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who was the lead singer of the damned	David Vanian - wikipedia The Damned David Vanian & the Phantom Chords Naz Nomad and the Nightmares Dave Vanian (born David Lett, 12 October 1956) is a rock musician and lead singer of the punk rock band The Damned. Formed in 1976 in London, The Damned were the first British punk band to release a single, an album, have a record hit the UK charts, and tour the United States. With a fluid line - up since their founding, Vanian has been the only ever - present member. Born in Hemel Hempstead, Vanian changed his name from Lett to Vanian in early life after a previous stint as a gravedigger -- Vanian being a play on "Transylvanian ''. He remains one of the early influencers of gothic fashion, wearing dark and otherworldly clothing both on stage and off. He is known to be a fan of renaissance art, film noir and horror movies, all of which manifest in his stage appearance. In November 1976, the British music magazine NME stated that Vanian "resembles a runaway from the Addams Family ''. In 1978, he was guest in the song "Do n't Panic England '', from the band Doctors of Madness. In 2004, he and Captain Sensible turned on the Christmas lights in Cambridge, causing some controversy. Vanian sang with the MC5 for their 40th anniversary singing "Looking at You '', which was released as part of Revolution: A Celebration of the MC5. In 2008, with the band the Throb, played "Let 's Get Lost (Sailor Jerry 's Story) '' to the compilation The Original Sailor Jerry Rum -- Music To... To. Outside of the Damned he has led the rockabilly band David Vanian & the Phantom Chords, hosted Dave Vanian 's Dark Screen on the UK - based television channel Rockworld TV and composed the soundtrack for the 2009 film, The Perfect Sleep. Vanian has kept his personal life out of the limelight, even opting out of any input towards The Damned biography The Light at the End of the Tunnel by Carol Clerk. Vanian joined The Damned in 1976 He married his first wife Laurie in 1977, but they separated in the mid-1990s. He married Patricia Morrison in Las Vegas in 1996, after The Damned had performed an Australian tour. The couple have one child and live in Islington in London
where does the show new amsterdam take place	New Amsterdam (2018 TV series) - Wikipedia New Amsterdam is an American medical drama television series, based on the book Twelve Patients: Life and Death at Bellevue Hospital by Eric Manheimer, that premiered on September 25, 2018 on NBC. The series was created by David Schulner and stars Ryan Eggold, Freema Agyeman, Janet Montgomery, Jocko Sims, Anupam Kher, and Tyler Labine. On October 10, 2018, it was announced that NBC had ordered an additional nine episodes of the series, bringing the first season total up to twenty - two episodes. New Amsterdam follows Dr. Max Goodwin as he becomes the medical director of one of the United States ' oldest public hospitals, aiming to reform the neglected facility by tearing up its bureaucracy in order to provide exceptional care to patients. On September 25, 2017, it was announced that NBC had given the production, then titled Bellevue, a put pilot commitment. The pilot was written by David Schulner who was also set to executive produce alongside Peter Horton. Eric Manheimer, the former medical director at New York City 's Bellevue Hospital, was expected to serve as a producer. Production companies involved with the pilot were slated to consist of Universal Television. On January 12, 2018, it was reported that NBC had given the production an official pilot order. It was further reported that Horton was expected to direct the pilot episode. On May 4, 2018, it was announced that NBC had given the production a series order. It was also reported that Pico Creek Productions and Mount Moriah Productions would serve as additional production companies. A few days later, it was announced that the series would premiere in the fall of 2018 and air on Tuesdays at 10 p.m. On June 19, 2018, it was announced that the series would officially premiere on September 25, 2018. On October 10, 2018, it was announced that NBC had ordered an additional nine episodes of the series, bringing the first season total up to twenty - two episodes. In February 2018, it was announced that Freema Agyeman, Anupam Kher, Janet Montgomery, and Tyler Labine had been cast in lead roles in the pilot. In March 2018, it was reported that Ryan Eggold and Jocko Sims had also joined the main cast. On September 26, 2018, it was announced that Margot Bingham had joined the cast in a recurring role. On May 13, 2018, NBC released the first official trailer for the series. On June 22, 2018, a screening of the series was held during Seriesfest, an annual international television festival, at the Denver Art Museum 's Lewis I. Sharp Auditorium in Denver, Colorado. The screening was followed by a question - and - answer session with series lead Ryan Eggold and executive producers David Schulner and Peter Horton. It was moderated by Vanity Fair 's executive west coast editor, Krista Smith. On September 10, 2018, the series took part in the 12th Annual PaleyFest Fall Television Previews which featured a preview screening of the series. The series has been met with a mixed to negative response from critics upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a 33 percent approval rating with an average rating of 5.68 out of 10 based on 24 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Overcrowded, overwrought, and overly familiar, New Amsterdam plays more like an exquisite corpse of pre-existing shows than a breakthrough for the genre -- though that may be enough for medical drama devotees. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the series a score of 47 out of 100 based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews. ''
where is star city supposed to be in arrow	Star City (Comics) - wikipedia Star City is a city that appears in stories published by DC Comics, best known as the traditional home of the superheroes known by, or affiliated with, the shared alias of Green Arrow. Beyond that, it is also known to other characters of the DC Universe as both a port city and a haven for artists in many of the media, from print to audio / visual to music. Green Arrow 's base of operation was initially New York City. However, during the Silver Age, Green Arrow 's home was established as being in Star City, being first mentioned in Adventure Comics vol. 1 # 265, before making its first appearance in the following issue. According to several published accounts, Star City was incorporated as a city under its current name over 200 years ago. Before moving on to service in first Metropolis and later Gotham City, Maggie Sawyer began her career as a police officer in Star City. The first costumed vigilante to serve as mayor was Thomas "Steelclaw '' Bolt, who adopted an undercover persona as a costumed criminal as part of his efforts to bring local crime under control. He died in office of that attempt. During the years that Green Arrow spent outside of Star City, at least one other costumed crime - fighter operated there: Chase Lawler, one of the several known Manhunters. The final Green Arrow storyline before One Year Later featured Doctor Light and Merlyn detonating explosives, leaving nearly a third of Star City in shambles in what becomes known as the "Amsterdam Avenue Disaster ''. In the One Year Later storyline, Oliver Queen becomes the mayor of Star City. News that he had been secretly funding the Outsiders, essentially a bounty hunter team at this point in their history, causes a scandal. Coupled with his marginal popularity with the voting public (he never had more than 50 % of the city supporting him while in office), this prompted Queen to resign his position. His resignation carried the stipulation that his successor maintain the various social aid organisations and resources Queen had established. Ollie was able to beat his opponent by resigning prior to the election and putting someone he trusted in charge of the city. In Justice League: Cry for Justice mini-series, Star City is the scene of a devastating tremor set by Prometheus. Prometheus ' plan is to teleport Star City -- which he has targeted solely because it is the home city of a member of the Justice League -- to an alternate universe. As the plan fails, Star City 's outskirts are left mostly intact but there is a vast, star - shaped ruin in the centre of the city, and a death toll of ninety - thousand people and rising. During the events of Brightest Day, Deadman 's white power ring teleports him to the site of the tremor, where his newly acquired White Lantern 's powers turn the ruin into a lush forest. Shortly after this event, Martian Manhunter is informed by the Entity that he has been resurrected in order to burn the forest to the ground. Martian Manhunter arrives in the Star City forest and attempts to complete his task, however he is stopped from doing that by the Entity who revealed to him that the forest he is to burn down is on Mars. Green Arrow discovers that the forest appears to have some sentient intelligence or some kind of powers of illusion with instructs to protect or kill someone. The Entity later reveals that Nekron 's attack at the Entity not only was mortally to it but also heightened the contamination of the planet, and the corruption will rise up in the form of another "dark avatar '' of the darkness who will try to destroy the Star City forest, in which is the key to save Earth 's soul and the new champion of life, causing the Earth to die. Green Arrow later discovers that the forest is not what appeared to be and that the heart of the forest is evil. This evil eventually became the "Dark Avatar '' which the Entity mentioned would come to destroy the forest. This Dark Avatar is actually the original Swamp Thing resurrected as a Black Lantern. Also as the entire Earth falls victim of its poisoning and corruption it is revealed that the only place that is not yet touched is the forest where the sky is still blue, however as the population began to take shelter they are stopped by a white barrier. To defend the forest from the Dark Avatar, the Entity summoned the Elementals, which are revealed to be the heroes whose life force had been collected by the Entity and which reflect the simplest essential parts and principles of nature, each one representing one of the four elements, the Entity also reveals that the central tree in the Star City forest is the foundation for the Parliament of Trees. The Elementals are fused with the body of Alec Holland to resurrect him and then the forest fused Alec Holland to transform him into the new Swamp Thing. After the Dark Avatar is finally defeated, Alec Holland reclaims the title of Swamp Thing and begins to restore life in Star City 's areas. Star City 's location, like those of Metropolis, Gotham City, and other cities in the DC Universe, was uncertain for many years, with varying depictions over the decades. Several golden age stories depicted Green Arrow and Speedy fighting seafaring villains -- the Angler, the Harbor Thief, and the Turtle, among others -- implying the city was on a sea coast. Long before Green Arrow joined the Justice League of America, he and Speedy often teamed up with underwater adventurer Aquaman (whose adventures, like those of the two archers, appeared in Adventure Comics), supporting the notion that Star City was a coastal city. Star City 's location was given as near the Great Lakes in the 1960s and near Massachusetts Bay from the 1970s until the late 1980s. In one 1970s reference, it was stated that Star City was in Connecticut. A map published in 1985 and occasionally modified by Mayfair Games detailed Star City 's geographical layout. Though the Atlas placed Star City on California 's Pacific Coast, north of San Francisco, the layout used for the city map resembled the geography of metropolitan Chicago, but reversed, so that it would be on the Michigan side of Lake Michigan. The neighborhood of "East Gary '' was approximately where the real Gary, Indiana, would be on the reversed map, but on the Pacific Ocean instead of Lake Michigan. In November 1985 's publication "DC Comics Presents '' # 87, Superman is flying above Earth - Prime (our reality Earth without superheroes) when he notices that Star City has been replaced with the city of Boston, Massachusetts. In Birds of Prey # 119, Star City is depicted as being in the San Francisco Bay region, although the published map erroneously substitutes Star City for San Francisco. Also, the city of Platinum Flats (based on Silicon Valley), is described as "half an hour '' away. In the TV show Arrow, Star City is generally described as being on the West Coast, or Western Seaboard, and in dialogue is described as 600 miles from Central City. A season five episode gives the city a Washington state postal code. Near the end of season 5 episode 22, a computer generated map showing the flight path of Chase 's plane puts Star City on or near San Francisco as the coastline perfectly matches that of northern California. However, in season 3 episode 9, another flight map shown briefly onscreen locates Starling (sic) City in the Great Lakes region. The DC Rebirth Green Arrow series specifically states Star City as actually being Seattle, only later being renamed Star City. Among the more notable landmarks established by various Green Arrow creative teams include the following: Known neighborhoods include: Star City 's population was given in Green Arrow ("City Walls '' Pt. 3) as being roughly five million. The population is given as just under 600,000 in the CW series Arrow. Interestingly, in Arrow TV Series 306 "Guilty '', Felicity mentions there being "roughy 86,000 ' Paco 's ', give or take a few nick names ''. This estimates the total population being almost 15 % named "Paco ''. The fictional Star City Rockets play baseball in Papp Stadium, while the fictional Star City Thunder play basketball in Tinder - Smith Garden. Star City was briefly mentioned by Lex Luthor in the Smallville sixth - season episode "Reunion ''. In "Freak '', Tobias Rice -- a meteor freak whose exposure to kryptonite rendered him blind while allowing him to "see '' other people infected by meteor rocks -- is sent to Star City because Oliver Queen said he would be given a cornea transplant. A computer generated panorama of Star City can also be seen in the first episode in the online Smallville spinoff short The Oliver Queen Chronicles. In the Smallville eighth - season episode "Bride '', Jimmy Olsen was sent to Star City for medical attention after being critically injured by Doomsday. In the season 10 episode "Fortune '', Chloe tells Clark that she is moving to Star City, where she will work by day as a reporter for the Star City Register and nurture new superheroes by night. Star City was also briefly mentioned in the sixth - season episode "Justice '' when Oliver Queen was talking to Clark about being on patrol in Star City when he came across Bart Allen, aka "The Flash ''. In Arrow, Star City is originally named "Starling City '' but is renamed in the fourth season as part of the storyline. In the first - season episode "Unfinished Business '', the coordinates (47.6097 N 122.3331 W) place a rundown neighborhood of Starling City in Seattle, near the Pioneer Square - Skid Road Historic District known for the Seattle Underground. This was built after the Great Seattle Fire of 1889 and forgotten decades later, much like the subway system abandoned in Starling City. In the second - season episode "Blast Radius '', a Starling City ZIP code is shown as 98114. 981xx is the main ZIP Code for Seattle. However, in the episode "The Climb '' Starling is shown on a map to be in the Upper Midwest. In the pilot episode of The Flash Oliver states Starling is 600 miles away from Central City, which could be in Missouri (although Central City was traditionally placed at Athens, Ohio.) In "Schism '', the final episode of the fourth season, an on - screen graphic shows a map of the Midwest with Star City in place of Chicago. Near the end of season 5 episode 22, a computer generated map showing the flight path of Chase 's plane puts Star City on or near San Francisco as the coastline perfectly matches that of northern California. Multiple cities are used for establishing shots, including Vancouver, Baltimore, Boston, Frankfurt, Tokyo, Jersey City, Philadelphia, and Brussels. Reference is made to an area in Starling City known as the Glades where the criminal element is particularly predominant, similar to the Narrows and Crime Alley in Gotham City, with most of the first season concerning Oliver 's attempts to unravel "the Undertaking '', a plan to level the Glades using a machine that artificially generates earthquakes. Following the Undertaking - Oliver manages to shut down one of the earthquake machines in time but was unaware of the second - over five hundred people died in the attack on the Glades, prompting Oliver to return to the island for a period of self - imposed exile before he returns to protect the city and help it rebuild after the destruction. Starling City has also been said to have a baseball team known as the "Starling Rockets '' and a "Starling Comets '' football team has been seen. Starling City has an aquarium and zoo, both of which were used for minor plot points, the aquarium being used by a Vertigo junkie as a place to hold hostages and the zoo 's Tibetan pit vipers were used for their venom by Nyssa al Ghul. Starling City also at one point had a functioning subway system but no longer does, also used twice as a minor plot point as it was first used by the Savior to travel the city killing those he thought guilty of crimes against the Glades, and later by Merlyn as it is where he planted his first earthquake device, the one known about by Team Arrow. After the city is attacked at the end of the second season by Slade Wilson 's miracuru - enhanced army, in the third season scientist and businessman Ray Palmer proposes to rename the city "Star City '' to keep people from remembering the terrorist attacks. It was later renamed Star City in season 4 as a memorial to Palmer due to his apparent death in the season three finale. With the city 's leadership a mess due to the death of the last three mayors in the course of the series, Oliver decides to run for mayor himself to make a difference as Oliver Queen rather than just as the Green Arrow; new adversary Damien Darhk attempts to thwart this effort by arranging for his wife to run against Oliver before blackmailing Oliver into withdrawing his candidacy, but after Darhk and his forces are killed in the season finale, Oliver is appointed mayor due to the deaths of all other possible candidates. In the sixth season episode "Thanksgiving '', Star City is shown to have its own stadium, "Starling Stadium '', where musicians like Billy Joel perform. Star City has also been the setting of several Green Arrow stories on animated series like The Batman, Batman: The Brave and the Bold, DC Showcase: Green Arrow, and Young Justice. Despite not physically appearing in the show, Star City has been mentioned in Beware The Batman.
who plays mark wahlberg's daughter in transformers 4	Transformers: Age of Extinction - wikipedia Transformers: Age of Extinction is a 2014 American science fiction action film based on the Transformers franchise. It is the fourth installment of the live - action Transformers film series and the stand - alone sequel to 2011 's Dark of the Moon, taking place five years after its events. Like its predecessors, it was directed by Michael Bay and written by Ehren Kruger, with Steven Spielberg and Bay as executive producers. It stars Mark Wahlberg, Stanley Tucci, Kelsey Grammer, Nicola Peltz, Jack Reynor, and Sophia Myles, with Peter Cullen reprising as the voice of Optimus Prime. It is the first film in the series not to feature the human cast from the previous three films, but features a new cast of human characters and many new Transformers, including the Dinobots. The film was released on June 27, 2014, in IMAX and 3D. Transformers: Age of Extinction received overwhelmingly negative reviews from critics, many of whom considered it poorly directed, badly acted, and terribly written as well as criticized the film 's runtime and overuse of product placement, but received some praise for its action sequences, stunts, effects, musical score and the performances of Wahlberg and Grammer. The film received seven nominations at the 35th Golden Raspberry Awards, including Worst Picture and Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip - off or Sequel, with Bay and Grammer winning the awards for Worst Director and Worst Supporting Actor, respectively. Despite poor reviews, it was a massive box office success, grossing over $1.104 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2014, the second - highest - grossing film in the Transformers series, the 19th film to gross over $1 billion, and the 20th - highest - grossing film of all time. It was the sole film to gross over $1 billion in 2014. A sequel, The Last Knight, was released on June 21, 2017, with Wahlberg, Tucci, and Cullen returning, and Bay directing. Sixty - five million years ago, an alien race known as the "Creators '' used devices called Seeds to terraform planet Earth, effectively wiping out the dinosaurs and covering it with an alloy called Transformium. In the present day, geologist Darcy Tirrel excavates the Transformium for K.S.I. Industries, which uses it to build man - made artificial Transformer drones. Five years after the Battle of Chicago, the humans have begun to view the Transformers as a threat to public safety, leading the U.S government to terminate all human - Autobot joint programs. Although the public believes that the Autobots have been granted sanctuary, they are actually being hunted by a rogue CIA black ops division known as Cemetery Wind led by opportunistic government official Harold Attinger, who believes that all Transformers should be exterminated regardless of faction. They are aided by Lockdown, a Cybertronian bounty hunter working for the Creators, who promises to give Attinger a Seed if his division manages to capture Optimus Prime. Cemetery Wind locates Ratchet in Mexico City and Lockdown kills him when he refuses to give up Optimus ' whereabouts. Optimus, damaged and disguised as a rundown semi-truck, is discovered in an abandoned theater by Cade Yeager, a financially struggling Texan inventor, and brings him back to his farm. While his teenage daughter Tessa and business partner Lucas Flannery encourage him to turn Optimus over to the authorities after realizing what he really is, Cade instead fixes Optimus, hoping to understand his technology, and unexpectedly revives him. Still skeptical of Optimus, Lucas calls Cemetery Wind, who attacks and destroys the farm, but Optimus and Tessa 's boyfriend, Irish rally car driver Shane Dyson, come to their aid. While on the run from Cemetery Wind and Lockdown, Lucas is killed by one of Lockdown 's grenades. The survivors flee to the desert and take shelter in an abandoned gas station. Later, Optimus scans a new, more functioning alternate mode, then summons the surviving Autobots -- Bumblebee (who now has an alternate form), Hound, Drift, and Crosshairs. Using a CIA drone that he stole during the attack, Cade discovers K.S.I. 's involvement in the attacks on the Autobots. Optimus vows to personally kill Attinger for his actions against his brethren. Infiltrating K.S.I. 's headquarters in Chicago, Cade discovers the remains of Autobots and Decepticons are being melted down to make the drones. Joshua Joyce, the ambitious company CEO, is collaborating with Attinger to revolutionize global defenses and improve human society using the Seed. He has captured the Autobot Brains and is using him and data from Megatron 's head to create prototype Transformer soldiers named Galvatron and Stinger. Outraged at Cade 's discovery, the Autobots storm the building (in which Bumblebee gains a new alternate form along the way), rescue Brains, and destroy the laboratory, but they leave after Joshua declares they are no longer needed in the world. Attinger forces Joshua to deploy Galvatron and Stinger to attack the Autobots. During the battle, Galvatron starts destroying vehicles on its own will and even speaks to Optimus while fighting him. Lockdown then arrives and abducts Optimus while Galvatron and Stinger retreat; Tessa is inadvertently captured as well. While Lockdown 's large prison spacecraft hovers over Chicago to hand over the Seed, Cade, Shane, and the Autobots use this opportunity to sneak on board and rescue Optimus and Tessa. They hijack a smaller ship, containing a number of other Autobots called the Dinobots, just before Lockdown leaves Earth. The Autobots reveal to Cade that Galvatron is, in fact, Megatron, who gave K.S.I. the data to build the Transformer drones so that he could transfer his consciousness into the Galvatron drone, after K.S.I. officials unknowingly revived him, and is plotting to use the Seed and the K.S.I. drones to conquer the world by detonating the Seed in Hong Kong, as K.S.I. has brought it there to use it in the remote Mongolian desert to create vast amounts of usable Transformium. Cade contacts Joshua to inform him of Megatron 's presence, causing him to have a change of heart and agreeing to hand over the Seed with help from Darcy and his Chinese business associate Su Yueming. Meanwhile, Lockdown finds out about Optimus 's escape with the Dinobots and returns to Earth to retrieve them. Optimus decides the Autobots should no longer help humans since they revived Megatron, but Cade convinces Optimus to not lose faith in them. Back at the facility, Galvatron reactivates himself and takes control of the K.S.I. drones. A battle breaks out in Hong Kong 's streets between Cade 's group, the Autobots, Cemetery Wind, Galvatron, and his drones. During the fight, Optimus forms an alliance with the Dinobots, while Bumblebee kills Stinger. Lockdown returns to recapture Optimus and the Dinobots, first by using a large magnet in his ship that picks up and drops metal objects, causing destruction to the city. After disabling the magnet, Optimus fights Lockdown at an abandoned factory. In the ensuing duel, Optimus kills Attinger (who still believes all Transformers are a threat) to save Cade before being impaled with his own sword by Lockdown. Cade and Bumblebee fight Lockdown while Tessa and Shane use a tow truck to free Optimus, who kills Lockdown before using one of his grenades to finish off the remaining drones. Now the only surviving drone, Galvatron retreats, vowing to return. As Lockdown 's ship leaves Earth, Optimus tells the Autobots to protect the Yeagers and lets the Dinobots go. Joshua also offers to help the Yeagers build a new home. Optimus then flies away into space with the Seed to hide it away, while sending a message to the Creators that he is coming for them. Greg Anderson, Melanie Specht and Victoria Summer play Joshua 's assistants. Han Geng portrays himself, playing the guitar and singing in a parked car that is magnetized by Lockdown 's ship. Edward T. Welburn plays a KSI executive. Kevin Covais and Ray Lui plays motorists. Ironhide, Arcee, Wheeljack, Loader, Shockwave and Starscream make cameos, depicted on cards stamped with an X to indicate their deaths. The leader of the Wreckers, Leadfoot, makes a cameo voiced by Robert Foxworth in video footage shown after Cade steals the KSI spy drone, shown being killed by humans from Cemetery Wind. Sentinel Prime and Megatron 's heads are seen in the KSI labs, where they download data from the dead Transformers ' remains. Barricade and some Decepticon Protoforms make cameos in footage from the Battle of Chicago. The Insecticons make a cameo, transferring data from Megatron 's mind, infecting the Galvatron drone. During production for Dark of the Moon, Shia LaBeouf and Bay confirmed that they would not return for a fourth installment of the franchise. Roland Emmerich, Joe Johnston, Jon Turteltaub, Stephen Sommers, Louis Leterrier and David Yates were rumored to replace Bay. Jason Statham was rumored to star in the fourth installment. Hasbro CEO Brian Goldner revealed that he was able to announce the film as he was talking with Steven Spielberg, Bay and Paramount. There were rumors that the fourth and fifth installment would be shot back - to - back with Statham as the lead role, which he and Bay denied. Spielberg hoped Bay would return for a fourth installment. After final negotiations with Bay to direct the film, producer Lorenzo di Bonaventura confirmed that there would be a fourth film in the franchise. In February 2012, Paramount Pictures and Michael Bay announced that Bay would be producing and directing a fourth Transformers film, scheduled for a June 27, 2014 release. The film will not be a reboot but a sequel to Dark of the Moon, taking place four years later. Ehren Kruger and Steve Jablonsky returned to write the script and the score, respectively. In April 2013, it was announced that China Movie Channel and Jiaflix Enterprises would co-produce the film with Paramount. On September 1, 2013, Fusible revealed three possible subtitles for the film, which were Last Stand, Future Cast, and Apocalypse. On September 2, TFW 2005 revealed one last possible title, Age of Extinction. On September 3, 2013, Paramount released an official teaser poster for the film, revealing the title to be Transformers: Age of Extinction. In November 2012, Mark Wahlberg was cast in the film. Also in November 2012, The Hollywood Reporter reported that casting had begun for two additional leads: the daughter to Wahlberg 's character and her boyfriend, a race car driver. Isabelle Cornish, Nicola Peltz, Gabriella Wilde, and Margaret Qualley were all considered for the role of the daughter, while Luke Grimes, Landon Liboiron, Brenton Thwaites, Jack Reynor, and Hunter Parrish were all considered for the boyfriend. The leads are contracted for three films. In January 2013, Reynor was cast as the boyfriend, and in March 2013, Nicola Peltz was cast as Wahlberg 's daughter. Peter Cullen reprises his role as the voice of Optimus Prime. Glenn Morshower stated in September 2012 that he would appear in the next two films, reprising his role of General Morshower, but Morshower announced in May 2013 that he would not be able to appear in the new films due to a scheduling conflict. In April 2013, Bay revealed that actor Stanley Tucci had joined the cast. On May 1, 2013, actor Kelsey Grammer was cast as the lead human villain named Harold Attinger. On May 6, 2013, actress Sophia Myles was cast in a major role. That same month, Chinese actress Li Bingbing and comedian T.J. Miller joined the cast. On July 14, 2013, Bay announced that Han Geng had joined the cast. That same month, Titus Welliver also joined the cast. Bay announced that filming had begun on May 28, 2013, in Monument Valley, Utah. Detroit, Michigan, was used as a stand - in for Hong Kong while McCormick Place in Chicago, Illinois, was re-dressed to portray a city in China. The movie was the first feature film to be shot using smaller digital IMAX 3D cameras. It also was shot in various other formats, including IMAX 70mm film cameras, digital stereo 3D, and anamorphic and spherical 35mm film. From May 28 to June 24, 2013, Michael Bay uploaded photographs of several cars featured in the film, all apparently Autobots, to social networks including Facebook and Flickr. The film featured two unknown Autobots that transformed into a black and blue 2013 Bugatti Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse (going by production name "Drift ''), and a green 2014 C7 Corvette Stingray concept (going by production name "Slingshot ''). Also revealed was a truck from Western Star Trucks as Optimus Prime 's new alternate mode. The Dinobots and Lockdown were confirmed to appear. On October 29, Michael Bay 's Official Twitter Account tweeted that principal photography of Transformers 4 had been completed in Hong Kong, China and the cast and crew were heading to the Chinese mainland. (According to previous reports, they would be filming there for one week.) Additional filming in Detroit began in early 2014; a pair of steamships (Columbia and Ste. Clair) which had once traveled between Detroit and Bois Blanc Island 's amusement park were partially restored and used as props for the film. On October 17, 2013, while filming in Hong Kong, Bay was assaulted by two brothers surnamed Mak, who demanded a payment of HK $100,000 (US $12,900). The elder brother also assaulted three police officers during the incident. Both brothers and a third man surnamed Chan were arrested on suspicion of assault, with the younger Mak also charged on suspicion of blackmail. The Mak brothers pleaded guilty to both charges in February 2014 and were incarcerated, with the prosecutor noting that the case had attracted a great deal of media attention and affected Hong Kong 's image. Industrial Light & Magic 's VFX supervisor Scott Farrar, who had also supervised the three prior films in the Transformers franchise, rendered the visual effects. He said the film contains about ninety minutes of visual effects (out of the movie 's 165 - minute length). Farrer said it was the biggest project, using the largest crew, of his career, and noted that over five hundred crews had worked on it, using various facilities. The nine different formats used in the film included IMAX film, IMAX digital, single - frame anamorphic film, GoPros, crashcams, Red cameras on 3Ality stereo 3D gigs, and red cameras for 2D. Like its predecessors, Steve Jablonsky composed the film 's score, marking his sixth film collaboration with director Michael Bay, four of which are Transformers films. The film 's score was praised by critics and fans. The soundtrack album sold more than 15,000 units worldwide. It is also the first Transformers film for which rock band Linkin Park did not contribute an original song, though their single "Until It 's Gone '' is included in the video game soundtrack of the movie.. Skrillex worked on sound design for the film, having said that he was creating "the craziest Skrillex sounds I could ever make '' and mentioned working on sounds for the Dinobots. Imagine Dragons wrote a single specifically for the film itself, titled "Battle Cry ''. The track "Leave Planet Earth Alone '' samples the drum beat of Battle Cry so that the former serves as an intro to the latter as the credits start, though this version is only present in the film; Battle Cry is n't featured on the soundtrack album, and Leave Planet Earth Alone has a unique outro. No mashup version or otherwise is available for purchase. Imagine Dragons also worked with Steve Jablonsky and Hans Zimmer to contribute additional music to the film 's score. On June 30, 2014, an extended play was digitally released on iTunes, featuring four tracks as a teaser for the full official score, which features variations of the four themes. On July 4, 2014, the long play was released digitally on iTunes containing the full score of the film. The soundtrack album was released on CD by record label La - La Land Records on October 7, 2014. On November 20, 2014, Steve Jablonsky released a statement via Facebook saying that the score would no longer be available on iTunes and other digital music stores after it had reached its limit of 15,000 units before re-use fees would have to be paid. Jablonsky personally expressed his own disappointment in the turn of events, hoping there would be a way to eventually re-release the score, along with the score to Transformers: Dark of the Moon, which had also been removed from iTunes and other digital music stores several months prior when it too reached the 15,000 unit limit. The film had its world premiere in Hong Kong on June 19, with a live concert by Imagine Dragons. The first televised advertisement for Transformers: Age of Extinction aired during Super Bowl XLVIII. In a poll by Fandango, the spot was determined to be the most anticipated film trailer to be shown, receiving 48 % of the vote in the poll. The first official teaser trailer was released on March 4, 2014. A viral marketing campaign was started for the film upon the teaser trailer 's release. On March 30, 2014, a shortened version of the teaser trailer was aired during the season 4 finale of The Walking Dead. Another shortened version of the teaser trailer was aired during the 2014 MTV Movie Awards. Chevrolet aired a commercial at the New York International Auto Show featuring General Motors vehicles with clips from the film, along with putting them on display. Hasbro released an app on May 8 surrounding the film available for iOS and Android devices, allowing users to access exclusive material such as character biographies, images, and interviews with the stars, among other things. A clip featuring never - before - seen scenes from the film and an interview with Imagine Dragons aired during The Voice on May 12, 2014. DeNA and Hasbro teamed up to construct an official mobile video game for the film. The game was first announced on May 13, 2014, though, the title is still in active development. Also on this date, Oreo launched a marketing campaign to promote the film. This included a television commercial where a boy gives a wounded Optimus Prime an Oreo cookie to continue the fight. An exclusive theatrical trailer debuted on May 15 on iTunes Movie Trailers at 12: 01 AM Pacific Standard Time. On May 21, 2014, two television spots appeared online, both containing new footage from the film. The film 's viral campaign updated on May 22, showcasing all - new posters and realistic news reports of the damage done to Chicago from the third film. Three more television spots, all sporting new footage, appeared online on May 30, 2014. Imagine Dragons 's single for the film officially released online on June 2, 2014. Jack Reynor and Nicola Peltz made multiple appearances in the Twin Cities on June 8, 2014. During an appearance on the Canadian version of The Morning Show, both Reynor and Peltz promised big things that would please fans. Kelsey Grammer made an appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman on June 9, 2014. During his visit, the very first clip from the film debuted, showcasing Grammer 's character and Wahlberg 's in a heated argument. During the first commercial break for the show, a brand new television spot aired. On June 10, 2014, two television spots appeared online, both containing extensive new footage from the film. At the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards on March 29, 2014, Mark Wahlberg, who stars in the film, hosted the event. There was also a transmission from Peter Cullen as Optimus Prime, and Nicola Peltz and Jack Reynor assembled with Wahlberg to take out cannons that fired slime. Three more television spots appeared online on June 14, 2014, containing new footage of the Dinobots transforming and of Lockdown speaking. On June 17, a brand - new television spot aired on Comedy Central containing new footage. Another television spot appeared online on June 18, sporting new footage as well. The film 's unusual marketing strategy of letting people video the shooting of the film in select locations was the subject of film critic Kevin B. Lee 's critical video essay Transformers: The Premake. In February 2014, Transformers: Rise of the Dark Spark, developed by Edge of Reality, published by Activision was announced as a companion to the film. It was released in June 2014 for Microsoft Windows, Nintendo 3DS, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Wii U, Xbox 360, and Xbox One. In summer 2014, Rovio and Hasbro announced Angry Birds Transformers. The game has Transformers movie designs on two of the characters. Transformers: Age of Extinction grossed $245.4 million in the United States and Canada and $858.6 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.104 billion, against a budget of $210 million. It was the only film of 2014 to earn over $1 billion at the box office worldwide. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $250.2 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the most profitable film of 2014. Worldwide, in its opening weekend, the film earned $302.1 million, which is the 14th - highest ever, the highest in 2014, and the second - largest for Paramount behind Transformers: Dark of the Moon ($382.4 million). It was the 17th - highest - grossing film worldwide, the highest - grossing film of 2014, the second - highest - grossing film in the Transformers film series, and the 11th - highest - grossing film of Paramount (domestically). It is the second film in the Transformers installment to earn over $1 billion following Dark of the Moon and the 19th film overall. Despite being a box office hit, it was considered by several box office experts to have fallen well below expectations. Transformers: Age of Extinction is the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2014 in the U.S. and Canada. It was released on June 27, 2014 in across 4,233 theaters in North America. It earned $8.75 million from Thursday late - night run, which was the fifth - biggest of 2014. On Friday, the film grossed an additional $31.25 million bringing its total day gross to $41.6 million, including $10.7 million from IMAX theaters. In its opening weekend, the film earned $100,038,390 setting an opening record of 2014 (overtaken by The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 with $121.9 million), which is the fourth - highest opening for Paramount, and the fifth - highest for a film released in June. The opening - weekend audience was evenly split among those under and over the age of 25 (with 58 %), male (64 %), and under 18 (27 %). The film remained at the summit for two consecutive weekends before being overtaken by Dawn of the Planet of the Apes in its third weekend. It also crossed the $200 million mark in its third weekend, becoming the fifth film of 2014 to do so. The film closed down its theatrical run on October 9, 2014 and earned a total of $245,439,076, making it the fifth - highest - grossing film of 2014 in the U.S. Outside North America, it is the highest - grossing film of 2014, and the sixth - highest - grossing film. Transformers: Age of Extinction earned $202.1 million in its opening weekend from 37 countries in 10,152 screens, which is 35 % bigger than Dark of the Moon and marking the biggest overseas opening of 2014 (breaking X-Men: Days of Future Past 's record set one month prior). It scored the biggest IMAX overseas opening weekend with $16.6 million from 266 theaters (overtaken by Jurassic World). The film topped the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends despite coinciding with the 2014 FIFA World Cup before being overtaken by Dawn of the Planet of the Apes in its fifth weekend. International openings of over $5 million occurred in South Korea ($21.7 million), Brazil ($16.5 million), Germany ($11.2 million), Australia ($9.6 million), France ($8.8 million), Taiwan ($8.1 million), Malaysia ($6.7 million), Japan ($6.4 million), the Philippines ($5.7 million), India ($5.35 million), Hong Kong ($5.1 million), and Italy ($5 million). In Russia, the film opened to number one with $21.7 million from 1,100 screens, which is the second - largest in the territory for which 3D accounted for 80 % of the total gross. IMAX comprised $2.6 million of the total gross from 34 IMAX screens. Its biggest opener outside the U.S. was in China, where it scored one of the biggest non-North American openings of all time with $91.2 million from 4,400 screens, which was once the second - biggest opening of all time there. The film set an all - time IMAX opening record with $9.7 million. After five days of its release, Age of Extinction surpassed its North American run with $134.5 million. In China, the film earned an additional $50.9 million in its second weekend for a total of $212.8 million. In only 10 days of its release, it became the highest - grossing film in China with $222.74 million, thus overtaking Avatar 's previous record. Adding to the film 's revenue and popularity were product placements of Chinese brands edited into the movie specifically for Chinese audiences. It became the highest - grossing film in China, with $301 -- $320 million in revenue surpassing 2009 's record set by Avatar ($204 million), until it was surpassed by Furious 7 in 2015 over $390 million. It is also the first movie in China to gross more than $300 million at the box office. A large part of the success in China has been attributed to the large fan base there and because of its accompanying animated TV series -- which ran during the 1980s and 1990 -- was one of the highest - quality TV programs at that time which resulted in many children getting attached to it. Transformers toy merchandising was one of the first successful cases by a foreign company in China at its time, its line of transforming robot toys was highly sought - after, especially by boys. At the end of its theatrical run outside North America, the film earned $858,600,000 which is 77.8 % of its total gross. In total earnings, the highest revenue came from China ($301 million), Russia ($45.2 million), South Korea ($43.3 million), Germany ($38.2 million), Mexico ($33.5 million), and the UK ($33.1 million). The $100 million opening announced for Transformers: Age of Extinction is disputed within the industry. According to Rentrak -- which has a direct line into the vast majority of theatres in the United States and Canada to track actual ticket sales -- about 4,100 of the 4,233 theatres playing the film generated $95.9 million. The projected total from the Rentrak sales data would put the opening three - day weekend gross at around $97.5 million. For Transformers to have crossed the $100 million threshold, it would have needed to gross more than the nationwide average in the theatres not tracked by Rentrak. Some media outlets have elected to go with the Rentrak figure. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 18 % based on 195 reviews, with an average rating of 3.9 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "With the fourth installment in Michael Bay 's blockbuster Transformers franchise, nothing is in disguise: Fans of loud, effects - driven action will find satisfaction, and all others need not apply. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 32 out of 100, based on 38 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale. Richard Roeper gave the film a "D '', saying that "the longer the movie goes on, the less interesting it becomes; it just wears you down. As we were finally reaching the 165 - minute mark, all that noise and fury was about as exciting as the special effects in an Ed Wood movie. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film zero out of four stars, calling it "the worst and most worthless Transformers movie yet. '' Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film one - and - a-half out of four stars, commenting that "This series was never good, but it was once fun, or at least flashy. Now that its gears have gone rusty, it 's time for an Alien vs. Predator - style rethink. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times said in his review that "The story is scaffolding for the action and like every other standing structure, it is wrecked in a thunderous shower of metal, glass, masonry, and earth. '' Clarence Tsui of The Hollywood Reporter commented on his review that it "barely skirts the idea that humankind and planet Earth are about to be totally annihilated. What is extinguished is the audience 's consciousness after being bombarded for nearly three hours with overwrought emotions (' There 's a missile in the living room! ' Tessa hollers -- twice), bad one - liners, and battles that rarely rise above the banal. A trio of editors make a technical marvel out of the fight scenes, but can do little to link the story 's multiple threads into something coherent. '' Roth Cornet of IGN gave the film a score of 6.3 out of 10, praising the "slightly darker / surprising tone and Lockdown and his ship while criticizing the logic / script issues and long running time. '' Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News gave the film 1 out of five stars, commenting that "If the ' human scenes ' all reek of adolescent dialogue and dopey snark masquerading as character development, it 's a toss - up if that 's better or worse than seeing clattering collections of caliginous junk. '' Transformers: Age of Extinction was released on Blu - ray, DVD, and Blu - ray 3D formats on September 30, 2014, in North America. The film was also released on digital download through iTunes and Google Play on September 16, 2014. A fifth Transformers film, titled The Last Knight, was released on June 21, 2017 to poor reviews, with both Bay and Wahlberg stating it was their final entry of the series. A spin - off film, Bumblebee: The Movie, is scheduled for a December 21, 2018 release.
radiation is detected by an instrument called a	Geiger counter - wikipedia The Geiger counter is an instrument used for measuring ionizing radiation used widely in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear industry. It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced in a Geiger -- Müller tube; which gives its name to the instrument. In wide and prominent use as a hand - held radiation survey instrument, it is perhaps one of the world 's best - known radiation detection instruments. The original detection principle was discovered in 1908 at the Cavendish laboratory, but it was not until the development of the Geiger - Müller tube in 1928 that the Geiger - Müller counter became a practical instrument. Since then it has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and relatively low cost. However, there are limitations in measuring high radiation rates and the energy of incident radiation. A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger - Müller tube, the sensing element which detects the radiation, and the processing electronics, which displays the result. The Geiger - Müller tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage is applied. The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident radiation makes the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend discharge effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing and display electronics. This large pulse from the tube makes the G-M counter relatively cheap to manufacture, as the subsequent electronics is greatly simplified. The electronics also generates the high voltage, typically 400 -- 600 volts, that has to be applied to the Geiger - Müller tube to enable its operation. There are two types of radiation readout: counts or radiation dose. The counts display is the simplest and is the number of ionizing events displayed either as a count rate, commonly "counts per second '', or as a total over a set time period (an integrated total). The counts readout is normally used when alpha or beta particles are being detected. More complex to achieve is a display of radiation dose rate, displayed in a unit such as the sievert which is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates. A G-M tube can detect the presence of radiation, but not its energy which influences the radiation 's ionising effect. Consequently, instruments measuring dose rate require the use of an energy compensated G-M tube, so that the dose displayed relates to the counts detected. The electronics will apply known factors to make this conversion, which is specific to each instrument and is determined by design and calibration. The readout can be analog or digital, and increasingly, modern instruments are offering serial communications with a host computer or network. There is usually an option to produce audible clicks representing the number of ionization events detected. This is the distinctive sound normally associated with hand held or portable Geiger counters. The purpose of this is to allow the user to concentrate on manipulation of the instrument whilst retaining auditory feedback on the radiation rate. There are two main limitations of the Geiger counter. Because the output pulse from a Geiger - Müller tube is always the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the incident radiation, the tube can not differentiate between radiation types. A further limitation is the inability to measure high radiation rates due to the "dead time '' of the tube. This is an insensitive period after each ionization of the gas during which any further incident radiation will not result in a count, and the indicated rate is therefore lower than actual. Typically the dead time will reduce indicated count rates above about 10 to 10 counts per second depending on the characteristic of the tube being used. Whilst some counters have circuitry which can compensate for this, for accurate measurements ion chamber instruments are preferred for high radiation rates. The intended detection application of a Geiger counter dictates the tube design used. Consequently, there are a great many designs, but they can be generally categorised as "end - window '', or windowless "thin - walled '', or "thick - walled '', and sometimes hybrids of these types. The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were for the detection of alpha and beta particles, and the instrument is still used for this purpose today. For alpha particles and low energy beta particles the "end - window '' type of G-M tube has to be used as these particles have a limited range even in free air, and are easily stopped by a solid material. Therefore, the tube requires a window which is thin enough to allow as many as possible of these particles through to the fill gas. The window is usually made of mica with a density of about 1.5 - 2.0 mg / cm. Alpha particles have the shortest range, and to detect these the window should ideally be within 10 mm of the radiation source due to alpha particle attenuation in free air. However, the G-M tube produces a pulse output which is the same magnitude for all detected radiation, so a Geiger counter with an end window tube can not distinguish between alpha and beta particles. A skilled operator can use varying distance from radiation source to detector to differentiate between alpha and high energy beta particles, but with the detector in close contact with the radiation source the two types are both detected and are indistinguishable. The "pancake '' Geiger - Muller detector is a variant of the end window probe, but designed with a larger detection area to make checking quicker. However the pressure of the atmosphere against the low pressure of the fill gas limits the window size due to the limited strength of the window membrane. Some beta particles can also be detected by a thin - walled "windowless '' G-M tube, which has no end window, but allows high energy beta particles to pass through the tube walls. Although the tube walls have a greater stopping power than a thin end window, they still allow these more energetic particles to reach the fill gas. End - window G-M detectors are still used as a general purpose portable radioactive contamination measurement and detection instrument, owing to their relatively low cost, robustness and their relatively high detection efficiency; particularly with high energy beta particles. However, for discrimination between alpha and beta particles or provision of particle energy information, scintillation counters or proportional counters should be used. Those instrument types are manufactured with much larger detector areas, which means that checking for surface contamination is quicker than with a G-M instrument. Geiger counters are widely used to detect gamma radiation, and for this the windowless tube is used. However, efficiency is generally low due to the poor interaction of gamma rays compared with alpha and beta particles. For instance, a chrome steel G-M tube is only about 1 % efficient over a wide range of energies. The article on the Geiger - Muller tube carries a more detailed account of the techniques used to detect photon radiation. For high energy gamma it largely relies on interaction of the photon radiation with the tube wall material, usually 1 -- 2 mm of chrome steel on a "thick - walled '' tube, to produce electrons within the wall which can enter and ionize the fill gas. This is necessary as the low pressure gas in the tube has little interaction with high energy gamma photons. However, for low energy photons there is greater gas interaction and the direct gas ionisation effect increases. With decreasing energy the wall effect gives way to a combination of wall effect and direct ionisation, until direct gas ionisation dominates. Due to the variance in response to different photon energies, windowless tubes employ what is known as "energy compensation '' which attempts to compensate for these variations over a large energy range. Low energy photon radiation such as low energy X rays or gamma rays interacts better with the fill gas. Consequently, a typical design for low energy photon detection for these is a long tube with a thin wall or with an end window. The tube has a larger gas volume than a steel walled tube to give an increased chance of particle interaction. A variation of the Geiger tube is used to measure neutrons, where the gas used is boron trifluoride or helium - 3 and a plastic moderator is used to slow the neutrons. This creates an alpha particle inside the detector and thus neutrons can be counted. The term "Geiger counter '' is commonly used to mean a hand - held survey type meter, however the Geiger principle is in wide use in installed "area gamma '' alarms for personnel protection, and in process measurement and interlock applications. A Geiger tube is still the sensing device, but the processing electronics will have a higher degree of sophistication and reliability than that used in a hand held survey meter. For hand - held units there are two fundamental physical configurations: the "integral '' unit with both detector and electronics in the same unit, and the "two - piece '' design which has a separate detector probe and an electronics module connected by a short cable. In the 1930s a mica window was added to the cylindrical design allowing low - penetration radiation to pass through with ease. The integral unit allows single - handed operation, so the operator can use the other hand for personal security in challenging monitoring positions, but the two piece design allows easier manipulation of the detector, and is commonly used for alpha and beta surface contamination monitoring where careful manipulation of the probe is required or the weight of the electronics module would make operation unwieldy. A number of different sized detectors are available to suit particular situations, such as placing the probe in small apertures or confined spaces. Gamma and X-Ray detectors generally use an "integral '' design so the Geiger -- Müller tube is conveniently within the electronics enclosure. This can easily be achieved because the casing usually has little attentuation, and is employed in ambient gamma measurements where distance from the source of radiation is not a significant factor. However, to facilitate more localised measurements such as "surface dose '', the position of the tube in the enclosure is sometimes indicated by targets on the enclosure so an accurate measurement can be made with the tube at the correct orientation and a known distance from the surface. There is a particular type of gamma instrument known as a "hot spot '' detector which has the detector tube on the end of a long pole or flexible conduit. These are used to measure high radiation gamma locations whilst protecting the operator by means of distance shielding. Particle detection of alpha and beta can used in both integral and two - piece designs. A pancake probe (for alpha / beta) is generally used to increase the area of detection in two - piece instruments whilst being relatively light weight. In integral instruments using an end window tube there is a window in the body of the casing to prevent shielding of particles. There are also hybrid instruments which have a separate probe for particle detection and a gamma detection tube within the electronics module. The detectors are switchable by the operator, depending the radiation type that is being measured. In the United Kingdom the HSE has issued a user guidance note on selecting the best portable instrument type for the radiation measurement application concerned. This covers all radiation protection instrument technologies and is a useful comparative guide to the use of G-M detectors. The guide does not recommend the G-M detector for mixed alpha and beta contamination detection, and they are only recommended as "satisfactory '' for beta - only contamination. However, for gamma and low - voltage X-rays they are recommended as the best instrument type. In 1908 Hans Geiger, under the supervision of Ernest Rutherford at the Victoria University of Manchester (now the University of Manchester), developed an experimental technique for detecting alpha particles that would later be used in the Geiger - Müller tube. This early counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles and was part of a larger experimental apparatus. The fundamental ionization mechanism used was discovered by John Sealy Townsend by his work between 1897 and 1901, and is known as the Townsend discharge, which is the ionization of molecules by ion impact. It was not until 1928 that Geiger and Walther Müller (a PhD student of Geiger) developed the sealed Geiger - Müller tube which developed the basic ionization principles previously used experimentally. This was relatively small and rugged, and could not only detect alpha and beta radiation such as prior models but also gamma radiation. Now a practical radiation instrument could be produced relatively cheaply, and so the Geiger - Muller counter was born. As the tube output required little electronic processing, a distinct advantage in the thermionic valve era due to minimal valve count and low power consumption, the instrument achieved great popularity as a portable radiation detector. Modern versions of the Geiger counter use the halogen tube invented in 1947 by Sidney H. Liebson. It superseded the earlier Geiger tube because of its much longer life and lower operating voltage, typically 400 - 600 volts. Use of a "hot spot '' detector on a long pole to survey waste casks. G-M pancake detector feeding a microcontroller data - logger sending data to a PC via bluetooth. A radioactive rock was placed on top the G-M causing the graph to rise. G-M counters being used as gamma survey monitors, seeking radioactive satellite debris Media related to Geiger counters at Wikimedia Commons
axwell λ ingrosso more than you know girl	More Than You Know (Axwell and Ingrosso song) - wikipedia "More Than You Know '' is a song by Swedish dance music duo Axwell Λ Ingrosso and features uncredited vocals from Kristoffer Fogelmark. The song was released in Sweden as a digital download on 27 May 2017 as the tenth single from their debut studio album of the same name. The song was written by Sebastian Ingrosso, Salem Al Fakir, Axel Hedfors, Vincent Pontare and Richard Zastenker. The song peaked at number two on the Swedish Singles Chart. The video features model Romi Van Renterghem A "Latin remix '' of the song, featuring Colombian singer Sebastián Yatra and Colombian duo Cali & El Dandee, was released worldwide in October 2017. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
when is the next episode of empire season 2	List of Empire episodes - wikipedia Empire is an American musical drama television series which debuted on Fox on January 7, 2015. The show centers around a hip hop music and Entertainment Company, Empire Entertainment, and the drama among the members of the founders ' family as they fight for control of the company. The series was created by Lee Daniels and Danny Strong, and stars Terrence Howard and Taraji P. Henson. The series was renewed for a fourth season on January 11, 2017, which premiered on September 27, 2017. As of April 18, 2018, 61 episodes of Empire have aired.
where is the soul mentioned in the bible	Soul in the Bible - wikipedia The traditional concept of an immaterial and immortal soul distinct from the body was not found in Judaism before the Babylonian exile, but developed as a result of interaction with Persian and Hellenistic philosophies. Accordingly, the Hebrew word נֶ֫פֶשׁ ‬, nephesh, although translated as "soul '' in some older English Bibles, actually has a meaning closer to "living being ''. Nephesh was rendered in the Septuagint as ψυχή (psūchê), the Greek word for soul. The New Testament also uses the word ψυχή, but with the Hebrew meaning and not the Greek. The textual evidence indicates a multiplicity of perspectives on these issues including probable changes during the centuries in which the biblical corpus developed. The traditional concept of an immaterial and immortal soul distinct from the body was not found in Judaism before the Babylonian exile, but developed as a result of interaction with Persian and Hellenistic philosophies. Accordingly, the Hebrew word נֶ֫פֶשׁ ‬, nephesh, although translated as "soul '' in some older English Bibles, actually has a meaning closer to "living being ''. Nephesh was rendered in the Septuagint as ψυχή (psūchê), the Greek word for soul. The New Testament also uses the word ψυχή, but with the Hebrew meaning and not the Greek. The only Hebrew word traditionally translated "soul '' (nephesh) in English language Bibles refers to a living, breathing conscious body, rather than to an immortal soul. In the New Testament, the Greek word traditionally translated "soul '' (ψυχή) "psyche '', has substantially the same meaning as the Hebrew, without reference to an immortal soul. In the Greek Septuagent psyche is used to translate each instance of nephesh. According to Genesis 2: 7 God did not make a body and put a soul into it like a letter into an envelope of dust; rather he formed man 's body from the dust, then, by breathing divine breath into it, he made the body of dust live, i.e. the dust did not embody a soul, but it became a soul -- a whole creature. And the Lord God created man in two formations; and took dust from the place of the house of the sanctuary, and from the four winds of the world, and mixed from all the waters of the world, and created him red, black, and white; and breathed into his nostrils the inspiration of life, and there was in the body of Adam the inspiration of a speaking spirit, unto the illumination of the eyes and the hearing of the ears. -- Targum Pseudo-Jonathan And the Lord God created Adam from dust of the ground, and breathed upon his face the breath of lives, and it became in Adam a Discoursing Spirit. -- Targum Onkelos The LORD God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living soul. (Genesis 2: 7 with notes added) Here and "all through Scripture '' a "living soul '' denotes a "living person ''. This is because, as Brevard Childs writes, in the biblical view, a person "does not have a soul, but is a soul ''. And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. The definition of soul (psūchê) in the New Testament is based on the definition found in the Old Testament. "And so it is written, The first man Adam was made a living soul; the last Adam was made a quickening spirit. '' (1 Corinthians 15: 45) The New Testament counterpart to the Old Testament word for soul, nephesh, is psyche. The two words carry a similar range of meanings. Both can designate the person or the person 's life as a whole. For all uses and meanings of psyche / ψυχἠ, see Joseph Henry Thayer, A Greek - English Lexicon of the New Testament. According to some writers, nephesh and psūchê are not naturally immortal. They die and are uncomprehending during the time between death and Judgment Day resurrection, also known as the intermediate state. John Goldingay writes, "The life of a human being came more directly from God, and it is also evident that when someone dies, the breath (rûaḥ, e.g., Ps 104: 29) or the life (nepeš, e.g., Gen 35: 18) disappears and returns to the God who is rûaḥ. '' The concept of an immaterial soul separate from and surviving the body is common today but according to modern scholars, it was not found in ancient Hebrew beliefs. The word nephesh never means an immortal soul or an incorporeal part of the human being that can survive death of the body as the spirit of dead, In Patristic thought, towards the end of the 2nd century, psūchê had begun to be understood in a more Greek than a Hebrew way, contrasted with the body. By the 3rd century, with the influence of Origen, the traditions of the inherent immortality of the soul and its divine nature were established. As the new Encyclopædia Britannica points out: "The early Christian philosophers adopted the Greek concept of the soul 's immortality and thought of the soul as being created by God and infused into the body at conception. '' Inherent immortality of the soul was accepted among western and eastern theologians throughout the Middle Ages, and after the Reformation, as evidenced by the Westminster Confession. The modern scholarly consensus holds that the canonical teaching of the Old Testament made no reference to an immortal soul independent of the body. A wide range of scholarly reference works consistently represent this view. Many modern theologians reject the view that the Bible teaches the doctrine of the immortal soul, and Hebblethwaite observes the doctrine is "not popular amongst Christian theologians or among Christian philosophers today ''.
