with a view to divert the waters to the north of the country. This has been denied by the Chinese government for many years. At the Kathmandu Workshop of Strategic Foresight Group in August 2009 on Water Security in the Himalayan Region, which brought together in a rare development leading hydrologists from the basin countries, the Chinese scientists argued that it was not feasible for China to undertake such a diversion. However, on 22 April 2010, China confirmed that it was indeed building the Zangmu Dam on the Brahmaputra in Tibet, but assured India that the project would not have any significant effect on the downstream flow to India. This claim has also been reiterated by the Government of India, in an attempt to assuage domestic criticism of Chinese dam construction on the river, but is one that remains hotly debated. Recent years have seen an intensification of grassroots opposition, especially in the state of Assam, against Chinese upstream dam building, as well as growing criticism of the Indian government for its perceived failure to respond appropriately to Chinese hydropower plans.
In a meeting of scientists at Dhaka at 2010, 25 leading experts from the basin countries issued a Dhaka Declaration on Water Security calling for exchange of information in low - flow periods, and other means of collaboration. Even though the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention does not prevent any of the basin countries from building a dam upstream, customary law offers some relief to the lower riparian countries. There is also potential for China, India, and Bangladesh to cooperate on transboundary water navigation.
The lives of many millions of Indian and Bangladeshi citizens are reliant on the Brahmaputra river. Its delta is home to 130 million people and 600 000 people live on the riverine islands. These people rely on the annual ' normal ' flood to bring moisture and fresh sediments to the floodplain soils, hence providing the necessities for agricultural and marine farming. In fact, two of the three seasonal rice varieties (aus and aman) can not survive without the floodwater. Furthermore, the fish caught both on the floodplain during flood season and from the many floodplain ponds are the main source of protein for many rural populations.
National Waterway 2 (NW2) is 891 km long Sadiya - Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra River in Assam.
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the port huron statement expressed the views of | Port Huron Statement - wikipedia
The Port Huron Statement is a 1962 political manifesto of the North American student activist movement Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). It was written primarily by Tom Hayden, a University of Michigan student and then the Field Secretary of SDS, with help from 58 other SDS members, and completed on June 15, 1962, at a United Auto Workers retreat in Port Huron, Michigan (now Lakeport State Park), for the group 's first national convention. A few years later, however, the SDS shifted away from labor unions and more towards the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).
In December 1964, with the political climate drastically changing, a second printing of the manifesto was issued which included an introductory disclaimer which indicated that "while few of its original writers would agree today with all of its conclusions, '' the manifesto retained its importance as an "essential source of SDS direction '' and "one of the earliest embodiments of the feelings of the new movement of young people which began in the sixties.
The 25,700 - word statement "articulated the fundamental problems of American society and laid out a radical vision for a better future ''. It issued a nonideological call for participatory democracy, "both as a means and an end '', based on non-violent civil disobedience and the idea that individual citizens could help make "those social decisions determining the quality and direction '' of their lives. Also known as the "Agenda for a Generation '', it "brought the term ' participatory democracy ' into the common parlance ''.
It has been described as "a seminal moment in the development of the New Left '' and a "classic statement of (its) principles '', but it also revealed the 1960s ' tension between communitarianism and individualism. In particular, the statement viewed race ("symbolized by the Southern struggle against racial bigotry '') and Cold War -- induced alienation ("symbolized by the presence of the Bomb '') as the two main problems of modern society.
"Universal controlled disarmament must replace deterrence and arms control as the national defense goal. ''
"An imperative task for these publicly disinherited groups, then, is to demand a Democratic Party responsible to their interests. They must support Southern voter registration and Negro political candidates and demand that Democratic Party liberals do the same (in the last Congress, Dixiecrats split with Northern Democrats on 119 of 300 roll - calls, mostly on civil rights, area redevelopment and foreign aid bills; and breach was much larger than in the previous several sessions). Labor should begin a major drive in the South. In the North, reform clubs (either independent or Democratic) should be formed to run against big city regimes on such issues as peace, civil rights, and urban needs. Demonstrations should be held at every Congressional or convention seating of Dixiecrats. A massive research and publicity campaign should be initiated, showing to every housewife, doctor, professor, and worker the damage done to their interests every day a racist occupies a place in the Democratic Party. Where possible, the peace movement should challenge the "peace credentials '' of the otherwise - liberals by threatening or actually running candidates against them. ''
The Port Huron Statement argued that because "the civil rights and peace and student movements are too poor and socially slighted, and the labor movement too quiescent '', it should rally support and strengthen itself by looking to universities, which benefit from their "permanent position of social influence '' and being "the only mainstream institution that is open to participation by individuals of nearly any viewpoint ''. However, it stated that this "will involve national efforts at university reform by an alliance of students and faculty '' who "must wrest control of the educational process from the administrative bureaucracy '', ally with groups outside the university, integrate "major public issues into the curriculum '', "make debate and controversy ''. In short, "They must consciously build a base for their assault upon the loci of power. ''
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who played private daniel jackson in saving private ryan | Barry Pepper - wikipedia
Barry Robert Pepper (born April 4, 1970) is a Canadian actor. He played Private Daniel Jackson in Saving Private Ryan (1998), Corrections Officer Dean Stanton in The Green Mile (1999), Jonnie Goodboy Tyler in Battlefield Earth (2000), Roger Maris in 61 * (2001), Sergeant Michael Strank in Flags of Our Fathers (2006) and "Lucky '' Ned Pepper in True Grit (2010). He has been nominated for three Screen Actors Guild Awards and a Golden Globe Award. For his role as Robert F. Kennedy in the miniseries The Kennedys (2011), Pepper won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie.
Pepper was born the youngest of three boys in Campbell River, British Columbia, the son of a lumberjack. When he was five years old, his family set sail in a homemade ship, navigating through the South Pacific islands for five years. His education was completed in both public schools and correspondence courses. Due to the lack of television as entertainment, the family created and performed sketches for each other. When the family had finished their travels, they returned to Canada and set up a shop on Denman Island.
Pepper is perhaps best known for his role as the sniper Private Daniel Jackson in Saving Private Ryan. He portrayed Corrections Officer Dean Stanton in The Green Mile, appeared as Frank Slaughtery in Spike Lee 's 25th Hour, as journalist Joseph L. Galloway in We Were Soldiers, his leading role in the film Battlefield Earth, his depiction of Roger Maris in Billy Crystal 's HBO film 61 *, as Dale Earnhardt in the ESPN produced film 3: The Dale Earnhardt Story, and as Dan Morris in the film Seven Pounds, with Will Smith. He recently had roles in Casino Jack and the Coen brothers ' True Grit. Pepper provided the voice for Alex Mercer, the protagonist of the video game Prototype and the voice for Corporal Dunn, a character in the video game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2.
Pepper won the Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor for his performance in Battlefield Earth: A Saga of the Year 3000. He has stated that, had he known in advance he was going to win the award, he would have gladly accepted it in person. Pepper will star in psychological thriller Frost Road which is being directed by Call of Duty director Keith Arem. He also appeared in Jagged Edge 's music video for "Goodbye ''. In 2011, he starred as Robert F. Kennedy in the Canadian - American TV mini-series The Kennedys, for which he won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie.
In 2015, Pepper appeared in The Maze Runner sequel, Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials, as Vince, "a survivalist who is one of the last remaining soldiers of a legendary unit called the Right Arm ''. Filming began at the end of October 2014, and the movie was released on September 18, 2015.
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deep purple smoke on the water lyrics meaning | Smoke on the Water - wikipedia
"Smoke on the Water '' is a song by the English rock band Deep Purple. It was first released on their 1972 album Machine Head. In 2004, the song was ranked number 434 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest songs of all time, ranked number 4 in Total Guitar magazine 's Greatest Guitar Riffs Ever, and in March 2005, Q magazine placed "Smoke on the Water '' at number 12 in its list of the 100 greatest guitar tracks.
"Smoke on the Water '' is known for and recognizable by its central theme, developed by guitarist Ritchie Blackmore. It is a four - note blues scale melody in G minor, harmonised in parallel fourths. The riff, played on a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar by Blackmore, is later joined by hi - hat and distorted organ, then the rest of the drums, then electric bass parts before the start of Ian Gillan 's vocal. The opening lyrics are:
We all came out to Montreux, on the Lake Geneva shoreline To make records with a mobile, we did n't have much time
Jon Lord doubles the guitar part on a Hammond C3 organ played through a distorted Marshall amp, creating a tone very similar to that of the guitar. Blackmore usually plays the main riff using a finger pluck or occasionally a plectrum upstroke (to accentuate the tonic).
During an August 1972 show in Tokyo, Japan, Blackmore played the intro as follows:
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- 8 - 10_ -- -- 8 - 11 - 10__ -- -- -- 8 - 10_ - 8 -- -- - -- - 10 - 8 - 10_ - 10 - 8 - 11 - 10__ -- - 10 - 8 - 10_ - 8 - 10__ -- - 10 -- -- -- - 10 -- -- -- -- -- -- - 10 -- -- -- -- - 10__
There are two solos in the song; the first was performed on guitar by Ritchie Blackmore, and the second was performed on an organ by Jon Lord until the song fades out.
The lyrics tell a true story: on 4 December 1971, Purple were in Montreux, Switzerland, to record an album using a mobile recording studio (rented from the Rolling Stones and known as the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio -- referred to as the "Rolling truck Stones thing '' and "a mobile '' in the lyrics) at the entertainment complex that was part of the Montreux Casino (referred to as "the gambling house '' in the song lyric). On the eve of the recording session, a Frank Zappa and The Mothers of Invention concert was held in the casino 's theatre. This was to be the theatre 's final concert before the casino complex closed down for its annual winter renovations, which would allow Deep Purple to record there. At the beginning of Don Preston 's synthesizer solo on "King Kong '', the place suddenly caught fire when somebody in the audience fired a flare gun toward the rattan covered ceiling, as mentioned in the "some stupid with a flare gun '' line. Although there were no major injuries, the resulting fire destroyed the entire casino complex, along with all the Mothers ' equipment. The "smoke on the water '' that became the title of the song (credited to bass guitarist Roger Glover, who related how the title occurred to him when he woke from a dream a few days later) referred to the smoke from the fire spreading over Lake Geneva from the burning casino as the members of Purple watched from their hotel. "It was probably the biggest fire I 'd ever seen up to that point and probably ever seen in my life '' said Glover, "It was a huge building. I remember there was very little panic getting out, because it did n't seem like much of a fire at first. But, when it caught, it went up like a fireworks display ''. The "Funky Claude '' running in and out is referring to Claude Nobs, the director of the Montreux Jazz Festival who helped some of the audience escape the fire.
Left with an expensive mobile recording unit and no place to record, the band was forced to scout the town for another place to set up. One promising venue (found by Nobs) was a local theatre called The Pavilion, but soon after the band loaded in and started working / recording, neighbours took offence at the noise. The band was only able to lay down backing tracks for one song (based on Blackmore 's riff and temporarily named "Title No. 1 ''), before local police shut them down.
After about a week of searching, the band rented the nearly - empty Montreux Grand Hotel and converted its hallways and stairwells into a makeshift studio, where they laid down most of the tracks for what would become their most commercially successful album, Machine Head (which is dedicated to Claude Nobs).
The only song from Machine Head not recorded entirely in the Grand Hotel was "Smoke on the Water '' itself, which had been partly recorded during the abortive Pavilion session. Its lyrics were composed later, primarily by Gillan and based around Glover 's title, and the vocals were recorded in the Grand Hotel.
Because of the incident and the exposure Montreux received when "Smoke on the Water '' became an international hit, Purple formed a lasting bond with the town. The song is honoured in Montreux by a sculpture along the lake shore (right next to the statue of Queen frontman Freddie Mercury) with the band 's name, the song title, and the riff in musical notes. The new casino in Montreux displays notes from the riff as decoration on its balustrade facing the gambling hall.
On the Classic Albums episode about Machine Head, Ritchie Blackmore claimed friends of the band were not fans of the "Smoke on the Water '' riff, which they thought too simplistic. Blackmore retaliated by making comparisons to the first movement of Beethoven 's 5th Symphony, which revolves around a similar four note arrangement.
"The amazing thing with that song, and Ritchie 's riff in particular, '' observed Ian Paice, "is that somebody had n't done it before, because it 's so gloriously simple and wonderfully satisfying. ''
"Smoke on the Water '' was included on Machine Head, which was released in early 1972, but was not released as a single until a year later, in May 1973. ("Never Before '' and "Space Truckin ' '' were the first singles issued from the album.) The band members have said that they did not expect the song to be a hit, but the single reached number 4 on the Billboard pop singles chart in the United States during the summer of 1973, number 2 on the Canadian RPM charts, and it propelled the album to the top 10. Live performances of the tune, featuring extended interplay between Blackmore 's guitar and Jon Lord 's Hammond organ would become a centrepiece of Deep Purple 's live shows, and a version of the song from the live album Made in Japan became a minor hit on its own later on in 1973.
The principal songwriters included the song within their subsequent solo ventures after Deep Purple had split up. Ian Gillan in particular performed a jazz - influenced version in early solo concerts. The band Gillan adopted a feedback - soaked approach, courtesy of Gillan guitarist Bernie Torme. This song was also featured live by Ritchie Blackmore 's post-Deep Purple band Rainbow during their tours 1981 -- 83, and again after Rainbow was resurrected briefly in the mid-1990s and for three European concerts in June 2016.
During Ian Gillan 's stint with Black Sabbath in 1983, they performed "Smoke on the Water '' as a regular repertoire number on encores during their only tour together. It remains one of the few cover songs that Black Sabbath has ever played live.
The song is popular among beginner guitarists, but Blackmore himself has demonstrated that most who attempt to play it do so improperly. Actually played using "all fourths '' (or double stops) as specified by Blackmore, a power chord - driven variation on the main recognizable riff is not difficult, and is consequently often played by learners.
"Smoke on the Water '' has received the following rankings:
shipments figures based on certification alone
Rock Aid Armenia, a charity project to help victims of 1988 Armenian earthquake made a charity re-recording of Deep Purple 's "Smoke on the Water '', with different vocalists singing various verses. The single made it to the UK Top 40 Singles Chart.
The track was recorded by an elite group of contemporary prog rock, hard rock and heavy metal musicians who gathered at the historic Metropolis Studios in Chiswick, London. Recording began on 8 July 1989 and was completed over 5 different sessions.
The rock musicians involved in the recording included Bryan Adams, Ritchie Blackmore, Bruce Dickinson, Geoff Downes, Keith Emerson, Ian Gillan, David Gilmour, Tony Iommi, Alex Lifeson, Brian May, Paul Rodgers, Chris Squire and Roger Taylor. John Paul Jones and Jon Lord were credited as "helping '' behind the scenes with the track. The track 's producers were Gary Langan and Geoff Downes. Talent co-ordination for the record was overseen by Jon Dee, with David Gilmour being the first to join up after a call from Dee. Ian Gillan 's manager Phil Banfield also helped out with talent recruitment.
The iconic nature of the song has led to its inclusion in several music - related video games.
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when did andrea die on the walking dead | Andrea (the Walking Dead) - wikipedia
Andrea is a fictional character from the comic book series The Walking Dead and is portrayed by Laurie Holden in the American television series of the same name. The character was created by writer Robert Kirkman and artist Tony Moore, and debuted in The Walking Dead # 2 in 2003. In both mediums, she and her younger sister are among a group of survivors near Atlanta, Georgia.
In the comic book series, Andrea is a 25 - year - old law firm clerk who develops from an insecure and inexperienced young woman into a mature and hardened warrior, having killed more than any other character. She forms a relationship with moral compass Dale and they raise a short - lived family with adoptive twin sons, Billy and Ben. Andrea becomes the group 's primary sharpshooter and, later, a main instigator in the war against the infamous tyrant, Negan. During this event, the stress of war and grief over the loss of her family brings her closer to group leader Rick Grimes, with whom she becomes romantically involved thereafter, also becoming a surrogate mother to Carl, who begins calling her "mom. ''
In the television series, Andrea is thirteen years older, and a former successful civil rights attorney who forms a strong, but platonic, relationship with moral center, Dale Horvath. Her grief over her sister 's loss causes her to attempt suicide. Robert Kirkman assured this would initiate her transformation into the "fearless sharpshooter, '' mirroring her comic book counterpart, although the character 's motivations shift after other significant changes advance the story. In the series ' third season, the direction of the character drastically changes even further and her primary story arc involves the character being caught in the conflict between Rick and The Governor.
For her performance as Andrea, Holden received favorable reviews, although the character 's story arc in the third season was not well received. She was nominated for several awards including the Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television in 2010. She would later win the award in 2013.
As a main character of the comic book series, Andrea appears in every single volume. The character is introduced in issue two of The Walking Dead in the "Days Gone Bye '' storyline on November 12, 2003 while her first prose appearance is issue five on February 1, 2004 as a survivor of the zombie apocalypse. A former file clerk, Andrea is a head - strong and independent young woman beginning to find her place in the world. During the initial stages of the outbreak, she and her younger sister Amy are getting back from a road trip and heading towards Amy 's college, when they are stranded and eventually picked up by fellow survivor Dale. They set up camp together on the outskirts of Atlanta, Georgia, where they are soon joined by other survivors. The group members learn to handle guns, and Andrea discovers that she is an excellent marksman. When zombies invade the camp, Amy is bitten. A distraught Andrea shoots her sister to ensure that she does not return as a zombie. The group moves on, first to a gated community named Wiltshire Estates where Andrea and Dale engage in sex and thus begin a relationship. Following their desertion from the community, they end up at a farm, where they enjoy temporary peace. While there, Andrea makes continued failed attempts at consoling Allen and is concerned for the well - being of his children. No sooner after their arrival are they ousted from the farm by Hershel, and soon afterward while on the road she and Dale discover a path leading to a prison facility.
In "Safety Behind Bars '' (vol. # 3) s, Andrea takes part in the clearing out of the prison. One of the surviving inmates named Thomas Richards attempts to behead her as she does laundry. She manages to escape, but her earlobe is partially severed and she receives a facial scar. In "The Heart 's Desire '' (vol. # 4), in the aftermath of Thomas Richards ' death, Andrea settles in and takes it upon herself to do others ' laundry, among other household - like tasks. In addition to this, she discovers prison uniforms for the group to swap with their old clothes, and tests her sewing skills to make sure everyone has the appropriate length, ultimately becoming the group 's seamstress. Dale and Andrea later become surrogate parents to twins Billy and Ben when their father Allen is bitten by a zombie and dies. The prison 's existence is discovered by the Governor -- the leader of Woodbury, a nearby town of survivors. In the seventh volume "The Calm Before '', Andrea teaches other group members to shoot to prepare them to defend the prison, and joins an expedition led by fellow group member Tyreese to a nearby National Guard station, so as to increase their arsenal of weapons. Upon their return, Andrea discovers that Dale has been bitten on the calf by a zombie. She hurries him to the infirmary, where Rick Grimes, the groups ' leader, cuts off his leg to save his life. Dale becomes jealous when Andrea begins spending increased amounts of time with group member Tyreese, until she reveals that Tyreese was helping her make a wooden leg and crutches for Dale. In "Made to Suffer '', the eighth volume and conclusion to the first compendium, the Governor launches an attack on the prison. Andrea serves as a sniper and kills many of their attackers, though she is grazed by a bullet and receives a second facial scar. The Woodbury group retreats, and Dale convinces Andrea to leave the prison with him and the twins. When the prison is attacked for a second time, Andrea returns alone and again kills a number of the Woodbury group.
In the ninth volume "Here We Remain '', the prison survivors reunite back at the farm, where they meet a new group and decide to travel with them to Washington, D.C.. The group of survivors who are on a mission to Washington, D.C. consist of Abraham Ford (the leader), Eugene Porter (a man who claims to have knowledge on the cure, requesting to go to D.C.) and Rosita Espinosa (Abraham 's girlfriend). In "What We Become '' (vol. # 10), en route to DC, Dale attempts to convince Andrea to again break from the group and start a new life with Billy and Ben in an abandoned farmhouse. Andrea displays reluctance, and the suggestion becomes moot with the arrival of a herd of zombies. While on the road again, Ben murders Billy, seemingly unaware of the gravity of his actions. The group discuss killing him, and Dale suggests that the three of them leave together, but that night, Rick 's son Carl shoots Ben. Andrea is distraught, even more so when Dale disappears. In "Fear the Hunters '' (vol. # 11), she admits to Rick that she fears Dale never knew of her genuine love for him. Dale is later returned to the group missing his second leg, which has been eaten by cannibals. He reveals that he is dying, as he had been bitten by a zombie and left during the night to spare Andrea the pain of his death. She, Rick, Michonne and Abraham hunt down and murder the cannibals. She tells Dale how much she loves him, and is with him when he dies. As with Amy, she shoots him to stop him from turning into a zombie.
On the outskirts of Washington, the group are recruited by a scout for the nearby Alexandria Safe - Zone, at Alexandria, Virginia named Aaron. Andrea becomes the town 's look - out. Although she is pessimistic as to how long their safety will last, she attempts to discourage Rick from challenging the safe zone 's hierarchy. She rebuffs the romantic advances of the zone 's leader, Douglas Monroe. While she later shares a series of flirtations with Douglas Monroe 's son, Spencer, that culminates in their almost kissing, she terminates their fledgling relationship when he suggests they abandon the zone while the other inhabitants are under attack by zombies, including his own father and her friends. Andrea gradually begins to develop feelings for Rick. They share a kiss, but he rebuffs her, with the explanation that everyone he cares about dies, and he does not want to lose her. She attempts to convince him that their shared experiences make them uniquely compatible, and insists on joining him in his journey to a neighboring safe zone twenty two miles away known as the Hilltop Colony to demonstrate that he need not worry about her safety. Andrea, along with Rick, Michonne, Carl, and Glenn, go to the Hilltop Colony by ambassador Paul Monroe, a community hoping to start a trading network with them. There, they are shown around and introduced to Gregory. Another resident of the colony, Ethan, returns from a failed mission where all of his companions were killed except for himself and a woman named Crystal. Ethan then tells Gregory he has a message for him and stabs him. Rick tackles Ethan to the ground and in the struggle cuts his throat, while the rest of the residents stare at him, shocked. The survivors learn of the Hilltop 's trading with the dangerous Saviors and Andrea believes it to be "messed up '' that they had taken advantage of it and taken most of their supplies. On the way back to Alexandria, they are stopped by a band of Saviors demanding all the supplies that Gregory gave them. The group kills all but one of the Saviors, issuing a warning to send back to their leader Negan and they make it back to the community. Andrea and Rick later find Abraham 's corpse on the way back to the safe zone after she kills more Saviors to save Eugene who was left as a hostage. With Abraham gone, Rick feels Andrea is the only capable person left to defend the walls while he is gone to retrieve Paul Monroe and several others. While on patrol, a hesitant Andrea speaks to Spencer who is accepting of her relationship with Rick despite his jealousy earlier. Later, she successfully captures one of the Saviours who continue to attack named Dwight.