what is the role of network operating system	Network operating system - wikipedia The term network operating system is used to refer to two rather different concepts: Network operating systems can be embedded in a router or hardware firewall that operates the functions in the network layer (layer 3). Early microcomputer operating systems such as CP / M, DOS and classic Mac OS were designed for one user on one computer. As local area network technology became available, two general approaches to handle sharing arose. In a peer - to - peer network operating system users are allowed to share resources and files located on their computers and access shared resources from others. This system is not based with having a file server or centralized management source. A peer - to - peer network sets all connected computers equal; they all share the same abilities to use resources available on the network. The advantages include: The disadvantages include: Network operating systems can be based on a client -- server model (architecture) in which a server enables multiple clients to share resources. Client - server network operating systems allow networks to centralize functions and applications in one or more dedicated file servers. The server is the center of the system, allowing access to resources and instituting security. The network operating system provides the mechanism to integrate all the components on a network to allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources regardless of physical location. The advantages include: The disadvantages include:
when does the second semester start in college	Academic term - wikipedia An academic term (or simply "term '') is a portion of an academic year, the time during which an educational institution holds classes. The schedules adopted vary widely. The word quadmester or quadrimester is occasionally used to mean either four months or (more commonly in modern American usage) a quarter of a year. In countries like Argentina, public universities divide the academic year into two quadrimesters (March -- July and August -- December). In most countries, the academic year begins in late summer or early autumn and ends during the following spring or summer. In Northern Hemisphere countries, this means that the academic year lasts from August, September, or October to May, June, or July. In Southern Hemisphere countries, the academic year aligns with the calendar year, lasting from February or March to November or December. The summer may or may not be part of the term system. In most of Australia, the primary and secondary school year lasts approximately 200 days, from late January or early February to early or mid-December, and is split into four terms: Terms 4&1 (rolled over) and 2&3 are respectively usually deemed ' summer ' and ' winter ' respectively for purposes of sports participation and uniform standards. Australian states and territories vary their approach to Easter when determining the dates for the holiday at the end of Term 1. The exact dates vary from year to year, as well as between states, and for public and private school. In Tasmania until and including 2012, the school year was split into three terms, the first one being the longest and including an extended Easter holiday (which was also the practice of mainland Australia until the mid-1980s). However, in 2013 Tasmania introduced a four - term year, to conform to the rest of the country. There is typically a break of two weeks mid-semester (i.e. after Term 1 and after Term 3) and a break of three weeks in the middle of the year, although this can vary between jurisdictions. In the year 2000, due to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, the state of New South Wales extended the break after Term 3 to three weeks, compensating by reducing the break in the middle of the year to two weeks. Most Australian universities have two semesters a year, but Bond University, Deakin University, CQUniversity and the University of Canberra have three trimesters. Unusually, Macquarie University officially uses the word "session '' and CQUniversity uses the word "term '' in place of "semester ''. Many universities offer an optional short summer semester. One recent innovation in Australian higher education has been the establishment of the fully distance -- online Open Universities Australia (formerly Open Learning Australia) that offers continuous study opportunities of individual units of study (what are called courses in North America) that can lead to full degree qualifications. Open Universities Australia operates four 13 - week study periods each year. Since students study only part - time and off campus these study periods mesh reasonably easily with existing university offerings based on semesters. In some cases, a "semester '' is referred to as a "Study Period '', for example by Centrelink. The Austrian school year for primary and secondary schools is split into two terms, the first one starts on the first Monday in September in the states of Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland and on the second Monday of September in Upper Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg. Most schools have holidays between the national holiday on October 26 and All Souls Day on November 2, but those are unofficial holidays not observed by all schools in Austria. Christmas holidays start on December 24 and end on the first weekday after January 6. The first term ends in Vienna and Lower Austria on the first Friday of February, in Burgenland, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the second Friday of February and in Upper Austria and Styria on the third Friday of February. There is a one - week break between the two terms. In the second term there are the Easter holidays, the Mayday Holiday on May 1 and the long weekends of Pentecost, Ascension and Corpus Christi. The school year ends in Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland on the last Friday of June, in Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, Tyrol and Vorarlberg on the first Friday in July. The Barbadian school year is fashioned after the British system, and as such, it follows a scheduling with three terms per school year. The long school holiday period is 9 to 10 weeks from the end of June until the first week of September. In Brazil, due to the Law of Directives and Bases of Brazilian Education, the academic year must have 200 days, both at schools and at universities. The school year usually begins during the first week of February. There is a 2 - week / 4 - week long winter break in July. The Brazilian school year ends the first week of December, summer in Brazil. Most schools use the 4 term system, called "Unidades '' (unities). In Brazilian universities academic terms are defined as periods or semesters (período, semestre). The majority of academic degrees courses are 8 semesters (four years) long or 10 semesters (five years) long. In Bangladesh, the kindergarten, elementary and schools follow the semester system. Most of the universities follow the semester system although for some particular subjects such as Law they follow a yearly system. Business schools of all public and private universities follow a semester or trimester system. Some of the universities using a two - semester system (using "Term 1 '' and "Term 2 '' designations) include: Jessore University of Science and Technology, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Chittagong University of Engineering and Technology, International Islamic University Chittagong, Khulna University, Khulna University of Engineering and Technology, Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology. Jagannath University, and Sylhet Agricultural University. Some of the universities following a trimester system (using "Spring '', "Summer '' and "Fall '' designations) include: American International University - Bangladesh, BRAC University, East West University, Daffodil International University, North South University, Presidency University, Stamford University, Military Institute of Science and Technology, Dhaka http://mist.ac.bd, University of Information Technology and Sciences, University of Development Alternative (UODA) and United International University. In Belgium, kindergarten, elementary and secondary schools begin on September 1 and end on June 30. Schools also take breaks / holidays: Universities and colleges in Belgium use the semester system, dividing the academic year in two equal parts of fourteen weeks of courses. Universities start the first semester in the third week of September, and no ' autumn break '. Colleges start one week earlier, in the second week of September, giving them right to the ' autumn break ' of one week. After 13 weeks of courses the ' Christmas break ' starts (around December 20), which is used to study for the 3 -- 4 weeks of examinations in January. After these examinations the universities have one week of vacation, the so - called ' semestrial vacation ', while the colleges start the classes of the second semester at the end of January, immediately after the examinations, which week they reclaim with the ' spring break ' at the end of February, which the universities do not have. The universities start the second semester in the beginning of February. Both universities and colleges have the ' Easter break ', which again is used to study for the examinations in June. After Easter, the classes start again until the end of May, followed by four weeks of examinations in June, after which three months of vacation is given. The students who failed in passing some of the courses in their curriculum in January and June, the so - called ' first session ', have to do the examinations again in the second session at the end of August. In Cambodia the school year kindergarten sectors in public schools consists of 10 months with a two - month vacation, while in primary, and secondary sectors, it is divided into two semesters and each semester is divided into 2 quarters. The first of November is the start of the academic term. After the 1st semester, a small vacation when the school is halted and at the end of the Second Semester, a 2 - month vacation until the start of the new year. In universities, it is divided into 4 years. Education being a provincial responsibility, there is no Canadian national standard. In Canada the school year for elementary and high school consists of 178 to 200 days, depending on jurisdiction, but several days may be deducted from this total for professional development and administrative duties, resulting in approximately 187 teaching days per year for most jurisdictions. Elementary students receive approximately 950 hours of instruction and secondary students receive approximately 1000 hours per year. Generally in English Canada, high schools run on a two - semester arrangement, also known as fall and spring semester, the first semester starting from the day after Labour Day in September to mid-January and the second running from early February until the Thursday before the last Friday in June. The semesters are often divided into two terms each. Some schools in Canada run on a trimester system, the first running from September to January, the second from January to March or April, and the third from March or April until June. The trimester is more common in elementary and middle schools (Kindergarten - Grade 8) than in high schools (Grade 9 - Grade 12). Most of those characteristics differ in Québec, where education is, with the exception of a few school boards, given in French. By tradition, Quebec and Franco - Ontarian elementary and secondary schools will arrange timetables to ensure the school year ends before June 24, date of the St - Jean - Baptiste day celebration, a traditional holiday. Most universities and colleges usually run from early September until the end of April or early May. Often, this winter session is split into two terms running September to December and January to April. Various forms of summer studies may be offered May to August. Some, such as University of Waterloo and Simon Fraser University, run a full tri-semester system, providing full courses during summer. There are a few school boards in Canada experimenting with year - round schooling. In elementary school, high school, as well as in universities, Chilean education is divided into two semesters. The first one starts late February or early March and lasts until late June and the second starts in early August and finishes in mid-December; also, some universities offer a summer period from early January to mid-February but just for exceptional courses. These semesters have breaks for public festivities, such as Easter (approx. one week in April), independence commemoration (one or two weeks in September) and some public holidays like labour day, amongst others. In the People 's Republic of China all schools including elementary, middle and high schools, colleges and universities have two semesters, the first from September to January, and the second from February or March, depending on the date of Chinese New Year, to July. From January to February or March is the Winter break or Lunar New Year break. Summer break is normally from July to the end of August. In Northern China, the winter break is longer and the summer break is shorter; the opposite applies in Southern China. There are some casual holiday breaks: In Costa Rica the school year runs for ten months. It starts in the first week of February and ends in the last week of November. There is a mid-term vacation of approximately 2 weeks in July, and most schools also observe "Easter Week '' in March or April. In the elementary and high schools in the Czech Republic, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 30 of the following year. It is divided into two semesters with breaks on public holidays such as St. Vaclav (September 28), Independence day (October 28, two days break), Velvet Revolution (November 17), Christmas (7 -- 10 days break), Spring break (1 week break), Easter (three days break on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Monday) and finally Labour day (May 1) and Liberation day (May 8). After the end of school year on June 30, the Summer holidays follow till September 1 when a new school year starts. Sole exception to this is the final year at high schools, which ends with Graduation of students at the end of May. Universities have two mid-terms. The academic year starts usually in the second half of September or in the begging of October. (It depends on university.) Bachelor degree is normally obtained by students after 3 years and masters after another 2 years of study. Still, there are some exceptions (e.g. medicine takes 6 years, no bachelor degree). In schools in Denmark, the school year runs from August to June. In universities, the academic year runs from around September 1 to June 30, and is often divided into an autumn semester (with January set aside for exams) and a spring semester (with June set aside for exams). Since 2004, some Danish universities and faculties divide the academic year into four quarters, each of which may consist of eight weeks and an exam week, and being separated from the next quarter by a one - week break. In Estonia, elementary and high schools begin on 1 September and end in the beginning of June. The school year is divided into quarters that last about two to three months. Summer is usually counted as a term break, although the beginning of June is still part of the fourth quarter. Universities start on the first Monday of September and usually end in the middle of May or in the beginning of June; though in reality, exam periods may continue until the end of June (e.g. University of Tartu). In Ethiopia, almost all elementary, secondary, and college classes are conducted on a two - semester timetable. The first semester of the year is from September to late January or mid February. The second semester usually begins some two weeks after the end of the first and ends in late May or mid June. In the elementary and secondary schools and college, the academic year is divided in semesters. The autumn semester begins in mid-August and is suspended a few days before Christmas. The classes continue after the Epiphany with the spring semester which finishes at the beginning of June. In primary and secondary schools, the school year begins the first Monday of September, unless September 1 is on Sunday. The school year is divided into three trimesters. The first from September to January, the second from January to April, and the third is from April to June. School Breaks Breaks are scattered throughout the school year every 6, 7 or 8 weeks and last 2 weeks each. All Saint Break The first break is around All Saints ' Day on November 1. Christmas Break Christmas Break starts the Saturday before Christmas. Winter Break Winter Break dates differ of the Academia 's location, which could be in Zone A, B, or C, to avoid high traffic on the road. It usually starts in February, ends late February or early March. Easter Break Easter Break depends on the location of Academia. It starts in April, and ends late April or early May. End of Academic term - Summer Break In primary school, end of Acamedic term is early July. In secondary school (middle school or high school) end of Academic term is before Middle School Exam in late June, or Baccalaureat, in mid-June. On Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, pupils have a full day of teaching from around 8: 30 a.m. until around 4: 30 p.m. On Wednesday mornings, some pupils may have supplementary classes. French pupils used to attend school on Saturdays, but the so - called "four - days week '' has been implemented since September 2008, reducing the teaching year from 936 to 864 hours (above the European average of 800 hours, but below the UK minimum of 950 hours for state schools). Additional holidays include Veterans Day on November 11, May 8, Ascension Day, May Day on May 1, and Easter Monday. The school year in Germany begins between late July and early September, and ends from mid-June to July, with a summer break of similar length to that in the UK (only 6 weeks) but much shorter than in some other countries (with up to 3 months). The summer vacation starts in a different week by state (there are 16 federal states (including Berlin, Hamburg and Bremen)). The school year includes four or five shorter breaks or holidays: Due to Germany 's federal structure, all breaks may differ depending on the state. The exact dates for the beginning and the end of school breaks are kept different state by state and changed every year. This is meant to keep holiday traffic as low as possible. The school year is divided into two parts (September to February & February to July). There is not necessarily any break between those two parts, but pupils get a semi-year school report (it only displays their current level and is not relevant for promotion). German universities run two semesters with the start and end dates depending on the university. The Wintersemester (WiSe), during which most students start university, often goes from 1 October till 31 March, with lectures starting around 15 October and lasting 14 weeks. There is usually a two - week break around Christmas and New Year (which is not counted in the 14 weeks). The Sommersemester (SoSe) consequently usually goes from 1 April till 30 September with lectures starting some time after Easter and lasting 12 weeks. The two lecture - free periods of 12 to 14 weeks between the semesters are for taking exams, doing internships, lab courses, and employment. The University of Mannheim changed its schedule to conform with US standards in Fall of 2006. The semesters there are now from August 1 to January 31 (Herbst - / Wintersemester) and from February 1 to July 31 (Frühjahrs - / Sommersemester). "Fachhochschulen '' start both semesters one month earlier than other universities. "Berufsakademien '' have four quarters, January to March and so on. In alternating quarters the students attend the university and intern at the employer (the latter being the "Praxisphase ''). The number of lessons per week is significantly higher than at normal universities (equivalent to a full - time job) and the exams can not be during the "free time '' of the year, as that time is spent in the company. Vacation is given according to labor laws, i.e. half of 20 -- 30 days (because only half of the year is worked). The school year in Guyana usually begins in September and ends in July of the following year. It has three terms: Christmas (First), Easter (Second) and August (Third), with two to three weeks break for Christmas and Easter and 6 to 7 weeks during the August term. The school year in Honduras runs from the first week of February to the end of November, with a one - week break during Easter, and a week break in October. University Depending on the university, some do trimester and others in quarters. Breaks may vary. In Hong Kong, the academic year usually runs from September 1 to mid-July for most primary and secondary schools. For senior secondary student, they usually start their academic year from mid of August or late August. Some secondary schools have two terms, but most have three terms. For universities and other tertiary institutions the academic year usually runs from September or October to April or May, sometimes with an extra summer term roughly from May to July. Kindergartens often operate a semester (two - term) system, divided by the lengthy (e.g. two - week) break for Chinese New Year, typically in early February. In the elementary and high schools in Hungary, the school year usually runs from September 1 to June 15 of the next year, with variation if these dates fall on Saturday or Sunday. The school year (tanév) is usually split into two semesters (félév). These semesters are also divided, with some schools holding examinations each half - semester. The first semester runs from September 1 till the middle of January and is divided by the fall vacation, which is around All Saints ' Day and lasts for a week. The second semester is closed at the end of the school year. It is divided by the Easter holiday, which usually consist of the weekend before Easter and the holiday itself. Apart from these vacations and national celebrations, a few schools have ' skiing holidays ' (síszünet), the date of which varies from the middle of January till February, though some schools hold it in December. Its length also varies from one school to another. It is made so that the students of the school who partake in the skiing camp of the school need no verification of absence. In the last school year of secondary education, the Matura examinations (school - leaving exam and entrance exam for university admissions; similar to A-level exams in the UK) are administered from May through July. Hungarian universities run two semesters. They are typically from the first or second week of September to the middle of December (fall semester (őszi félév)) and from February to the middle of May (spring semester (tavaszi félév)). Both semesters are followed by an examination period. During the winter exam period, a break of 1 -- 2 weeks is administered between Christmas and the beginning of the new year. In addition to the break between the semesters in summer, there is typically a break including Christmas and New Year. Some universities also have a fall and an Easter vacation. In elementary and secondary schools, the school year in some part is April to March and others June to May, while in Universities it is from July to May. There is a mid-year break during summer, usually from the end of May to the start of July in Universities and in elementary and high schools, the vacations range from the beginning of April and last up to the beginning or middle of June. There is also a winter vacation of two weeks at the beginning of the year. However, in the Eastern and southern states like West Bengal and Karnataka there will be two breaks, one for Dasara in September / October for 15 days and another for Christmas in December which ranges from 7 to 15 days. A semester system is being implemented in most of the Universities in India as directed by the University Grants Commission. University of Calicut, Kerala University, MG University and Sri Sankara University (SCSVMV University) have reached a consensus and the other universities are also likely to introduce credit based semester system in Kerala. Delhi University also introduced this system. For Jammu and Kashmir, the school year usually begins in mid-October or the start of November. There are two vacations in a year, Winter holidays last from the start of December till the first of March. A summer vacation usually lasts two weeks from mid-July to the end of July, the dates do vary. For schools, students move from old to the new academic year immediately after the exams for the previous year is over with a small break of a week for compilation of results. Most schools also have an autumn break or Diwali break in August or around October / November. This is generally right before the second semester exam in September or in the middle of the second semester. An academic year in Indonesia is divided to two terms, running from mid-July to December and January to mid-June. For universities, however, the terms are much shorter, running from September to December and February to May. Some universities provide a summer semester (called the short semester) from June to August. During president Abdurrahman Wahid 's term, schools are closed for Ramadan and a week after Eid - ul - Fitr (Idul Fitri). Some schools implement Saturday - off. Previously, academic year starts from January to December, but this rule changed in 1985. In Iran, the academic year runs from September to June (10 months). Some universities, however, offer a limited number of courses in summer. Students have a three - month summer vacation. All schools are closed during Nowruz from march 20 till the beginning of April to celebrate the Iranian new year. The first (fall) semester begins on the first day of the Persian Calendar month of Mehr equivalent to the first day of autumn in the Northern Hemisphere and ends in January. The second (spring) semester begins in the winter and ends in June. No mid-term break exists in the academic calendar. The primary school year runs from the beginning of September until the end of June. There are breaks for Christmas and Easter and two mid-term breaks at the end of October and mid-February. Secondary schools run from September to the end of May, but due to the Junior Certificate and Leaving Certificate exams, 3rd and 6th years respectively break at the end of June for summer holidays upon completion of the exams which end in the 3rd week of June. The academic year for schools in receipt of public funding lasts for a minimum of 167 teaching days in secondary schools and 183 days in primary schools. Third - level institutions run a much shorter calendar, generally from mid to late September, sometimes early October, to December for their first term The second term usually runs from January to mid - or late May with a break for Easter of up to a month. The school year in Israel starts in elementary, middle, and high schools on September 1, and lasts until the end of June for elementary schools, and until June 20 for middle and high schools. There are no fixed holidays of equal length, with breaks occurring on national holidays, usually lasting two or three days. For Jews, there is a nine - day break for Sukkot (autumn); a seven - day break for Hannukah (in December); and for Passover (spring) the break is 2 -- 3 weeks long. For the Muslim population, breaks are taken for Eid al - Adha, Eid ul - Fitr and end of semester breaks. The university academic year typically divides into two semesters which start after Sukkot (typically mid to late October) and end in June or July. Some academic institutions also enable a third semester in the summer. The short breaks: The school year in Israel is divided into two semesters: Until 2011 the summer break ended on August 31, but in 2011 Israeli ministry of education decided to shorten the summer break by one week and the break now ends on August 26 as of 2012. In 2014, the old schedule was reinstated so that the summer break is back to August 31. The period between Yom Kippur and Sukkot was added as holiday to compensate for this but as of 2014, has consequently been removed. In most Yeshivas, the year is divided into three periods (terms) called zmanim. Elul zman starts from the beginning of the Hebrew month of Elul and extends until the end of Yom Kippur. This is the shortest (approx. six weeks), but most intense semester as it comes before the High Holidays of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Winter zman starts after Sukkot and lasts until just before Passover, a duration of five months (six in a Jewish leap year). Summer semester starts after Passover and lasts until either the middle of the month of Tammuz or Tisha B'Av, a duration of about three months. During the interim periods, which are called bein hazmanim (between the terms), students are on vacation. In Italy, all schools start in the first half of September, even though the exact beginning date changes every year. For schools from primary schools to high schools, the academic year is split into two semesters: Kindergartens usually follow a similar schedule. A university academic year is slightly different because of exams. University academic year divides into: Even though September is a free month, it is officially an exam month in all Italian universities. It means that it is possible to take exams. During every exam session (January -- February, May -- June -- July or September), students are usually allowed to take any exam of their previous carrier that they could n't pass and even a certain number of exams of the new academic year (credit limit for this last option). In the following holidays, no lessons take place: In Japan, most of the schools run a three - term school year (trimester system), and most universities and colleges have a semester system. The exact date of the beginning of the summer break and its duration vary across regions, but commonly the break lasts for about six weeks. The break originated to avoid the heat in summer, so elementary, middle, and high schools in Hokkaidō and Nagano Prefecture tend to have a shorter summer break than the rest of schools in Japan. School Term 1: April 1 to late July School Term 2: early September to late December (with a two - week - long break for New Year 's at the end of the year.) School Term 3: early January to late March (and a brief week - long spring break.) The graduation ceremony occurs in March, and the enrollment ceremony in early April. The Japanese public school year consists of approximately 200 days. Some universities and colleges accept students in September or October in order to let those students from other semester systems enroll. In recent years a few colleges have begun experimenting with having two semesters instead of the traditional three with the break between two semesters in summer. In Kenya, for K - 12 education, the calendar year starts in January and ends in November. The academic year is divided into 3 terms as follows: April, August and December are usually school holidays. There is no standard academic calendar for universities as each university is free to set its own calendar. International schools tend to follow the Northern Hemisphere academic calendar. In Lithuania, elementary and high schools begin on September 1 and end in early June. Schools also take breaks / holidays: In Malaysian primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in late May, with a one - week mid-term break in March. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break in September. The school year ends with a six - week year - end holidays from mid-November to early January. The school week varies by state, depending on the weekend of the state. For states with a Saturday - Sunday weekend, the school week is Monday to Friday. For states with a Friday - Saturday weekend (Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu), the school week is Sunday to Thursday; as a result, school terms begin and end a day earlier in these four states than in the rest of the country. Some schools have co-curricular activities on Saturdays. Schools are closed on national and state public holidays. Schools are allowed to have a few special holidays without replacement for events such as school anniversary and sports day. For festivities such as Hari Raya Aidilfitri / Hari Raya Puasa, Hari Gawai, Chinese New Year and Deepavali, schools usually apply for additional holidays to allow longer breaks for students to visit relatives in their hometowns. However, every day missed exceeding the special holiday allowance would be replaced by having classes on weekends. In Maldivians primary and secondary schools, the school year is divided into two semesters. The first semester begins in early January and ends in early June, with a one - week mid-term break. After the mid-year holidays, which lasts for two weeks, the second semester begins in mid-June and ends in mid-November, with a one - week mid-term break. The school week is Sunday to Thursday, as a result, all schools terms begin and end same day all over the country. The school year is split into three terms. It starts at the end of September and ends at the end of June the following year. The school year in Mexico starts in mid-August and ends in mid-July, by law covering 200 days, usually divided into 5 terms: Term 1 starts in mid-August and finishes in mid-October Term 2 starts in mid-October and finishes by the second or third week in December Term 3 starts the first week of January (after Three Kings Day) and finishes around the third week of February (Flag Day) Term 4 starts in late February and finishes late March or early April (usually the Friday before Palm Sunday) Term 5 starts the second Monday after Easter and finishes in early July Summer break is 45 days. The calendar is designed by the Secretary of Public Education (Spanish: Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP), the government department overseeing public education aln in Mexico with arrangements of the leaders of the National Educational Workers Union (Spanish: Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores de la Educación, SNTE). All public and private elementary schools under the guidance of the dependence observe this year. In the case of universities, normally the school year starts in the last week of July and is divided in trimesters or semesters. Christmas Break is usually 3 weeks. Education in Nepal is structured as school education and higher education. School education includes primary level of grades 1 -- 5, lower secondary and secondary levels of grades 6 -- 8 and 9 -- 10 respectively. Pre-primary level of education is available in some areas. Six years old is the prescribed age for admission into grade one. A national level School Leaving Certificate (SLC) examination is conducted at the end of grade 10. These class starts in late April and finishes early March. Summer break is usually of 1 week to 1 month and 1 month vacation is provided as festival holiday in November usually. Grades 11 and 12 are considered as higher secondary level. Higher Secondary Education Board (HSEB) supervises higher secondary schools which are mostly under private management. Previously these grades were under the university system and were run as proficiency certificate level. Though some universities still offer these programs, the policy now is to integrate these grades into the school system. These class starts from late July and ends in April. Higher education consists of bachelor, masters, and PhD levels. Depending upon the stream and subject, bachelors level may be of three to five years ' duration. The duration of masters level is generally two years. Some universities offer programs like M Phil and post-graduate diplomas. Vocational education in Nepal starts after lower secondary education. Students can choose to follow a two - year curriculum leading to the "Technical School leaving Certificate ''. Universities also offers professional and technical degrees. Out of the formal track, short - term programs (1 year) focusing on skills development are also available. The New Zealand school year runs from the beginning of February to mid-December, and since 1996, has been divided into four terms. By law, all state and state - integrated schools are required to be open for instruction for 380 half - days in a year (390 half - days for schools with only Year 8 students or below), meaning that the start and end of the school year is not nationally fixed to a particular date, as schools take different teacher - only days and provincial anniversary days off during the year. Schools can be exempted from opening the required number of half - days in some cases, such as in Christchurch in 2011 when many schools closed for up to a month after the 2011 Christchurch earthquake. The breaks between terms have fixed start and end dates, and the break length is fixed at two weeks. In general, terms run as follows if Easter falls in early - to - mid-April: If Easter falls in March or late in April, Term 1 usually ends in mid-April and Term 2 begins at the beginning of May. If Easter is in March, a 5 - day half - term break then exists, with school ending on Maundy Thursday and resuming on the Wednesday. The start of term two may be delayed if Anzac Day (25 April) falls on the Monday or Tuesday directly following the Easter break. Private schools are not required to adhere to the Ministry 's term structure, but by law they may not be open for instruction on Saturday or Sunday, the ten national public holidays, the school location 's relevant anniversary day, and the Tuesday immediately following Easter Monday. Senior secondary students (Years 11, 12, and 13) in many state schools have examination leave from mid-November, on the Thursday or Friday before the first NCEA external examinations begin. Officially, however, the term still does not end until mid-December. The school year in Oman is divided into two semesters: Usually there are exams at the end of each semester. Students get a number of breaks throughout the year: National Day on 18 November, New Higri year break, Prophet Mohammed birthday break, Eid Al - Fitr break and Eid Al - Adha break. As most of these breaks depend on the Higri year which is 10 days shorter than the Solar year, there is a gradual change on the date of these events in relation to the school year. In Pakistan, the school year runs from April to March. Students have a two - month summer vacation and a two - week winter vacation. In Gilgit - Baltistan, Azad Kashmir and some areas of Balochistan, where heavy snow paralyzes life in the winter, the schools close for two months and there are two weeks of summer vacation. Schools and universities are off on national holidays: Pakistan Day (March 23), Independence Day (August 14), Defence of Pakistan Day (September 6), the anniversaries of the birth (December 25) and death (September 11) of Quaid - e-Azam, Allama Iqbal (November 9) and the birth (July 30) and death (July 8) of Madar - e-Millat. Labour Day (also known as May Day) is also observed in Pakistan on May 1. Both Eid festivals are also public holidays. In the University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, the holidays are for two and half months during summer. For the government universities, the students of bachelors are given 1 - 1.5 month of summer vacation and 1 - 1.5 weeks of winter vacations. The Philippine school year lasts usually between nine and ten months long, and a school year must be at least 200 days as prescribed by law including examination periods. The school year begins in the first week of June and ends in the third or fourth week of March. Private schools may have a slightly shorter academic calendar either starting in the second (or third week) of June or ending earlier in March. In most primary and secondary (junior high) schools, an academic year is usually divided into quarters for purposes of examination and reporting of marks though a few private schools adopt a trimestral system. Each quarter normally lasts for approximately seven (usually the 3rd quarter) to ten weeks (usually the 1st, 2nd and 4th quarters) but the actual length of each quarter and the months they cover varies among private schools. The fourth quarter for pupils in grade 6 is usually two to three weeks shorter than undergraduates to allow for preparation of final grades to determine who are eligible for graduation as well as to prepare for the graduation ceremonies themselves. Each quarter culminates in most schools with a quarterly examination period of three to five days. The academic term for senior high school (grades 11 and 12) operates on a semestral basis. Semestral, Christmas, and summer breaks are scheduled at about the same time as primary and junior high school. Grade 12 pupils have a shorter second semester than grade 11 in order for the school to prepare for graduation. In most schools, summer break usually lasts for two months, starting from the first week of April up to the last week of May. Most schools end the school year before Holy Week. Semestral break is normally set to coincide with All Saints and All Souls Day. The Christmas Break usually begins in the third week of December, and classes resume the Monday or week after New Year 's Day (unless that Monday is January 2). Commencement ceremonies are often held in late March or early April. Exceptions to this general schedule are international schools operating in the country, which normally follow their home country 's respective school system. For most universities and colleges, an academic year is divided into two semesters, each up to 18 weeks long except for senior students in their final semester where they end the semester two weeks earlier. Enrollment / registration in an institution is usually good for only one semester: a student who successfully registers for the first semester is not automatically enrolled to study in the second semester. The student will need to successfully complete clearance requirements and in a few cases, maintain a certain overall mark in order to progress in her university studies in the next semester. The first semester is followed by a break consisting of two to four weeks before the second semester, called the Semestral Break, which usually occurs between the second week of October to the second week of November for all universities and colleges. The Semestral Break can be two to three weeks long, and normally includes the All Saints ' and All Souls ' holidays. Other schools such as Technological University of the Philippines - Taguig Campus, De La Salle University and Far Eastern University - East Asia College, and AMA Computer University operate under a trimestral system. Classes start in the fourth week of May and ends in the third week of April. Under this system, students are typically able to finish their academic studies a year earlier than those from other universities with a semestral programme. Mapúa Institute of Technology began using the quarterly system with eleven weeks to a term after its acquisition by the Yuchengco Group. This allows their engineering programmes to be completed a year ahead of schools running on a semestral schedule. Moreover, starting academic year 2014 - 2015, constituent campuses in the University of the Philippines System started their school year in August to end in May and the University of Santo Tomas started the Academic Year in August and it will end in May 2015. In AY 2015 - 2016, several Philippine Colleges and Universities will follow the shift. In AY 2015 - 2016, San Beda College Manila and St. Scholastica 's College Manila will start their calendar in early July 2015 and it will end in mid - to late April 2016 and it was aimed to be a transition to a full August to May Calendar in the succeeding academic years. Also in AY 2015 - 2016, the University of Santo Tomas, will complete its shift to an August to May calendar. Ateneo de Manila University will also shift to an August to May Calendar this AY 2015 - 2016 with having a summer term in June to July before AY 2015 - 2016 starts. De La Salle University and De La Salle - College of St. Benilde will have an August to August Calendar for the incoming AY 2015 - 2016. In Poland, the school year begins on September 1 and ends on the first Friday after June 18. There is a Christmas break in December which lasts until after New Year 's Day. There is also a winter holiday break lasting two weeks in January or February but the exact date is different for each province and the dates usually change each year. Winter break is also the dividing line between the two semesters of the school year. Most universities start their courses on October 1 (at some institutions late September), and the first semester (commonly referred to as the "winter term '') ends in January. The second term starts in February or March, (the "summer term '') and ends in June. Each semester is usually 15 or 16 weeks long. After each of them there is an "examination session '', when no courses are taught, which lasts up to one month. The summer break starts after the exams and lasts until the start of the next academic year. In September there is an extra examination session during which students can retake failed exams. The school year in Portugal runs from September to June and is divided in three Terms (Períodos, in Portuguese): During the school year there are several breaks or holidays (interrupções or férias, in Portuguese): Universities and colleges follow a different academic year, which consists of two semesters. The school year in Romania is divided into two semesters. From kindergarten to high school the first semester opens in mid September and continues until end of January. The second semester lasts from February until mid June. The school year in Russia traditionally starts on September 1 (The Knowledge Day). The school year is divided into four terms (quarters), separated by one - or two - week holidays (the first week in November, the first two weeks in January, and the last week of March). The summer holiday lasts three months: June, July, and August. Generally the school year lasts until 25 May, which is also known as The Last School - Bell day celebrated by the graduates, their families and teachers. The school graduation ceremony - Graduation Evening (Russian: выпускной вечер) - is organized on June 20 -- 25. The academic year at universities also starts on September 1 and usually consists of 42 educational weeks and 10 weeks of holidays. It is divided into two terms (semesters). The first one (autumn semester) runs from September 1 to January 24 / 25 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week winter exams session at the end) followed by a two - week holiday. Coincidentally January 25 is also Tatiana Day, traditionally celebrated as Russian Students Day. The second one (spring semester) runs from February 9 to June 30 or July 4 / 5 (21 weeks, including a 3 - to 5 - week summer exams session) followed by an eight - week summer holiday. Some Russian universities do not use a traditional scheme: they exclude exams sessions, and the academic year is divided in a 2: 3 ratio of 17 educational weeks (followed by a two - week holiday) and 25 educational weeks (followed by an eight - week summer holiday). The school year coincides with the calendar year, and the first term begins on January 2 (unless it is a weekend or a Monday). The school year comprises four terms of 10 weeks each. Terms 1 and 2 are known as Semester 1, and terms 3 and 4 as Semester 2. The first year of Junior College begins in February to accommodate the release of the O level results. International schools in Singapore operate on a different system, often similar to the system in their home countries. The training year in ITE is made up of two terms, commencing January and April respectively, depending on the month of intake. At the end of each term, there will be a 4 - week break period before a new term begins. At the end of each term, there will be a 2 - week break period before a new term begins. Polytechnics and universities operate on a different calendar from schools. There are two semesters in a year in polytechnics. At the end of each semester, there will be a 7 - week break period before a new semester begins. It is to match the northern hemisphere calendar more closely. The school year for elementary, grammar and high schools begins on September 2 (September 1 is Constitution Day) and ends June 29 of the following year. The school day starts at 8: 00 a.m. and ends at 2: 00 p.m. (time varies due to day and type of school). in most schools. It is split into two halves, with the first half ending on the last day of January. Universities starts in second half of September or 1 October. Academic year consist of 2 semesters (winter / until December / and summer / until May /). The school year in Slovenia for elementary and grammar schools begins on 1 September and formally ends on 31 August, although classes and exams are finished by 25 June. July and August thus constitute summer holidays. There are also four one - week breaks during the school year, occurring around All Saints Day, between Christmas and New Year, at the end of February, and around the May Day. Universities and colleges follow a different academic year. It consists of two semesters -- the winter semester starting on 1 October, which ends around 15 January. It is followed by a one - month break, during which students take the exams for subjects they have read in the semester. The summer semester begins on 15 February and lasts until 31 May, followed by the exam period, which ends on 30 June. Students who have not passed the necessary exams have a chance to do so during the autumn exam period in September. Students and faculty are free during in July and August. New classes are held again in October. All South African public schools have a four - term school year as determined by the national Department of Education. Each term is between 10 and 11 weeks long. The terms are roughly structured as follows: First Term Second Term Third Term Fourth Term The academic year is approximately 200 school days in duration and runs from January to December. Private schools follow a similar calendar, but slightly alter it according to their academic and religious needs. Some independent (private) schools have a three - term year instead (2). The dates of the school year for coastal schools are slightly different from those for inland schools. The National Education Department proposed a five - week - long school break in June -- July 2010 for the 2010 Soccer World Cup - hosted in South Africa - to avoid pupil and teacher absenteeism and a chaotic transport system. South African universities have a year consisting of two semesters, with the first semester running from early February to early June, and the second semester from late July to late November. Each semester consists of twelve or thirteen teaching weeks, interrupted by a one - week short vacation, and followed by three or four weeks of examinations. In the first semester the short vacation often falls around the Easter weekend, while in the second semester it occurs in early September. In South Korea, the school year is divided into two terms. The first term usually runs from March 2, unless it is a Friday or the weekend, to mid-July with the summer vacation from mid-July to late - August (elementary and secondary schools) and from mid-June to late August (higher education institutions). The second term usually resumes in late August and runs until mid-February. The winter break is from late December to late January. There are two weeks of school (elementary and secondary schools) in February. Then there is a two - week - break before the new academic year starts in March. The school hours are approximately from 8: 00 am to 4: 00 pm for high school, each class lasting 50 minutes. For middle school, it is about from 8: 00am -- 3: 30pm, each class lasting 45 minutes. In Primary School, the lower grades (Grades 1 - 3) have classes around 8: 30 to 2: 00 and the upper grades (Grades 4 - 6) have classes from about 9: 00 to 3: 00. Each class lasts about 40 minutes. In high school, the older students are sometimes required to stay until 9: 00 pm or later studying on their own. For the most part, teachers rotate and the students stay in their classroom except for certain classes such as Physical Education, Music and Science labs. School on Saturday ends at noon. Saturdays and Sundays they do not attend school, 노는 토요일 (no - neun to - yo - il); it means, resting on Saturdays. Until 2011, students went to school on the 1st, 3rd, and 5th Saturdays of each month; but from 2012, students no longer go to school on Saturdays. The school year consists of two semesters. The fall semester begins in early September and runs till late January or early February. Summer vacation is from early July to end of August. Winter vacation typically runs from two to three weeks around the Lunar New Year. Spring semester begins following the Lantern Festival in mid February and ends in early June. Privatized institutions in Taiwan have varying academic terms. There are some holiday breaks: There are two semesters in the Thai academic year with an optional summer semester. From kindergarten to high school, the first semester opens in mid May and continues until the end of September. The second semester lasts from November until the end of February (or early March). The university academic year is slightly different, lasting from June to October and mid November to mid March. The Turkish academic year begins in September and continues through to the following June. In most public educational institutions from primary to tertiary, the first semester begins in September and continues until January, and the second semester begins February and continues until June. The academic calendar and dates of mid-semester breaks may vary across private institutions. The academic year at universities starts on September the 1st and usually consists of two semesters. The first semester runs from September the 1st to January the 24 / 25th followed by a two - week holiday. The second semester runs from February the 9th to June the 30th or July the 4 / 5th. The English law courts terms and legal training pupillage divided the year into four terms, partly to create a predictable work schedule, but also to make allowances for harsh travel conditions and delays caused by adverse weather at a time when all English law students and many litigants had to travel to London for training or legal advice at one of the Inns of Court. In Scotland, academic and judicial institutions traditionally organised their year into four terms: Specific dates varied between institutions, and all except Michaelmas were determined by the date of Easter. The school year in the United Kingdom is generally divided into three terms running from autumn to summer. For state schools, the school year consists of 195 days of which there are 190 teaching days and five INSET teacher training days. For independent schools, the school year can be as short as 175 days. The structure of the school year varies between the constituent countries of the United Kingdom with school holiday dates varying between local education authorities. Before the mechanisation of agriculture and when more of the population lived in the rural countryside, the long summer school holiday in Britain arose in the 19th century as a result of the education authorities abandoning the battle to keep children at school through haymaking (around the start of August) and wheat harvest (around the end of August), when every available pair of hands was needed on the land. In England and Wales, the school year generally runs from early September until late July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a week - long break known as "half term '' (although some counties, like Oxfordshire, consider these to be six separate terms instead), and are structured as follows: There is no winter term. The terms are separated by two holidays, each of approximately two weeks ' duration: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn term and spring term, and the Easter holidays separating the spring term and the summer term. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is the summer holidays, which are six to eight weeks long. The academic year originated in the pre-industrial era when all able - bodied young people were expected to work through the period of July and August. For the purposes of education, the remainder of the year was arranged into three terms accommodating the Christian holidays of Christmas and Easter. Half - term breaks divide the 16 - to 17 - week terms. However the archaic long summer break has been criticised by educationalists in the post industrialist age because it creates a break in the academic progress. Even a House of Commons Education Select Committee recommended in 1999 that schools switch to a five - term academic year, abolishing the long summer holidays. Each term would be eight weeks long with a two - week break in between terms, and a minimum four - week summer holiday, with no half terms -- the idea being that children can keep up momentum for eight weeks without a break. The proposals were introduced at a small number of schools nationally. In 1999, the Local Government Association set up a commission to look at alternative proposals for a more balanced school year. In partnership with Local Authorities and teachers unions, they were unable to agree to a suitable alternative arrangement for terms, but by 2004 came to an agreement with the National Association of Schoolmasters Union of Women Teachers for a standardised arrangement of school terms. Since 2004, around one third of English local authorities have signed up to the proposals which see a standard academic year agreed between the authorities, including slight variations on the traditional schemes, based on the following principles: In addition the independent schools have set their own term dates with varying degrees of local and national co-ordination. The school year in Northern Ireland generally runs from early September to late June or early July of the following year. Most schools operate a three - term school year similar to England and Wales; however, there is no half term during summer term due to the province 's longer summer holidays. The terms are structured as follows: The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The summer holidays in Northern Ireland last nine weeks, from the start of July until the end of August, due to the Twelfth of July bank holiday. The school year in Scotland generally runs from middle or late August to late June or early July of the following year (usually in eastern council areas from the third Monday in August to the first Friday in July and in western council areas from the second Monday in August to the last Friday in June). Most schools operate a three - term school year, each term divided in half by a break known as ' mid-term ', lasting a week or two in October, a few days to a week in February, and a few days in May. The terms are structured as follows: The terms are separated by two holidays each consisting of approximately two weeks: the Christmas Holidays separating the autumn and spring terms, and the Easter holidays separating the spring and summer terms. The period between the end of one school year and the start of the next is known as the summer holidays and consists of six or seven weeks. The modern academic calendars used in UK academia are mainly descended from the English law court / legal training pupillage four term system: The oldest UK universities changed this terminology over time, with Cambridge dropping Trinity Term and renaming Hilary Term to Lent Term, and Oxford also dropping the original Trinity Term and renaming Easter Term as Trinity Term, thus establishing the modern, predominant three - term academic year. Most universities now operate Autumn, Spring and Summer terms of notional ten - week lengths, although some may use different names, and terms may be of uneven length, with the autumn term usually the longest. Within individual institutions practice can vary from year to year to accommodate factors such as the changing date of Easter. Some universities also have a "reading week '' in which no teaching takes place at all, the equivalent of a school half term. At other universities "reading weeks '' are not uniform and may be in different weeks in different faculties, departments, modules or even seminar groups within the same institution. Some reading weeks cover only seminars whilst lectures continue; others suspend both for the week. In some universities - for example, the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, and the London School of Economics and Political Science, the Autumn, Spring and Summer terms can be referred to as Michaelmas, Lent or Hilary, and Easter or Trinity terms, respectively. Some also overlay a "semester '' system, with the new semester beginning halfway through the second term. A selection of current examples include: Exceptions include the University of Buckingham where undergraduate courses do not coincide with the academic year used by universities in Britain and elsewhere. Instead, they largely coincide with the calendar year -- they typically start in January or February, with examinations in autumn. In the United States, the K -- 12 school calendar is determined by the individual states, and in some cases by the local school district, so there is considerable variation. The academic year typically consists of two 18 - week semesters, each divided into two nine - week marking periods (or quarters) or three six - week marking periods, and constituting 170 to 186 instructional days (with an average of 180). An instructional week is five instructional days, measured Monday -- Friday at all public and most private schools; Saturday -- Wednesday or Sunday -- Thursday at Muslim private schools; and so on. Grades are usually reported per marking period, but major examinations are given per semester or per year. The traditional start date for the school year has been the Tuesday following the first Monday in September (the day after Labor Day). Though some schools still keep this tradition, many schools now start in the last two weeks of August and some schools (especially private ones) may start as late as the end of September or the first week in October. There are also some schools, especially in the southern tier of the United States, that begin at the end of July and early August. The school year ends 40 to 42 instructional weeks after it begins. Also, some schools are now moving to the first Wednesday in September (usually two days after Labor Day, unless it falls on September 1 or 2) to allow a short week as students adjust to being in school again. School holidays in the United States vary by jurisdiction. They include federal, state, and local holidays, all or only some of which may be observed by an individual school district. In addition to these legal holidays, there are vacation periods of varying length. Most if not all schools observe the Thanksgiving holiday, and extend it include the day after Thanksgiving since it is a Friday. There is usually a recess of about two weeks during the winter holiday period at Christmas and New Year, with a spring break in March or April that is usually correlated to the holidays of Easter and / or Passover. Many schools have additional "in - service '' days that are holidays for students but workdays for faculty and staff. These days are often used for parent -- teacher conferences on student progress, especially in primary school. In secondary school, they are usually used as staff development days. Sometimes schools do half - day in - service days in which students are dismissed early, rather than full - day holidays. Regulation of education is state jurisdiction, and most states require each school provide a minimum of 180 days of instruction per academic year. This excludes weekends, holidays and vacation periods, so the usual school year starts in late August or early September (the day after Labor Day was the traditional start date for many decades) and concludes in early to mid - or late June. Unplanned vacations can extend the school year if they could have been prevented by school administrators, in theory if not in fact. Natural disasters and other incidents do not normally extend the school year because they could not have been prevented. Thus, if the school is closed for two weeks (10 instructional days) because the boiler has broken down, that will extend the school year by two weeks because proper maintenance could have prevented the problem. But snow storms and other forms of severe weather normally do not extend the school year because they can not be prevented. Many, but not all, community colleges originated as extensions of the primary and secondary school system. Some of these colleges often continue to follow the K - 12 schedule. However, most operate under a semester based schedule. Washington state schools are standardized by the State Board of Community and Technical colleges and follow a quarter system. Three calendar systems are used by most American colleges and universities: quarter system, semester system, and trimester system. These are ways the calendar year is organized into a formal academic year, measured September -- August or August -- August. Some schools, particularly some business schools and community colleges, use the mini-mester or mini-semester system. The quarter system divides the calendar year into four quarters, three of which constitute a complete academic year. Quarters are typically 10 -- 12 weeks long so that three quarters amount to 30 -- 36 weeks of instruction. Approximately 20 % of universities are on the quarter system. Most colleges that use the quarter system have a fall quarter from late September to mid-December, a winter quarter from early January to mid-March, a spring quarter from late March or early April to mid-June, and an optional summer session. Notable users of the quarter system include the University of California system (excluding Berkeley, Merced, the UCLA medical school, and all of the system 's law schools), Stanford, the University of Chicago, Dartmouth College, Northwestern University, University of Washington, the University of Oregon, and DePaul University. Union College uses a modified quarter system: fall, winter, and spring terms are each eleven weeks long; there are some summer classes, but there is no official summer quarter. Because Union 's calendar makes use of just three of four quarters, the three academic terms are generally (and somewhat misleadingly to outsiders) dubbed "trimesters, '' which they are not. Another notable and somewhat unique user of the quarter system is Baylor Law School: it operates on the quarter system while the remaining colleges of Baylor University operate on the semester system. The semester system divides the calendar year into two semesters of 16 to 18 weeks each, plus summer sessions of varying lengths. The two semesters together constitute 32 to 36 weeks of instruction, so that three academic quarters equal two academic semesters. Thus, academic credit earned in quarter hours converts to semester hours at 2⁄3 of its value, while credit earned in semester hours converts to quarter hours at 3 / 2 of its value. Put another way, 3 quarter hours is 2 semester hours. Most universities on the semester system have a fall semester from the day after Labor Day in September to mid-December, a spring / winter semester from late January to early May, and an optional summer session. In practice, the average quarter - long course is four or five units and the average semester course is three units, so a full - time student graduating in four years would take five courses per semester and three or four courses per quarter. Some colleges and universities have a 4 - 1 - 4 system, which divides the year into two four - month terms (September to December and February to May) as well as a single one - month term in January in which students can do independent study, study abroad, internships, activities, or focus on one or two classes. The one - month term is sometimes called a mini-mester, winter session, inter-term / interim / intersession or J - term. Examples of schools using this system include: Austin College, University of Rhode Island, Whittier College, Williams College, Bethany College in West Virginia, Berea College, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, New College of Florida, Calvin College, Elmhurst College, Gustavus Adolphus College, Linfield College, Luther College, Oberlin College, Middlebury College, Erskine College, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Eckerd College, Wofford College, Saint Olaf College, Samford University, Miami University, Hofstra University, University of Delaware, Saint Mary 's College of California, Colby College, Chapman University, McDaniel College, Elon University, Pacific University, and Pacific Lutheran University. Some schools have a similar format but ordered as 4 - 4 - 1, with the short term in May after the conclusion of the spring semester. The term is sometimes called either "Maymester '', a portmanteau of "May '' and "semester '', or "May Term ''. Examples of schools using this system include Wartburg College, Bates College, Chatham University, Clemson University, The College of New Jersey, Elmira College, The Ohio State University, Purdue University, Transylvania University, the University of Redlands, Emory University and Washington and Lee University 's 12 - 12 - 4 undergraduate calendar. The trimester system evolved out of the semester system. It divides the academic year into three equal portions of 15 -- 16 weeks each. Institutions that use the trimester system include California Institute of Technology, Carleton College, Knox College (Illinois), Lawrence University, and the United States Merchant Marine Academy. The fall and winter trimesters constitute an academic year of 30 -- 32 weeks. The spring / summer trimester is usually divided into a 7.5 week Spring Session followed by a 6 - week or 7.5 week Summer Session. The reduced maximum course load that accompanies the shortening from the traditional semester makes the trimester system compatible with the semester system. Academic credit is thus measured on the trimester system in semester hours; there is no such thing as a "trimester hour '' of credit. At the University of Michigan and Brigham Young University, for example, the Fall trimester (informally still called ' semester ') operates from September through December; the Winter trimester runs from January through April; and the spring - summer trimester operates from May through August, as two half - trimesters. Most spring - summer classes either meet double - time for 7 -- 8 weeks in May and June or double - time / double - plus - time for 6 -- 8 weeks in July and August (with summer half - term classes sometimes starting in the last week of June). The quinmester academic calendar at Park University operates with five terms per year, each lasting eight weeks (January -- March, March -- May, June -- July, August -- October, and October -- December). A number of colleges have adopted the "one course at a time '' or "block schedule '' calendar. Academic years consist of a number of terms lasting roughly four weeks each, during which a full semester 's amount of work is completed in one and only one class. Colorado College first began their "Block Plan '' in 1970, followed by Maharishi International University in 1971, and Cornell College in 1978. Quest University in Squamish, British Columbia; Tusculum College in Tusculum, Tennessee; and The University of Montana - Western are the only other colleges operating under this academic calendar.
what was the difference between jim crow rules and jim crow laws	List of Jim Crow law examples by State - wikipedia This is a list of examples of Jim Crow laws, which were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. Jim Crow laws existed mainly in the South and originated from the Black Codes that were enforced from 1865 to 1866 and from prewar segregation on railroad cars in northern cities. The laws sprouted up in the late 19th century after Reconstruction and lasted until the 1960s. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate but equal '' status for Americans of African descent. In reality, this led to treatment that was usually inferior to that provided for Americans of European descent, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages. State sponsored school segregation was repudiated by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. Generally, segregation and discrimination were outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1964. 1864: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriages between whites with "Negroes, Indians, Mongolians '' were declared illegal and void. The word "Descendants '' does not appear in the statute. 1901: Miscegenation (Statute) Revision of the 1865 statute which added the word "descendants '' to the list of minority groups. The revised statutes also stated that marriages would be valid if legal where they were contracted, but noted that Arizona residents could not evade the law by going to another state to perform the ceremony. 1909: Education (Statute) School district trustees were given the authority to segregate black students from white children only where there were more than eight Negro pupils in the school district. The legislature passed the law over a veto by the governor. 1911 - 1962: Segregation, miscegenation, voting (Statute) Passed six segregation laws: four against miscegenation and two school segregation statutes, and a voting rights statute that required electors to pass a literacy test. The state 's miscegenation laws prohibited blacks as well as Indians and Asians from marrying whites, and were not repealed until 1962. 1927: Education (Statute) In areas with 25 or more black high school students, an election would be called to determine if these pupils should be segregated in separate but equal facilities. 1928: Miscegenation (State Code) Forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1942: Miscegenation (Judicial Decision) Supreme Court of Arizona interprets anti-miscegenation statute in a manner which prohibits persons of mixed racial heritage from marrying anyone. Court acknowledges that its interpretation is "absurd '' and recommends that Legislature pass amendment thereto. 1956: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriage of person of "Caucasian blood with Negro, Mongolian, Malay, or Hindu '' void. Native Americans were originally included in an earlier statute, but were deleted by a 1942 amendment. In this state, concern about Asian immigration produced more legislation against Chinese immigrants than against African Americans. An 1850 California statute provided that "no black, mulatto person, or Indian, shall be allowed to give evidence in favor of, or against a white man. '' In 1854, the Supreme Court of California held that the statute precluded persons of Chinese descent from testifying for or against a white man. "It can hardly be supposed that any Legislature would... exclud (e) domestic negroes and Indians,... and turn loose upon the community the more degraded tribes of the same species, who have nothing in common with us. '' 1866 - 1947: Segregation, voting (Statute) Enacted 17 Jim Crow laws between 1866 and 1947 in the areas of miscegenation (6) and education (2), employment (1) and a residential ordinance passed by the city of San Francisco that required all Chinese inhabitants to live in one area of the city. Similarly, a miscegenation law passed in 1901 broadened an 1850 law, adding that it was unlawful for white persons to marry "Mongolians. '' 1870: Education (Statute) African and Indian children must attend separate schools. A separate school would be established upon the written request of the parents of ten such children. "A less number may be provided for in separate schools in any other manner. '' 1872: Alcohol sales (Statute) Prohibited the sale of liquor to Indians. The act remained legal until its repeal in 1920. 1879: Voter rights (Constitution) "No native of China '' would ever have the right to vote in the state of California. Repealed in 1926. 1879: Employment (Constitution) Prohibited public bodies from employing Chinese and called upon the legislature to protect "the state... from the burdens and evils arising from '' their presence. A statewide anti-Chinese referendum was passed by 99.4 percent of voters in 1879. 1880: Miscegenation (Statute) Made it illegal for white persons to marry a "Negro, mulatto, or Mongolian. '' 1890: Residential (City Ordinance) The city of San Francisco ordered all Chinese inhabitants to move into a certain area of the city within six months or face imprisonment. The Bingham Ordinance was later found to be unconstitutional by a federal court. 1891: Residential (Statute) Required all Chinese to carry with them at all times a "certificate of residence. '' Without it, a Chinese immigrant could be arrested and jailed. 1894: Voter rights (Constitution) Any person who could not read the Constitution in English or write his name would be disfranchised. An advisory referendum indicated that nearly 80 percent of voters supported an educational requirement. 1901: Miscegenation (Statute) The 1850 law prohibiting marriage between white persons and Negroes or mulattoes was amended, adding "Mongolian. '' 1909: Miscegenation (Statute) Persons of Japanese descent were added to the list of undesirable marriage partners of white Californians as noted in the earlier 1880 statute. 1913: Property (Statute) Known as the "Alien Land Laws, '' Asians immigrants were prohibited from owning or leasing property. The California Supreme Court struck down the Alien Land Laws in 1952. 1931: Miscegenation (State Code) Prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1933: Miscegenation (Statute) Broadened earlier miscegenation statute to also prohibit marriages between whites and Malays. 1945: Miscegenation (Statute) Prohibited marriage between whites and "Negroes, mulattos, Mongolians and Malays. '' 1947: Miscegenation (Statute) Subjected U.S. servicemen and Japanese women who wanted to marry to rigorous background checks. Barred the marriage of Japanese women to white servicemen if they were employed in undesirable occupations. 1864: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriage between Negroes and mulattoes, and white persons "absolutely void. '' Penalty: Fine between $50 and $550, or imprisonment between three months and two years, or both. 1864 - 1908: (Statute) Passed three Jim Crow laws between 1864 and 1908, all concerning miscegenation. School segregation was barred in 1876, followed by ending segregation of public facilities in 1885. Four laws protecting civil liberties were passed between 1930 and 1957, when the anti-miscegenation statute was repealed. 1908: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriage between Negroes and mulattoes, and whites prohibited. Penalties: Punishable by imprisonment from three months to two years, or a fine of between $50 to $500. Performing a marriage ceremony punishable by a fine of $50 to $500, or three months to two years ' imprisonment, or both. 1930: Miscegenation (Statute) Miscegenation declared a misdemeanor. 1879: Military (Statute) Authorized state to organize four independent companies of infantry of "colored men ''. Companies were to receive same pay as other companies, including one company parade in the Spring and one in September. 1925: Antidefamation (Statute) Prohibited motion picture theaters from showing any film which ridiculed the Negro race. 1935: Education (Statute) Upheld school segregation as originally authorized by statute of 1869. - Black and White prisoners were not allowed in the same cell with each other. 1927: Housing (Municipal Code) 1953: Housing In August 1953, the first black family moved into Trumbull Park, a formerly all - white project of the Chicago Housing Authority. Enacted seven Jim Crow laws in the areas of education and miscegenation between 1869 and 1952. Persons who violated the miscegenation law could be imprisoned between one and ten years. The state barred school segregation in 1877, followed by a law giving equal access to public facilities in 1885. 1869: Education (Statute) Separate schools to be provided for black children. If not a sufficient number of students to organize a separate school, trustees were to find other means of educating black children. 1905: Miscegenation (Statute) Miscegenation prohibited. 1952: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriage between whites and Negroes void. 1955: Adoption (Statute) Required that due regard be given to race on adoption petition. Segregation laws in Kansas dealt primarily with education. The state constitution of 1859 specified separate African American schools. This practice continued until 1954. 1866: Miscegenation This law prohibited whites from marrying any African American who is more than 12 % African American (meaning having a blood relation up to the third generation to an African American). Penalty of not following this law was a felony that was punishable by imprisonment in the state penitentiary up to five years. 1866: Education This gave all school district trustees the right to create separate schools for African American children. 1873: Education It was unlawful for a black child to attend a white school, and vice versa. No separate colored school was allowed to be located within one mile of a separate white school. This law excluded schools in cities and towns but did not allow the schools in those areas within six hundred feet of the other. 1890: Railroads All railway companies were required to provide separate but equal accommodations for white and colored passengers. Penalty to do so resulted in the passengers or conductors receiving a fine of $25 or imprisonment for 20 days. Any officers and directors of railway companies that fail to follow this law were found guilty of a misdemeanor and could be fined between $100 and $500. This law excluded streetcars. 1892: Railroads Railroads were to provide separate coaches for white and colored passengers. Signs stating the race for each car must be posted. Penalty to do so was railway companies that failed could be fined from between $500 to $1,500. Any conductors who failed to enforce the law were to be fined from $50 to $100. 1893: Miscegenation Any marriage between a white person and an African American or mixed citizen was prohibited. 1894: Railroads Railroad stations must provide separate but equal waiting rooms for the white and colored passengers. A sign posting what race was in what room was to be seeable by everyone. Penalty to do so would end in a fine $25 or imprisoned up to 30 days. Any agents failing to enforce the law were found guilty of misdemeanor that was punishable by a fine of $25 to $50. 1894: Miscegenation Any marriage between a person of color and a white person was prohibited. 1902: Streetcars All streetcars must provide separate but equal accommodations to a passenger of any race. The failure to do so ended with such penalties as passengers or conductors could receive a fine of $25 or imprisonment up to 30 days. Any railway company that refused to follow could receive a fine of $100 or imprisonment between two and six months. 1904: Education It was unlawful to maintain or operate any college, school, or institution where persons of the white and African American races are both allowed to attend. This law did not prohibit private schools or colleges from maintaining a segregated school in a different location for each race no less than 25 miles. The penalty for not following this law resulted in any violators receiving a $1,000 fine. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the statute in Berea College v. Kentucky. 1908: Public Accommodation It was unlawful for whites and blacks to purchase and consume alcohol on the same location. Penalty for this act was a misdemeanor punishable by a fine from $50 to $500 or an imprisonment in the parish prison or jail up to two years. 1908: Miscegenation Cohabitation of a white person and an African American without legal marriage is a felony. Penalty for committing such an act resulted in imprisonment from one month to one year, with or without hard labor. 1909: Health Care An institution for the education of colored deaf mutes was to be established. But segregation in this school was to still be enforced. 1912: Residential Building permits for building Negro houses in white communities, or any portion of a community inhabited principally by white people, and vice versa prohibited. Penalty: violators fined from $50 to $2,000, "and the municipality shall have the right to cause said building to be removed and destroyed. '' 1914: Public Accommodation All circuses, shows and tent exhibitions were required to provide two ticket offices with individual ticket sellers and two entrances to the performance for each race. 1915: Education No white children were allowed to attend any graded common school for colored children and vice versa. 1918: Prisons This law allowed the segregation of races in all municipal, parish, and state prisons. 1921: Education This law called for separate public schools for the education of white and black children between the ages of six and eighteen. 1921: Housing This prohibited African American and white families from living in the same home. 1928: Education This gave separate textbooks for white and African American school children. 1928: Public Carrier Separate but equal accommodations were required to be provided on all forms of public transportation. 1932: Residential No person or businesses were allowed to rent an apartment in an apartment complex or other housing buildings to a person who differs in race from the other occupants. 1932: Miscegenation All interracial marriages were outlawed. Invalidated interracial marriages if the parties went to another legal power where such marriages were legal. Marriages between African Americans and Native Americans were also prohibited. 1933: Public Accommodations Establishment of segregated libraries for different races was authorized. 1934: Education All schools were required to be racially segregated. 1942: Health Care There were to be separate but equal accommodations for whites and African Americans provided in nursing homes. 1944: Miscegenation Any marriage between a white person and an African American or racially mixed citizen was prohibited. Penalty to follow this law was a fine of $500 to $5,000. If the people continued to be interracially married the result would be imprisonment in prison from three to twelve months. 1944: Railroads Separate coaches for white and African American passengers were required. 1948: Barred School Segregation This law did not allow African American physicians and nurses to take postgraduate courses in public hospitals and Louisville. 1950: Barred School Segregation African Americans were allowed to attend colleges and universities under two conditions. These conditions are that if comparable courses were not available at Kentucky 's African American College in Frankfort, KY and the school 's governing body had to approve of this act. 1951: Miscegenation Any intimate relation between whites and African Americans was illegal. Failure to follow this law ended in fines up to $1,000, up to five years in prison, or both. 1951: Adoption Interracial adoptions were banned. 1952: Miscegenation Interracial marriages were prohibited. Penalty of failing to follow this law was Up to $1,000 and / or five years in prison. 1953: Health Care It was required to establish separate tuberculosis hospitals for each race. This law was then repealed in 1954. 1956: Public Carriers This law revised older laws that required common carriers to provide separate waiting rooms for white intrastate passengers and for African American intrastate passengers. 1956: Employment Provided that all persons, firms, or corporations create separate bathroom facilities for members of the white and African American races employed by them or allowed to come into the business. In addition, separate rooms to eat in as well as separate eating and drinking utensils were required to be provided for members of the white and African American races. Not following this law gave to offender a misdemeanor, a fine of $100 to $1,000, or 60 days to one year in prison. 1956: Recreation All businesses were prohibited from permitting any dancing, social functions, entertainments, athletic training, games, sports or contests on their premises in which the participants are members of the white and African American races. 1956: Public Accommodations All public parks, recreation centers, playgrounds, etc. were required to be segregated. 1956: Public Carrier All forms of public transportation were to be segregated. 1957: Education All public schools were required to be racially segregated. 1957: Education There were to be no state funds to non-segregated schools. 1960: Voting Rights The races of all candidates were to be written on the ballots. Four Jim Crow laws were enacted in Montana between 1871 and 1921. The school segregation act was repealed in 1895. A 1909 miscegenation law prohibited marriage between Caucasians and blacks as well as Chinese and Japanese. 1871: Education (Statute) Children of African descent would be provided separate schools. 1897: Voting rights (Statute) Excluded "any person living on an Indian or military reservation '' from residency, unless that person had acquired a residence in a county of the state and is in the employment of the government while living on a reservation. Without residency, a person could not vote. 1897: Residency (Statute) An 1897 statute excluded "any person living on an Indian or military reservation '' from residency, unless that person had acquired a residence in a county of MT and is in the employ of the government while living on a reservation. '' 1909: Miscegenation (Statute) Prohibited intermarriage between whites and Negroes, Chinese and Japanese. Penalty: Misdemeanor, carrying a fine of $500 or imprisonment of one month, or both. 1921: Miscegenation (State Code) Miscegenation prohibited. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where legal. Also prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1865: Miscegenation (Statute) Declared marriage between whites and a Negro or mulatto as illegal. Penalty: Misdemeanor, with a fine up to $100, or imprisonment in the county jail up to six months, or both. 1911: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriages between a white and colored person declared illegal. Also noted that marriages between whites and those persons with one - quarter or more Negro blood were void. 1929: Miscegenation (Statute) Forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian race and those persons with one eighth or more Asian blood. 1943: Miscegenation (Statute) Prohibited marriage of whites with anyone with one - eighth or more Negro, Japanese or Chinese blood. Enacted four miscegenation laws and a school segregation statute between 1865 and 1957. The education statute declared that blacks, Asians and Indians were prohibited from attending public schools, and that a separate school would be established for them if "deemed advisable. '' The state 's miscegenation law offered an extensive list of inappropriate marriage candidates by race and color for Caucasians, including blacks, "Malay or brown race, Mongolian or yellow race, or Indian or red race. '' The miscegenation statute was repealed in 1959. 1865: Education (Statute) Negroes, Asians, and Indians prohibited from attending public schools. The Board of Trustees of any district could establish a separate school for educating Negroes, Asians, and Indians, if deemed advisable. 1912: Miscegenation (Statute) Unlawful for a white person to intermarry with any person of "Ethiopian or black race, Malay or brown race, Mongolian or yellow race, or Indian or red race, within the State. '' Penalty: Misdemeanor for participants and the minister who performs such a ceremony. White persons found to be living with the above - mentioned groups would be fined between $100 and $500, or confined in the county jail from six months to one year, or both. 1929: Miscegenation (Statute) Miscegenation declared a misdemeanor. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1955: Miscegenation (Statute) Miscegenation illegal. Penalty: $500 to $1,000 and / or six months to one year imprisonment. 1957: Miscegenation (Statute) Gross misdemeanor for white to marry person of black, brown, or yellow race. The state passed three Jim Crow laws. A 1943 statute barring miscegenation was repealed in 1955. An 1899 Constitutional amendment gave the legislature authority to implement educational qualifications for electors. 1933: Education (Statute) Law stated that "it would not be expedient to have the Indian children mingle with the white children in our educational institutions by reason of the vastly different temperament and mode of living and other differences and difficulties of the two races. 1943: Miscegenation (State Code) Cohabitation between blacks and whites prohibited. Penalty: 30 days to one year imprisonment, or $100 to $500 fine. Enacted a miscegenation statute in 1877 and a school segregation law in 1878. Segregation of public facilities was barred in 1884, and the earlier miscegenation and school segregation laws were overturned in 1887. However, in 1953, the state enacted a law requiring that race be considered in adoption decisions. 1877: Miscegenation (Statute) Unlawful for a person of "pure white blood, who intermarries, or has illicit carnal intercourse, with any Negro or person having a distinct and visible admixture of African blood. '' Penalty: Fined up to $100, or imprisoned up to three months, or both. Any person who knowingly officiates such a marriage charged with misdemeanor and fined up to $100 or imprisoned in three months, or both. 1878: Education (Statute) School districts given discretion to organize separate schools for colored children if "in their judgment it may be for the advantage of the district to do so. '' 1953: Adoption (Statute) Race to be taken into account on adoption petitions. 1903: Mining - bath facilities (Statute) "The baths and lockers for the Negroes shall be separate from the white race, but may be in the same building. '' (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1904: Education - Teaching (Statute) "Any instructor who shall teach in any school, college or institution where members of the white and colored race are received and enrolled as pupils for instruction shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof, shall be fined in any sum not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty dollars for each offense. '' (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1907: Voting (Constitution) In 1907, an amendment passed requiring electors to read and write any section of the state constitution. Exempted were those who were enfranchised on Jan. 1, 1866, and lineal descendants of such persons. (Declared unconstitutional in 1915; however, the provision for literacy was upheld.) NOTE: The Amendment allowed Persons of Indian descent to vote. 1907: Funerals (Statute) Blacks were not allowed to use the same hearse as whites. 1908: Voting (State Code) In 1907, inmates of institutions were excluded from voting. "Any person kept in a poorhouse at public expense, except federal, Confederate, and Spanish - American ex-soldiers or sailors. '' 1928: Recreation -- Fishing, Boating, and Bathing (Statute) "The (Conservation) Commission shall have the right to make segregation of the white and colored races as to the exercise of rights of fishing, boating and bathing. '' (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1937: Telephone Booths (Statute) "The Corporation Commission is hereby vested with power and authority to require telephone companies... to maintain separate booths for white and colored patrons when there is a demand for such separate booths. That the Corporation Commission shall determine the necessity for said separate booths only upon complaint of the people in the town and vicinity to be served after due hearing as now provided by law in other complaints filed with the Corporation Commission. '' (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) Enacted two miscegenation laws in 1867 and 1930 prohibiting intermarriage between whites and blacks, Chinese, Kanakas or any person having more than one half Indian blood. A 1953 statute required that adoption petitions note the race of prospective adopting parents. A 1924 statute required electors to read the Constitution in English. 1867: Miscegenation (Statute) Unlawful for any white person to intermarry with any "Negro, Chinese, or any person having one - quarter or more Negro, Chinese or kanaka blood, or any person having more than one - half Indian blood. '' Penalty: Imprisonment in the penitentiary or the county jail for between three months and one year. Those who licensed or performed such a ceremony could be jailed for three months to one year, or fined between $100 and $1,000. 1924: Voting rights (State Code) Required electors to read the Constitution in English and write their name. 1924: Voting (Statute) Statute and constitutional amendment passed in 1924 required electors to read the constitution in English and write their name. 1930: Miscegenation (State Code) Miscegenation declared a felony. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian race and those persons with one fourth or more Chinese or Kanaka blood. 1953: Adoption (Statute) Adoption petition must state race or color of adopting parents. 1869: Education (Statute) Black children prohibited from attending Pittsburgh schools. 1956: Adoption (Statute) Petition must state race or color of adopting parents. 1872: Miscegenation (State Code) Prohibited intermarriage. Penalty: $1,000 fine, or up to six months ' imprisonment. Enacted three miscegenation laws between 1809 and 1913, and a 1952 statute that required adoption petitions to state the race of both the petitioner and child. A 1913 miscegenation law broadened the list of races unacceptable as marriage partners for whites to include persons belonging to the "African, Korean, Malayan, or Mongolian race. '' This law reflected the nation 's growing tension over the massive waves of immigrants entering the country during the early twentieth century. The miscegenation law was repealed in 1957. 1909: Miscegenation (Statute) Intermarriage or illicit cohabitation forbidden between blacks and whites. Penalty: Felony, punishable by a fine up to $1,000, or by imprisonment up to ten years, or both. 1913: Miscegenation (Statute) Law expanded to prohibit marriage between whites and persons belonging to the "African, Corean (Korean), Malayan, or Mongolian race. '' Penalty: Felony, punishable by a fine up to $1,000, or by imprisonment in state prison up to ten years, or both. 1929: Miscegenation (Statute) Miscegenation declared a felony. Also forbid marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1952: Adoption (State Code) Adoption petitions must state race of petitioner and child. The state of Tennessee enacted 20 Jim Crow laws between 1866 and 1955, including six requiring school segregation, four which outlawed miscegenation, three which segregated railroads, two requiring segregation for public accommodations, and one which mandated segregation on streetcars. The 1868 law declared that no citizen could be excluded from the University of Tennessee because of race or color but then mandated that instructional facilities for black students be separate from those used by white students. As of 1954, segregation laws for miscegenation, transportation and public accommodation were still in effect. 1866: Education (Statute) Separate schools required for white and black children. 1869: Barred school segregation (Statute) While no citizen of Tennessee could be excluded from attending the University of Tennessee on account of his race or color, "the accommodation and instruction of persons of color shall be separate from those for white persons. '' 1870: Miscegenation (Constitution) Intermarriage prohibited between white persons and Negroes, or descendants of Negro ancestors to the third generation. 1870: Miscegenation (Statute) Penalty for intermarriage between whites an blacks was labeled a felony, punishable by imprisonment in the penitentiary from one to five years. 1870: Education (Statute) Schools for white and colored children to be kept separate. 1873: Education (Statute) "White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school, but in separate schools under the same general regulations as to management, usefulness and efficiency. '' 1875: Public accommodations (Statute) Hotel keepers, carriers of passengers and keepers of places of amusement have the right to control access and exclude persons as "that of any private person over his private house. '' 1881: Railroads (Statute) Railroad companies required to furnish separate cars for colored passengers who pay first - class rates. Cars to be kept in good repair, and subject to the same rules governing other first - class cars for preventing smoking and obscene language. Penalty: If companies fail to enforce the law required to pay a forfeit of $100, half to be paid to the person suing, the other half to be paid to the state 's school fund. 1882: Railroads (Statute) 1881: law amended to state that railroads required to supply first - class passenger cars to all persons paying first - class rates. Penalty: $300 fine payable to the public school fund. 1885: Public accommodations (Statute) All well - behaved persons to be admitted to theaters, parks, shows, or other public amusements, but also declared that proprietors had the right to create separate accommodations for whites and Negroes. 1891: Railroads (Statute) Railways to provide equal but separate accommodations for the white and colored races. Penalty: Railroad companies that failed to comply with law guilty of a misdemeanor and subject to fines from $100 to $500. Conductors could be fined from $25 to $50. 1901: Education (Statute) Unlawful for any school or college to permit white and colored persons to attend the same school. Penalty: $50 fine, or imprisonment from 30 days to six months, or both. 1905: Streetcars (Statute) All street cars required to designate a portion of each car for white passengers and also for colored passengers. Required signs to be posted. Special cars could be run for one race exclusively. Penalty: Streetcar companies could be fined $25 for each offense. Passengers who refused to take the proper seat could be fined $25. 1925: Education (Statute) Separate elementary and high schools to be maintained for white and Negro children. 1932: Race classification (State Code) Classified "Negro '' as any person with any Negro blood. 1932: Miscegenation (State Code) Miscegenation declared a felony. 1932: Education (State Code) Required racially segregated high schools. 1953: Voting rights protected (Constitution) Repealed poll tax statute. 1955: Public carriers (State Code) Public carriers to be segregated. 1955: Employment (State Code) Separate washrooms in mines required. 1955: Health Care (State Code) Separate buildings for black and white patients in hospitals for the insane. 1955: Miscegenation (State Code) Prohibited marriage or living together as man and wife between racially mixed persons. Penalty: One to five years imprisonment in county jail, or fine. Twenty - nine Jim Crow laws were passed in Texas. The state enacted one anti-segregation law in 1871 barring separation of the races on public carriers. This law was repealed in 1889. 1865: Juneteenth (Constitution) The people of Texas are informed that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages. They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either there or elsewhere. (8) 1866: Education (Constitution) All taxes paid by blacks to go to maintaining African schools. Duty of the legislature to "encourage colored schools. '' 1866: Railroads (Statute) All railroad companies shall attach one passenger car for the special accommodation of freedmen. 1871: Barred segregation on public carriers (Statute) Public carriers prohibited from making any distinctions in the carrying of passengers. Penalty: Misdemeanor punishable by a fine from $100 to $500, or imprisonment from 30 to 90 days, or both. 1876: Voting rights (Constitution) Required electors to pay poll tax 1879: Miscegenation (Statute) Confirmed intermarriage law passed in 1858. Penalty applied equally to both parties. 1889: Railroads (Statute) Railroad companies required to maintain separate coaches for white and colored passengers, equal in comfort. Penalty: Passengers refusing to sit where assigned were guilty of a misdemeanor, and could be fined between $5 and $20. 1891: Railroads (Statute) Separate coach laws strengthened. Separate coaches for white and Negro passengers to be equal in all points of comfort and convenience. Designed by signage posted in a conspicuous place in each compartment. Trains allowed to carry chair cars or sleeping cars for the exclusive use of either race. Law did not apply to streetcars. Penalty: Conductors who failed to enforce law faced misdemeanor charge punish able by a fine from $5 to $25. The railroad company could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for each trip. Passengers who refused to sit in designated areas faced fines from $5 to $25. 1907: Streetcars (Statute) Required all streetcars to comply with the separate coach law passed in 1889. Penalty: Streetcar companies could be fined from $100 to $1,000 for failing to enact law. A passenger wrongfully riding in an improper coach was guilty of a misdemeanor, and faced fines from $5 to $25 1909: Railroads (Statute) Depot buildings required to provide separate waiting areas for the use of white and Negro passengers. 1914: Railroads (Statute) Negro porters shall not sleep in sleeping car berths nor use bedding intended for white passengers. 1915: Miscegenation (State Code) The penalty for intermarriage is imprisonment in the penitentiary from two to five years. 1919: Public accommodations (Statute) Ordered that Negroes were to use separate branches of county free libraries. 1922: Voting Rights (Statute) "... in no event shall a Negro be eligible to participate in a Democratic party primary election held in the State of Texas. '' Overturned in 1927 by U.S. Supreme Court in Nixon v. Herndon. 1925: Education (Statute) Required racially segregated schools. 1925: Public accommodations (Statute) Separate branches for Negroes to be administered by a Negro custodian in all county libraries. 1925: Miscegenation (Penal Code) Miscegenation declared a felony. Nullified interracial marriages if parties went to another jurisdiction where such marriages were legal. 1926: Public carriers (Statute) Public carriers to be segregated. 1935: Health Care (Statute) Established a state tuberculosis sanitarium for blacks. 1935: Public carriers (State Code) Directed that separate coaches for whites and blacks on all common carriers. 1943: Public carriers (State Code) Ordered separate seating on all buses. 1949: Employment (Statute) Coal mines required to have separate washrooms. 1950: Public accommodations (Statute) Separate facilities required for white and black citizens in state parks. 1951: Voting rights (Constitution) Required electors to pay poll tax. 1951: Miscegenation (Statute) Unlawful for person of Caucasian blood to marry person of African blood. Penalty: Two to five years ' imprisonment. 1952: Health Care (Statute) Establishment of TB hospitals for blacks. 1953: Public carriers (Penal Code) Public carriers to be segregated. 1956: Public accommodations (Municipal Ordinance) Abolished previously required segregation in the city of San Antonio 's swimming pools and other recreational facilities. 1958: Education (Statute) No child compelled to attend schools that are racially mixed. No desegregation unless approved by election. Governor may close schools where troops used on federal authority. 1960: Miscegenation (State Code) Strictly Prohibited marriage or living together as man and wife between racially mixed persons. Penalty: One to ten years imprisonment in county jail, or fine Four miscegenation laws were passed in Utah between 1888 and 1953, prohibiting intermarriage between whites and those of African or Asian descent. School segregation was barred in 1895. The state 's miscegenation law was repealed in 1963. 1888: Miscegenation (Chapter XLV, Laws of Utah, 1888.) Intermarriage prohibit between a Negro and a white person, and between a "Mongolian '' and a white person. 1907: Miscegenation (Chapter 29, Laws of Utah, 1907. Amended 1184, Revised Statutes of Utah, 1898) Marriage laws amended, with earlier intermarriage provision remaining the same. 1933: Miscegenation (Revised Statute, 1933. Statute 40 - 1 - 2.) Prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian and Asian races. 1953: Miscegenation (State Code) Marriage between "white and Negro, Malayan, mulatto, quadroon, or octoroon void. '' 1. Be it enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, That the State registrar of vital statistics may, as soon as practicable after the taking effect of this act, prepare a form whereon the racial composition of any individual, as Caucasian, Negro, Mongolian, American Indian, Asiatic Indian, Malay, or any mixture thereof, or any other non-Caucasic strains, and if there be any mixture, then, the racial composition of the parents and other ancestors, in so far as ascertainable, so as to show in what generation such mixture occurred, may be certified by such individual, which form shall be known as a registration certificate. The State registrar may supply to each local registrar a sufficient number of such forms for the purpose of this act; each local registrar may; personally or by deputy, as soon as possible after receiving such forms, have made thereon in duplicate a certificate of the racial composition, as aforesaid, of each person resident in his district, who so desires, born before June 14, 1912, which certificate shall be made over the signature of said person, or in the case of children under fourteen years of age, over the signature of a parent, guardian, or other person standing in loco parentis. One of said certificates for each person thus registering in every district shall be forwarded to the State registrar for his files; the other shall be kept on file by the local registrar. Every local registrar may, as soon as practicable, have such registration certificate made by or for each person in his district who so desires, born before June 14, 1912, for whom he has not on file a registration certificate, or a birth certificate. 2. It shall be a felony for any person wilfully or knowingly to make a registration certificate false as to color or race. The wilful making of a false registration or birth certificate shall be punished by confinement in the penitentiary for one year. 3. For each registration certificate properly made and returned to the State registrar, the local registrar returning the same shall be entitled to a fee of twenty - five cents, to be paid by the registrant. Application for registration and for transcript may be made direct to the State registrar, who may retain the fee for expenses of his office. 4. No marriage license shall be granted until the clerk or deputy clerk has reasonable assurance that the statements as to color of both man and woman are correct. If there is reasonable cause to disbelieve that applicants are of pure white race, when that fact is stated, the clerk or deputy clerk shall withhold the granting of the license until satisfactory proof is produced that both applicants are "white persons '' as provided for in this act. The clerk or deputy clerk shall use the same care to assure himself that both applicants are colored, when that fact is claimed. 5. It shall hereafter be unlawful for any white person in this State to marry any save a white person, or a person with no other admixture of blood than white and American Indian. For the purpose of this act, the term "white person '' shall apply only to the person who has no trace whatsoever of any blood other than Caucasian; but persons who have one - sixteenth or less of the blood of the American Indian and have no other non-Caucasic blood shall be deemed to be white persons. All laws heretofore passed and now in effect regarding the intermarriage of white and colored persons shall apply to marriages prohibited by this act. 6. For carrying out the purposes of this act and to provide the necessary clerical assistance, postage and other expenses of the State registrar of vital statistics, twenty per cent of the fees received by local registrars under this act shall be paid to the State bureau of vital statistics, which may be expended by the said bureau for the purposes of this act. 7. All acts or parts of acts inconsistent with this act are, to the extent of such inconsistency, hereby repealed. Enacted a miscegenation statute in 1866 forbidding marriage between whites and Negroes or Indians. This law was repealed in 1887. Six civil rights laws barring segregation were passed between 1890 and 1956. 1866: Miscegenation (Statute) Prohibited marriage between white persons and Negroes, Indians, or a person of half or more Negro or Indian blood. 1887: Barred anti-miscegenation (Statute) Repealed anti-miscegenation law. 1896: Voting rights (Constitution) "Indians not taxed shall never be allowed the elective franchise. '' 1896: Voting (Constitution) A constitutional passed in 1896 requiring electors to read and speak English. In 1912 a statute was passed noting, "If naturalized, must furnish satisfactory evidence that he is capable of reading and speaking the English language so as to comprehend the meaning of ordinary English prose. '' 1920: Restrictive Housing Covenants (Municipal Code) Beginning in the 1920s, Seattle realtors frequently discriminated against minorities. In November 1927 the Capitol Hill development used a covenant that read: "The parties... agree each with the others that no part of the lands owned by them shall ever be used or occupied by or sold, conveyed, leased, rented or given to Negroes or any person of Negro blood. '' An April 1928 covenant for the Broadmoor subdivision read: "No part of said property hereby conveyed shall ever be used or occupied by any Hebrew or any person of the Ethiopian, Malay or any Asiatic race... '' Until 1950, Article 34 of the Code of Ethics for realtors in Seattle included the following clause: "A Realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood a character of property or occupancy, members of any race or nationality, or any individual whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood. '' Voluntary agreements between realtors and homeowners continued well into the 1960s. In 1964, Seattle voters rejected a referendum that prohibited housing discrimination. In April 1968, the city council passed an open housing ordinance, making restrictive covenants illegal. 1863: Anti-miscegenation law included in the state constitution. Overturned by Loving v Virginia in 1967. 1872: "White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school. '' This point - blank requirement for segregated schools was proclaimed in West Virginia 's State Constitution as Article XII Section 8. In a remarkable show of the persistence of such attitudes extending to the highest levels of state government, numerous attempts to remove this from the constitution were defeated in the state legislature until it was finally repealed in November 1994. 1873: Black citizens are prohibited from serving on juries. Overturned by Strauder v West Virginia in 1880. "All marriages of white persons with Negroes, Mulattos, Mongolians, or Malaya hereafter contracted in the State of Wyoming are and shall be illegal and void. '' 1887: Education (Statute) Separate schools could be provided for colored children when there were fifteen or more colored children within any school district. 1889: Voting rights (Constitution) Required electors to read the state Constitution. 1908: Intermarriage (Statute) All marriages of white persons with Negroes, Mulattos, Mongolians, or Malaya hereafter contracted in the State of Wyoming are and shall be illegal and void. (Martin Luther King, Jr. NHS) 1931: Education (Statute) Schools to be segregated only when fifteen or more colored children were in a district. 1931: Miscegenation (Statute) Declared miscegenation a misdemeanor. Also prohibited marriages between persons of the Caucasian, Asian and Malay races. 1945: Miscegenation (Statute) Marriage of whites to Negroes, mulattoes, Mongolians, Malayans void. Penalty: $100 to $1,000 and / or one to five years imprisonment. Jim Crow Laws were made to make life hard and tough for freed slaves. The reconstruction act prohibited these laws, however many states found ways through this law and these laws still existed until the late 1960s.
which of the following countries does not share a land border with india	List of countries and territories by land borders - wikipedia This is a list of countries and territories by land borders. The number of unique land borders of each country or territory is indicated as well the names of its neighboring countries and territories. The length of each land border is included, as is the total length of each country 's and territory 's land borders. Countries or territories that are connected only by bridges or other man - made causeways are not considered to have land borders. However, borders along lakes, rivers, and other internal waters are considered land borders for the purposes of this article. Footnotes are included to provide clarity regarding the status of certain countries and territories.
what side of the road do you drive in russia	Left - and right - hand traffic - wikipedia The terms right - hand traffic (RHT) and left - hand traffic (LHT) refer to the practice, in bidirectional traffic, to keep to the right side or to the left side of the road, respectively. This is so fundamental to traffic flow that it is sometimes referred to as the rule of the road. RHT is used in 163 countries and territories, with the remaining 78 countries and territories using LHT. Countries that use LHT account for about a sixth of the world 's area and a quarter of its roads. In 1919, 104 of the world 's territories were LHT and an equal number were RHT. From 1919 to 1986, 34 of the LHT territories switched to RHT. Many of the countries with LHT were formerly part of the British Empire. In addition, Japan, Indonesia, Thailand, Suriname and other countries have retained the LHT tradition. Conversely, many of the countries with RHT were formerly part of the French colonial empire or, in Europe, were subject to French rule during the Napoleonic conquests. For rail traffic, LHT predominates in Western Europe (except Spain and the Netherlands), Latin America, and in countries formerly in the British and French Empires, whereas North American and central and eastern European train services operate RHT. According to the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, water traffic is RHT. For aircraft the US Federal Aviation Regulations suggest RHT principles, both in the air and on water. In healthy populations, traffic safety is thought to be the same regardless of handedness, although some researchers have speculated that LHT may be safer for ageing populations since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant. Ancient Greek, Egyptian, and Roman troops kept to the left when marching. In 1998, archaeologists found a well - preserved double track leading to a Roman quarry near Swindon, in southern England. The grooves in the road on the left side (viewed facing down the track away from the quarry) were much deeper than those on the right side, suggesting LHT, at least at this location, since carts would exit the quarry heavily loaded, and enter it empty. The first reference in English law to an order for LHT was in 1756, with regard to London Bridge. Some historians, such as C. Northcote Parkinson, believed that ancient travellers on horseback or on foot generally kept to the left, since most people were right - handed. If two men riding on horseback were to start a fight, each would edge toward the left. In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII directed pilgrims to keep left. In the late 1700s, traffic in the United States was RHT based on teamsters ' use of large freight wagons pulled by several pairs of horses. The wagons had no driver 's seat, so the (typically right - handed) postilion held his whip in his right hand and thus sat on the left rear horse. Seated on the left, the driver preferred that other wagons pass him on the left so that he could be sure to keep clear of the wheels of oncoming wagons. In France, traditionally foot traffic had kept right, while carriage traffic kept left. Following the French Revolution, all traffic kept right. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the French imposed RHT on parts of Europe. During the colonial period, RHT was introduced by the French in New France, French West Africa, the Maghreb, French Indochina, the West Indies, French Guiana and the Réunion, among others. Meanwhile, LHT was introduced by the British in parts of Canada (Atlantic Canada and British Columbia), Australia, New Zealand, the East Africa Protectorate (now Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), British India, Rhodesia and the Cape Colony (now Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa), British Malaya (now Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), British Guiana, and British Hong Kong. LHT was also introduced by the Portuguese Empire in Portuguese Macau, Colonial Brazil, Portuguese Timor, Portuguese Mozambique, and Portuguese Angola. The first keep - right law for driving in the United States was passed in 1792 and applied to the Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike. New York formalized RHT in 1804, New Jersey in 1813 and Massachusetts in 1821. In the early 1900s some countries including Canada, Spain, and Brazil had different rules in different parts of the country. During the 1900s many countries standardised within their jurisdictions, and changed from LHT to RHT, mostly to conform with regional custom. Currently nearly all countries use one side or the other throughout their entire territory. Most exceptions are due to historical considerations and / or involve islands with no road connection to the main part of a country. China is RHT except the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau. The United States is RHT except the United States Virgin Islands. The United Kingdom is LHT, but its overseas territories of Gibraltar and British Indian Ocean Territory are RHT. Influential in Europe was the 1920 Paris Convention, which advised driving on the right - hand side of the road, in order to harmonise traffic across a continent with many borders. This was despite the fact that left - hand traffic was still widespread: in 1915 for example, LHT was introduced everywhere in the Austro - Hungarian Empire; however, three years later the Empire was split up into several countries, and they all changed eventually to RHT, notably including when Nazi Germany introduced RHT with almost immediate effect in Czechoslovakia in 1938 -- 39. Sweden was LHT from about 1734 to 1967, despite having land borders with RHT countries, and approximately 90 percent of cars being left - hand drive (LHD) vehicles. A referendum was held in 1955, with an overwhelming majority voting against a change to RHT. Nevertheless, some years later the government ordered a conversion, which took place at 5 am on Sunday, 3 September 1967. The accident rate dropped sharply after the change, but soon rose back to near its original level. The day was known as Dagen H ("H - Day ''), the ' H ' being for Högertrafik ("right traffic ''). When Iceland switched the following year, it was known as H - dagurinn, again meaning "H - Day ''. In the late 1960s, the UK Department for Transport considered switching to RHT, but declared it unsafe and too costly for such a built - up nation. Road building standards, for motorways in particular, allow asymmetrically designed road junctions, where merge and diverge lanes differ in length. Today, four countries in Europe continue to use left - hand traffic, all island nations: the UK, Cyprus, Ireland, and Malta. Nationalist China adopted RHT in 1946. This convention was preserved when the CCP took the mainland and the KMT retreated to Taiwan. Hong Kong and Macau continue to be LHT. Both North Korea and South Korea switched to RHT in September 1945 after liberation from Japanese colonial power which was defeated by the Allies, and surrendered. Myanmar switched to RHT in 1970. Samoa, a former German colony, had been RHT for more than a century. It switched to LHT in 2009, being the first territory in almost 30 years to switch. The move was legislated in 2008 to allow Samoans to use cheaper right - hand drive (RHD) vehicles -- which are better suited for left - hand traffic -- imported from Australia, New Zealand or Japan, and to harmonise with other South Pacific nations. A political party, The People 's Party, was formed to try to protest against the change, a protest group which launched a legal challenge, and an estimated 18,000 people attending demonstrations against it. The motor industry was also opposed, as 14,000 of Samoa 's 18,000 vehicles are designed for RHT and the government has refused to meet the cost of conversion. After months of preparation, the switch from right to left happened in an atmosphere of national celebration. There were no reported incidents. At 05: 50 local time, Monday 7 September, a radio announcement halted traffic, and an announcement at 6: 00 ordered traffic to switch to LHT. The change coincided with more restrictive enforcement of speeding and seat - belt laws. That day and the following day were declared public holidays, to reduce traffic. The change included a three - day ban on alcohol sales, while police mounted dozens of checkpoints, warning drivers to drive slowly. The Philippines was mostly LHT during its Spanish and American colonial periods, as well as during the Commonwealth era. During the Japanese occupation the Philippines remained LHT, also because LHT had been required by the Japanese; but during the Battle of Manila the liberating American forces drove their tanks to the right for easier facilitation of movement. RHT was formally finalised by Executive Order No. 34 signed by President Sergio Osmeña on 10 March 1945. A number of non-contiguous former British colonies in West Africa originally drove LHT and switched to RHT in the early 1970s to match the surrounding countries. Sierra Leone switched to RHT in 1971, Nigeria in 1972 and Ghana in 1974. Before this period The Gambia, a country entirely contained within RHT Senegal, had officially switched to RHT in 1965. Rwanda, a former Belgian colony in central Africa, is RHT but is considering switching to LHT, to bring the country in line with other members of the East African Community (EAC). A survey, carried out in 2009, indicated that 54 % of Rwandans were in favour of the switch. Reasons cited were the perceived lower costs of RHD vehicles as opposed to LHD versions of the same model, easier maintenance and the political benefit of harmonisation of traffic regulations with other EAC countries. The same survey also indicated that RHD cars are 16 to 49 per cent cheaper than their LHD equivalents. In 2014 an internal report from consultants to the Ministry of Infrastructure recommended a switch to LHT. In 2015, the ban on RHD vehicles was lifted; RHD trucks from neighbouring countries cost $1000 less than LHD models imported from Europe. In one study, researchers concluded that left - hand traffic may be safer for elderly drivers, since humans are more commonly right - eye dominant than left - eye dominant. Comparing accident statistics between countries operating either LHT or RHT, Leeming concluded that LHT is superior. However, Watson has criticised the small sample size and dismisses the notion. Although many LHT jurisdictions are on islands, there are cases where vehicles may be driven from LHT across a border into a RHT area. Such borders are mostly located in Africa and southern Asia. The Vienna Convention on Road Traffic regulates the use of foreign registered vehicles in the 74 countries that have ratified it. LHT Thailand has three RHT neighbors: Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar. Most of its borders use a simple traffic light to do the switch, but there are also interchanges which enable the switch while keeping up a continuous flow of traffic. There are four road border crossing points between Hong Kong and Mainland China. In 2006, the daily average number of vehicle trips recorded at Lok Ma Chau was 31,100. The next largest is Man Kam To, where there is no changeover system and the border roads on the mainland side Wenjindu intersect as one - way streets with a main road. The Takutu River Bridge (which links LHT Guyana and RHT Brazil) is the only border in the Americas where traffic changes sides. Although the United Kingdom is separated from Continental Europe by the English Channel, the level of cross-Channel traffic is very high; the Channel Tunnel alone carries 3.5 million vehicles per year, by rail, between the UK and France. In RHT jurisdictions, vehicles are configured with LHD, with the driver sitting on the left side. In LHT jurisdictions, the reverse is true. The driver 's side, the side closest to the centre of the road, is sometimes called the offside, while the passenger side, the side closest to the side of the road, is sometimes called the nearside. Historically there was less consistency in the relationship of the position of the driver to the handedness of traffic. Most American cars produced before 1910 were RHD. In 1908 Henry Ford standardised the Model T as LHD in RHT America, arguing that with RHD and RHT, the passenger was obliged to "get out on the street side and walk around the car '' and that with steering from the left, the driver "is able to see even the wheels of the other car and easily avoids danger. '' By 1915 other manufacturers followed Ford 's lead, due to the popularity of the Model T. In specialised cases, the driver will sit on the nearside, or curbside. Examples include: Generally, the convention is to mount a motorcycle on the left, and kickstands are usually on the left which makes it more convenient to mount on the safer kerbside as is the case in LHT. Some jurisdictions prohibit fitting a sidecar to a motorcycle 's offside. Most low - beam headlamps produce an asymmetrical light suitable for use on only one side of the road. Low beam headlamps in LHT jurisdictions throw most of their light forward - leftward; those for RHT throw most of their light forward - rightward, thus illuminating obstacles and road signs while minimising glare for oncoming traffic. In Europe, headlamps approved for use on one side of the road must be adaptable to produce adequate illumination with controlled glare for temporarily driving on the other side of the road,. This may be achieved by affixing masking strips or prismatic lenses to a part of the lens or by moving all or part of the headlamp optic so all or part of the beam is shifted or the asymmetrical portion is occluded. Some varieties of the projector - type headlamp can be fully adjusted to produce a proper LHT or RHT beam by shifting a lever or other movable element in or on the lamp assembly. Some vehicles adjust the headlamps automatically when the car 's GPS detects that the vehicle has moved from LHT to RHT and vice versa. Because blackout strips and adhesive prismatic lenses reduce the safety performance of the headlamps, most countries require all vehicles registered or used on a permanent or semi-permanent basis within the country to be equipped with headlamps designed for the correct traffic - handedness. Without sidecars attached, motorcycles, motor scooters, mopeds, and bicycles are almost symmetric with their handlebars in the centre. However, motorcycles are often equipped with automotive - type asymmetrical - beam headlamps that likewise require adjustments or replacement when brought into a country with opposite traffic - handedness. In the European Union, vehicles must be equipped with one or two red rear fog lamps. A single rear fog lamp must be located between the vehicle 's longitudinal centreline and the outer extent of the driver 's side of the vehicle. An Australian news source reports that some RHD cars imported to that country did n't perform as well on crash tests as the LHD versions, although the cause is unknown, and may be due to differences in testing methodology. Of the 194 countries currently recognised by the United Nations (and the unrecognised Palestine), 140 use RHT and 54 use LHT. A country and its territories and dependencies is counted once. 10 June 3 September Several states in Europe have RHT for roads but LHT for trains. France has mainly LHT for trains, except in Alsace - Lorraine, an eastern French territory which belonged to Germany for much of its history. Gibraltar has been RHT since 1929 A sign reminding motorists to keep left in Australia Vehicles entering and leaving Macau cross over each other at the Lotus Bridge. Sign reminding motorists to drive on the left in Ireland
alexander's very bad no good terrible day cast	Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day (film) - wikipedia Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day is a 2014 American family film directed by Miguel Arteta from a screenplay written by Rob Lieber. The film stars Steve Carell, Jennifer Garner, and Ed Oxenbould, and is loosely based on Judith Viorst and Ray Cruz 's 1972 children 's book of the same name. Co-produced by Shawn Levy and Lisa Henson for Walt Disney Pictures through their respective production companies, 21 Laps Entertainment and The Jim Henson Company, the film was released in North America on October 10, 2014. The film received mixed reviews from critics, but was a success at the box office, grossing $101.4 million worldwide against a $28 million budget. The film follows the exploits of Alexander Cooper (Ed Oxenbould), an ordinary 12 - year - old boy, and his "terrible, horrible, no good, very bad day. '' He is left out by his family; his older brother, Anthony (Dylan Minnette), his older sister, Emily (Kerris Dorsey), his mother, Kelly (Jennifer Garner), his father, Ben (Steve Carell), and his baby brother, Trevor (Elise / Zoey Vargas), living in the Los Angeles metropolitan area of California. Anthony is trying to earn his driver 's license so he can drive his girlfriend, Celia to the prom, Emily is rehearsing for the title role in her school play, Kelly is working for a publication company that is publishing a new children 's book which will promote her to vice president of the company, and Ben, who has been unemployed for seven months, has landed a job interview as a game designer for a video game company. That same morning, Alexander attends school where he experiences another series of mishaps, such as accidentally setting fire to his crush, Becky Gibson 's, notebook as well as finding out that his friends, including Becky, and even his best friend, Paul, will all be attending the birthday party of Philip Parker (Lincoln Melcher) instead of his, due to Philip 's expensive party entertainment and popularity. That night, Alexander puts a candle on a cupcake and wishes that everyone in his family would experience what he is going through. The next morning, Alexander wakes up to find his family in disarray and chaos erupts; his parents have overslept, Emily has a cold, and Anthony has found out that he and Celia broke up. The battery in Kelly 's car is dead, and Ben has to take Trevor with him to the interview after dropping Kelly off at work. At school, Paul gives Alexander good news: Philip 's birthday party is canceled (as Philip has the chicken pox), so the kids (including Becky and Paul) that were originally going to attend Philip 's party will attend Alexander 's party instead, much to Alexander 's delight. Alexander calls his father, asking him to plan a party for him. Kelly is informed of an embarrassing typo in the book they are publicizing ("dump '' instead of "jump '') and needs to stop Dick Van Dyke from reading it at a public reading later. Ben takes Trevor along to the office interview and meets Greg (Donald Glover) who seems impressed at his credentials, although they decide to hold another meeting after Trevor ingests a highlighter. Meanwhile, at school, Anthony finds out that Celia has gotten back together with him. Feeling excited about what happened, Anthony jumps up and hits a banner, not knowing that it 's connected to two trophy cases, which fall and smash. Because of this, Anthony is suspended from school. Kelly manages to arrive at Dick Van Dyke 's reading, but she is too late in trying to warn him about the book 's typo. He reads it with the inappropriate material, humiliating himself, scaring the kids and almost getting Kelly arrested. Meanwhile, Ben purchases cough syrup for Emily 's symptoms and takes Anthony to the Department of Motor Vehicles, where his driving examiner intentionally distracts him by convincing him to pick up his cell phone, causing him to destroy several parking meters and damage the family minivan, and ultimately fail his driving exam. They all go to Emily 's play, which is inadvertently sabotaged by her impaired behavior because of her getting excessively drunk after overdosing on the cough syrup. Afterwards, the game design firm calls Ben and asks him to meet them at Nagamaki, a Japanese hibachi restaurant, for another meeting. The family, joined by Celia, goes to the restaurant in their badly damaged minivan, where Ben accidentally sets his shirt on fire at the grill, embarrassing him to the employers. The whole family consoles him, admitting that they will overcome whatever else the day has in store for them. Alexander states, "You just got ta have the bad days so you can love the good days even more '', and Anthony suddenly decides not to go to the prom with Celia, stating that his family is more important, and they break up completely. The family returns home and discovers that Ben had hired a rental animal service to recreate an Australian petting zoo for Alexander 's birthday party. A crocodile and kangaroo, however, have escaped from their cage. They then decide to pitch in to try and salvage the day by helping host it. Ben and Kelly receive good news: he got hired for the game design job, and she has been informed that the celebrity reading went viral and has created publicity for the book. Reunited, Ben then brings out the cake, with Alexander wishing for more days like the one they shared together. In 2011, 20th Century Fox had plans to make a live - action film adaptation of the book. Written by Rob Lieber, the film was set to be directed by Lisa Cholodenko (who also made an earlier draft of the screenplay), and produced by Shawn Levy with Dan Levine for Levy 's 21 Laps and Lisa Henson from The Jim Henson Company. Steve Carell joined in April 2012, to star as Ben, Alexander 's father. In October 2012, the project was picked up by Walt Disney Pictures, after Fox was reportedly "uncomfortable with the budget. '' By February 2013, Cholodenko had left the project, and a month later, it was reported that Miguel Arteta was in talks with Disney to replace Cholodenko. In April 2013, Jennifer Garner was in talks to play Alexander 's mother. In June 2013, Disney set the release date for October 10, 2014, and confirmed that Carell and Garner were cast as Alexander 's parents. The same month, Disney announced the casting of Ed Oxenbould as Alexander. In July 2013, Bella Thorne was cast in the film as Alexander 's older brother 's girlfriend. Joel Johnstone, Megan Mullally and Jennifer Coolidge joined the cast a month later. Principal photography began on August 19, 2013. The film was entirely shot in the Los Angeles area, including the cities of Pasadena and Arcadia, the San Fernando Valley, and Melody Ranch in Newhall. Filming lasted through October 2013. The film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles on October 6, 2014. Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on DVD and Blu - ray on February 10, 2015. The film debuted at the top of the home video chart in its first week. Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day grossed $67 million in North America, and $34.4 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $101.4 million. In North America, the film earned $5.2 million on its opening day and $18.3 million in its opening weekend, placing third behind Gone Girl and Dracula Untold. In its second weekend, the film dropped to number four, grossing an additional $11.4 million. In its third weekend, the film dropped to number seven, grossing $7.1 million. In its fourth weekend, the film dropped to number eight, grossing $6.5 million. The film received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a rating of 61 %, based on 108 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10. The website 's consensus reads, "Affably pleasant without ever trying to be anything more, Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day is a fine -- albeit forgettable -- family diversion. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 54 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day could have been a lot more horrible and no good than it is. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film three out of four stars, saying "It 's Arteta 's ease with generating that slight sense of social awkwardness that makes "Alexander '' a cut above the usual live - action family comedy. '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a negative review, saying "These characters should have to suffer twice as many embarrassments if they want to earn all those adjectives in the title. '' Sherilyn Connelly of The Village Voice gave the film a negative review, saying "Everything that can go wrong does, and while it has its moments, Miguel Arteta 's comedy relies too much on gender - shaming and emasculation jokes. '' Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Can a series of irritating events make a movie? Yes, but an irritating one: Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day. '' John Hartl of The Seattle Times gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "The movie is so over-the - top that it makes little narrative sense, but it 's often successful in its naked pursuit of belly laughs. '' Katie Rife of The A.V. Club gave the film a B, saying "Alexander is a watchable, affable, pretty good, well - done kids ' movie buoyed by a humorous script and talented cast. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic gave the film three out of five stars, saying "It turns out the film is not terrible or horrible or very bad. No good? Not that, either. '' Claudia Puig of USA Today gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "It may have the year 's longest title, but Alexander 's movie is not terrible, horrible, or even half bad. In fact, Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day is a pleasant, entertaining way to spend just under 90 minutes, particularly if accompanied by children. '' Sandie Angulo Chen of The Washington Post gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Even the bathroom humor is forgivable when the end result is a crowd - pleasing comedy and a surprisingly entertaining treat for the whole family. '' Rafer Guzman of Newsday gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day, a Disney film, stretches the book thinner than pizza dough and feels about as nutritious. Still, its intentions are good and so is its cast, particularly Ed Oxenbould, a bright - eyed, expressive 13 - year - old making his screen debut as Alexander Cooper. '' Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Director Miguel Arteta, whose previous work is a mixed bag of television and film, gets almost everything right here, including bringing together a solid cast. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times gave the film a negative review, saying "' Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day is the latest example of a wonderful children 's book turned into a mediocre movie. This kind of thing happens so frequently -- exceptions like Where the Wild Things Are and, arguably, Shrek prove the rule upheld by every recent big - screen Dr. Seuss adaptation -- that you could almost believe that there is malice involved. '' Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times called the film "Not so terribly horrible. Not so terribly terrific either. '' Tom Russo of The Boston Globe gave the film a positive review, saying "What the filmmakers come up with is a modestly likable mix of zany and gently warmhearted, even if they overdo both elements at times. '' David Hiltbrand of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film two out of four stars, saying "It 's a film where you start chuckling as soon as someone says something like, "I just want everything to be perfect tonight. '' Adam Graham of The Detroit News gave the film a B -, saying "Alexander wo n't change your day, but it 's not terrible, horrible, no good or very bad, either. '' Calvin Wilson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch gave the film a three out of four stars, saying "Arteta keeps the action speeding along while eliciting spot - on performances. Carell is at his discombobulated best, and Garner anchors the proceedings with aplomb. '' Lindsey Bahr gave the film a B, saying "Alexander is pleasantly devoid of the vulgarity and too - current pop culture references that are the default mode for many contemporary live - action kids ' pics, and its earnest celebration of family gives the movie a comforting throwback vibe. '' Bruce Ingram of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two and half stars out of four, saying "Disney 's bland comedy Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day might have been a little more entertaining if it had been a little more, terrible, horrible, no good and so forth. '' Joe Neumaier of the New York Daily News two out of five stars, saying "Just another loud, boy - centric comedy aimed at ' tweens. The movie turns a slight children 's book -- in this case, Judith Viorst 's 1972 fave, from which it takes mainly the title -- into a charmless mishmash. '' On April 1, 2014, Christophe Beck was hired to score the film. Walt Disney Records released the EP soundtrack album on October 7, 2014. The album features songs from the film, and new tracks by various artists, like The Vamps, Kerris and Justine Dorsey, The Narwhals, Charles William and IDK & The Whatevs.
what is a window sticker on a car	Monroney sticker - wikipedia The Monroney sticker or window sticker is a label required in the United States to be displayed in all new automobiles and includes the listing of certain official information about the car. The window sticker was named after Almer Stillwell "Mike '' Monroney, United States Senator from Oklahoma. Monroney sponsored the Automobile Information Disclosure Act of 1958, which mandated the disclosure of equipment and pricing information on new automobiles. Since the mid-1970s the United States Environmental Protection Agency provides fuel economy metrics in the label to help consumers choose more fuel efficient vehicles. New requirements for the Monroney label were issued for 2008 cars and light - duty trucks sold in the US. The 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) mandated inclusion additional information about fuel efficiency as well as ratings on each vehicle 's greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants. A more comprehensive fuel economy and environment label was mandatory beginning in model year 2013, though some carmakers adopted it voluntarily for model year 2012. The new window sticker includes specific labels for alternative fuel and alternative propulsion vehicles available in the US market, such as plug - in hybrids, electric vehicles, flexible - fuel vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and natural gas vehicles. The new label introduces the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles using miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe) as a metric. Other information provided for the first time includes greenhouse gas and smog emissions ratings, estimates of fuel cost over the next five years, and a QR Code that can be scanned by a smartphone to allow users access to additional online information. The Monroney sticker is required to be affixed to the side window or windshield of every new car sold in the United States and can only be removed by the consumer (Chapter 28, Sections 1231 - 1233, Title 15 of the United States Code). A fine of up to US $1,000 per vehicle for each offense is authorized if the sticker is missing, and other fees and penalties are authorized if the sticker is altered illegally (including imprisonment). The act does not apply to vehicles with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) of more than 8,500 lb (3,856 kg). The sticker must include the following information: As required by the 2007 Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA), with the introduction of advanced - technology vehicles in the U.S. new information should be incorporated in the Monroney label of new cars and light - duty trucks sold in the country, such as ratings on fuel economy, greenhouse gas emissions, and other air pollutants. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) conducted a series of studies to determine the best way to redesign this label to provide consumers with simple energy and environmental comparisons across all vehicles types, including battery electric vehicles (BEV), plug - in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles powered by gasoline and diesel, in order to help consumers choose more efficient and environmentally friendly vehicles. As part of the research and redesign process, EPA conducted focus groups where presented participants with several options to express the consumption of electricity for plug - in electric vehicles. The research showed that participants did not understand the concept of a kilowatt hour as a measure of electric energy use in spite of the fact that this is the metric used in their monthly electric bills. Instead, participants favored a miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent, MPGe, as the metric to compare with the familiar miles per gallon used for gasoline vehicles. The research also concluded that the kW - hrs per 100 miles metric was more confusing to focus group participants compared to a miles per kW - hr. Based on these results, EPA decided to use the following fuel economy and fuel consumption metrics on the redesigned labels: MPG (city and highway, and combined); MPGe (city and highway, and combined); Gallons per 100 miles; kW - hrs per 100 miles. The proposed design and final content for two options of the new sticker label that will be introduced in 2013 model year cars and trucks were consulted for 60 days with the public in 2010, and both included miles per gallon equivalent and kW - hrs per 100 miles as the fuel economy metrics for plug - in cars, but in one option MPGe and annual electricity cost are the two most prominent metrics. One of the design options had a letter grading system from A to D and the rating would have compared a given vehicle 's fuel economy and air pollution to those of the entire fleet of new cars. The letter grade system was opposed by carmakers and rejected after the public consultation. In November 2010, EPA introduced MPGe as comparison metric on its new sticker for fuel economy for the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt. In May 2011, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and EPA issued a joint final rule establishing new requirements for a fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory for all new passenger cars and trucks starting with model year 2013, though carmakers can adopt it voluntarily for model year 2012. The ruling include new labels for alternative fuel and alternative propulsion vehicles available in the US market, such as plug - in hybrids, electric vehicles, flexible - fuel vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicle, and natural gas vehicles. The common fuel economy metric adopted to allow the comparison of alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles is miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (MPGe). A gallon of gasoline equivalent means the number of kilowatt - hours of electricity, cubic feet of compressed natural gas (CNG), or kilograms of hydrogen that is equal to the energy in a gallon of gasoline. The new labels include for the first time an estimate of how much fuel or electricity it takes to drive 100 miles (160 km), providing U.S. consumers with fuel consumption per distance traveled, the efficiency metric commonly used in many other countries. EPA 's objective is to avoid the traditional miles per gallon metric that can be potentially misleading when consumers compare fuel economy improvements, and known as the "MPG illusion. '' Other information provided for the first time in the redesigned labels includes: Label for blended or series - parallel plug - in hybrid Label for series plug - in hybrid or extended range electric vehicle Label for electric car Label for hydrogen fuel cell vehicle Label for natural gas vehicle Label for E85 flexible - fuel vehicle Label for diesel vehicle Label for gasoline vehicle
when queen ants or honeybees are able to reproduce asexually (without mating) this is called	Parthenogenesis - wikipedia Parthenogenesis (/ ˌpɑːrθɪnoʊˈdʒɛnɪsɪs, - θɪnə - /; from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin '', + γένεσις genesis, "creation '') is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. In animals, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell. In plants parthenogenesis is a component process of apomixis. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some plants, some invertebrate animal species (including nematodes, water fleas, some scorpions, aphids, some mites, some bees, some Phasmida and parasitic wasps) and a few vertebrates (such as some fish, amphibians, reptiles and very rarely birds). This type of reproduction has been induced artificially in a few species including fish and amphibians. Normal egg cells form after meiosis and are haploid, with half as many chromosomes as their mother 's body cells. Haploid individuals, however, are usually non-viable, and parthenogenetic offspring usually have the diploid chromosome number. Depending on the mechanism involved in restoring the diploid number of chromosomes, parthenogenetic offspring may have anywhere between all and half of the mother 's alleles. The offspring having all of the mother 's genetic material are called full clones and those having only half are called half clones. Full clones are usually formed without meiosis. If meiosis occurs, the offspring will get only a fraction of the mother 's alleles since crossing over of DNA takes place during meiosis, creating variation. Parthenogenetic offspring in species that use either the XY or the X0 sex - determination system have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the ZW sex - determination system, they have either two Z chromosomes (male) or two W chromosomes (mostly non-viable but rarely a female), or they could have one Z and one W chromosome (female). Some species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (such as the Bdelloid rotifers), while others can switch between sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis. This is called facultative parthenogenesis (other terms are cyclical parthenogenesis, heterogamy or heterogony). The switch between sexuality and parthenogenesis in such species may be triggered by the season (aphid, some gall wasps), or by a lack of males or by conditions that favour rapid population growth (rotifers and cladocerans like daphnia). In these species asexual reproduction occurs either in summer (aphids) or as long as conditions are favourable. This is because in asexual reproduction a successful genotype can spread quickly without being modified by sex or wasting resources on male offspring who wo n't give birth. In times of stress, offspring produced by sexual reproduction may be fitter as they have new, possibly beneficial gene combinations. In addition, sexual reproduction provides the benefit of meiotic recombination between non-sister chromosomes, a process associated with repair of DNA double - strand breaks and other DNA damages that may be induced by stressful conditions. (See also Meiosis section: Origin and function of meiosis.) Many taxa with heterogony have within them species that have lost the sexual phase and are now completely asexual. Many other cases of obligate parthenogenesis (or gynogenesis) are found among polyploids and hybrids where the chromosomes can not pair for meiosis. The production of female offspring by parthenogenesis is referred to as thelytoky (e.g., aphids) while the production of males by parthenogenesis is referred to as arrhenotoky (e.g., bees). When unfertilized eggs develop into both males and females, the phenomenon is called deuterotoky. Parthenogenesis can occur without meiosis through mitotic oogenesis. This is called apomictic parthenogenesis. Mature egg cells are produced by mitotic divisions, and these cells directly develop into embryos. In flowering plants, cells of the gametophyte can undergo this process. The offspring produced by apomictic parthenogenesis are full clones of their mother. Examples include aphids. Parthenogenesis involving meiosis is more complicated. In some cases, the offspring are haploid (e.g., male ants). In other cases, collectively called automictic parthenogenesis, the ploidy is restored to diploidy by various means. This is because haploid individuals are not viable in most species. In automictic parthenogenesis the offspring differ from one another and from their mother. They are called half clones of their mother. Automixis is a term that covers several reproductive mechanisms, some of which are parthenogenetic. Diploidy might be restored by the doubling of the chromosomes without cell division before meiosis begins or after meiosis is completed. This is referred to as an endomitotic cycle. This may also happen by the fusion of the first two blastomeres. Other species restore their ploidy by the fusion of the meiotic products. The chromosomes may not separate at one of the two anaphases (called restitutional meiosis), or the nuclei produced may fuse or one of the polar bodies may fuse with the egg cell at some stage during its maturation. Some authors consider all forms of automixis sexual as they involve recombination. Many others classify the endomitotic variants as asexual, and consider the resulting embryos parthenogenetic. Among these authors the threshold for classifying automixis as a sexual process depends on when the products of anaphase I or of anaphase II are joined together. The criterion for "sexuality '' varies from all cases of restitutional meiosis, to those where the nuclei fuse or to only those where gametes are mature at the time of fusion. Those cases of automixis that are classified as sexual reproduction are compared to self - fertilization in their mechanism and consequences. The genetic composition of the offspring depends on what type of apomixis takes place. When endomitosis occurs before meiosis or when central fusion occurs (restitutional meiosis of anaphase I or the fusion of its products), the offspring get all to more than half of the mother 's genetic material and heterozygosity is mostly preserved (if the mother has two alleles for a locus, it is likely that the offspring will get both). This is because in anaphase I the homologous chromosomes are separated. Heterozygosity is not completely preserved when crossing over occurs in central fusion. In the case of pre-meiotic doubling, recombination - if it happens - occurs between identical sister chromatids. If terminal fusion (restitutional meiosis of anaphase II or the fusion of its products) occurs, a little over half the mother 's genetic material is present in the offspring and the offspring are mostly homozygous. This is because at anaphase II the sister chromatids are separated and whatever heterozygosity is present is due to crossing over. In the case of endomitosis after meiosis the offspring is completely homozygous and has only half the mother 's genetic material. This can result in parthenogenetic offspring being unique from each other and from their mother. In apomictic parthenogenesis, the offspring are clones of the mother and hence (except for aphids) are usually female. In the case of aphids, parthenogenetically produced males and females are clones of their mother except that the males lack one of the X chromosomes (XO). When meiosis is involved, the sex of the offspring will depend on the type of sex determination system and the type of apomixis. In species that use the XY sex - determination system, parthenogenetic offspring will have two X chromosomes and are female. In species that use the ZW sex - determination system the offspring genotype may be one of ZW (female), ZZ (male), or WW (non-viable in most species but a fertile, viable female in a few (e.g., boas)). ZW offspring are produced by endoreplication before meiosis or by central fusion. ZZ and WW offspring occur either by terminal fusion or by endomitosis in the egg cell. In polyploid obligate parthenogens like the whiptail lizard, all the offspring are female. In many hymenopteran insects such as honeybees, female eggs are produced sexually, using sperm from a drone father, while the production of further drones (males) depends on the queen (and occasionally workers) producing unfertilised eggs. This means that females (workers and queens) are always diploid, while males (drones) are always haploid, and produced parthenogenetically. Facultative parthenogenesis is the term for when a female can produce offspring either sexually or via asexual reproduction. Facultative parthenogenesis is extremely rare in nature, with only a few examples of animal taxa capable of facultative parthenogenesis. One of the best known examples of taxa exhibiting facultative parthenogenesis are mayflies; presumably this is the default reproductive mode of all species in this insect order. Facultative parthenogenesis is believed to be a response to a lack of a viable male. A female may undergo facultative parthenogenesis if a male is absent from the habitat or if it is unable to produce viable offspring. Facultative parthenogenesis is often incorrectly used to describe cases of accidental or spontaneous parthenogenesis in normally sexual animals. For example, many cases of accidental parthenogenesis in sharks, some snakes, Komodo dragons and a variety of domesticated birds were widely perpetuated as facultative parthenogenesis. These cases are, however, examples of accidental parthenogenesis, given the frequency of asexually produced eggs and their hatching rates are extremely low, in contrast to true facultative parthenogenesis where the majority of asexually produced eggs hatch. The occurrence of such asexually produced eggs in sexual animals can be explained by a meiotic error, leading to eggs produced via automixis. Obligate parthenogenesis is the process in which organisms exclusively reproduce through asexual means. Many species have been shown to transition to obligate parthenogenesis over evolutionary time. Among these species, one of the most well documented transitions to obligate parthenogenesis was found in almost all metazoan taxa, albeit through highly diverse mechanisms. These transitions often occur as a result of inbreeding or mutation within large populations. There are a number of documented species, specifically salamanders and geckos, that rely on obligate parthenogenesis as their major method of reproduction. As such, there are over 80 species of unisex reptiles (mostly lizards but including a single snake species), amphibians and fishes in nature for which males are no longer a part of the reproductive process. A female will produce an ovum with a full set (two sets of genes) provided solely by the mother. Thus, a male is not needed to provide sperm to fertilize the egg. This form of asexual reproduction is thought in some cases to be a serious threat to biodiversity for the subsequent lack of gene variation and potentially decreased fitness of the offspring. Some invertebrate species that feature (partial) sexual reproduction in their native range are found to reproduce solely by parthenogenesis in areas to which they have been introduced. Relying solely on parthenogenetic reproduction has several advantages for an invasive species: it obviates the need for individuals in a very sparse initial population to search for mates, and an exclusively female sex distribution allows a population to multiply and invade more rapidly, potentially up to twice as fast. Examples include several aphid species and the willow sawfly, Nematus oligospilus, which is sexual in its native Holarctic habitat but parthenogenetic where it has been introduced into the Southern Hemisphere. Parthenogenesis is seen to occur naturally in aphids, Daphnia, rotifers, nematodes and some other invertebrates, as well as in many plants. Among vertebrates, strict parthenogenesis is only known to occur in lizards, snakes, birds and sharks, with fish, amphibians and reptiles exhibiting various forms of gynogenesis and hybridogenesis (an incomplete form of parthenogenesis). The first all - female (unisexual) reproduction in vertebrates was described in the fish Poecilia formosa in 1932. Since then at least 50 species of unisexual vertebrate have been described, including at least 20 fish, 25 lizards, a single snake species, frogs, and salamanders. Other, usually sexual, species may occasionally reproduce parthenogenetically and Komodo dragons; the hammerhead and blacktip sharks are recent additions to the known list of spontaneous parthenogenetic vertebrates. As with all types of asexual reproduction, there are both costs (low genetic diversity and therefore susceptibility to adverse mutations that might occur) and benefits (reproduction without the need for a male) associated with parthenogenesis. Parthenogenesis is distinct from artificial animal cloning, a process where the new organism is necessarily genetically identical to the cell donor. In cloning, the nucleus of a diploid cell from a donor organism is inserted into an enucleated egg cell and the cell is then stimulated to undergo continued mitosis, resulting in an organism that is genetically identical to the donor. Parthenogenesis is different, in that it originates from the genetic material contained within an egg cell and the new organism is not necessarily genetically identical to the parent. Parthenogenesis may be achieved through an artificial process as described below under the discussion of mammals. Parthenogenesis in insects can cover a wide range of mechanisms. The offspring produced by parthenogenesis may be of both sexes, only female (thelytoky, e.g. aphids and some hymenopterans) or only male (arrhenotoky, e.g. most hymenopterans). Both true parthenogenesis and pseudogamy (gynogenesis or sperm - dependent parthenogenesis) are known to occur. The egg cells, depending on the species may be produced without meiosis (apomictically) or by one of the several automictic mechanisms. A related phenomenon, polyembryony is a process that produces multiple clonal offspring from a single egg cell. This is known in some hymenopteran parasitoids and in Strepsiptera. In automictic species the offspring can be haploid or diploid. Diploids are produced by doubling or fusion of gametes after meiosis. Fusion is seen in the Phasmatodea, Hemiptera (Aleurodids and Coccidae), Diptera, and some Hymenoptera. In addition to these forms is hermaphroditism, where both the eggs and sperm are produced by the same individual, but is not a type of parthenogenesis. This is seen in three species of Icerya scale insects. Parasitic bacteria like Wolbachia have been noted to induce automictic thelytoky in many insect species with haplodiploid systems. They also cause gamete duplication in unfertilized eggs causing them to develop into female offspring. Among species with the haplo - diploid sex - determination system, such as hymenopterans (ants, bees and wasps) and thysanopterans (thrips), haploid males are produced from unfertilized eggs. Usually eggs are laid only by the queen, but the unmated workers may also lay haploid, male eggs either regularly (e.g. stingless bees) or under special circumstances. An example of non-viable parthenogenesis is common among domesticated honey bees. The queen bee is the only fertile female in the hive; if she dies without the possibility for a viable replacement queen, it is not uncommon for the worker bees to lay eggs. This is a result of the lack of the queen 's pheromones and the pheromones secreted by uncapped brood, which normally suppress ovarian development in workers. Worker bees are unable to mate, and the unfertilized eggs produce only drones (males), which can mate only with a queen. Thus, in a relatively short period, all the worker bees die off, and the new drones follow if they have not been able to mate before the collapse of the colony. This behaviour is believed to have evolved to allow a doomed colony to produce drones which may mate with a virgin queen and thus preserve the colony 's genetic progeny. A few ants and bees are capable of producing diploid female offspring parthenogenetically. These include a honey bee subspecies from South Africa, Apis mellifera capensis, where workers are capable of producing diploid eggs parthenogenetically, and replacing the queen if she dies; other examples include some species of small carpenter bee, (genus Ceratina). Many parasitic wasps are known to be parthenogenetic, sometimes due to infections by Wolbachia. The workers in five ant species and the queens in some ants are known to reproduce by parthenogenesis. In Cataglyphis cursor, a European formicine ant, the queens and workers can produce new queens by parthenogenesis. The workers are produced sexually. In Central and South American electric ants, Wasmannia auropunctata, queens produce more queens through automictic parthenogenesis with central fusion. Sterile workers usually are produced from eggs fertilized by males. In some of the eggs fertilized by males, however, the fertilization can cause the female genetic material to be ablated from the zygote. In this way, males pass on only their genes to become fertile male offspring. This is the first recognized example of an animal species where both females and males can reproduce clonally resulting in a complete separation of male and female gene pools. As a consequence, the males will only have fathers and the queens only mothers, while the sterile workers are the only ones with both parents of both genders. These ants get both the benefits of both asexual and sexual reproduction -- the daughters who can reproduce (the queens) have all of the mother 's genes, while the sterile workers whose physical strength and disease resistance are important are produced sexually. Other examples of insect parthenogenesis can be found in gall - forming aphids (e.g., Pemphigus betae), where females reproduce parthenogenetically during the gall - forming phase of their life cycle and in grass thrips. In the grass thrips genus Aptinothrips there have been, despite the very limited number of species in the genus, several transitions to asexuality. Crustacean reproduction varies both across and within species. The water flea Daphnia pulex alternates between sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction. Among the better - known large decapod crustaceans, some crayfish reproduce by parthenogensis. "Marmorkrebs '' are parthenogenetic crayfish that were discovered in the pet trade in the 1990s. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent, indicating it reproduces by apomixis, i.e. parthenogenesis in which the eggs did not undergo meiosis. Spinycheek crayfish (Orconectes limosus) can reproduce both sexually and by parthenogenesis. The Louisiana red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), which normally reproduces sexually, has also been suggested to reproduce by parthenogenesis, although no individuals of this species have been reared this way in the lab. Artemia parthenogenetica is a species or series of populations of parthenogenetic brine shrimps. No males of Epiperipatus imthurni have been found, and specimens from Trinidad were shown to reproduce parthenogenetically. This species is the only known velvet worm to reproduce via parthenogenesis. At least two species of spiders in the family Oonopidae (goblin spiders), Heteroonops spinimanus and Triaeris stenaspis, are thought to be parthenogenetic, as no males have ever been collected. Parthenogenetic reproduction has been demonstrated in the laboratory for T. stenaspis. In bdelloid rotifers, females reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis (obligate parthenogenesis), while in monogonont rotifers, females can alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction (cyclical parthenogenesis). At least in one normally cyclical parthenogenetic species obligate parthenogenesis can be inherited: a recessive allele leads to loss of sexual reproduction in homozygous offspring. At least two species in the genus Dugesia, flatworms in the Turbellaria sub-division of the phylum Platyhelminthes, include polyploid individuals that reproduce by parthenogenesis. This type of parthenogenesis requires mating, but the sperm does not contribute to the genetics of the offspring (the parthenogenesis is pseudogamous, alternatively referred to as gynogenetic). A complex cycle of matings between diploid sexual and polyploid parthenogenetic individuals produces new parthenogenetic lines. Several species of parthenogenetic gastropods have been studied, especially with respect to their status as invasive species. Such species include the New Zealand mud snail (Potamopyrgus antipodarum), the red - rimmed melania (Melanoides tuberculata), and the Quilted melania (Tarebia granifera). Most reptiles of the squamatan order (lizards and snakes) reproduce sexually, but parthenogenesis has been observed to occur naturally in certain species of whiptails, some geckos, rock lizards, Komodo dragons and snakes. Some of these like the mourning gecko Lepidodactylus lugubris, Indo - Pacific house gecko Hemidactylus garnotii, the hybrid whiptails Cnemidophorus, Caucasian rock lizards Darevskia, and the brahminy blindsnake, Indotyphlops braminus are unisexual and obligately parthenogenetic. Other reptiles, such as the Komodo dragon, other monitor lizards, and some species of boas, pythons, filesnakes, gartersnakes and rattlesnakes were previously considered as cases of facultative parthenogenesis, but are in fact cases of accidental parthenogenesis. In 2012, facultative parthenogenesis was reported in wild vertebrates for the first time by US researchers amongst captured pregnant copperhead and cottonmouth female pit - vipers. The Komodo dragon, which normally reproduces sexually, has also been found able to reproduce asexually by parthenogenesis. A case has been documented of a Komodo dragon reproducing via sexual reproduction after a known parthenogenetic event, highlighting that these cases of parthenogenesis are reproductive accidents, rather than adaptive, facultative parthenogenesis. Some reptile species use a ZW chromosome system, which produces either males (ZZ) or females (ZW). Until 2010, it was thought that the ZW chromosome system used by reptiles was incapable of producing viable WW offspring, but a (ZW) female boa constrictor was discovered to have produced viable female offspring with WW chromosomes. Parthenogenesis has been studied extensively in the New Mexico whiptail in the genus Cnemidophorus (also known as Aspidoscelis) of which 15 species reproduce exclusively by parthenogenesis. These lizards live in the dry and sometimes harsh climate of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. All these asexual species appear to have arisen through the hybridization of two or three of the sexual species in the genus leading to polyploid individuals. The mechanism by which the mixing of chromosomes from two or three species can lead to parthenogenetic reproduction is unknown. Recently, a hybrid parthenogenetic whiptail lizard was bred in the laboratory from a cross between an asexual and a sexual whiptail. Because multiple hybridization events can occur, individual parthenogenetic whiptail species can consist of multiple independent asexual lineages. Within lineages, there is very little genetic diversity, but different lineages may have quite different genotypes. An interesting aspect to reproduction in these asexual lizards is that mating behaviors are still seen, although the populations are all female. One female plays the role played by the male in closely related species, and mounts the female that is about to lay eggs. This behaviour is due to the hormonal cycles of the females, which cause them to behave like males shortly after laying eggs, when levels of progesterone are high, and to take the female role in mating before laying eggs, when estrogen dominates. Lizards who act out the courtship ritual have greater fecundity than those kept in isolation, due to the increase in hormones that accompanies the mounting. So, although the populations lack males, they still require sexual behavioral stimuli for maximum reproductive success. Some lizard parthenogens show a pattern of geographic parthenogenesis, occupying high mountain areas where their ancestral forms have an inferior competition ability. In Caucasian rock lizards of genus Darevskia, which have six parthenogenetic forms of hybrid origin hybrid parthenogenetic form D. "dahli '' has a broader niche than either of its bisexual ancestors and its expansion throughout the Central Lesser Caucasus caused decline of the ranges of both its maternal and paternal species. Parthenogenesis in sharks has been confirmed in at least three species, the bonnethead, the blacktip shark, and the zebra shark, and reported in others. A bonnethead, a type of small hammerhead shark, was found to have produced a pup, born live on 14 December 2001 at Henry Doorly Zoo in Nebraska, in a tank containing three female hammerheads, but no males. The pup was thought to have been conceived through parthenogenic means. The shark pup was apparently killed by a stingray within days of birth. The investigation of the birth was conducted by the research team from Queen 's University Belfast, Southeastern University in Florida, and Henry Doorly Zoo itself, and it was concluded after DNA testing that the reproduction was parthenogenic. The testing showed the female pup 's DNA matched only one female who lived in the tank, and that no male DNA was present in the pup. The pup was not a twin or clone of her mother, but rather, contained only half of her mother 's DNA ("automictic parthenogenesis ''). This type of reproduction had been seen before in bony fish, but never in cartilaginous fish such as sharks, until this documentation. In the same year, a female Atlantic blacktip shark in Virginia reproduced via parthenogenesis. On 10 October 2008 scientists confirmed the second case of a virgin birth in a shark. The Journal of Fish Biology reported a study in which scientists said DNA testing proved that a pup carried by a female Atlantic blacktip shark in the Virginia Aquarium & Marine Science Center contained no genetic material from a male. In 2002, two white - spotted bamboo sharks were born at the Belle Isle Aquarium in Detroit. They hatched 15 weeks after being laid. The births baffled experts as the mother shared an aquarium with only one other shark, which was female. The female bamboo sharks had laid eggs in the past. This is not unexpected, as many animals will lay eggs even if there is not a male to fertilize them. Normally, the eggs are assumed to be inviable and are discarded. This batch of eggs was left undisturbed by the curator as he had heard about the previous birth in 2001 in Nebraska and wanted to observe whether they would hatch. Other possibilities had been considered for the birth of the Detroit bamboo sharks including thoughts that the sharks had been fertilized by a male and stored the sperm for a period of time, as well as the possibility that the Belle Isle bamboo shark is a hermaphrodite, harboring both male and female sex organs, and capable of fertilizing its own eggs, but that is not confirmed. In 2008, a Hungarian aquarium had another case of parthenogenesis after its lone female shark produced a pup without ever having come into contact with a male shark. The repercussions of parthenogenesis in sharks, which fails to increase the genetic diversity of the offspring, is a matter of concern for shark experts, taking into consideration conservation management strategies for this species, particularly in areas where there may be a shortage of males due to fishing or environmental pressures. Although parthenogenesis may help females who can not find mates, it does reduce genetic diversity. In 2011, recurring shark parthenogenesis over several years was demonstrated in a captive zebra shark, a type of carpet shark. DNA genotyping demonstrated that individual zebra sharks can switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction. Parthenogenesis in birds is known mainly from studies of domesticated turkeys and chickens, although it has also been noted in the domestic pigeon. In most cases the egg fails to develop normally or completely to hatching. The first description of parthenogenetic development in a passerine was demonstrated in captive zebra finches, although the dividing cells exhibited irregular nuclei and the eggs did not hatch. Parthenogenesis in turkeys appears to result from a conversion of haploid cells to diploid; most embryos produced in this way die early in development. Rarely, viable birds result from this process, and the rate at which this occurs in turkeys can be increased by selective breeding, however male turkeys produced from parthenogenesis exhibit smaller testes and reduced fertility. There are no known cases of naturally occurring mammalian parthenogenesis in the wild. Parthenogenetic progeny of mammals would have two X chromosomes, and would therefore be female. In 1936, Gregory Goodwin Pincus reported successfully inducing parthenogenesis in a rabbit. Helen Spurway, a geneticist specializing in the reproductive biology of the guppy, Lebistes reticulatus, claimed, in 1955, that parthenogenesis, which occurs in the guppy in nature, may also occur (though very rarely) in the human species, leading to so - called "virgin births. '' This created some sensation among her colleagues and the lay public alike. In April 2004, scientists at Tokyo University of Agriculture used parthenogenesis successfully to create a fatherless mouse. Using gene targeting, they were able to manipulate two imprinted loci H19 / IGF2 and DLK1 / MEG3 to produce bi-maternal mice at high frequency and subsequently show that fatherless mice have enhanced longevity. Induced parthenogenesis in mice and monkeys often results in abnormal development. This is because mammals have imprinted genetic regions, where either the maternal or the paternal chromosome is inactivated in the offspring in order for development to proceed normally. A mammal created by parthenogenesis would have double doses of maternally imprinted genes and lack paternally imprinted genes, leading to developmental abnormalities. It has been suggested that defects in placental folding or interdigitation are one cause of swine parthenote abortive development. As a consequence, research on human parthenogenesis is focused on the production of embryonic stem cells for use in medical treatment, not as a reproductive strategy. Use of an electrical or chemical stimulus can produce the beginning of the process of parthenogenesis in the asexual development of viable offspring. During oocyte development, high metaphase promoting factor (MPF) activity causes mammalian oocytes to arrest at the metaphase II stage until fertilization by a sperm. The fertilization event causes intracellular calcium oscillations, and targeted degradation of cyclin B, a regulatory subunit of MPF, thus permitting the MII - arrested oocyte to proceed through meiosis. To initiate parthenogenesis of swine oocytes, various methods exist to induce an artificial activation that mimics sperm entry, such as calcium ionophore treatment, microinjection of calcium ions, or electrical stimulation. Treatment with cycloheximide, a non-specific protein synthesis inhibitor, enhances parthenote development in swine presumably by continual inhibition of MPF / cyclin B. As meiosis proceeds, extrusion of the second polar is blocked by exposure to cytochalasin B. This treatment results in a diploid (2 maternal genomes) parthenote Parthenotes can be surgically transferred to a recipient oviduct for further development, but will succumb to developmental failure after ≈ 30 days of gestation. The swine parthenote placentae often appears hypo - vascular: see free image (Figure 1) in linked reference. On June 26, 2007, International Stem Cell Corporation (ISCC), a California - based stem cell research company, announced that their lead scientist, Dr. Elena Revazova, and her research team were the first to intentionally create human stem cells from unfertilized human eggs using parthenogenesis. The process may offer a way for creating stem cells that are genetically matched to a particular female for the treatment of degenerative diseases that might affect her. In December 2007, Dr. Revazova and ISCC published an article illustrating a breakthrough in the use of parthenogenesis to produce human stem cells that are homozygous in the HLA region of DNA. These stem cells are called HLA homozygous parthenogenetic human stem cells (hpSC - Hhom) and have unique characteristics that would allow derivatives of these cells to be implanted into millions of people without immune rejection. With proper selection of oocyte donors according to HLA haplotype, it is possible to generate a bank of cell lines whose tissue derivatives, collectively, could be MHC - matched with a significant number of individuals within the human population. On August 2, 2007, after much independent investigation, it was revealed that discredited South Korean scientist Hwang Woo - Suk unknowingly produced the first human embryos resulting from parthenogenesis. Initially, Hwang claimed he and his team had extracted stem cells from cloned human embryos, a result later found to be fabricated. Further examination of the chromosomes of these cells show indicators of parthenogenesis in those extracted stem cells, similar to those found in the mice created by Tokyo scientists in 2004. Although Hwang deceived the world about being the first to create artificially cloned human embryos, he did contribute a major breakthrough to stem cell research by creating human embryos using parthenogenesis. The truth was discovered in 2007, long after the embryos were created by him and his team in February 2004. This made Hwang the first, unknowingly, to successfully perform the process of parthenogenesis to create a human embryon and, ultimately, a human parthenogenetic stem cell line. Apomixis can apparently occur in Phytophthora, an oomycete. Oospores from an experimental cross were germinated, and some of the progeny were genetically identical to one or other parent, implying that meiosis did not occur and the oospores developed by parthenogenesis. A form of asexual reproduction related to parthenogenesis is gynogenesis. Here, offspring are produced by the same mechanism as in parthenogenesis, but with the requirement that the egg merely be stimulated by the presence of sperm in order to develop. However, the sperm cell does not contribute any genetic material to the offspring. Since gynogenetic species are all female, activation of their eggs requires mating with males of a closely related species for the needed stimulus. Some salamanders of the genus Ambystoma are gynogenetic and appear to have been so for over a million years. It is believed that the success of those salamanders may be due to rare fertilization of eggs by males, introducing new material to the gene pool, which may result from perhaps only one mating out of a million. In addition, the amazon molly is known to reproduce by gynogenesis. Hybridogenesis is a mode of reproduction of hybrids. Hybridogenetic hybrids (for example AB genome), usually females, during gametogenesis exclude one of parental genomes (A) and produce gametes with unrecombined genome of second parental species (B), instead of containing mixed recombined parental genomes. First genome (A) is restored by fertilization of these gametes with gametes from the first species (AA, sexual host, usually male). So hybridogenesis is not completely asexual, but instead hemiclonal: half of genome is passed to the next generation clonally, unrecombined, intact (B), other half sexually, recombined (A). This process continues, so that each generation is half (or hemi -) clonal on the mother 's side and has half new genetic material from the father 's side. This form of reproduction is seen in some live - bearing fish of the genus Poeciliopsis as well as in some of the Pelophylax spp. ("green frogs '' or "waterfrogs ''): and perhaps in P. demarchii. Other examples where hybridogenesis is at least one of modes of reproduction include i.e.
when did the first go pro come out	GoPro - wikipedia GoPro, Inc. (marketed as GoPro and sometimes stylised as GoPRO) is an American technology company founded in 2002 by Nick Woodman. It manufactures eponymous action cameras and develops its own mobile apps and video - editing software. Founded as Woodman Labs, Inc, the company eventually focused on the connected sports genre, developing its line of action cameras and, later, video editing software. It also developed a quadcopter drone, Karma, released in October 2016. In October 2016, before the release of "Karma '' quadcopter drone, GoPro released the GoPro "HERO 5 '' and "HERO 5 Session '' The company was founded by Nick Woodman in 2002. He was motivated by a tramp in 2002 surfing trip to Australia in which he was hoping to capture quality action photos, but could not because amateur photographers could not get close enough or buy quality equipment at reasonable prices. His desire for a camera system that could capture the professional angles inspired the ' GoPro ' name. Woodman raised a portion of his initial capital by selling bead and shell belts for under US $20 from his VW van and, later, fashionable camera straps. He also received over $230,000 from his parents to invest in the business. In 2004, the company sold its first camera system, which used 35 mm film. Digital still and video cameras were later introduced. As of 2014, a fixed - lens HD video camera with a wide 170 - degree lens was available; two or more can be paired to create 360 video. On June 4, 2014, the company announced the appointment of former Microsoft executive Tony Bates as President reporting directly to Woodman. In January 2016, GoPro partnered with Periscope for live streaming. After growing the number of employees by more than 500 in 2015, the company responded to weak sales in the fourth quarter by cutting about 7 % of its workforce (100 workers) in January 2016. At its peak, a share of GoPro was valued at $86, but on September 27, 2016, only $16.79. In November 2016, the company announced it was laying off an additional 200 employees in an effort to reduce costs. The company also announced that President Tony Bates would be stepping down at the end of 2016. 270 more employees were laid off in March 2017. On March 30, 2011, GoPro acquired CineForm. The acquisition included the CineForm 444 video codec used in the film Slumdog Millionaire. The company claimed that the codec "makes HD and 3D editing faster and more convenient without sacrificing image quality ''. It was incorporated in the company 's 3D Hero System shortly after the acquisition. In March 2013, GoPro issued a DMCA takedown notice to website DigitalRev.com, which had posted a review of its product, citing trademark use as a breach of copyright. This notice was retracted 10 days later, citing "erroneous enforcement ''. On February 29, 2016, GoPro spent $105 million and acquired two start - ups, namely, Stupeflix and Vemory, for their video editing tools Replay and Splice. On February 7, 2014, GoPro submitted a confidential filing for an initial public offering (IPO) with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). On May 19, 2014, GoPro filed its S - 1 with the SEC without specifying the number of shares or their price. The company stated that they hoped to raise at least $100 million through the sale of shares, using the money to pay off debt in full ($111 million as of March 31, 2014) and "to acquire or invest in complementary businesses, technologies or assets ''. They said that they planned to list on the NASDAQ stock exchange using the symbol ' GPRO. ' The expected price range was $21 to $24 a share; on June 25, 2014, GoPro sold 17.8 million shares to initial investors at $24 per share (totaling $427.2 M). At the IPO price the company was valued at $2.95 billion. 1.5 percent of those shares were allotted to LOYAL3, a technology platform that allows small investors to participate. One reason for GoPro 's decision to go public was the potential to become a media company to generate additional revenue from the content its cameras create. Woodman worked on his first camera for two years after founding the company, eventually introducing the GoPro 35mm HERO in September 2004 at San Diego 's Action Sports Retailer trade show. In its first year GoPro sold $150,000 worth of products. In 2006 the company introduced its first Digital HERO, with 10 second video capability, and generated $800,000 in revenue. The following year GoPro sales quadrupled to $3.4 million. In 2014, the company was selling the HERO3+ in editions of different colors. It was capable of filming in 16: 9 aspect ratio, supporting 4K UHD video and 12 MP still photographs. The HERO4 was introduced on 24 September 2014. At 28 September Gopro released new Hero 6. It has new, better stabilisation, than Hero 5 and it can capture 4K in 60 FPS. Hero 6 Black costs about $500. The GoPro Karma is GoPro 's consumer drone. In 2014, GoPro entered into discussions with DJI for a private label model built with the GoPro branding. After the failure of these negotiations, GoPro entered into an agreement with 3D Robotics (3DR) for a similar partnership based on 3DR 's flight controllers. 3DR failed to meet their agreed upon timelines. As a result, GoPro took full control of the development process in mid-2015. Scheduled to be released early 2016, the GoPro Karma project was delayed several times before the GoPro Karma was announced with an introduction date of October 23, 2016. The Karma was released along with newer models of the HERO5 and Session cameras and features a removable handheld stabilizer (gimbal) integrated into the design. After a few customers complained about power failure during operation, GoPro recalled Karma drones and gave customers full refunds. In February 2017, GoPro re-launched the Karma Drone. GoPro produces various mounting accessories for its cameras including a 3 - way mount, suction cup, chest harness, jaws - type flexible clamp, dog harness, surfing mount, etc. The company developed GoPro Studio, simple video editing software to edit camera footage. It was reported that GoPro intended to also become a content provider, also with a new app for the HERO5 called GoPro Quik to share, and edit videos easier. In April 2014, GoPro was listed by Adweek as one of the "Top 10 Best Brand Channels on YouTube '' based on a combination of views, shares, comments and overall engagement. Content is uploaded daily, an additional source of revenue for the company. As part of its transformation to a media company in 2014, GoPro created additional channels with GoPro content on YouTube, Virgin America, and Xbox Live. This was extended to the PlayStation Network in 2015. As of October 2014, GoPro sells three fixed - lens cameras, two without viewfinders and one including a touchscreen viewfinder. A 2 - bit LCD on the front of the camera allows access to its menu system, which is controlled by the front and top shutter buttons. The HERO4 Black have dimensions of 41 mm × 59 mm × 30 mm and weighs 88 grams (152 grams with housing). Still images from 6 to 12 megapixels can be captured. The cameras are sold with a clear polycarbonate HD Housing with a glass lens that is rated shockproof and waterproof to 131 feet (40 m), with a quick - release buckle on the top and threads at the bottom to attach to all of the GoPro mounts. The housing has metal buttons that connect to the camera 's controls and has a "skeleton '' backdoor option to allow audio recording when the camera is used with a mount but without the need to be watertight or shockproof. The 35mm camera (model # 001) became available on April 13, 2005. It had dimensions of 2.5 by 3 inches (64 by 76 mm) and weighed 0.45 pounds (200 g). It included the camera, a clear case with quick release, a camera strap and ski glove adapter lash. It could pivot "on the fly '' and be functional to a depth in water of about 15 feet (5 m). It was described as a "reusable wrist camera '' and included a roll of 24 exposure Kodak 400 film. The Digital HERO released in 2006 (Model: SQ907 mini-cam) had a 640 × 460 camera and shot VGA definition 320X240 (10 fps) video for a maximum of 10 seconds. The Digital HERO1 had 32 MB internal memory without SD slot. The Digital HERO3 released in 2007 had a 3 - megapixel camera and shot standard definition 512 × 384 video. It was rated up to 30 m (98.4 feet) in depth. The Digital HERO5 was first introduced on December 5, 2006. It had a 5 megapixel still photo sensor and supported standard definition (512 × 384) video capture. It ran on two AAA batteries, had 16 MB of internal memory and could function with a 2 GB SD card. Its housing was rated to 100 ft / 30 meters depth. Its dimensions were 2.6 × 1.75 × 1.25 inches (66 × 44 × 32 mm). The camera is not designed to work with the newer HD HERO line of housings, although the standard screw mounts are indeed compatible. HD HERO 960 - shoots a maximum of 960p video and is not compatible with GoPro 's electronic accessories although the camera is compatible with all GoPro mounts. It was first listed on August 6, 2010. The HD HERO Naked, released with a range of accessories, shoots a maximum of 1080p video on its 5 MP sensor. The Naked camera line forms the basis for other bundles, which are differentiated by the types of mounts they have (HD Helmet HERO, HD Motorsports HERO, HD Surf HERO). It was first listed on January 25, 2010. The HERO2 was launched on October 24, 2011. It has an 11 MP image sensor, improved low - light capability and records at up to 120 fps. It was sold with three different accessory packages as the Outdoor, Motorsports, and Surf Editions. In late 2012, GoPro announced the HERO3 line of cameras. These cameras came in three editions: black, silver and white. All three versions of the HERO3 come in a 30 % smaller and 25 % lighter package, with WiFi built in. The change of the physical dimensions of the cameras compared to the previous generations (HERO1 and HERO2 were physically identical) means that some accessories for HD HERO Original and HERO2 are not compatible with HERO3, so GoPro made new versions of those accessories specifically for HERO3 (and mostly for HERO3+, see below). Those new versions of accessories are usually not compatible with older Hero camera generations. However, a lot of other accessories are compatible with all HD Hero camera generations. The HERO3 Silver and Black cameras have significantly less battery endurance than the HD HERO Original and HERO2. For example, in 720p resolution with 25 / 30 fps, while HD HERO Original and HERO2 have a stated battery runtime of 3 hours, HERO3 Silver Edition has a stated battery runtime of 2 hours, and HERO3 Black Edition has a stated battery runtime of 1.5 hours (the Black Edition 's "most economical '' setting is 1080p / 30 fps, so this also partially contributes to its poor battery runtime). The Black Edition has a new 12 MP sensor that can capture 4K UHD digital video at 15 fps, 2.7 K video at 30 fps, 1440p at 48 fps, 1080p at 60 fps, 960p at 100 fps, 720p at 120 fps and WVGA at 240 fps. The Black edition also includes the WiFi Remote. The Black Edition can not record at 25 / 30 fps in 720p and WVGA resolutions; it can only record at very fast frame rates in those resolutions. This is a deliberate firmware limitation, as the manufacturer does not expect that this high - end camera model will be used at these lower resolutions and frame rates. The Silver Edition uses the same 11 MP sensor as the HERO2, and the White edition uses the same 5 MP sensor as the HD HERO Original. In October 2013, GoPro released the HERO3+, available in Black and Silver Editions, replacing the HERO3 generation. The HERO3 White Edition remains as GoPro 's low - end device. The HERO3+ camera models claim dramatically improved low light performance and have a waterproof enclosure which is 20 % lighter and 15 % smaller than the HERO3 's, according to the GoPro website. The HERO3+ camera housing is 20 % smaller than the HERO3. The cameras are claimed to have improved image sharpness (close focus down to 7 '' vs about 3 ft on the HERO3, at the expense of distant focus which is slightly less sharp with HERO3+), and better audio functionality with wind noise reduction. Battery life is claimed to be 30 % longer than for the HERO3 model (both through better efficiency and a higher - capacity battery of the same dimensions). The Black Edition has video modes of 1440p48, 1080p60, 960p100 and 720p120 as well as 4K15 and 2.7 K30 and can shoot 12 MP stills at up to 30 fps. The HERO3+ Black Edition also offers an optional function in firmware (called "SuperView '') which increases the field of view. It has additional functions, including dynamic low light situation adjustment, higher - quality recording modes (higher bitrates, no white balance applied, etc.) etc. The Black Edition continues to include a Wifi Remote. It does not have the ability to record 25 / 30 fps in 720p and WVGA modes (it can only record at very fast frame rates in those lower resolutions). This is an intentional firmware limitation. The battery runtime of HERO3+ Black Edition is significantly longer than HERO3 Black Edition but 30 -- 50 % lower than the battery runtime of the older HERO2 and HERO1. The Silver Edition has video modes of 1080p60 and 720p120 and can shoot 10 MP stills at up to 10 fps. In contrast to the Black Edition, the Silver Edition can record at 25 / 30 fps (or higher) in all supported resolutions. HERO3+ Silver Edition also has about 25 % - 50 % longer battery runtime during recording than HERO3+ Black Edition (they both use the same batteries). The difference in runtime depends on the resolution / fps combination, and whether WiFi and GoPro mobile application are used during recording. The difference in runtime increases as the fps is lowered and the additional functions are deactivated on both cameras. The battery runtime of HERO3+ Silver Edition is similar to the battery runtime of HERO2 and HERO1. The HERO3 HD camera was awarded the 2013 Technology & Engineering Emmy Award for its contribution to television. In September 2014, GoPro announced the HERO4, available in Black Edition and Silver Edition, which replace their respective HERO3+ generation predecessors. The HERO Session, a budget camera, was also announced. The HERO4 Black Edition still has a 12 megapixel (MP) CMOS and a f / 2.8 fixed maximum aperture and focus free. It adds Bluetooth connectivity, Highlight tag, Protune Available for photo and a new processor claimed by GoPro to be twice as fast as that of the HERO3+ Black Edition, doubling the frame rates in most resolutions. The HERO4 Black Edition can record 4K UHD video (3840 × 2160) at a frame rate of 24, 25 and 30 fps. In Superview mode, 4k is only possible at 25 fps. Many other rates and resolutions are available. The HERO4 Black Edition still shoots stills at a maximum of 12 MP with a maximum burst rate of 30 fps. With Wi - Fi disabled at 4k / 30, GoPro claims the HERO4 Black Edition battery life to be 65 minutes, increasing to a maximum of 1h 50 ' at 720p / 240. The HERO4 Black battery is in a different form factor than its predecessors. Initial side - by - side comparisons of HERO3+ and HERO4 Black edition video results suggest that the newer model has more detail at long range and similar performance at close range. The HERO4 Silver Edition is basically a HERO3 Black Edition with the addition of a micro speaker, built - in touchscreen display, Protune for photo and highlight tag (the first GoPro with this), a lower clocked Cortex - A9 and missing the Black Edition 's integrated analog - to - digital converter which supports a wider variety of professional low - sensitivity external microphones. The video modes supported by the HERO4 Silver Edition are similar to those of the HERO3+ Black, due to the higher processing speed and thermal requirements of encoding 4K video (3840 × 2160), but it supports Wi - Fi, Bluetooth and contains the same Ambarella Inc. A9 system on a chip (SoC) as in the HERO4 Black. The HERO Session, released July 6, 2015, is 50 % smaller and 40 % lighter compared to other versions of the GoPro HERO4 camera. The HERO4 models maintain the H. 264 video codec of previous versions and MP4 file formats. GoPro claims the mono microphone in both the Black and Silver Editions has twice the dynamic range of that in the HERO3+, and that the HERO4 Black and Silver Editions have improved low - light performance. In June 2015, the company started to sell the GoPro HERO + LCD, which provides video recording at 1080p at 60 fps / and 8 megapixel photos. GoPro HERO + LCD has a touchscreen to preview the shot to frame the scene and letting the user navigate the menu. A new feature in the camera was instant camera editing. GoPro HERO + LCD is waterproof, because it is built directly into a waterproof case (waterproof to 131 feet (40 m)). The device also includes a feature HiLight Tagging and built - in video editing function, which allows the user to put a label on the main points while shooting video or in the process of view, which makes it possible to quickly find desired footage later. It also has built - in Wi - Fi and Bluetooth, and user - friendly modes like QuikCapture, SuperView and Auto Low Light. In October 2015, GoPro released its third entry level camera: GoPro HERO+. This camera is the same as the previous HERO + LCD with its 1080p 60 fps / 720p 60 fps video resolution, 8 MP / 5 fps burst photo resolution, built - in Wi - Fi and Bluetooth, waterproof up to 40 m and other modes like Superview, Auto Low Light, QuikCapture and Timelapse mode which automatically captures photos at set time intervals from 0.5 to 60 seconds. However, it does not have an LCD built - in touchscreen display and it is slightly lighter than HERO + LCD. The HERO+ weighs 123 g whereas the HERO + LCD weighs 127 g. The housing also remained the same. HERO5 Black and HERO5 Session were introduced in September 2016. They are waterproof up to 10 m, support 4k video recording up to 30 fps, automatic upload of footage to cloud and voice controls. The HERO6 Black was introduced on September 28, 2017. The camera is waterproof up to 10 m, supports 4k HEVC video recording at up to 60 fps and 1080p at up to 240 fps, automatic upload of footage to cloud, voice controls and 5 Ghz Wi - Fi. It will be the first GoPro with its own custom system on a chip (SoC) the GP1. Karma Drone became available October 23, 2016. The drone is compatible with the HERO5 and HERO4 Black and Silver. The Drone has 20 minutes of battery life. The stabilizer can be taken out and attached to a Karma stick. The Karma stick has greater than 1 - hour battery life. On November 8, 2016, Go Pro announced the recall of the Karma Drone following reports of loss of electrical power on the drone during operation. On February 1, 2017, the company announced that the Karma Drone will return to stores with a redesigned battery latch. A camera rig that synchronizes six GoPro HERO4 Black cameras allowing users to stitch and make virtual reality 360 ° videos.