Andrea is taken aback by Rick 's news of Glenn 's death and feels they should retaliate by killing Dwight. He refuses, but she angrily protests saying he stop blaming himself every time someone they care about dies. During a meeting the next day, Andrea interrupts Rick and tries to rally the others to support her in fighting the Saviors. Rick says that he knows what he 's doing and releases Dwight to go back to Negan. Furious at Rick, Andrea decides to move out, but, when Rick tells her that he 's planning to take on The Saviors in the future, she forgives him. Rick tells Andrea about the alliance formed between the Safe - Zone, Dwight, and the leader of the Kingdom (another networking community) Ezekiel. He also gives more details about his plan, which she is happy to hear. She is then taken by Rick, along with Heath, Aaron, Michonne, and Carl, to visit the Kingdom. During their stay, Andrea observes several of the residents and is impressed with their accuracy with firearms. Rick tells her that there are over thirty residents in the Kingdom who are ready for combat, plus the twenty or so men that Paul is bringing from the Hilltop. She is a little hesitant and worried that they might not have enough manpower, but, Rick assures her that Eugene 's ammunition production will help even the score. During a conference between Rick, Ezekiel, and Paul, Andrea agrees with Ezekiel 's plan to focus on hitting the Savior outposts and whittle away their numbers. When they arrive back to the Safe - Zone, they are greeted with troubling news that Negan has arrived ahead of schedule and that he gutted Spencer, killing him. After Rick has an argument with Negan, he tells Andrea that this may be their best chance of killing Negan and to grab her rifle and get to the bell tower. He also tells her to rally the Alexandria defenders and have them assemble at the wall. She is able to kill the Savior who was driving the truck, however she is unable to get a clear shot of Negan. After the shot, Connor finds her, beats her, and almost kills her in the bell tower. While strangling her, Connor expresses his regret on killing her, since he sees that she 's been through so much. Andrea reaches for his knife and slashes his arm. She gets up and tries to kill him, until he pushes her against the ledge of the tower, with the knife against his throat. Connor challenges her to kill him before he pushes off. Right before she is about to be pushed over the ledge to her death, she flips Connor out of the tower and kills him. She then states that she and Rick are survivors. After this scuffle, Andrea passes out in the tower until Rick and Michonne help her back to the safe - zone. Back at the safe - zone, beaten and bruised, Andrea is patched up by Dr. Denise Cloyd. Andrea spends her time in recovery and bonds with Carl until Negan bombs the safe zone and they are forced to leave to the Hilltop, which Maggie Greene now rules over. Andrea assures Rick that everything he has done to unite the communities against Negan is justified. She shares a hug with her new family before Rick makes the decision to confront the attacking Saviors who are outside the Hilltop 's walls. She is shocked to hear that Rick is keeping him alive to rot in a cell, as she believes he should be publicly executed.
Two years after the events of "All Out War, '' Andrea is shown to still be with Rick, and now has Carl calling her "mom. '' She is preparing to run a fair that has been in preparation for months. They live in the re-built Alexandria Safe Zone with perimeter checks around the DC area to navigate their ways across the communities. She later tells Rick she agrees with the decision to send their son to the Hilltop to become a blacksmith apprentice. She bids Carl a farewell, telling him to follow Maggie 's rules. In Rick 's absence to trek to the Hilltop, she is the leader of the Alexandria Safe Zone. Andrea is questioned by newcomer Magna and her group about how they survived. She explains to Magna about the events of the war that unfolded. Andrea holds a gun to Negan 's head as he gets cleaned up in his prison cell, but later learns Olivia forgot to lock the cell door. She later urges the returned Rick to kill him again. The morning before the fair, Andrea wakes up early and meets with Siddiq to check on the structure for the fair, tearing up at the sight of vendors and booths being set up. When she learns of Carl 's disappearance, she joins Rick, Michonne, and Dante in a mission to bring him back safely. Once they are held hostage by the Whisperers, a tribe of thousands disguised as roamers, she sees the marked border of territories where she witnesses dozens of people she knew from each of the communities with their heads on spikes. After the massive walker herd swarms Alexandria, Andrea and a group of other survivors including Magna, Eugene and Yumiko try to lead the walkers away. Eugene and Andrea lead a large portion of the herd towards the ocean. Eugene attempts to lead more of the walkers away with the horn, but Andrea is reluctant. Andrea and the others stare in shock at the small wound on her neck which is revealed to be a bite from a walker. Upon returning to Alexandria, Rick and others say their farewells as she slowly passes away. Before her death, she reminds Rick to stay strong and continue to lead the community to rebuild society. Andrea eventually reanimates as walker and tries to kill Rick, only for him to stab her in the head with a knife.
Andrea, a civil rights attorney, along with her younger sister Amy are part of the quarry survivor camp outside of Atlanta. She is part of a scavenger group trapped in a department store in Atlanta when Rick Grimes arrives. After rescuing Rick, the group takes some time to plan out; during this, Andrea realizes that Amy 's birthday is coming up and takes a necklace for her. Later, they are forced to handcuff Merle to pipes on the store 's roof when he becomes violent, and end up leaving him there when they make their escape. The group eventually escape and make their way back to the quarry. Later, Rick and others go back to Atlanta to retrieve his gun bag. While they are gone, the quarry camp is overrun with walkers, and Amy is among those to be bitten. Andrea holds a dying Amy in her arms, putting the necklace on her, and tearfully telling her how much she loves her; however, as soon as Amy turns, Andrea shoots her, and hugs the body before she is buried with the others.
The group opts to leave the quarry and head for the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in downtown Atlanta, hoping there will still be researchers there. However, only one, Dr. Jenner, remains, but he offers the group shelter. While the group enjoys the luxuries of the CDC, they learn that it is already running on emergency power and once the generators run out of fuel, the building will be explode as a failsafe to kill the virulent samples it contains. While others in the group attempt to escape, Dale and Jacqui elect to stay behind with Dr. Jenner, ready to die. Andrea decides she will also stay along with Dale, but Dale realizes that Andrea has much more to live for, and he decides he wants to live, forcing Andrea to come with him. They make it out of the building in time before it explodes. The group leaves Atlanta towards Fort Benning.
Due to several events, the group is allowed to take shelter on Hershel Greene 's farmstead while they search for Sophia who went missing in the midst of a walker horde passage. Andrea is angry with Dale for denying her the choice to die. This intensifies when he agrees with Rick and Shane Walsh that only those who have been trained should be allowed firearms and later confiscates her father 's gun. She later approaches Shane and asks to go with him should he leave the group. Dale eventually returns Andrea 's gun to her, but warns her not to give him a reason to regret that. Andrea helps to keep watch over the farm, and Shane continues to help Andrea with her shooting skills and they start to develop a romantic relationship. Dale, who has become distrustful of Shane, warns Andrea about this, but Andrea insists Shane has done more for the group than Rick has. Lori Grimes also criticizes Andrea for not supporting the group through necessary chores such as cooking.
In the Greene household, Hershel 's youngest daughter Beth becomes suicidal, and put on watch. During Andrea 's watch, Andrea decides to leave the room, believing that Beth would come to realize that she did n't want to die by being left by herself, but Beth takes the opportunity to try to slit her wrists. Hershel and Maggie race to bandage her wounds, which were shallow and not lethal, but Maggie is furious with Andrea and bans her from the house.
Eventually, the farm becomes overrun by walkers. Andrea is separated from the others, but as she escapes, she runs into a figure wielding a katana and leading two walkers on chains.
Andrea 's rescuer is revealed to be Michonne, who helps to escort her over the next several months and the two body. Andrea becomes ill, but Michonne is able to find medicine to help her. When they see a helicopter crash nearby, they go to investigate but find that it is already being scoured by Merle, who managed to escape by sawing off his hand and since replaced it with a prosthetic bayonet, and other men. Though they try to stay hidden, Andrea and Michonne are captured, with Merle recognizing Andrea from Atlanta, and taken back to Woodbury, a walled community being run by The Governor. The Governor allows them to stay, but Michonne is very uncomfortable about the community and makes to leave, while Andrea, tired of wandering, accepts the Governor 's hospitality. Merle warns The Governor privately about the other members of Rick 's group due to Andrea 's appearance.
Andrea becomes a close confidant and of romantic interest to the Governor, and assists Milton in studying the walker epidemic. Later, Merle discovers and captures Glenn and Maggie, and takes him to the Governor who harshly interrogates them about where the rest of Rick 's group is at. Michonne, who had seen this abduction, finds Rick 's group, sheltered in a nearby prison, and she leads a small group back to rescue the pair. Michonne seeks out the Governor herself, discovering he has kept the still - animated heads of several walkers alive in fishtanks, as well as the re-animated body of his daughter Penny. She dispatches Penny, just as the Governor arrives, and the two fight, with Michonne ending up cutting out one of the Governor 's eyes. She is able to kill him when Andrea arrives and warns Michonne away at gunpoint. Michonne flees with the rest of Rick 's group, though Rick and Andrea catch sight of each other during this. However, Daryl has been captured after finding his brother is still alive, and Andrea is forced to watch as the Governor forces them to battle to the death, since Merle had lied to him. However, the brothers manage to escape when Rick 's group return to help out.
The Governor is vengeful after the attack, but Andrea provides an inspirational speech to the Woodbury residents about rebuilding. The Governor compliments her, but secretly has Milton keep tabs on her. Andrea suggests that she could bridge the Woodbury and prison groups for a peaceful resolves, but the Governor refuses; however, he tells Milton to help Andrea escape and seek out the prison, so that they can find it themselves, planning on launching an attack in revenge. She makes it to the prison, but refuses to help Rick 's group sneak back into Woodbury, and Carol instead suggests she assassinate the Governor. When she returns to Woodbury, she has the opportunity to kill a sleeping Governor but she is unable to strike the blow. Instead, Andrea arranges for the two sides to negotiate at a neutral location, but both Rick and the Governor refuse to allow her to join in their discussion. She discovers the Governor 's plans to launch an attack at the prison, and tries to escape, but the Governor captures her just as she reaches the prison. Back in Woodbury, the Governor throws her in a torture cell, strapped to a chair. He then fatally wounds Milton, having come to determine he has turned against him, and leaves them to be, anticipating that Milton will die, reanimate, and kill Andrea. A dying Milton keeps enough consciousness to point Andrea to a set of tools just in her reach to cut her bonds.