what's minimum wage for a 25 year old	Minimum wage in the United States - Wikipedia The minimum wage in the United States is set by US labor law and a network of state, and local laws. Employers generally must pay workers the highest minimum wage prescribed by federal, state, and local law. As of July 2016, the federal government mandates a nationwide minimum wage of $7.25 per hour. As of October 2016, there are 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. In real terms, the federal minimum wage peaked near $10.00 per hour in 1968, using 2014 inflation - adjusted dollars. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington will have the highest state minimum wages. There is a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage with most black and Hispanic individuals supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. In 2015, about 3 percent of White, Asian, and Hispanic or Latino workers earned the federal minimum wage or less. Among Black workers, the percentage was about 4 percent. Hi class quote = No business which depends for existence on paying less than living wages to its workers has any right to continue in this country. source = President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1933 width = 260px)) In 1933, the Roosevelt administration made the first attempt at establishing a national minimum wage, when a $0.25 per hour standard was set as part of the National Industrial Recovery Act. However, in the 1935 court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States (295 U.S. 495), the US Supreme Court declared the act unconstitutional, and the minimum wage was abolished. In 1938, the minimum wage was re-established pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act, once again at $0.25 per hour ($4.23 in 2015 dollars). In 1941, the Supreme Court upheld the Fair Labor Standards Act in United States v. Darby Lumber Co., holding that Congress had the power under the Commerce Clause to regulate employment conditions. The 1938 minimum wage law only applied to "employees engaged in interstate commerce or in the production of goods for interstate commerce, '' but in amendments in 1961 and 1966, the federal minimum wage was extended (with slightly different rates) to employees in large retail and service enterprises, local transportation and construction, state and local government employees, as well as other smaller expansions; a grandfather clause in 1990 drew most employees into the purview of federal minimum wage policy, which now set the wage at $3.80. In 2006, voters in six states (Arizona, Colorado, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, and Ohio) approved statewide increases in the state minimum wage. The amounts of these increases ranged from $1 to $1.70 per hour and all increases were designed to annually index to inflation. Some politicians in the United States have advocated linking the minimum wage to the Consumer Price Index, thereby increasing the wage automatically each year based on increases to the Consumer Price Index. So far, Ohio, Oregon, Missouri, Vermont and Washington have linked their minimum wages to the consumer price index. Minimum wage indexing also takes place each year in Florida, San Francisco, California, and Santa Fe, New Mexico. The federal minimum wage in the United States was reset to its current rate of $7.25 per hour in July 2009. Some U.S. territories (such as American Samoa) are exempt. Some types of labor are also exempt: employers may pay tipped labor a minimum of $2.13 per hour, as long as the hour wage plus tip income equals at least the minimum wage. Persons under the age of 20 may be paid $4.25 an hour for the first 90 calendar days of employment (sometimes known as a youth, teen, or training wage) unless a higher state minimum exists. The 2009 increase was the last of three steps of the Fair Minimum Wage Act of 2007, which was signed into law as a rider to the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans ' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007, a bill that also contained almost $5 billion in tax cuts for small businesses. In April 2014, the U.S. Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would have amended the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two - year period. The bill was strongly supported by President Barack Obama and many of the Democratic Senators, but strongly opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Later in 2014, voters in the Republican - controlled states of Alaska, Arkansas, Nebraska and South Dakota considered ballot initiatives to raise the minimum wage above the national rate of $7.25 per hour, which were successful in all 4 states. The results provided evidence that raising minimum wage has support across party lines. Since 2012, a growing protest and advocacy movement called "Fight for $15 '', initially growing out of fast food worker strikes, has advocated for an increase in the minimum wage. On March 27, 2014, Connecticut passed legislation to raise the minimum wage from $8.70 to $10.10 by 2017, making it one of about six states to aim at or above $10.00 per hour. In 2014 and 2015, several cities, including San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, and Washington passed ordinances that gradually increase the minimum wage to $15.00. In 2016, New York and California passed legislation that would gradually raise the minimum wage to $15 in each state. As of 2017, recent legislation was passed in multiple states to raise the minimum wage a certain amount in a certain amount of time. California is set to raise their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour by January 1, 2023. Colorado is set to raise their minimum wage from $9.30 / hour to $12 / hour by January 1, 2020, raising $0.90 per year. Seattle passed legislation in 2015 for a raise in minimum wage; for employers of 500 or more employees without heath benefits, the minimum wage will be raised to $15.00 / hour by 2017, for employees with heath benefits, the minimum wage will raise to $15.00 / hour by 2018, for smaller employees the $15.00 / hour wage will be reached at different times. Seattle is one of the first cities to put in place a plan that after $15.00 / hour wage is reached, they will continue to increase minimum wage by a certain percentage every year based on inflation changes. New York has also recently passed legislation to increase their minimum wage to $15.00 / hour over time, certain counties and larger companies are set on faster plans than others. As there have only been a few places mentioned, cities and states across the United States are putting in place certain legislation to increase the minimum wage for minimum wage workers to a livable wage. Time will only tell the effects on the economy and number of jobs in those cities and states. On June 2, 2014, the City Council of Seattle, Washington was the first city to pass a local ordinance to increase the minimum wage of the city to $15.00 per hour, which will be phased in over seven years, to be fully implemented by 2021. Numerous cities have followed Seattle 's example since. San Francisco is expected to become the first U.S. city to reach a minimum wage of $15.00 per hour on July 1, 2018. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. The minimum wage in Los Angeles and Washington, D.C., will be $15.00 per hour in 2020. A growing number of California cities have enacted local minimum wage ordinances, including Los Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, Emeryville, Mountain View, Richmond, and San Jose. In September 2014, the Los Angeles City Council approved a minimum salary for hotel workers of $15.37 per hour. In April 2016, The Los Angeles Times reported that there is an exemption for unionised workers, and interviewed longtime workers at unionised Sheraton Universal who make $10.00 per hour, whereas non-union employees at a non-union Hilton a few feet away make at least the $15.37 mandated by law for non-unionised employees. Similar exemptions have been adopted in San Francisco, San Jose, Oakland, and Santa Monica. On August 18, 2015, the El Cerrito City Council directed city staff to draft a local minimum wage ordinance based on a template provided by a coalition for a county - wide minimum wage effort. The details are not final, but the Council discussed an initial increase of roughly 28 -- 36 % ($11.52 -- $12.25 or more) by January 1, 2016, with annual increases that will result in a $15.00 hourly wage rate by 2018 -- 2020. The Council did not direct staff to create small business exemptions (or any other exemptions), but a slower phase - in rate may be considered for employees of small businesses. The city will have outreach for residents and business owners to discuss the details of the proposed ordinance. Staff hopes to present a draft for The Council 's approval as early as October or November 2015. As of December 2014, unions were exempt from recent minimum wage increases in Chicago, Illinois, SeaTac, Washington, and Milwaukee County, Wisconsin, as well as the California cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, Long Beach, San Jose, Richmond, and Oakland. In 2016, the Washington, D.C. Council passed a minimum wage ordinance that included a union waiver, but Mayor Vincent Gray vetoed it. Later that year, the council approved an increase without the union waiver. Since its inception the purchasing power of the minimum wage has fluctuated. The minimum wage had its highest purchasing power in 1968, when it was $1.60 per hour ($11.49 in 2017 dollars). From January 1981 to April 1990, the minimum wage was frozen at $3.35 per hour, then a record - setting minimum wage freeze. From September 1, 1997 through July 23, 2007, the federal minimum wage remained constant at $5.15 per hour, breaking the old record. From the United States Department of Labor. Employment Standards Administration. Wage and Hour Division, the source page has a clickable US map with current and projected state - by - state minimum wage rates for each state. Some government entities, such as counties and cities, observe minimum wages that are higher than the state as a whole. One notable example of this is Santa Fe, New Mexico, whose $9.50 per hour minimum wage was the highest in the nation, until San Francisco increased its minimum wage to $9.79 in 2009. Another device to increase wages, living wage ordinances, generally apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself. Since 1984, the purchasing power of the federal minimum wage has decreased. Measured in real terms (adjusted for inflation) using 1984 dollars, the real minimum wage was $3.35 in 1984, $2.33 in 1994, $1.84 in 2004, and $1.46 in 2014. If the minimum wage had been raised to $10.10 in 2014, that would have equated to $4.40 in 1984 dollars. This would have been equal to a 31 % increase in purchasing power, despite the nominal value of the minimum wage increasing by 216 % in the same time period. The economic effects of raising the minimum wage are controversial. Adjusting the minimum wage may affect current and future levels of employment, prices of goods and services, economic growth, income inequality and poverty. The interconnection of price levels, central bank policy, wage agreements, and total aggregate demand creates a situation in which the conclusions drawn from macroeconomic analysis are highly influenced by the underlying assumptions of the interpreter. The law of demand states that -- all else being equal -- raising the price of any particular good or service will reduce the quantity demanded. Thus, neoclassical economics argues that -- all else being equal -- raising in the minimum wage will have adverse affects on employment. Conceptually, if an employer does not believe a worker generates value equal to or in excess of the minimum wage, that worker will not be hired or retained. Empirical work on fast food workers in the 1990s challenged the neoclassical model. In 1994, economists David Card and Alan Krueger studied employment trends among 410 restaurants in New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania following New Jersey 's minimum wage hike (from $4.25 to $5.05) in April 1992. They found "no indication that the rise in the minimum wage reduced employment. '' However, a 1995 re-analysis of the evidence by David Neumark found that the increase in New Jersey 's minimum wage actually resulted in a 4.6 % decrease in employment. Neumark 's study relied on payroll records from a sample of large fast - food restaurant chains, whereas the Card - Krueger study relied on business surveys. Additional research conducted by David Neumark and William Wascher (which surveyed over 100 studies related to the employment effects of minimum wages) found that the majority of peer - reviewed economic research (about two - thirds) showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment -- especially for young and unskilled workers. Neumark 's analysis further found that, when looking at only the most credible research, 85 % of studies showed a positive correlation between minimum wage hikes and increased unemployment. In February 2014, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported the theoretical effects of a federal minimum wage increase under two scenarios: an increase to $9.00 and an increase to $10.10. According to the report, approximately 100,000 jobs would be lost under the $9.00 option, whereas 500,000 jobs would be lost under the $10.10 option (with a wide range of possible outcomes). A 2013 Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR) review of multiple studies since 2000 indicated that there was "little or no employment response to modest increases in the minimum wage. '' Another CEPR study in 2014 found that job creation within the United States is faster within states that raised their minimum wage. In 2014, the state with the highest minimum wage in the nation, Washington, exceeded the national average for job growth in the United States. A 2012 study led by Joseph Sabia, professor of economics at the University of New Hampshire, estimated that the 2004 - 6 New York State minimum wage increase (from $5.15 to $6.75) resulted in a 20.2 % to 21.8 % reduction in employment for less - skilled, less - educated workers. Another study conducted by Joseph Sabia, then an assistant professor at American University, found that minimum wages were ineffective at alleviating poverty for single mothers. The study further concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage was associated with an 8.8 % reduction in employment and an 11.8 % reduction in hours for uneducated single mothers. Research conducted by Richard Burkhauser, professor emeritus of Policy Analysis at Cornell University, concluded that minimum wage increases "significantly reduce the employment of the most vulnerable groups in the working - age population -- young adults without a high school degree (aged 20 - 24), young black adults and teenagers (aged 16 - 24), and teenagers (aged 16 - 19). '' A 2007 study by Daniel Aaronson and Eric French concluded that a 10 % increase in the minimum wage decreased low - skill employment by 2 - 4 % and total restaurant employment by 1 - 3 %. The Economist wrote in December 2013: "A minimum wage, providing it is not set too high, could thus boost pay with no ill effects on jobs... Some studies find no harm to employment from federal or state minimum wages, others see a small one, but none finds any serious damage... High minimum wages, however, particularly in rigid labour markets, do appear to hit employment. France has the rich world 's highest wage floor, at more than 60 % of the median for adults and a far bigger fraction of the typical wage for the young. This helps explain why France also has shockingly high rates of youth unemployment: 26 % for 15 - to 24 - year - olds. '' Conceptually -- all else being equal -- raising the minimum wage will increase the cost of labor. Thus, employers may accept lower profits, raise their prices, or both. If prices increase, consumers may demand a lesser quantity of the product, substitute other products, or switch to imported products. Marginal producers (those who are barely profitable enough to survive) may be forced out of business if they can not raise their prices sufficiently to offset the higher cost of labor. Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago research from 2007 has shown that restaurant prices rise in response to minimum wage increases. A 2016 White House report based on "back of envelope calculations and literature review '' argued that higher hourly wages led to less crime. A report by the Council of Economic Advisers claimed that "raising the minimum wage reduces crime by 3 to 5 percent. '' To get those numbers, the study determined that "such a minimum wage increase would have no employment impacts, with an employment elasticity of 0.1 the benefits would be somewhat lower. '' However, In a 1987 journal article based on actual study data, Masanori Hashimoto noted that minimum wage hikes lead to increased levels of property crime in areas affected by the minimum wage after its increase. According to the article, by decreasing employment in poor communities, total legal trade and production are curtailed. The report also claimed that in order to compensate for the decrease in legal avenues for production and consumption, poor communities increasingly turn to illegal trade and activity. Whether growth (GDP, a measure of both income and production) increases or decreases depends significantly on whether the income shifted from owners to workers results in an overall higher level of spending. The tendency of a consumer to spend their next dollar is referred to as the marginal propensity to consume or MPC. The transfer of income from higher income owners (who tend to save more, meaning a lower MPC) to lower income workers (who tend to save less, with a higher MPC) can actually lead to an increase in total consumption and higher demand for goods, leading to increased employment. Recent research has shown that higher wages lead to greater productivity. The CBO reported in February 2014 that income (GDP) overall would be marginally higher after raising the minimum wage, indicating a small net positive increase in growth. Raising the minimum wage to $10.10 and indexing it to inflation would result in a net $2 billion increase in income during the second half of 2016, while raising it to $9.00 and not indexing it would result in a net $1 billion increase in income. An increase in the minimum wage is a form of redistribution from higher - income persons (business owners or "capital '') to lower income persons (workers or "labor '') and therefore should reduce income inequality. The CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage under either scenario described above would improve income inequality. Families with income more than 6 times the poverty threshold would see their incomes fall (due in part to their business profits declining with higher employee costs), while families with incomes below that threshold would rise. Among hourly - paid workers In 2016, 701,000 earned the federal minimum wage and about 1.5 million earned wages below the minimum. Together, these 2.2 million workers represented 2.7 % of all hourly - paid workers. CBO estimated in February 2014 that raising the minimum wage would reduce the number of persons below the poverty income threshold by 900,000 under the $10.10 option versus 300,000 under the $9.00 option. Research conducted by David Neumark and colleagues found that minimum wages are associated with reductions in the hours and employment of low - wage workers. A separate study by the same researchers found that minimum wages tend to increase the proportion of families with incomes below or near the poverty line. Similarly, a 2002 study led by Richard Vedder, professor of economics at Ohio University, concluded that "The empirical evidence is strong that minimum wages have had little or no effect on poverty in the U.S. Indeed, the evidence is stronger that minimum wages occasionally increase poverty... '' The CBO reported in February 2014 that "(T) he net effect on the federal budget of raising the minimum wage would probably be a small decrease in budget deficits for several years but a small increase in budget deficits thereafter. It is unclear whether the effect for the coming decade as a whole would be a small increase or a small decrease in budget deficits. '' On the cost side, the report cited higher wages paid by the government to some of its employees along with higher costs for certain procured goods and services. This might be offset by fewer government benefits paid, as some workers with higher incomes would receive fewer government transfer payments. On the revenue side, some would pay higher taxes and others less. According to a survey conducted by economist Greg Mankiw, 79 % of economists agreed that "a minimum wage increases unemployment among young and unskilled workers. '' A 2015 survey conducted by the University of New Hampshire Survey Center found that a majority of economists believed raising the minimum wage to $15 per hour would have negative effects on youth employment levels (83 %), adult employment levels (52 %), and the number of jobs available (76 %). Additionally, 67 % of economists surveyed believed that a $15 minimum wage would make it harder for small businesses with less than 50 employees to stay in business. A 2006 survey conducted by Robert Whaples, professor of economics at Wake Forest University, found that, among the economists surveyed, opinions about the minimum wage were as follows: In 2014, over 600 economists signed a letter in support of increasing the minimum wage to $10.10 with research suggesting that a minimum wage increase could have a small stimulative effect on the economy as low - wage workers spend their additional earnings, raising demand and job growth. Also, seven recipients of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences were among 75 economists endorsing an increase in the minimum wage for U.S. workers and said "the weight '' of economic research shows higher pay does n't lead to fewer jobs. According to a February 2013 survey of the University of Chicago IGM Forum, which includes approximately 40 economists: According to a fall 2000 survey conducted by Fuller and Geide - Stevenson, 73.5 % (27.9 % of which agreed with provisos) of American economists surveyed agreed that minimum wage laws increase unemployment among unskilled and young workers, while 26.5 % disagreed with the statement. Economist Paul Krugman advocated raising the minimum wage moderately in 2013, citing several reasons, including: Former President Bill Clinton advocated raising the minimum wage in 2014: "I think we ought to raise the minimum wage because it does n't just raise wages for the three or four million people who are directly affected by it, it bumps the wage structure everywhere... The estimates are that 35 million Americans would get a pay raise if the federal minimum wage was raised... If you (raise the minimum wage) in a phased way, it always creates jobs. Why? Because people who make the minimum wage or near it are struggling to get by, they spend every penny they make, they turn it over in the economy, they create jobs, they create opportunity, and they take better care of their children. It 's just the right thing to do, but it 's also very good economics. '' The # RaiseTheWage movement is an activist movement that takes place on Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, and other social media platforms. The aim of this movement is to set the federal minimum wage to $15.00. While there is not definitive beginning to the movement, former president Barack Obama has been attributed with popularizing it in media with this comment -- "of course, nothing helps families make ends meet like higher wages.... And to everyone in this Congress who still refuses to raise the minimum wage, I say this: If you truly believe you could work full - time and support a family on less than $15,000 a year, go try it. If not, vote to give millions of the hardest - working people in America a raise. '' While the vast majority of # RaiseTheWage 's influence is on social media there are a number of affiliated groups, and movements who have taken the movement to the streets -- mainly through nonviolent protests. The Pew Center reported in January 2014 that 73 % of Americans supported raising the minimum wage from $7.25 to $10. By party, 53 % of Republicans and 90 % of Democrats favored this action. Pew found a racial difference for support of a higher minimum wage in 2017 with most blacks and Hispanics supporting a $15.00 federal minimum wage, and 54 % of whites opposing it. A Lake Research Partners poll in February 2012 found the following: This is a list of the minimum wages (per hour) in each state and territory of the United States, for jobs covered by federal minimum wage laws. If the job is not subject to the federal Fair Labor Standards Act, then state, city, or other local laws may determine the minimum wage. A common exemption to the federal minimum wage is a company having revenue of less than $500,000 per year while not engaging in any interstate commerce. Under the federal law, workers who receive a portion of their salary from tips, such as waitstaff, are required only to have their total compensation, including tips, meet the minimum wage. Therefore, often, their hourly wage, before tips, is less than the minimum wage. Seven states, and Guam, do not allow for a tip credit. Additional exemptions to the minimum wage include many seasonal employees, student employees, and certain disabled employees as specified by the FLSA. In addition, some counties and cities within states may observe a higher minimum wage than the rest of the state in which they are located; sometimes this higher wage will apply only to businesses that are under contract to the local government itself, while in other cases the higher minimum will be enforced across the board. The average US minimum wage per capita (2017) is $8.49 based on the population size of each state and generally represents the average minimum wage experienced by a person working in one of the fifty US states. Cities, counties, districts, and territories are not included in the calculation. As of October 2016, there have been 29 states with a minimum wage higher than the federal minimum. From 2014 to 2015, nine states increased their minimum wage levels through automatic adjustments, while increases in 11 other states occurred through referendum or legislative action. Beginning in January 2017, Massachusetts and Washington state have the highest minimum wages in the country, at $11.00 per hour. New York City 's minimum wage will be $15.00 per hour by the end of 2018. - For employees working in Prince George 's County, the minimum wage is $10.75 per hour, effective October 1, 2016, and increases to $11.50 on October 1, 2017. For employees working in Montgomery County, the minimum wage is $11.50 per hour starting July 1, 2017. County Council bill 12 - 16 was enacted on January 17, 2017 to adjust the minimum wage to $15 and base future adjustments on the Consumer Price Index, but was later vetoed by the County Executive. A 2016 law changed the minimum wage over the following six years. "Large '' employers have 11 or more employees, and "small '' have between 1 and 10. "Downstate '' includes Nassau, Suffolk, and Westchester Counties. NYC large employers: $11.00, NYC small employers: $10.50, Downstate employers: $10.00, Upstate employers: $9.70. As of December 31, 2017: NYC large employers: $13.00; NYC small employers: $12.00; Downstate employers: $11.00; Upstate employers: $10.40. As of December 31, 2018: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $13.50; Downstate employers: $12.00; Upstate employers: $11.10. As of December 31, 2019: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $13.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2020: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $14.00; Upstate employers: $12.50. As of December 31, 2021: NYC large employers: $15.00; NYC small employers: $15.00; Downstate employers: $15.00; Upstate employers: Set by Commissioner of Labor based on economic conditions, up to $15.00. Tipped food service workers will be paid $7.50 per hour, or two - thirds of the applicable minimum wage rate rounded to the nearest $0.05, whichever is higher. Puerto Rico also has minimum wage rates that vary according to the industry. These rates range from a minimum of $5.08 to $7.25 per hour. In accordance with a law signed on June 27, 2016, the minimum wage will be $12.50 per hour as of July 1, 2017; $13.25 per hour as of July 1, 2018; 14.00 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $15.00 per hour as of July 1, 2020. As of each successive July 1, the minimum wage will increase by the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers in the Washington Metropolitan Statistical Area for the preceding twelve months. The minimum wage for tipped - employees will increase to $4.17 per hour as of July 1, 2018; $4.87 per hour as of July 1, 2019; and $5.55 per hour as of July 1, 2020. The minimum wage established by the federal government may be paid to newly hired individuals during their first 90 calendar days of employment, students employed by colleges and universities, and individuals under 18 years of age. The jobs that are most likely to be directly affected by the minimum wage are those which pay a wage close to the minimum. According to the May 2006 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the four lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2006 (when the federal minimum wage was $5.15 per hour) were the following: Two years later, in May 2008, when the federal minimum wage was $5.85 per hour and was about to increase to $6.55 per hour in July 2008, these same sectors were still the lowest - paying, but their situation (according to Bureau of Labor Statistics data) was: In 2006, workers in the following 13 individual occupations received, on average, a median hourly wage of less than $8.00 per hour: In 2008, only two occupations paid a median wage less than $8.00 per hour: According to the May 2009 National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates, the lowest - paid occupational sectors in May 2009 (when the federal minimum wage was $7.25 per hour) were the following:
what is the meaning of a projection of one vector to another	Vector projection - wikipedia The vector projection of a vector a on (or onto) a nonzero vector b (also known as the vector component or vector resolution of a in the direction of b) is the orthogonal projection of a onto a straight line parallel to b. It is a vector parallel to b, defined as where a 1 (\ displaystyle a_ (1)) is a scalar, called the scalar projection of a onto b, and b̂ is the unit vector in the direction of b. In turn, the scalar projection is defined as where the operator denotes a dot product, a is the length of a, and θ is the angle between a and b. The scalar projection is equal to the length of the vector projection, with a minus sign if the direction of the projection is opposite to the direction of b. The vector component or vector resolute of a perpendicular to b, sometimes also called the vector rejection of a from b, is the orthogonal projection of a onto the plane (or, in general, hyperplane) orthogonal to b. Both the projection a and rejection a of a vector a are vectors, and their sum is equal to a, which implies that the rejection is given by Typically, a vector projection is denoted in a bold font (e.g. a), and the corresponding scalar projection with normal font (e.g. a). In some cases, especially in handwriting, the vector projection is also denoted using a diacritic above or below the letter (e.g., a → 1 (\ displaystyle (\ vec (a)) _ (1)) or a; see Euclidean vector representations for more details). The vector projection of a on b and the corresponding rejection are sometimes denoted by a and a, respectively. The scalar projection of a on b is a scalar equal to where θ is the angle between a and b. A scalar projection can be used as a scale factor to compute the corresponding vector projection. The vector projection of a on b is a vector whose magnitude is the scalar projection of a on b and whose angle against b is either 0 or 180 degrees. Namely, it is defined as where a 1 (\ displaystyle a_ (1)) is the corresponding scalar projection, as defined above, and b̂ is the unit vector with the same direction as b: By definition, the vector rejection of a on b is Hence, When θ is not known, the cosine of θ can be computed in terms of a and b, by the following property of the dot product a b: By the above - mentioned property of the dot product, the definition of the scalar projection becomes Similarly, the definition of the vector projection of a onto b becomes which is equivalent to either or The latter formula is computationally more efficient than the former. Both require two dot products and eventually the multiplication of a scalar by a vector, but the former additionally requires a square root and the division of a vector by a scalar, while the latter additionally requires only the division of a scalar by a scalar. By definition, Hence, The scalar projection a on b is a scalar which has a negative sign if 90 < θ ≤ 180 degrees. It coincides with the length c of the vector projection if the angle is smaller than 90 °. More exactly: The vector projection of a on b is a vector a which is either null or parallel to b. More exactly: The vector rejection of a on b is a vector a which is either null or orthogonal to b. More exactly: The orthogonal projection can be represented by a projection matrix. To project a vector onto the unit vector a = (a, a, a), it would need to be multiplied with this projection matrix: The vector projection is an important operation in the Gram -- Schmidt orthonormalization of vector space bases. It is also used in the Separating axis theorem to detect whether two convex shapes intersect. Since the notions of vector length and angle between vectors can be generalized to any n - dimensional inner product space, this is also true for the notions of orthogonal projection of a vector, projection of a vector onto another, and rejection of a vector from another. In some cases, the inner product coincides with the dot product. Whenever they do n't coincide, the inner product is used instead of the dot product in the formal definitions of projection and rejection. For a three - dimensional inner product space, the notions of projection of a vector onto another and rejection of a vector from another can be generalized to the notions of projection of a vector onto a plane, and rejection of a vector from a plane. The projection of a vector on a plane is its orthogonal projection on that plane. The rejection of a vector from a plane is its orthogonal projection on a straight line which is orthogonal to that plane. Both are vectors. The first is parallel to the plane, the second is orthogonal. For a given vector and plane, the sum of projection and rejection is equal to the original vector. Similarly, for inner product spaces with more than three dimensions, the notions of projection onto a vector and rejection from a vector can be generalized to the notions of projection onto a hyperplane, and rejection from a hyperplane. In geometric algebra, they can be further generalized to the notions of projection and rejection of a general multivector onto / from any invertible k - blade.
what is the most common type of granulocyte	Granulocyte - wikipedia Granulocytes are a category of white blood cells characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN, PML, or PMNL) because of the varying shapes of the nucleus, which is usually lobed into three segments. This distinguishes them from the mononuclear agranulocytes. In common parlance, the term polymorphonuclear leukocyte often refers specifically to "neutrophil granulocytes '', the most abundant of the granulocytes; the other types (eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells) have lower numbers. Granulocytes are produced via granulopoiesis in the bone marrow. There are four types of granulocytes: Their names are derived from their staining characteristics; for example, the most abundant granulocyte is the neutrophil granulocyte, which has neutrally staining cytoplasmic granules. Neutrophils are normally found in the bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, constituting 60 % to 65 % of the total circulating white blood cells, and consisting of two subpopulations: neutrophil - killers and neutrophil - cagers. One litre of human blood contains about five billion (5x10) neutrophils, which are about 12 -- 15 micrometers in diameter. Once neutrophils have received the appropriate signals, it takes them about thirty minutes to leave the blood and reach the site of an infection. Neutrophils do not return to the blood; they turn into pus cells and die. Mature neutrophils are smaller than monocytes, and have a segmented nucleus with several sections (two to five segments); each section is connected by chromatin filaments. Neutrophils do not normally exit the bone marrow until maturity, but during an infection neutrophil precursors called myelocytes and promyelocytes are released. Neutrophils have three strategies for directly attacking micro-organisms: phagocytosis (ingestion), release of soluble anti-microbials (including granule proteins), and generation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Neutrophils are professional phagocytes: they are ferocious eaters and rapidly engulf invaders coated with antibodies and complement, as well as damaged cells or cellular debris. The intracellular granules of the human neutrophil have long been recognized for their protein - destroying and bactericidal properties. Neutrophils can secrete products that stimulate monocytes and macrophages; these secretions increase phagocytosis and the formation of reactive oxygen compounds involved in intracellular killing. Neutrophils have two types of granules; primary (azurophilic) granules (found in young cells) and secondary (specific) granules (which are found in more mature cells). Primary granules contain cationic proteins and defensens that are used to kill bacteria, proteolytic enzymes and cathepsin G to break down (bacterial) proteins, lysozyme to break down bacterial cell walls, and myeloperoxidase (used to generate toxic bacteria - killing substances). In addition, secretions from the primary granules of neutrophils stimulate the phagocytosis of IgG antibody - coated bacteria. The secondary granules contain compounds that are involved in the formation of toxic oxygen compounds, lysozyme, and lactoferrin (used to take essential iron from bacteria). Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) comprise a web of fibers composed of chromatin and serine proteases that trap and kill microbes extracellularly. Trapping of bacteria is a particularly important role for NETs in sepsis, where NET are formed within blood vessels. Eosinophils also have kidney - shaped lobed nuclei (two to four lobes). The number of granules in an eosinophil can vary because they have a tendency to degranulate while in the blood stream. Eosinophils play a crucial part in the killing of parasites (e.g., enteric nematodes) because their granules contain a unique, toxic basic protein and cationic protein (e.g., cathepsin); receptors that bind to IgE are used to help with this task. These cells also have a limited ability to participate in phagocytosis, they are professional antigen - presenting cells, they regulate other immune cell functions (e.g., CD4+ T cell, dendritic cell, B cell, mast cell, neutrophil, and basophil functions), they are involved in the destruction of tumor cells, and they promote the repair of damaged tissue. A polypeptide called interleukin - 5 interacts with eosinophils and causes them to grow and differentiate; this polypeptide is produced by basophils. Basophils are one of the least abundant cells in bone marrow and blood (occurring at less than two percent of all cells). Like neutrophils and eosinophils, they have lobed nuclei; however, they have only two lobes, and the chromatin filaments that connect them are not very visible. Basophils have receptors that can bind to IgE, IgG, complement, and histamine. The cytoplasm of basophils contains a varied amount of granules; these granules are usually numerous enough to partially conceal the nucleus. Granule contents of basophils are abundant with histamine, heparin, chondroitin sulfate, peroxidase, platelet - activating factor, and other substances. When an infection occurs, mature basophils will be released from the bone marrow and travel to the site of infection. When basophils are injured, they will release histamine, which contributes to the inflammatory response that helps fight invading organisms. Histamine causes dilation and increased permeability of capillaries close to the basophil. Injured basophils and other leukocytes will release another substance called prostaglandins that contributes to an increased blood flow to the site of infection. Both of these mechanisms allow blood - clotting elements to be delivered to the infected area (this begins the recovery process and blocks the travel of microbes to other parts of the body). Increased permeability of the inflamed tissue also allows for more phagocyte migration to the site of infection so that they can consume microbes. Mast cells are a type of granulocyte that are present in tissues; they mediate host defense against pathogens (e.g., parasites) and allergic reactions, particularly anaphylaxis. Mast cells are also involved in mediating inflammation and autoimmunity as well as mediating and regulating neuroimmune system responses. Granulocytes are derived from stem cells residing in the bone marrow. The differentiation of these stem cells from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell into granulocytes is termed granulopoiesis. Multiple intermediate cell types exist in this differentiation process, including myeloblasts and promyelocytes. Examples of toxic materials produced or released by degranulation by granulocytes on the ingestion of microorganisms are: Granulocytopenia is an abnormally low concentration of granulocytes in the blood. This condition reduces the body 's resistance to many infections. Closely related terms include agranulocytosis (etymologically, "no granulocytes at all ''; clinically, granulocyte levels less than 5 % of normal) and neutropenia (deficiency of neutrophil granulocytes). Granulocytes live only one to two days in circulation (four days in spleen or other tissue), so transfusion of granulocytes as a therapeutic strategy would confer a very short - lasting benefit. In addition, there are many complications associated with such a procedure. There is usually a granulocyte chemotactic defect in individuals suffering from insulin - dependent diabetes mellitus. Blood cell lineage Hematopoiesis
what episode of soa does tara tells jax she's pregnant	Tara Knowles - wikipedia Dr. Tara Grace Knowles - Teller is a fictional character on the FX drama Sons of Anarchy, played by Maggie Siff. Tara is a native of Charming, California. (She said her heritage was half - Irish.) Her mother died when Tara was nine, and according to ATF Agent Stahl, Tara had a "drunk daddy '', whom Tara described as a "bit of a packrat ''. Tara was Jax Teller 's high - school sweetheart, and during that era she had a crow tattooed on her lower back representing her connection to SAMCRO. Tara was arrested in Jax 's company at least three times in 1996. She left town when Jax was 19, in order to get away from small - town life and the influence of the club. According to his mother Gemma, this broke Jax 's heart. After leaving Charming, Tara moved in with a cousin of her father 's, who lived in San Diego, studied at UC San Diego, and graduated with honors. She then attended medical school in Chicago (either Feinberg Medical School at Northwestern University, according to her file in "Fun Town '', or "Loyola Med '' according to Agent Stahl in "Better Half '') where she was at the top of her class, then she completed an internship at Chicago Presbyterian. While in Chicago, Tara dated ATF agent Joshua Kohn, and got pregnant, and had an abortion at six weeks. Kohn became intimidating, violent, and obsessive, so she took out a restraining order against him several months before she returned to Charming, after an absence of 10 years. Tara works as a Pediatric resident at the local hospital, St. Thomas. It is there that she tends to Jax 's gravely ill infant son Abel during Abel 's hospitalization. Tara lives in her childhood home, which she inherited from her father when he died. She also drives a Cutlass her father had parked in the garage under "two tons of old newspapers ''. Tara 's relationship with Jax upon her return to Charming is based primarily on their mutual concern for gravely ill Abel. Her psychotic ex-boyfriend Agent Kohn comes to Charming under the pretext of investigating SAMCRO, but is really there because he wants to resume his relationship with Tara. Afraid for her life, Tara seeks Jax 's help in driving off Kohn. Jax stabs Kohn 's car on her behalf, beats him bloody in an altercation at Floyd 's barber shop, and then escorts him out of town. When Kohn returns in the dead of night and attacks Tara in her home, she shoots him in the gut and calls Jax for help. When Jax arrives he is furious about the attack and shoots Agent Kohn in the head. Tara and Jax then fall into each other 's arms and make love while Kohn 's iPod plays the Andy Williams song "Ca n't Get Used to Losing You '' on a continuous loop. Following the killing of Kohn, Jax and Tara seem to settle into a largely healthy and positive romantic relationship. Tara spends more time with Jax at the clubhouse, plays nice with Gemma, and works to heal wounded club associate Cameron Hayes. The Jax - Tara relationship soon seems to disintegrate after his ex-wife Wendy returns from rehab. In the penultimate season - one episode "The Sleep of Babies '', Tara is seen sleeping alone while Jax and Wendy make love. In the final episode of the first season, "The Revelator '', Tara tells Jax that she has arranged to return to Chicago as she does not believe she is cut out for life in Charming. This angers Jax, and he storms off. At the end of the episode Tara is seen to have changed her mind, and she turns up at Donna 's funeral, where she and Jax share a kiss. Season two shows Tara officially becoming Jax 's "old lady '' and becoming integrated into the club 's world. After Gemma is raped and abused, she turns to Tara for medical help. Tara encourages Gemma to seek out counseling to deal with the psychological repercussions of the attack but Gemma is reluctant. Tara 's help with Gemma combined with her efforts at raising Abel begins to heal the rift between Tara and Gemma. Tara 's connection with Jax and SAMCRO, on the other hand, causes problems for her at work. When Gemma accidentally breaks Tara 's nose after being startled, Margaret Murphy (a hospital administrator) assumes that Jax is responsible and warns Tara about the possible repercussions of being associated with SAMCRO. Later, Margaret files a "hostile work environment '' complaint against Tara after Gemma confronts the administrator about the hospital 's desire to move Chibs to another facility because of an insurance issue. Chibs later falsely complains of head pain and is able to stay at the hospital. Margaret accuses Tara of coaching Chibs with his symptoms and has Tara 's privileges suspended. When Jax decides that he wanted to go nomad, Tara is upset that he made the decision without consulting her. However, unlike everyone else connected to the club, she feels like it might be the right decision given the tension between Jax and Clay. Gemma lets Tara know that as Jax 's "old lady '', Tara has considerable prestige and respect in the club when other women in the club defer to her, and that she should n't "take any shit '' from anyone. Later, Tara confronts Margaret. The altercation turns violent and Tara then chokes and punches her. She tells Margaret, "I know where you live, I know where your kids go to school '' and informs her that the cops are on SAMCRO 's payroll and that the club runs Charming. Tara advises Margaret to keep her mouth shut and retract her complaint. Margaret immediately agrees to do so. In the season two finale, Tara attempts to convince Gemma to not get revenge on those that raped her, but is unsuccessful. She is present at Jax 's home when Cameron Hayes appears, and is tied to a chair by him before he kidnaps Abel Teller. Tara is untied by Jax and tells him what has happened to his son. Jax and the rest of the club unsuccessfully try to save Abel while Tara is later seen being consoled by Deputy David Hale. Tara is still saddened by the loss of Abel. As time goes by, Jax continues to push her away with increasing vehemence. She feels Jax is pushing her away because he blames her for not preventing Abel 's kidnapping. She visits a fugitive Gemma and helps her kill Gemma 's father 's caretaker. Tig helps the two of them cover it up. Tara later reveals to Gemma that she is six weeks pregnant. After Jax leaves Tara, she catches him with CaraCara porn star, Ima. Tara then starts packing her things at Jax 's house. He apologizes for what she saw earlier, but she feels he wanted her to see it, because he wants her gone and knew it was the one thing that would drive her away. She expresses that she thinks he is doing this because he hates her for what happened to Abel. Jax says that it is to protect her, but Tara does n't believe him. When Jax goes after her, she is already pulling out of the driveway. As Tara leaves Jax 's house it is shown that the recently ousted Calaveras MC leader, Hector Salazar, has been secretly stalking her and Jax. Tara considers having an abortion, as she believes Jax is not ready for another child. Gemma tries to convince Tara to wait until Jax gets back from Belfast and look into Abel 's eyes before she does anything. Gemma wants Tara to try to mend the relationship, because Jax has n't been thinking clearly since Abel 's abduction. Tara ultimately helps Gemma escape police custody so Gemma can go with Clay and Jax to Belfast. Lyla asks Tara if she knows of any clinics that conduct abortions. When she goes with Lyla to have the procedure, they have a conversation about why Lyla is having the abortion. It turns out Lyla is having the same problems with Opie. He wo n't open up to her in fear of what might happen. Lyla also feels the baby is an inconvenience because she wants to continue working as a porn star. After the conversation, Tara schedules an abortion for herself, as well. Later, Tara reveals to Margaret Murphy that she is going to have an abortion; Margaret agrees it is a good idea and offers to drive Tara to the clinic. On the way, Salazar stages a car accident and abducts Margaret and Tara. While Tara and Margaret are being held by Salazar, he becomes upset when his hostage demands are n't met and threatens to kill Margaret. Tara tries to persuade him not to and when he does n't listen to her, she causes a distraction. She attacks Salazar 's girlfriend and tries to get away. Salazar kicks her hard in the stomach. He goes to kick her a second time but stops when Tara tells him that she is pregnant. When Tara gets a chance to go to the bathroom, she breaks off a piece of a mirror to use as a weapon. When Salazar 's girlfriend breaks into the bathroom, Tara cuts her neck and almost escapes with Margaret, but Salazar stops them. After a stand off, Tara tells him his girlfriend is in the bathroom bleeding badly. She says she will keep his girlfriend alive if he lets Margaret go. When Salazar 's girlfriend dies in the car, he throws Tara against the car and puts a gun to her head. Salazar takes Tara to Jacob Hale 's office, where he takes Hale hostage as well. When he gives his list of demands, one of them is for Jax to come to Hale 's office. Tara sees Salazar pull out a knife, and he tells her he plans to kill her while Jax watches and then kill Jax. As Jax enters the office, Salazar is about to kill Tara, but Jacob Hale stabs him instead. Jax wrestles the gun from Salazar, gives it to Tara, and tells her to kill anyone who is not a cop. When the whole ordeal is over with Jax and Tara go to the doctor for an ultrasound to make sure the baby was not harmed. The baby is healthy and Jax and Tara hear the heartbeat and see the baby on the ultrasound. Jax and Tara then go to Gemma 's house where Gemma hugs her. Tara sees Abel and happily holds him and welcomes him back home. In the season finale, Tara has become more involved with the club. She drives Jimmy O back to the garage in the trunk after SAMCRO buys him from the Russians. Jax makes sure that she wears a bulletproof vest to ensure her safety in case something goes wrong. When Stahl tells the club about the deal Jax made with her, which was actually a trap by the club to kill Stahl and Jimmy, she runs and hugs him distraught and fearing that the club will kill him in prison. In the closing minute of the season 3 finale, Tara reads letters from John Teller to his mistress Maureen Ashby implying that Gemma and Clay would be responsible for his death should it happen. The close up shot of Tara 's face transitions to Jax 's face, thus ending season 3. Bridge between end of Season 3 and beginning of Season 4: By the end of season 3 when Jax and the other Samcro members were hauled off to prison, Tara is a little over 8 weeks pregnant. However, in a special feature "appisode '' (titled: Tara and Piney) - that took place day 85 of Jax 's incarceration; a pregnant Tara is shown about 5 months along. In this appisode, Tara goes to Piney for information on John Teller 's death but is rebuked and told not to investigate further and that the past was "dead and buried ''. In another special "appisode '' (titled: Second Son) - which bridges the gap between seasons; Tara and Gemma visit Jax in prison. Tara has just given birth to baby Thomas, and she brings the baby to meet Jax for the first time. Jax is overjoyed. He apologizes for missing the delivery and promises he would n't miss anything important ever again. At the beginning of Season 4 Tara is waiting to greet Jax on his return home. When Jax arrives he and Tara spend a little time with Abel and Thomas before Jax has to go inside the clubhouse for a meeting. When Tara and Jax meet at their house later, they waste no more time and begin making love. Jax then proposes to Tara by putting a ring on their son Thomas 's finger. Before Tara can fully accept they have a serious talk about the future of their family. Jax explains that he is done with SAMCRO, but he has to stay until Clay steps down as president because he and Gemma wo n't let Jax walk away without conflict. He does assure her that as soon as Clay retires and once he has saved enough money to avoid living off his wife he will leave SAMCRO and they will start fresh as a normal family. Later, at Opie and Lyla 's wedding, Jax is the best man and Tara is the maid of honor. The next day Tara and Jax are having breakfast with their sons when they see on the news a story about four dead bodies found at the construction site of Charming Heights. She asks Jax to tell her all he knows about it. He tells her it was retaliation for him getting stabbed in prison. Later on she encounters Gemma in her office who asks why Tara is not wearing her engagement ring. Tara simply tells Gemma that she and Jax are just waiting for the right time to tell everyone. Later at the clubhouse a distraught Tara is reunited with Jax after he is rescued from the Russians. There she discovers, along with Jax, that the clubhouse had been trashed by Sheriff Roosevelt. To lighten up the mood she decides to announce the engagement. During the season (and before) Tara has become more fearful of the consequences of being involved with SAMCRO and increasingly begins to think about the effect it will have on her son. This leads Tara to make the decision of leaving town with her son until things settle down. Tara is also conflicted about the letters from Maureen Ashby. Gemma has found out she has them and tries most of the season to obtain them and destroy them. Piney also shows interest in them as a way to blackmail Clay, but Tara keeps them protected. Clay finds out about the letters and he is so fearful of them getting out, that he takes out a hit on her life from Romeo. Eventually after confronting Gemma about the letters, Tara admits that she is not capable of showing the letters to Jax, feeling that if he knew who his father truly was, Jax would get deeper into the club out of guilt, therefore getting him further from her. Tara eventually heads to a medical conference in Oregon and takes Abel and Thomas with her, most likely for an indefinite stay. Jax accompanies her and on the way there the assassins hired by Clay try to kill her. Tara survives thanks to Jax, however during the fight her right hand gets smashed in a van door. Her hand is repaired, but the nerves are terribly damaged. Her doctor affirms it is unknown if it is permanent but she feels otherwise and believes her career to be over. Jax, extremely upset himself, tries to comfort her, but Tara has become distant and asks him to leave her alone. She feels that now their future is set and they will never get out of Charming. She 's later encouraged by Jax that everything will go as they had planned, which Tara barely believes. During the day she 's visited by Jax 's ex-wife Wendy, who makes it clear that she wants to know Abel better, as she gave up custody but not the right to know him. This unnerves Tara who feels she is Abel 's true mother and becomes fearful that Wendy will take him away from her. Wendy leaves her number and Tara smashes the vase of flowers, screaming in anger. She 's later put under psych watch and restrained to her bed. Jax begins to feel at a loss as how to take care of and comfort her. Later Gemma comes to see her and confesses that it was Clay who wanted her dead because of the letters, which she gives to Gemma. She reveals later to Gemma that she was fully aware of her plan to have Clay killed by Jax and hide the letters that involve her and Unser, to prompt Jax to stay as President. Tara gives Jax a blood thinner to inject into Clay, who is recuperating at St. Thomas. She then tells Jax, in front of Gemma, that he will kill Clay and come get her and the boys, so they can leave Charming forever. This plan fails as Jax is forced to stay due to the influence of Romeo Parada and Luis Torres who are undercover CIA agents. They need SAMCRO to provide weapons and transport drugs or they will crush the club. Understanding that Jax has to become President, Tara decides to remain with him. In the season finale, with Gemma watching Tara stands behind Jax at the head of the table, one arm draped around him, mirroring a photo of Gemma and John Teller. The season begins with Tara 's hand in a cast unable to perform surgeries. Despite losing ability to operate, she supports Jax as President of SAMCRO. The couple lacks certainty of "where it all goes, '' but Jax is clear that "no matter what happens, I want you to be my wife. '' Tara mocks the romanticism of a spontaneous wedding at Diosa to which Jax jokes, "I killed a Fed for you... nothing says endless love like capital murder. '' A judge marries them in a quick ceremony with wedding rings that belonged to Gemma and JT. Tension rises between Tara and Gemma over controlling the family. Tara places Abel and Thomas in hospital daycare with Jax 's support. Tara gains power by shutting out Gemma, who is not on visitor list at first. Gemma tries to hurt Tara by using Wendy to threaten a custody suit. Tara stands firm by warning Gemma not to hurt her or her family or Jax "might kill you. '' Tara strategically plans squashing RICO case with Lowen, Bobby and Jax. She volunteers at Stockton State Prison and asks Otto to recant his RICO statement. Tara extends an olive branch to Gemma by placing her on daycare visitor 's list and allowing her to watch the boys. Gemma is stoned when she wrecks her car with Abel and Thomas in the backseat. Tara punches Gemma when she confesses to being high while driving with the boys. Tara 's fears intensify over the increasing threats to her family; she starts to defend and protect them in Gemma - like ways. Tara cuts her out of the family, but agrees to let Gemma back in if she helps Jax with getting intel from Clay on plot to undermine his leadership. Tara receives good prognosis for her hand and gets recruited for a surgical job in Oregon. Meanwhile, Otto agrees to Tara 's plea on RICO if she will bring him Luann 's crucifix. Tara 's career is on the line when she is investigated as an accessory to Otto 's brutal murder of a prison nurse that was killed with Luann 's crucifix. Jax assures Tara that they will get through the investigation just like they get through everything else to which she quips, "that 's what scares me. '' She becomes guarded when Jax does n't walk away after meeting his goal to save the MC with RICO shutdown. She is pressed to reply to the offer and internally struggles with moving on as it is the "last chance '' for her and Jax to get out of Charming. While meeting to prepare Tara 's defense, Lowen prompts Tara to think about legal custody of sons if anything was to happen to her. Tara agrees to Providence Health & Services job offer before telling Jax. Wendy confronts Tara with reality of risk associated with MC and shows her the shoulder bruise from the force of Jax jamming a speedball needle into it. Tara gasps with shock realizing that Jax is losing his way. The prison nurse 's brother, Lee Toric, confronts Tara at the hospital and threatens to avenge her death. More than ever, Tara needs someone trustworthy to name as guardian of her sons in case of imprisonment or death. Tara has no permanent nerve damage and will be able to operate again. Tara requests clarity from Jax who does not come clean about intimidating Wendy. Gemma confronts Tara about Providence Health & Services offer and threatens Tara "I 'm done with your power push. '' Gemma threatens to tell investigators that Tara planned the killing of an innocent nurse to reverse RICO. Tara enlists Wendy as guardian and is now more determined to pull her sons out of Charming 's "cesspool. '' Jax disapproves of Wendy as Guardian, but Tara insists it is her ' job as an old lady to be strong... when and where (he) ca n't be. '' She tells him she accepted a job offer in Oregon to spare them from becoming like Gemma and Clay, which will force the boys to relive their mistakes. The season ends with Tara 's arrest for conspiracy to commit Pamela Toric 's murder. After a season of failed attempts to get herself and her sons out of Charming (including a false pregnancy and subsequently faked miscarriage to bar Gemma Teller - Morrow from gaining custody of Abel and Thomas, should Tara go to prison), and after Tara and Jax 's relationship was tested (Tara and Jax are having problems with her being behind bars for her involvement in the death of a nurse. Jax is seen at the end of episode 1 cheating on Tara with Colette Jane, an escort handler) Tara finds herself at odds with everyone she was supposed to be able to trust and chooses to use the bullet she pulled from Bobby Munson 's shoulder as evidence necessary to grant her witness protection, in turn making her a rat and a liability to the MC and to Jax himself. In a last - minute plot twist, Jax finds Tara at a park in Lodi. They talk for several minutes and then the scene cuts to the motel room Tara had been hiding in. The two come to an understanding and Jax surrenders himself to the mercy of DA Tyne Patterson in exchange for Tara 's immunity for all the crimes she committed on behalf the MC, specifically that of the murder of Pamela Toric, for which she was accused in season 5 but did not have anything to do with. The DA agrees to what Jax offers her after a few moments of reluctance to believe that he will come through. With that, Jax has let Tara know that he truly loves her and their sons more than anything. They cry and make love. Tara and Jax agree to meet the DA at the Teller home at 6pm after he spends his last hours as a free man with his sons. He tells Chibs and Bobby he will most likely be sentenced to 25 years, with parole in 10, 7 if he 's lucky. Tara gets home earlier than expected and the house is empty, save for Eli, the sheriff, who entered the house with her so they could talk in private and he could help her bring her suitcases into the house, as she decided not to run away and do what Jax asked of her; raise their sons. When Eli leaves, stating he 'll be outside, Tara calls for Wayne, assuming his truck outside meant he was in the house. Caught off guard, Gemma comes out of the laundry room and lunges for Tara, who can not escape in time. Gemma hits her with an iron but does n't knock her out. Tara struggles against Gemma 's beating and her head is badly smashed on the sink, where Gemma then attempts to drown her. In one of the show 's most gruesome moments, Tara struggles for several seconds before Gemma grabs a barbecue fork and stabs Tara multiple times in the back of the head and her neck. Blood gushing out of the back of her head, Tara collapses and dies. Lt. Roosevelt walks in on the scene and discovers Gemma sitting on the floor next to Tara 's body, in obvious shock. Gemma is mumbling incoherently about how it had to be done because she was going to rat out the MC. Roosevelt tells her she did n't rat out the MC, and that Jax is giving himself up to protect her. Immediately after this, Juice walks in, sees the scene, shoots Lt. Roosevelt twice in the back and then comforts Gemma. After this he begins cleaning up the murder scene. Jax returns home later that evening. He sees Lt. Roosevelt 's legs on the kitchen floor, draws his gun, and then enters the kitchen, where he finds both Eli and Tara dead on the floor. Stunned, he drops his gun at Eli 's feet and cradles Tara in his arms. The New York Times ' series - premiere review remarked on the "chemistry '' between Jax and Tara, and described the character as "beautiful... refined and book - smart. '' TV Squad credited Siff with a "superior performance '' and the Chicago Tribune described her as "excellent. ''
who wrote what a wonderful name it is	What a Beautiful Name - wikipedia "What a Beautiful Name '' is a song by Australian praise and worship group Hillsong Worship. The song, written and led by Brooke Ligertwood and co-written with Ben Fielding, refers to the promise of salvation through Jesus Christ as represented by His Holy Name. The "genre - smashing single '' contributed to Hillsong being named Billboard 's Top Christian Artist of 2017. "What a Beautiful Name '' won two Dove Awards for Song of the Year and Worship Song of the Year in 2017. It won the 2018 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance / Song. "What a Beautiful Name '' was released on 6 January 2017, as the lead single from their 25th live album, Let There Be Light (2016). "What a Beautiful Name '' was composed in December 2015 in Sydney, Australia, for the upcoming Hillsong Conference, the annual church gathering. The scriptural foundation of the song can be found in Hebrews 1: 1 -- 1: 4, Colossians 1: 15 -- 1: 20 and Colossians 1: 26 -- 1: 27. A video for the song was recorded at the Hillsong Conference in Sydney and was released on 30 September 2016. Music critic Matt Collar praised Hillsong Worship for their "passionate, faith - based sound '' and wrote that fans of the group "will surely appreciate this emotive, uplifting Christian pop. '' Jake Gosselin attributes the popularity of the song in the Christian community to a number of factors. He writes that "What a Beautiful Name '' is "singable. '' In practice this refers to the "small vocal range '' of the song which is "one note over an octave. '' This translates to a song that is easy to sing and which does not strain the voice with notes that are too high or too low. He also comments that the song is written in the key of D which is "the optimal key for both men and women. '' "What a Beautiful Name '' had its worldwide digital release on 6 January 2017, and topped Billboard 's Hot Christian Songs chart on 25 February. The single has held the top position for 38 weeks making it the second - longest - leading No. 1 in the 14 - year history of the Hot Christian chart. The song which claims the distinction as the longest - leading No. 1 is "Oceans (Where Feet May Fail) '' and was released by another Hillsong unit, Hillsong United. "Oceans '' led the Hot Christian chart for 61 weeks. The song has stayed on the chart for 77 weeks, making it the third longest running song on the chart. "What a Beautiful Name '' is ranked as the No. 1 song of the year for 2017 on the Christian Digital Sales chart, No. 3 on Christian Streaming Songs, and is also the No. 3 song on Christian Airplay. The song spent nine weeks as No. 1 on Christian Airplay and was Hillsong Worship 's first No. 1 on the chart. What a Beautiful Name also leads the CCLI, the international licensing service for 250,000 churches. The YouTube video has more than 143 million views as of 23 April 2018. "What a Beautiful Name '' is a track from Hillsong Worship 's 25th live album, Let There Be Light. The album was released on 14 October 2016, and debuted as No. 1 on the Top Christian Albums chart. For 2017, Let There be Light was ranked the No. 9 of the year. Hillsong Worship was named Billboard 's Top Christian Artist of 2017, as well as Top Christian Duo / Group. "What a Beautiful Name '' earned two Dove awards, Song of the Year and Worship Song of the Year. "What a Beautiful Name '' won the award for Best Contemporary Christian Music Performance / Song at the 60th Grammy Awards, the first for Hillsong Worship. The song was recorded at a live performance at the annual Hillsong Conference in 2016. Hillsong performed the song at the 48th Annual Dove Awards held at Allen Arena in Nashville. The performance was well received and "had audience members on their feet with their hands in the air. '' When asked about performing the song in an interview with Billboard 's Jim Asker, Ligertwood said about the audience: "Because the audience is part of the church and we sing these songs in church regularly, most of the people in attendance were already familiar with the tracks. As an audience, they are just super gracious and welcoming. Our mission is that the music will resonate with them. We 're not really performing -- we 're simply vessels. Finally, she said about performing the song: "I guess that when I am leading the song, my voice is me, but it 's also my prayer first, that I am there to serve people and link with them in the presence of God. When you connect with people, you can feel their spirits being lifted. It 's really the beauty of singing something about the wonder and power of Jesus. When people connect, it 's freeing for them and breaks chains and creates faith. '' In July 2017, the Voices of Lee, the "elite '' a cappella singing group, posted a video of the song to their Facebook page. The cover was an instant hit and reached the so - called viral threshold of 5 million views in two days. As of October 2017, it had amassed 33 million views. The group represents Lee University in Tennessee; the video was filmed in the school 's chapel. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
who won the battle of richmond in the revolutionary war	Raid of Richmond - wikipedia Thomas Jefferson Sir Henry Clinton The Richmond Campaign was a group of British military actions against the capital of Virginia, Richmond, and the surrounding area, during the American Revolutionary War. Led by American turncoat Benedict Arnold, the Richmond Campaign is considered one of his greatest successes while serving under the British Army, and one of the most notorious actions that Arnold ever performed. Clinton hoped that sending an American - born commander to Richmond would convince more Loyalists in the area to join the British cause, which would subsequently give the British Army the upper hand in the Southern Theatre of the war. Prior to the beginning of the raid, Thomas Jefferson, the then - Governor of Virginia, had moved the capital of Virginia from Williamsburg to Richmond, because of its strategically central, defensible location. In the event of an attack, Jefferson moved all of the town 's military supplies to a foundry five miles outside of Richmond. Little did Jefferson know how big of an attack would soon follow. From the 1st to the 3rd of January, Arnold 's fleet sailed up the James River, laying waste to plantations and settlements along the way. On the 4th of January, the British reached their destination, Westover Plantation, where they would ready themselves for the assault against Richmond. In the afternoon, Arnold and his men disembarked on foot towards Richmond. The following day, Arnold 's force of Loyalist "green - coats '', consisting of infantry, dragoons, and artillery, arrived at Richmond, which was defended by about 200 militiamen. Surprisingly enough, most Virginia militiamen had not bothered to defend their capital because they had already served their time in battle, and thought that their duty was up. Upon seeing the group of Virginia militiamen, Colonel John Graves Simcoe, of the Queen 's Rangers, ordered a detachment of soldiers to confront them. The militiamen fired a weak musket volley at the advancing British, and then broke and ran into the woods, with the Loyalist detachment chasing after them. Jefferson, seeing his militiamen dispersed, and no other plausible way to defend Richmond, quickly ordered the mass - evacuation of most military supplies from the city, and promptly fled in his carriage, along with the rest of Virginia 's government officials and his family. At noon, Arnold 's forces marched triumphantly into the city, described by an eyewitness as "undisturbed by even a single shot. '' From his headquarters at Main Street 's City Tavern (he would only stay in Richmond for a day), Arnold wrote a letter to Jefferson, saying that if he could move the city 's tobacco stores and military arms to his ships, he would leave Richmond unharmed. Jefferson 's response was livid, refusing that a turncoat do anything to Richmond 's supplies. Upon receiving the letter the next day on January 6, Arnold was enraged, and ordered Richmond to be set to the torch. British troops then started a rampage across the city, burning government buildings as well as private homes, ransacking the city of its valuables and supplies. A strong wind spread the flames even more, adding to the destruction. After most of Richmond was burned and its valuables sacked, Arnold led his forces outside of Richmond and to the Westham cannon foundry, which held even more armaments, and preceded to burn it down. After its destruction, the British went down to the city of Chesterfield, and began another spree of violence, burning down homes and looting buildings. When the news of Richmond 's destruction reached Jefferson, he was aghast. Arnold 's British force had entered Virginia 's very capital, unopposed, and had singlehandedly defiled it. The Governor called his friend, Sampson Mathews, the Colonel of the Virginia militia, and ordered him to assault Arnold 's forces. Mathews built up a group of around 200 militiamen, and embarked hastily to catch and damage Arnold 's slow - moving army near Richmond. Eventually, delayed by bad weather, sickness and mutiny, Mathews ' forces caught up with Arnold 's army, and attacked it by surprise. Using nimble tactics popularized by American commander Nathanael Greene, the militiamen managed to inflict significant casualties on Arnold 's army, and over the following days, the British ranks were thinned by multiple skirmishes around Richmond and the James River. Eventually, Arnold considered the skirmishes between his American Legion and the Patriots to be so serious, that he ordered his army to retreat to Portsmouth, in order to set up defensive fortifications there and wait for reinforcements. Thus, the British army moved quickly down the James River, burning more plantations and homes in their wake, while still being chased by Mathews. One of the plantations that Arnold 's men burned on their retreat was that of Berkeley Plantation, the home of Founding Father Benjamin Harrison V. Harrison was going about his regular duties in his mansion, when he saw the British force advancing towards his plantation. He quickly informed his wife and children, and they then escaped in a carriage. Arnold knew that Berkeley belonged to Harrison, whom he viewed as a traitor, and wanted to punish him for treason against Great Britain. All of the Harrison family 's portraits and artwork were taken outside and 40 of Harrison 's slaves were confiscated. Arnold spared Harrison 's mansion and houses, however, as he believed the war would soon be won by the British, and desired a grand plantation in which to live after the war. The only original portrait of Harrison to survive was the miniature around his wife 's neck, wearing it as she fled from the British forces. On January 19, the Richmond Campaign ended, when Benedict Arnold 's weary troops reached Portsmouth. They had survived a great ordeal, and Arnold was praised by local Loyalists, as well as his superiors, to be a hero. On the same day, General William Phillips arrived to relieve Arnold with 2,000 fresh troops, and to assume command over Portsmouth 's defenses. Even though days of turmoil had ended, they would live on as some of Benedict Arnold 's finest hours. The destruction of Richmond, one of the most important cities in the United States, outraged the American populace. George Washington was so angered and humiliated by the destruction of Richmond, that he put a 5,000 guinea bounty on Arnold 's head and ordered his aide, the Marquis de Lafayette, to hang Arnold if he encountered him in battle. Continental marksmen were issued targets painted in Benedict 's appearance to practice on, if in the event they saw him. The British, on the other hand saw Arnold 's victory at Richmond as a turning point, and gave them hopes that Loyalists could rise up with them, and quell the American presence in the South. Many slaves were liberated from the raided plantations, as well as Richmond itself, and many of them promptly joined the British Army afterwards, in exchange for their freedom. After Arnold 's initial raid on the James River and the area around Richmond, more minor raids ensued. British commanders like William Phillips and Banastre Tarleton followed in Arnold 's example, raiding and burning more outlying towns and preying on Continental troops. Benedict Arnold, the Continental Army 's brilliant General, had guaranteed himself a place in the British ranks with the Richmond Campaign, as well as a spot in the annals of history.
where does most photosynthesis take place in plants	Photosynthesis - wikipedia Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms ' activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water -- hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light '', and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together ''. In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth 's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light - dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that act as an immediate energy storage means: reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency '' of cells. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long - term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light - independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light - dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose. The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the evolutionary history of life and most likely used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later; the excess oxygen they produced contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth, which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about three times the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100 -- 115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis and is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of anoxygenic photosynthesis, used mostly by certain types of bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen. Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Photosynthesis provides the energy in the form of free electrons that are used to split carbon from carbon dioxide that is then used to fix that carbon once again as carbohydrate. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis supplies the energy that drives both process. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy (an exothermic reaction) to drive the organism 's metabolism. The two processes, reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate and then later oxidation of the carbohydrate, are distinct: photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions and in different cellular compartments. The general equation for photosynthesis as first proposed by Cornelius van Niel is therefore: Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is: This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the light - dependent reaction and a product of the light - independent reaction, but canceling n water molecules from each side gives the net equation: Other processes substitute other compounds (such as arsenite) for water in the electron - supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to arsenate: The equation for this reaction is: Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, light - dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light and use it to make the energy - storage molecules ATP and NADPH. During the second stage, the light - independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. Most organisms that utilize oxygenic photosynthesis use visible light for the light - dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave infrared or, more specifically, far - red radiation. Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some archea use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The bacteriorhodopsin changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis. In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in cell membranes. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself. However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, or bunched up into round vesicles called intracytoplasmic membranes. These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb. In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in organelles called chloroplasts. A typical plant cell contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and peripheral membrane protein complexes of the photosynthetic system. Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as phycocyanin, carotenes, and xanthophylls in green algae, phycoerythrin in red algae (rhodophytes) and fucoxanthin in brown algae and diatoms resulting in a wide variety of colors. These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a light - harvesting complex. Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called leaves. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and aridity, such as many Euphorbia and cactus species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water - resistant waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation of water and decreases the absorption of ultraviolet or blue light to reduce heating. The transparent epidermis layer allows light to pass through to the palisade mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place. In the light - dependent reactions, one molecule of the pigment chlorophyll absorbs one photon and loses one electron. This electron is passed to a modified form of chlorophyll called pheophytin, which passes the electron to a quinone molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an electron transport chain that leads to the ultimate reduction of NADP to NADPH. In addition, this creates a proton gradient (energy gradient) across the chloroplast membrane, which is used by ATP synthase in the synthesis of ATP. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a water molecule is split in a process called photolysis, which releases a dioxygen (O) molecule as a waste product. The overall equation for the light - dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is: Not all wavelengths of light can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic action spectrum depends on the type of accessory pigments present. For example, in green plants, the action spectrum resembles the absorption spectrum for chlorophylls and carotenoids with absorption peaks in violet - blue and red light. In red algae, the action spectrum is blue - green light, which allows these algae to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the light spectrum is what gives photosynthetic organisms their color (e.g., green plants, red algae, purple bacteria) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective organisms. In plants, light - dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts where they drive the synthesis of ATP and NADPH. The light - dependent reactions are of two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light - harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex frees an electron by a process called photoinduced charge separation. The antenna system is at the core of the chlorophyll molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That freed electron is transferred to the primary electron - acceptor molecule, pheophytin. As the electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain (the so - called Z - scheme shown in the diagram), it initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential by pumping proton cations (H) across the membrane and into the thylakoid space. An ATP synthase enzyme uses that chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z - scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. There it is further excited by the light absorbed by that photosystem. The electron is then passed along a chain of electron acceptors to which it transfers some of its energy. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is eventually used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP with a H to NADPH (which has functions in the light - independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction. The NADPH is the main reducing agent produced by chloroplasts, which then goes on to provide a source of energetic electrons in other cellular reactions. Its production leaves chlorophyll in photosystem I with a deficit of electrons (chlorophyll has been oxidized), which must be balanced by some other reducing agent that will supply the missing electron. The excited electrons lost from chlorophyll from photosystem I are supplied from the electron transport chain by plastocyanin. However, since photosystem II is the first step of the Z - scheme, an external source of electrons is required to reduce its oxidized chlorophyll a molecules. The source of electrons in green - plant and cyanobacterial photosynthesis is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by four successive charge - separation reactions by photosystem II to yield a molecule of diatomic oxygen and four hydrogen ions; the electrons yielded are transferred to a redox - active tyrosine residue that then reduces the oxidized chlorophyll a (called P680) that serves as the primary light - driven electron donor in the photosystem II reaction center. That photo receptor is in effect reset and is then able to repeat the absorption of another photon and the release of another photo - dissociated electron. The oxidation of water is catalyzed in photosystem II by a redox - active structure that contains four manganese ions and a calcium ion; this oxygen - evolving complex binds two water molecules and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water - oxidizing reaction (Dolai 's S - state diagrams). Ref. Dolai, U (2017). "Chemical Scheme of Water - Splitting Process during Photosynthesis by the way of Experimental Analysis ". IOSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 12 (6): 65 - 67. doi: 10.9790 / 3008 - 1206026567. ISSN 2319 - 7676. Photosystem II is the only known biological enzyme that carries out this oxidation of water. The hydrogen ions released contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to ATP synthesis. Oxygen is a waste product of light - dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on Earth use oxygen for cellular respiration, including photosynthetic organisms. In the light - independent (or "dark '') reactions, the enzyme RuBisCO captures CO from the atmosphere and, in a process called the Calvin - Benson cycle, it uses the newly formed NADPH and releases three - carbon sugars, which are later combined to form sucrose and starch. The overall equation for the light - independent reactions in green plants is Carbon fixation produces the intermediate three - carbon sugar product, which is then converted to the final carbohydrate products. The simple carbon sugars produced by photosynthesis are then used in the forming of other organic compounds, such as the building material cellulose, the precursors for lipid and amino acid biosynthesis, or as a fuel in cellular respiration. The latter occurs not only in plants but also in animals when the energy from plants is passed through a food chain. The fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a five - carbon sugar, ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate, to yield two molecules of a three - carbon compound, glycerate 3 - phosphate, also known as 3 - phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3 - phosphate, in the presence of ATP and NADPH produced during the light - dependent stages, is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate. This product is also referred to as 3 - phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as triose phosphate. Most (5 out of 6 molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3 - phosphate produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1, 5 - bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled '' often condense to form hexose phosphates, which ultimately yield sucrose, starch and cellulose. The sugars produced during carbon metabolism yield carbon skeletons that can be used for other metabolic reactions like the production of amino acids and lipids. In hot and dry conditions, plants close their stomata to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO will decrease and oxygen gas, produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of photorespiration by the oxygenase activity of ribulose - 1, 5 - bisphosphate carboxylase / oxygenase and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have evolved mechanisms to increase the CO concentration in the leaves under these conditions. Plants that use the C carbon fixation process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the cells of the mesophyll by adding it to the three - carbon molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a reaction catalyzed by an enzyme called PEP carboxylase, creating the four - carbon organic acid oxaloacetic acid. Oxaloacetic acid or malate synthesized by this process is then translocated to specialized bundle sheath cells where the enzyme RuBisCO and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO released by decarboxylation of the four - carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen - generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO fixation and, thus, the photosynthetic capacity of the leaf. C plants can produce more sugar than C plants in conditions of high light and temperature. Many important crop plants are C plants, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, and millet. Plants that do not use PEP - carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C plants because the primary carboxylation reaction, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three - carbon 3 - phosphoglyceric acids directly in the Calvin - Benson cycle. Over 90 % of plants use C carbon fixation, compared to 3 % that use C carbon fixation; however, the evolution of C in over 60 plant lineages makes it a striking example of convergent evolution. Xerophytes, such as cacti and most succulents, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). In contrast to C metabolism, which spatially separates the CO fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM temporally separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different leaf anatomy from C plants, and fix the CO at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO mostly in the form of malic acid via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate to oxaloacetate, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3 - phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. Sixteen thousand species of plants use CAM. Cyanobacteria possess carboxysomes, which increase the concentration of CO around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, located within the carboxysome releases CO from the dissolved hydrocarbonate ions (HCO − 3). Before the CO diffuses out it is quickly sponged up by RuBisCO, which is concentrated within the carboxysomes. HCO − 3 ions are made from CO outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They can not cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO − 3 ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes. Pyrenoids in algae and hornworts also act to concentrate CO around rubisco. The overall process of photosynthesis takes place in four stages: Plants usually convert light into chemical energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3 -- 6 %. Absorbed light that is unconverted is dissipated primarily as heat, with a small fraction (1 -- 2 %) re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence at longer (redder) wavelengths. This fact allows measurement of the light reaction of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll fluorometers. Actual plants ' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the frequency of the light being converted, light intensity, temperature and proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and can vary from 0.1 % to 8 %. By comparison, solar panels convert light into electric energy at an efficiency of approximately 6 -- 20 % for mass - produced panels, and above 40 % in laboratory devices. The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured but the relationship between the two can be complex. For example, the ATP and NADPH energy molecules, created by the light reaction, can be used for carbon fixation or for photorespiration in C plants. Electrons may also flow to other electron sinks. For this reason, it is not uncommon for authors to differentiate between work done under non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions. Chlorophyll fluorescence of photosystem II can measure the light reaction, and Infrared gas analyzers can measure the dark reaction. It is also possible to investigate both at the same time using an integrated chlorophyll fluorometer and gas exchange system, or by using two separate systems together. Infrared gas analyzers and some moisture sensors are sensitive enough to measure the photosynthetic assimilation of CO, and of ΔH O using reliable methods CO is commonly measured in μmols / m / s, parts per million or volume per million and H 0 is commonly measured in mmol / m / s or in mbars. By measuring CO assimilation, ΔH O, leaf temperature, barometric pressure, leaf area, and photosynthetically active radiation or PAR, it becomes possible to estimate, "A '' or carbon assimilation, "E '' or transpiration, "gs '' or stomatal conductance, and Ci or intracellular CO. However, it is more common to used chlorophyll fluorescence for plant stress measurement, where appropriate, because the most commonly used measuring parameters FV / FM and Y (II) or F / FM ' can be made in a few seconds, allowing the measurement of larger plant populations. Gas exchange systems that offer control of CO levels, above and below ambient, allow the common practice of measurement of A / Ci curves, at different CO levels, to characterize a plant 's photosynthetic response. Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer -- gas exchange systems allow a more precise measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms. While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C to replace Ci. The estimation of CO at the site of carboxylation in the chloroplast, or C, becomes possible with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g using an integrated system. Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light absorbed by the leaf. But analysis of chlorophyll - fluorescence, P700 - and P515 - absorbance and gas exchange measurements reveal detailed information about e.g. the photosystems, quantum efficiency and the CO assimilation rates. With some instruments even wavelength - dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be analyzed. A phenomenon known as quantum walk increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an algae, bacterium, or plant, there are light - sensitive molecules called chromophores arranged in an antenna - shaped structure named a photocomplex. When a photon is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a quasiparticle referred to as an exciton, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form that makes it accessible for the cell 's metabolism. The exciton 's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose '' the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances, due to obstacles in the form of destructive interference that come into play. These obstacles cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop ''. The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks. Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in green and purple sulfur and green and purple nonsulfur bacteria, are thought to have been anoxygenic, and used various other molecules as electron donors rather than water. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used hydrogen and sulfur as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various amino and other organic acids as an electron donor. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth 's early atmosphere was highly reducing at that time. Fossils of what are thought to be filamentous photosynthetic organisms have been dated at 3.4 billion years old. The main source of oxygen in the Earth 's atmosphere derives from oxygenic photosynthesis, and its first appearance is sometimes referred to as the oxygen catastrophe. Geological evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in cyanobacteria, became important during the Paleoproterozoic era around 2 billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in plants and most photosynthetic prokaryotes is oxygenic. Oxygenic photosynthesis uses water as an electron donor, which is oxidized to molecular oxygen (O 2) in the photosynthetic reaction center. Several groups of animals have formed symbiotic relationships with photosynthetic algae. These are most common in corals, sponges and sea anemones. It is presumed that this is due to the particularly simple body plans and large surface areas of these animals compared to their volumes. In addition, a few marine mollusks Elysia viridis and Elysia chlorotica also maintain a symbiotic relationship with chloroplasts they capture from the algae in their diet and then store in their bodies. This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time. Some of the genes from the plant cell nucleus have even been transferred to the slugs, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with proteins that they need to survive. An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic bacteria, including a circular chromosome, prokaryotic - type ribosome, and similar proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center. The endosymbiotic theory suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by endocytosis) by early eukaryotic cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts possess their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in cyanobacteria. DNA in chloroplasts codes for redox proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The CoRR Hypothesis proposes that this Co-location is required for Redox Regulation. The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a common ancestor of extant cyanobacteria. The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth 's history, at least 2450 -- 2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier. Because the Earth 's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen. Available evidence from geobiological studies of Archean (> 2500 Ma) sedimentary rocks indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial evolution opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already - diverse biota of blue - green algae. Cyanobacteria remained the principal primary producers of oxygen throughout the Proterozoic Eon (2500 -- 543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of nitrogen fixation. Green algae joined blue - green algae as the major primary producers of oxygen on continental shelves near the end of the Proterozoic, but it was only with the Mesozoic (251 -- 65 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the primary production of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to marine ecosystems as primary producers of oxygen in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the plastids of marine algae. Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century. Jan van Helmont began the research of the process in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the mass of the soil used by a plant and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he hypothesized that the mass of the growing plant must come from the water, the only substance he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially accurate -- much of the gained mass also comes from carbon dioxide as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant 's biomass comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself. Joseph Priestley, a chemist and minister, discovered that, when he isolated a volume of air under an inverted jar, and burned a candle in it, the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of wax. He further discovered that a mouse could similarly "injure '' air. He then showed that the air that had been "injured '' by the candle and the mouse could be restored by a plant. In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, repeated Priestley 's experiments. He discovered that it was the influence of sunlight on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours. In 1796, Jean Senebier, a Swiss pastor, botanist, and naturalist, demonstrated that green plants consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of light. Soon afterward, Nicolas - Théodore de Saussure showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic reaction by which photosynthesis is used to produce food (such as glucose) was outlined. Cornelis Van Niel made key discoveries explaining the chemistry of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light - dependent redox reaction, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide. Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a '', PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a '' with most of the available chlorophyll "b '', among other pigment. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta are equal in both the PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII system, which in turn powers the photochemistry. Robert Hill thought that a complex of reactions consisting of an intermediate to cytochrome b (now a plastoquinone), another is from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate - generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f for it is a sufficient reductant. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water, were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzoquinone after exposure to light. The Hill reaction is as follows: where A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved. Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water. Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the Calvin cycle, which ignores the contribution of Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to the cycle as the Calvin - Benson Cycle, Benson - Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin - Benson - Bassham (or CBB) Cycle. Nobel Prize - winning scientist Rudolph A. Marcus was able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain. Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk discovered the I - quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits the CO, activated by the respiration. Louis N.M. Duysens and Jan Amesz discovered that chlorophyll a will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb another light, but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series. In 1893, Charles Reid Barnes proposed two terms, photosyntax and photosynthesis, for the biological process of synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light. Over time, the term photosynthesis came into common usage as the term of choice. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term. After WWII at late 1940 at the University of California, Berkeley, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists Melvin Calvin, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon - 14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques. The pathway of CO2 fixation by the algae Chlorella in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a 3 carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground - breaking work, a Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 u mole CO2 / square metere. sec., with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants having the same photosynthetic capacities that were light saturated at less than 50 % of sunlight. These rates were determined in potted plants grown indoors under low light intensity. Later in 1958 - 1963 at Cornell University, field grown maize was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec and was not saturated at near full sunlight. This higher rate in maize was almost double those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of monocot and dicot uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species. In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38 − 40 u mol CO2 / square meter. sec., and the leaves have two types of green cells, i.e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane. Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO2 compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light. The research at Arizona was designated Citation Classic by the ISI 1986. These species was later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO2 fixation in light has 4 carbon as malate and aspartate. Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the 3 - carbon PGA acid. At 1000 ppm CO2 in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 u mole CO2 / square meter. sec. indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants. There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The three main are: The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life. The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, with both time and space. In the early 20th century, Frederick Blackman and Gabrielle Matthaei investigated the effects of light intensity (irradiance) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation. These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, photochemical reactions are not affected by temperature. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are, of course, the light - dependent ' photochemical ' temperature - independent stage, and the light - independent, temperature - dependent stage. Second, Blackman 's experiments illustrate the concept of limiting factors. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, can not receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, a series of proteins with different pigments surround the reaction center. This unit is called a phycobilisome. As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light - independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. RuBisCO, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light - independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called photorespiration, uses energy, but does not produce sugars. RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons: The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light - dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide.
types of queues in data structure with examples	Queue (abstract data type) - wikipedia In computer science, a queue (/ ˈkjuː / KYEW) is a particular kind of abstract data type or collection in which the entities in the collection are kept in order and the principle (or only) operations on the collection are the addition of entities to the rear terminal position, known as enqueue, and removal of entities from the front terminal position, known as dequeue. This makes the queue a First - In - First - Out (FIFO) data structure. In a FIFO data structure, the first element added to the queue will be the first one to be removed. This is equivalent to the requirement that once a new element is added, all elements that were added before have to be removed before the new element can be removed. Often a peek or front operation is also entered, returning the value of the front element without dequeuing it. A queue is an example of a linear data structure, or more abstractly a sequential collection. Queues provide services in computer science, transport, and operations research where various entities such as data, objects, persons, or events are stored and held to be processed later. In these contexts, the queue performs the function of a buffer. Queues are common in computer programs, where they are implemented as data structures coupled with access routines, as an abstract data structure or in object - oriented languages as classes. Common implementations are circular buffers and linked lists. Theoretically, one characteristic of a queue is that it does not have a specific capacity. Regardless of how many elements are already contained, a new element can always be added. It can also be empty, at which point removing an element will be impossible until a new element has been added again. Fixed length arrays are limited in capacity, but it is not true that items need to be copied towards the head of the queue. The simple trick of turning the array into a closed circle and letting the head and tail drift around endlessly in that circle makes it unnecessary to ever move items stored in the array. If n is the size of the array, then computing indices modulo n will turn the array into a circle. This is still the conceptually simplest way to construct a queue in a high level language, but it does admittedly slow things down a little, because the array indices must be compared to zero and the array size, which is comparable to the time taken to check whether an array index is out of bounds, which some languages do, but this will certainly be the method of choice for a quick and dirty implementation, or for any high level language that does not have pointer syntax. The array size must be declared ahead of time, but some implementations simply double the declared array size when overflow occurs. Most modern languages with objects or pointers can implement or come with libraries for dynamic lists. Such data structures may have not specified fixed capacity limit besides memory constraints. Queue overflow results from trying to add an element onto a full queue and queue underflow happens when trying to remove an element from an empty queue. A bounded queue is a queue limited to a fixed number of items. There are several efficient implementations of FIFO queues. An efficient implementation is one that can perform the operations -- enqueuing and dequeuing -- in O (1) time. Queues may be implemented as a separate data type, or may be considered a special case of a double - ended queue (deque) and not implemented separately. For example, Perl and Ruby allow pushing and popping an array from both ends, so one can use push and unshift functions to enqueue and dequeue a list (or, in reverse, one can use shift and pop), although in some cases these operations are not efficient. C + + 's Standard Template Library provides a "queue '' templated class which is restricted to only push / pop operations. Since J2SE5. 0, Java 's library contains a Queue interface that specifies queue operations; implementing classes include LinkedList and (since J2SE 1.6) ArrayDeque. PHP has an SplQueue class and third party libraries like beanstalk 'd and Gearman. A simple queue implemented in Ruby: Queues can also be implemented as a purely functional data structure. Two versions of the implementation exist. The first one, called real - time queue, presented below, allows the queue to be persistent with operations in O (1) worst - case time, but requires lazy lists with memoization. The second one, with no lazy lists nor memoization is presented at the end of the sections. Its amortized time is O (1) (\ displaystyle O (1)) if the persistency is not used; but its worst - time complexity is O (n) (\ displaystyle O (n)) where n is the number of elements in the queue. Let us recall that, for l (\ displaystyle l) a list, l (\ displaystyle l) denotes its length, that NIL represents an empty list and CONS ⁡ (h, t) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (CONS) (h, t)) represents the list whose head is h and whose tail is t. The data structure used to implement our queues consists of three linked lists (f, r, s) (\ displaystyle (f, r, s)) where f is the front of the queue, r is the rear of the queue in reverse order. The invariant of the structure is that s is the rear of f without its r (\ displaystyle r) first elements, that is s = f − r (\ displaystyle s = f - r). The tail of the queue (CONS ⁡ (x, f), r, s) (\ displaystyle (\ operatorname (CONS) (x, f), r, s)) is then almost (f, r, s) (\ displaystyle (f, r, s)) and inserting an element x to (f, r, s) (\ displaystyle (f, r, s)) is almost (f, CONS ⁡ (x, r), s) (\ displaystyle (f, \ operatorname (CONS) (x, r), s)). It is said almost, because in both of those results, s = f − r + 1 (\ displaystyle s = f - r + 1). An auxiliary function a u x (\ displaystyle aux) must then be called for the invariant to be satisfied. Two cases must be considered, depending on whether s (\ displaystyle s) is the empty list, in which case r = f + 1 (\ displaystyle r = f + 1), or not. The formal definition is aux ⁡ (f, r, Cons ⁡ (_, s)) = (f, r, s) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (aux) (f, r, \ operatorname (Cons) (\ _, s)) = (f, r, s)) and aux ⁡ (f, r, NIL) = (f ′, NIL, f ′) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (aux) (f, r, (\ text (NIL))) = (f ', (\ text (NIL)), f ')) where f ′ (\ displaystyle f ') is f followed by r reversed. Let us call reverse ⁡ (f, r) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (reverse) (f, r)) the function which returns f followed by r reversed. Let us furthermore assume that r = f + 1 (\ displaystyle r = f + 1), since it is the case when this function is called. More precisely, we define a lazy function rotate ⁡ (f, r, a) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (rotate) (f, r, a)) which takes as input three list such that r = f + 1 (\ displaystyle r = f + 1), and return the concatenation of f, of r reversed and of a. Then reverse ⁡ (f, r) = rotate ⁡ (f, r, NIL) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (reverse) (f, r) = \ operatorname (rotate) (f, r, (\ text (NIL)))). The inductive definition of rotate is rotate ⁡ (NIL, Cons ⁡ (y, NIL), a) = Cons ⁡ (y, a) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (rotate) ((\ text (NIL)), \ operatorname (Cons) (y, (\ text (NIL))), a) = \ operatorname (Cons) (y, a)) and rotate ⁡ (CONS ⁡ (x, f), CONS ⁡ (y, r), a) = Cons ⁡ (x, rotate ⁡ (f, r, CONS ⁡ (y, a))) (\ displaystyle \ operatorname (rotate) (\ operatorname (CONS) (x, f), \ operatorname (CONS) (y, r), a) = \ operatorname (Cons) (x, \ operatorname (rotate) (f, r, \ operatorname (CONS) (y, a)))). Its running time is O (r) (\ displaystyle O (r)), but, since lazy evaluation is used, the computation is delayed until the results is forced by the computation. The list s in the data structure has two purposes. This list serves as a counter for f − r (\ displaystyle f - r), indeed, f = r (\ displaystyle f = r) if and only if s is the empty list. This counter allows us to ensure that the rear is never longer than the front list. Furthermore, using s, which is a tail of f, forces the computation of a part of the (lazy) list f during each tail and insert operation. Therefore, when f = r (\ displaystyle f = r), the list f is totally forced. If it was not the case, the internal representation of f could be some append of append of... of append, and forcing would not be a constant time operation anymore. Note that, without the lazy part of the implementation, the real - time queue would be a non-persistent implementation of queue in O (1) (\ displaystyle O (1)) amortized time. In this case, the list s can be replaced by the integer f − r (\ displaystyle f - r), and the reverse function would be called when s (\ displaystyle s) is 0. This article incorporates public domain material from the NIST document: Black, Paul E. "Bounded queue ''. Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures.
when did season one of fortnite come out	Fortnite - Wikipedia Fortnite is a 2017 online game developed by Epic Games, released as different software packages having different game modes that otherwise share the same general gameplay and game engine. The game modes include Fortnite: Save the World, a cooperative shooter - survival game for up to four players to fight off zombie - like husks and defend objects with fortifications they can build, and Fortnite Battle Royale, a free - to - play battle royale game where up to 100 players fight in increasingly - smaller spaces to be the last person standing. Both game modes were released in 2017 as early access titles; Save the World is available only for Microsoft Windows, macOS, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, while Battle Royale has been released for those platforms, Nintendo Switch, and iOS and Android devices. While both games have been successful for Epic Games, Fortnite Battle Royale became a resounding success, drawing in more than 125 million players in less than a year, and earning hundreds of millions of dollars per month, and since has been a cultural phenomenon. Currently, Fortnite is distributed as two different games, though each game uses the same engine and has similar graphics, art assets, and game mechanics. In both modes, players can use a pickax to knock down existing structures on the map to collect basic resources, like wood, brick, and steel, to build fortifications with, such as walls, floors, and stairs. Such fortification pieces can be edited to add things like windows or doors. The materials used have different durability properties and can be updated to stronger variants using more materials of the same type. Within "Save the World '' this enables players to create defensive fortifications around an objective or trap - filled tunnels to lure husks through. In "Battle Royale '', this provides the means to quickly traverse the map, protect oneself from enemy fire, or to delay an advancing foe. Both game modes are set to be free - to - play titles, though presently, "Save the World '' is in early access and requires purchase to play. Both games are monetized through the use of V - Bucks, in - game currency that can also be earned only through "Save the World ''. V - Bucks in "Save the World '' can be used to buy pinatas shaped like llamas to gain a random selection of items. In "Battle Royale '', V - Bucks can be used to buy cosmetic items like character models or the like, or can also be used to purchase the game 's Battle Pass, a tiered progression of customization rewards for gaining experience and completing certain objectives during the course of a "Battle Royale '' season. Fortnite began from an internal game jam at Epic Games following the publishing of Gears of War 3 around 2011. Though it was not initially one of the developed titles during the jam, the concept of merging the construction game genre, representing games like Minecraft and Terraria, and shooter games arose, leading to the foundation of Fortnite. Development of Fortnite slowed due to several issues, including switching from the Unreal Engine 3 to Unreal 4, a deeper role - playing game approach to extend the life of the game, and a switch of art style from a dark theme to a more cartoonish style. Further, Epic was looking to get into the games as a service model, and brought in Chinese publisher Tencent to help; Tencent took a large stake in Epic as part of this, leading to the departure of several executives, including Cliff Bleszinski, who had been a key part of Fortnite 's development. Fortnite 's approach was changed to be Epic 's testbed for games as a service, and further slowed the development. Ultimately, Epic was able to prepare to release Fortnite as a paid early access title in July 2017, with plans to release it as free - to - play sometime in 2018 while gaining feedback from players to improve the game. With the release of Fortnite Battle Royale, the player - versus - environment mode was distinguished as "Save the World ''. Near the same time that Epic released Fortnite into early access, PlayerUnknown 's Battlegrounds had become a worldwide phenomenon, having sold over 5 million copies three months from its March 2017 release, and drawing strong interest in the battle royale genre. Epic recognized that with the Fortnite base game, they could also do a battle royale mode, and rapidly developed their own version atop Fortnite in about two months. By September 2017, Epic was ready to release this as a second mode from "Save the World '' in the paid - for earlier access, but then later decided to release it as a free game, Fortnite Battle Royale, supported with microtransactions. This version quickly gained players, with over 10 million players during its first two weeks of release, and leading Epic to create separate teams to continue the Fortnite Battle Royale development apart from the "Save the World '' mode, outside of common engine elements and art assets. This allowed Fortnite Battle Royale to expand to other platforms otherwise not supported by the "Save the World '' mode, including iOS and Android mobile devices and the Nintendo Switch. With both modes of Fortnite still considered to be early access, journalists have yet to provide comprehensive reviews of either mode. The Save the World mode achieved over one million players by August 2017, just prior to the release of Battle Royale. Fortnite Battle Royale, on the other hand, became a significant financial success for Epic Games, leading them to separate the teams between Save the World and Battle Royale to provide better support for both modes. Within two weeks of release, over 10 million players had played the mode, and by June 2018, just after the Nintendo Switch release, had reached 125 million players. Revenue from Fortnite Battle Royale during the first half of 2018 had been estimated in the hundreds of millions of dollars per month. Fortnite Battle Royale has also become a cultural online phenomenon, with several celebrities reporting they play the game, and athletes using Fortnite emotes as victory celebrations. A notable streaming event in March 2018, with streamer Tyler "Ninja '' Blevins playing Fortnite Battle Royale alongside Drake, Travis Scott, Kim DotCom, and Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver JuJu Smith - Schuster, broke viewership records for Twitch to date, and led to Epic arranging a Fortnite Battle Royale pro -- am with 50 pairs of streamers and professional players matched with celebrities at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2018 in June 2018. Epic Games is working to develop organized eSports competitions around Fortnite: Battle Royale, including a Fortnite World Cup tournament in 2019. There has also been growing concern over Fortnite Battle Royale 's draw toward young children, emphasized with the release of the mobile client. Parents and teachers had expressed concern that students are being distracted and drawn away from school work due to playing Fortnite.
when does karate kid cobra kai come out	Cobra Kai - wikipedia Cobra Kai is an American comedy - drama web television series based on The Karate Kid film series created by Robert Mark Kamen that premiered on May 2, 2018 on YouTube Red. The television series takes place 34 years after the original film and follows the reopening of the Cobra Kai karate dojo by Johnny Lawrence and the rekindling of his old rivalry with Daniel LaRusso. The series was created by Jon Hurwitz, Hayden Schlossberg, and Josh Heald and stars Ralph Macchio and William Zabka, reprising their roles from the films. On May 10, 2018, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season of ten episodes that is set to premiere in 2019. Cobra Kai takes place 34 years after the original film and follows a "down - and - out Johnny Lawrence, who seeks redemption by reopening the infamous Cobra Kai karate dojo, reigniting his rivalry with a now successful Daniel LaRusso, who has been struggling to maintain balance in his life without the guidance of his mentor, Mr. Miyagi. The show is about two men addressing past demons and present frustrations the only way they know how: through karate. '' Running parallel to the conflict are the story arcs of Johnny and Daniel 's students. Johnny opens a new Cobra Kai dojo that attracts a group of bullied nerds and social outcasts who find a camaraderie and self - confidence under his tutelage, but who take his aggressive philosophy too far, in particular his star pupil, Miguel Diaz. In contrast, Johnny 's estranged son, Robby Keene, comes under the wing of Daniel, who hires the boy at his car dealership, initially not knowing that Johnny is his father. Daniel eventually proves a positive influence to the boy, teaching him Mr. Miyagi 's philosophy of balance. Meanwhile, Daniel 's daughter, Samantha, is caught in the middle of these conflicts as she learns who her true friends are and a better path to follow. Pat Morita and Elisabeth Shue appear via archive footage from the first film as Mr. Miyagi and Ali Mills, respectively. Miguel shows improvement in both his karate skills and his general health. Daniel tries to make a shady deal that could shut down Cobra Kai, but hurts innocent business owners in the process. Samantha 's heavy - set classmate Aisha Robinson joins Cobra Kai, despite Johnny 's initial misgivings about training girls. Samantha discovers that Kyler has been spreading nasty rumors about her in school. When Kyler embarrasses her at school, Miguel stands up for her and attacks him and his friends, defeating them all in an impressive display and gaining Samantha 's respect. Robby decides to try and reconcile with his father, but when he sees Johnny acting in a fatherly way with Miguel, he feels he has been replaced. Amanda notices the changes in Daniel 's behavior since the reopening of Cobra Kai, leading Daniel to visit the grave of Mr. Miyagi to reflect and ask for wisdom. As Daniel begins to drive away, he recalls a discussion he had with Miyagi about maintaining balance in life, not just karate. Some more new students flock to Johnny 's dojo after seeing Miguel 's fight. On August 4, 2017, it was announced that YouTube had given the production a series order to consist of a first season of ten half hour episodes. The series is set to be written and executive produced by Josh Heald, Jon Hurwitz, and Hayden Schlossberg. Hurwitz and Schlossberg will direct multiple episodes of the first season. The trio will be joined as executive producers by James Lassiter and Caleeb Pinkett of Overbrook Entertainment in association with Sony Pictures Television. Alongside the initial series announcement, it was reported that William Zabka and Ralph Macchio were cast in the series ' lead roles reprising their characters of Johnny Lawrence and Daniel LaRusso, respectively, from the original film. On October 24, 2017, the rest of the main cast was announced and included Xolo Maridueña, Mary Mouser, Tanner Buchanan, and Courtney Henggeler. It was also reported that Ed Asner would be appearing in a guest role as Sid Weinberg described as "Johnny 's reluctant stepfather, an old - school, hard - nosed, former studio mogul, who is tired of dealing with his stepson 's failures. '' On December 19, 2017, it was reported that Vanessa Rubio had joined the series in a recurring capacity. On May 24, 2018, it was announced that Martin Kove would reprise his role of John Kreese, after previously appearing in a cameo appearance in the season one finale, as a series regular in season two. Additionally, it was confirmed that Ralph Macchio, William Zabka, Xolo Mariduena, Tanner Buchanan, Mary Mouser, and Courtney Henggeler would return for the second season. In October 2017, principal photography for the series began in Atlanta, Georgia. Filming took place at various locations throughout that month at places including Union City, Marietta, and the Briarcliff Campus of Emory University. Various exterior shots were also filmed in parts of Los Angeles such as Tarzana and Encino. Exterior locations include Golf N ' Stuff in Norwalk and the South Seas Apartments in Reseda, both of which were originally featured in The Karate Kid. On May 10, 2018, it was announced that YouTube Red had renewed the series for a second season consisting of ten episodes. Production is set to begin in late 2018 with the season premiering in 2019. In January 2018, the series was promoted at the annual Television Critics Association 's winter press tour where YouTube 's global head of original content Susanne Daniels described the show saying, "It is a half an hour format but I would call it a dramedy. I think it leans into the tone of the movies in that there are dramatic moments throughout. I think it 's very faithful really in some ways to what the movie set about doing, the lessons imparted in the movie if you will. It 's next generation Karate Kid. '' On February 15, 2018, YouTube released the first teaser trailer for the series. On March 1, 2018, a second teaser trailer was released. A week later, a third teaser trailer was released. On March 21, 2018, the official trailer was released which included the announcement that the show would premiere on May 2, 2018. The series held its world premiere on April 24, 2018 at the SVA Theatre in New York City, New York during the annual Tribeca Film Festival. Following the screening a discussion was held with writers, directors, and executive producers Hayden Schlossberg, Jon Hurwitz, and Josh Heald and series stars and co-executive producers William Zabka and Ralph Macchio. On April 25, 2018, YouTube partnered with Fathom Events for special screenings of the first two episodes of the series at around 700 movie theaters across the United States. The event also included a screening of the original film. The entire series is available on the YouTube Red streaming service in participating countries. However, viewers in select countries, such as Canada, can purchase each episode of the series individually on the regular YouTube service. The series has been met with a positive response from critics. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.29 out of 10 based on 22 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Cobra Kai continues the Karate Kid franchise with a blend of pleasantly corny nostalgia and teen angst, elevated by a cast of well - written characters. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 72 out of 100 based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' YouTube reports that the first episode, which was posted for free with episode 2, earned 5.4 million views within the first 24 hours, compared to 3.2 million views in April 2018 for Netflix 's Lost in Space on its first day of release. While that response is for a free promotional episode, it has been noted by Cinema Blend that, "YouTube Red 's new series debuted to numbers that should make rival streaming services take notice. '' Madison Gate Records released the official soundtrack on May 4, 2018. La La Land Records will release the physical version of the soundtrack with additional tracks in June 2018. All music composed by Leo Birenberg and Zach Robinson.
introduction to analog and digital communications pdf download	Digital revolution - wikipedia The Digital Revolution is the change from mechanical and analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record keeping that continues to the present day. Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during (and after) the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. Central to this revolution is the mass production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone, and the Internet. The notion of the digital revolution is part of the Schumpeterian theory of socio - economic evolution, which consists of an incessant process of creative destruction that modernizes the modus operandi of society as a whole, including its economic, social, cultural, and political organization. The motor of this incessant force of creative destruction is technological change. While the key carrier technology of the first Industrial Revolution (1770 -- 1850) was based on water - powered mechanization, the second Kondratiev wave (1850 -- 1900) was enabled by steam - powered technology, the third (1900 -- 1940) was characterized by the electrification of social and productive organization, the fourth by motorization and the automated mobilization of society (1940 -- 1970), and the most recent one by the digitization of social systems. Each one of those so - called long waves has been characterized by a sustained period of social modernization, most notably by sustained periods of increasing economic productivity. According to Carlota Perez: "this quantum jump in productivity can be seen as a technological revolution, which is made possible by the appearance in the general cost structure of a particular input that we could call the ' key factor ', fulfilling the following conditions: (1) clearly perceived low - and descending - relative cost; (2) unlimited supply for all practical purposes; (3) potential all - pervasiveness; (4) a capacity to reduce the costs of capital, labour and products as well as to change them qualitatively ''. Digital Information and Communication Technologies fulfill those requirements and therefore represent a general purpose technology that can transform an entire economy, leading to a modern, and more developed form of socio - economic and political organization often referred to as the post-industrial society, the fifth Kondratiev, Information society, digital age, and network society, among others. The Agricultural Revolution led to agricultural cities in the ancient world in the Middle East, Mesoamerica, China, the Indus Valley, Southern Europe and South America. The Industrial Revolution and Digital Revolution are now taking place concurrently in China and India as people leave the rural areas for industrial and high tech cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Mumbai. The underlying technology was invented in the later half of the 19th century, including Babbage 's analytical engine and the telegraph. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer. Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format. By doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal and pass it on with no loss of information in the signal. Of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely. The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music. During the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice. In 1947 the transistor was invented, leading the way to more advanced digital computers. In the 1950s and 1960s the military, governments and other organizations had computer systems. From 1969 to 1971, Intel developed the Intel 4004, an early microprocessor that laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s. The public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks. The Whole Earth movement of the 1960s advocated the use of new technology. In the 1970s the home computer was introduced, time - sharing computers, the video game console, the first coin - op video games, and the golden age of arcade video games began with Space Invaders. As digital technology proliferated, and the switch from analog to digital record keeping became the new standard in business, a relatively new job description was popularized, the data entry clerk. Culled from the ranks of secretaries and typists from earlier decades, the data entry clerk 's job was to convert analog data (customer records, invoices, etc.) into digital data. In developed nations, computers achieved semi-ubiquity during the 1980s as they made their way into schools, homes, business, and industry. Automated teller machines, industrial robots, CGI in film and television, electronic music, bulletin board systems, and video games all fueled what became the zeitgeist of the 1980s. Millions of people purchased home computers, making household names of early personal computer manufacturers such as Apple, Commodore, and Tandy. To this day the Commodore 64 is often cited as the best selling computer of all time, having sold 17 million units (by some accounts) between 1982 and 1994. In 1984, the U.S. Census Bureau began collecting data on computer and Internet use in the United States; their first survey showed that 8.2 % of all U.S. households owned a personal computer in 1984, and that households with children under the age of 18 were nearly twice as likely to own one at 15.3 % (middle and upper middle class households were the most likely to own one, at 22.9 %). By 1989, 15 % of all U.S. households owned a computer, and nearly 30 % of households with children under the age of 18 owned one. By the late 1980s, many businesses were dependent on computers and digital technology. Motorola created the first mobile phone, Motorola DynaTac, in 1983. However, this device used analog communication - digital cell phones were not sold commercially until 1991 when the 2G network started to be opened in Finland to accommodate the unexpected demand for cell phones that was becoming apparent in the late 1980s. Compute! magazine predicted that CD - ROM would be the centerpiece of the revolution, with multiple household devices reading the discs. The first true digital camera was created in 1988, and the first were marketed in December 1989 in Japan and in 1990 in the United States. By the mid-2000s, they would eclipse traditional film in popularity. Digital ink was also invented in the late 1980s. Disney 's CAPS system (created 1988) was used for a scene in 1989 's The Little Mermaid and for all their animation films between 1990 's The Rescuers Down Under and 2004 's Home On The Range. Tim Berners - Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989. The first public digital HDTV broadcast was of the 1990 World Cup that June; it was played in 10 theaters in Spain and Italy. However HDTV did not become a standard until the mid-2000s outside Japan. The World Wide Web became publicly accessible in 1991, which had been available only to government and universities. In 1993 Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina introduced Mosaic, the first web browser capable of displaying inline images and the basis for later browsers such as Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. The Internet expanded quickly, and by 1996, it was part of mass culture and many businesses listed websites in their ads. By 1999 almost every country had a connection, and nearly half of Americans and people in several other countries used the Internet on a regular basis. However throughout the 1990s, "getting online '' entailed complicated configuration, and dial - up was the only connection type affordable by individual users; the present day mass Internet culture was not possible. In 1989 about 15 % of all households in the United States owned a personal computer, by 2000, this was up to 51 %; for households with children nearly 30 % owned a computer in 1989, and in 2000 65 % owned one. Cell phones became as ubiquitous as computers by the early 2000s, with movie theaters beginning to show ads telling people to silence their phones. They also became much more advanced than phones of the 1990s, most of which only took calls or at most allowed for the playing of simple games. Text messaging existed in the 1990s but was not widely used until the early 2000s, when it became a cultural phenomenon. The digital revolution became truly global in this time as well - after revolutionizing society in the developed world in the 1990s, the digital revolution spread to the masses in the developing world in the 2000s. In late 2005 the population of the Internet reached 1 billion, and 3 billion people worldwide used cell phones by the end of the decade. HDTV became the standard television broadcasting format in many countries by the end of the decade. By 2012, over 2 billion people used the Internet, twice the number using it in 2007. Cloud computing had entered the mainstream by the early 2010s. By 2015, tablet computers and smartphones were expected to exceed personal computers in Internet usage. In 2016, half of the world 's population is connected. In the late 1980s, less than 1 % of the world 's technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94 % in 2007, with more than 99 % by 2014. The year 2002 is estimated to be the year when human kind was able to store more information in digital, than in analog format (the "beginning of the digital age ''). It is estimated that the world 's capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 1986, to some 5,000 exabytes in 2014 (5 zettabytes). Conversion of below analog technologies to digital. (The decade indicated is the period when digital became dominant form.) Decline or disappearance of below analog technologies: Disappearance of other technologies also attributed to digital revolution. (Analog -- digital classification does n't apply to these.) Improvements in digital technologies. Underlying the digital revolution was the development of the digital electronic computer, the personal computer, and particularly the microprocessor with its steadily increasing performance (as described by Moore 's law), which enabled computer technology to be embedded into a huge range of objects from cameras to personal music players. Equally important was the development of transmission technologies including computer networking, the Internet and digital broadcasting. 3G phones, whose social penetration grew exponentially in the 2000s, also played a very large role in the digital revolution as they simultaneously provide ubiquitous entertainment, communications, and online connectivity. Positive aspects include greater interconnectedness, easier communication, and the exposure of information that in the past could have more easily been suppressed by totalitarian regimes. Michio Kaku wrote in his books Physics of the Future that the failure of the Soviet coup of 1991 was due largely to the existence of technology such as the fax machine and computers that exposed classified information. The Revolutions of 2011 were enabled by social networking and smartphone technology; however these revolutions in hindsight largely failed to reach their goals as hardcore Islamist governments and in Syria a civil war have formed in the absence of the dictatorships that were toppled. The economic impact of the digital revolution has been large. Without the World Wide Web (WWW), for example, globalization and outsourcing would not be nearly as feasible as they are today. The digital revolution radically changed the way individuals and companies interact. Small regional companies were suddenly given access to much larger markets. Concepts such as On - demand services and manufacturing and rapidly dropping technology costs made possible innovations in all aspects of industry and everyday life. After initial concerns of an IT productivity paradox, evidence is mounting that digital technologies have significantly increased the productivity and performance of businesses. Negative effects include information overload, Internet predators, forms of social isolation, and media saturation. In a poll of prominent members of the national news media, 65 percent said the Internet is hurting journalism more than it is helping by allowing anyone no matter how amateur and unskilled to become a journalist; causing information to be muddier and the rise of conspiracy theory in a way it did n't exist in the past. In some cases, company employees ' pervasive use of portable digital devices and work related computers for personal use -- email, instant messaging, computer games -- were often found to, or perceived to, reduce those companies ' productivity. Personal computing and other non-work related digital activities in the workplace thus helped lead to stronger forms of privacy invasion, such as keystroke recording and information filtering applications (spyware and content - control software). Privacy in general became a concern during the digital revolution. The ability to store and utilize such large amounts of diverse information opened possibilities for tracking of individual activities and interests. Libertarians and privacy rights advocates feared the possibility of an Orwellian future where centralized power structures control the populace via automatic surveillance and monitoring of personal information in such programs as the CIA 's Information Awareness Office. Consumer and labor advocates opposed the ability to direct market to individuals, discriminate in hiring and lending decisions, invasively monitor employee behavior and communications and generally profit from involuntarily shared personal information. The Internet, especially the WWW in the 1990s, opened whole new avenues for communication and information sharing. The ability to easily and rapidly share information on a global scale brought with it a whole new level of freedom of speech. Individuals and organizations were suddenly given the ability to publish on any topic, to a global audience, at a negligible cost, particularly in comparison to any previous communication technology. Large cooperative projects could be endeavored (e.g. Open - source software projects, SETI@home). Communities of like - minded individuals were formed (e.g. MySpace, Tribe.net). Small regional companies were suddenly given access to a larger marketplace. In other cases, special interest groups as well as social and religious institutions found much of the content objectionable, even dangerous. Many parents and religious organizations, especially in the United States, became alarmed by pornography being more readily available to minors. In other circumstances the proliferation of information on such topics as child pornography, building bombs, committing acts of terrorism, and other violent activities were alarming to many different groups of people. Such concerns contributed to arguments for censorship and regulation on the WWW. Copyright and trademark issues also found new life in the digital revolution. The widespread ability of consumers to produce and distribute exact reproductions of protected works dramatically changed the intellectual property landscape, especially in the music, film, and television industries. The digital revolution, especially regarding privacy, copyright, censorship and information sharing, remains a controversial topic. As the digital revolution progresses it remains unclear to what extent society has been impacted and will be altered in the future. While there have been huge benefits to society from the digital revolution, especially in terms of the accessibility of information, there are a number of concerns. Expanded powers of communication and information sharing, increased capabilities for existing technologies, and the advent of new technology brought with it many potential opportunities for exploitation. The digital revolution helped usher in a new age of mass surveillance, generating a range of new civil and human rights issues. Reliability of data became an issue as information could easily be replicated, but not easily verified. The digital revolution made it possible to store and track facts, articles, statistics, as well as minutiae hitherto unfeasible. From the perspective of the historian, a large part of human history is known through physical objects from the past that have been found or preserved, particularly in written documents. Digital records are easy to create but also easy to delete and modify. Changes in storage formats can make recovery of data difficult or near impossible, as can the storage of information on obsolete media for which reproduction equipment is unavailable, and even identifying what such data is and whether it is of interest can be near impossible if it is no longer easily readable, or if there is a large number of such files to identify. Information passed off as authentic research or study must be scrutinized and verified. These problems are further compounded by the use of digital rights management and other copy prevention technologies which, being designed to only allow the data to be read on specific machines, may well make future data recovery impossible. Interestingly, the Voyager Golden Record, which is intended to be read by an intelligent extraterrestrial (perhaps a suitable parallel to a human from the distant future), is recorded in analog rather than digital format specifically for easy interpretation and analysis.
what do mother in laws call each other	Parent - in - law - Wikipedia A parent - in - law is a person who has a legal affinity with another by being the parent of the other 's spouse. Many cultures and legal systems impose duties and responsibilities on persons connected by this relationship. A person is a son - in - law or daughter - in - law to the parents of the spouse, who are in turn also the parents of those sisters - in - law and brothers - in - law (if any) who are siblings of the spouse (as opposed to spouses of siblings). Together the members of this family affinity group are called the in - laws. A father - in - law is the father of a person 's spouse. Two men who are fathers - in - law to each other 's children may be called co-fathers - in - law, or, if there are grandchildren, co-grandfathers. A mother - in - law is the mother of a person 's spouse. Two women who are mothers - in - law to each other 's children may be called co-mothers - in - law, or, if there are grandchildren, co-grandmothers. In comedies, the mother - in - law is sometimes shown as the bane of the husband, who is married to the mother - in - law 's daughter. Mothers - in - law are often stereotyped in mother - in - law jokes. Some Australian Aboriginal languages use avoidance speech, so - called "mother - in - law languages '', special sub-languages used when in hearing distance of taboo relatives, most commonly the mother - in - law. A mother - in - law suite is also a type of dwelling, usually guest accommodations within a family home that may be used for members of the extended family.
who is the traitor in london has fallen	London Has Fallen - wikipedia London Has Fallen is a 2016 American action thriller film directed by Babak Najafi and written by Creighton Rothenberger, Katrin Benedikt, Chad St. John and Christian Gudegast. It is a sequel to Antoine Fuqua 's 2013 film Olympus Has Fallen and stars Gerard Butler, Aaron Eckhart and Morgan Freeman, with Alon Moni Aboutboul, Angela Bassett, Robert Forster, Jackie Earle Haley, Melissa Leo, Radha Mitchell, Sean O'Bryan, Waleed Zuaiter and Charlotte Riley in supporting roles. Filming began in London on October 24, 2014. A Christmas break started in November with filming resuming in February 2015. The film was released by Focus Features under their recently revived Gramercy Pictures label on March 4, 2016, and grossed $205 million worldwide. However, the critical reception was generally negative, with Variety accusing it of fear - mongering and "terrorsploitation '' while The A.V. Club named it worst film of the year. A third film, titled Angel Has Fallen, is in development and has started filming in 2018. Western intelligence services of the G8 track down Pakistani arms dealer Aamir Barkawi (Alon Moni Aboutboul) as the mastermind behind several terrorist attacks, and authorize an American drone strike on Barkawi 's compound, apparently killing Barkawi and his family. Two years later, UK Prime Minister James Wilson suddenly dies, and arrangements are made for the Western world leaders to attend his funeral in London. Secret Service Director Lynne Jacobs (Angela Bassett) assigns agent Mike Banning (Gerard Butler), a close friend of U.S. President Benjamin Asher (Aaron Eckhart), to lead Asher 's security detail while overseas, even though Banning 's wife Leah (Radha Mitchell) is due to give birth to their child in a few weeks. The entourage arrives via Air Force One at Stansted Airport, and Banning pushes their arrival at the Somerset House in London via Marine One earlier. As Asher 's Presidential State Car arrives at St Paul 's Cathedral, a series of coordinated attacks by terrorists disguised as Metropolitan Police, the Queen 's Guardsmen, and other first responders erupts, killing the other Western leaders, damaging or destroying major landmarks and generating mass panic. Asher 's early arrival has thrown the attack on him at St. Paul 's off - guard, and Banning is able to rescue Asher and Jacobs and rushes them back to Marine One. As the helicopter and its escorts takes off, terrorists fire Stinger missiles at them, destroying the escorts and forcing the damaged helicopter to crash - land in Hyde Park. Banning and Asher suffer only minor wounds, but Jacobs is fatally injured, and she makes Banning promise to stay alive for his unborn child and get back at whomever did this. Banning quickly escorts Asher into the London Underground as the city 's power is lost and people take shelter in their homes. In Washington, D.C., U.S. Vice President Allan Trumbull (Morgan Freeman) works with the British authorities to investigate the incident while trying to track down the President. Trumbull receives a call from Barkawi, still alive after all and operating out of Yemen. The man takes responsibility for the attacks, coordinated by his son Kamran (Waleed Zuaiter). Barkawi purposely had Wilson poisoned to lure the Western leaders to London to attack them. Barkawi knows Asher is still alive, and promises that if Kamran captures him, he will broadcast the execution of the President on the Internet. Trumbull orders his intelligence staff to locate Barkawi 's known operatives to find any connection to the attack, while British authorities have all first responders stand down, so that any left in the open can be identified as terrorists. After leaving a sign to be picked up by satellite tracking, Banning leads Asher to an MI6 safe - house, where Jacqueline "Jax '' Marshall (Charlotte Riley) briefs them on what their intelligence has learned. Marshall receives a voice message from Trumbull that confirms they saw Banning 's sign and that an extraction team is en route. Security monitors show the approach of a Delta Force team, but Banning suspects they have arrived far too soon and may be more terrorists. He covers and fights off the terrorists before Asher and Banning drive away, but their car is struck by a truck driven by terrorists, allowing them to kidnap Asher. Banning is rescued by the extraction team, a combined Delta Force / S.A.S. squad. They also suspect that there is a mole in the British government. Trumbull 's staff have identified a building in London owned by one of Barkawi 's companies, which still appears to be drawing massive amounts of power despite supposedly being under construction and unoccupied, and suspect it is Kamran 's headquarters. Banning joins the extraction team to infiltrate the building and stop Kamran before he can kill Asher. Banning and Asher escape just before the building is destroyed by the Delta Force / SAS squad, killing Kamran and the remaining terrorists. Marshall has worked with British authorities to restore London 's security system and, discovering that MI5 Intelligence Chief John Lancaster (Patrick Kennedy) aided in Barkawi 's attack, she kills him. Meanwhile, Trumbull contacts Barkawi to tell him that his plan failed, and then to look outside, moments before the building is destroyed by another drone strike, killing him. Two weeks after the attack on London, Banning is home spending time with Leah and their newborn child, named Lynne after his deceased boss. He sits in front of his laptop and contemplates sending his letter of resignation. On TV, Trumbull speaks regarding the recent events, leaving an inspiring message that the U.S. will prevail. This convinces Banning to delete the letter. Butler, Eckhart, Freeman, Bassett, Leo, Forster and Mitchell reprised their roles from Olympus Has Fallen. Production had been scheduled to begin in May 2015 in London, with Creighton Rothenberger and Katrin Benedikt returning to write the script. Director Antoine Fuqua, however, did not return, due to his commitments with The Equalizer. On May 1, 2014, it was announced Focus Features had acquired distribution rights to the sequel, and would release the film on October 2, 2015. On August 18, 2014, it was announced that Charlie Countryman director Fredrik Bond would take over direction from Fuqua, but Bond left the film on September 18, six weeks before the shooting was to begin. On September 28, director Babak Najafi signed on to direct the film. On October 10, Jackie Earle Haley joined the film to play Deputy Chief Mason. On November 12, Mehdi Dehbi joined the film to play Sultan Mansoor, the youngest of three brothers whose life has been forever changed after a drone strike. Principal photography began on October 24, 2014, in London. Four weeks of shooting were to take place, involving actors Freeman, Eckhart, Bassett and Melissa Leo, before a break for Christmas. Gerard Butler - who had been filming Geostorm the previous October - joined the shoot later, filming scenes with Eckhart in March 2015. A helicopter was seen making an expert landing in the courtyard of Somerset House, which is normally used to host London Fashion Week and summer film screenings. Butler and Angela Bassett were seen filming in Somerset House. Butler stated in an interview that the movie was also filmed in India and was to continue in Bulgaria. The President of Bulgaria, Rosen Plevneliev, visited the set of London Has Fallen during filming at Boyana Cinema Center in Bulgaria. Filming lasted through April 2015. The music was composed by Trevor Morris, who provided the score for the first film. The record was released on March 4, 2016, by Back Lot Music. On May 20, 2015, Focus Features relaunched their Gramercy Pictures label for action, horror, and science fiction releases, with London Has Fallen being one of Gramercy 's first titles. The film was planned for an October 2, 2015, release, however, on June 12, 2015, it was announced that the film had been moved back to January 22, 2016, to avoid competition with The Martian, which swapped its original November 25 release date with Victor Frankenstein. On July 1, 2015, the film 's teaser trailer was released. The timing of the release was criticized as "insensitive '' by the Chair of the Tavistock Square Memorial Trust, Philip Nelson, as it coincided with the week of the 10th anniversary of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, in which 52 people were killed, and with the 2015 Sousse attacks, in which 30 British nationals were killed. On September 16, 2015, the film 's release was moved back again to March 4, 2016, because the studios needed more time to finish the film 's visual effects. The U.S. trailer was released on November 5, 2015. A new theatrical poster of the film was released on January 21, 2016. London Has Fallen was released on Blu - ray and DVD on June 14, 2016. London Has Fallen grossed $62.7 million in North America and $143.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $205.9 million, against a budget of $60 million. The film outgrossed its predecessor 's total of $170 million. In the United States and Canada, pre-release tracking suggested the film would gross $20 -- 23 million from 3,490 theaters in its opening weekend, trailing fellow newcomer Zootopia ($60 -- 70 million projection) but besting Whiskey Tango Foxtrot ($10 -- 12 million projection). The film made $850,000 from its Thursday night previews and $7.6 million on its first day. It went on to gross $21.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing second at the box office behind Zootopia ($75 million). On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 25 % based on 181 reviews, with an average rating of 3.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "London Has Fallen traps a talented cast -- and all who dare to see it -- in a mid-1990s basic - cable nightmare of a film loaded with xenophobia and threadbare action - thriller clichés. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 28 out of 100, based on reviews from 35 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same grade used in the predecessor. Panning the film, Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote: "A murky, brain - dead stab - a-thon packed with so many inane chases, laughable special effects, and mismatched stock footage shots that it begs to be made into a drinking game, London Has Fallen is one of those rare films that is good at absolutely nothing. '' The A.V. Club later picked it as their worst movie of the year. Variety described London Has Fallen as "terrorsploitation '' fantasy designed to spread fear after the November 2015 Paris attacks and "ugly, reactionary fear - mongering. '' The film has been called "extremely insensitive '' by families of the victims of the 7 / 7 bombings after an early trailer was released ahead of the 10th anniversary of the attacks. On October 26, 2016, it was announced that a sequel titled Angel Has Fallen is in development, with Gerard Butler reprising his role, as well as once again acting as a producer on the film. On July 25, 2017, Ric Roman Waugh was announced as director for Angel Has Fallen. On January 10, 2018, Holt McCallany joined the cast as Wade Jennings, an ex-military turned head of a technology company. On January 18, 2018, Jada Pinkett Smith and Tim Blake Nelson are confirmed to appear in Angel Has Fallen and the filming of it is set to start on February 7, 2018. On February 13, 2018, Piper Perabo joined the cast. Angel Has Fallen has started filming in Virginia Water Lake.
who does mr pilkington represent in animal farm	Pilkington (Animal Farm) - wikipedia Mr. Pilkington of Foxwood Farm is a fictional human character in George Orwell 's satirical novel Animal Farm. Pilkington is based on Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Mr Pilkington has a larger but more unkempt farm, and is on bad terms with Mr Frederick of Pinchfield Farm. Frederick 's farm is adjacent to Animal Farm on the opposite side, to which Animal Farm acts as a buffer zone, sandwiched between Pinchfield and Foxwood. Frederick is in ways the antithesis of Pilkington; he is comparatively poorer and has less land than Pilkington; however Pinchfield is more efficiently run and more productive than Foxwood. Despite the bickering between Frederick and Pilkington, there are two factors both respectfully agree upon: they are frightened of the animal revolution that deposed Mr Jones, the original owner, fearing that their own animals may stage similar revolutions on their farmsteads, and both continue to call "Animal Farm '' by its original name of "Manor Farm '', as they believe the name "Animal Farm '' is an unofficial endorsement of the animal revolution. Mr Pilkington at first offered to buy Napoleon 's pile of surplus timber, but the timber is also sought after by Mr. Frederick, which Napoleon instigates the trade war by spreading messages of "Death to Pilkington ''. Napoleon plays both sides by feigning friendship with Pilkington to get Frederick to pay a higher price for the timber. Through Napoleon 's human aide Mr. Whymper, Napoleon furiously learns that Frederick got the timber for free as he paid in counterfeit money. Napoleon orders the slogan "Death to Pilkington '' changed to "Death to Frederick ''. Immediately after the bum deal, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and ultimately destroying the windmill with blasting powder. Napoleon parlays his new "Death to Frederick '' slogan into an attempt to rebuild relations with Pilkington by sending a message for aid against a common enemy, but this proves too little too late as the "Death to Pilkington '' slogans are recent memory, and Napoleon gets a sole response from Pilkington which reads "Serves you right ''. Pilkington and several other of the men working on the farm are invited to a meeting by Napoleon and the pigs, where Napoleon reintroduces Animal Farm 's "new '' name of The Manor Farm. Pilkington praises Napoleon for the extreme strictness that he imposes upon the animals, forbidding them any time to enjoy themselves. He talks about the misunderstandings in the past that had been rectified. "You have your lower animals, '' he jokingly consents, "and we have our lower classes. '' The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. At the end of the novel, both Napoleon and Pilkington play the Ace of Spades (which in most games, is the highest - ranking card) at the same time and begin fighting loudly. Pilkington represents western capitalist countries, specifically the sprawling British Empire which was crumbling during World War II. This is in contrast to Frederick, who has the opposite scenario of a smaller, better managed farm run by an unscrupulous, violent owner (an allegory of Germany). After the end of World War II, the Cold War began between the ' West ' and the Soviet Union, similar to the end of the meeting where both Napoleon and Pilkington play a simultaneous Ace of Spades, then get into an argument over it. In the 1999 film adaptation of the novel, Pilkington is portrayed by Alan Stanford. In the film, he is the first human to enter into trade agreements with Animal Farm, beginning regular deals with Napoleon. He considers it more practical to trade with the animals after learning that they can talk, believing that they are incapable of coping on their own, and dismissing claims that other animals are starving in favour of the benefits to himself.
where was what's the story morning glory recorded	(What 's the Story) Morning Glory? - Wikipedia (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? is the second studio album by English rock band Oasis, released on 2 October 1995 by Creation Records. It was produced by Owen Morris and the group 's guitarist Noel Gallagher. The structure and arrangement style of the album were a significant departure from the group 's previous record Definitely Maybe. Gallagher 's compositions were more focused in balladry and placed more emphasis on huge choruses, with the string arrangements and more varied instrumentation on the record contrasting with the rawness of the group 's debut album. (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? was the group 's first album with drummer Alan White, who replaced Tony McCarroll. The record propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon, and according to various critics, was a significant record in the timeline of British indie music. The band 's most commercially successful release, (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? sold a record - breaking 347,000 copies in its first week on sale, spent 10 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart, and reached number four in the US Billboard 200. Singles from the album were successful in Britain, America and Australia: "Some Might Say '' and "Do n't Look Back in Anger '' reached number one in the UK; "Champagne Supernova '' and "Wonderwall '' reached number one on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart, with "Wonderwall '' also topping the Australian and New Zealand singles charts. Although a commercial smash, the record received initially lukewarm reviews from mainstream music critics; many contemporary reviewers deemed it inferior to Definitely Maybe, with the songwriting and production particular points of criticism. In the ensuing years, however, critical opinion towards the album reversed, and it is now generally considered a seminal record of both the Britpop era, and the 1990s in general. Over several months in 1995 and 1996, the band performed an extensive world tour in support of the album. The most notable of the concerts were two Knebworth House performances in August to a combined crowd of 250,000 people. At the 1996 Brit Awards, the album won Best British Album. At the 2010 Brit Awards, (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? was named the greatest British album since 1980. It has sold over 22 million copies worldwide, and appears on several lists of the greatest albums in rock music. As of July 2016, it is the UK 's fifth best - selling album of all time, having sold over 4.7 million copies. In May 1995, in the wake of the critical and commercial success of their 1994 debut album, Definitely Maybe, Oasis began recording Morning Glory at Rockfield Studios in Wales, with Welshman Owen Morris and Noel Gallagher producing. By the time they were finished in June 1995, Oasis were on the brink of becoming one of the most popular bands in the UK: the August 1995 Battle of Britpop incident in which Oasis and Blur had a chart battle over their singles "Roll with It '', and "Country House '', would propel them to mainstream awareness. The band recorded the album quickly: early on, averaging almost one song every twenty - four hours. However, tension arose between songwriter Noel Gallagher and his younger brother, lead singer Liam, when Noel wanted to sing lead vocals on either "Wonderwall '' or "Do n't Look Back in Anger ''. The younger Gallagher considered this tantamount to a temporary exile from his own group. The issue dissipated momentarily as Noel was pleased with Liam 's vocal take of "Wonderwall ''. However, tension returned due to Liam 's strained attempts to sing the high notes on "Champagne Supernova ''. When Noel subsequently took his turn to record his vocals for "Do n't Look Back in Anger '', Liam went to a local pub and came back accompanied by a crowd of people, including music journalist John Robb who was producing the band Cable in nearby studio Monnow Valley, Wales whilst recording was still underway. After an altercation with Cable that infuriated his brother, the siblings then began fighting viciously, the session was abandoned and recording was suspended. When the Gallagher brothers were reconciled three weeks later, the group spent another two weeks working on the album, followed by post-production work in London. Despite the friction involved between the Gallagher brothers, Owen Morris reflected in 2010 that: "The sessions were the best, easiest, least fraught, most happily creative time I 've ever had in a recording studio. I believe people can feel and hear when music is dishonest and motivated by the wrong reasons. Morning Glory, for all its imperfection and flaws, is dripping with love and happiness. '' Paul Weller joined them in the studio and provided lead guitar and backing vocals for "Champagne Supernova '', and harmonica for the two untitled tracks known as "The Swamp Song ''. Noel wrote the last song for the album, "Cast No Shadow '', on the train as he returned to the studio. Morris claimed the album was recorded in 15 days, at a pace of one song a day. "Some Might Say '' proved problematic to record: the backing track was recorded in one take after Noel Gallagher and Morris drunkenly listened to the demo and decided the new version was played too fast, and Noel woke the rest of the band to re-record it. The backing track was faster than intended, with what Morris described as "a really bad speed up during the first three bars of the first chorus '', but the take had to be used because those involved were impressed with Liam 's vocals, and Morris had to mix the track three times, using delay and other processing to hide the mistakes. When the album was finished, Morris said it would "wipe the field with any competition... It 's astonishing. It 's the Bollocks for this decade. '' The brickwall mastering technique utilised during the recording of the album has led to some journalists claiming that it was responsible for initiating the loudness war, as its heavy use of compression, first widely used by Morris on Definitely Maybe, was leaps and bounds beyond what any other album up until then had attempted. Music journalist Nick Southall, who has written extensively on the loudness war, commented, "If there 's a jump - the - shark moment as far as CD mastering goes then it 's probably Oasis. '' In Britpop and the English Music Tradition Andy Bennet and John Stratton noted that as a result of this technique "the songs were especially loud. (Liam) Gallagher 's voice is foregrounded to the point that it appears to grow out of the mixes of the songs, exposing itself to execute a pseudo-live quality. '' John Harris commented in his music history Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock that much of the music on (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? seemed to be "little more inspired than a string of musical hand - me - downs ''. Among the musical cues Harris noted on the album were Gary Glitter 's "Hello, Hello I 'm Back Again '' ("Hello '', Glitter was an influence on Britpop), the theme to the 1970s children 's programme You and Me and The Beatles ' "While My Guitar Gently Weeps '' ("She 's Electric ''), and the influence of R.E.M 's "The One I Love '' on "Morning Glory ''. One song, "Step Out '', bore such a close resemblance to the song "Uptight (Everything 's Alright) '' by Stevie Wonder that it was removed from the album shortly before release due to the threat of legal action. In Britpop..., Bennet and Stratton analysed Liam Gallagher 's vocal style in significant detail, stressing its importance to the songs of the album; "(Liam 's) Mancunian accent blends into a register and timbre that works the gestural contours of the melody and lyrics. '' Bennet and Stratton went on to conclude that Liam 's ' over-personalized ' style on songs such as "Wonderwall '' resulted in "a beautiful sense of sentimentality that bespeaks the despondency of a generation. This occurs through the narrative structure of the song, vocal production, and the conventions of the singer 's cultural context. '' Noel Gallagher summed up his own perspective on the album 's aesthetic in an interview with Rolling Stone in 1995; "Whilst (Definitely Maybe) is about dreaming of being a pop star in a band, What 's the Story is about actually being a pop star in a band. '' The album has a notable anthemic theme to its songs, differing from the rawness and edged rock of Definitely Maybe. The use of string arrangements and more varied instrumentation in songs such as "Do n't Look Back in Anger '' and "Champagne Supernova '' was a significant departure from the band 's debut. This style had first been implemented by the band on their fifth single, "Whatever '', released in December 1994. It was produced in conjunction with the London Symphony Orchestra, resulting in a much more pop - oriented and mellower sound; this would be the template that would come to define many of the songs on What 's the Story. In the BBC documentary Seven Ages of Rock, former NME chief editor Steve Sutherland noted that "with Morning Glory, (Noel) began to take seriously the notion of being the voice of a generation ''. The cover is a picture of two men passing each other on Berwick Street in London. The two men are London DJ Sean Rowley and album sleeve designer Brian Cannon (back to the camera). The album 's producer Owen Morris can be seen in the background, on the left footpath, holding the album 's master tape in front of his face. The location was chosen because the street was a popular location for record shops at the time. The cover cost £ 25,000 to produce. Whilst "Some Might Say '', a number one hit, had been released in April, the single chosen to directly precede the album 's release was "Roll with It '', planned for release on 14 August, six weeks before the album was due to hit the shelves. This was an unorthodox method for the time, contrasting the standard industry procedure of releasing the lead single three weeks before its parent album. Blur 's management had become worried that this would hinder the chances of the group 's forthcoming "Country House '' single reaching number one the following week. As a reaction, Food Records pushed the release of "Country House '' back a week and thus started what became known as ' The Battle of Britpop '. The event triggered an unprecedented amount of exposure for both bands in national newspapers and on television news bulletins, supposedly symbolising the battle between the middle class of the south and the working class of the north. In the midst of the battle a Guardian newspaper headline proclaimed "Working Class Heroes Lead Art School Trendies ''. In the event "Country House '' outsold "Roll with It '' by 54,000, and topped the singles chart for a fortnight. Overall singles sales that week were up by 41 percent. In 2005, John Harris reflected on the importance of the event in popularising Britpop; "(as) Blur 's "Country House '' raced Oasis ' "Roll with It '' to the top of the charts, just about every voice in the media felt compelled to express an opinion on the freshly inaugurated age of Britpop. '' During a promotional interview in September, the month before the album was released, Noel spoke about the rivalry with Damon Albarn and Alex James from Blur, and was quoted in the 17 September edition of The Observer saying he hoped "the pair of them would catch AIDS and die because I fucking hate them two. '' Although Noel recanted and said that AIDS is no laughing matter, the quote caused a storm of controversy, with Noel having to write a letter of apology; he later confessed that "my whole world came crashing down in on me then ''. However, in an interview with The Guardian in 2005, Blur 's guitarist Graham Coxon explained that he bore no malice towards Oasis. "At least they were outright about it. They were n't pretending to like us and then slagging us off, which is what we 'd been used to. In that way, I quite appreciated them. '' What 's the Story was released on 2 October 1995. The album sold quickly; the Daily Mirror reported the day after release that central London HMV stores were selling copies of the album at a rate of two per minute. At the end of the first week of sales, the album had sold a record - breaking 347,000 copies, making it (at the time) the second - fastest - selling album in British history, behind Michael Jackson 's Bad. After initially entering the UK charts at number one, it hovered around the top three for the rest of the year before initiating a six - week stay at the top in mid January, followed by a further three weeks at number one in March. In total, the album did n't leave the top three for an astonishing seven months. After the fourth single from the album, "Wonderwall '', hit the top ten in several countries, including stays at number one in Australia, New Zealand and Spain, and a peak at number eight in the US, the album began to enjoy prolonged international success. Eventually the album had a five - week run at the top of the Australian albums chart and an eight - week run at the top of the New Zealand albums chart before topping charts in Canada, Ireland, Sweden and Switzerland. The album was also making significant waves in the US market as well, thanks in part to the success of the "Wonderwall '' and "Champagne Supernova '' singles on American modern rock radio. Both songs reached number one on the Modern Rock Chart and stayed there for ten and five weeks respectively. By early 1996, What 's the Story was selling 200,000 copies a week, eventually peaking at number four and being certified four times platinum by the end of the year for shipments of over four million units. The band embarked on what would become a 103 show world tour in support of the album over a period of several months in 1995 and 1996. The tour started on 22 June 1995 with a pre-Glastonbury festival warm up gig at the 1,400 capacity Bath Pavilion, which featured the debut of new drummer Alan White and several new songs off the album, and ended on 4 December 1996 at the 11,800 capacity Mayo Civic Centre in Rochester, Minnesota, USA, and included concerts at Earls Court in November 1995 and Cardiff International Arena in March 1996. The tour had many disruptions and cancellations due to Noel twice walking out of the group, and Liam pulling out of a US leg. In September 1995, bass player Paul McGuigan walked out on the group after a flurry of verbal abuse from Liam whilst doing interviews in Paris. ' Guigsy ' cited nervous exhaustion as the reason for his departure. Scott Mcleod of The Ya - Yas was brought in as his replacement; though, despite playing a string of gigs with the band and appearing in the video for the "Wonderwall '' single, Mcleod was unable to adapt to the frenetic celebrity lifestyle, duly returning to Manchester halfway through an American promotional tour for the album. The band played a few dates, including an appearance on Late Show with David Letterman, as a four piece, before McGuigan was convinced to return for the group 's Earls Court shows in early November. When the band broke up for a brief time in late 1996, several US tour dates and the entire Australia and New Zealand leg had to be cancelled. As the band began to reach the peak of their popularity, several large open - air concerts were organized in the UK during 1996, including two gigs at Manchester City football stadium Maine Road, two nights at Loch Lomond in Scotland, and two nights at Knebworth House in front of a record 125,000 people each night; an event that would come to be acknowledged as the height of the Britpop phenomenon, with one journalist commenting; "(Knebworth) could be seen as the last great Britpop performance; nothing after would match its scale. '' At the time, the concerts were the biggest gigs ever held for a single band on UK soil, and to date remain the largest demand ever for a British concert; with reportedly over 2,500,000 applications for tickets. The Earl 's Court and Maine Road gigs were filmed and later released as the Oasis VHS / DVD... There and Then. What 's the Story was released to lukewarm reviews from the mainstream music press. Many contemporary reviewers expressed disappointment at the album 's perceived inferiority to Definitely Maybe, taking aim at the ' banal lyrics ' and the unoriginal nature of the compositions. David Cavanagh of Q magazine said of the lyrics "They scan; they fill a hole; end of story. They (say) nothing much about anything. '' Andy Gill of The Independent commented that "She 's Electric '' is laddism of a tiresomely generic kind (whilst) "Roll With It '' is drab and chummy. '' Perhaps the most damning review came from David Stubbs of the now - defunct Melody Maker. Despite stating that "Some Might Say '' was "the best single of the year '', Stubbs went on to be critical of the album as a whole; "What 's the Story (sounds) laboured and lazy. On this evidence, Oasis are a limited band... they sound knackered. '' In a positive review, Rolling Stone 's Jon Weiderhorn wrote that "What 's the Story is more than a natural progression, it 's a bold leap forward that displays significant musical and personal growth. '' Weiderhorn went on to note that the ' stormy ' relationship between Liam and Noel proved to be one of the album 's strengths; "tension and instability have been inherent traits of great rock teams... for Oasis, the addition of shared genes gives their songs extra impact and dimension. '' NME said that the album shows Oasis pursuing "an altogether different direction; away from the conscience - free overloaded hedonism towards an understanding of its consequences ''. The album finished 10th in the voting for The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll. In his book Britpop!, John Harris concluded that the initial negative reviews of the time missed the album 's universal strengths. "Those who fussed about the music 's more artful aspects were missing the point. The fact that (Noel 's) songs contained so many musical echoes seemed to couch the album in an air of homely reassurance. '' Harris believed that the "ordinary '' nature of some of the album 's songs "turned out to be part of its deeply populist appeal ''. Rob Sheffield, writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), called the album "a triumph, full of bluster and bravado but also moments of surprising tenderness ''. Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic in his retrospective review and gave it a two - star honorable mention, indicating a "likable effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy. '' He cited "She 's Electric '' and "Roll with It '' as highlights and quipped "give them credit for wanting it all -- and (yet another Beatles connection!) playing guitars ''. (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? is considered to be a seminal record of the Britpop era and as one of the best albums of the nineties, and it appears in several charts as one of the greatest albums of all time. In 2010, Rolling Stone commented that "the album is a triumph, full of bluster, bravado and surprising tenderness. Morning Glory capped a true golden age for Britpop. '' The magazine ranked the album at 378 on its 2012 list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time ''. The album 's enduring popularity within the UK was reflected when it won the BRITs Album of 30 years at the 2010 BRIT Awards. The award was voted by the public to decide the greatest ' Best Album ' winner in the history of the BRIT Awards. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. What 's the Story went on to become the best - selling album of the decade in the UK. With its fourteen platinum certifications from the British Phonographic Industry and four platinum certifications from the Recording Industry Association of America. The fourteen platinum certifications in the UK were the highest ever awarded to a single record until Adele 's 21, released in 2011. The success of the album resulted in Oasis becoming one of the biggest bands in the world, with substantial and considerable press coverage in the mainstream music press and frequent comparisons to the Beatles in the media. Liam and Noel Gallagher both featured prominently in gossip columns and daily tabloids throughout 1996 -- 97. What 's the Story propelled Oasis from being a crossover indie act to a worldwide rock phenomenon after the momentum gained by the critically acclaimed Definitely Maybe. It has been pinpointed by music critics as a significant record in the timeline of British indie music, demonstrating just how far into the mainstream independent music had ventured. In 2005, John Harris noted the significance of the album and "Wonderwall '' in particular to Britpop 's legacy. "When (Oasis) released Wonderwall, the rules of British music were decisively changed. From hereon in, the lighter - than - air ballad became obligatory, and the leather - trousers era of rock'n'roll was over. '' The success of the album in Britain resulted in Oasis becoming a cultural ubiquity for a brief period, featuring in tabloid newspapers on an almost daily basis and breaking sales records for live concerts. On the other hand, while reviewing the most overrated albums of all time, where Morning Glory ranked number 16, writer Max Easton of FasterLouder wrote that the album is "full of anthems for the sake of anthems, '' and that "they 're all variations on only a couple of good ideas. '' He concluded by saying, "What 's the Story 's lasting place in ' 90s folklore is less about the quality of the album, and more about the celebrity status and faux imagery attached to it. '' All tracks written by Noel Gallagher, except where noted. The (What 's the Story) Morning Glory? box set was released on 4 November 1996, featuring four discs of singles, including B - sides, and one disc of interviews. The album charted at number 24 on the UK Albums Chart. All songs written by Noel Gallagher, except "Cum on Feel the Noize '' by Noddy Holder and Jim Lea; "Step Out '' co-written by Stevie Wonder, Henry Cosby and Sylvia Moy. As part of a promotional campaign entitled Chasing the Sun, the album was re-released on 29 September 2014. The 3 - disc deluxe edition includes remastered versions of the album and its associated b - sides from the four UK singles. Bonus content includes 5 demo tracks, and live choices taken from the band 's iconic gigs at Earls Court, Knebworth Park and Maine Road. All tracks written by Noel Gallagher, except where noted. Oasis Additional musician Additional personnel sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone Footnotes Bibliography
when do the next nfl football game come on	2017 NFL season - wikipedia The 2017 NFL season is the 98th and current season in the history of the National Football League (NFL). The season began on September 7, 2017, with the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots 42 -- 27 in the NFL Kickoff Game. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LII, the league 's championship game, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. For the second consecutive year, a team relocated to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, as the former San Diego Chargers announced their intent to relocate to the area in January 2017. The 2017 NFL League year began on March 9 at 4: 00 p.m. ET. On March 7, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who became unrestricted free agents upon the expiration of their contracts two days later. On March 9, clubs exercised options for 2017 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submitted qualifying offers to their restricted free agents with expiring contracts and to whom desire to retain a Right of Refusal / Compensation, submitted a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2016 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit, and teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a collected salary cap hit below the actual cap). The 2017 trading period also began the same day. A total of 496 players were eligible for some form of free agency at the beginning of the free agency period. Among the high - profile players who changed teams via free agency were cornerbacks A.J. Bouye (from Texans to Jaguars), Logan Ryan (from Patriots to Titans), and Stephon Gilmore (from Bills to Patriots); safeties Barry Church (from Cowboys to Jaguars), Johnathan Cyprien (from Jaguars to Titans), Micah Hyde (from Packers to Bills), and Tony Jefferson (from Cardinals to Ravens); linebackers Jabaal Sheard (from Patriots to Colts), Malcolm Smith (from Raiders to 49ers), and Manti Te'o (from Chargers to Saints); defensive tackles Johnathan Hankins (from Giants to Colts) and Calais Campbell (from Cardinals to Jaguars); offensive tackles Andrew Whitworth (from Bengals to Rams), Kelvin Beachum (from Jaguars to Jets), Matt Kalil (from Vikings to Panthers), Mike Remmers (from Panthers to Vikings), Ricky Wagner (from Ravens to Lions), Riley Reiff (from Lions to Vikings), and Russell Okung (from Broncos to Chargers); offensive guards Kevin Zeitler (from Bengals to Browns), Larry Warford (from Lions to Saints), Ronald Leary (from Cowboys to Broncos), and T.J. Lang (from Packers to Lions); tight ends Martellus Bennett (from Patriots to Packers) and Jared Cook (from Packers to Raiders); wide receivers Alshon Jeffery (from Bears to Eagles), Brandon Marshall (from Jets to Giants), DeSean Jackson (from Redskins to Buccaneers), Kenny Britt (from Rams to Browns), Pierre Garçon (from Redskins to 49ers), Robert Woods (from Bills to Rams), Terrelle Pryor (from Browns to Redskins), and Torrey Smith (from 49ers to Eagles); running backs Latavius Murray (from Raiders to Vikings), Adrian Peterson (from Vikings to Saints), Eddie Lacy (from Packers to Seahawks), and Jamaal Charles (from Chiefs to Broncos); fullbacks Mike Tolbert (from Panthers to Bills) and Patrick DiMarco (from Falcons to Bills); quarterback Mike Glennon (from Buccaneers to Bears). The 2017 NFL Draft was held on April 27 -- 29, 2017 in Philadelphia. The Cleveland Browns selected Myles Garrett with the first overall pick. Training camps for the 2017 season were held in late July through August. Teams started training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game. Prior to the start of the regular season, each team played four preseason exhibition games, beginning on August 10. The preseason began on the evening of August 3 with the 2017 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, that featured the Dallas Cowboys (represented in the 2017 Hall of Fame Class by owner Jerry Jones) who hosted Arizona Cardinals (represented by former quarterback and 2017 Hall of Famer Kurt Warner). It was televised nationally on NBC. The 64 - game preseason schedule ended on August 31; a 65th game, that of the 2017 Texas Governor 's Cup, was canceled due to the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey. The 2017 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule which began on September 7. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday nights. There are games played on Thursday, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 7 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate of 16 games on Sunday, December 31, all of which will be intra -- division matchups, as it has been since 2010. Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two teams in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2017 will be as follows. Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC West AFC North vs AFC South NFC East vs NFC West NFC North vs NFC South Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC South AFC North vs NFC North AFC South vs NFC West AFC West vs NFC East Highlights of the 2017 schedule include: The entire schedule was released on April 20, 2017. The following games were moved or canceled because of severe weather, by way of flexible scheduling, or for other reasons: x Clinched playoff berth. y Clinched division title. z Clinched first - round bye. † Eliminated from playoff contention. The 2017 playoffs will begin on the weekend of January 6 -- 7, 2018 with the Wild Card playoff round. The four winners of these playoff games will visit the top two seeded teams in each conference in the Divisional round games, which will be played on the weekend of January 13 -- 14, 2018. The winners of those games will advance to the Conference championship games, which will be held on January 21, 2018. The two Conference champions will advance to Super Bowl LII which will be held on February 4, 2018 at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis. The 2018 Pro Bowl will be held at Camping World Stadium on January 28, 2018. The New England Patriots can clinch: The Pittsburgh Steelers can clinch a first - round bye with a win AND a Jacksonville Jaguars loss. The Jacksonville Jaguars can clinch the AFC South division title with: The Tennessee Titans can clinch a playoff berth with a win AND losses by the Baltimore Ravens AND the Buffalo Bills. The Kansas City Chiefs can clinch the AFC West division title with: The Philadelphia Eagles can clinch home - field advantage throughout the NFC playoffs with: The Minnesota Vikings can clinch a first - round bye with a win AND a Carolina Panthers loss. The New Orleans Saints can clinch: The Carolina Panthers can clinch a playoff berth with a win. The Atlanta Falcons can clinch a playoff berth with a win. The Los Angeles Rams can clinch: Source for clinching scenarios During a September 22, 2017 speech, the President of the United States, Donald Trump made controversial remarks criticizing the practice of taking a knee during the playing of the national anthem -- a practice popularized by Colin Kaepernick in 2016 as part of an effort to protest racial inequality and police brutality. Trump suggested that those who partake in the practice were disrespecting the country 's heritage, and asked his audience, "would n't you love to see one of these NFL owners, when somebody disrespects our flag, to say, ' Get that son of a bitch off the field right now. Out! He 's fired. He 's fired! ' '' During the subsequent weekend of games, over 200 players protested the anthem in protest of the remarks, by either kneeling or locking arms. The Pittsburgh Steelers, Tennessee Titans and Seattle Seahawks chose to not go out on field at all during the anthem. On December 17, 2017, Jerry Richardson, owner of the Carolina Panthers, announced he was putting the team up for sale. Richardson had previously indicated the team would be put up for sale after his death (since his only living son left the team in 2009), but an exposé in Sports Illustrated accused Richardson of paying hush money to cover up questionable conduct, including racial slurs and sexually suggestive requests of employees, hastening Richardson 's decision. The Panthers ' lease on Bank of America Stadium expires after the 2018 season, which would allow any incoming owner to relocate the team out of the Carolinas to another market of their choice without penalty if they so desired. The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2017. Dan Rooney was chairman and plurality owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers and one of the sons of founding owner Art Rooney, Sr. Having been officially involved with the franchise since 1960, Rooney was a part of all six of the Steelers ' Super Bowl victories. In addition to this, Rooney was considered an active and progressive owner in the league 's operations, most famously by successfully pushing for the Rooney Rule, an affirmative action policy requiring all NFL franchises to interview persons of color for head coaching vacancies. Concurrently with his role with the Steelers, Rooney also served as United States Ambassador to Ireland from 2009 to 2014. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2000, making him and his father the second father - son duo in the Hall behind Tim & Wellington Mara (to whom the Rooneys are related by marriage). Rooney died on April 13 at the age of 84. The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the owners ' meeting on March 28, 2017: The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the NFL Spring League meeting on May 23, 2017: The following will be "points of emphasis '' for the 2017 season: The ban on teams contacting potential coaching candidates until that candidate 's team has been eliminated from the playoffs was tabled. The following were named the top performers during the 2017 season: Vance Joseph, who spent the previous season as the Miami Dolphins ' defensive coordinator, was hired on January 11, 2017. Anthony Lynn was hired as the Chargers ' new head coach on January 12, 2017. The Atlanta Falcons will play their first season at Mercedes - Benz Stadium, after playing in the Georgia Dome for the previous 25 seasons. The stadium in which the Arizona Cardinals play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. The University of Phoenix, which owns the naming rights to the Cardinals ' home field, is planning to terminate the final nine years of a 20 - year agreement, but will continue to keep its name on the stadium. The stadium in which the Denver Broncos play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. Sporting goods retailer Sports Authority, which had owned the naming rights to the Broncos ' home field since 2011, filed for bankruptcy in March 2016, and liquidated all of their stores. The Broncos bought out the existing naming rights contract with permission from the Delaware District United States bankruptcy court in August 2016. Three months later, the Broncos selected American talent agency WME - IMG to secure a new naming rights partner for their home field, which, to date, still carries the name Sports Authority Field at Mile High. On January 12, 2017, the San Diego Chargers exercised their option to relocate to Los Angeles as the Los Angeles Chargers. They will be joining the Los Angeles Rams as tenants in their new stadium, Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, California when that stadium is complete in 2020. For the time being, the Chargers will play at the 30,000 seat StubHub Center in Carson, California, the smallest venue (in terms of number of seats) the league has used for a full season since 1956. On January 19, 2017, the Oakland Raiders filed paperwork to relocate to Las Vegas, Nevada. The NFL officially approved the Raiders relocation to Las Vegas on March 27. Unlike the Chargers, the Raiders will remain at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum through at least the 2018 season (with the 2019 season to be determined) while Las Vegas Stadium is built, with the team moving to Nevada in 2019 or 2020. The Los Angeles Rams, who had capped season ticket sales at 55,000 for the 2017 season, announced to have 60,128 spectators in the first home game on week 1. However, reports estimate that spectators only filled a third of the 93,607 seats of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Los Angeles Chargers did not sell out their week 2 game at the StubHub Center, which was never expanded to 30,000 seats as originally stated and has typically had less than 26,000 fans in attendance. When the StubHub Center is at capacity, the majority of the fans present are of the opposing team. The Los Angeles teams were not the only ones with visible attendance problems. The San Francisco 49ers reported a Week 3 attendance total that exceeded the capacity of Levi 's Stadium, even as wide swaths of empty seats were visible in the stadium throughout the game. This followed similar sparse attendance for the 49ers ' home opener. Even the Dallas Cowboys, a team whose fan base is among the largest in the United States, played their week 13 Thursday Night Football game in front of a half - empty AT&T Stadium. The lifting of the league 's blackout policy was cited as one factor in the decline in ticket sales, as viewers would rather watch from the comfort of their homes, especially when weather conditions were less than ideal. At a Buffalo Bills / Indianapolis Colts game held in blinding lake - effect snow on December 10, scalpers said they had not sold any tickets, an extreme rarity. Indeed, a majority of television sets in all Western New York were tuned into some portion of the game, the highest viewership for a non-Super Bowl NFL game in the region since record - keeping began. This is the fourth season under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday Afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. NBC will also serve as the broadcaster of Super Bowl LII. This will also be the second and final year of the current Thursday Night Football contract with CBS, NBC, and NFL Network. Along with ESPN 's simulcasted Wild Card game on ABC, ESPN announced on May 24, 2017, that the 2018 Pro Bowl will also be simulcast on ABC, marking the return of the Pro Bowl to the network for the first time since 2003. For the first 9 weeks of the regular season, ESPN2 simulcasted ESPN Deportes ' Spanish - language Monday Night Football broadcasts. The simulcasts ended after Week 9 due to ESPN2 's Monday - night college basketball broadcasts. Although never explicitly announced, the league continued the moratorium on its blackout policy, ensuring all games will be televised in the market of their home teams regardless of ticket sales. Because of fog and smoke obstruction, NBC was forced to televise large portions of two of their Sunday Night Football games from the skycam angle. Positive reception led NBC to experiment with increased usage of the angle as a primary view during its November 16 and December 14 Thursday Night Football telecasts. Because the angle distorts distance, the traditional sideline camera angle was used for close - yardage situations such as the red zone. In over-the - top rights, Amazon Video acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television Thursday Night Football games for $50 million. These streams are exclusive to paid Amazon Prime subscribers, in contrast to Twitter, which held the rights to the same package in 2016 and had made those streams free to most of the world. Verizon Communications acquired international streaming rights to an NFL London Game between the Baltimore Ravens and Jacksonville Jaguars, in a similar arrangement to the 2015 game that was streamed by Yahoo! -- which was acquired by Verizon in 2017. The game was streamed by Yahoo and other Verizon - owned platforms, including AOL, go90, and Complex. NFL Network remains a partner with Twitter for online content, including its new streaming news program NFL Blitz Live. The NFL also reached a deal with Facebook in September 2017 to offer video highlights following games, and streaming programs on the service 's new Watch platform. This is the final season of the NFL 's exclusive mobile streaming contract with Verizon Wireless; the league intends to no longer have a single exclusive partner going forward, citing changes to viewing habits. On December 11, 2017, the NFL announced that it had agreed to a new 5 - year, $2.5 billion digital rights agreement with Verizon, allowing it to stream in - market Sunday afternoon games, as well as all nationally televised games, across its mobile platforms. Unlike the previous deal, these streams will no longer be exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers, as Verizon plans to leverage the divisions of its digital media subsidiary Oath (including the aforementioned Yahoo and go90) as a platform to promote these streams to a larger audience, as well as other digital content and expanded highlights rights. As part of the agreement, Verizon will begin allowing access to its existing mobile streams to non-customers for the 2017 - 18 playoffs. As the new contract is non-exclusive, the NFL 's television partners may negotiate to add the mobile streaming rights that were reserved to Verizon under the previous contract; NBC was the first to do so. Two new international digital rights deals led to user criticism over their quality of service. In Canada, NFL Sunday Ticket shifted from distribution through television providers to the over-the - top provider DAZN, while in Europe, Deltatre took over European distribution of NFL Game Pass and launched new mobile apps. Both services faced criticism over their streaming quality, while Delatre 's app faced criticism for having bugs and initially lacking features seen in the previous version of the platform. The Independent exposed that Deltatre had also issued an internal e-mail instructing its employees to give the apps 5 - star reviews. DAZN subsequently announced that it would return to distributing Sunday Ticket through Canadian television providers in addition to their OTT service. This is the final season of the NFL 's current national radio contract with Westwood One. The league has sought to reduce the number of standard commercial breaks (media timeouts) on its telecasts from 21 to 16, four in each quarter, with each break extended by one additional 30 - second commercial. One particular scenario the league sought to eliminate is the "double - up, '' in which a network cuts to a commercial after a scoring play, then airs the kickoff, and again goes to commercial before play from scrimmage resumes. Under the proposal, the league will allow networks to cut to commercial during instant replay reviews, which it had not been allowed to do before. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the changes are being made in an attempt to consolidate downtime between the actual game play so that there are fewer and less noticeable interruptions; he does not expect the changes to have an appreciable impact on the real - time length of a game, which currently clocks in at slightly over three hours. The NFL has also, as a trial, lifted its ban on the broadcast of commercials for distilled spirits during its telecasts. However, they are subject to restrictions; a maximum of four liquor ads may be broadcast per - game, along with two per - pregame and postgame show. These ads may not contain football - related themes or target underage viewers, and must contain a "prominent social responsibility message ''. Tony Romo, who announced his retirement as a player on April 4, 2017, joined CBS, where he replaced Phil Simms as lead color commentator. Simms and Nate Burleson, who comes over from NFL Network, will replace Tony Gonzalez and Bart Scott on CBS 's pregame show, The NFL Today. Jay Cutler also announced his retirement from professional football on May 5 and was slated to join Fox as a color analyst for its NFL coverage; he later rescinded that announcement in August and joined the Miami Dolphins. Gonzalez will move to Fox, where he will join Fox NFL Kickoff; upon his departure, Gonzalez stated that he wished to pursue opportunities closer to his home in California, rather than travel to New York weekly to appear on CBS. James Lofton, coming over from radio, will replace Solomon Wilcots as a CBS analyst. On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels on play - by - play on NBC 's portion of the Thursday Night Football package, joined by Cris Collinsworth. The NFL had previously required this role to be filled by NBC 's lead broadcast team of Michaels and Collinsworth; Tirico called a limited slate of games in 2016, including several NBC - broadcast games as a fill - in for Michaels (who voluntarily took several games off due to the increased number he was calling that season), and as part of a secondary team for selected games the TNF package. He will also succeed Bob Costas as the lead studio host for NBC. However, due to its proximity to the 2018 Winter Olympics (where he is also succeeding Bob Costas as lead host), Tirico will not participate in NBC 's Super Bowl LII coverage. Beth Mowins became the second woman to call play - by - play for a national NFL broadcast, following Gayle Sierens in 1987, when she served as play - by - play announcer for the nightcap in ESPN 's Week 1 Monday Night doubleheader, with Rex Ryan as her color commentator. In an unusual case of a broadcaster working for two networks in the same season, Mowins also called a regional game for CBS in Week 3 and Week 15, with Jay Feely as her partner. * Note -- Late DH matchups listed in table are the matchups that were shown to the largest percentage of the market.