The Governor launches his attack but Rick 's group quickly overpowers them, forcing the Governor to flee elsewhere. Knowing Andrea may be in trouble at Woodbury, Rick and others head there, but arrive too late: Milton had turned, and while Andrea did free herself enough to subdue Milton 's reanimated body, she has also been bitten. She is conscious enough to welcome her friends, and for them to say goodbyes to her. She asks Rick for his gun to end her own life, and the others leave as Michonne stays behind with Andrea before she commits suicide. Andrea 's body is brought back to the prison to be buried.
Andrea is portrayed by Laurie Holden (The X-Files, The Shield, Silent Hill), who was cast as part of the series in 2010. Prior to the show, Holden had been in two of Frank Darabont 's films, The Majestic (2001) and The Mist (2007); in the latter she starred with three other Walking Dead cast members (Melissa McBride, Juan Gabriel Pareja and Jeffrey DeMunn). Soon after being cast, she read through the comics to analyze and get a definite understanding of Andrea 's character. She acknowledged her enjoyment of having a much more physical role than on some of her other past projects, as well as her excitement towards having her character gradually become a warrior like in the comics.
Andrea, as she appears in the comic series, is described by The Hollywood Reporter 's James Hibberd as "a key member of the survivor group who has a proficiency with a sniper rifle and falls for a man twice her age. '' Showrunner Scott M. Gimple (season 4 -- present) describes Andrea in the comic as having an "interesting evolution ''. He said: "There was a certain brashness and cockiness that she had. We 've seen her mature. '' In the television series, she attempts suicide at the end of the first season, but Dale talks her out of this. Comic creator Robert Kirkman explained that her ensuing desire to protect herself would begin her evolution into her comic counterpart, "the fearless sharpshooter ''. On television, Andrea 's motivation shifts following Dale 's death. Holden allowed the event to color her portrayal, and for the remainder of season two, before each scene she filmed, she thought "Andrea, you must honor Dale. '' She explained that "every move that Andrea makes from that point forward is about honoring Dale, and that means being a leader, having a stronger moral compass, being compassionate and really lending her hand more so than she would have before. '' Former showrunner Glen Mazzara deemed Andrea the only character who could "hold (her) head up '' after Dale 's death, as she alone supported him against killing Randall and is "the one person who feels that she stood by him at the end. ''
In the comic series, Andrea has a physical relationship with Dale. Holden was surprised to discover this while researching her role, but in March 2011, stated her intention to "honor the relationship well ''. However, Mazzara and Kirkman decided not to incorporate the relationship into the television series, and Dale was killed much sooner in the television series than he was in the comics. Holden was dismayed by his departure; she commented that she "love (d) the Dale - Andrea dynamic and... felt like (they) had so much more story to explore together ''. For Kirkman, the effect of Dale 's death on the continuing plot was worth sacrificing their relationship. He expressed his approval of the differences between the series and its source material, and advised viewers interested in the relationship storyline to read the comics.
Also in the comics, Andrea and Rick eventually become romantically involved within their time at the Alexandria Safe - Zone community. Their relationship, while genuine and affectionate, was initially shown to be strained, as Rick struggled to get over the deaths of his past lovers and Andrea found herself constantly at odds with some of Rick 's decisions in life - threatening matters. Later, especially near the end of the war and two years later, Andrea and Rick 's relationship is very intimate and close, as Carl looks to Andrea as a maternal figure, referring to her "mom ''.
Though Shane dies in the comics before the group reaches the farm, he remains alive longer in the television series. This resulted in alterations to the ensuing plot, including the creation of a relationship between Andrea and Shane. In season three, Andrea begins flirting with the Governor, the leader of a town she and Michonne are staying at, before she enters into a full - fledged romantic / sexual relationship with him.
The death of Andrea (Laurie Holden) in the television series marks one of the biggest departures from Robert Kirkman 's source material in which Andrea played an active role within the series beyond this for a total of 13 years. In an interview published March 31, 2013, TVLine asked Holden how long in advance she knew about her character Andrea 's death. Holden replied, "I did n't get the official word until a few days before we began (shooting) the finale. It was a shock to everyone. It was never part of the original story docs for Season 3. And it was rather unexpected. '' Robert Kirkman said: "The comics still exist and I 'd urge those people to continue reading the comics where Andrea is still alive. Just know the show is something different and we are telling different stories. It does n't mean we 're not going to see a lot of the big stories and big events from the comic book in the TV show eventually; it just means those things will be a little bit altered from time to time. Hopefully it will be exciting, new and fresh just like it was the first time you read the comic, which is really the goal. '' Kirkman also said: "It 's something that was debated quite a bit. There was a lot of opposition in the writers ' room. I bounced back and forth between ' We really should n't kill her ' and ' this is a good idea. ' In the end it all came together and we decided to go for it. It was definitely something that divided the room to a certain extent. ''
Holden expressed desires of wanting to continue Andrea 's story but she was grateful for the end result: "Do I wish we could 've seen and explored more of the comic - book - Robert - Kirkman Andrea? Yes. Absolutely. Do I wish that I had more scenes with Michonne showing that friendship? Yes. Absolutely. But at the end of the day, I do n't think I could ask for a better death. I feel like her life mattered, and she died trying, and her heart was in the right place. I feel grateful for that. You ca n't have it all. ''
Glen Mazzara said the decision to kill off Andrea occurred organically throughout the season, and talks of it emerged half - way through. He also addressed that he never planned to faithfully follow the comic book source material anyway, regarding the negative feedback from comic book readers. On the significance of Andrea 's death, he said:
I thought it was important that we always show that no one is safe. It 's also important to show the effect that these deaths have on our other characters. Andrea 's death, for example, I knew Rick was going to finally open up the gates of the prison after a season in which he 's trying to hide away from the world and lock everybody away and keep them safe. He realizes what that means -- that our group is now becoming isolated and will be picked off, that his own son is on the road to becoming the Governor (David Morrissey), so he has to open up the gates and let other people in and be compassionate. At the end of the finale, he brings in these women, children and elderly people and the group is going to transform. There needed to be a blood sacrifice for that, and there had to be a price that was paid. Andrea paying that price was important. She is unable to re-enter the group. In a way, a lot of what she did was bring the two groups together. But she 's never able to enter the prison and be reunited in a full way with Rick 's group. That was an ultimate sacrifice that was worthy of the season finale.
At Walker Stalker Con Chicago in 2014, Greg Nicotero and Laurie Holden discussed in depth the death of Andrea. They revealed there were three different versions of the script. One version included Andrea surviving the season finale and saving the people of Woodbury, leading them back to the prison. The other was the one that was written by Glen Mazzara and the aired one re-written partially by Scott Gimple. Holden felt that re-shooting her original death scene two months later was satisfying, because "she needed to be with her friends '' and felt that she died with "grace '' in the re-shoot as opposed to a "D - movie horror death '' in the original run. Holden also revealed that the decision caused Glen Mazzara to lose his job as showrunner, as many of the writers were against the concept. Nicotero felt that Andrea 's character got "lost in the writing '' for the third season.
The death of Andrea in the comic book series came 4 years later in "Issue # 167 '' after the war with Negan and the Whisperers. Robert Kirkman issued an apology for killing Andrea and said, ""I 'm sorry. I 'm sorry to my fans and to myself and to Andrea. I feel like I killed a close friend. The deaths in this series are never taken lightly, they 're never done with a sense of glee. They weigh on me the same way they weigh on you. These characters are very real to me, and their deaths are upsetting even to me. I plotted this issue out during a plane ride a few months ago. I plot my stories down with a pencil and paper, and there I was in my seat, blocking out scenes and writing dialog notes, surrounded by strangers who probably thought I was jotting down a shopping list. As I was writing some of the moments from this issue, I started crying. I found myself glancing around, wiping my eyes, hoping no one would notice. I 've been living with this death for months now... and I do n't like it. I had plenty of time to change my mind. I had plenty of time to just not do it. I am in control of this story after all. But honestly, sometimes it feels like I 'm not. This was one of those times. I do n't like this. I do n't want this. I want Andrea to live. I want to write more stories with her. I want to see her and Rick grow old together, watching Carl grow up and have kids of his own. I want that kind of happiness for these characters. And yet, here we are. Andrea is dead and the story moves on. I do n't know why this had to happen... but I know it did. I know this is another important turning point in the life of this series. I know Andrea 's death will mean something, that will resonate in the stories moving forward for years to come. But I still do n't like it. It still upsets me. I loved Andrea and I will truly miss her. ''
The Weekly Crisis listed Andrea as # 2 in their list of The Ten Best Characters in The Walking Dead, describing her as "Rick 's real right hand, and she 's definitely no man '', commenting on her expert marksmanship, loyalty and positively calling Rick and Andrea a "power couple ''.
Holden 's performance as Andrea was well - received, particularly in the first and second seasons. Her character 's role in the third season, however, was often criticized by critics and fans alike. Many praised the sisterly bond between Andrea and her sister, Amy (Emma Bell), her relationship with Dale and Andrea 's grieving process and transformation into a skilled fighter by the end of the second season. For her performance in the first season, in 2011, Holden received a Saturn Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress on Television for her portrayal of Andrea. Her portrayal as Andrea in "TS - 19 '' was particularly well received by MTV 's Josh Wigler, who said she "delivered great character work. '' Similarly, Alan Sepinwall of HitFix ultimately cited the performance of Laurie Holden as an episode highlight.
For her performance in the second season, she was also nominated for a Best Supporting Actress Scream Award. For the season 2 premiere "What Lies Ahead '', Derek Boeckelmann of the Daily Nexus praised the performance of Holden, saying that she "continues to be the strongest of the show 's players, consistently putting forth exceptional performances as the grieving Andrea. '' Critics applauded the growing relationship between Andrea and Shane in the episode "Secrets ''. Despite describing them as an "unlikely pairing '', Scott Meslow of The Atlantic asserted that it was superior to the storyline between Andrea and Dale. "There 's something to be said for the occasional post-apocalyptic tryst, which allows two characters who 've experienced almost nothing but misery to have, even for a moment, something that resembles joy, '' he articulated. Meslow retorted that it was wise to underplay the tryst between Shane and Andrea, which he predicted would not lead to anything serious.
The character development of Andrea produced uniform praise among critics in the season 2 finale, "Beside the Dying Fire ''. Writing for Paste, Josh Jackson felt that it served as the episode 's highlight, and further assessed that she emulated actress Linda Hamilton. "After a season of whining, there had to have been at least a few fans pulling for the walkers in her early scenes, but she quickly became Linda Hamilton - badass, braining zombies with her foot, '' he said. Likewise, Kine asserted that "the badass she has tried so hard to convince us all she is finally came across. '' Ryan thought that Andrea 's struggle to survive was a strong way to build up the exodus of the group. She spoke of her scene with Michonne: "She 'd fought so hard to live that I wanted Andrea to fend off that final batch of walkers successfully. When it appeared she might not live, I was, quite rightly, on the edge of my seat. And the appearance of the caped figure -- towing two armless walkers, no less -- was as dramatic as could be. ''.
Andrea 's role in the third season is a significant departure from the comic book series. In comparison to previous seasons, her role was criticized and garnered generally negative critiques. Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly commented negatively on Andrea 's actions and her relationship with The Governor, invented for the show, saying: "The characters on Walking Dead appear stuck in their tracks, reliving the same traumas over and over. Will Andrea fall for next season 's villain, too? '' Entertainment Weekly later included Andrea in their list of "21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever ''. Zack Handlen, writing for The A.V. Club felt that the climax of "I Ai n't a Judas '' did n't strengthen the sense of who Andrea is, and called the character "problematic '' and "a mess '', which "only becomes more obvious when she 's asked to serve as the center of some kind of ongoing moral crisis. '' He then speculated whether "the horrible scripting '' was responsible. Eric Goldman for IGN disliked the episode because it was Andrea - centric, a character he disliked particularly in the third season.
Andrea 's death received a polarized reaction. For "Welcome to the Tombs '', IGN writer Eric Goldman disliked that the finale rested its dramatic conclusion on Andrea 's death. AV Club writer Zack Handlen said that Andrea would be "missed less '' than Milton. Erik Kain of Forbes.com said that "Finally, Andrea is dead. I know this is something I 've wished for all season, but it almost felt cheap at the end. '' Conversely, Josh Jackson, writing for Paste called the death "a heartbreaking end for the woman who tried to make piece (sic) between the two gangs of survivors. '' Despite the negative reception Andrea received for the third season, Holden was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress for her work on The Walking Dead in 2013, and won.
Among the various action figures released by McFarlane Toys, Andrea is featured in two line - ups. In the series 3 line - up of figures for Skybound 's The Walking Dead comic book series, she wears a tank top and has two facial scars. Other accessories include her signature scoped rifle, along with a pistol and a knife. The figure is 5 to 5 1 / 2 inches in scale, and also has a black and white bloody version. Her television series counterpart also appears in the fourth line - up of its 4 to 4 / 12 inch figures. The figure comes with a pistol with leg holster, sniper rifle, and pitchfork from Hershel 's farm.
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can hand lotion be used as body lotion | Lotion - wikipedia
A lotion is a low - viscosity topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity.
Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, cotton wool, or gauze. While lotion may be used as a medicine delivery system, many lotions, especially hand lotions and body lotions are meant instead to simply smooth, moisturize and soften the skin. These may be used in anti-aging lotions, which can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases, and may contain fragrances. The Food and Drug Administration voiced concern about lotions not classified as drugs that advertise anti-aging or anti-wrinkle properties.
Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases. It is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion, cream and ointment. Creams are the most convenient of the three but are inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous and may be readily applied to these areas (many medicated shampoos are in fact lotions). Historically, lotions also had an advantage in that they may be spread thinly compared to a cream or ointment and may economically cover a large area of skin, but product research has steadily eroded this distinction. Non-comedogenic lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin.
Lotions can be used for the delivery to the skin of medications such as:
Since health care workers must wash their hands frequently to prevent disease transmission, hospital grade lotion is recommended to prevent skin dermatitis caused by frequent exposure to cleaning agents in the soap. A 2006 study found that application of hospital grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness.
Care must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the perfumes and allergens may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient.
Most lotions are oil - in - water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water - in - oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aqueous and oily phases, an emulgent to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. A wide variety of other ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.
Since thickness and consistency are key factors in lotions and creams, it is important to understand the manufacturing process that determines viscosity.
Manufacturing lotions and creams can be completed in two cycles:
A typical oil - in - water manufacturing process might go like this:
Careful note should be taken in choosing the right mixing equipment for lotion manufacturing to avoid agglomerates and long processing times. It can make all the difference in manufacturing time and costs. Conventional agitators can present a number of problems including agglomerates and longer processing times. On the other hand, high shear in - line mixers can produce quality lotions and creams without many of the complications encountered with conventional mixers. Sonolation is also a process that is growing in popularity.
Depending on their composition, lotions can be comedogenic, meaning that they can result in the increased formation of comedones. Sufferers of acne, or those who are predisposed to forming comedones, should look for formulations that are designed to be noncomedogenic.
All topical products, including lotions, can result in the percutaneous absorption of their contents. Though this has limited use as a route of drug administration, it more commonly results in unintended, and often undesirable, consequences. For example, medicated lotions such as Diprolene are often used with the intention of exerting only local effects, but absorption of the drug through the skin can occur to a small degree, resulting in systemic side effects such as hyperglycemia and glycosuria. Absorption is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an occlusive layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin.
A 2015 study funded by the California Breast Cancer Research Program found that parabens, a common ingredient in cosmetic lotions, stimulate breast cancer cell proliferation.
There is currently no regulation over use of the term "hypoallergenic '', and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.
The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow 's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.
Lotions are mainly intended to help the skin, but can also harm your skin. Christina Marino, who practices at Johns Hopkins Community Physicians, has conducted much research on this aspect. Moisturizers contain ingredients that are either occlusive or humectant. Occlusive agents are used to help block the loss of water from the skin. Humectant agents are used to attract water to the skin. Significant water exposure to the skin can cause the loss of soluble natural factors. Persistent moisturization to the skin from exposure to water may contribute to an allergic reaction or irritant contact dermatitis, and can result in penetration of foreign objects. Changes in the skin 's normal ecological environment, in or on the skin, can support the overgrowth of pathological organisms. Lotions contain 65 - 85 % of water. Water acts as an agent to disperse the active and inactive ingredients in the lotion. A high water content also serves as a way for the absorption of some components and evaporation of the moisturizer. Water acts as a temporary hydration agent.
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where do most bills that are not passed stop | Royal assent - wikipedia
Royal assent or sanction is the method by which a country 's monarch (possibly through a delegated official) formally approves an act of that nation 's parliament. In certain nations, such assent makes the act law (promulgation) while in other nations assent is distinct from promulgation. In the vast majority of contemporary monarchies, this act is considered to be little more than a formality; even in those nations which still permit their monarchs to withhold royal assent (such as the United Kingdom, Norway, and Liechtenstein), the monarch almost never does so, save in a dire political emergency or upon the advice of their government. While the power to withhold royal assent was once exercised often in European monarchies, it is exceedingly rare in the modern, democratic political atmosphere that has developed there since the 18th century.
Royal assent is sometimes associated with elaborate ceremonies. In the United Kingdom, for instance, the sovereign may appear personally in the House of Lords or may appoint Lords Commissioners, who announce that royal assent has been granted at a ceremony held at the Palace of Westminster for this purpose. However, royal assent is usually granted less ceremonially by letters patent. In other nations, such as Australia, the governor - general merely signs the bill. In Canada, the governor general may give assent either in person at a ceremony held in the Senate or by a written declaration notifying parliament of his or her agreement to the bill.
Before the Royal Assent by Commission Act of 1541 became law, assent was always required to be given by the sovereign in person before Parliament.
The last time royal assent was given by the sovereign in person was in the reign of Queen Victoria at a prorogation on 12 August 1854.
The Act was repealed and replaced by the Royal Assent Act of 1967. However section 1 (2) of that Act does not prevent the sovereign from declaring assent in person if he or she so desires.
Royal assent is the final step required for a parliamentary bill to become law. Once a bill is presented to the sovereign or the sovereign 's representative, he or she has the following formal options:
Under modern constitutional conventions, the sovereign acts on the advice of his or her ministers. Since these ministers most often enjoy the support of parliament and obtain the passage of bills, it is improbable that they would advise the sovereign to withhold assent. Hence, in modern practice, royal assent is always granted; a refusal to do so would be appropriate only in an emergency requiring the use of the monarch 's reserve powers.
The sovereign does not have the power to withhold assent from a bill against the advice of ministers. The last bill that was refused assent by the sovereign (on the advice of ministers) was the Scottish Militia Bill during Queen Anne 's reign in 1708.
Originally, legislative power was exercised by the sovereign acting on the advice of the Curia Regis, or Royal Council, in which important magnates and clerics participated and which evolved into parliament. Membership of the so - called Model Parliament included bishops, abbots, earls, barons, two knights from each shire and two burgesses from each borough. In 1265, the Earl of Leicester irregularly called a full parliament without royal authorisation. The body eventually came to be divided into two branches: bishops, abbots, earls, and barons formed the House of Lords, while the shire and borough representatives formed the House of Commons. The King would seek the advice and consent of both houses before making any law. During Henry VI 's reign, it became regular practice for the two houses to originate legislation in the form of bills, which would not become law unless the sovereign 's assent was obtained, as the sovereign was, and still remains, the enactor of laws. Hence, all Acts include the clause "Be it enacted by the Queen 's (King 's) most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows... ''. The Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 provide a second potential preamble if the House of Lords were to be excluded from the process.
The power of parliament to pass bills was often thwarted by monarchs. Charles I dissolved parliament in 1629, after it passed motions and bills critical of -- and seeking to restrict -- his arbitrary exercise of power. During the eleven years of personal rule that followed, Charles performed legally dubious actions such as raising taxes without Parliament 's approval. After the English Civil War, it was accepted that parliament should be summoned to meet regularly, but it was still commonplace for monarchs to refuse royal assent to bills. In 1678, Charles II withheld his assent from a bill "for preserving the Peace of the Kingdom by raising the Militia, and continuing them in Duty for Two and Forty Days, '' suggesting that he, not parliament, should control the militia. The last Stuart monarch, Anne, similarly withheld on 11 March 1708, on the advice of her ministers, her assent to a bill for the settling of Militia in Scotland. No monarch has since withheld royal assent on a bill passed by the British parliament.
During the rule of the succeeding Hanoverian dynasty, power was gradually exercised more by parliament and the government. The first Hanoverian monarch, George I, relied on his ministers to a greater extent than had previous monarchs. Later Hanoverian monarchs attempted to restore royal control over legislation: George III and George IV both openly opposed Catholic Emancipation and asserted that to grant assent to a Catholic emancipation bill would violate the Coronation Oath, which required the sovereign to preserve and protect the established Church of England from Papal domination, and would grant rights to individuals who were in league with a foreign power which did not recognise their legitimacy. However, George IV reluctantly granted his assent upon the advice of his ministers. Thus, as the concept of ministerial responsibility has evolved, the power to withhold royal assent has fallen into disuse, both in the United Kingdom and in the other Commonwealth realms.
In 1914, George V did take legal advice on withholding royal assent from the Government of Ireland Bill, a highly contentious piece of legislation that the Liberal government intended to push through parliament by means of the Parliament Act 1911. The King decided that he should not withhold assent without "convincing evidence that it would avert a national disaster, or at least have a tranquillising effect on the distracting conditions of the time ''.