who won the maximum medals in asian games 2018	2018 Asian Games medal Table - wikipedia The 2018 Asian Games, officially known as the XVIII Asiad, is the largest sporting event in Asia governed by Olympic Council of Asia (OCA). It was held at Jakarta and Palembang, Indonesia between 18 August -- 2 September 2018, with 465 events in 40 sports and disciplines featured in the Games. This resulted in 465 medal sets being distributed. Two bronze medals were awarded in some sports: all events in Badminton (7), Boxing (10), Bridge (6), Fencing (12), Judo (15), Jujitsu (8), Kabaddi (2), Karate (12), Kurash (7), Sambo (4), Sepak takraw (6), Soft tennis (5), Squash (4), Table tennis (5), Taekwondo (14), tennis (5) and wrestling (18), most events in pencak silat (10) and some events in wushu (6). Furthermore, there was a third - place tie in Athletics Men 's High Jump event, giving a total of 157 additional bronze medals. As a result, a total of 1,552 medals comprising 465 gold medals, 465 silver medals, and 622 bronze medals were awarded to athletes. * Host nation (Indonesia) On 3 September 2018, it was announced that Pürevdorjiin Orkhon of team Mongolia had tested positive for Stanozolol in a urine test conducted on 20 August 2018. Violating the anti-doping rules, Orkhon was stripped of her gold medal.
who has the most 5 star wrestling matches	Dave Meltzer - wikipedia David Allen Meltzer (born October 24, 1959) is an American journalist covering professional wrestling and mixed martial arts. Since 1983, he has been the publisher / editor of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter (WON). He has also written for the Oakland Tribune, the Los Angeles Times, Yahoo! Sports, and The National Sports Daily. He has extensively covered mixed martial arts since UFC 1 in 1993 and currently covers the sport for SB Nation. He has been called "the most accomplished reporter in sports journalism '' by Frank Deford of Sports Illustrated. He is also a frequent lecturer on many aspects of the business of MMA, professional wrestling, and boxing at the Graduate School of Business, Stanford University. Meltzer was born in New York City, lived in upstate New York until he was ten, before his family settled in San Jose, California. Meltzer earned a journalism degree from San Jose State University and started out as a sports writer for the Wichita Falls Times Record News and the Turlock Journal. He demonstrated an interest in professional wrestling and a journalistic approach to it early in life. Meltzer wrote several wrestling - related publications that predate WON, dating back to 1971. The most notable of these was the California Wrestling Report, ca. 1973 -- 1974, which reported on the still - extant National Wrestling Alliance territories operating out of Los Angeles and San Francisco. The beginnings of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter (WON) date back to 1980, when Meltzer began an annual poll amongst those with whom he corresponded regarding professional wrestling. According to Meltzer, he was just a fan at first. A short time later, he began maintaining a tape - trading list, and would occasionally send match results and news updates along with tape updates. Meltzer stated that he wanted to keep his friends in college "in the loop '' for his tape trading as well as the happenings in the business, as the mainstream wrestling magazines catered to a somewhat younger demographic. Meltzer popularized the "star rating '' system (devised by Jim Cornette and his childhood friend Norm M. Dooley), which rates matches on a scale of zero to five stars (sometimes going to negative five stars in the case of very bad matches) in a similar manner to that used by many movie critics. As in the field of film, a rating is a largely subjective affair that may take into account the amount of action as opposed to restholds ("workrate ''), the difficulty and variety of moves used, the history of the workers and their feud, the development of an in - match storyline based on the wrestling moves and how they affect the wrestlers, and the overall reaction of the crowd. Five - star matches, as rated by Meltzer, are extremely rare. The latest was Donovan Dijak vs. Keith Lee from Pro Wrestling Guerrilla 's Battle of Los Angeles 2017 Night 3. 94 matches have received the honor since Dynamite Kid and Tiger Mask I were the inaugural "five star match ''. Mitsuharu Misawa has the most five - star matches with 23 (including one match wrestling as Tiger Mask II). Meltzer has also given ratings that have exceeded five - stars, giving a six - star rating to a match between Mitsuharu Misawa and Toshiaki Kawada, and to the Wrestle Kingdom 11 match between Kazuchika Okada and Kenny Omega on January 4, 2017. Meltzer went even further beyond the six - star rating in June 2017, when he gave the Dominion 6.11 in Osaka - jo Hall rematch between Okada and Omega 61⁄4 (* * * * * * 1 / 4) stars. Meltzer continued going past the five - star rating for two matches in the 2017 G1 Climax; giving the third match between Okada and Omega 6 stars and the final between Omega and Tetsuya Naito 53⁄4 stars. Despite this rating system representing only the subjective opinion of one individual, wrestlers, such as Bret Hart, have written how proud they were when their performances were praised in the WON.
what is the capital of trindad and tobago	Trinidad and Tobago - Wikipedia Trinidad and Tobago (/ ˈtrɪnɪdæd... təˈbeɪɡoʊ / (listen), / toʊ - /), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is a twin island sovereign state that is the southernmost nation of the West Indies in the Caribbean. It is situated 130 kilometres (81 miles) south of Grenada off the northern edge of the South American mainland, 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) off the coast of northeastern Venezuela. It shares maritime boundaries with Barbados to the northeast, Grenada to the northwest, Guyana to the southeast, and Venezuela to the south and west. The island of Trinidad was a Spanish colony from the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1498 until Spanish governor Don José María Chacón surrendered the island to a British fleet under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1797. During the same period, the island of Tobago changed hands among Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers more times than any other island in the Caribbean. Trinidad and Tobago were ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens as separate states and unified in 1889. Trinidad and Tobago obtained independence in 1962 and became a republic in 1976. As of 2015, Trinidad and Tobago had the third highest GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP) in the Americas after the United States and Canada. It is recognised by the World Bank as a high - income economy. Unlike most of the English - speaking Caribbean, the country 's economy is primarily industrial with an emphasis on petroleum and petrochemicals. The country 's wealth is attributed to its large reserves and exploitation of oil and natural gas. Trinidad and Tobago is known for its Carnival celebration and as the birthplace of steelpan drums, the limbo, and music styles such as calypso, soca, parang and chutney. Historian E.L. Joseph claimed that Trinidad 's Amerindian name was Cairi or "Land of the Humming Bird '', derived from the Arawak name for hummingbird, ierèttê or yerettê. However, Boomert claims that neither cairi nor caeri means hummingbird and tukusi or tucuchi does. Others have reported that kairi and iere simply mean island. Christopher Columbus renamed it "La Isla de la Trinidad '' ("The Island of the Trinity ''), fulfilling a vow made before setting out on his third voyage of exploration. Tobago 's cigar - like shape may have given it its Spanish name (cabaco, tavaco, tobacco) and possibly its Amerindian names of Aloubaéra (black conch) and Urupaina (big snail), although the English pronunciation is / təˈbeɪɡoʊ /, rhyming with lumbago, sago, and "may go ''. Trinidad and Tobago are islands situated between 10 ° 2 ' and 11 ° 12 ' N latitude and 60 ° 30 ' and 61 ° 56 ' W longitude. At the closest point, Trinidad is just 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) from Venezuelan territory. Covering an area of 5,128 km (1,980 sq mi), the country consists of the two main islands, Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous smaller landforms, including Chacachacare, Monos, Huevos, Gaspar Grande (or Gasparee), Little Tobago, and St. Giles Island. Trinidad is 4,768 km (1,841 sq mi) in area (comprising 93.0 % of the country 's total area) with an average length of 80 km (50 mi) and an average width of 59 kilometres (37 mi). Tobago has an area of about 300 km (120 sq mi), or 5.8 % of the country 's area, is 41 km (25 mi) long and 12 km (7.5 mi) at its greatest width. Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, and are thus geologically considered to lie entirely in South America. The terrain of the islands is a mixture of mountains and plains. The highest point in the country is found on the Northern Range at El Cerro del Aripo, which is 940 metres (3,080 ft) above sea level. As the majority of the population live in the island of Trinidad, this is the location of most major towns and cities. There are four major municipalities in Trinidad: Port of Spain, the capital, San Fernando, Arima and Chaguanas. The main town in Tobago is Scarborough. Trinidad is made up of a variety of soil types, the majority being fine sands and heavy clays. The alluvial valleys of the Northern Range and the soils of the East -- West Corridor are the most fertile. The Northern Range consists mainly of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous metamorphic rocks. The Northern Lowlands (East -- West Corridor and Caroni Plains) consist of younger shallow marine clastic sediments. South of this, the Central Range fold and thrust belt consists of Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary rocks, with Miocene formations along the southern and eastern flanks. The Naparima Plains and the Nariva Swamp form the southern shoulder of this uplift. The Southern Lowlands consist of Miocene and Pliocene sands, clays, and gravels. These overlie oil and natural gas deposits, especially north of the Los Bajos Fault. The Southern Range forms the third anticlinal uplift. It consists of several chains of hills, most famous being the Trinity Hills. The rocks consist of sandstones, shales, siltstones and clays formed in the Miocene and uplifted in the Pleistocene. Oil sands and mud volcanoes are especially common in this area. The climate is tropical. There are two seasons annually: the dry season for the first five months of the year, and the rainy season in the remaining seven of the year. Winds are predominantly from the northeast and are dominated by the northeast trade winds. Unlike most of the other Caribbean islands, both Trinidad and Tobago have frequently escaped the wrath of major devastating hurricanes, including Hurricane Ivan, the most powerful storm to have passed close to the islands in recent history, in September 2004. In the Northern Range, the climate is often different in contrast to the sweltering heat of the plains below. With constant cloud and mist cover, and heavy rains in the mountains, the temperature is much cooler. Record temperatures for Trinidad and Tobago are 39 ° C (102 ° F) for the high in Port of Spain, and a low of 12 ° C (54 ° F). Because Trinidad and Tobago lie on the continental shelf of South America, their biological diversity is unlike that of most other Caribbean islands, and has much in common with that of Venezuela. The main ecosystems are: coastal and marine (coral reefs, mangrove swamps, open ocean and seagrass beds); forest; freshwater (rivers and streams); karst; man - made ecosystems (agricultural land, freshwater dams, secondary forest); and savanna. On 1 August 1996, Trinidad and Tobago ratified the 1992 Rio Convention on Biological Diversity, and it has produced a biodiversity action plan and four reports describing the country 's contribution to biodiversity conservation. The reports formally acknowledged the importance of biodiversity to the well - being of the country 's people through provision of ecosystem services. Information about vertebrates is good, with 472 bird species (2 endemics), about 100 mammals, about 90 reptiles (a few endemics), about 30 amphibians (a few endemics), 50 freshwater fish and at least 950 marine fish. Information about invertebrates is dispersed and very incomplete. About 650 butterflies, at least 672 beetles (from Tobago alone) and 40 corals have been recorded. Although the list is far from complete, 1647 species of fungi, including lichens, have been recorded. The true total number of fungi is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7 % of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered. A first effort to estimate the number of endemic fungi tentatively listed 407 species. Information about micro-organisms is dispersed and very incomplete. Nearly 200 species of marine algae have been recorded. The true total number of micro-organism species must be much higher. Thanks to a recently published checklist, plant diversity in Trinidad and Tobago is well documented with about 3,300 species (59 endemic) recorded. Both Trinidad and Tobago were originally settled by Amerindians of South American origin. Trinidad was first settled by pre-agricultural Archaic people at least 7,000 years ago, making it the earliest settled part of the Caribbean. Ceramic - using agriculturalists settled Trinidad around 250 BC, and then moved further up the Lesser Antillean chain. It was known as ' Land of the Humming Bird ' by the indigenous peoples. At the time of European contact, Trinidad was occupied by various Arawakan - speaking groups including the Nepoya and Suppoya, and Cariban - speaking groups such as the Yao, while Tobago was occupied by the Island Caribs and Galibi. Columbus reported seeing Tobago on the distant horizon in 1498, naming it Bellaforma, but did not land on the island. The present name of Tobago is thought to be a corruption of its old name, "Tobaco ''. The Dutch and the Courlanders (people from the small Duchy of Courland and Semigallia belonging to Polish Commonwealth -- modern - day Latvia) established themselves in Tobago in the 16th and 17th centuries and produced tobacco and cotton. Over the centuries, Tobago changed hands between Spanish, British, French, Dutch and Courlander colonizers. Britain consolidated its hold on both islands during the Napoleonic Wars, and they were combined into the colony of Trinidad and Tobago in 1889. As a result of these colonial struggles, Amerindian, Spanish, French and English place names are all common in the country. African slaves and Chinese, Indian, Tamil and free African indentured labourers, as well as Portuguese from Madeira, arrived to supply labour in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Emigration from Barbados and the other Lesser Antilles, Venezuela, Syria and Lebanon also impacted on the ethnic make - up of the country. Christopher Columbus encountered the island of Trinidad on 31 July 1498. In the 1530s, Antonio de Sedeño, a Spanish soldier intent on conquering the island of Trinidad, landed on its southwest coast with a small army of men. He intended to subdue the Orinoco and the Warao, the two major Amerindian peoples of the island, and rule over them in the name of the Spanish king. Sedeño and his men fought the native Carib Indians on many occasions, and subsequently built a fort. The next few decades were generally spent in warfare with the natives, until in 1592, the ' Cacique ' (native chief) Wannawanare (also known as Guanaguanare) granted the area later known as "St. Josephs '' to Domingo de Vera e Ibargüen, and withdrew to another part of the island. The settlement of San José de Oruña (St. Joseph) was established by Antonio de Berrío on this land. Only a couple of years later, Sir Walter Raleigh arrived in Trinidad on 22 March 1595. He was in search of the long - rumoured "City of Gold '' supposedly located in South America. He soon attacked San José, captured and interrogated Antonio de Berrío, and obtained much information from him and from the Cacique Topiawari. Raleigh then went on his way, and the Spanish authority was restored. The next century (the 1600s) passed without major incident but sustained attempts by the Spaniards to control and rule over the Amerindians, and especially the exertions of the missionaries, were preparing grounds for an outburst. In 1687, the Catholic Catalan Capuchin friars were given responsibility for the conversions of the indigenous people of Trinidad and the Guianas. After 1687, they founded several missions in Trinidad, supported and richly funded by the state, which also granted encomienda over the native people to them. One such mission was Santa Rosa de Arima, established in 1789, when Amerindians from the former encomiendas of Tacarigua and Arauca (Arouca) were relocated further west. The missions aimed at conversion and cultural deracination, which were naturally unwelcome to the target population. Escalating tensions between the Spaniards and Amerindians culminated in the Arena Massacre which took place in 1699. Amerindians bound to the Church 's encomienda at the mission at Arena / Arima revolted, killing the priests and desecrating the church. They then ambushed the governor and his party, who were on their way to visit the church. The uprising resulted in the death of several hundred Amerindians, of the Roman Catholic priests connected with the mission of San Francisco de los Arenales, of the Spanish Governor José de León y Echales and of all but one member of his party. Among those killed in the governor 's party was Juan Mazien de Sotomayor, missionary priest to the Nepuyo villages of Cuara, Tacarigua and Arauca. Order was eventually restored and the Spanish authority was re-established. Another century passed, and during the 1700s, Trinidad was an island province belonging to the Viceroyalty of New Spain, together with Central America, present - day Mexico and the Southwestern United States. However, Trinidad in this period was still mostly forest, populated by a few Spaniards with their handful of slaves and a few thousand Amerindians. Indeed, the population in 1777 was only 1400, and Spanish colonisation in Trinidad remained tenuous. Since Trinidad was considered underpopulated, Roume de St. Laurent, a Frenchman living in Grenada, was able to obtain a Cédula de Población from the Spanish king Charles III on 4 November 1783. A Cédula de Población had previously been granted in 1776 by the king, but had not shown results, and therefore the new Cédula was more generous. It granted free land and tax exemption for 10 years to Roman Catholic foreign settlers who were willing to swear allegiance to the King of Spain. The land grant was 30 fanegas (13 hectares / 32 acres) for each free man, woman and child and half of that for each slave that they brought with them. It was fortuitous that the Cédula was issued only a few years before the French Revolution. During that period of upheaval, French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from the neighbouring islands of Martinique, Saint Lucia, Grenada, Guadeloupe and Dominica migrated to Trinidad, where they established an agriculture - based economy (sugar and cocoa). These new immigrants established local communities in Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Paramin, Cascade, Carenage and Laventille. Trinidad 's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. By 1797, the population of Port of Spain had increased from under 3,000 to 10,422 in five years, and consisted of people of mixed race, Spaniards, Africans, French republican soldiers, retired pirates and French nobility. The total population of Trinidad was 17,718, of which 2,151 were of European ancestry, 4,476 were "free blacks and people of colour '', 10,009 were slaves and 1,082 Amerindians. The sparse settlement and slow rate of population - increase during Spanish rule (and even during British rule) made Trinidad one of the less populated colonies of the West Indies, with the least developed plantation infrastructure. In 1797, a British force led by General Sir Ralph Abercromby launched the invasion of Trinidad. His squadron sailed through the Bocas and anchored off the coast of Chaguaramas. The Spanish Governor Chacón decided to capitulate without fighting. Trinidad thus became a British crown colony, with a French - speaking population and Spanish laws. British rule was formalized under the Treaty of Amiens (1802). British rule led to an influx of settlers from the United Kingdom and the British colonies of the Eastern Caribbean. English, Scots, Irish, German and Italian families arrived. Under British rule, new estates were created and the import of slaves did increase, but this was the period of abolitionism in England and the slave trade was under attack. Slavery was abolished in 1833, after which former slaves served an "apprenticeship '' period which ended on 1 August 1838 with full emancipation. An overview of the populations statistics in 1838, however, clearly reveals the contrast between Trinidad and its neighbouring islands: upon emancipation of the slaves in 1838, Trinidad had only 17,439 slaves, with 80 % of slave owners having fewer than 10 slaves each. In contrast, at twice the size of Trinidad, Jamaica had roughly 360,000 slaves. After slaves were emancipated, plantation owners were in severe need of labour. The British authorities filled this need by instituting a system of indentureship. Various nationalities were contracted under this system, including East Indians, Chinese and Portuguese. Of these, the East Indians were imported in the largest numbers, starting from 1 May 1845, when 225 Indians were brought in the first shipment to Trinidad on the Fatel Razack, a Muslim - owned vessel. Indentureship of the East Indians lasted from 1845 to 1917, during which more than 147,000 Indians were brought to Trinidad to work on sugarcane plantations. They added what was initially the second - largest population grouping to the young nation, and their labour developed previously underdeveloped plantation lands. The indentureship contract was exploitative, such that historians including Hugh Tinker were to call it "a new system of slavery ''. People were contracted for a period of five years, with a daily wage as low as 25 cents in the early 20th century, and they were guaranteed return passage to India at the end of their contract period. However, coercive means were often used to retain labourers, and the indentureship contracts were soon extended to 10 years after the planters complained that they were losing their labour too early. In lieu of the return passage, the British authorities soon began offering portions of land to encourage settlement; however, the numbers of people who did receive land grants is unclear. East Indians entering the colony were also subject to particular crown laws which segregated them from the rest of Trinidad 's population, such as the requirement that they carry a pass with them once off the plantations, and that if freed, they carry their "Free Papers '' or certificate indicating completion of the indenture period. The ex-Indentureds came to constitute a vital and significant section of the population, as did the ex-slaves. Alongside sugarcane, the cacao (cocoa) crop also contributed greatly to economic earnings in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the 1920 -- 1930 period, the collapse of the sugarcane industry concomitant with the failure of the cocoa industry resulted in widespread depression among the rural and agricultural workers in Trinidad, and encouraged the rise of the Labour movement. This movement was led by Arthur Cipriani and Tubal Uriah "Buzz '' Butler, who, in combination with his Indian partners (notably Adrian Cola Rienzi), aimed to unite the working class and agricultural labour class to achieve a better standard of living for them, as well as to hasten the departure of the British. This effort was severely undermined by the British Home Office and by the British - educated Trinidadian elite, many of whom were descended from the plantocracy themselves. They instigated a vicious race politicking in Trinidad aimed at dividing the class - based movement on race - based lines, and they succeeded, especially since Butler 's support had collapsed from the top down. Petroleum had been discovered in 1857, but became economically significant only in the 1930s and afterwards, as a result of the collapse of sugarcane and cocoa, and increasing industrialization. By the 1950s, petroleum had become a staple in Trinidad 's export market, and was responsible for a growing middle class among all sections of the Trinidad population. The collapse of Trinidad 's major agricultural commodities, followed by the Depression, and the rise of the oil economy, led to major changes in the country 's social structure. Trinidad started to gain rights in the early 1900s. They achieved the right to vote in 1924. In the 1940s the citizens pushed for a self run internal government. Trinidad and Tobago gained its independence from the United Kingdom on 31 August 1962. Elizabeth II remained head of state as Queen of Trinidad and Tobago. Eric Williams, a noted Caribbean historian, widely regarded as The Father of The Nation, was the first Prime Minister; he served from 1956 to 1959, before independence as Chief Minister, from 1959 to 1962, before independence as Premier, from 1962 to 1976, after independence as Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago, then from 1976 to his death in 1981 as Prime Minister of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. Rudranath Capildeo was the first Leader of the Opposition post-independence; he served from 1962 to 1967. The presence of American military bases in Chaguaramas and Cumuto in Trinidad during World War II profoundly changed the character of society. In the post-war period, the wave of decolonisation that swept the British Empire led to the formation of the West Indies Federation in 1958 as a vehicle for independence. Chaguaramas was the proposed site for the federal capital. The Federation dissolved after the Jamaican Federation of the West Indies membership referendum of 1961, and the resulting withdrawal of the Province of Jamaica. The government of Trinidad and Tobago then also chose to seek independence from the United Kingdom on its own. In 1976, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, though it retained the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council as its final appellate court. Between the years 1972 and 1983, the republic profited greatly from the rising price of oil, as the oil - rich country increased its living standards greatly. In 1990, 114 members of the Jamaat al Muslimeen, led by Yasin Abu Bakr, formerly known as Lennox Phillip, stormed the Red House (the seat of Parliament), and Trinidad and Tobago Television, the only television station in the country at the time, and held the country 's government hostage for six days before surrendering. Since 2003, the country has entered a second oil boom, a driving force which the government hopes to use to turn the country 's main export back to sugar and agriculture. Great concern was raised in August 2007 when it was predicted that this boom would last only until 2018. Petroleum, petrochemicals and natural gas continue to be the backbone of the economy. Tourism and the public service are the mainstay of the economy of Tobago, though authorities have begun to diversify the island. The bulk of tourist arrivals on the islands are from the United States. The country is also a recognised transhipment point for illegal narcotics, with the cocaine distribution from the South American continent to the United States Eastern seaboard. With the most recent seizure of $100 million US dollar shipment by United States Authorities on 17 January 2014. Trinidad and Tobago is a republic with a two - party system and a bicameral parliamentary system based on the Westminster System. The head of state of Trinidad and Tobago is the President, currently Paula Mae Weekes. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Keith Rowley. The President is elected by an Electoral college consisting of the full membership of both houses of Parliament. The Prime Minister is elected from the results of a general election which takes place every five years. The President is required to appoint the leader of the party who in his opinion has the most support of the members of the House of Representatives to this post; this has generally been the leader of the party which won the most seats in the previous election (except in the case of the 2001 General Elections). Tobago also has its own elections, separate from the general elections. In these elections, members are elected and serve in the Tobago House of Assembly. Parliament consists of the Senate (31 seats) and the House of Representatives (41 seats). The members of the Senate are appointed by the president. Sixteen Government Senators are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, six Opposition Senators are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and nine Independent Senators are appointed by the President to represent other sectors of civil society. The 41 members of the House of Representatives are elected by the people for a maximum term of five years in a "first past the post '' system. From 24 December 2001 to 24 May 2010, the governing party has been the People 's National Movement (PNM) led by Patrick Manning; the Opposition party was the United National Congress (UNC) led by Basdeo Panday. Another recent party was the Congress of the People, or COP, led by Winston Dookeran. Support for these parties appears to fall along ethnic lines with the PNM consistently obtaining a majority of Afro - Trinidadian vote, and the UNC gaining a majority of Indo - Trinidadian support. COP gained 23 % of the votes in the 2007 general elections but failed to win a seat. Prior to 24 May 2010, the PNM held 26 seats in the House of Representatives and the UNC Alliance (UNC - A) held 15 seats, following elections held on 5 November 2007. After two and a half years, Prime Minister Patrick Manning dissolved Parliament in April 2010, and called a general election on 24 May 2010. After these general elections, the new governing coalition is the People 's Partnership led by Kamla Persad - Bissessar. Persad - Bissessar and "the People 's Partnership '' wrested power from the Patrick Manning - led PNM, taking home 29 seats to the PNM 's 12 seats, based on preliminary results. It is estimated that the hidden economy represents 20 -- 30 % of measured GDP. Within the Trinidadian and Tobagonian business structure illicit activities and licit activities work side by side, with many business and political organisations being funded by institutionalised drug smugglers. Within Trinidad and Tobago there are two main drug cartels, the Syrian / Lebanese drug cartels and the Indo Trinidadian drug cartels. The Syrian Lebanese drug cartels are the longest tenured drug cartel on the islands, having ridden the wave of cocaine exportation from the 1970s to the current day. The Syrian Drug Cartels control the vast sway of financing and business interest on the island and exhibit monopolistic tendencies which limit free market policies in insurance, health, finance, heavy and light manufacturing, and land distribution. Modern Trinidad and Tobago maintains close relations with its Caribbean neighbours and major North American and European trading partners. As the most industrialised and second - largest country in the English - speaking Caribbean, Trinidad and Tobago has taken a leading role in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), and strongly supports CARICOM economic integration efforts. It also is active in the Summit of the Americas process and supports the establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas, lobbying other nations for seating the Secretariat in Port of Spain. As a member of CARICOM, Trinidad and Tobago strongly backed efforts by the United States to bring political stability to Haiti, contributing personnel to the Multinational Force in 1994. After its 1962 independence, Trinidad and Tobago joined the United Nations and Commonwealth of Nations. In 1967, it became the first Commonwealth country to join the Organization of American States (OAS). In 1995, Trinidad played host to the inaugural meeting of the Association of Caribbean States and has become the seat of this 35 - member grouping, which seeks to further economic progress and integration among its states. In international forums, Trinidad and Tobago has defined itself as having an independent voting record, but often supports US and EU positions. The Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force is the military organisation responsible for the defence of the twin island Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It consists of the Regiment, the Coast Guard, the Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. Established in 1962 after Trinidad and Tobago 's independence from the United Kingdom, the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force is one of the largest military forces in the English - speaking Caribbean. Its mission statement is to "defend the sovereign good of The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, contribute to the development of the national community and support the State in the fulfillment of its national and international objectives ''. The Defence Force has been engaged in domestic incidents, such as the 1990 Coup Attempt, and international missions, such as the United Nations Mission in Haiti between 1993 and 1996. Trinidad is split into 14 regional corporations and municipalities, consisting of 9 regions and 5 municipalities, which have a limited level of autonomy. The various councils are made up of a mixture of elected and appointed members. Elections are due to be held every three years, but have not been held since 2003, four extensions having been sought by the government. The island of Tobago is governed by the Tobago House of Assembly: Trinidad and Tobago is one of the 35 states which has ratified the OAS charter and is a member of the Organisation. The Charter of the Organisation of American States was signed in Bogota in 1948 and was amended by several protocols which were agreed to in different countries. The naming convention which is used with respect to the naming of the protocols is to include in the name of the Protocol the name of the city and the year in which the Protocol was signed, such as Cartagena de Indias in 1985, Managua 1993. Trinidad and Tobago entered into the Inter-American system in 1967. Trinidad and Tobago is the most developed nation and one of the wealthiest in the Caribbean and is listed in the top 40 (2010 information) of the 70 high - income countries in the world. Its gross national income per capita of US $20,070 (2014 gross national income at Atlas Method) is one of the highest in the Caribbean. In November 2011, the OECD removed Trinidad and Tobago from its list of developing countries. Trinidad 's economy is strongly influenced by the petroleum industry. Tourism and manufacturing are also important to the local economy. Tourism is a growing sector, although not as proportionately important as in many other Caribbean islands. Agricultural products include citrus and cocoa. Recent growth has been fuelled by investments in liquefied natural gas (LNG), petrochemicals, and steel. Additional petrochemical, aluminium, and plastics projects are in various stages of planning. Trinidad and Tobago is the leading Caribbean producer of oil and gas, and its economy is heavily dependent upon these resources but it also supplies manufactured goods, notably food, beverages, and cement, to the Caribbean region. Oil and gas account for about 40 % of GDP and 80 % of exports, but only 5 % of employment. The country is also a regional financial centre, and the economy has a growing trade surplus. The expansion of Atlantic LNG over the past six years created the largest single - sustained phase of economic growth in Trinidad and Tobago. It has become the leading exporter of LNG to the United States, and now supplies some 70 % of US LNG imports. Trinidad and Tobago has transitioned from an oil - based economy to a natural gas based economy. In 2007, natural gas production averaged 4 billion cubic feet per day (110,000,000 m / d), compared with 3.2 × 10 ^ cu ft / d (91,000 m / d) in 2005. In December 2005, the Atlantic LNG 's fourth production module or "train '' for liquefied natural gas (LNG) began production. Train 4 has increased Atlantic LNG 's overall output capacity by almost 50 % and is the largest LNG train in the world at 5.2 million tons / year of LNG. Trinidad and Tobago, in an effort to undergo economic transformation though diversification formed InvesTT in 2012 to serve as the country 's sole investment promotion agency. This agency is aligned to the Ministry of Trade and Industry and is to be the key agent in growing the country 's non-oil and gas sectors significantly and sustainably. Trinidad and Tobago 's infrastructure is good by regional standards. The international airport in Trinidad was expanded in 2001. There is an extensive network of paved roads with several good four and six lane highways including one controlled access expressway. The Ministry of Works estimates that an average Trinidadian spends about four hours in traffic per day. Emergency services are reliable, but may suffer delays in rural districts. Private hospitals are available and reliable. Utilities are fairly reliable in the cities. Some areas, however, especially rural districts, still suffer from water shortages. Trinidad and Tobago has a well developed communications sector. The telecommunications and broadcasting sectors generated an estimated TT $5.63 billion (US $0.88 billion) in 2014, which as a percentage of GDP equates to 3.1 percent. This represented a 1.9 percent increase in total revenues generated by this industry compared to last year. Of total telecommunications and broadcasting revenues, mobile voice services accounted for the majority of revenues with TT $2.20 billion (39.2 percent). This was followed by Internet services which contributed TT $1.18 billion or 21.1 percent. The next highest revenue earners for the industry were Fixed Voice services and Pay TV services whose contributions totalled TT $0.76 billion and TT $0.70 billion respectively (13.4 percent and 12.4 percent). International voice services was next in line, generating TT $0.27 billion (4.7 percent) in revenues. Free - to Air radio and television services contributed TT $0.18 billion and TT $0.13 billion respectively (3.2 percent and 2.4 percent). Finally, other contributors included "other revenues '' and "leased line services '' with earnings of TT $0.16 billion and TT $0.05 billion respectively, with 2.8 percent and 0.9 percent. There are several providers for each segment of the telecommunications market. Fixed Lines Telephone service is provided by TSTT and Cable & Wireless Communications operating as FLOW; cellular service is provided by TSTT (operating as bmobile) and Digicel whilst internet service is provided by TSTT, FLOW, Digicel, Green Dot and Lisa Communications. The transport system in Trinidad and Tobago consists of a dense network of highways and roads across both major islands, ferries connecting Port of Spain with Scarborough and San Fernando, and international airports on both islands. The Uriah Butler Highway, Churchill Roosevelt Highway and the Sir Solomon Hochoy Highway links the nation together. Public transportation options on land are public buses, private taxis and minibuses. By sea, the options are inter-island ferries and inter-city water taxis. The island of Trinidad is served by Piarco International Airport located in Piarco. It was opened on 8 January 1931. Elevated at 17.4 metres (57 ft) above sea level it comprises an area of 680 hectares (1,700 acres) and has a runway of 3,200 metres (10,500 ft). The airport consists of two terminals, the North Terminal and the South Terminal. The older South Terminal underwent renovations in 2009 for use as a VIP entrance point during the 5th Summit of the Americas. The North Terminal was completed in 2001, and consists of 14 second - level aircraft gates with jetways for international flights, two ground - level domestic gates and 82 ticket counter positions. Piarco International Airport was voted the Caribbean 's leading airport for customer satisfaction and operational efficiency at the prestigious World Travel Awards (WTA), held in the Turks and Caicos in 2006. In 2008 the passenger throughput at Piarco International Airport was approximately 2.6 million. Piarco International Airport is the seventh busiest airport in the Caribbean and the third busiest in the English - speaking Caribbean, after Sangster International Airport and Lynden Pindling International Airport. As of December 2006, nineteen international airlines operated out of Piarco and offered flights to twenty - seven international destinations. Caribbean Airlines, the national airline, operates its main hub at the Piarco International Airport and services the Caribbean, the United States, Canada and South America. The airline is wholly owned by the Government of Trinidad and Tobago. After an additional cash injection of US $50 million, the Trinidad and Tobago government acquired the Jamaican airline Air Jamaica on 1 May 2010, with a 6 -- 12 month transition period to follow. Caribbean Airlines, the national and state - owned airline of Trinidad and Tobago, is the largest in the Caribbean. After the acquisition of the now defunct Air Jamaica, it became the largest airline and was voted as the Caribbean 's leading airline. The Island of Tobago is served by the A.N.R. Robinson International Airport in Crown Point. This airport has regular services to North America and Europe. There are regular flights between the two islands, with fares being heavily subsidised by the Government. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago has recognized the creative industries as a pathway to economic growth and development. It is one of the newest, most dynamic sectors where creativity, knowledge and intangibles serve as the basic productive resource. In 2015, the Trinidad and Tobago Creative Industries Company Limited (CreativeTT) was established as a state agency under the Ministry of Trade and Industry with a mandate to stimulate and facilitate the business development and export activities of the Creative Industries in Trinidad and Tobago to generate national wealth, and, as such, the company is responsible for the strategic and business development of the three (3) niche areas and sub sectors currently under its purview -- Music, Film and Fashion. MusicTT, FilmTT and FashionTT are the subsidiaries established to fulfil this mandate. The Strategic Plan for the Caribbean Community 2015 -- 2019 was adopted by Trinidad and Tobago and the other members of the Caribbean Common Market (CARICOM) in 2014. The first of its kind, this document reflects a desire among countries to embrace a more profound regionalism, in order to reposition the Caribbean in an increasingly volatile global economy. The plan proposes mobilizing funding from the public and private sectors to foster research and development (R&D) in the business sector. The plan outlines strategies for nurturing creativity, entrepreneurship, digital literacy and for making optimum use of available resources. It focuses on developing creative, manufacturing and service industries, with a special focus on tourism initially, natural resources and value - added products, agriculture and fisheries, to reduce dependence on food imports and foster sustainable fisheries, and energy efficiency. Trinidad and Tobago is the region 's leading exporter of oil and gas but imports of fossil fuels provided over 90 % of the energy consumed by its CARICOM neighbours in 2008. This vulnerability led CARICOM to develop an Energy Policy which was approved in 2013. This policy is accompanied by the CARICOM Sustainable Energy Roadmap and Strategy (C - SERMS). Under the policy, renewable energy sources are to contribute 20 % of the total electricity generation mix in member states by 2017, 28 % by 2022 and 47 % by 2027. The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) has produced an implementation plan for 2011 -- 2021 and carried out work to assess and build capacity in climate change mitigation and resilient development strategies. This work has been supported by the region 's specialists, who have produced models for climate change and mitigation processes in Caribbean states. They also play a major advisor role to to the divisions in ministries responsible for climate change. The growing frequency and intensity of hurricanes is of concern to all Caribbean nations. In 2012, Trinidad and Tobago had a 9 % chance each year of being struck by a hurricane, according to estimates by the International Monetary Fund. The two main bodies responsible for science, technology and innovation in Trinidad and Tobago are the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and the National Commission for Science and Technology. In 2002, Trinidad and Tobago adopted Vision 2020. Like Jamaica 's Vision 2030 (2009) and the Strategic Plan of Barbados for 2005 -- 2025, Trinidad and Tobago 's Vision 2020 accords central importance to harnessing science, technology and innovation (STI) to raise living standards and strengthen resilience to environmental shocks like hurricanes. Trinidad and Tobago is one of the more affluent members of CARICOM, thanks to its natural resources. Despite this, it spent just 0.05 % of GDP on R&D in 2012, according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Even when the country was enjoying economic growth of 8 % per annum in 2004, it devoted just 0.11 % of GDP to R&D. Calculated in thousands of current Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) dollars, research expenditure actually dropped between 2009 and 2012 from 21 309 to 19 232. This corresponds to research expenditure of $ PPP 65 per capita in 2009 and $ PPP 45 in 2012. Industrial R&D has declined since 2000, perhaps owing to the drop in research activity in the sugar sector. Whereas industrial R&D accounted for 24 % of domestic research expenditure in 2004 and 29.5 % in 2005, it had become almost non-existent by 2010. The number of researchers in Trinidad and Tobago grew from 787 to 914 between 2009 and 2012. This corresponds in a rise from 595 to 683 in the number of researchers (head counts) per million inhabitants. Scientific output grew between 2007 and 2011, according to Thomson Reuters ' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) before contracting over the period 2012 -- 2014. Trinidad and Tobago produced 109 publications per million population in 2014, behind Grenada (1 430), St Kitts and Nevis (730), Barbados (182) and Dominica (138) but ahead of the Bahamas (86), Belize (47) and Jamaica (42). Between 2008 and 2014, scientists collaborated most with their peers from the United States (251 papers), United Kingdom (183), Canada (95), India (63) and Jamaica (43), according to the copublication record of Thomson Reuters. In turn, Jamaican scientists considered their counterparts from Trinidad and Tobago to be their fourth - closest collaborators (with 43 joint papers) after those from the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Between 2008 and 2013, Trinidad and Tobago registered 17 patents with the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). This corresponds to 13 % of the 134 patents registered by CARICOM members over this period. The top contributors were the Bahamas (34 patents) and Jamaica (22). Trinidad and Tobago led CARICOM members for the value of high - tech exports in 2008 (US $36.2 million) but these exports plummeted to US $3.5 million the following year, according to the Comtrade database of the United Nations Statistics Division. The Caribbean Industrial Research Institute in Trinidad and Tobago facilitates climate change research and provides industrial support for R&D related to food security. It also carries out equipment testing and calibration for major industries. The Caribbean Epidemiology Centre in Port of Spain, University of Trinidad and Tobago, Tobago Institute of Health and University of the West Indies (St Augustine campus) also conduct R&D. The ethnic composition of Trinidad and Tobago reflects a history of conquest and immigration. While the earliest inhabitants were of Amerindian heritage, since the 20th century the two dominant groups in the country were those of South Asian and of African heritage. Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians make up the country 's largest ethnic group (approximately 37.6 %). They are primarily descendants from indentured workers from India, brought to replace freed African slaves who refused to continue working on the sugar plantations. Through cultural preservation some residents of Indian descent continue to maintain traditions from their ancestral homelands. Afro - Trinidadians and Tobagonians make up the country 's second largest ethnic group, with approximately 36.3 % of the population identifying as being of African descent. People of African background were brought to the island as slaves as early as the 16th century. 24.4 % of the population identified in the 2011 census as being of "mixed '' ethnic heritage. There are small but significant minorities of people of Amerindian, European, Chinese, and Arab descent. English is the country 's official language (the local variety of standard English is Trinidadian English or more properly, Trinidad and Tobago Standard English, abbreviated as "TTSE ''), but the main spoken language is either of two English - based creole languages (Trinidadian Creole or Tobagonian Creole), which reflects the Amerindian, European, African, and Asian heritage of the nation. Both creoles contain elements from a variety of African languages; Trinidadian English Creole, however, is also influenced by French and French Creole (Patois). Spanish is estimated to be spoken by around 5 % of the population and has been promoted by recent governments as a "first foreign language '' due to its proximity to Venezuela since March 2005. A majority of the early Indian immigrants spoke Trinidadian Hindustani, which is a form of the Bhojpuri and Awadhi dialect of Hindustani (Hindi - Urdu), which later became the lingua franca of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians. Attempts are being made to preserve the Trinidadian Hindustani language in the country, including the promotion of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonian musical forms called Pichakaree and Chutney, which are typically sung in a mixture of English and Trinidadian Hindustani. The indigenous languages were Yao on Trinidad and Karina on Tobago, both Cariban, and Shebaya on Trinidad, which was Arawakan. Many different religions are practised in Trinidad and Tobago. According to the 2011 census, Roman Catholics were the largest religious group in Trinidad and Tobago with 21.60 % of the total population. Hindus were the second largest group with 18.15 %, while the Pentecostal / Evangelical / Full Gospel denominations were the third largest group with 12.02 % of the population. Significantly, respondents who did not state a religious affiliation represented 11.1 % of the population. The remaining population is made of Spiritual Shouter Baptists (5.67 %), Anglicans (5.67 %), Muslims (4.97 %), Seventh - day Adventists (4.09 %), Presbyterians or Congregationalists (2.49 %), Irreligious (2.18 %), Jehovah 's Witnesses (1.47 %), other Baptists (1.21 %), Trinidad Orisha believers (0.9 %), Methodists (0.65 %), Rastafarians (0.27 %) and the Moravian Church (0.27 %). Two African syncretic faiths, the Shouter or Spiritual Baptists and the Orisha faith (formerly called Shangos, a less than complimentary term) are among the fastest growing religious groups. Similarly, there is a noticeable increase in numbers of Evangelical Protestant and Fundamentalist churches usually lumped as "Pentecostal '' by most Trinidadians, although this designation is often inaccurate. Sikhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Bahá'í, and Buddhism are practiced by a minority of Indo - Trinidadian and Tobagonians. Several eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism are followed by the Chinese community. Children generally start pre-school at two and a half years but this is not mandatory. They are however, expected to have basic reading and writing skills when they commence primary school. Students proceed to a primary school at the age of five years. Seven years are spent in primary school. The seven classes of primary school consists of First Year and Second Year, followed by Standard One through Standard Five. During the final year of primary school, students prepare for and sit the Secondary Entrance Assessment (SEA) which determines the secondary school the child will attend. Students attend secondary school for a minimum of five years, leading to the CSEC (Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate) examinations, which is the equivalent of the British GCSE O levels. Children with satisfactory grades may opt to continue high school for a further two - year period, leading to the Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE), the equivalent of GCE A levels. Both CSEC and CAPE examinations are held by the Caribbean Examinations Council (CXC). Public Primary and Secondary education is free for all, although private and religious schooling is available for a fee. Tertiary education for tuition costs are provided for via GATE (The Government Assistance for Tuition Expenses), up to the level of the bachelor 's degree, at the University of the West Indies (UWI), the University of Trinidad and Tobago (UTT), the University of the Southern Caribbean (USC), the College of Science, Technology and Applied Arts of Trinidad and Tobago (COSTAATT) and certain other local accredited institutions. Government also currently subsidizes some Masters programmes. Both the Government and the private sector also provide financial assistance in the form of academic scholarships to gifted or needy students for study at local, regional or international universities. Women have a key role in Trinidadian demographics. While women account for only 49 % of the population, they constitute nearly 55 % of the workforce in the country. Trinidad and Tobago claims two Nobel Prize - winning authors, V.S. Naipaul and St Lucian - born Derek Walcott (who founded the Trinidad Theatre Workshop, working and raising a family in Trinidad for much of his career). Designer Peter Minshall is renowned not only for his Carnival costumes but also for his role in opening ceremonies of the Barcelona Olympics, the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the 1996 Summer Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics, for which he won an Emmy Award. Geoffrey Holder (brother of Boscoe Holder) and Heather Headley are two Trinidad - born artists who have won Tony Awards for theatre. Holder also has a distinguished film career, and Headley has won a Grammy Award as well. Recording artists Billy Ocean and Nicki Minaj are also Trinidadian. Interestingly, three actors who appeared on Will Smith 's sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air are of Trinidadian descent: Tatyana Ali and Alfonso Ribeiro were series regulars as Will 's cousins Ashley and Carlton, respectively, while Nia Long played Will 's girlfriend Lisa. Foxy Brown, Dean Marshall, Sommore, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Gabrielle Reece, pop singer Haddaway, Tracy Quan, Mike Bibby, Lauryn Williams, Fresh Kid Ice, and Roy Hibbert are all of Trinidadian descent. Trinidad and Tobago also has the distinction of being the smallest country to have two Miss Universe titleholders and the first black woman ever to win: Janelle Commissiong in 1977, followed by Wendy Fitzwilliam in 1998; the country has also had one Miss World titleholder, Giselle LaRonde. Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of calypso music and the steelpan. Trinidad is also the birthplace of soca music, chutney music, chutney - soca, parang, and chutney parang. The diverse cultural and religious backgrounds of its citizens has led to many festivities and ceremonies throughout the year, such as Carnival, Diwali, and Eid festivities. Hasely Crawford won the first Olympic gold medal for Trinidad and Tobago in the men 's 100 metre dash in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Nine different athletes from Trinidad and Tobago have won twelve medals at the Olympics, beginning with a silver medal in weightlifting, won by Rodney Wilkes in 1948, and most recently, a gold medal by Keshorn Walcott in the men 's javelin throw in 2012. Ato Boldon has won the most Olympic and World Championship medals for Trinidad and Tobago in athletics, with eight in total -- four from the Olympics and four from the World Championships. Boldon is the only world champion Trinidad and Tobago has produced to date in athletics. He won the 1997 200 m sprint World Championship in Athens. Swimmer George Bovell III won a bronze medal in the men 's 200 m IM in 2004. Also in 2012 Lalonde Gordon competed in the XXX Summer Olympics where he won a Bronze Medal in the 400 metres (1,300 feet), being surpassed by Luguelin Santos of the Dominican Republic and Kirani James of Grenada. Keshorn Walcott (as stated above) came first in javelin and earned a gold medal, making him the second Trinidadian in the country 's history to receive one. This also makes him the first Western athlete in 40 years to receive a gold medal in the javelin sport, and the first athlete from Trinidad and Tobago to win a gold medal in a field event in the Olympics. Sprinter Richard Thompson is also from Trinidad and Tobago. He came second place to Usain Bolt in the Beijing Olympics in the 100 metres (330 feet) with a time of 9.89 s. In 2018 The Court of Arbitration for Sport made its final decision on the failed doping sample from the Jamaican team in the 4 x 100 relay in the 2008 Olympic Games. The team from Trinidad and Tobago will be awarded the Gold medal, because of the second rank during the relay run. Cricket is a popular sport of Trinidad and Tobago, with intense inter-island rivalry with its Caribbean neighbours. Cricket is the national sport of the country. Trinidad and Tobago is represented at Test cricket, One Day International as well as Twenty20 cricket level as a member of the West Indies team. The national team plays at the first - class level in regional competitions such as the Regional Four Day Competition and Regional Super50. Meanwhile, the Trinbago Knight Riders play in the Caribbean Premier League. The Queen 's Park Oval located in Port of Spain is the largest cricket ground in the West Indies, having hosted 60 Test matches as of January 2018. Trinidad and Tobago along with other islands from the Caribbean co-hosted the 2007 Cricket World Cup. Brian Lara, world record holder for the most runs scored both in a Test and in a First Class innings and other records, was born in a small town of Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago and is often referred to as the Prince of Port of Spain or simply the Prince. This legendary West Indian batsman is widely regarded (along with Sir Donald Bradman, Sunil Gavaskar and Sachin Tendulkar) as one of the best batsmen ever to have played the game, and is one of the most famous sporting icons in the country. Association football is also a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago. The men 's national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup for the first time by beating Bahrain in Manama on 16 November 2005, making them the second smallest country ever (in terms of population) to qualify, after Iceland. The team, coached by Dutchman Leo Beenhakker, and led by Tobagonian - born captain Dwight Yorke, drew their first group game -- against Sweden in Dortmund, 0 -- 0, but lost the second game to England on late goals, 0 -- 2. They were eliminated after losing 2 -- 0 to Paraguay in the last game of the Group Stage. Prior to the 2006 World Cup qualification, Trinidad and Tobago came agonizingly close in a controversial qualification campaign for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Following the match, the referee of their critical game against Haiti was awarded a lifetime ban for his actions. Trinidad and Tobago again fell just short of qualifying for the World Cup in 1990, needing only a draw at home against the United States but losing 1 -- 0. They play their home matches at the Hasely Crawford Stadium. Trinidad and Tobago hosted the 2001 FIFA U-17 World Championship, and hosted the 2010 FIFA U-17 Women 's World Cup. The TT Pro League is the country 's primary football competition and is the top level of the Trinidad and Tobago football league system. The Pro League serves as a league for professional football clubs in Trinidad and Tobago. The league began in 1999 as part of a need for a professional league to strengthen the country 's national team and improve the development of domestic players. The first season took place in the same year beginning with eight teams. Basketball is commonly played in Trinidad and Tobago in colleges, universities and throughout various urban basketball courts. Its national team is one of the most successful teams in the Caribbean. At the Caribbean Basketball Championship it won four straight gold medals from 1986 -- 1990. Netball has long been a popular sport in Trinidad and Tobago, although it has declined in popularity in recent years. At the Netball World Championships they co-won the event in 1979, were runners up in 1987, and second runners up in 1983. Rugby is played in Trinidad and Tobago and continues to be a popular sport, and horse racing is regularly followed in the country. There is also the Trinidad and Tobago national baseball team which is controlled by the Baseball / Softball Association of Trinidad and Tobago, and represents the nation in international competitions. The team is a provisional member of the Pan American Baseball Confederation. There are a number of 9 and 18 - hole golf courses on Trinidad and Tobago. The most established is the St Andrews Golf Club, Maraval in Trinidad (commonly referred to as Moka), and there is a newer course at Trincity, near Piarco Airport called Millennium Lakes. There are 18 - hole courses at Chaguramas and Point - a-Pierre and 9 - hole courses at Couva and St Madeline. Tobago has two 18 - hole courses. The older of the two is at Mount Irvine, with the Magdalena Hotel & Golf Club (formerly Tobago Plantations) being built more recently. Although a minor sport, bodybuilding is of growing interest in Trinidad and Tobago. Heavyweight female bodybuilder Kashma Maharaj is of Trinidadian descent. The flag was chosen by the Independence committee in 1962. Red, black and white symbolise the warmth of the people, the richness of the earth and water respectively. The coat of arms was designed by the Independence committee, and features the scarlet ibis (native to Trinidad), the cocrico (native to Tobago) and hummingbird. The shield bears three ships, representing both the Trinity, and the three ships that Columbus sailed. There are five categories and thirteen classes of national awards: The National Anthem of the twin - island state is "Forged From The Love of Liberty ''. Other national songs include "God Bless Our Nation '' and "Our Nation 's Dawning ''. The national birds for Trinidad and Tobago are the scarlet ibis and the cocrico. The scarlet ibis is kept safe by the government by living in the Caroni Bird Sanctuary which was set up by the government for the protection of these birds. The Cocrico is more indigenous to the island of Tobago and are more likely to be seen in the forest. This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, 157 - 173, UNESCO, UNESCO Publishing. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use. Historical Development. Historical Development of the Steel Band. http://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Steelband Retrieved 17 - 12 - 17 Coordinates: 10 ° 36 ′ N 61 ° 6 ′ W / 10.600 ° N 61.100 ° W / 10.600; - 61.100
what signs are diamond shape and predominantly yellow and black	Traffic sign - wikipedia Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or above roads to give instructions or provide information to road users. The earliest signs were simple wooden or stone milestones. Later, signs with directional arms were introduced, for example, the fingerposts in the United Kingdom and their wooden counterparts in Saxony. With traffic volumes increasing since the 1930s, many countries have adopted pictorial signs or otherwise simplified and standardized their signs to overcome language barriers, and enhance traffic safety. Such pictorial signs use symbols (often silhouettes) in place of words and are usually based on international protocols. Such signs were first developed in Europe, and have been adopted by most countries to varying degrees. Various international conventions have helped to achieve a degree of uniformity in Traffic Signing in various countries. Traffic signs can be grouped into several types. For example, Annexe 1 of the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals (1968), which on 30 June 2004 had 52 signatory countries, defines eight categories of signs: In the United States, Canada, Ireland, Australia, and New Zealand signs are categorized as follows: In the United States, the categories, placement, and graphic standards for traffic signs and pavement markings are legally defined in the Federal Highway Administration 's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices as the standard. A rather informal distinction among the directional signs is the one between advance directional signs, interchange directional signs, and reassurance signs. Advance directional signs appear at a certain distance from the interchange, giving information for each direction. A number of countries do not give information for the road ahead (so - called "pull - through '' signs), and only for the directions left and right. Advance directional signs enable drivers to take precautions for the exit (e.g., switch lanes, double check whether this is the correct exit, slow down). They often do not appear on lesser roads, but are normally posted on expressways and motorways, as drivers would be missing exits without them. While each nation has its own system, the first approach sign for a motorway exit is mostly placed at least 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) from the actual interchange. After that sign, one or two additional advance directional signs typically follow before the actual interchange itself. The earliest road signs were milestones, giving distance or direction; for example, the Romans erected stone columns throughout their empire giving the distance to Rome. In the Middle Ages, multidirectional signs at intersections became common, giving directions to cities and towns. In 1686, the first known Traffic Regulation Act in Europe is established by King Peter II of Portugal. This act foresees the placement of priority signs in the narrowest streets of Lisbon, stating which traffic should back up to give way. One of these signs still exists at Salvador street, in the neighborhood of Alfama. The first modern road signs erected on a wide scale were designed for riders of high or "ordinary '' bicycles in the late 1870s and early 1880s. These machines were fast, silent and their nature made them difficult to control, moreover their riders travelled considerable distances and often preferred to tour on unfamiliar roads. For such riders, cycling organizations began to erect signs that warned of potential hazards ahead (particularly steep hills), rather than merely giving distance or directions to places, thereby contributing the sign type that defines "modern '' traffic signs. The development of automobiles encouraged more complex signage systems using more than just text - based notices. One of the first modern - day road sign systems was devised by the Italian Touring Club in 1895. By 1900, a Congress of the International League of Touring Organizations in Paris was considering proposals for standardization of road signage. In 1903 the British government introduced four "national '' signs based on shape, but the basic patterns of most traffic signs were set at the 1908 International Road Congress in Paris. In 1909, nine European governments agreed on the use of four pictorial symbols, indicating "bump '', "curve '', "intersection '', and "grade - level railroad crossing ''. The intensive work on international road signs that took place between 1926 and 1949 eventually led to the development of the European road sign system. Both Britain and the United States developed their own road signage systems, both of which were adopted or modified by many other nations in their respective spheres of influence. The UK adopted a version of the European road signs in 1964 and, over past decades, North American signage began using some symbols and graphics mixed in with English. Over the years, change was gradual. Pre-industrial signs were stone or wood, but with the development of Darby 's method of smelting iron using coke, painted cast iron became favoured in the late 18th and 19th centuries. Cast iron continued to be used until the mid-20th century, but it was gradually displaced by aluminium or other materials and processes, such as vitreous enamelled and / or pressed malleable iron, or (later) steel. Since 1945 most signs have been made from sheet aluminium with adhesive plastic coatings; these are normally retroreflective for nighttime and low - light visibility. Before the development of reflective plastics, reflectivity was provided by glass reflectors set into the lettering and symbols. New generations of traffic signs based on electronic displays can also change their text (or, in some countries, symbols) to provide for "intelligent control '' linked to automated traffic sensors or remote manual input. In over 20 countries, real - time Traffic Message Channel incident warnings are conveyed directly to vehicle navigation systems using inaudible signals carried via FM radio, 3G cellular data and satellite broadcasts. Finally, cars can pay tolls and trucks pass safety screening checks using video numberplate scanning, or RFID transponders in windshields linked to antennae over the road, in support of on - board signalling, toll collection, and travel time monitoring. Yet another "medium '' for transferring information ordinarily associated with visible signs is RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage), e.g., "talking signs '' for print - handicapped (including blind / low - vision / illiterate) people. These are infra - red transmitters serving the same purpose as the usual graphic signs when received by an appropriate device such as a hand - held receiver or one built into a cell phone. Road signs in Mauritius are regulated by the Traffic Signs Regulations 1990. They are particularly modelled on the British road signs since Mauritius is a former British colony. Mauritius has left - hand traffic. Road signs in Sierra Leone are standardized road signs closely follow those used in Italy with certain distinctions. Direction signs are: Hong Kong 's traffic signs follow the British road sign conventions and are bi-lingual in English and Chinese (English on top, and Traditional Chinese characters at the bottom). Road signs in Iran mainly follow the Vienna Convention. Signs are in Persian and English. Road signs in Israel mainly follow the Vienna Convention, but have some variants. Road signs in Japan are either controlled by local police authorities under Road Traffic Law (道路交通法, Dōro Kōtsūhō) or by other road - controlling entities including Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, local municipalities, NEXCO (companies controlling expressways), under Road Law (道路法, Dōrohō). Most of the design of the road signs in Japan are similar to the signs on the Vienna Convention, except for some significant variances, such as stop sign with a red downward triangle. The main signs are categorized into four meaning types: Road signs in the Philippines are standardized in the Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, published by the Department of Public Works and Highways. Philippine road signage practice closely follow those used in Europe, but with local adaptations and some minor influences from the US MUTCD and Australian road signs. However, some road signs may differ by locale, and mostly diverge from the national standard. For example, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) has used pink and light blue in its signage for which it has been heavily criticised. Road signs in the Philippines are classified as: Regulatory road signs -- other than the stop and give way signs -- are generally circular, with (for prohibitions) a black symbol on a white background within a red border, or (for mandatory instructions) a white symbol on a blue background. In some cases circular regulatory signs are placed on white rectangular panels together with text supplementing their meanings. Most warning signs display a black symbol on a white background within a red - bordered equilateral triangle. Since 2012, however, a more visibly distinctive design (taken from that used for school signs in the US) has been adopted for pedestrian - related signs: these consist of a fluorescent yellow - green pentagon with black border and symbol. Additional panels may be placed below signs to supplement their meanings. Guide signs are divided into directional signs, service area signs, route markers, and tourist - related signs, with influence from both American and Australian practice. Directional signs use a green background with white letters and arrows. Service area signs use a blue background with white letters, arrows, and symbols. Tourist - related signs use a brown background with white letters, arrows, and symbols. The route marker sign, excluding the AH26 route marker, is based on the Australian National Route marker, but reserved for future use. Signs on expressways mostly take elements from Australian motorway / freeway signs. Exit signs, wrong way signs and start / end of expressway signs are very similar to Australian freeway signage. Traffic instruction signs are textual signs used to supplement warning and regulatory signs. Road signs in Saudi Arabia frequently show their text both in Arabic and English. Road signs also indicate which part of the road is for Muslims, and which part is for non-Muslims, for instance near Mecca. Singapore 's traffic signs closely follow British road sign conventions, although the government has introduced some changes to them. Road signs in Sri Lanka are standardized road signs closely follow those used in Europe with certain distinctions, and a number of changes have introduced road signs that suit as per local road and system. Sri Lankan government announced by a gazette that aimed to get a face - lift and introduction of over 100 new road traffic signs. Since the signing of the 1931 Geneva Convention concerning the Unification of Road Signals by a number of countries that the standardization of the traffic signs started in Europe. The 1931 Convention rules were developed in the 1949 Geneva Protocol on Road Signs and Signals. In 1968, the European countries signed the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic treaty, with the aim of standardizing traffic regulations in participating countries in order to facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety. Part of the treaty was the Vienna Convention on Road Signs and Signals, which defined the traffic signs and signals. As a result, in Western Europe the traffic signs are well standardized, although there are still some country - specific exceptions, mostly dating from the pre-1968 era. The principle of the European traffic sign standard is that certain shapes and colours are to be used with consistent meanings: Directional signs ("guide signs '' in American parlance) have not been harmonized under the Convention, at least not on ordinary roads. As a result, there are substantial differences in directional signage throughout Europe. Differences apply to the choice of typeface, arrows and, most notably, colours. The convention does, however, specify that the type of directional signage used should, for each country, distinguish limited - access roads ("motorways '') from ordinary, all - purpose roads. Directional signage on motorways uses: Differences are greater for non-motorways: The black - on - white signposting of secondary roads distinguishes them from primary roads in Finland, France, Portugal, the Republic of Ireland, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. In Germany, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Sweden black - on - white indicates urban - only roads or urban destinations. The signposting of road numbers also differs greatly, except that European route numbers, if displayed, are always indicated using white characters on a green rectangle. European route numbers are, however, not signed at all in the United Kingdom. The Convention recommends that certain signs -- such as "STOP '', "ZONE '', etc. -- be in English; however, use of the local language is also permitted. If a language uses non-Latin characters, a Latin - script transliteration of the names of cities and other important places should also be given. Road signs in the Republic of Ireland are bilingual, using Irish and English. Wales similarly uses bilingual Welsh -- English signs, while some parts of Scotland have bilingual Scottish Gaelic -- English signs. Finland also uses bilingual signs, in Finnish and Swedish. Signs in Belgium are in French, Dutch, or German depending on the region. In the Brussels Capital Region, road signs are in both French and Dutch. Signs in Switzerland are in French, German, Italian, or Romansh depending on the canton. European countries -- with the notable exception of the United Kingdom, where distances and lengths are indicated in miles, yards, feet, and inches, and speed limits are expressed in miles per hour -- use the metric system on road signs. For countries driving on the left, the convention stipulates that the traffic signs should be mirror images of those used in countries driving on the right. This practice, however, is not systematically followed in the four European countries driving on the left, Cyprus, Malta, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The convention permits the use of two background colours for danger and prohibition signs: white or yellow. Most countries use white, with a few -- such as Finland, Iceland, Poland, and Sweden -- opting for yellow as this tends to improve the winter - time visibility of signs in areas where snow is prevalent. In some countries, such as France, white is the normal background colour for such signs, but yellow is used for temporary signage (as, for example, at road works). European traffic signs have been designed with the principles of heraldry in mind; i.e., the sign must be clear and able to be resolved at a glance. Most traffic signs conform to heraldic tincture rules, and use symbols rather than written texts for better semiotic clarity. Croatian road signs follow the Vienna convention (SFR Yugoslavia was the original signatory for Croatia, which is now a contracting party itself). The most common signs are: In the first years following Croatia 's independence, its traffic signs were the same as in the rest of the former Yugoslavia. In the early 2000s, replacement of the yellow background of warning signs began, and new signs now use a white background. The signage typeface is SNV, as with the other countries of the former Yugoslavia. Road signs in Iceland mainly follow the Vienna Convention, but use a variant of the colour scheme and minor design changes similar to the signs in Sweden. Until the partition of Ireland in 1922 and the independence of the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland), British standards applied across the island. In 1926 road sign standards similar to those used in the UK at the time were adopted. Law requires that the signs be written in both Irish and English. In 1956, road signs in the Republic were changed from the UK standard with the adoption of US - style "diamond '' signs for many road hazard warnings (junctions, bends, railway crossings, traffic lights). Some domestic signs were also invented, such as the keep - left sign (a black curved arrow pointing to the upper - left, although some are similar to the European "white arrow on blue disk '' signs), while some other signs are not widely adopted outside Ireland, such as the no - entry sign (a black arrow pointing ahead in a white circle with a red slashed circumference). Directional signage is similar to current United Kingdom standards. The same colours are used for directional signs in Ireland as in the UK, and the UK Transport and Motorway fonts are used. Unlike Wales and Scotland, where Welsh and Gaelic place - names use the upright Transport face, Irish place - names are rendered in an italic face. In January 2005 Ireland adopted metric speed limits. Around 35,000 existing signs were replaced and a further 23,000 new signs erected bearing the speed limit in kilometres per hour. To avoid confusion with the old signs, each speed limit sign now has "km / h '' beneath the numerals. Also, since the adoption of signs based on the Warboys Committee standard in 1977, Irish directional signs have used the metric system; however, unlike with the later speed limit changeover, there was no effort made to change the existing signage, and as of 2007 many finger posts still remain on rural roads with distances in miles, although the numbers continue to decline as roads are improved. In late 2007 Ireland began an extensive programme of sign and post replacement. Good examples are the M1 (Dublin -- Dundalk) and the M50 (Dublin). While being mostly the same as the old signs, it is welcome as a lot of the signs were damaged / stained. About half of the new posts are now two medium posts with crosshatched metal posts in - between instead of one large pole to minimise the damage in case of a crash. Road signs in Latvia largely adhere to Vienna Convention guidelines. In detailed design they closely resemble the signs used in Germany. Road signs in the Netherlands follow the Vienna Convention. Directional signs (which have not been harmonized under the Convention) always use blue as the background colour. The destinations on the sign are printed in white. If the destination is not a town (but an area within town or some other kind of attraction), that destination will be printed in black on a separate white background within the otherwise blue sign. The Netherlands always signposts European road numbers where applicable (i.e., on the advance directional signs, the interchange direction signs and on the reassurance signs). Dutch national road numbers are placed on a rectangle, with motorways being signposted in white on a red rectangle (as an Axx) and primary roads in black on a yellow rectangle (as Nxx). When a motorway changes to a primary road, its number remains the same, but the A is replaced by the N. So at a certain point the A2 becomes N2, and when it changes to a motorway again, it becomes A2 again. Signs intended for bike - riders always go on white signs with red or green letters. The Dutch typeface, known as ANWB - Ee, is based on the US typeface. A new font, named ANWB - Uu (also known as Redesign), has been developed in 1997 and appears on many recent Dutch signs. On the motorways however the typeface remains the ANWB - Ee or a similar typeface. The language of the signs is typically Dutch, even though bilingual signs may be used, when the information is relevant for tourists. Signs in Norway mostly follow the Vienna Convention, except the polar bear warning sign, which is a white bear on a black background and a red border. These are the directional signs: The signs for road numbering are rectangular, and have this colour scheme: Norway adopted German standard traffic signage since 1930s. The road signs in Sweden mostly follow the Vienna Convention with a few adaptations, however, allowed within the convention: The signage typeface Tratex is used exclusively in Sweden and is available as freeware. Even though Switzerland is not a member of the EU, the road signs mostly follow the Vienna Convention with a few adaptations and exceptions. Road signs are categorized as follows: Distances and other measurements are displayed in metric units. Starting 2003, ASTRA - Frutiger is the typeface used to replace SNV, which is still used in several European countries. Major exceptions from the norm are: See also Road rules of Switzerland. Traffic signing in the UK conforms broadly to European norms, though a number of signs are unique to Britain and direction signs omit European route numbers. The current sign system, introduced on 1 January 1965, was developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s by the Anderson Committee, which established the motorway signing system, and by the Worboys Committee, which reformed signing for existing all - purpose roads. (For illustrations of most British road signs, see ' Know your traffic signs ' on the GOV.UK website.) The UK remains the only European Union member nation and the only Commonwealth country to use non-metric (Imperial) measurements for distance and speed, although "authorised weight '' signs have been in metric tonnes since 1981 and there is currently a dual - unit (metric first) option for height and width restriction signage, intended for use on safety grounds. On motorways kilometre signs are visible at intervals of 500 metres (1,600 ft) indicating the distance from the start of the motorway. (See Driver location sign). Three colour schemes exist for direction signs: Two typefaces are specified for British road signs. Transport "Medium '' or Transport "Heavy '' are used for all text on fixed permanent signs and most temporary signage, depending on the colour of the sign and associated text colour; dark text on a white background is normally set in "Heavy '' so that it stands out better. However route numbers on motorway signs use a taller limited character set typeface called "Motorway ''. Signs are generally bilingual in all parts of Wales (English / Welsh or Welsh / English), and similar signs are beginning to be seen in parts of the Scottish Highlands (English / Scottish Gaelic). All signs and their associated regulations can be found in the Traffic Signs Regulations and General Directions, as updated by the TSRGD 2008, TSRGD 2011 and TSRGD 2016 and complemented by the various chapters of the "Traffic Signs Manual ''. The Northern American, Australian, and New Zealand colors normally have these meanings: The US Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices prescribes four other colors: Regulatory signs are also sometimes seen with white letters on red or black signs. In Quebec, blue is often used for public services such as rest areas; many black - on - yellow signs are red - on - white instead. Many US states and Canadian provinces now use fluorescent orange for construction signs. Every state and province has different markers for its own highways, but use standard ones for all federal highways. Many special highways -- such as the Queen Elizabeth Way, Trans - Canada Highway, and various auto trails in the U.S. -- have used unique signs. Counties in the US sometimes use a pentagonal blue sign with yellow letters for numbered county roads, though the use is inconsistent even within states. Distances on traffic signs generally follow the measurement system in use locally: that is to say, the metric system in all countries of the world except Burma, Liberia, the United Kingdom, and the United States -- although the metric system is used in the UK for all purposes other than the display of road distances and the defining of speed limits, and in the US the Federal Department of Transportation has developed (very rarely used) metric standards for all signs. Where signs use a language, the recognized language / s of the area is normally used. Signs in most of the US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand are in English. Quebec uses French, while New Brunswick and the Jacques - Cartier and Champlain bridges, in Montreal (as well as some parts in the West Island), use both English and French, and a number of other provinces and states, such as Ontario, Manitoba, and Vermont use bilingual French -- English signs in certain localities. Puerto Rico (a US territory) and Mexico use Spanish. Within a few miles of the US -- Mexico border, road signs are often in English and Spanish in places like San Diego, Yuma, and El Paso. Indigenous languages, mainly Nahuatl as well as some Mayan languages, have been used as well. The typefaces predominantly used on signs in the US and Canada are the FHWA alphabet series (Series B through Series F and Series E Modified). Details of letter shape and spacing for these alphabet series are given in "Standard Alphabets for Traffic Control Devices '', first published by the Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) in 1945 and subsequently updated by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). It is now part of Standard Highway Signs (SHS), the companion volume to the MUTCD which gives full design details for signfaces. Initially, all of the alphabet series consisted of uppercase letters and digits only, although lowercase extensions were provided for each alphabet series in a 2002 revision of SHS. Series B through Series F evolved from identically named alphabet series which were introduced in 1927. Straight - stroke letters in the 1927 series were substantially similar to their modern equivalents, but unrounded glyphs were used for letters such as B, C, D, etc., to permit more uniform fabrication of signs by illiterate painters. Various state highway departments and the federal BPR experimented with rounded versions of these letters in the following two decades. The modern, rounded alphabet series were finally standardized in 1945 after rounded versions of some letters (with widths loosely appropriate for Series C or D) were specified as an option in the 1935 MUTCD and draft versions of the new typefaces had been used in 1942 for guide signs on the newly constructed Pentagon road network. The mixed - case alphabet now called Series E Modified, which is the standard for destination legend on freeway guide signs, originally existed in two parts: an all - uppercase Series E Modified, which was essentially similar to Series E, except for a larger stroke width, and a lowercase - only alphabet. Both parts were developed by the California Division of Highways (now Caltrans) for use on freeways in 1948 -- 1950. Initially, the Division used all - uppercase Series E Modified for button - reflectorized letters on ground - mounted signs and mixed - case legend (lowercase letters with Series D capitals) for externally illuminated overhead guide signs. Several Eastern turnpike authorities blended all - uppercase Series E Modified with the lowercase alphabet for destination legends on their guide signs. Eventually, this combination was accepted for destination legend in the first manual for signing Interstate highways, which was published in 1958 by the American Association of State Highway Officials and adopted as the national standard by the BPR. The US National Park Service uses NPS Rawlinson Roadway, a serif typeface, for guide signage; it typically appears on a brown background. Rawlinson has replaced Clarendon as the official NPS typeface, but some states still use Clarendon for recreational signage. Georgia, in the past, used uppercase Series D with a custom lowercase alphabet on its freeway guide signs; the most distinctive feature of this typeface is the lack of a dot on lowercase i and j. More recent installations appear to include the dots. The Clearview typeface, developed by US researchers to provide improved legibility, is permitted for light legend on dark backgrounds under FHWA interim approval. Clearview has seen widespread use by state departments of transportation in Arkansas, Arizona, Illinois, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Virginia. The Kansas Turnpike Authority has also introduced Clearview typeface to some of its newer guide signs along the Kansas Turnpike, but the state of Kansas continues to use the FHWA typefaces for signage on its non-tolled Interstates and freeways. In Canada, the Ministry of Transportation for the Province of British Columbia specifies Clearview for use on its highway guide signs, and its usage has shown up in Ontario on the Don Valley Parkway and Gardiner Expressway in Toronto and on new 400 - series highway installations in Hamilton, Halton and Niagara, as well as street signs in various parts of the province. The font is also being used on newer signs in Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec. It is common for local governments, airport authorities, and contractors to fabricate traffic signs using typefaces other than the FHWA series; Helvetica, Futura and Arial are common choices. New Zealand road signs are generally influenced both by American and European practices. Warning signs are diamond - shaped with a yellow background for permanent warnings, and an orange background for temporary warnings. They are somewhat more pictorial than their American counterparts. This is also true for Canadian signage. Regulatory signs also follow European practice, with a white circle with a red border indicating prohibitive actions, and a blue circle indicating mandatory actions. White rectangular signs with a red border indicate lane usage directions. Information and direction signs are rectangular, with a green background indicating a state highway, a blue background for all other roads and all services (except in some, where directional signage is white), and a brown background for tourist attractions. Before 1987, most road signs had black backgrounds -- diamonds indicated warnings, and rectangles indicated regulatory actions (with the exception of the Give Way sign (an inverted trapezium), and Stop sign and speed limit signs (which were the same as today)). Information signs were yellow, and direction signage was green on motorways and black everywhere else. Road signs in Caribbean, Central America, and South America vary from country to country. For the most part, conventions in signage tend to resemble United States signage conventions more so than European and Asian conventions. For example, warning signs are typically diamond - shaped and yellow rather than triangular and white. Some variations include the "Parking '' and "No Parking '' signs, which contain either a letter E or P, depending on which word is used locally for "Parking '' (Spanish estacionamiento or parqueo, Portuguese estacionamento), as well as the Stop sign, which usually reads "Pare '' or "Alto ''. Notable exceptions include speed limit signs, which follow the European conventions, and the "No Entry '' sign, often replaced with a crossed upwards arrow. Traffic signs in Colombia are classified into three categories: Warning signs are very similar to warning signs in United States. They are yellow diamond - shaped with a black symbol (the yellow colour is changed to an orange colour in areas under construction). In certain cases, the yellow colour is shifted to fluorescent yellow (in the School area sign and Chevron sign). Mandatory signs are similar to European signs. They are circular with a red border, a white background and a black symbol. Stop sign and Yield sign are as European, except the word "Stop '' is changed for "Pare '' and the Yield sign has no letters, it is a red triangle with white centre. Information signs have many shapes and colours. Principally they are blue with white symbols and in many cases these signs have an information letter below the symbol. Road signs in Suriname are particularly modelled on the Dutch road signs since Suriname is a former Dutch colony, although traffic drives on the left. Cars are beginning to feature cameras with automatic traffic sign recognition, beginning with the Opel Insignia. It mainly recognizes speed limits and no - overtaking areas. Road sign in Greece: no vehicles carrying explosives or flammable goods Sign north of Nome, Alaska, providing warning of the remote, unpopulated area beyond Traffic sign in Jordan "Know AIDS - No AIDs ''. Nubra Valley, Ladakh, India "After Whiskey Driving Risky ''. Lahaul, India "If Married Divorce Speed ''. Ladakh, India Pedestrian crossing in Finland Cycleway sign (white) in Finland Italian road sign warning of wild animals. Germany, Poland, Latvia, Spain, Turkey, among other countries, use a very similar sign. Romantic Road sign in southern Germany (note the Alps in the background) Pedestrian crossing Slow sign in Buting Pasig City
where does the phosphate come from in atp	Adenosine triphosphate - Wikipedia Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a complex organic chemical that participates in many processes. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency '' of intracellular energy transfer. When consumed in metabolic processes, it converts to either the di - or monophosphates, respectively ADP and AMP. Other processes regenerate ATP such that the human body recycles its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day. It is also a precursor to DNA and RNA. From the perspective of biochemistry, ATP is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate, which indicates that it consists of three components, a nitrogenous base (adenine), the sugar ribose, and the triphosphate. It is used in cells as a coenzyme. In terms of its structure, ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9 - nitrogen atom to the 1 ′ carbon atom of a sugar (ribose), which in turn is attached at the 5 ′ carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group. In its many reactions related to metabolism, the adenine and sugar groups remain unchanged, but the triphosphate is converted to di - and monophosphate, giving respectively the derivatives ADP and AMP. The three phosphoryl groups are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and, for the terminal phosphate, gamma (γ). In neutral solution, ionized ATP exists mostly as ATP, with a small proportion of ATP. Being polyanionic and featuring a potentially chelatable polyphosphate group, ATP binds metal cations with high affinity. The binding constant for Mg 2 + is (9554). The binding of a divalent cation, almost always magnesium, strongly affects the interaction of ATP with various proteins Due to the strength of the ATP - Mg interaction, ATP exists in the cell mostly as a complex with Mg 2 + bonded to the phosphate oxygen centers. A second magnesium ion is critical for ATP binding in the kinase domain. The presence of Mg regulates kinase activity. Salts of ATP can be isolated as colorless solids. ATP is stable in aqueous solutions between pH 6.8 and 7.4, but it is rapidly hydrolysed at more extreme pH 's. ATP hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate. Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium, with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentration of ADP. In the context of biochemical reactions, these anhydride bonds are frequently referred to as high - energy bonds. The hydrolysis of ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate releases 30.5 kJ / mol of enthalpy, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ / mol. The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (P) or pyrophosphate (PP) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are: These abbreviated equations can be written more explicitly (R = adenosyl): With a typical intracellular concentration of 1 -- 10 mM, ATP is abundant. The dephosphorylation of ATP and rephosphorylation of ADP and AMP occur repeatedly in the course of aerobic metabolism. ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways in eukaryotes are (1) glycolysis, (2) the citric acid cycle / oxidative phosphorylation, and (3) beta - oxidation. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide, the combination of pathways 1 and 2, is known as cellular respiration, produces about 30 equivalents of ATP from each molecule of glucose. ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote occurs mainly in the mitochondria, which comprise nearly 25 % of the volume of a typical cell. In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate. Glycolysis generates two equivalents of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes, PGK and pyruvate kinase. Two equivalents of NADH are also produced, which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase. The pyruvate generated as an end - product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle. In glycolysis, hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product, glucose - 6 - phosphate, and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself. The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase (PFK), which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP. The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual, since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK; the active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two conformations, only one of which binds the second substrate fructose - 6 - phosphate (F6P). The protein has two binding sites for ATP -- the active site is accessible in either protein conformation, but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly. A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP - induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK, including cyclic AMP, ammonium ions, inorganic phosphate, and fructose - 1, 6 - and - 2, 6 - biphosphate. In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group, which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle). Every "turn '' of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide, one equivalent of ATP guanosine triphosphate (GTP) through substrate - level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl - CoA synthetase, three molecules of NADH, and one equivalent of FADH. NADH and FADH are recycled (to NAD and FAD, respectively), generating additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. The oxidation of NADH results in the synthesis of 2 -- 3 equivalents of ATP, and the oxidation of one FADH yields between 1 -- 2 equivalents of ATP. The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process. Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen, it is an obligately aerobic process because O is used to recycle the NADH and FADH. In the absence of oxygen, the citric acid cycle ceases. The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate - aspartate shuttle (and to a lesser extent, the glycerol - phosphate shuttle) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD. Instead of transferring the generated NADH, a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate, which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix. Another malate dehydrogenase - catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction, producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion 's interior store of NAD. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space. In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH through the electron transport chain pumps protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping generates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Flow of protons down this potential gradient -- that is, from the intermembrane space to the matrix -- yields ATP by ATP synthase. Most of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix. The inner membrane contains an antiporter, the ADP / ATP translocase, which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space. This translocase is driven by the membrane potential, as it results in the movement of about 4 negative charges out of the mitochondrial membrane in exchange for 3 negative charges moved inside. However, it is also necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate, partially dissipating the proton gradient. The citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates, particularly the ratio of NAD to NADH and the concentrations of calcium, inorganic phosphate, ATP, ADP, and AMP. Citrate -- the molecule that gives its name to the cycle -- is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK, providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis. In the presence of air and various cofactors and enzymes, fatty acids are degraded to acetyl - CoA. The pathway is called beta - oxidation. Each cycle of beta - oxidation shortens the fatty acid chain by two carbon atoms and produces one equivalent each of NADH and one FADH. The NADH and FADH are used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Dozens of ATP equivalents are generated by the beta - oxidation of a single long acyl chain. The acetyl - CoA produced by beta - oxidation can be subsequently metabolized by the citric acid cycle, yielding further equivalents of ATP. In oxidative phosphorylation, the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase, which is regulated by the availability of its substrate -- the reduced form of cytochrome c. The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates: which directly implies this equation: Thus, a high ratio of (NADH) to (NAD) or a high ratio of (ADP) (P) to (ATP) imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity. An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm. Fermentation is the metabolism of organic compounds in the absence of air. It involves substrate - level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain. The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is: Anaerobic respiration is respiration in the absence of O 2. Prokaryotes can utilize a variety of electron acceptors. These include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide. ATP can also be synthesized through several so - called "replenishment '' reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDKs), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high - energy phosphate donor, and the ATP: guanido - phosphotransferase family. In plants, ATP is synthesized in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. The process is called photophosphorylation. The "machinery '' is similar to that in mitochondria except that light energy is used to pump protons across a membrane to produce a proton - motive force. ATP synthase then ensues exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation. Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle, which produces triose sugars. The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.2 moles. The majority of ATP is recycled from ADP by the aforementioned processes. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily, which is around 50 to 75 kg. A human will typically use up his or her body weight of ATP over the course of the day. Each equivalent of ATP is recycled 500 - 750 times during a single day (100 / 0.2 = 500). ATP is involved signal transduction by serving as substrate for kinases, enzymes that transfer phosphate groups. Kinases are the most common ATP - binding proteins. They share a small number of common folds. Phosphorylation of a protein by a kinase can activate a cascade such as the mitogen - activated protein kinase cascade. ATP is also a substrate of adenylate cyclase, most commonly in G protein - coupled receptor signal transduction pathways and is transformed to second messenger, cyclic AMP, which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores. This form of signal transduction is particularly important in brain function, although it is involved in the regulation of a multitude of other cellular processes. ATP is one of four "monomers '' required in the synthesis of RNA. The process is promoted by RNA polymerases. A similar process occurs in the formation of DNA, except that ATP is first converted to the deoxyribonucleotide dATP. Like many condensation reactions in nature, DNA replication and DNA transcription also consumes ATP. Aminoacyl - tRNA synthetase enzymes consume ATP in the attachment tRNA to amino acids, forming aminoacyl - tRNA complexes. Aminoacyl transferase binds AMP - amino acid to tRNA. The coupling reaction proceeds in two steps: The amino acid is coupled to the penultimate nucleotide at the 3 ′ - end of the tRNA (the A in the sequence CCA) via an ester bond (roll over in illustration). Transporting chemicals out of a cell against a gradient is often associated with ATP hydrolysis. Transport is mediated by ATP binding cassette transporters. The human genome encodes 48 ABC transporters, that are used for exporting drugs, lipids, and other compounds. Biochemistry laboratories often use in vitro studies to explore ATP - dependent molecular processes. Enzyme inhibitors of ATP - dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP - dependent reactions. ATP analogs are also used in X-ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP, often together with other substrates. Most useful ATP analogs can not be hydrolyzed as ATP would be; instead they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP - bound state. Adenosine 5 ′ - (γ - thiotriphosphate) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma - phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom; this anion is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP - dependent processes. In crystallographic studies, hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion. However, caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs, since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration.