Royal assent is the final stage in the legislative process for acts of the Scottish parliament. The process is governed by sections 28, 32, and 33 of the Scotland Act 1998. After a bill has been passed, the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament submits it to the monarch for royal assent after a four - week period, during which the Advocate General for Scotland, the Lord Advocate, the Attorney General or the Secretary of State for Scotland may refer the bill to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom (prior to 1 October 2009, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council) for review of its legality. Royal assent is signified by letters patent under the Great Seal of Scotland in the following form which is set out in The Scottish Parliament (Letters Patent and Proclamations) Order 1999 (SI 1999 / 737) and of which notice is published in the London, Edinburgh, and Belfast Gazettes:
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen Head of the Commonwealth Defender of the Faith To Our trusty and well beloved the members of the Scottish Parliament GREETING:
For as much as various Bills have been passed by the Scottish Parliament and have been submitted to Us for Our Royal Assent by the Presiding Officer of the Scottish Parliament in accordance with the Scotland Act 1998 the short Titles of which Bills are set forth in the Schedule hereto but those Bills by virtue of the Scotland Act 1998 do not become Acts of the Scottish Parliament nor have effect in the Law without Our Royal Assent signified by Letters Patent under Our Scottish Seal (that is Our Seal appointed by the Treaty of Union to be kept and used in Scotland in place of the Great Seal of Scotland) signed with Our own hand and recorded in the Register of the Great Seal We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them do give Our Royal Assent to those Bills COMMANDING ALSO the Keeper of Our Scottish Seal to seal these Our Letters with that Seal.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent.
WITNESS Ourself at... the... day of... in the... year of Our Reign. By The Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
Measures, which were the means by which the National Assembly for Wales passed legislation between 2006 and 2011, were assented to by the Queen by means of an Order in Council. Section 102 of the Government of Wales Act 2006 required the Clerk to the Assembly to present measures passed by the assembly after a four - week period during which the Counsel General for Wales or the Attorney General could refer the proposed measure to the Supreme Court for a decision as to whether the measure was within the assembly 's legislative competence.
Following the referendum held in March 2011, in which the majority vote for the assembly 's law - making powers to be extended, measures were replaced by Acts of the Assembly. Similarly to Acts of the Scottish parliament, after a four - week waiting period royal assent to acts of the assembly will be given by means of letters patent using the following wording:
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen Head of the Commonwealth Defender of the Faith To Our Trusty and well beloved the members of the National Assembly for Wales GREETING:
FORASMUCH as one or more Bills have been passed by the National Assembly for Wales and have been submitted to Us for Our Royal Assent by the Clerk of the National Assembly for Wales in accordance with the Government of Wales Act 2006 the short Titles of which Bills are set forth in the Schedule hereto but those Bills by virtue of the Government of Wales Act 2006 do not become Acts of the National Assembly for Wales nor have effect in the Law without Our Royal Assent signified by Letters Patent under Our Welsh Seal signed with Our own hand We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them do give Our Royal Assent to those Bills which shall be taken and accepted as good and perfect Acts of the Assembly and be put in due execution accordingly COMMANDING ALSO the Keeper of Our Welsh Seal to seal these Our Letters with that Seal.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF we have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent.
WITNESS Ourself at... the... day of... in the... year of Our Reign. By The Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
The letters patent may also be made in Welsh.
Under section 14 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998, a bill which has been approved by the Northern Ireland Assembly is presented to the Queen by the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland for royal assent after a four - week waiting period during which the Attorney General for Northern Ireland may refer the bill to the Supreme Court. Assent is given by means of letters patent in the following form set out in the Northern Ireland (Royal Assent to Bills) Order 1999.
ELIZABETH THE SECOND by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith, To the Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly GREETING:
WHEREAS you the Members of the Northern Ireland Assembly have passed a Bill the short title of which is set out in the Schedule hereto but the said Bill does not become an Act of the Northern Ireland Assembly without Our Royal Assent;
AND WHEREAS pursuant to the Northern Ireland Act 1998 the said Bill has been submitted to Us by (insert name of Secretary of State) one of Our Principal Secretaries of State for Our Royal Assent;
We have therefore caused these Our Letters Patent to be made and have signed them and by them We give Our Royal Assent to the said Bill COMMANDING (insert name of Clerk of the Crown for Northern Ireland) the Clerk of the Crown for Northern Ireland to seal these Our Letters with the Great Seal of Northern Ireland AND ALSO COMMANDING that these Our Letters be notified to the Presiding Officer of the Northern Ireland Assembly;
AND FINALLY WE declare that, in accordance with the Northern Ireland Act 1998, at the beginning of the day on which Our Royal Assent has been notified as aforesaid the said Bill shall become an Act of the Northern Ireland Assembly.
In Witness whereof We have caused these Our Letters to be made Patent
WITNESS Ourself at the day of in the year of Our Reign By the Queen Herself Signed with Her Own Hand.
Between 1922 and 1972, bills passed by the Parliament of Northern Ireland were passed to the Governor of Northern Ireland for royal assent under the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, replacing the office of Lord Lieutenant.
Under the Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919 a measure of the General Synod of the Church of England becomes law once it has received royal assent in the same way as an Act of Parliament.
The lieutenant governors of the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick and Islands of Guernsey do not by and under their own authority grant assent, nor, as proxies, as the British crown 's representative, deliver royal assent, to legislation emulating from the respective legislatures of these islands.
The States of Jersey Law 2005 abolishes the power of the lieutenant governor to directly impose a formal veto to a resolution of the States of Jersey.
The monarch of the United Kingdom, sitting in (together with members of the Cabinet of the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of the day, and who are also members of) the Privy Council, grants the equivalent of the royal assent (under the formula, or other words to the effect: Her Majesty, having taken the report into consideration, was pleased, by and with the advice of Her Privy Council, to approve and ratify this Act (a copy of which is annexed to this Order) and to order that it, together with this Order, shall be entered on the Register of the Island of Jersey (or of the Islands of Guernsey) and observed accordingly. Her Majesty 's Officers in the Island (or Islands), and all other whom it may concern, are therefore to take notice of Her Majesty 's Order and to proceed accordingly) to Jersey and Guernsey legislation.
The equivalent of the royal assent is formally granted or formally refused on the formal advice of the Committee of Council for the Affairs of Jersey and Guernsey in pursuance of Queen Elizabeth II 's order - in - council of 22 February 1952. A recent example when the equivalent of the royal assent was refused was in 2007, concerning reforms to the constitution of the Chief Pleas of Sark. (A revised version of the proposed reforms was subsequently given the equivalent of the royal assent.)
In 2011, campaigners against a law that sought to reduce the number of senators in the states of Jersey petitioned the Privy Council to advise the Queen to refuse the equivalent of the royal assent. An Order in Council of 13 July 2011 established new rules for the consideration of petitions against the granting of the equivalent of the royal assent.
Legislation in Jersey and Guernsey entitled "Laws '' would seem to require the formal equivalent of the royal assent from the British monarch sitting in the Privy Council; other legislation such as regulations and orders (in Jersey) and ordinances (in Guernsey) would not seem to require such formal equivalent of the royal assent.
There is a proposal that the Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey should be granted the delegated power of granting the equivalent of the royal assent, formally from the monarch and the Privy Council, to enable laws to be granted formal approval within six weeks if no objection was raised, rather than having to formally refer every law for formal consideration in London and then formal approval also (usually) in London. "At present there is a situation where Channel Island law - making depends, ultimately, on the UK government of the day, unelected (sic) by the islands. ''
Special procedures apply to legislation passed by the Tynwald of the Isle of Man. Before the lordship of the Island was purchased by the British Crown in 1765 (the Revestment), the assent of the Lord of Mann to a bill was signified by letter to the governor. After 1765, the equivalent of the royal assent was at first signified by the letter from the Secretary of State to the governor; but, during the British Regency, the practice began of granting the equivalent of the royal assent to Manx legislation by Orders in Council, which continues to this day, though limited to exceptional cases since 1981.
In 1981, an Order in Council delegated to the lieutenant governor the power to grant royal assent to bills passed by Tynwald. The lieutenant governor must however refer any bill impacting on reserved powers (defence, foreign relations, nationality law, the relationship between the island and the United Kingdom and any matters relating to the monarch) to the British government for advice, on which he is required to act.
The above procedures are not sufficient to cause an Act of Tynwald to come into full force of law. By ancient custom, an Act did not come into force until it had been promulgated at an open - air sitting of the Tynwald, historically held on Tynwald Hill at St John 's on St John 's Day (24 June), but, since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar in 1753, on 5 July (or on the following Monday if 5 July is a Saturday or Sunday). Promulgation originally consisted of the reading of the Act in English and Manx; but after 1865 the reading of the title of the Act and a summary of each section was sufficient. This was reduced in 1895 to the titles and a memorandum of the object and purport of the Act, and since 1988 only the short title and a summary of the long title have been read.
An emergency procedure enabling an Act to come into force at the same moment as the receipt of the equivalent of the royal assent, when it is being announced at an ordinary sitting of the Tynwald, subject to its being promulgated within 12 months, was introduced in 1916; since 1988, this has been the normal procedure, but an Act ceases to have effect unless promulgated within 18 months after the equivalent of the royal assent is announced in the Tynwald.
Since 1993, the Sodor and Man Diocesan Synod of the Church of England within the Province of York has had power to enact measures making provision "with respect to any matter concerning the Church of England in the Island ''. If approved by the Tynwald, a measure "shall have the force and effect of an Act of Tynwald upon the Royal Assent thereto being announced to the Tynwald ''. Between 1979 and 1993, the Synod had similar powers, but limited to the extension to the Isle of Man of measures of the General Synod. Before 1994, the equivalent of the royal assent was granted by Order in Council, as for a bill, but the power to grant the equivalent of the royal assent to measures has now been delegated to the lieutenant governor. A Measure does not require promulgation.
The governors (or the acting governors) of British overseas territories grant, or withhold or formally refuse the grant of, of their own Governor 's assent, under their own official personal authority as governors, for "colonial '' or local legislation. Although the governor 's assent is also normally granted, this is altogether different in nature to the royal assent.
In Commonwealth realms other than the UK, royal assent is granted or withheld either by the realm 's sovereign or, more frequently, by the representative of the sovereign, the governor - general. In federated realms, assent in each state, province, or territory is granted or withheld by the representatives of the sovereign. In Australia, this is the governors of the states, administrators of the territories, or the governor - general in the Australian Capital Territory. For Canada, this is the lieutenant governors of the provinces. A lieutenant governor may defer assent to the governor general, and the governor general may defer assent to federal bills to the sovereign.
If the Governor General of Canada is unable to give assent, it can be done by either the Deputy of the Governor General of Canada -- the Chief Justice of Canada -- or another justice of the Supreme Court of Canada. It is not actually necessary for the governor general to sign a bill passed by a legislature, the signature being merely an attestation. In each case, the parliament must be apprised of the granting of assent before the bill is considered to have become law. Two methods are available: the sovereign 's representatives may grant assent in the presence of both houses of parliament; alternatively, each house may be notified separately, usually by the speaker of that house. However, though both houses must be notified on the same day, notice to the House of Commons while it is not in session may be given by way of publishing a special issue of the Journals of the House of Commons, whereas the Senate must be sitting and the governor general 's letter read aloud by the speaker.
At both state and federal realms in Australia, assent is used as the means of enforcing a referendum that is required. This is done by providing that it will not be lawful to even submit the law for viceregal assent unless and until it has been approved by the required percentage of the voting populace at a referendum.
While royal assent has not been withheld in the United Kingdom since 1708, it has often been withheld in British colonies and former colonies by governors acting on royal instructions. In the United States Declaration of Independence, colonists complained that George III "has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good (and) has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. '' Even after colonies such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and Newfoundland were granted responsible government, the British government continued to sometimes advise governors - general on the granting of assent; assent was also occasionally reserved to allow the British government to examine a bill before advising the governor - general.
Since the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster 1931, all the Commonwealth realms have been sovereign kingdoms, the monarch and governors - general acting solely on the advice of the local ministers, who generally maintain the support of the legislature and are the ones who secure the passage of bills. They therefore are unlikely to advise the sovereign, or his or her representative, to withhold assent. The power to withhold the royal assent was exercised by Alberta 's lieutenant governor, John C. Bowen, in 1937, in respect of three bills passed in the legislature dominated by William Aberhart 's Social Credit party. Two bills sought to put banks under the authority of the province, thereby interfering with the federal government 's powers. The third, the Accurate News and Information Bill, purported to force newspapers to print government rebuttals to stories to which the provincial cabinet objected. The unconstitutionality of all three bills was later confirmed by the Supreme Court of Canada and by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
In Australia, a technical issue arose with the royal assent in both 1976 and 2001. In 1976, a bill originating in the House of Representatives was mistakenly submitted to the Governor - General and assented to. However, it was later discovered that it had not been passed by the Senate. The error arose because two bills of the same title had originated from the House. The Governor - General revoked the first assent, before assenting to the bill which had actually passed the Senate and the House. The same procedure was followed to correct a similar error which arose in 2001.
In the United Kingdom, a bill is presented for royal assent after it has passed all the required stages in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, the House of Commons may, under certain circumstances, direct that a bill be presented for assent despite lack of passage by the House of Lords. Officially, assent is granted by the sovereign or by Lords Commissioners authorised to act by letters patent. It may be granted in parliament or outside parliament; in the latter case, each house must be separately notified before the bill takes effect.
The Clerk of the Parliaments, an official of the House of Lords, traditionally states a formula in Anglo - Norman Law French, indicating the sovereign 's decision. The granting of royal assent to a supply bill is indicated with the words "La Reyne remercie ses bons sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et ainsi le veult '', translated as "The Queen thanks her good subjects, accepts their bounty, and wills it so. '' For other public or private bills, the formula is simply "La Reyne le veult '' ("the Queen wills it ''). For personal bills, the phrase is "Soit fait comme il est désiré '' ("let it be as it is desired ''). The appropriate formula for withholding assent is the euphemistic "La Reyne s'avisera '' ("the Queen will consider it ''). When the sovereign is male, Le Roy is substituted for La Reyne.
Before the reign of Henry VIII, the sovereign always granted his or her assent in person. The sovereign, wearing the Imperial State Crown, would be seated on the throne in the Lords chamber, surrounded by heralds and members of the royal court -- a scene that nowadays is repeated only at the annual State Opening of Parliament. The Commons, led by their speaker, would listen from the Bar of the Lords, just outside the chamber. The Clerk of the Parliaments presented the bills awaiting assent to the monarch, save that supply bills were traditionally brought up by the speaker. The Clerk of the Crown, standing on the sovereign 's right, then read aloud the titles of the bills (in earlier times, the entire text of the bills). The Clerk of the Parliaments, standing on the sovereign 's left, responded by stating the appropriate Norman French formula.
A new device for granting assent was created during the reign of King Henry VIII. In 1542, Henry sought to execute his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, whom he accused of committing adultery; the execution was to be authorised not after a trial but by a bill of attainder, to which he would have to personally assent after listening to the entire text. Henry decided that "the repetition of so grievous a Story and the recital of so infamous a crime '' in his presence "might reopen a Wound already closing in the Royal Bosom ''. Therefore, parliament inserted a clause into the Act of Attainder, providing that assent granted by Commissioners "is and ever was and ever shall be, as good '' as assent granted by the sovereign personally. The procedure was used only five times during the 16th century, but more often during the 17th and 18th centuries, especially when George III 's health began to deteriorate. Queen Victoria became the last monarch to personally grant assent in 1854.
When granting assent by commission, the sovereign authorises three or more (normally five) lords who are Privy Counsellors to declare assent in his or her name. The Lords Commissioners, as the monarch 's representatives are known, wear scarlet parliamentary robes and sit on a bench between the throne and the Woolsack. The Lords Reading Clerk reads the commission aloud; the senior commissioner then states, "My Lords, in obedience to Her Majesty 's Commands, and by virtue of the Commission which has been now read, We do declare and notify to you, the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons in Parliament assembled, that Her Majesty has given Her Royal Assent to the several Acts in the Commission mentioned. ''
During the 1960s, the ceremony of assenting by commission was discontinued and is now only employed once a year, at the end of the annual parliamentary session. In 1960, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod arrived to summon the House of Commons during a heated debate and several members protested against the disruption by refusing to attend the ceremony. The debacle was repeated in 1965; this time, when the Speaker left the chair to go to the House of Lords, some members continued to make speeches. As a result, the Royal Assent Act 1967 was passed, creating an additional form for the granting of royal assent. As the attorney - general explained, "there has been a good deal of resentment not only at the loss of Parliamentary time that has been involved but at the breaking of the thread of a possibly eloquent speech and the disruption of a debate that may be caused. '' The granting of assent by the monarch in person, or by commission, is still possible, but this third form is used on a day - to - day basis.
Under the Royal Assent Act 1967, royal assent can be granted by the sovereign in writing, by means of letters patent, that are presented to the presiding officer of each house of parliament. Then, the presiding officer makes a formal, but simple statement to the house, acquainting each house that royal assent has been granted to the acts mentioned. Thus, unlike the granting of royal assent by the monarch in person or by Royal Commissioners, the method created by the Royal Assent Act 1967 does not require both houses to meet jointly for the purpose of receiving the notice of royal assent. The standard text of the letters patent is set out in The Crown Office (Forms and Proclamations Rules) Order 1992, with minor amendments in 2000. In practice this remains the standard method, a fact that is belied by the wording of the letters patent for the appointment of the Royal Commissioners and by the wording of the letters patent for the granting of royal assent in writing under the 1967 Act ("... And forasmuch as We can not at this time be present in the Higher House of Our said Parliament being the accustomed place for giving Our Royal Assent... '').
When the act is assented to by the sovereign in person, or by empowered Royal Commissioners, royal assent is considered given at the moment when the assent is declared in the presence of both houses jointly assembled. When the procedure created by the Royal Assent Act 1967 is followed, assent is considered granted when the presiding officers of both houses, having received the letters patent from the king or queen signifying the assent, have notified their respective house of the grant of royal assent. Thus, if each presiding officer makes the announcement at a different time (for instance because one house is not sitting on a certain date), assent is regarded as effective when the second announcement is made. This is important because, under British Law, unless there is any provision to the contrary, an act takes effect on the date on which it receives royal assent and that date is not regarded as being the date when the letters patent are signed, or when they are delivered to the presiding officers of each house, but the date on which both houses have been formally acquainted of the assent.
Independently of the method used to signify royal assent, it is the responsibility of the Clerk of the Parliaments, once the assent has been duly notified to both houses, not only to endorse the act in the name of the monarch with the formal Norman French formula, but to certify that assent has been granted. The clerk signs one authentic copy of the bill and inserts the date (in English) on which the assent was notified to the two houses after the title of the act. When an act is published, the signature of the clerk is omitted, as is the Norman French formula, should the endorsement have been made in writing. However, the date on which the assent was notified is printed in brackets.
In Commonwealth realms, assent may be granted by the sovereign in person, by the governor - general in person, or by a deputy acting for the governor - general. In all of the realms, however, assent is more often granted or signified outside the legislature, with each house being notified separately.
In Australia, the formal ceremony of granting assent in parliament has not been regularly used since the early 20th century. Now, the bill is sent to the governor - general 's residence by the house in which it originated. The governor - general then signs the bill, sending messages to the president of the Senate and the speaker of the House of Representatives, who notify their respective houses of the governor - general 's action. A similar practice is followed in New Zealand, where the governor - general has not granted the Royal Assent in person in parliament since 1875.
In Canada, the traditional ceremony for granting assent in parliament was regularly used until the 21st century, long after it had been discontinued in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms. One result, conceived as part of a string of acts intended to demonstrate Canada 's status as an independent realm, was that King George VI personally assented to nine bills of the Canadian parliament during his 1939 tour of Canada -- 85 years after his great - grandmother, Queen Victoria, had last granted royal assent personally in the United Kingdom. Under the Royal Assent Act 2002, however, the alternative practice of granting assent in writing, with each house being notified separately (the Speaker of the Senate or a representative reads to the senators the letters from the governor general regarding the written declaration of Royal Assent), was brought into force. As the act also provides, royal assent is to be signified -- by the governor general, or, more often, by a deputy, usually a Justice of the Supreme Court, at least twice each calendar year: for the first appropriation measure and for at least one other act, usually the first non-appropriation measure passed. However, the act provides that a grant of royal assent is not rendered invalid by a failure to employ the traditional ceremony where required.
The Royal Assent ceremony takes place in the Senate, as the sovereign is traditionally barred from the House of Commons. On the day of the event, the Speaker of the Senate will read to the chamber a notice from the secretary to the governor general indicating when the viceroy or a deputy thereof will arrive. The Senate thereafter can not adjourn until after the ceremony. The speaker moves to sit beside the throne, the Mace Bearer, with mace in hand, stands adjacent to him or her, and the governor general enters to take the speaker 's chair. The Usher of the Black Rod is then commanded by the speaker to summon the members of parliament, who follow Black Rod back to the Senate, the Sergeant - at - Arms carrying the mace of the House of Commons. In the Senate, those from the commons stand behind the bar, while Black Rod proceeds to stand next to the governor general, who then nods his or her head to signify Royal Assent to the presented bills (which do not include appropriations bills). Once the list of bills is complete, the Clerk of the Senate states: "in Her Majesty 's name, His (or Her) Excellency the Governor General (or the deputy) doth assent to these bills. '' If there are any appropriation bills to receive Royal Assent, the Speaker of the House of Commons will read their titles and the Senate clerk repeats them to the governor general, who nods his or her head to communicate Royal Assent. When these bills have all been assented to, the Clerk of the Senate recites "in Her Majesty 's name, His (or Her) Excellency the Governor General (or the deputy) thanks her loyal subjects, accepts their benevolence and assents to these bills. '' The governor general or his or her deputy then depart parliament.
In some monarchies -- such as Belgium, Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Thailand -- promulgation is required as well as royal assent. In other monarchies -- such as Sweden -- the government officially promulgates laws. In both cases, however, the process of royal assent is usually a formality, whether by constitutional convention or by an explicit provision of the constitution.