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when were the earliest buddhist scriptures we have today written	Buddhist texts - wikipedia Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by monks, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo - Aryan languages which were then translated into other local languages as Buddhism spread. They can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture '' and "canonical '' are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts '', while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between Buddhavacana "word of the Buddha, '' many of which are known as "Sutras, '' and other texts, such as Shastras (treatises) or Abhidharma. These religious texts were written in many different languages and scripts but memorizing, reciting and copying the texts were of high value. Even after the development of printing, Buddhists preferred to keep to their original practices with these texts. According to Donald Lopez, criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that Dharma is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha. The Mahāsāṃghika and the Mūlasarvāstivāda considered both the Buddha 's discourses, and of his disciples, to be buddhavacana. A number of different beings such as buddhas, disciples of the buddha, ṛṣis, and devas were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana. The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the sūtras, compared with the Vinaya, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma. These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a saṃgha, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder. In Theravada Buddhism, the standard collection of buddhavacana is the Pali Canon. Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pali Canon and Agamas could contain the actual substance of the historical teachings (and possibly even the words) of the Buddha. In East Asian Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon. The most common edition of this is the Taishō Tripiṭaka. According to Venerable Hsuan Hua from the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a buddha, a disciple of a buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma. Then these sutras may be properly regarded as buddhavacana. Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as Buddhavacana. Shingon Buddhism developed a system that assigned authorship of the early sutras to Gautama Buddha in his physical manifestation, of the Ekayana sutras to the Buddhas as Sambhoghakaya, and the Vajrayana texts to the Buddha as Dharmakaya. In Tibetan Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Kangyur. The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist canons always combined Buddhavacana with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not buddhavacana is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, in addition to containing sutras and vinaya, also contains tantras. The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle Indo - Aryan languages called Prakrits, including Gāndhārī language, the early Magadhan language and Pali through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices. Doctrinal elaborations were preserved in Abhidharma works and later Karikas (verse expositions). As Buddhism spread geographically, these texts were translated into the local language, such as Chinese and Tibetan. The Pali canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE and the Theravadan Pali textual tradition developed there. The Sri Lankan Pali tradition developed extensive commentaries (Atthakatha) as well as sub-commentaries for the Pali Canon as well as treatises on Abhidhamma. Sutra commentaries and Abhidharma works also exist in Tibetan, Chinese, Korean and other East Asian languages. Important examples of non-canonical Pali texts are the Visuddhimagga, by Buddhaghosa, which is a compendium of Theravada teachings and the Mahavamsa, a historical Sri Lankan chronicle. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from the ancient civilization of Gandhara in north central Pakistan (near Taxila just south west of the capital Islamabad) are dated to the 1st century and constitute another Buddhist textual tradition on the Silk Road and was likely an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism After the rise of the Kushans in India, Sanskrit was also widely used to record Buddhist texts. Sanskrit Buddhist literature later became the dominant tradition in India until the decline of Buddhism in India. Around the beginning of the Christian era, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the Bodhisattva idea, commonly known as Mahayana (great vehicle) sutras. Many of the Mahayana sutras were written in Sanskrit and then translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the Kangyur and the Taishō Tripiṭaka respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. The Mahayana sutras are traditionally considered by Mahayanists to be the word of the Buddha, but transmitted either in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the nagas), or revealed directly from other Buddhas or bodhisattvas. Some 600 Mahayana Sutras have survived in Sanskrit, or in Chinese and / or Tibetan translation. In the Mahayana tradition there are important works termed Shastras, or treatises which attempt to outline the sutra teachings and defend or expand on them. The works of important Buddhist philosophers like Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu and Dharmakirti are generally termed Shastras, and were written in Sanskrit. The treatise Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (attributed by the faithful to Aśvaghoşa) strongly influenced east Asian Mahayana doctrine and inspired numerous commentaries authored by early Korean and Chinese Buddhist teachers. The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which outlined new ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of Mandalas, Mudras and Fire sacrifices. Buddhist Tantras are key texts in Vajrayana Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet. The division of texts into the traditional three yanas may obscure the process of development that went on, and there is some overlap in the traditional classifications. For instance, there are so - called proto - Mahayana texts, such as the Ajitasena Sutra, which are missing key features that are associated with Mahayana texts. Some Pali texts also contain ideas that later became synonymous with the Mahayana. The Garbhāvakrānti Sūtra is included in both the Vinaya Pitaka of the Mulasarvastivada, one of the early schools, and the Ratnakuta, a standard collection of Mahayana sutras. Some Mahayana texts are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, particularly some of the shorter Perfection of Wisdom sutras. An early tantra, the Mahavairocana Abhisambodhi Tantra, is also known as the Mahavairocana Sutra. At least some editions of the Kangyur include the Heart Sutra in the tantra division. Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring '' yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana '' ("Hinayana '') texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur. One of them, the Atanatiya Sutra, is also included in the Mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino - Japanese Buddhist literature. (A variant of it is also found in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon.) Some Buddhist texts evolved to become a virtual canon in themselves, and are referred to as vaipulya or extensive sutras. The Flower Garland Sutra is an example of a single sutra made up of other sutras, many of which, particularly the Gandavyuha Sutra still circulate as separate texts. Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called terma (Tibetan: gTer - ma). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and / or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by tertöns (Tibetan: gTer - stons), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be ' mind termas, ' which are ' discovered ' in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school (and Bön tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so - called Tibetan book of the dead, the Bardo Thodol. Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo - Aryan language is the Tipiṭaka (triple basket) of the Theravadin school. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Āgamas, which includes texts by the Sarvastivada and the Dharmaguptaka. The Chinese Buddhist canon contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content. Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found amongst the Gandharan Buddhist Texts. Several early versions of the Vinaya Pitaka (from various schools) are also kept in the Chinese (Mahayana) Canon. The vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline. However, vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma - Vinaya) mean something like ' doctrine and discipline '. The vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "Jatakas '', or birth stories. Paradoxically, the text most closely associated with the vinaya, and the most frequently used portion of it, the Pratimoksha, is in itself not a canonical text in Theravada, even though almost all of it can be found in the canon. Six complete vinayas survive: In addition, portions survive of a number of vinayas in various languages. The Mahāvastu compiled by the Lokottaravadin sub-school of the Mahāsānghika was perhaps originally the preamble to their vinaya that became detached; hence, rather than dealing with the rules themselves, it takes the form of an extended biography of the Buddha, which it describes in terms of his progression through ten bhumis, or stages. This doctrine was later taken up by the Mahayana in a modified form as Vasubandhu 's Ten Stages Sutra. The Sutras (Sanskrit; Pali Sutta) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are all, even those not actually spoken by him, considered to be Buddhavacana, the word of the Buddha, just as in the case of all canonical literature. The Buddha 's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. There were originally nine, but later twelve, of these. The Sanskrit forms are: The first nine are listed in all surviving agamas, with the other three added in some later sources. In Theravada, at least, they are regarded as a classification of the whole of the scriptures, not just suttas. The scheme is also found in Mahayana texts. However, some time later a new organizational scheme was imposed on the canon, which is now the most familiar. The scheme organises the suttas into: These range in length up to 95 pages. The Pali Digha Nikaya contains 34 texts, including the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta and the Brahmajāla Sutta. The Dīrghāgama of the Dharmagupta also survives, in Chinese translation, and contains 30 sutras. These are the rest of the sutras of any length, and the Pali Majjhima Nikaya has 152 suttas. The Madhyamāgama of the Sarvāstivada containing 222 sutras survives in Chinese translation. This grouping consists of many short texts connected by theme, setting, or interlocutor. The Pali Samyutta Nikaya contains more than 2,800 sutras. The Samyuktāgama of the Sarvāstivada containing only 1,300 sutras survives in Chinese translation. Sutras with the same number of doctrinal items, comprise over 2,300 suttas in the Pali Anguttara Nikaya. The Chinese canon contains an Ekottarāgama that some scholars think belongs to the Mahāsanghika school. Not all schools had this category, but the Pali Khuddaka Nikaya has several well - known and loved texts, including: Many of these texts are available in translation as well as in the original language. The Dhammapada, for instance, has a Pali version, three Chinese versions, a Tibetan version, and a Khotanese version. Abhidharma (in Pali, Abhidhamma) means ' further Dharma ' and is concerned with the analysis of phenomena. It grew initially out of various lists of teachings such as the 37 Bodhipaksika - dharmas or the 37 Factors leading to Awakening. The Abhidharma literature is chiefly concerned with the analysis of phenomena and the relationships between them. The Theravāda Abhidhamma survives in the Pali Canon. Outside of the Theravada monasteries the Pali Abhidharma texts are not well known. A Sarvastivada Abhidharma, composed in Sanskrit, survives in Chinese and Tibetan traditions. Though the Theravādin Abhidhamma is well preserved and best known, it should be noted that a number of the early Eighteen Schools each had their own distinct Abhidharma collection with not very much common textual material, though sharing methodology. Not all schools accepted the Abhidharma as canonical. The Sautrāntika, for instance, held that the canon stopped with the vinaya and sutras. The rejection by some schools that dharmas (i.e. phenomena) are ultimately real, which the Theravada Abhidhamma, for instance, insists, is thought to be an important factor in the origin of the Mahayana. One early text not usually regarded as Buddhavacana is probably the Milinda pañha (literally The Questions of Milinda). This text is in the form of a dialogue between Nagasena, and the Indo - Greek King Menander (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects. It is included in some editions of the Pali Canon. Other early texts which are usually not considered ' canonical ' are the Nettipakarana and the Petakopadesa - "The Book of Guidance '' and "Instruction on the Pitaka ''. The Dhyāna sutras (Chan - jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the Sarvastivada school along with some early proto - Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from Kashmir and were influential in Chinese Buddhism. The Buddhist poet Aśvaghoṣa composed an epic poem on the life of the Buddha called the Buddhacarita in the early second century CE. The Pali texts have an extensive commentarial literature much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and Dhammapala. There are also sub-commentaries (tikka) or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification, which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka and according to Nanamoli Bhikkhu is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada. '' A similar albeit shorter work is the Vimuttimagga. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the Abhidhammattha - sangaha (11th or 12th century), a short introductory summary to the Abhidhamma. Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan Sinhala language, which are now lost. Sri Lankan literature in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the Muvadevāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva 's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the Sasadāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva 's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli Dhammapada. The Pali textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the Aggavamsa of Saddaniti and the Jinakalamali of Ratanapañña. Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as Mahasi Sayadaw translated some of their texts into Pali. There are numerous Tantric Theravada texts, mostly from Southeast Asia. This tradition flourished in Cambodia and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of Rama IV. One of these texts has been published in English by the Pali Text Society as "Manual of a Mystic ''. Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms form the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the pyui ' long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly jatakas. A famous example of pyui ' poetry is the Kui khan pyui ' (the pyui ' in nine sections, 1523). Burmese commentaries or nissayas and were used to teach Pali. The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature. An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang '' (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe. See Mahayana Sutras for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source. These deal with prajñā (wisdom or insight). Wisdom in this context means the ability to see reality as it truly is. They do not contain an elaborate philosophical argument, but simply try to point to the true nature of reality, especially through the use of paradox. The basic premise is a radical non-dualism, in which every and any dichotomist way of seeing things is denied: so phenomena are neither existent, nor non-existent, but are marked by sunyata, emptiness, an absence of any essential unchanging nature. The Perfection of Wisdom in One Letter illustrates this approach by choosing to represent the perfection of prajñā with the Sanskrit / Pali short a vowel ("अ '', pronounced (ə)) -- which, as a prefix, negates a word 's meaning (e.g., changing svabhava to asvabhava, "with essence '' to "without essence ''; cf. mu), which is the first letter of Indic alphabets; and that, as a sound on its own, is the most neutral / basic of speech sounds (cf Aum and bija). Many sutras are known by the number of lines, or slokas, that they contained. Edward Conze, who translated nearly all of the Perfection of Wisdom sutras into English, identified four periods of development in this literature: The Perfection of Wisdom texts have influenced every Mahayana school of Buddhism. Also called the Lotus Sutra, White Lotus Sutra, or Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma; (Sanskrit: सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्र Saddharmapundarīka - sūtra; 妙法蓮華經 Cn: Miàofǎ Liánhuā Jīng; Jp: Myōhō Renge Kyō. Probably composed in its earliest form in the period 100 bce -- 100 ce, the sutra proposes that the three yanas (Shravakayana, Pratyekabuddhayana, and Bodhisattvayana) are not in fact three different paths leading to three goals, but one path, with one goal. The earlier teachings are said to be of ' skillful means ' in order to help beings of limited capacities. Notable for the (re) appearance of the Buddha Prabhutaratna, who had died several aeons earlier, because it suggests that a Buddha is not inaccessible after his parinirvana, and also that his life - span is said to be inconceivably long because of the accumulation of merit in past lives. This idea, though not necessarily from this source, forms the basis of the later Trikaya doctrine. Later associated particularly with the Tien Tai in China, Tendai school in Japan, and the Nichiren schools in Japan. There are three major sutras that fall into this category: the Infinite Life Sutra, also known as the Larger Pure Land Sutra; the Amitabha Sutra, also known as the Smaller Pure Land Sutra; and the Contemplation Sutra (also known as the Visualization Sutra). These texts describe the origins and nature of the Western Pure Land in which the Buddha Amitabha resides. They list the forty - eight vows made by Amitabha as a bodhisattva by which he undertook to build a Pure Land where beings are able to practise the Dharma without difficulty or distraction. The sutras state that beings can be reborn there by pure conduct and by practices such as thinking continuously of Amitabha, praising him, recounting his virtues, and chanting his name. These Pure Land sutras and the practices they recommend became the foundations of Pure Land Buddhism, which focus on the salvific power of faith in the vows of Amitabha. Composed in its earliest form some time before 150 CE, the Bodhisattva Vimalakirti appears in the guise of a layman in order to teach the Dharma. Seen by some as a strong assertion of the value of lay practice. Doctrinally similar to the Perfection of Wisdom texts, a major theme is the Buddhafield (Buddha - kshetra), which was influential on Pure Land schools. Very popular in China, Korea and Japan where it was seen as being compatible with Confucian values. Amongst the very earliest Mahayana texts, the Samadhi Sutras are a collection of sutras focused on the attainment of profound states of consciousness reached in meditation, perhaps suggesting that meditation played an important role in early Mahayana. Includes the Pratyutpanna Sutra and the Shurangama Samadhi Sutra. The Triskandha Sutra, and the Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra (or Golden Light Sutra), which focus on the practice of confession of faults. The Golden Light Sutra became especially influential in Japan, where one of its chapters on the ' Universal Sovereign ' (Sanskrit: Chakravartin) was used by the Japanese emperors to legitimise their rule, and it provided a model for a well - run state. A large composite text consisting of several parts, most notably the Dasabhumika Sutra and the Gandavyuha Sutra. It exists in three successive versions, two in Chinese and one in Tibetan. New sutras were added to the collection in both the intervals between these. The Gandavyuha Sutra is thought to be the source of a sect that was dedicated specifically to Vairocana, and that later gave rise to the Mahavairocana - abhisambodhi tantra. The Mahavairocana - abhisambodhi became one of the two central texts in Shingon Buddhism and was included in the Tibetan canon as a tantra of the carya class. The Avatamsaka Sutra became the central text for the Hua - yen (Jp. Kegon) school of Buddhism, the most important doctrine of which is the interpenetration of all phenomena. These sutras primarily teach the doctrine of vijnapti - matra or ' representation - only ', associated with the Yogacara school. The Sandhinirmocana Sutra (c 2nd Century CE) is the earliest surviving sutra in this class (and according to some Gelugpa authorities the only one). This sutra divides the teachings of the Buddha into three classes, which it calls the "Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma. '' To the first turning, it ascribes the Agamas of the Shravakas, to the second turning the lower Mahayana sutras including the Prajna - paramita Sutras, and finally sutras like itself are deemed to comprise the third turning. Moreover, the first two turnings are considered, in this system of classification, to be provisional while the third group is said to present the final truth without a need for further explication (nitartha). Especially the Tathagatagarbha Sutra, the Shrīmālādevi - simhanāda Sūtra (Srimala Sutra), the Angulimaliya Sutra, the Anunatva - Apurnatva - Nirdesa Sutra, and the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra (which differs in character from the Pali Mahaparinibbana Sutta). These texts teach that every being has a Tathagatagarbha: variously translated as Buddha nature, Buddha seed, Buddha matrix. It is this Buddha nature, Buddha Essence or Buddha Principle, this aspect of every being that is itself already enlightened, that enables beings to be liberated. One of the most important responses of Buddhism to the problem of immanence and transcendence. The Tathagatagarbha doctrine was very influential in East Asian Buddhism, and the idea in one form or another can be found in most of its schools. The well - known Lankavatara Sutra, composed sometime around the 4th century, is sometimes included in thevijnapti - matra group associated with the Yogacara teachings, however D.T. Suzuki sees the Lankavatara as clearly pre-dating and distinguished from Yogacara. The Lankavatara teaches cittamatra (mind only) not that of vijnaptimatra of the Yogacara. Also, central to the Lankavatara is the identity of the alayavjnana with the tathagata - garbha and the Lankavatara 's central message that the tathagata - garbha is what makes possible the turning inward (paravritti or paravrtti) of awareness to realize the Buddha 's psychological transformation in practical life, while the tathagata - garbha system was unknown or ignored by the progenitors of the Yogacara system. The Lankavatara Sutra was influential in the Chan or Zen schools. These are two large sutras, which are actually collections of other sutras. The Mahāratnakūta Sūtra contains 49 individual works, and the Mahāsamnipāta Sūtra is a collection of 17 shorter works. Both seem to have been finalised by about the 5th century, although some parts of them are considerably older. These include a number of sutras that focus on actions that lead to existence in the various spheres of existence, or that expound the doctrine of the twelve links of pratitya - samutpada or dependent - origination. These focus on the principles that guide the behaviour of Bodhisattvas. They include the Kāshyapa - parivarta, the Bodhisattva - prātimoksa Sūtra, and the Brahmajala Sutra. This is a large number of sutras that describe the nature and virtues of a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva and / or their Pure Land, including Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, the Buddha Akshobhya, and Bhaishajyaguru also known as the Medicine Buddha. Early in the 20th Century, a cache of texts was found in a mound near Gilgit, Afghanistan. Among them was the Ajitasena Sutra. The Ajitasena Sutra appears to be a mixture of Mahayana and pre-Mahayana ideas. It occurs in a world where monasticism is the norm, which is typical of the Pali Suttas; there is none of the usual antagonism towards the Shravakas (also called the Hinayana) or the notion of Arahantship, which is typical of Mahayana Sutras such as the White Lotus, or Vimalakirti Nirdesha. However, the sutra also has an Arahant seeing all the Buddha fields, it is said that reciting the name of the sutra will save beings from suffering and the hell realms, and a meditative practice is described that allows the practitioner to see with the eyes of a Buddha, and to receive teachings from them that are very much typical of Mahayana Sutras. The Mahayana commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many commentarial texts are called Shastras, a by - word used when referring to a scripture. Extending this meaning, the shastra is commonly used to mean a treatise or text written in explanation of some idea, especially in matters involving religion. In Buddhism, a shastra is often a commentary written at a later date to explain an earlier scripture or sutra. The Mūlamadhyamika - karikā, or Root Verses on the Middle Way, by Nagarjuna is a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy, shares much of the same subject matter as the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, although it is not strict a commentary on them. The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the Bodhicaryāvatāra has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the fourteenth Dalai Lama. The text begins with an elaborate ritual worship section, but goes on to expound the six perfections. The 9th chapter is a critique of various views on perfect wisdom from the Madhyamika point of view. Shantideva also produced the Shikshasamuccaya, which is a compendium of doctrines from a huge range of Mahayana Sutras -- some of which no longer exist and therefore are known only through his quotes. Asanga, associated with the Yogacara school of Mahayana thought, is said to have received many texts directly from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including Madhyāntavibhāga, the Mahāyāna - sūtrālamāra, and the Abhisamayālamkara. He is also said to have personally written the Mahāyāna - samgraha, the Abhidharma - samuccaya (a compendium of Abhidharma thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet), and the Yogācāra - bhūmi (although the latter text appears to have had several authors.) Asanga 's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: Trivabhāva - nirdesha, Vimshatika, Trimshika, and the Abhidharmakośa - bhāsya although this work predates his conversion to the Mahayana and a minority of scholars speculate that there may have been two different Vasubandhus who composed these works. Most influential in the East Asian Buddhist tradition was probably his Thirty Verses on Consciousness - only. Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the Pramāna - samuccaya, and later Dharmakirti wrote the Pramāna - vārttikā, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text. The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana attributed to Ashvaghosha was influential in East Asian Buddhism, especially the Hua - yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. Ashvaghosha is also celebrated for his plays. The early period of the development of Chinese Buddhism was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the Chinese Buddhist canon. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang. East Asian Buddhism began to develop its own unique literature with the rise of the Tiantai School and its major representative, Zhiyi (538 -- 597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the Lotus sutra as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is Huayan, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the Avatamsaka Sutra. An important patriarch of this school is Fazang who wrote many commentaries and treatises. Zen Buddhism developed a large literary tradition based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the Platform Sutra attributed to Zen patriarch Huineng, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Ch'an Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate. Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the Transmission of the Lamp. Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition. After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language. The Tibetan Buddhist canon includes a number of Nikaya - related texts from the Mula - Sarvastivada school, as well as Mahayana sutras. However, it is the specifically Vajrayana texts that most strongly characterise it. They are considered to be the word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), and the Tibetan Kangyur contains translations of almost 500 tantras. The texts are typically concerned with elaborate rituals and meditations. A late Tibetan tradition has made a fourfold classification into: Kriyā tantras. These form a large subgroup that appeared between the 2nd and 6th centuries. The Kriya tantras focus on ritual actions. Each centres on a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva, and many are based on dharanis. Examples include the Mahāmegha Sutra, the Ārya - mañjushrī - mūla - kalpa, the Subhāhu - pariprcchā Sutra, and the Aparimitāyur - jñāna - hrdaya - dhāranī. Also included in this category are some Mahayana texts such as the Heart Sutra and, in some editions, versions of some texts found in the Pali Canon. Carya tantras. This is a small class of texts that probably emerged after the 6th century and are entirely centred on the worship of the Buddha Vairocana. The best known example is the Mahā - vairocanābhisambodhi Tantra, also known as the Mahavairocana Sutra, which became a foundational text for the Shingon School of Japan. Yoga tantras likewise focus on Vairocana, and include the Sarva - tathāgata - tattva - samgraha Tantra and the Sarva - durgati - parishodhana Tantra. The Shurangama Sutra and the Shurangama Mantra from which it (called the Shitatapatra Ushnisha Dharani) comes can be included in this category. According to Venerable Tripitaka Master Bhikshu Shramana Hsuan Hua 's "Shurangama Mantra Commentary '' (Buddhist Text Translation Society of the City of Ten Thousand Buddhas, 1981, Volume 1), the Shurangama Mantra mystically and literally includes all of the Buddha Dharma in its entirety, and its focus is on the Five Dhyana Buddhas (Vairochana, Amitabha), Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, and Amoghasiddhi, with stress on Vairochana and Ashobhya Buddhas) and their retinues of Dharmapalas and wrathful deities in male and female forms, such as Vajrapani, wrathful Manjushri, Mahakala, Tara, Pandaravasini, Prakruti, Uchushma Fire Head Vajra, Brahma, Indra, Shiva as Rudra, Raudri - Umapati form of Vajrayogini, Narayana, Ganapati, various Dhakinis, Naga kings, Yaksha kings, Rakshasha kings, and many other Dharma Protectors of the Buddhist Pantheon and Vedic pantheon. The primary wrathful Goddess of the Shurangamma Mantra tantric practice is the Great White Umbrella Deity form of Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva, an important practice in Tibetan Buddhism. Anuttara tantras. The most advanced class of tantra is the Anuttarayoga tantra, which focus on mental transformation and less on ritual actions. These are sometimes further divided into the so - called Father Tantras and Mother Tantras. Anuttaratantra is known in the Nyingma school as Mahayoga. This school also has a collection of tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools. Textual evidence suggests that some of these texts are in fact Shaivite Tantras adopted and adapted to Buddhist purposes, and many similarities in iconography and ritual can be seen in them. A sadhana is a tantric spiritual practices text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the mandala or a particular yidam, or meditation deity. The Sādhanamālā is a collection of sadhanas. Vajrayana adepts, known as mahasiddha, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs of realization. Collections of these songs such as the Caryāgīti, or the Charyapada are still in existence. The Dohakosha is a collection of doha songs by the yogi Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa was composed by Tibetan Buddhist yogi Milarepa and is especially popular amongst members of the Kagyu school. Terma are Tibetan Buddhist texts, hidden to be rediscovered at a later date. Padmasambhava and Yeshe Tsogyal wrote and hid most termas, although texts have also been hidden by figures such as Machig Labdron. The best known terma text is probably the Bardo thodol, or ' Awakening in the Bardo State ', also known as the Tibetan Book of the Dead. The person who finds a terma text is known as a terton. The Blue Annals (Standard Tibetan: deb ther sngon po) completed in 1476CE, authored by Gölo Zhönnupel (Tibetan: gos lo gzhon nu dpal, 1392 -- 1481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet. Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their lifestory. Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism that are distinct from his Shingon Buddhism.
who sings life's been good to me so far	Life 's Been Good - wikipedia "Life 's Been Good '' is a song by Joe Walsh, which first appeared on the soundtrack to the film FM. The original eight - minute version was released on Walsh 's album But Seriously, Folks..., and an edited 4 1 / 2 minute single version peaked at # 12 on the US Billboard Hot 100, remaining his biggest solo hit. In the song, Walsh satirically reflects on the antics and excess of the era 's rock stars, with nods to Keith Moon and others: "I live in hotels / Tear out the walls '', and "My Maserati does one - eighty - five / I lost my licence, now I do n't drive ''. The Maserati Walsh himself owned at the time was a 1964 5000GT model, and while fast, could only manage 170mph with tall gearing. The 1979 Rolling Stone Record Guide called it "riotous '', and "(maybe) the most important statement on rock stardom anyone has made in the late Seventies ''. "Life 's Been Good '' has a mid-tempo, reggae - like groove marked by bedrock guitar riffs, synthesizers, and humorous lyrics. Walsh 's ARP Odyssey synthesizer riff accompanies the lead guitar in the middle of the song. The lead guitar in the outro is accompanied by the main riff. Bill Szymczyk and Jody Boyer perform the backing vocals. The pre-chorus section on the second and third verses uses a call and response pattern. At the end of the LP, there is a clip of an inside joke stating "uh - oh, here comes a flock of wah wahs '', recorded from inside the studio. After the music has faded away into silence, there 's a 10 - second gap before the inside joke. That inside joke would also be included at the end of disc one of the Eagles ' box set, Selected Works: 1972 -- 1999. Made after Walsh had joined the Eagles, "Life 's Been Good '' was incorporated into that group 's concert repertoire, appearing in shows at the time as well as reunion tours. It remains a staple of classic rock radio playlists. A live version of the song with the Eagles appears on the 1980 album Eagles Live, where some of the lyrics are changed. In 2013, this song was sampled on Eminem 's "So Far... '' off The Marshall Mathers LP 2, produced by Rick Rubin.
who wrote i'd rather be a hammer than a nail	El Cóndor Pasa (song) - wikipedia El Cóndor Pasa (pronounced (el ˈkondor pasa), Spanish for "The Condor Passes '') is an orchestral musical piece from the zarzuela El Cóndor Pasa by the Peruvian composer Daniel Alomía Robles, written in 1913 and based on traditional Andean music, specifically folk music from Peru. Since then, it has been estimated that around the world, more than 4000 versions of the melody have been produced, along with 300 sets of lyrics. In 2004, Peru declared this song as part of the national cultural heritage. This song is now considered the second national anthem of Peru. It is the best - known Peruvian song in the English - speaking world due to a 1970 cover by Simon & Garfunkel on their Bridge over Troubled Water album. Their version is called "El Cóndor Pasa (If I Could) ''. In 1913, Peruvian songwriter Daniel Alomía Robles composed "El Cóndor Pasa '', and the song was first performed publicly at the Teatro Mazzi in Lima. The song was originally a musical piece in the Peruvian zarzuela (musical play), El cóndor pasa. Its music was composed by Daniel Alomía Robles in 1913 and its script was written by Julio de La Paz (pseudonym of the Limenian dramatist Julio Baudouin). The piano arrangement of this play 's most famous melody was legally registered on May 3, 1933 by The Edward B. Marks Music Corp. in the Library of Congress, under the number 9643. The zarzuela is written in prose and consists of one musical play and two acts. In July 2013, the Colectivo Cultural Centenario El Cóndor Pasa cultural association re-edited the original script which had been lost for a period of time, and published it together with a CD containing the recorded dialogues and seven musical pieces. The music from the original score was reconstructed by musicologist Luis Salazar Mejía with the collaboration of musicians Daniel Dorival and Claude Ferrier and the support of cultural promoter Mario Cerrón Fetta, and re-released on November 14, 15, and 16, 2013 at the Teatro UNI in Lima to celebrate its first centenary. The zarzuela included the famous homonymous melody, without lyrics, based on the traditional Andean music of Peru, where it was declared a National Cultural Heritage in 2004. In 1965, the American musician Paul Simon heard for the first time a version of the melody by the band Los Incas in a performance at the Théâtre de l'Est parisien in Paris in which both were participating. Simon became friendly with Los Incas band, later even touring with them and producing their first US - American album. He asked the band for permission to use the song in his production. The band 's director and founding member Jorge Milchberg, who was collecting royalties for the song as co-author and arranger, responded erroneously that it was a traditional Peruvian composition. Milchberg told Simon he was registered as the arrangement 's co-author and collected royalties. In 1970, the Simon & Garfunkel duo covered the Los Incas version, adding some English lyrics which in turn added Paul Simon to the author credits under the song name "El Cóndor Pasa (If I Could) ''. The instrumental version by Los Incas was used as the base track. They included the song on the 1970 album Bridge Over Troubled Water. Simon & Garfunkel released their version as a single in the U.S., which reached # 18 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart and # 6 on the Easy Listening chart, in fall 1970. This cover achieved major international success and fame. In regard to the Simon & Garfunkel version, Daniel Alomía Robles, Jorge Milchberg, and Paul Simon are now all listed as songwriters, with Simon listed alone as the author of the English lyrics. However, Daniel Alomía Robles was not originally listed as the composer because Jorge Milchberg had told Simon that the song was considered an Andean folk melody. He further stated that he was the registered co-author and arranger of the composition. In late 1970, Daniel Alomía Robles ' son Armando Robles Godoy, a Peruvian filmmaker, filed a successful copyright lawsuit against Paul Simon. The grounds for the lawsuit extended that the song had been composed by his father, who had copyrighted the song in the United States in 1933. Armando Robles Godoy said that he held no ill will towards Paul Simon for what he considered a "misunderstanding '' and an "honest mistake ''. "It was an almost friendly court case because Paul Simon was very respectful of other cultures. It was not carelessness on his part, '' said Armando Robles Godoy. "He happened to hear the song in Paris from a vernacular group Los Incas. He liked it, he went to ask the band for permission and they gave him the wrong information. Jorge Milchberg told him it was a traditional folk song from the 18th century and not my father 's composition. It was a court case without further complications. '' Later that year, Perry Como released a cover of Paul Simon 's English version on his album It 's Impossible, while Julie Felix had a UK Top 20 hit with it, taking advantage of Simon & Garfunkel 's decision not to release their version as a UK single. Armando Robles Godoy subsequently wrote new Spanish lyrics for the song, taking Paul Simon 's version as a reference.
when did the prehistoric era began and what innovation marked the beginning of the historic era	Prehistory - wikipedia Human prehistory is the period between the use of the first stone tools c. 3.3 million years ago and the invention of writing systems. The earliest writing systems appeared c. 5,300 years ago, but writing was not used in some human cultures until the 19th century or even later. The end of prehistory therefore came at very different dates in different places, and the term is less often used in discussing societies where prehistory ended relatively recently. Sumer in Mesopotamia, the Indus valley civilisation and ancient Egypt were the first civilisations to develop their own scripts, and to keep historical records; this took place already during the early Bronze Age. Neighbouring civilizations were the first to follow. Most other civilizations reached the end of prehistory during the Iron Age. The three - age system of division of prehistory into the Stone Age, followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age, remains in use for much of Eurasia and North Africa, but is not generally used in those parts of the world where the working of hard metals arrived abruptly with contact with Eurasian cultures, such as the Americas, Oceania, Australasia and much of Sub-Saharan Africa. These areas also, with some exceptions in Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas, did not develop complex writing systems before the arrival of Eurasians, and their prehistory reaches into relatively recent periods; for example 1788 is usually taken as the end of the prehistory of Australia. The period when a culture is written about by others, but has not developed its own writing is often known as the protohistory of the culture. By definition, there are no written records from human prehistory, so dating of prehistoric materials is crucial. Clear techniques for dating were not well - developed until the 19th century. This article is concerned with human prehistory, the time since behaviorally and anatomically modern humans first appeared until the beginning of recorded history. Earlier periods are also called "prehistoric ''; there are separate articles for the overall history of the Earth and the history of life before humans. The notion of "prehistory '' began to surface during the Enlightenment in the work of antiquarians who used the word ' primitive ' to describe societies that existed before written records. The first use of the word prehistory in English, however, occurred in the Foreign Quarterly Review in 1836. The use of the geologic time scale for pre-human time periods, and of the three - age system for human prehistory, is a system that emerged during the late nineteenth century in the work of British, German and Scandinavian archeologists, antiquarians and anthropologists. The main source for prehistory is archaeology, but some scholars are beginning to make more use of evidence from the natural and social sciences. This view has been articulated by advocates of deep history. The primary researchers into human prehistory are archaeologists and physical anthropologists who use excavation, geologic and geographic surveys, and other scientific analysis to reveal and interpret the nature and behavior of pre-literate and non-literate peoples. Human population geneticists and historical linguists are also providing valuable insight for these questions. Cultural anthropologists help provide context for societal interactions, by which objects of human origin pass among people, allowing an analysis of any article that arises in a human prehistoric context. Therefore, data about prehistory is provided by a wide variety of natural and social sciences, such as paleontology, biology, archaeology, palynology, geology, archaeoastronomy, comparative linguistics, anthropology, molecular genetics and many others. Human prehistory differs from history not only in terms of its chronology but in the way it deals with the activities of archaeological cultures rather than named nations or individuals. Restricted to material processes, remains and artifacts rather than written records, prehistory is anonymous. Because of this, reference terms that prehistorians use, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age are modern labels with definitions sometimes subject to debate. The concept of a "Stone Age '' is found useful in the archaeology of most of the world, though in the archaeology of the Americas it is called by different names and begins with a Lithic stage, or sometimes Paleo - Indian. The sub-divisions described below are used for Eurasia, and not consistently across the whole area. "Palaeolithic '' means "Old Stone Age '', and begins with the first use of stone tools. The Paleolithic is the earliest period of the Stone Age. The early part of the Palaeolithic is called the Lower Palaeolithic, which predates Homo sapiens, beginning with Homo habilis (and related species) and with the earliest stone tools, dated to around 2.5 million years ago. Evidence of control of fire by early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic Era is uncertain and has at best limited scholarly support. The most widely accepted claim is that H. erectus or H. ergaster made fires between 790,000 and 690,000 BP (before the present period) in a site at Bnot Ya'akov Bridge, Israel. The use of fire enabled early humans to cook food, provide warmth, and have a light source at night. Early Homo sapiens originated some 200,000 years ago, ushering in the Middle Palaeolithic. Anatomic changes indicating modern language capacity also arise during the Middle Palaeolithic. During the Middle Palaeolithic Era, there is the first definitive evidence of human use of fire. Sites in Zambia have charred bone and wood that have been dated to 61,000 B.P. The systematic burial of the dead, music, early art, and the use of increasingly sophisticated multi-part tools are highlights of the Middle Paleolithic. Throughout the Palaeolithic, humans generally lived as nomadic hunter - gatherers. Hunter - gatherer societies tended to be very small and egalitarian, though hunter - gatherer societies with abundant resources or advanced food - storage techniques sometimes developed sedentary lifestyles with complex social structures such as chiefdoms, and social stratification. Long - distance contacts may have been established, as in the case of Indigenous Australian "highways '' known as songlines. The "Mesolithic '', or "Middle Stone Age '' (from the Greek "mesos '', "middle '', and "lithos '', "stone '') was a period in the development of human technology between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. The Mesolithic period began at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, some 10,000 BP, and ended with the introduction of agriculture, the date of which varied by geographic region. In some areas, such as the Near East, agriculture was already underway by the end of the Pleistocene, and there the Mesolithic is short and poorly defined. In areas with limited glacial impact, the term "Epipalaeolithic '' is sometimes preferred. Regions that experienced greater environmental effects as the last ice age ended have a much more evident Mesolithic era, lasting millennia. In Northern Europe, societies were able to live well on rich food supplies from the marshlands fostered by the warmer climate. Such conditions produced distinctive human behaviours that are preserved in the material record, such as the Maglemosian and Azilian cultures. These conditions also delayed the coming of the Neolithic until as late as 4000 BC (6,000 BP) in northern Europe. Remains from this period are few and far between, often limited to middens. In forested areas, the first signs of deforestation have been found, although this would only begin in earnest during the Neolithic, when more space was needed for agriculture. The Mesolithic is characterized in most areas by small composite flint tools -- microliths and microburins. Fishing tackle, stone adzes and wooden objects, e.g. canoes and bows, have been found at some sites. These technologies first occur in Africa, associated with the Azilian cultures, before spreading to Europe through the Ibero - Maurusian culture of Northern Africa and the Kebaran culture of the Levant. Independent discovery is not always ruled out. "Neolithic '' means "New Stone Age. '' Although there were several species of human beings during the Paleolithic, by the Neolithic only Homo sapiens sapiens remained. (Homo floresiensis may have survived right up to the very dawn of the Neolithic, about 12,200 years ago.) This was a period of primitive technological and social development. It began about 10,200 BC in some parts of the Middle East, and later in other parts of the world and ended between 4,500 and 2,000 BC. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops and of domesticated animals. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 6,900 -- 6,400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery. The Neolithic period saw the development of early villages, agriculture, animal domestication, tools and the onset of the earliest recorded incidents of warfare. The Neolithic era commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution ''. It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regions, in the Iron Age). The term Neolithic is commonly used in the Old World, as its application to cultures in the Americas and Oceania that did not fully develop metal - working technology raises problems. Settlements became more permanent with some having circular houses with single rooms made of mudbrick. Settlements might have a surrounding stone wall to keep domesticated animals in and protect the inhabitants from other tribes. Later settlements have rectangular mud - brick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija are notable for their gigantic structures. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms or even states, states evolved in Eurasia only with the rise of metallurgy, and most Neolithic societies on the whole were relatively simple and egalitarian. Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones that (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. In Old World archaeology, the "Chalcolithic '', "Eneolithic '' or "Copper Age '' refers to a transitional period where early copper metallurgy appeared alongside the widespread use of stone tools. During this period, some weapons and tools were made of copper. This period was still largely Neolithic in character. It is a phase of the Bronze Age before it was discovered that adding tin to copper formed the harder bronze. The Copper Age was originally defined as a transition between the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. However, because it is characterized by the use of metals, the Copper Age is considered a part of the Bronze Age rather than the Stone Age. An archaeological site in Serbia contains the oldest securely dated evidence of copper making at high temperature, from 7,500 years ago. The find in June 2010 extends the known record of copper smelting by about 800 years, and suggests that copper smelting may have been invented in separate parts of Asia and Europe at that time rather than spreading from a single source. The emergence of metallurgy may have occurred first in the Fertile Crescent, where it gave rise to the Bronze Age in the 4th millennium BC (the traditional view), though finds from the Vinča culture in Europe have now been securely dated to slightly earlier than those of the Fertile Crescent. Timna Valley contains evidence of copper mining 9,000 to 7,000 years ago. The process of transition from Neolithic to Chalcolithic in the Middle East is characterized in archaeological stone tool assemblages by a decline in high quality raw material procurement and use. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported its iron technology from the Near East and followed the Near Eastern course of Bronze Age and Iron Age development. However the Iron Age and Bronze Age occurred simultaneously in much of Africa. The Bronze Age is the earliest period in which some civilizations have reached the end of prehistory, by introducing written records. The Bronze Age or parts thereof are thus considered to be part of prehistory only for the regions and civilizations who adopted or developed a system of keeping written records during later periods. The invention of writing coincides in some areas with the early beginnings of the Bronze Age. Soon after the appearance of writing, people started creating texts including written accounts of events and records of administrative matters. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally occurring outcroppings of ores, and then combining them to cast bronze. These naturally occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper / tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before 3000 BC. The Bronze Age forms part of the three - age system for prehistoric societies. In this system, it follows the Neolithic in some areas of the world. While copper is a common ore, deposits of tin are rare in the Old World, and often had to be traded or carried considerable distances from the few mines, stimulating the creation of extensive trading routes. In many areas as far apart as China and England, the valuable new material was used for weapons but for a long time apparently not available for agricultural tools. Much of it seems to have been hoarded by social elites, and sometimes deposited in extravagant quantities, from Chinese ritual bronzes and Indian copper hoards to European hoards of unused axe - heads. By the end of the Bronze Age large states, which are often called empires, had arisen in Egypt, China, Anatolia (the Hittites) and Mesopotamia, all of them literate. The Iron Age is not part of prehistory for all civilizations who had introduced written records during the Bronze Age. Most remaining civilizations did so during the Iron Age, often through conquest by the empires, which continued to expand during this period. For example, in most of Europe conquest by the Roman Empire means that the term Iron Age is replaced by "Roman '', "Gallo - Roman '' and similar terms after the conquest. In archaeology, the Iron Age refers to the advent of ferrous metallurgy. The adoption of iron coincided with other changes in some past cultures, often including more sophisticated agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles, which makes the archaeological Iron Age coincide with the "Axial Age '' in the history of philosophy. Although iron ore is common, the metalworking techniques necessary to use iron are very different from those needed for the metal used earlier, and iron was slow - spreading and for long mainly used for weapons, while bronze remained typical for tools, as well as art. All dates are approximate and conjectural, obtained through research in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, genetics, geology, or linguistics. They are all subject to revision due to new discoveries or improved calculations. BP stands for "Before Present (1950). '' BCE stands for Before Common Era ".
who sings the song i'm a joker	The Joker (Steve Miller Band song) - wikipedia "The Joker '' is a song by the Steve Miller Band from their 1973 album The Joker. It is one of two Steve Miller Band songs that feature the nonce word "pompatus ''. The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 in early 1974. More than 16 years later, in September 1990, it reached number one in the UK Singles Chart for two weeks after being used in "Great Deal '', a Hugh Johnson - directed television advertisement for Levi 's, thus holding the record for the longest gap between transatlantic chart - toppers. This reissue of "The Joker '' also topped the Irish Singles Chart, the New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart, the Dutch Nationale Top 100 and the Dutch Top 40. The first line of the lyrics is a reference to the song "Space Cowboy '' from Miller 's Brave New World album. Following lines refer to two other songs: "Gangster of Love '' from Sailor and "Enter Maurice '' from Recall the Beginning... A Journey from Eden. Borrows heavily from the song "Soul Sister '' By Allen Toussaint. During the song, Steve Miller references The Clovers ' 1954 song "Lovey Dovey '' when he sings "You 're the cutest thing that I ever did see / Really love your peaches, wan na shake your tree / Lovey dovey, lovey dovey, lovey dovey all the time ''. The song is noted for its wolf whistle played on a slide guitar after the "lovey dovey '' parts and the "some people call me Maurice '' part. The line "some people call me Maurice / ' Cause I speak of the pompatus of love '' was written after Miller heard the song "The Letter '' by The Medallions. In "The Letter '', writer Vernon Green made up the word puppetutes, meaning a paper - doll erotic fantasy figure; however, Miller misheard the word and wrote pompatus instead. 7 '' single (1973) 7 '' single (1983 -- live version) 7 '' single (1990) 12 '' maxi (1990) CD maxi (1990)
what is the tallest building in vancouver bc	List of tallest buildings in Vancouver - wikipedia Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada has more high - rise buildings per capita than most North American metropolitan centres with populations exceeding 1,000,000. Vancouver 's population density is the 4th - highest in North America and the city has more residential high - rises per capita than any other city on the continent. There are roughly 650 high - rise buildings that equal or exceed 35 m (115 ft)., and roughly 50 buildings that equal or exceed 100 metres (328 ft). Vancouver has 27 protected view corridors which limit the construction of tall buildings which interfere with the line of sight to the North Shore Mountains, the downtown skyline, and the waters of English Bay and the Strait of Georgia. The tallest building in Vancouver is the 62 - storey, 201 m (659 ft) Living Shangri - La and represents the city 's efforts to add visual interest into Vancouver 's skyline. The Private Residences at Hotel Georgia completed in 2012 at 157 m (515 ft) and 48 stories is currently the second - tallest in the city. One Wall Centre, at 150 m (492 ft) tall, with 48 storeys, is currently the city 's third tallest building. One Wall Centre has the distinction of being the first building in the world to use a tuned liquid column damper to control wind vibrations. One tower currently under construction, Trump Vancouver at 188 metres will become the city 's 2nd tallest building when completed in 2016. Vancouver 's history of skyscrapers began with the Dominion Building (1909), the Sun Tower (1911) (originally named the World Tower, then the News - Advertiser Tower, after the newspaper it was home to in each case), the Vancouver Block (1912), the second Hotel Vancouver (1916) and the Marine Building (1929). The third Hotel Vancouver was completed in 1939 at 111 m (364 ft) tall, and was the first building to have stood taller than 100 m (328 ft) in the city. Building construction remained slow in the city until the late 1960s, other than the completion of the new BC Electric headquarters (soon renamed BC Hydro headquarters, and today the Electra condominiums). From 1968 to 1981, Vancouver witnessed a major expansion of skyscraper and high - rise construction. Many of the city 's office towers were completed during this period, such as the Harbour Centre, Bentall Centre, Royal Centre, Granville Square and Pacific Centre office tower / mall complexes. A ten - year lull in building construction came after the expansion, though Vancouver experienced a larger second building expansion beginning in 1991 and continuing into the present. In the last two decades Vancouver 's pioneering urbanism, with its density and innovative developments, has been emulated by major cities throughout the world. As part of the city 's push for liveable high - density areas (called Vancouverism by planning theorists), many mixed - use and residential buildings were built, such as Concord Pacific Place, the largest master - planned residential complex in North America. One Wall Centre and Living Shangri - La were the city 's first buildings to break the 150 m (492 ft) and 200 m (656 ft) marks, respectively. This list ranks Vancouver skyscrapers that stand at least 100 m (328 ft) tall, based on standard height measurement. This includes spires and architectural details but does not include antenna masts. * Indicates buildings that are still under construction but have been topped out. = Indicates buildings that have the same rank because they have the same height. This lists skyscrapers that are under construction in Vancouver and planned to rise over 100 m (328 ft) tall, but are not yet completed structures. This is a list of buildings that in the past held the title of tallest building in Vancouver.
who does the song i can only imagine	I Can Only Imagine (MercyMe song) - wikipedia "I Can Only Imagine '' (sometimes shortened to "Imagine '') is a single recorded by Christian rock band MercyMe. Written and composed by lead vocalist Bart Millard, the song, based around a main piano track, was inspired by the death of Millard 's father and considers what it would be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. The song was first issued as a track on MercyMe 's 1999 album The Worship Project, which was released on an independent record label. The song was re-recorded and included on their 2001 major - label debut album Almost There as the fifth song on the album. "I Can Only Imagine '' was released in 2001 as the album 's lead single. It gained significant airplay on Christian radio formats before crossing over to mainstream radio formats such as adult contemporary and Top 40 in late 2003 and into 2004; to aid in promotion to these markets, a double A-side physical single (combined with "Word of God Speak '') was released in 2003. It charted on several formats, including the Billboard Adult Contemporary (where it peaked at No. 5) and the Hot 100 (where it peaked at No. 71). In 2002, "I Can Only Imagine '' earned the Dove Awards for ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '; Millard earned the Dove Award ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. With 2.5 million copies sold, it is the best - selling Christian single of all time, having been certified 3x platinum by the RIAA. As of 2018, it is the only Christian song to reach that milestone. "I Can Only Imagine '' was the debut single for United States contemporary Christian and Christian rock band MercyMe. Bart Millard, the band 's vocalist, lost his father, Arthur Wesley Millard Jr., in 1991. Millard was 18 at the time. Millard began writing the words "I can only imagine '' on items when he was thinking about his father. During the recording of the band 's 1999 independent album The Worship Project, MercyMe needed one more song to fill out the album. Millard, alone on a bus in the middle of the night, finally wrote the lyrics to the song by drawing on his thoughts and personal faith about what one would experience standing before God in Heaven. Millard attests that "(' I Can Only Imagine ') is one of the only songs I have ever written where there was n't any mistakes, it was just written the way it is and left at that '', and estimated that it took him only ten minutes to write the lyrics. In writing the music for the song, however, the band faced more difficulty; Millard noted that "at first it was a fast song... it was all these random ideas ''. Keyboardist Jim Bryson noted that, "we were literally tearing down the stuff... (Millard) and I were talking about arranging it differently and doing a slower version, so we just tried out a piano intro... it was literally the first thing I played. It was n't anything to do with me, I think it was just a God thing. (Millard) said ' here it is, this is what 's going to happen ', and we laid the song down in about five minutes. '' At that time, the other MercyMe members were Robby Shaffer on drums and percussion, Nathan Cochran on bass guitar and Michael Scheuchzer on guitar. This line - up recorded the first version of the song for The Worship Project. In 2006, it was included in the ' Platinum Edition ' of Almost There. "I Can Only Imagine '' is a ballad with a length of four minutes and eight seconds. The song is set in the key of E major and has a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute with a vocal range from B -- G ♯. The song opens up with only a piano, and builds up to include guitar and drums. Millard is credited with both the lyrics and music to the song. The song was produced by Pete Kipley, who had worked with MercyMe previously as well as with artists including Rebecca St. James, Phil Wickham and Lincoln Brewster. The lyrics to the song are based around the narrator wondering what it will be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. Regarding this theme, Millard explained to Fox News that "I was always told that if he could choose, he would rather be in Heaven than here with me. As a Christian I believed that, but as an 18 - year - old it was a little hard to swallow. So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there. '' "I Can Only Imagine '' was re-recorded for their major - label debut record Almost There and released as its lead single in 2001. The album was recorded in various locations: Ivy Park, The Indigo Room, Paradise Sound and IBC Studios. The single gained radio airplay on some contemporary Christian formats; by November, it peaked at number - one on the Radio & Records Christian AC format and in the top twenty of the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart. In 2003, a Dallas mainstream radio station, 100.3 Wild - FM, first played the song on its morning show, The Fitz Radio Program. They had responded to a caller 's repeated requests and the urgings of the program 's producer, Todd Sheppard. The song soon became the most requested and most played song on the station. After hearing the song played on the station, Millard called - in and spoke with the crew; MercyMe then came in and played the song live. As other stations around the country caught on, MercyMe 's label, INO Records, partnered with Curb Records. They marketed the single to wider audiences, such as Top 40 radio. In September, INO and Curb also released a double A-side physical single, "I Can Only Imagine / Word of God Speak ''. The latter track was co-written by Millard with the band 's producer, Kipley. Eventually, the song cracked into secular charts, including the Billboard Hot 100 and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts. MercyMe did not expect "I Can Only Imagine '' to gain mainstream success, in part due to its explicit references to Jesus and Heaven. Millard noted that the band joked around about "the top five songs never to cross over, and they had included "I Can Only Imagine '' on that list. Millard also believed some radio stations were playing the song to prove it could not succeed on mainstream radio. The song had a significant effect on the band 's musical image; in an interview, Millard commented that "We were a rock band when we started 11 years ago. But we kind of became the ' adult contemporary poster child ' when ' I Can Only Imagine ' took off ''. A music video was released for "I Can Only Imagine ''. Millard recalled the video 's inspiration: "I just kept seeing all these people holding picture frames (at MercyMe concerts) that are empty because we all carry these people with us in some way. I 've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they 've lost. These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that ''. The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait, Tammy Trent, Bob Herdman, and Jesse Katina, each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one; as the video progresses, they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father 's photograph. The video opens with a shot of an empty room and a chair, shifting to show a young boy climbing up a flight of stairs. The camera then shifts to the band before returning to the boy, now in an attic which is filled with many empty picture frames. The video alternates between shots of the boy and the band before shifting to individual shots of other people, each holding an empty picture frame. As the other instruments join in, the camera comes back to the band, focusing on them before returning to shots of the people, whose picture frames now contain pictures of deceased relatives. At the end of the video, the camera returns to the boy, now running down a street with an empty frame, climaxing with him lying down in a field with the empty frame. Critical reception for "I Can Only Imagine '' was positive. Steve Losey of AllMusic commented that "(the song) is a passionate piano - driven ballad. The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God. Delivered with conviction, the song is emotionally compelling ''. Jesus Freak Hideout 's reviewer Kevin Chamberlin felt "The lyrics for the song are amazing. If you have n't listened to the lyrics, because you 're afraid of hearing pop music, get over it and listen to it. '' Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday commented that "The definite highlight on (Almost There) is the worship / ballad ' I Can Only Imagine '... The song starts out with just piano that instantly invokes chills and builds dynamically into a powerful display of drums and guitar. But what makes the song are the lyrics, penned by Bart Millard himself. The song speaks about that day that we all dream about when we finally meet Jesus... It 's a song that ca n't be listened to with eyes open ''. "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of 11 October 2003 at No. 76. The song peaked at No. 71 for two weeks and spent 16 non-consecutive weeks on the Hot 100. On the Adult Contemporary chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 29 for the chart week of 23 May 2003, with an eventual peak of No. 5 for the chart week of 8 September 2003; in all, "I Can Only Imagine '' spent 30 weeks on the chart. On the Adult Top 40 chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 39 for the chart week of 9 August 2003 and reached a peak position of No. 27, holding that spot for three consecutive weeks; in all, the song spent 26 weeks on the chart. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song debuted at No. 37 for the chart week of 12 July 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 33. On the Country Songs chart, the song debuted at No. 58 for the chart week of 27 December 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 52, which it held for two weeks. According to Mike Curb on the Curb Records website, "I Can Only Imagine '' also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart for 10 weeks, No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for two weeks, and No. 15 on the Christian CHR chart. In April 2010, "I Can Only Imagine '' was certified platinum by the RIAA, signifying sales of over 1,000,000 digital downloads. It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum. The song was certified 2x platinum in 2014. It was certified 3x platinum in 2018. As of June 2018, it has sold 3 million copies, making it the best - selling Christian single of all time. "I Can Only Imagine '' earned two GMA Dove Awards in 2002; ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '. Millard also won ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. In November 2009, the song was played on board Space Shuttle Atlantis as a wake - up call for Barry E. Wilmore during STS - 129. The original version of "I Can Only Imagine '' was a track on MercyMe 's 1999 independent release The Worship Project. In August 2006, both an acoustic and live form (as well as the original 1999 version) were included in the ' Platinum edition ' of Almost There. MercyMe recorded a version of the song for their iTunes Originals album. In 2009, two further variants were included on their compilation album 10; a ' symphony version ' featuring the London Symphony Orchestra, and a live version. "I Can Only Imagine '' has also been covered by several artists. In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song (titled "Imagine '' and paired with "Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus '') on her album, Legacy... Hymns and Faith. In 2003, Jeff Carson and Kathryn Scott each issued variants of the song; Carson 's version peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart. In 2005 Wynonna Judd issued her form of the song; while in 2007 Emerson Drive provided theirs. The song was covered again in 2010 by Marie Osmond and in 2013 by gospel artist Tamela Mann. The song was performed live by Garwin Dobbins, a man struggling with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a crippling disease referred to as Stone Man 's syndrome, in which the body 's repair mechanism replaces muscle with bone, causing many joints to become permanently frozen in place. Dobbins, who died in 2004, sang the song on a broadcast of Austin Awakening, accompanied by pastor Randy Phillips of Phillips, Craig and Dean. Footage of the performance was featured in the finale of the Trevor Glass documentary "Suffer the Children. '' There is also a German version "Ich kann nur davon träumen ''. Weekly charts Year - end charts Certifications The story behind the song was made into a feature film starring J. Michael Finley and Dennis Quaid. The film was released on March 16, 2018.