According to Article 109 of the constitution: "The King sanctions and promulgates laws ''. In Belgium, the royal assent is called sanction royale / koninklijke bekrachtiging (Royal Sanction), and is granted by the King signing the proposed statute. The Belgian constitution requires a theoretically possible refusal of royal sanction to be countersigned -- as any other act of the monarch -- by a minister responsible before the House of Representatives. The monarch promulgates the law, meaning that he or she formally orders that the law be officially published and executed. In 1990, when King Baudouin advised his cabinet he could not, in conscience, sign a bill decriminalising abortion (a refusal patently not covered by a responsible minister), the Council of Ministers, at the King 's own request, declared Baudouin incapable of exercising his powers. In accordance with the Belgian constitution, upon the declaration of the sovereign 's incapacity, the Council of Ministers assumed the powers of the head of state until parliament could rule on the King 's incapacity and appoint a regent. The bill was then assented to by all members of the Council of Ministers "on behalf of the Belgian People ''. In a joint meeting, both houses of parliament declared the King capable of exercising his powers again the next day.
The constitution of Jordan grants its monarch the right to withhold assent to laws passed by its parliament. Article 93 of that document gives the Jordanian sovereign six months to sign or veto any legislation sent to him from the National Assembly; if he vetoes it within that timeframe, the assembly may override his veto by a two - thirds vote of both houses; otherwise, the law does not go into effect (but it may be reconsidered in the next session of the assembly). If the monarch fails to act within six months of the bill being presented to him, it becomes law without his signature.
According to Article 9 of the Constitution of Liechtenstein, "every law shall require the sanction of the Reigning Prince to attain legal force. '' Liechtenstein allows its monarch to withhold royal assent of his own will. When Prince Hans Adam II, in an unprecedented move for the constitutional monarchy, refused to give royal assent to a bill legalising abortion, he pushed for a bill to give him sweeping powers in the government beyond only ceremonial matters, including the power to appoint judges. The bill passed and the Prince now has many additional powers, including the power to withhold royal assent on his own accord.
While Article 34 of the constitution of Luxembourg formerly required the grand duke or duchess to sanction and promulgate a new law for it to take effect, the required sanction was removed in 2008, after Grand Duke Henri informed his prime minister that he could not in good conscience assent to a bill to permit euthanasia in the country. The subsequent constitutional amendment removed the need for assent while retaining the need for the Grand Duke to promulgate new laws. The Grand - Duke 's signature is still required, but does not imply assent, only promulgation (announcement that the law has been enacted by Parliament). The Grand - Duke did sign the Euthanasia Act under this new constitutional arrangement.
Royal assent in the Netherlands is required, under article 87 of the Dutch constitution, for a bill to become law. After a law has been approved by the Council of Ministers and has received a positive advice from the advisory Council of State, the government then sends it to the lower house of parliament in the name of the monarch with the following text:
Aan de Tweede Kamer der Staten - Generaal
Wij bieden U hiernevens ter overweging aan een voorstel van wet houdende (topic of the law) in verband met (reason and purpose of the law) De memorie van toelichting (en bijlagen) die het wetsvoorstel vergezelt, bevat de gronden waarop het rust. En hiermede bevelen Wij U in Godes heilige bescherming. (location and date) (signed Willem - Alexander).
To the Second Chamber of the States General
Herewith We offer to You for consideration a proposal of law containing (topic of the law) in relation to (reason and purpose of the law) The explanatory memorandum (and addenda) that accompanies the proposal of law, contains the grounds on which it is based. And herewith We command You in God 's holy protection. (location and date) (signed Willem - Alexander).
After the House of Representatives has debated the law, it either approves it and sends it to the Senate with the text "The Second Chamber of the States General sends the following approved proposal of law to the First Chamber '', or it rejects it and returns it to the government with the text "The Second Chamber of the States General has rejected the accompanying proposal of law. '' If the upper house then approves the law, it sends it back to the government with the text "To the King, The States General have accepted the proposal of law as it is offered here. ''
The government, consisting of the monarch and the ministers, will then usually approve the proposal and the sovereign and one of the ministers signs the proposal with the addition of an enacting clause, thereafter notifying the States General that "The King assents to the proposal. '' It has happened in exceptional circumstances that the government does not approve a law that has been passed in parliament. In such a case, neither the monarch nor a minister will sign the bill, notifying the States General that "The King will keep the proposal under advisement. '' A law that has received royal assent will be published in the State Magazine, with the original being kept in the archives of the King 's Offices.
Articles 77 -- 79 of the Norwegian Constitution specifically grant the monarch of Norway the right to withhold royal assent from any bill passed by the Storting. Should the sovereign ever choose to exercise this privilege, Article 79 provides a means by which his veto may be over-ridden: "If a Bill has been passed unaltered by two sessions of the Storting, constituted after two separate successive elections and separated from each other by at least two intervening sessions of the Storting, without a divergent Bill having been passed by any Storting in the period between the first and last adoption, and it is then submitted to the King with a petition that His Majesty shall not refuse his assent to a Bill which, after the most mature deliberation, the Storting considers to be beneficial, it shall become law even if the Royal Assent is not accorded before the Storting goes into recess. ''
In Part II of the 1978 Spanish constitution, among provisions concerning the Crown, Article 62 (a) invests the sanction (i.e. Royal Assent) and promulgation of laws with the monarch of Spain. Chapter 2 of Part III, concerning the Drafting of Bills, outlines the method by which bills are passed. According to Article 91, the monarch shall give his or her assent and promulgate the new law within fifteen days of passage of a bill by the Cortes Generales. Article 92 invests the monarch with the right to call for a referendum, on the advice of the president of the government (commonly referred to in English as the prime minister) and the authorisation of the cortes.
No provision within the constitution grants the monarch an ability to veto legislation directly; however, no provision prohibits the sovereign from withholding royal assent, which effectively constitutes a veto. When the Spanish media asked King Juan Carlos if he would endorse the bill legalising same - sex marriages, he answered "Soy el Rey de España y no el de Bélgica '' ("I am the King of Spain and not that of Belgium '') -- a reference to King Baudouin I of Belgium, who had refused to sign the Belgian law legalising abortion. The King gave royal assent to Law 13 / 2005 on 1 July 2005; the law was gazetted in the Boletín Oficial del Estado on 2 July and came into effect on 3 July 2005. Likewise, in 2010, King Juan Carlos gave royal assent to a law permitting abortion.
If the Spanish monarch ever refused in conscience to grant royal assent, a procedure similar to the Belgian handling of King Baudouin 's objection would not be possible under the current constitution. If the sovereign were ever declared incapable of discharging royal authority, his or her powers would not be transferred to the Cabinet, pending the parliamentary appointment of a regency. Instead, the constitution mandates the next person of age in the line of succession would immediately become regent. Therefore, had Juan Carlos followed the Belgian example in 2005 or 2010, a declaration of incapacity would have transferred power to Felipe, then the heir apparent.
Articles 41 and 68 of the constitution empower the sovereign to withhold royal assent from bills adopted by the Legislative Assembly. In 2010, the kingdom moved towards greater democracy, with King George Tupou V saying that he would be guided by his prime minister in the exercising of his powers. Nonetheless, this does not preclude an independent royal decision to exercise a right of veto. In November 2011, the assembly adopted an Arms and Ammunitions (Amendment) Bill, which reduced the possible criminal sentences for the illicit possession of firearms. The bill was adopted by ten votes to eight. Two members of the assembly had recently been charged with the illicit possession of firearms. The Prime Minister, Lord Tuʻivakanō, voted in favour of the amendment. Members of the opposition denounced the bill and asked the King to veto it, which he did in December.
In certain republican constitutions, royal assent has developed into the possibility of a presidential veto, such as in the United States of America or in several European countries.
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who plays miles in backstage on disney channel | Backstage (2016 TV series) - wikipedia
Backstage is a Canadian drama and performing arts series created by Jennifer Pertsch and Lara Azzopardi that premiered in Canada on Family Channel on March 18, 2016, and in the United States on Disney Channel on March 25, 2016. The series stars Devyn Nekoda, Alyssa Trask, Josh Bogert, Aviva Mongillo, Matthew Isen, Julia Tomasone, Adrianna Di Liello, Colin Petierre, Mckenzie Small, Romy Weltman, Isiah Hall, Kyal Legend, Chris Hoffman, Jane Moffat, and Thomas L. Colford.
The trials and tribulations of the students at Keaton School of the Arts, which includes dancers, singers, musicians, and artists. The characters frequently break the fourth wall, talking to the viewers in so - called "confessionals ''.
Actors in the series are all real dancers and musicians embodying the true spirit of the performing arts. Directors for the series include top music video directors such as RT!, Director X, Wendy Morgan, and Warren Sonoda as well as Mario Azzopardi and Lara Azzopardi. The first season production order consisted of 30 episodes.
On May 10, 2016, it was announced that Backstage was renewed for a 30 - episode second season for a 2017 broadcast on Family Channel in Canada.
The series premiered on Family Channel in Canada on March 18, 2016, and on Disney Channel in the United States on March 25, 2016. Disney Channel secured the license for the series in several countries in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. It premiered on Disney Channel in the United Kingdom and Ireland on May 9, 2016, and on Disney Channel in Australia and New Zealand on October 28, 2016.
The second season premiered in the UK and Ireland on July 28, 2017, prior to the Canadian premiere.
The Whole second season was released on the ABC ME app and on ABC iview as part of best fest for the school holidays from 15th of September to 15th of October.
Backstage has received positive, albeit lukewarm reviews from critics. Common Sense Media gave the series three out of five stars, saying that while it "does n't really break new ground '', it "does touch on many issues that are worthwhile for kids ''.
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where did the term medicine ball come from | Medicine ball - wikipedia
A medicine ball (also known as an exercise ball, a med ball, or a fitness ball) is a weighted ball roughly the diameter of the shoulders (approx. 13.7 inches), often used for rehabilitation and strength training. The medicine ball also serves an important role in the field of sports medicine. However, it should not be confused with the larger, inflated exercise ball.
Medicine balls are usually sold as 2 -- 25 lb (1 -- 11 kg) balls and are used effectively in ballistic training to increase explosive power in athletes in all sports e.g. throwing the medicine ball or jumping whilst holding it. Some medicine balls are up to 14 '' wide and up to 14 lbs weight, or in the form of weighted basketballs. Modern exercise balls are larger, up to 36 '' diameter.
A med ball is used for children training as the best way to overcome fear of free weights exercises.
Hippocrates is said to have stuffed animal skins for patients to toss for "medicinal '' purposes. Similar large balls were used in Persia in 1705. The term "medicine ball '' dates back to at least 1876, in American Gymnasia and Academic Record, by Robert Jenkins Roberts, Jr.
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you're a god and i am not song | You 're a God - Wikipedia
"You 're a God '' is a song by American rock band Vertical Horizon from the 1999 album Everything You Want. The single reached # 23 on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached # 15 on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks and # 4 on the Hot Adult Top 40 Tracks. The song was also used in the hit film Bruce Almighty.
The music video (directed by The Malloys) was based around a beauty pageant contestant, played by actress Tiffani Thiessen.
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