where does the sour taste come from in foods such as cheese and yogurt	Yogurt - wikipedia Yogurt, yoghurt, or yoghourt (/ ˈjoʊɡərt / or / ˈjɒɡət /; from Turkish: yoğurt; other spellings listed below) is a food produced by bacterial fermentation of milk. The bacteria used to make yogurt are known as "yogurt cultures ''. Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid, which acts on milk protein to give yogurt its texture and characteristic tart flavor. Cow 's milk is commonly available worldwide, and, as such, is the milk most commonly used to make yogurt. Milk from water buffalo, goats, ewes, mares, camels, and yaks is also used to produce yogurt where available locally. Milk used may be homogenized or not (milk distributed in many parts of the world is homogenized); both types may be used, with substantially different results. Yogurt is produced using a culture of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus bacteria. In addition, other lactobacilli and bifidobacteria are also sometimes added during or after culturing yogurt. Some countries require yogurt to contain a certain amount of colony - forming units of bacteria; in China, for example, the requirement for the number of lactobacillus bacteria is at least 1 × 10 CFU per milliliter. To produce yogurt, milk is first heated, usually to about 85 ° C (185 ° F), to denature the milk proteins so that they do not form curds. After heating, the milk is allowed to cool to about 45 ° C (113 ° F). The bacterial culture is mixed in, and a temperature of 45 ° C (113 ° F) is maintained for four to twelve hours to allow fermentation. The word is derived from Turkish: yoğurt, and is usually related to the verb yoğurmak, "to knead '', or "to be curdled or coagulated; to thicken ''. It may be related to yoğun, meaning thick or dense. The sound ğ was traditionally rendered as "gh '' in transliterations of Turkish from around 1615 -- 1625. In modern Turkish the letter ğ marks a diaeresis between two vowels, without being pronounced itself, which is reflected in some languages ' versions of the word (e.g. Greek γιαούρτι giaoúrti, French yaourt, Romanian iaurt). In English, the several variations of the spelling of the word include yogurt, yoghurt, and to a lesser extent yoghourt or yogourt. Analysis of the L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus genome indicates that the bacterium may have originated on the surface of a plant. Milk may have become spontaneously and unintentionally exposed to it through contact with plants, or bacteria may have been transferred from the udder of domestic milk - producing animals. The origins of yogurt are unknown, but it is thought to have been invented in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC. In ancient Indian records, the combination of yogurt and honey is called "the food of the gods ''. Persian traditions hold that "Abraham owed his fecundity and longevity to the regular ingestion of yogurt ''. The cuisine of ancient Greece included a dairy product known as oxygala (οξύγαλα) which is believed to have been a form of yogurt. Galen (AD 129 -- c. 200 / c. 216) mentioned that oxygala was consumed with honey, similar to the way thickened Greek yogurt is eaten today. The oldest writings mentioning yogurt are attributed to Pliny the Elder, who remarked that certain "barbarous nations '' knew how "to thicken the milk into a substance with an agreeable acidity ''. The use of yogurt by medieval Turks is recorded in the books Dīwān Lughāt al - Turk by Mahmud Kashgari and Kutadgu Bilig by Yusuf Has Hajib written in the 11th century. Both texts mention the word "yogurt '' in different sections and describe its use by nomadic Turks. The earliest yogurts were probably spontaneously fermented by wild bacteria in goat skin bags. Some accounts suggest that Indian emperor Akbar 's cooks would flavor yogurt with mustard seeds and cinnamon. Another early account of a European encounter with yogurt occurs in French clinical history: Francis I suffered from a severe diarrhea which no French doctor could cure. His ally Suleiman the Magnificent sent a doctor, who allegedly cured the patient with yogurt. Being grateful, the French king spread around the information about the food which had cured him. Until the 1900s, yogurt was a staple in diets of people in the Russian Empire (and especially Central Asia and the Caucasus), Western Asia, South Eastern Europe / Balkans, Central Europe, and India. Stamen Grigorov (1878 -- 1945), a Bulgarian student of medicine in Geneva, first examined the microflora of the Bulgarian yogurt. In 1905, he described it as consisting of a spherical and a rod - like lactic acid - producing bacteria. In 1907, the rod - like bacterium was called Bacillus bulgaricus (now Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus). The Russian Nobel laureate and biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, from the Institut Pasteur in Paris, was influenced by Grigorov 's work and hypothesized that regular consumption of yogurt was responsible for the unusually long lifespans of Bulgarian peasants. Believing Lactobacillus to be essential for good health, Mechnikov worked to popularize yogurt as a foodstuff throughout Europe. Isaac Carasso industrialized the production of yogurt. In 1919, Carasso, who was from Ottoman Salonika, started a small yogurt business in Barcelona, Spain, and named the business Danone ("little Daniel '') after his son. The brand later expanded to the United States under an Americanized version of the name: Dannon. Yogurt with added fruit jam was patented in 1933 by the Radlická Mlékárna dairy in Prague. Yogurt was introduced to the United States in the first decade of the twentieth century, influenced by Élie Metchnikoff 's The Prolongation of Life; Optimistic Studies (1908); it was available in tablet form for those with digestive intolerance and for home culturing. It was popularized by John Harvey Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanitarium, where it was used both orally and in enemas, and later by Armenian immigrants Sarkis and Rose Colombosian, who started "Colombo and Sons Creamery '' in Andover, Massachusetts in 1929. Colombo Yogurt was originally delivered around New England in a horse - drawn wagon inscribed with the Armenian word "madzoon '' which was later changed to "yogurt '', the Turkish name of the product, as Turkish was the lingua franca between immigrants of the various Near Eastern ethnicities who were the main consumers at that time. Yogurt 's popularity in the United States was enhanced in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was presented as a health food by scientists like Hungarian - born bacteriologist Stephen A. Gaymont. By the late 20th century, yogurt had become a common American food item and Colombo Yogurt was sold in 1993 to General Mills, which discontinued the brand in 2010. Yogurt (plain yogurt from whole milk) is 81 % water, 9 % protein, 5 % fat, and 4 % carbohydrates, including 4 % sugars (table). A 100 - gram amount provides 406 kilojoules (97 kcal) of dietary energy. As a proportion of the Daily Value (DV), a serving of yogurt is a rich source of vitamin B (31 % DV) and riboflavin (23 % DV), with moderate content of protein, phosphorus, and selenium (14 to 19 % DV; table). Tilde (~) represents missing or incomplete data. The above shows little difference exists between whole milk and yogurt made from whole milk with respect to the listed nutritional constituents. Although yogurt is often associated with probiotics having positive effects on immune, cardiovascular or metabolic health, high - quality clinical evidence is insufficient to conclude that consuming yogurt lowers risk of diseases or improves health. The United Kingdom and the United States recommend different maximum amounts of daily sugar intake, but in both nations, many sweetened yogurts have too much. However, around 12 g of sugar per 150 g serving of plain yogurt is in the form of naturally occurring lactose. A 150 g (5 oz) serving of some 0 % fat yogurts can contain as much as 20 g (0.7 oz) of sugar -- the equivalent of five teaspoons, says Action on Sugar -- which is about 40 % of a woman 's daily recommended intake of added sugar (50 g or 1.7 oz) and about 30 % of that for men (70 g or 2.5 oz). Consumers wanting sweetened yogurt are advised to choose yogurt sweetened with sugar substitute and check the contents list to avoid corn syrup, high fructose corn syrup, honey, or sugar. Da - hi is a yogurt of the Indian subcontinent, known for its characteristic taste and consistency. The word da - hi seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word dadhi, one of the five elixirs, or panchamrita, often used in Hindu ritual. Sweet yogurt (mishti doi or meethi dahi) is common in eastern parts of India, made by fermenting sweetened milk. While cow 's milk is considered sacred and is currently the primary ingredient for yogurt, goat and buffalo milk were widely used in the past, and valued for the fat content (see buffalo curd). Dadiah or dadih is a traditional West Sumatran yogurt made from water buffalo milk, fermented in bamboo tubes. Yogurt is popular in Nepal, where it is served as both an appetizer and dessert. Locally called dahi, it is a part of the Nepali culture, used in local festivals, marriage ceremonies, parties, religious occasions, family gatherings, and so on. The most famous type of Nepalese yogurt is called juju dhau, originating from the city of Bhaktapur. In Tibet, yak milk (technically dri milk, as the word yak refers to the male animal) is made into yogurt (and butter and cheese) and consumed. In Northern Iran, Mâst Chekide is a variety of kefir yogurt with a distinct sour taste. It is usually mixed with a pesto - like water and fresh herb purée called delal. The most popular appetizers are spinach or eggplant borani, Mâst - o - Khiâr with cucumber, spring onions and herbs, and Mâst - Musir with wild shallots. In the summertime, yogurt and ice cubes are mixed together with cucumbers, raisins, salt, pepper and onions and topped with some croutons made of Persian traditional bread and served as a cold soup. Ashe - Mâst is a warm yogurt soup with fresh herbs, spinach and lentils. Even the leftover water extracted when straining yogurt is cooked to make a sour cream sauce called kashk, which is usually used as a topping on soups and stews. Matsoni is a Georgian yogurt popular in the Caucasus and Russia. Tarator and Cacık are popular cold soups made from yogurt, popular during summertime in eastern Europe. They are made with ayran, cucumbers, dill, salt, olive oil, and optionally garlic and ground walnuts. Tzatziki in Greece and milk salad in Bulgaria are thick yogurt - based salads similar to tarator. Khyar w Laban (cucumber and yogurt salad) is a popular dish in Lebanon and Syria. Also, a wide variety of local Lebanese and Syrian dishes are cooked with yogurt like "Kibbi bi Laban '' Rahmjoghurt, a creamy yogurt with much higher fat content (10 %) than many yogurts offered in English - speaking countries. Dovga, a yogurt soup cooked with a variety of herbs and rice, is served warm in winter or refreshingly cold in summer. Jameed, yogurt salted and dried to preserve it, is popular in Jordan. Zabadi is the type of yogurt made in Egypt, usually from the milk of the Egyptian water buffalo. It is particularly associated with Ramadan fasting, as it is thought to prevent thirst during all - day fasting. To offset its natural sourness, yogurt is also sold sweetened, sweetened and flavored or in containers with fruit or fruit jam on the bottom. The two styles of yogurt commonly found in the grocery store are set - style yogurt and Swiss - style yogurt. Set - style yogurt is poured into individual containers to set, while Swiss - style yogurt is stirred prior to packaging. Either may have fruit added to increase sweetness. Lassi and moru are common beverages in India. Lassi is stirred liquified curd that is either salted or sweetened with sugar commonly, less commonly honey and often combined with fruit pulp to create flavored lassi. Mango lassi is a western favorite, as is coconut lassi. Consistency can vary widely, with urban and commercial lassis being of uniform texture through being processed, whereas rural and rustic lassi has curds in it, and sometimes has malai (cream) added or removed. Moru is a popular South Indian summer drink, meant to keep drinkers hydrated through the hot and humid summers of the South. It is prepared by considerably thinning down yogurt with water, adding salt (for electrolyte balance) and spices, usually green chili peppers, asafoetida, curry leaves and mustard. Large amounts of sugar -- or other sweeteners for low - energy yogurts -- are often used in commercial yogurt. Some yogurts contain added modified starch, pectin (found naturally in fruit), and / or gelatin to create thickness and creaminess artificially at lower cost. This type of yogurt is also marketed under the name Swiss - style, although it is unrelated to the way yogurt is eaten in Switzerland. Some yogurts, often called "cream line '', are made with whole milk which has not been homogenized so the cream rises to the top. In the UK, Ireland, France and United States, sweetened, flavored yogurt is the most popular type, typically sold in single - serving plastic cups. Common flavors include vanilla, honey, and toffee, and fruit such as strawberry, cherry, blueberry, blackberry, raspberry, mango and peach. In the early twenty - first century yogurt flavors inspired by desserts, such as chocolate or cheesecake, have been available. There is concern about the health effects of sweetened yogurt, due to its high sugar content. Strained yogurt has been strained through a filter, traditionally made of muslin and more recently of paper or non-muslin cloth. This removes the whey, giving a much thicker consistency. Strained yogurt is becoming more popular with those who make yogurt at home, especially if using skimmed milk which results in a thinner consistency. Yogurt that has been strained to filter or remove the whey is known as Labneh in Middle Eastern countries. It has a consistency between that of yogurt and cheese. It is popular for sandwiches in Middle Eastern countries. Olive oil, cucumber slices, olives, and various green herbs may be added. It can be thickened further and rolled into balls, preserved in olive oil, and fermented for a few more weeks. It is sometimes used with onions, meat, and nuts as a stuffing for a variety of pies or kibbeh balls. Some types of strained yogurts are boiled in open vats first, so that the liquid content is reduced. The popular East Indian dessert, a variation of traditional dahi called mishti dahi, offers a thicker, more custard - like consistency, and is usually sweeter than western yogurts. Strained yogurt is also enjoyed in Greece and is the main component of tzatziki (from Turkish "cacık ''), a well - known accompaniment to gyros and souvlaki pita sandwiches: it is a yogurt sauce or dip made with the addition of grated cucumber, olive oil, salt and, optionally, mashed garlic. Srikhand, a popular dessert in India, is made from strained yogurt, saffron, cardamom, nutmeg and sugar and sometimes fruits such as mango or pineapple. In North America and Britain, strained yogurt is commonly called "Greek yogurt ''. Strained yogurt is sometimes marketed in North America as "Greek yogurt '' and in Britain as "Greek - style yoghurt ''. In Britain the name "Greek '' may only be applied to yogurt made in Greece. Doogh ("dawghe '' in Neo-Aramaic), ayran or dhallë is a yogurt - based, salty drink. It is made by mixing yogurt with water and (sometimes) salt. Borhani (or burhani) is a spicy yogurt drink. It is usually served with kacchi biryani at weddings and special feasts. Key ingredients are yogurt blended with mint leaves (mentha), mustard seeds and black rock salt (Kala Namak). Ground roasted cumin, ground white pepper, green chili pepper paste and sugar are often added. Lassi is a yogurt - based beverage originally from the Indian subcontinent that is usually slightly salty or sweet, and may be commercially flavored with rosewater, mango or other fruit juice. Salty lassi is usually flavored with ground, roasted cumin and red chilies, may be made with buttermilk. An unsweetened and unsalted yogurt drink usually called simply jogurt is consumed with burek and other baked goods. Sweetened yogurt drinks are the usual form in Europe (including the UK) and the US, containing fruit and added sweeteners. These are typically called "drinkable yogurt ''. Also available are "yogurt smoothies '', which contain a higher proportion of fruit and are more like smoothies. A variety of plant - milk yogurts appeared in the 2000s, using soy milk, rice milk, and nut milks such as almond milk and coconut milk. So far the most widely sold variety of plant milk yogurts is soy yogurt. These yogurts are suitable for vegans, people with intolerance to dairy milk, and those who prefer plant milks. Yogurt is made by heating milk to a temperature that denaturates its proteins (scalding), essential for making yogurt, cooling it to a temperature that will not kill the live microorganisms that turn the milk into yogurt, inoculating certain bacteria (starter culture), usually Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus, into the milk, and finally keeping it warm for several hours. The milk may be held at 85 ° C (185 ° F) for a few minutes, or boiled (giving a somewhat different result). It must be cooled to 50 ° C (122 ° F) or somewhat less, typically 40 -- 46 ° C (104 -- 115 ° F). Starter culture must then be mixed in well, and the mixture must be kept undisturbed and warm for several hours, ranging from 5 to 12, with longer fermentation producing a more acid yogurt. The starter culture may be a small amount of live yogurt. Dried starter culture is available commercially. Milk with a higher concentration of solids than normal milk may be used; the higher solids content produces a firmer yogurt. Solids can be increased by adding dried milk. The yogurt - making process provides two significant barriers to pathogen growth, heat and acidity (low pH). Both are necessary to ensure a safe product. Acidity alone has been questioned by recent outbreaks of food poisoning by E. coli O157: H7 that is acid - tolerant. E. coli O157: H7 is easily destroyed by pasteurization (heating); the initial heating of the milk kills pathogens as well as denaturing proteins. The microorganisms that turn milk into yogurt can tolerate higher temperatures than most pathogens, so that a suitable temperature not only encourages the formation of yogurt, but inhibits pathogenic microorganisms. Once the yogurt has formed it can, if desired, be strained to reduce the whey content and thicken it.
what kind of person is sodapop according to ponyboy	Talk: Sodapop curtis - wikipedia sodapop is very understanding and ponyboy loves him more than any one else; even his parents. ' ' ' sodas a cutie ' ' ' -- The preceding unsigned comment was added by 206.174. 3.196 (talk) 00: 02, August 22, 2007 (UTC) This is written like a 13 - year - old 's book report. It 's not even spell checked. WOW, Wikipedia, WAY TO GO. -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 205.200. 210.45 (talk) 02: 08, 23 November 2007 (UTC) Soda is a happy - go - lucky teen who can make anyone smile. He is understanding, and Ponyboy says he looks like a movie star. He said he has a wild grin. 71.228. 7.44 04: 21, 8 November 2007 (UTC) sodapop is a friggin sexyy beastttt =) < 33333 -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.118. 80.251 (talk) 20: 45, 8 January 2008 (UTC)
a congenital malformation is a defect that is present at the time of delivery	Congenital disorder - wikipedia A congenital disorder, also known as birth defect, is a condition existing at or before birth regardless of cause. Of these disorders, those characterized by structural deformities are termed "congenital anomalies '' and involve defects in a developing fetus. Birth defects vary widely in cause and symptoms. Any substance that causes birth defects is known as a teratogen. Some disorders can be detected before birth through prenatal diagnosis (screening). Birth defects may be the result of genetic or environmental factors. This includes errors of morphogenesis, infection, epigenetic modifications on a parental germline, or a chromosomal abnormality. The outcome of the disorder will depend on complex interactions between the pre-natal deficit and the post-natal environment. Animal studies indicate that the mother 's (and likely the father 's) diet, vitamin intake, and glucose levels prior to ovulation and conception have long - term effects on fetal growth and adolescent and adult disease. Animal studies have shown that paternal exposures prior to conception and during pregnancy result in increased risk of certain birth defects and cancers. This research suggests that paternal food deprivation, germ line mutations, alcohol use, chemical mutagens, age, smoking habits and epigenetic alterations can affect birth outcomes. However, the relationship between offspring health and paternal exposures, age, and lifestyle are still relatively weak. This is likely because paternal exposures and their effects on the fetus are studied far less extensively than maternal exposures. Birth defects are present in about 3 % of newborns in USA. Congenital anomalies resulted in about 632,000 deaths per year in 2013 down from 751,000 in 1990. The type with the greatest numbers of deaths are congenital heart disease (323,000), followed by neural tube defects (69,000). Much of the language used for describing congenital conditions predates genomic mapping, and structural conditions are often considered separately from other congenital conditions. It is now known that many metabolic conditions may have subtle structural expression, and structural conditions often have genetic links. Still, congenital conditions are often classified in a structural basis, organized when possible by primary organ system affected. Several terms are used to describe congenital abnormalities. (Some of these are also used to describe noncongenital conditions, and more than one term may apply in an individual condition.) A limb anomaly is called a dysmelia. These include all forms of limbs anomalies, such as amelia, ectrodactyly, phocomelia, polymelia, polydactyly, syndactyly, polysyndactyly, oligodactyly, brachydactyly, achondroplasia, congenital aplasia or hypoplasia, amniotic band syndrome, and cleidocranial dysostosis. Congenital anomalies of the heart include patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, ventricular septal defect, and tetralogy of fallot. Congenital anomalies of the nervous system include neural tube defects such as spina bifida, meningocele, meningomyelocele, encephalocele and anencephaly. Other congenital anomalies of the nervous system include the Arnold - Chiari malformation, the Dandy - Walker malformation, hydrocephalus, microencephaly, megalencephaly, lissencephaly, polymicrogyria, holoprosencephaly, and agenesis of the corpus callosum. Congenital anomalies of the gastrointestinal system include numerous forms of stenosis and atresia, and perforation, such as gastroschisis. Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) include renal parenchyma, kidneys, and urinary collecting system. Defects can be bilateral or unilateral, and different defects often coexist in an individual child A congenital metabolic disease is also referred to as an inborn error of metabolism. Most of these are single gene defects, usually heritable. Many affect the structure of body parts but some simply affect the function. Other well defined genetic conditions may affect the production of hormones, receptors, structural proteins, and ion channels. The mother 's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy can cause a continuum of various permanent birth defects: cranofacial abnormalities, brain damage, intellectual disability, heart disease, kidney abnormality, skeletal anomalies, ocular abnormalities. The prevalence of children affected is estimated at least 1 percent in U.S. as well in Canada. Very few studies have investigated the links between paternal alcohol use and offspring health. However, recent animal research has shown a correlation between paternal alcohol exposure and decreased offspring birth weight. Behavioral and cognitive disorders, including difficulties with learning and memory, hyperactivity, and lowered stress tolerance have been linked to paternal alcohol ingestion. The compromised stress management skills of animals whose male parent was exposed to alcohol are similar to the exaggerated responses to stress that children with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome display because of maternal alcohol use. These birth defects and behavioral disorders were found in cases of both long - and short - term paternal alcohol ingestion. In the same animal study, paternal alcohol exposure was correlated with a significant difference in organ size and the increased risk of the offspring displaying ventricular septal defects (VSD) at birth. VSD has also been correlated with paternal alcohol abuse in humans. Substances whose toxicity can cause congenital disorders are called "teratogens '', and include certain pharmaceutical and recreational drugs in pregnancy as well as many environmental toxins in pregnancy. A review published in 2010 identified 6 main teratogenic mechanisms associated with medication use: folate antagonism, neural crest cell disruption, endocrine disruption, oxidative stress, vascular disruption and specific receptor - or enzyme - mediated teratogenesis. It is estimated that 10 % of all birth defects are caused by prenatal exposure to a teratogenic agent. These exposures include, but are not limited to, medication or drug exposures, maternal infections and diseases, and environmental and occupational exposures. Paternal smoking use has also been linked to an increased risk of birth defects and childhood cancer for the offspring, where the paternal germ line undergoes oxidative damage due to cigarette use. Teratogen - caused birth defects are potentially preventable. Studies have shown that nearly 50 % of pregnant women have been exposed to at least one medication during gestation. During pregnancy, a female can also be exposed to teratogens from the contaminated clothing or toxins within the seminal fluid of a partner. An additional study found that of 200 individuals referred for genetic counseling for a teratogenic exposure, 52 % were exposed to more than one potential teratogen. Probably, the most well - known teratogenic drug is thalidomide. It was developed near the end of the 1950s by Chemie Grűnenthal as a sleep inducing aid and antiemetic. Because of its ability to prevent nausea it was prescribed for pregnant women in almost 50 countries worldwide between 1956 -- 1962. Until William McBride published the study leading to its withdrawal from the market at 1961, about 8 - 10 000 severely malformed children were born. The most typical disorder induced by thalidomide were reductional deformities of the long bones of the extremities. Phocomelia otherwise a rare deformity, which therefore helped to recognise the teratogenic effect of the new drug. Among other malformations caused by thalidomide were those of ears, eyes, brain, kidney, heart, digestive and respiratory tract. 40 % of the prenatally affected children died soon after birth. As thalidomide is used today as a treatment for multiple myeloma and leprosy, several births of affected children were described in spite of the strictly required use of contraception among female patients treated by it. Vitamin A, or retinol, is the sole vitamin which is embryotoxic even in a therapeutic dose, for example in multivitamins, because its metabolite, the retinoic acid, plays an important role as a signal molecule in the development of several tisues and organs. Its natural precursor, the β - carotene, is considered safe, whereas the consumption of animal liver can lead to malformation (liver stores lipofile vitamines including retinol). Isotretinoin (13 - cis - retinoic - acid; brand name Roaccutane), vitamine A analog, which is often used to treat severe acne, is such a strong teratogen that just a single dose taken by a pregnant woman (even transdermally) may result in serious birth defects. Because of this effect, most countries have systems in place to ensure that it is not given to pregnant women, and that the patient is aware of how important it is to prevent pregnancy during and at least one month after treatment. Medical guidelines also suggest that pregnant women should limit vitamin A intake to about 700 μg / day, as it has teratogenic potential when consumed in excess. Vitamine A and similar substances can induce spontaneous abortions, premature births, defects of eyes (microphthalmia), ears, thymus, face deformities, neurological (hydrocephalus, microcephalia) and cardiovascular defects, as well as mental retardation. Tetracycline, an antibiotic, should never be prescribed to women in the reproductive age or children, because of its negative impact on bone mineralization and teeth mineralization. The "tetracycline teeth '' have brown or grey colour as a result of a defective development of both the dentine and the enamel of teeth. Several anticonvulsants are known to be highly teratogenic. Phenytoin, also known as diphenylhydantoin, along with carbamazepine is responsible for the fetal hydantoin syndrome, which may typically include broad nose base, cleft lip and / or palate, microcephalia, nails and fingers hypoplasia, intrauterine growth restriction and mental retardation. Trimethadione taken during pregnancy is responsible for the fetal trimethadione syndrome, characterized by craniofacial, cardiovascular, renal and spine malformations, along with a delay in mental and physical development. Valproate has anti-folate effects, leading to neural tube closure - related defects such as spina bifida. Lower IQ and autism have recently also been reported as a result of intrauterine valproate exposure. Hormonal contraception is considered as harmless for the embryo. Peterka and Novotná do however state that syntethic progestines used to prevent miscarriage in the past frequently caused masculinization of the outer reproductive organs of female newborns due to their androgenic activity. Diethylstilbestrol is a synthetic estrogen used from the 1940s to 1971 when the prenatal exposition has been linked to the clear - cell adenocarcinoma of the vagina. Following studies showed elevated risks for other tumors and congenital malformations of the sex organs for both sexes. All cytostatics are strong teratogens, abortion is usually recommended when pregnancy is found during or before chemotherapy. Aminopterin, a cytostatic drug with anti-folate effect, was used during the 1950s and 1960s to induce therapeutic abortions. In some cases the abortion didn _́ t happen, but the newborns suffered a fetal aminopterin syndrome consisting of growth retardation, craniosynostosis, hydrocephalus, facial dismorphities, mental retardation and / or leg defomities Drinking water is often a vessel through which harmful toxins travel. Studies have shown that heavy metals, elements, nitrates, nitrites, fluoride can be carried through water and cause congenital disorders. Nitrate, which is found mostly in drinking water from ground sources, is a powerful teratogen. A case - control study in rural Australia that was conducted following frequent reports of prenatal mortality and congenital malformations found that those who drank the nitrate - infected groundwater, as opposed to rain water, ran the risk of giving birth to children with central nervous system disorders, muscoskeletal defects, and cardiac defects. Chlorinated and aromatic solvents such as benzene and trichloroethylene sometimes enter the water supply due to oversights in waste disposal. A case - control study on the area found that by 1986, leukemia was occurring in the children of Woburn, Massachusetts at a rate that was four times the expected rate of incidence. Further investigation revealed a connection between the high occurrence of leukemia and an error in water distribution that delivered water to the town with significant contamination manufacturing waste containing trichloroethylene. As an endocrine disruptor, the DDT was shown to induce miscarriages, interfere with the development of the female reproductive system, cause the congenital hypothyroidism and suspectibly childhood obesity. Fluoride, when transmitted through water at high levels, can also act as a teratogen. Two reports on fluoride exposure from China, which were controlled to account for the education level of parents, found that children born to parents who were exposed to 4.12 PPM fluoride grew to have IQs that were, on average, seven points lower than their counterparts whose parents consumed water that contained 0.91 PPM fluoride. In studies conducted on rats, higher PPM fluoride in drinking water lead to increased acetylcholinesterase levels, which can alter prenatal brain development. The most significant effects were noted at a level of 5 PPM. The fetus is even more susceptible to damage from carbon monoxide intake, which can be harmful when inhaled during pregnancy, usually through first or second - hand tobacco smoke. The concentration of carbon monoxide in the infant born to a non-smoking mother is around 2 %, and this concentration drastically increases to a range of 6 % -- 9 % if the mother smokes tobacco. Other possible sources of prenatal carbon monoxide intoxication are exhaust gas from combustion motors, use of dichloromethane (paint thinner, varnish removers) in enclosed areas, defective gas hot water heaters, indoor barbeques, open flames in poorly - ventilated areas, atmospheric exposure in highly polluted areas. Exposure to carbon monoxide at toxic levels during the first two trimesters of pregnancy can lead to intrauterine growth restriction, leading to a baby that has stunted growth and is born smaller than 90 % of other babies at the same gestational age. The effect of chronic exposure to carbon monoxide can depend on the stage of pregnancy in which the mother is exposed. Exposure during the embryonic stage can have neurological consequences, such as telencephalic dysgenesis, behavioral difficulties during infancy, and reduction of cerebellum volume. There are also possible skeletal defects that could result from exposure to carbon monoxide during the embryonic stage, such as hand and foot malformations, hip dysplasia, hip subluxation, agenisis of a limb, and inferior maxillary atresia with glossoptosis. Also, carbon monoxide exposure between days 35 and 40 of embryonic development can lead to an increased risk of the child developing a cleft palate. Exposure to carbon monoxide or polluted ozone exposure can also lead to cardiac defects of the ventrical septal, pulmonary artery and heart valves. The effects of carbon monoxide exposure are decreased later in fetal development during the fetal stage, but they may still lead to anoxic encephalopathy. Industrial pollution can also lead to congenital defects. Over a period of 37 years, the Chisso Corporation, a petrochemical and plastics company, contaminated the waters of Minamata Bay with an estimated 27 tons of methylmercury, contaminating the local water supply. This led to many people in the area developing what became known as the "Minamata Disease. '' Because methylmercury is a teratogen, the mercury poisoning of those residing by the bay resulted in neurological defects in the offspring. Infants exposed to mercury poisoning in utero showed predispositions to cerebral palsy, ataxia, inhibited psychomotor development, and mental retardation. Landfill sites have been shown to have adverse effects on fetal development. Extensive research has been shown that landfills have several negative effects on babies born to mothers living near landfill sites: low birth weight, birth defects, spontaneous abortion, and fetal and infant mortality. Studies done around the Love Canal site near Niagara Falls and the Lipari Landfill in New Jersey have shown a higher proportion of low birth babies than communities farther away from landfills. A study done in California showed a positive correlation between time and quantity of dumping and low birth weights and neonatal deaths. A study in the United Kingdom showed a correspondence between pregnant women living near landfill sites and an increased risk of congenital disorders, such as neural tube defects, hypospadias, epispadia, and abdominal wall defects, such as gastroschisis and exomphalos. A study conducted on a Welsh community also showed an increase incidence of gastroschisis. Another study was done on twenty - one European hazardous waste sites and showed that those living within three kilometers had an increased risk of giving birth to infants with birth defects and that as distance from the land increased, the risk decreased. These birth defects included neural tube defects, malformations of the cardiac septa, anomalies of arteries and veins, and chromosomal anomalies. Looking at communities that live near landfill sites brings up environmental justice. A vast majority of sites are located near poor, mostly black, communities. For example, between the early 1920s and 1978, about 25 % of Houston 's population was black. However, over 80 % of landfills and incinerators during this time were located in these black communities. Another issue regarding environmental justice is lead poisoning. If the fetus is exposed to lead during the pregnancy, this can result in learning difficulties and slowed growth. A lot of paints (before 1978) and pipes contain lead. Therefore, pregnant women who live in homes with lead paint will inhale the dust containing lead, leading to lead exposure in the fetus. When lead pipes are used for drinking water and cooking water, this water is ingested, along with the lead, exposing the fetus to this toxin. This issue is more prevalent in poorer communities. This is because more well off families are able to afford to have their homes repainted and pipes renovated. Paternal smoking prior to conception has been linked with the increased risk of congenital abnormalities in offspring. Smoking causes DNA mutations in the germ line of the father, which can be inherited by the offspring. Cigarette smoke acts as a chemical mutagen on germ cell DNA. The germ cells suffer oxidative damage, and the effects can be seen in altered mRNA production, infertility issues, and side effects in the embryonic and fetal stages of development. This oxidative damage may result in epigenetic or genetic modifications of the father 's germ line. Research has shown that fetal lymphocytes have been damaged as a result of a father 's smoking habits prior to conception. Correlations between paternal smoking and the increased risk of offspring developing childhood cancers (including acute leukemia, brain tumors, and lymphoma) before age five have been established. However, further research is needed to confirm these findings. Little is currently known about how paternal smoking damages the fetus, and what window of time in which the father smokes is most harmful to offspring. A vertically transmitted infection is an infection caused by bacteria, viruses or, in rare cases, parasites transmitted directly from the mother to an embryo, fetus or baby during pregnancy or childbirth. It can occur when the mother gets an infection as an intercurrent disease in pregnancy. Congenital disorders were initially believed to be the result of only hereditary factors. However, in the early 1940s, Australian pediatric ophthalmologist Norman Gregg began recognizing a pattern in which the infants arriving at his surgery were developing congenital cataracts at a higher rate than those who developed it from hereditary factors. On October 15, 1941, Gregg delivered a paper which explained his findings - 68 out of the 78 children who were afflicted with congenital cataracts had been exposed in utero due to an outbreak in Australian army camps. These findings confirmed, to Gregg, that there could, in fact, be environmental causes for congenital disorders. Rubella is known to cause abnormalities of the eye, internal ear, heart, and sometimes the teeth. More specifically, fetal exposure to rubella during weeks five to ten of development (the sixth week particularly) can cause cataracts and microphthalmia in the eyes. If the mother is infected with rubella during the ninth week, a crucial week for internal ear development, there can be destruction of the organ of Corti, causing deafness. In the heart the ductus arteriosus can remain after birth, leading to hypertension. Rubella can also lead to atrial and ventricular septal defects in the heart. If exposed to rubella in the second trimester, the fetus can develop central nervous system malformations. However, because infections of rubella may remain undetected, misdiagnosed, or unrecognized in the mother, and / or some abnormalities are not evident until later in the child 's life, precise incidence of birth defects due to rubella are not entirely known. The timing of the mother 's infection during fetal development determines the risk and type of birth defect. As the embryo develops, the risk of abnormalities decreases. If exposed to the rubella virus during the first four weeks, the risk of malformations is 47 percent. Exposure during weeks five through eight creates a 22 percent chance, while weeks nine to twelve a seven percent chance exists, followed by a percentage of six if the exposure is during the thirteenth to sixteenth weeks. Exposure during the first eight weeks of development can also lead to prematurity and fetal death. These numbers are calculated from immediate inspection of the infant after birth. Therefore, mental defects are not accounted for in the percentages because they are not evident until later in the child 's life. If they were to be included, these numbers would be much higher. Other infectious agents include cytomegalovirus, the herpes simplex virus, hyperthermia, toxoplasmosis, and syphilis. Mother exposure to cytomegalovirus can cause microcephaly, cerebral calcifications, blindness, chorioretinitis (which can cause blindness), hepatosplenomegaly, and meningoencephalitis in fetuses. Microcephaly is a disorder in which the fetus has an atypically small head, cerebral calcifications means certain areas of the brain have atypical calcium deposits, and meningoencephalitis is the enlargement of the brain. All three disorders cause abnormal brain function or mental retardation. Hepatosplenomegaly is the enlargement of the liver and spleen which causes digestive problems. It can also cause some kernicterus and petechiae. Kernicterus causes yellow pigmentation of the skin, brain damage, and deafness. Petechaie is when the capillaries bleed resulting in red / purple spots on the skin. However, cytomegalovirus is often fatal in the embryo. The herpes simplex virus can cause microcephaly, microphthalmus (abnormally small eyeballs), retinal dysplasia, hepatosplenomegaly, and mental retardation. Both microphthalmus and retinal dysplasia can cause blindness. However, the most common symptom in infants is an inflammatory response that develops during the first three weeks of life. Hyperthermia causes anencephaly, which is when part of the brain and skull are absent in the infant. Mother exposure to toxoplasmosis can cause cerebral calcification, hydrocephalus (causes mental disabilities), and mental retardation in infants. Other birth abnormalities have been reported as well, such as chorioretinitis, microphthalmus, and ocular defects. Syphilis causes congenital deafness, mental retardation, and diffuse fibrosis in organs, such as the liver and lungs, if the embryo is exposed. For example, a lack of folic acid, a vitamin B, in the diet of a mother can cause cellular neural tube deformities that result in spina bifida. Congenital disorders such as a neural tube deformity (NTD) can be prevented by 72 % if the mother consumes 4 milligrams of folic acid before the conception and after 12 weeks of pregnancy. Folic acid, or vitamin B, aids the development of the foetal nervous system. Studies with mice have found that food deprivation of the male mouse prior to conception leads to the offspring displaying significantly lower blood glucose levels. External physical shocks or constrainment due to growth in a restricted space, may result in unintended deformation or separation of cellular structures resulting in an abnormal final shape or damaged structures unable to function as expected. An example is Potter syndrome due to oligohydramnios. This finding is important for future understandings of how genetics may predispose individuals for diseases like obesity, diabetes, and cancer. For multicellular organisms that develop in a womb, the physical interference or presence of other similarly developing organisms such as twins can result in the two cellular masses being integrated into a larger whole, with the combined cells attempting to continue to develop in a manner that satisfies the intended growth patterns of both cell masses. The two cellular masses can compete with each other, and may either duplicate or merge various structures. This results in conditions such as conjoined twins, and the resulting merged organism may die at birth when it must leave the life - sustaining environment of the womb and must attempt to sustain its biological processes independently. Genetic causes of congenital anomalies include inheritance of abnormal genes from the mother or the father, as well as new mutations in one of the germ cells that gave rise to the fetus. Male germ cells mutate at a much faster rate than female germ cells, and as the father ages, the DNA of the germ cells mutates quickly. If an egg is fertilized with sperm that has damaged DNA, there is a possibility that the fetus could develop abnormally. Genetic disorders or diseases are all congenital, though they may not be expressed or recognized until later in life. Genetic diseases may be divided into single - gene defects, multiple - gene disorders, or chromosomal defects. Single - gene defects may arise from abnormalities of both copies of an autosomal gene (a recessive disorder) or of only one of the two copies (a dominant disorder). Some conditions result from deletions or abnormalities of a few genes located contiguously on a chromosome. Chromosomal disorders involve the loss or duplication of larger portions of a chromosome (or an entire chromosome) containing hundreds of genes. Large chromosomal abnormalities always produce effects on many different body parts and organ systems. A low socioeconomic status in a deprived neighborhood may include exposure to "environmental stressors and risk factors. '' Socioeconomic inequalities are commonly measured by the Cartairs - Morris score, Index of Multiple Deprivation, Townsend deprivation index, and the Jarman score. The Jarman score, for example, considers "unemployment, overcrowding, single parents, under - fives, elderly living alone, ethnicity, low social class and residential mobility. '' In Vos ' meta - analysis these indices are used to view the effect of low SES neighborhoods on maternal health. In the meta - analysis, data from individual studies were collected from 1985 up until 2008. Vos concludes that a correlation exists between prenatal adversities and deprived neighborhoods. Other studies have shown that low SES is closely associated with the development of the fetus in utero and growth retardation. Studies also suggest that children born in low SES families are "likely to be born prematurely, at low birth weight, or with asphyxia, a birth defect, a disability, fetal alcohol syndrome, or AIDS. '' Bradley and Corwyn also suggest that congenital disorders arise from the mother 's lack of nutrition, a poor lifestyle, maternal substance abuse and "living in a neighborhood that contains hazards affecting fetal development (toxic waste dumps). '' In a meta - analysis that viewed how inequalities influenced maternal health, it was suggested that deprived neighborhoods often promoted behaviors such as smoking, drug and alcohol use. After controlling for socioeconomic factors and ethnicity, several individual studies demonstrated an association with outcomes such as perinatal mortality and preterm birth. For the survivors of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, who are known as the Hibakusha, no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects / congenital malformations was found among their later conceived children, or found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy. The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki who were able to conceive, though exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, later had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities / birth defects than in the Japanese population as a whole. Relatively few studies have researched the effects of paternal radiation exposure on offspring. Following the Chernobyl disaster, it was assumed in the 1990s that the germ line of irradiated fathers suffered minisatellite mutations in the DNA, which was inherited by descendants. more recently however, the World Health Organization states, "children conceived before or after their father 's exposure showed no statistically significant differences in mutation frequencies ''. This statistically insignificant increase was also seen by independent researchers analyzing the children of the liquidators. Animal studies have shown that incomparably massive doses of X-ray irradiation of male mice resulted in birth defects of the offspring. In the 1980s, a relatively high prevalence of pediatric leukemia cases in children living near a nuclear processing plant in West Cumbria, UK, led researchers to investigate whether the cancer was a result of paternal radiation exposure. A significant association between paternal irradiation and offspring cancer was found, but further research areas close to other nuclear processing plants did not produce the same results. Later this was determined to be the Seascale cluster in which the leading hypothesis is the influx of foreign workers, who have a different rate of leukemia within their race than the British average, resulted in the observed cluster of 6 children more than expected around Cumbria. The effects of paternal age on offspring are not yet well understood and are studied far less extensively than the effects of maternal age. Fathers contribute proportionally more DNA mutations to their offspring via their germ cells than the mother, with the paternal age governing how many mutations are passed on. This is because, as humans age, male germ cells acquire mutations at a much faster rate than female germ cells. Around a 5 % increase in the incidence of ventricular septal defects, atrial septal defects, and patent ductus arteriosus in offspring has been found to be correlated with advanced paternal age. Advanced paternal age has also been linked to increased risk of achondroplasia and Apert syndrome. Offspring born to fathers under the age of 20 show increased risk of being affected by patent ductus arteriosus, ventricular septal defects, and the tetralogy of Fallot. It is hypothesized that this may be due to environmental exposures or lifestyle choices. Research has found that there is a correlation between advanced paternal age and risk of birth defects such as limb anomalies, syndromes involving multiple systems, and Down 's syndrome. Recent studies have concluded that 5 - 9 % of Down 's syndrome cases are due to paternal effects, but these findings are controversial. There is concrete evidence that advanced paternal age is associated with the increased likelihood that a mother will suffer from a miscarriage or that fetal death will occur. Although significant progress has been made in identifying the etiology of some birth defects, approximately 65 % have no known or identifiable cause. These are referred to as sporadic, a term that implies an unknown cause, random occurrence regardless of maternal living conditions, and a low recurrence risk for future children. For 20 - 25 % of anomalies there seems to be a "multifactorial '' cause, meaning a complex interaction of multiple minor genetic anomalies with environmental risk factors. Another 10 -- 13 % of anomalies have a purely environmental cause (e.g. infections, illness, or drug abuse in the mother). Only 12 -- 25 % of anomalies have a purely genetic cause. Of these, the majority are chromosomal anomalies. Congenital anomalies resulted in about 632,000 deaths per year in 2013 down from 751,000 in 1990. The type with the greatest death are congenital heart disease (323,000), followed by neural tube defects (69,000). Many studies have found that the frequency of occurrence of certain congenital malformations depends on the sex of the child (table). For example, pyloric stenosis occurs more often in males while congenital hip dislocation is four to five times more likely to occur in females. Among children with one kidney, there are approximately twice as many males, whereas among children with three kidneys there are approximately 2.5 times more females. The same pattern is observed among infants with excessive number of ribs, vertebrae, teeth and other organs which in a process of evolution have undergone reduction -- among them there are more females. Contrarily, among the infants with their scarcity, there are more males. Anencephaly is shown to occur approximately twice as frequently in females. The number of boys born with 6 fingers is two times higher than the number of girls. Now various techniques are available to detect congenital anomalies in fetus before birth. About 3 % of newborns have a "major physical anomaly '', meaning a physical anomaly that has cosmetic or functional significance. Physical congenital abnormalities are the leading cause of infant mortality in the United States, accounting for more than 20 % of all infant deaths. Seven to ten percent of all children will require extensive medical care to diagnose or treat a birth defect. P.M. Rajewski and A.L. Sherman (1976) have analyzed the frequency of congenital anomalies in relation to the system of the organism. Prevalence of men was recorded for the anomalies of phylogenetically younger organs and systems. In respect of an etiology, sexual distinctions can be divided on appearing before and after differentiation of male 's gonads in during embryonic development, which begins from eighteenth week. The testosterone level in male embryos thus raises considerably. The subsequent hormonal and physiological distinctions of male and female embryos can explain some sexual differences in frequency of congenital defects. It is difficult to explain the observed differences in the frequency of birth defects between the sexes by the details of the reproductive functions or the influence of environmental and social factors. The CDC and National Birth Defect Project studied the incidence of birth defects in the US. Key findings include:
who sings i just can stop loving you with michael jackson	I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You - wikipedia "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' is a 1987 duet ballad by Michael Jackson and Siedah Garrett, and was the first single released from his seventh album, Bad. The song was written by Jackson, and co-produced by Jackson and Quincy Jones. It reached # 1 on the Billboard Hot 100, R&B and adult contemporary charts, making it the first in a string of 5 No. 1 singles from the album. The song became the first of five consecutive number - one Hot 100 singles from the Bad album. It was Jackson 's second number - one song on the AC chart (his first, coincidentally, had also been a duet: 1982 's "The Girl Is Mine '' with Paul McCartney). It was released without an accompanying music video. The presence of Garrett on the track was a last - minute decision by Jackson and Jones, after Jackson 's first two choices for the duet, Barbra Streisand and Whitney Houston, both decided against participating. Garrett, a protégé of Jones 's who co-wrote another song on Bad, "Man in the Mirror '', did not know that she would be singing the song until the day of the recording session. It became her first hit since Dennis Edwards ' 1984 song "Do n't Look Any Further ''. Jackson and Garrett later recorded "Todo Mi Amor Eres Tú '', a Spanish - language version of the song, with lyrics translated by Rubén Blades, and "Je Ne Veux Pas La Fin De Nous '', a French - language version, with translation by Christine "Coco '' Decroix. All three versions are featured on the 2012 reissue album Bad 25. The original English - language version was re-released as a single in 2012, as part of the Bad 25 release. For the duet ballad "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You, '' Michael Jackson wanted to share vocals with Barbra Streisand or Whitney Houston. Both singers took a pass on the invitation. The co-duet duties were given to Siedah Garrett who had previously dueted on former Temptations member Dennis Edwards ' "Do n't Look Any Further. '' Garrett first came to the attention of producer Quincy Jones after auditioning for and winning a spot in the group Deco. She later signed as a recording artist with Jones ' Warner Bros. - distributed Qwest Records. The singer was constantly sent song demos including one for "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You, '' though she did n't know that the demo was a song written and sung by Jackson. While reporting for a recording session, Garrett thought that she was summoned to do overdubs for a song she 'd co-written titled "Man in the Mirror. '' Instead she was surprised to learn that she 'd been chosen to sing a duet with Jackson. To some, the wispy ballad was reminiscent of Jackson 's Motown classic "Got to Be There. '' The original album version of the song opened with Jackson cooing a spoken intro backed by a longer version of the opening music. According to Jackson, he recorded that part of his song while lying in bed. The intro went, in part, "I just want to lay next to you for a while. You look so beautiful tonight... A lot of people misunderstand me. That 's because they do n't know me at all. I just want to touch you and hold you... '' This intro was mixed out on the 7 '' single, on future releases of Bad and on most compilation albums. An alternate version of the single, featuring the original mastered album version mix with the spoken word intro for "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' backed by the album outtake "Do n't Be Messin ' ' Round '', was released in select Walmart stores in 2012 to mark the release of Bad 25. "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics. Sputnikmusic 's staff gave to the song 4 out of 5 stars, writing: "It 's not one the most fondly remembered songs on the album but I 've come to appreciate it more as I listen to it, especially the instrumentation at the start. It 's a nice song really, the lyrics are a bit soppy but still it adds something different to the album and the vocals are top notch. '' Richard Cromelin from Los Angeles Times was negative with the song, and particularly the spoken word opening, writing: "The soliloquy is meant to be revealing, tender and vulnerable, but with his quivering timbre and the haunting music behind, it comes off a little creepy, like Norman Bates gearing up for "Psycho IV '. '' Davitt Sigerson from Rolling Stone wrote a review about the song, commenting: "Churls may bemoan ' I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You, ' Jackson 's duet with the often indistinguishable Siedah Garrett, as a second unworthy entry. Without descending to musical McCarthyism and questioning the honor of anyone who can fault a record with both finger snaps and timpani, it need only be asked, Who, having heard the song at least twice, can fail to remember that chorus? '' "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' was the lead single from Jackson 's much - anticipated Bad album. The single debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 singles chart at # 37, the week of August 8, 1987. The single was the highest debuting single of 1987, and quickly traveled to the top quarter of the Hot 100, advancing to # 16 in its second week, and soaring to # 1 in its seventh week on the tally, the week of September 19, 1987. Despite the success, the duet had a relatively short chart run and fell out of the top 40 just five weeks after topping the chart, spending a total of 11 weeks in the top 40. This was largely due to the quick release of the album title track as the second single (it debuted on the Hot 100 at # 40 in the same week that "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' hit number one). Billboard ranked it as # 43 on the year - end Hot 100 chart for 1987. The track spent three weeks at number one on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary singles chart, becoming only the second Michael Jackson single to top that chart and the last one to date (although "Man in the Mirror '' would come close to topping the chart when it reached # 2 in 1988). In the United Kingdom, the song reached # 1 on the UK Singles Chart for the week of August 11, 1987 and ranked # 30 on the year - end UK tally. In his autobiography, Moonwalk, Jackson stated the song was not written with someone in mind, but that he had been thinking of someone when singing the song live. Jackson performed the song on his Bad World Tour with background singer Sheryl Crow and on his Dangerous World Tour with Siedah Garrett. He also performed the song at the Royal Concert in Brunei with Marva Hicks. Live versions of the song are available on the DVDs Live at Wembley July 16, 1988 and Live in Bucharest: The Dangerous Tour. Jackson would have performed it on This Is It with Judith Hill, but the concert series was canceled due to his sudden death. However, this is a featured song in the movie Michael Jackson 's This Is It. As a tribute to Jackson, Hill recorded and released a "sequel '' to the song, entitled "I Will Always Be Missing You ''. On June 5, 2012, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Jackson 's Bad album (on which "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' appears), the single was re-released to Walmart stores in the United States, but was denied a digital release. The single included the original 1987 edit of "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You, '' which included the spoken word intro that was removed from current versions of the Bad album, as well as "Do n't Be Messin ' ' Round, '' an untouched demo that was recorded for the album in 1986. On Billboard ' 's Hot Singles Sales Chart, which ranks the best - selling physical singles of the week, "I Just Ca n't Stop Loving You '' debuted at no. 1 with 5,000 copies sold. This gave Jackson his first no. 1 single on a Billboard chart since 2003, when "One More Chance '' spent three weeks atop the Hot R&B / Hip Hop Singles Sales Chart. The vinyl single was released in USA on June 26, 2012. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
code geass lelouch of the rebellion r2 episode 24 english dubbed	List of Code Geass episodes - wikipedia Code Geass (Japanese: コードギアス, Hepburn: Kōdo Giasu) is a Japanese anime series produced by Sunrise, Mainichi Broadcasting System, and Project Geass. The first season is entitled, Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion (コードギアス反逆のルルーシュ, Kōdo Giasu: Hangyaku no Rurūshu) and premiered on Mainichi Broadcasting System on October 6, 2006 and was broadcast by a total of ten stations. Its final two episodes were aired on July 29, 2007. It was followed by Code Geass: Lelouch of the Rebellion R2 (コードギアス反逆のルルーシュ R2, Kōdo Giasu: Hangyaku no Rurūshu R2) which aired on April 6, 2008 and was broadcast on sixteen stations. Its final episode aired on September 28, 2008. Since its premier in Japan, Lelouch of the Rebellion and R2 were licensed by Bandai Entertainment and dubbed by ZRO Limit Productions. Lelouch of the Rebellion premiered on Adult Swim in April 27, 2008 and R2 in November 2, 2008. The two series were then distributed by Beez Entertainment and Kazé in the United Kingdom and licensed by Madman Entertainment in Australia. The two series have also received localizations in other languages such as French, German, Italian, and Tagalog. Following Lelouch of the Rebellion and R2 were two original video animations (OVA), and an OVA series titled Code Geass: Akito the Exiled (コードギアス亡国のアキト, Kōdo Giasu: Bōkoku no Akito). ^ Translation The episode was never translated into English. Its current title is a literal translation by IGN.
when did kiss you all over come out	Kiss You All Over - wikipedia "Kiss You All Over '' is a 1978 song performed by the group Exile. It was written by Mike Chapman and Nicky Chinn. It was included on the band 's album Mixed Emotions, and it featured Jimmy Stokley and guitarist JP Pennington on lead vocals. It was a number one single in the United States, but proved to be Exile 's only big hit in the pop rock market (they would later have great success on the country music charts). It held the number one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks (starting September 30), and Billboard ranked it as the No. 5 song for 1978. In the United Kingdom, the song was released on Mickie Most 's RAK Records, and it peaked at number 6 in the UK Singles Chart. In this song, a string synthesizer is used. In 2010, Billboard ranked the song ninth on its list of "The 50 Sexiest Songs Of All Time ''. Lead vocalist on the song Stokley was ousted from the band in 1979, his health declining thereafter until he died at the age of 41 in 1985. The band moved into country music following the synth - pop success of "Kiss You All Over '' and the 1979 follow - on hit "You Thrill Me '' (reaching # 40 (UK no. 67)) and "How Could This Go Wrong '', # 88 on the charts. "Take Me Down '' peaked at # 3 on the Euro Hit 40 in the mid-1980s. The band No Mercy 's 1997 remixed version by Johnny Vicious and Darrin "Spike '' Friedman reached # 1 on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. It also reached # 16 on the UK Singles Chart and # 47 in Australia. The song was featured in the films Happy Gilmore, Wild Hogs, Man on the Moon, Employee of the Month, and Zookeeper. It was also used in 2007 on CBC 's Hockey Night In Canada during a montage of Stanley Cup celebrations at the conclusion of the final game of the Stanley Cup Playoffs. The song closes out the finale of the first season of the Amazon Series Red Oaks. The Exiles version of the song also closes episode seven of Netflix series Mindhunter.
who sang it might as well rain until september	It Might as Well Rain Until September - wikipedia "It Might as Well Rain Until September '' is a 1962 song originally written for Bobby Vee by Carole King and Gerry Goffin. King recorded the demo version of the song and it became a hit for her. However, Vee 's management baulked at releasing the song as a single, instead using it only as an album track. Bobby Vee recorded the song the same year for his 1963 Liberty album The Night Has a Thousand Eyes. The song was written by Carole King and Gerry Goffin and intended for Bobby Vee, for whom they had already written the song "Take Good Care of My Baby '', a number one hit in the United States in 1961 and which remains Vee 's biggest hit on the Billboard Hot 100. King recorded the demo version of the song and this version was released as a double A-side single with "Nobody 's Perfect ''. Although she had recorded earlier for ABC - Paramount and Alpine Records, '... September ' was Carole King 's first commercial success as a singer, having already had a number of hits as a songwriter. The recording was only ever intended as a demo, and as such there is no master tape, only an acetate. This is the reason why all digital releases of this recording are of inferior quality compared to other songs of this era. However, Don Kirshner liked Carole King 's version of "September '' so much that even after hearing Bobby Vee 's version, he decided to release King 's version as a single on the Dimension label. Carole King had two small children and did not have any interest in traveling the country to promote the record. Despite this, Carole King was ultimately persuaded by Don Kirshner and Gerry Goffin to appear on Dick Clark 's American Bandstand, where King lip - synched to the record (as was almost always done on the show) and, unlike many other performers who were given good ratings, was given a terrible rating of a 42 out of 100 by the Bandstand kids. While King was devastated by the terribly - rated performance, the song still became popular. The song later appeared on the album More American Graffiti. It is also included on Carole King 's 2005 live album The Living Room Tour, where it is performed as part of a medley along with other songs she wrote with Gerry Goffin. "It Might as Well Rain Until September '' is a mid-tempo pop song in a similar style as many songs written by Carole King and Gerry Goffin at this time. Through the lyrics, the singer tells a former lover that the world does not appear beautiful to him or her no matter the circumstances as he / she can not be with him / her: It does n't matter whether skies are grey or blue / It 's raining in my heart ' cause I ca n't be with you / (...) / So it might as well rain until September. The song appeared on the soundtrack of Michael Apted 's Stardust. It also appears in the low - budget Australian film One Night Stand (1984 film) where it is sung by the two female leading characters in the final scene, as nuclear war envelops the world and many people of Sydney shelter in an Underground station. The single was released in 1962 and made it to number 22 on the Billboard chart in September of that year, appearing on the Hot 100 chart dated October 6, 1962 (chart dates are approximately one - and - a-half weeks ahead of their actual release dates). The recording was considerably more popular in the United Kingdom, peaking at number three in October 1962, the highest position of any Carole King recording in the British charts.
where is the flash button on my phone	Hook flash - wikipedia Hook flash or flash (known in the UK as "recall '') is a button on a telephone that simulates quickly hanging up then picking up again (a quick off - hook / on - hook / off - hook cycle). This action can signal the telephone exchange to do something. A common use of a hook flash is to switch to another incoming call with the call waiting service. Another use is to indicate a request for voice conferencing, for example, a user may use a procedure like the following to initiate three - way calling: The second "flash '' signals the Central Office Switch to link the two active conversations, so that all three parties are connected to the same logical telephone line. In contrast to PBX conferencing systems, the two calls are joined at the Central Office switch, rather than at the customer premises PBX. The switchhook is the device that senses whether the handset or receiver is in its cradle. The term "flash '' originated from the cord circuit of the early telephone switchboard that telephone company operators used to connect calls. The calling party and called party each had an indicator light on the cord circuit. When the subscriber cycled the telephone on - hook / off - hook, the light would flash. Actors in old movies often demonstrate this method, seeking the operator 's attention. The user does a tap - tap - tap. When an operator comes on the line, the actor says, "Hello? Operator? We 've been cut off. '' Then the operator attempts to reestablish the connection. The flashing light of this equipment of bygone days is the origin of the phrase "flashing the switchhook ''. Centrex telephones added a hook - flash button in the 1960s, after some users incorrectly attempted the attendant - recall function.
where does the word news come from wiki	News - Wikipedia News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. It is also used as a platform to manufacture opinion for the population. Common topics for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, the environment, economy, business, fashion, and entertainment, as well as athletic events, quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Humans exhibit a nearly universal desire to learn and share news, which they satisfy by talking to each other and sharing information. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content. The genre of news as we know it today is closely associated with the newspaper, which originated in China as a court bulletin and spread, with paper and printing press, to Europe. The English word "news '' developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of "new ''. In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, like the French nouvelles and the German Neues. Similar developments are found in the Slavic languages the Czech and Slovak noviny (from nový, "new ''), the cognate Polish nowiny, the Bulgarian novini, and Russian novosti -- and in the Celtic languages: the Welsh newyddion (from newydd) and the Cornish nowodhow (from nowydh). Jessica Garretson Finch is credited with coining the phrase "current events '' while teaching at Barnard College in the 1890s. As its name implies, "news '' typically connotes the presentation of new information. The newness of news gives it an uncertain quality which distinguishes it from the more careful investigations of history or other scholarly disciplines. Whereas historians tend to view events as causally related manifestations of underlying processes, news stories tend to describe events in isolation, and to exclude discussion of the relationships between them. News conspicuously describes the world in the present or immediate past, even when the most important aspects of a news story have occurred long in the past -- or are expected to occur in the future. To make the news, an ongoing process must have some "peg '', an event in time which anchors it to the present moment. Relatedly, news often addresses aspects of reality which seem unusual, deviant, or out of the ordinary. Hence the famous dictum that "Dog Bites Man '' is not news, but "Man Bites Dog '' is. Another corollary of the newness of news is that, as new technology enables new media to disseminate news more quickly, ' slower ' forms of communication may move away from ' news ' towards ' analysis '. According to some theories, "news '' is whatever the news industry sells. Journalism, broadly understood along the same lines, is the act or occupation of collecting and providing news. From a commercial perspective, news is simply one input, along with paper (or an electronic server) necessary to prepare a final product for distribution. A news agency supplies this resource "wholesale '' and publishers enhance it for retail. Most purveyors of news value impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity, despite the inherent difficulty of reporting without political bias. Perception of these values has changed greatly over time as sensationalized ' tabloid journalism ' has risen in popularity. Michael Schudson has argued that before the era of World War I and the concomitant rise of propaganda, journalists were not aware of the concept of bias in reporting, let alone actively correcting for it. News is also sometimes said to portray the truth, but this relationship is elusive and qualified. Paradoxically, another property commonly attributed to news is sensationalism, the disproportionate focus on, and exaggeration of, emotive stories for public consumption. This news is also not unrelated to gossip, the human practice of sharing information about other humans of mutual interest. A common sensational topic is violence; hence another news dictum, "if it bleeds, it leads ''. Newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage. Journalists apply news values to identify a news story. News values determine how much attention a news story is given by a media outlet, and the attention it is given by its audience or readers. In some countries and at some points in history, what news media and the public have considered "newsworthy '' has met different definitions, such as the notion of news values. Many news values seem to be common across cultures. People seem to be interested in news to the extent which it has a big impact, describes conflicts, happens nearby, involves well - known people, and deviates from the norms of everyday happenings. War is a common news topic, partly because it involves unknown events that could pose personal danger. Evidence suggests that cultures around the world have found a place for people to share stories about interesting new information. Among Zulus, Mongolians, Polynesians, and American Southerners, anthropologists have documented the practice of questioning travelers for news as a matter of priority. Sufficiently important news would be repeated quickly and often, and could spread by word of mouth over a large geographic area. Even as printing presses came into use in Europe, news for the general public often travelled orally via monks, travelers, town criers, etc. The news is also transmitted in public gathering places, such as the Greek forum and the Roman baths. Starting in England, coffeehouses served as important sites for the spread of news, even after telecommunications became widely available. In the Muslim world, people have gathered and exchanged news at mosques and other social places. Travelers on pilgrimages to Mecca traditionally stay at caravanserais, roadside inns, along the way, and these places have naturally served as hubs for gaining news of the world. In late medieval Britain, reports ("tidings '') of major events were a topic of great public interest, as chronicled in Chaucer 's 1380 The House of Fame and other works. Before the invention of newspapers in the early 17th century, official government bulletins and edicts were circulated at times in some centralized empires. The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents is in Egypt, where Pharaohs used couriers for the diffusion of their decrees in the territory of the State (2400 BC). Julius Caesar regularly publicized his heroic deeds in Gaul, and upon becoming Emperor of Rome began publishing government announcements called Acta Diurna. These were carved in metal or stone and posted in public places. In England, parliamentary declarations were delivered to sheriffs for public display and reading at the market. Specially sanctioned messengers have been recognized in Vietnamese culture, among the Khasi people in India, and in the Fox and Winnebago cultures of the American midwest. The Zulu Kingdom used runners to quickly disseminate news. In West Africa, news can be spread by griots. In most cases, the official spreaders of news have been closely aligned with holders of political power. Town criers were a common means of conveying information to citydwellers. In thirteenth - century Florence, criers known as banditori arrived in the market regularly, to announce political news, to convoke public meetings, and to call the populace to arms. In 1307 and 1322 -- 1325, laws were established governing their appointment, conduct, and salary. These laws stipulated how many times a banditoro was to repeat a proclamation (forty) and where in the city they were to read them. Different declarations sometimes came with additional protocols; announcements regarding the plague were also to be read at the city gates. These proclamations all used a standard format, beginning with an exordium -- "The worshipful and most esteemed gentlemen of the Eight of Ward and Security of the city of Florence make it known, notify, and expressly command, to whosoever, of whatever status, rank, quality and condition '' -- and continuing with a statement (narratio), a request made upon the listeners (petitio), and the penalty to be exacted from those who would not comply (peroratio). In addition to major declarations, bandi (announcements) might concern petty crimes, requests for information, and notices about missing slaves. Niccolò Machiavelli was captured by the Medicis in 1513, following a bando calling for his immediate surrender. Some town criers could be paid to include advertising along with news. Under the Ottoman Empire, official messages were regularly distributed at mosques, by traveling holy men, and by secular criers. These criers were sent to read official announcements in marketplaces, highways, and other well - traveled places, sometimes issuing commands and penalties for disobedience. The spread of news has always been linked to the communications networks in place to disseminate it. Thus, political, religious, and commercial interests have historically controlled, expanded, and monitored communications channels by which news could spread. Postal services have long been closely entwined with the maintenance of political power in a large area. One of the imperial communication channels, called the "Royal Road '' traversed the Assyrian Empire and served as a key source of its power. The Roman Empire maintained a vast network of roads, known as cursus publicus, for similar purposes. Visible chains of long distance signaling, known as optical telegraphy, have also been used throughout history to convey limited types of information. These can have ranged from smoke and fire signals to advanced systems using semaphore codes and telescopes. The latter form of optical telegraph came into use in Japan, Britain, France, and Germany from the 1790s through the 1850s. The world 's first written news may have originated in eighth century B.C.E. China, where reports gathered by officials were eventually compiled as the Spring and Autumn Annals. The annals, whose compilation is attributed to Confucius, were available to a sizeable reading public and dealt with common news themes -- though they straddle the line between news and history. The Han dynasty is credited with developing one of the most effective imperial surveillance and communications networks in the ancient world. Government - produced news sheets, called tipao, circulated among court officials during the late Han dynasty (second and third centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Bulletin of the Court '') of the Chinese Tang Dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. The court created a Bureau of Official Reports (Jin Zhouyuan) to centralize news distribution for the court. Newsletters called ch'ao pao continued to be produced and gained wider public circulation in the following centuries. In 1582 there was the first reference to privately published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming Dynasty. Japan had effective communications and postal delivery networks at several points in its history, first in 646 with the Taika Reform and again during the Kamakura period from 1183 -- 1333. The system depended on hikyaku, runners, and regularly spaced relay stations. By this method, news could travel between Kyoto and Kamakura in 5 -- 7 days. Special horse - mounted messengers could move information at the speed of 170 kilometers per day. The Japanese shogunates were less tolerant than the Chinese government of news circulation. The postal system established during the Edo period was even more effective, with average speeds of 125 -- 150 km / day and express speed of 200 km / day. This system was initially used only by the government, taking private communications only at exorbitant prices. Private services emerged and in 1668 established their own nakama (guild). They became even faster, and created an effective optical telegraphy system using flags by day and lanterns and mirrors by night. In Europe, during the Middle Ages, elites relied on runners to transmit news over long distances. At 33 kilometres per day, a runner would take two months to bring a message across the Hanseatic League from Bruges to Riga. In the early modern period, increased cross-border interaction created a rising need for information which was met by concise handwritten newssheets. The driving force of this new development was the commercial advantage provided by up - to - date news. In 1556, the government of Venice first published the monthly Notizie scritte, which cost one gazetta. These avvisi were handwritten newsletters and used to convey political, military, and economic news quickly and efficiently to Italian cities (1500 -- 1700) -- sharing some characteristics of newspapers though usually not considered true newspapers. Avvisi were sold by subscription under the auspices of military, religious, and banking authorities. Sponsorship flavored the contents of each series, which were circulated under many different names. Subscribers included clerics, diplomatic staff, and noble families. By the last quarter of the seventeenth century avvisi long passages from were finding their way into published monthlies such as the Mercure de France and, in northern Italy, Pallade veneta. Postal services enabled merchants and monarchs to stay abreast of important information. For the Holy Roman Empire, Emperor Maximillian I in 1490 authorized two brothers from the Italian Tasso family, Francesco and Janettto, to create a network of courier stations linked by riders. They began with a communications line between Innsbruck and Mechelen and grew from there. In 1505 this network expanded to Spain, new governed by Maximilian 's son Philip. These riders could travel 180 kilometers in a day. This system became the Imperial Reichspost, administered by Tasso descendents (subsequently known as Thurn - und - Taxis), who in 1587 received exclusive operating rights from the Emperor. The French postal service and English postal service also began at this time, but did not become comprehensive until the early 1600s. In 1620, the English system linked with Thurn - und - Taxis. These connections underpinned an extensive system of news circulation, with handwritten items bearing dates and places of origin. Centred in Germany, the network took in news from Russia, the Balkans, Italy, Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The German lawyer Christoph von Scheurl and the Fugger house of Augsburg were prominent hubs in this network. Letters describing historically significant events could gain wide circulation as news reports. Indeed, personal correspondence sometimes acted only as a convenient channel through which news could flow across a larger network. A common type of business communication was a simple listing of current prices, the circulation of which quickened the flow of international trade. Businesspeople also wanted to know about events related to shipping, the affairs of other businesses, and political developments. Even after the advent of international newspapers, business owners still valued correspondence highly as a source of reliable news that would affect their enterprise. Handwritten newsletters, which could be produced quickly for a limited clientele, also continued into the 1600s. The spread of paper and the printing press from China to Europe preceded a major advance in the transmission of news. With the spread of printing presses and the creation of new markets in the 1500s, news underwent a shift from factual and precise economic reporting, to a more emotive and freewheeling format. (Private newsletters containing important intelligence therefore remained in use by people who needed to know.) The first newspapers emerged in Germany in the early 1600s. Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, from 1605, is recognized as the world 's first formalized ' newspaper '; while not a ' newspaper ' in the modern sense, the Ancient Roman acta diurna served a similar purpose circa 131 BC. The new format, which mashed together numerous unrelated and perhaps dubious reports from far - flung locations, created a radically new and jarring experience for its readers. A variety of styles emerged, from single - story tales, to compilations, overviews, and personal and impersonal types of news analysis. News for public consumption was at first tightly controlled by governments. By 1530, England had created a licensing system for the press and banned "seditious opinions ''. Under the Licensing Act, publication was restricted to approved presses -- as exemplified by The London Gazette, which prominently bore the words: "Published By Authority ''. Parliament allowed the Licensing Act to lapse in 1695, beginning a new era marked by Whig and Tory newspapers. (During this era, the Stamp Act limited newspaper distribution simply by making them expensive to sell and buy.) In France, censorship was even more constant. Consequently, many Europeans read newspapers originating from beyond their national borders -- especially from the Dutch Republic, where publishers could evade state censorship. The new United States saw a newspaper boom beginning with the Revolutionary era, accelerated by spirited debates over the establishment of a new government, spurred on by subsidies contained in the 1792 Postal Service Act, and continuing into the 1800s. American newspapers got many of their stories by copying reports from each other. Thus by offering free postage to newspapers wishing to exchange copies, the Postal Service Act subsidized a rapidly growing news network through which different stories could percolate. Newspapers thrived during the colonization of the West, fueled by high literacy and a newspaper - loving culture. By 1880, San Francisco rivaled New York in number of different newspapers and in printed newspaper copies per capita. Boosters of new towns felt that newspapers covering local events brought legitimacy, recognition, and community. The 1830s American, wrote Alexis de Tocqueville, was "a very civilized man prepared for a time to face life in the forest, plunging into the wilderness of the New World with his Bible, ax, and newspapers. '' In France, the Revolution brought forth an abundance of newspapers and a new climate of press freedom, followed by a return to repression under Napoleon. In 1792 the Revolutionaries set up a news ministry called the Bureau d'Esprit. Some newspapers published in the 1800s and after retained the commercial orientation characteristic of the private newsletters of the Renaissance. Economically oriented newspapers published new types of data enabled the advent of statistics, especially economic statistics which could inform sophisticated investment decisions. These newspapers, too, became available for larger sections of society, not just elites, keen on investing some of their savings in the stock markets. Yet, as in the case other newspapers, the incorporation of advertising into the newspaper led to justified reservations about accepting newspaper information at face value. Economic newspapers also became promoters of economic ideologies, such as Keynesianism in the mid-1900s. Newspapers came to sub-Saharan Africa via colonization. The first English - language newspaper in the area was The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, established in 1801, and followed by The Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer in 1822 and the Liberia Herald in 1826. A number of nineteenth - century African newspapers were established by missionaries. These newspapers by and large promoted the colonial governments and served the interests of European settlers by relaying news from Europe. The first newspaper published in a native African language was the Muigwithania, published in Kikuyu by the Kenyan Central Association. Muigwithania and other newspapers published by indigenous Africans took strong opposition stances, agitating strongly for African independence. Newspapers were censored heavily during the colonial period -- as well as after formal independence. Some liberalization and diversification took place in the 1990s. Newspapers were slow to spread to the Arab world, which had a stronger tradition of oral communication, and mistrust of the European approach to news reporting. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire 's leaders in Istanbul did monitor the European press, but its contents were not disseminated for mass consumption. Some of the first written news in modern North Africa arose in Egypt under Muhammad Ali, who developed the local paper industry and initiated the limited circulation of news bulletins called jurnals. Beginning in the 1850s and 1860s, the private press began to develop in the multi-religious country of Lebanon. The development of the electrical telegraph, which often travelled along railroad lines, enabled news to travel faster, over longer distances. (Days before Morse 's Baltimore -- Washington line transmitted the famous question, "What hath God wrought? '', it transmitted the news that Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen had been chosen by the Whig nominating party.) Telegraph networks enabled a new centralization of the news, in the hands of wire services concentrated in major cities. The modern form of these originated with Charles - Louis Havas, who founded Bureau Havas (later Agence France - Presse) in Paris. Havas began in 1832, using the French government 's optical telegraph network. In 1840 he began using pigeons for communications to Paris, London, and Brussels. Havas began to use the electric telegraph when it became available. One of Havas 's protoges, Bernhard Wolff, founded Wolffs Telegraphisches Bureau in Berlin in 1849. Another Havas disciple, Paul Reuter, began collecting news from Germany and France in 1849, and in 1851 immigrated to London, where he established the Reuters news agency -- specializing in news from the continent. In 1863, William Saunders and Edward Spender formed the Central Press agency, later called the Press Association, to handle domestic news. Just before insulated telegraph line crossed the English Channel in 1851, Reuter won the right to transmit stock exchange prices between Paris and London. He maneuvered Reuters into a dominant global position with the motto "Follow the Cable '', setting up news outposts across the British Empire in Alexandria (1865), Bombay (1866), Melbourne (1874), Sydney (1874), and Cape Town (1876). In the United States, the Associated Press became a news powerhouse, gaining a lead position through an exclusive arrangement with the Western Union company. The telegraph ushered in a new global communications regime, accompanied by a restructuring of the national postal systems, and closely followed by the advent of telephone lines. With the value of international news at a premium, governments, businesses, and news agencies moved aggressively to reduce transmission times. In 1865, Reuters had the scoop on the Lincoln assassination, reporting the news in England twelve days after the event took place. In 1866, an undersea telegraph cable successfully connected Ireland to Newfoundland (and thus the Western Union network) cutting trans - Atlantic transmission time from days to hours. The transatlantic cable allowed fast exchange of information about the London and New York stock exchanges, as well as the New York, Chicago, and Liverpool commodity exchanges -- for the price of $5 -- 10, in gold, per word. Transmitting On 11 May 1857, a young British telegraph operator in Delhi signaled home to alert the authorities of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebels proceeded to disrupt the British telegraph network, which was rebuilt with more redundancies. In 1902 -- 1903, Britain and the U.S. completed the circumtelegraphy of the planet with transpacific cables from Canada to Fiji and New Zealand (British Empire), and from the USA to Hawaii and the occupied Philippines. U.S. reassertions of the Monroe Doctrine notwithstanding, Latin America was a battleground of competing telegraphic interests until World War I, after which U.S. interests finally did consolidate their power in the hemisphere. By the turn of the century (i.e., circa 1900), Wolff, Havas, and Reuters formed a news cartel, dividing up the global market into three sections, in which each had more - or-less exclusive distribution rights and relationships with national agencies. Each agency 's area corresponded roughly to the colonial sphere of its mother country. Reuters and the Australian national news service had an agreement to exchange news only with each other. Due to the high cost of maintaining infrastructure, political goodwill, and global reach, newcomers found it virtually impossible to challenge the big three European agencies or the American Associated Press. In 1890 Reuters (in partnership with the Press Association, England 's major news agency for domestic stories) expanded into "soft '' news stories for public consumption, about topics such as sports and "human interest ''. In 1904, the big three wire services opened relations with Vestnik, the news agency of Czarist Russia, to their group, though they maintained their own reporters in Moscow. During and after the Russian Revolution, the outside agencies maintained a working relationship with the Petrograd Telegraph Agency, renamed the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA) and eventually the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS). The Chinese Communist Party created its news agency, the Red China News Agency, in 1931; its primary responsibilities were the Red China newspaper and the internal Reference News. In 1937, the Party renamed the agency Xinhua, New China. Xinhua became the official news agency of the People 's Republic of China in 1949. These agencies touted their ability to distill events into "minute globules of news '', 20 -- 30 word summaries which conveyed the essence of new developments. Unlike newspapers, and contrary to the sentiments of some of their reporters, the agencies sought to keep their reports simple and factual. The wire services brought forth the "inverted pyramid '' model of news copy, in which key facts appear at the start of the text, and more and more details included as it goes along. The sparse telegraphic writing style spilled over into newspapers, which often reprinted stories from the wire with little embellishment. In a 20 September 1918 Pravda editorial, Lenin instructed the Soviet press to cut back on their political rambling and produce many short anticapitalist news items in "telegraph style ''. As in previous eras, the news agencies provided special services to political and business clients, and these services constituted a significant portion of their operations and income. The wire services maintained close relationships with their respective national governments, which provided both press releases and payments. The acceleration and centralization of economic news facilitated regional economic integration and economic globalization. "It was the decrease in information costs and the increasing communication speed that stood at the roots of increased market integration, rather than falling transport costs by itself. In order to send goods to another area, merchants needed to know first whether in fact to send off the goods and to what place. Information costs and speed were essential for these decisions. The British Broadcasting Company began transmitting radio news from London in 1922, dependent entirely, by law, on the British news agencies. BBC radio marketed itself as a news by and for social elites, and hired only broadcasters who spoke with upper - class accents. The BBC gained importance in the May 1926 general strike, during which newspapers were closed and the radio served as the only source of news for an uncertain public. (To the displeasure of many listeners, the BBC took an unambiguously pro-government stance against the strikers). In the USA, RCA 's Radio Group established its radio network, NBC, in 1926. The Paley family founded CBS soon after. These two networks, which supplied news broadcasts to subsidiaries and affiliates, dominated the airwaves throughout the period of radio 's hegemony as a news source. Radio broadcasters in the United States negotiated a similar arrangement with the press in 1933, when they agreed to use only news from the Press -- Radio Bureau and eschew advertising; this agreement soon collapsed and radio stations began reporting their own news (with advertising). As in Britain, American news radio avoided "controversial '' topics as per norms established by the National Association of Broadcasters. By 1939, 58 % of Americans surveyed by Fortune considered radio news more accurate than newspapers, and 70 % chose radio as their main news source. Radio expanded rapidly across the continent, from 30 stations in 1920 to a thousand in the 1930s. This operation was financed mostly with advertising and public relations money. The Soviet Union began a major international broadcasting operation in 1929, with stations in German, English and French. The Nazi Party made use of the radio in its rise to power in Germany, with much of its propaganda focused on attacking the Soviet Bolsheviks. The British and Italian foreign radio services competed for influence in North Africa. All four of these broadcast services grew increasingly vitriolic as the European nations prepared for war. The war provided an opportunity to expand radio and take advantage of its new potential. The BBC reported on Allied invasion of Normandy on 8: 00 a.m. of the morning it took place, and including a clip from German radio coverage of the same event. Listeners followed along with developments throughout the day. The U.S. set up its Office of War Information which by 1942 sent programming across South America, the Middle East, and East Asia. Radio Luxembourg, a centrally located high - power station on the continent, was seized by Germany, and then by the United States -- which created fake news programs appearing as though they were created by Germany. Targeting American troops in the Pacific, the Japanese government broadcast the "Zero Hour '' program, which included news from the U.S. to make the soldiers homesick. But by the end of the war, Britain had the largest radio network in the world, broadcasting internationally in 43 different languages. Its scope would eventually be surpassed (by 1955) by the worldwide Voice of America programs, produced by the United States Information Agency. In Britain and the United States, television news watching rose dramatically in the 1950s and by the 1960s supplanted radio as the public 's primary source of news. In the U.S., television was run by the same networks which owned radio: CBS, NBC, and an NBC spin - off called ABC. Edward R. Murrow, who first entered the public ear as a war reporter in London, made the big leap to television to become an iconic newsman on CBS (and later the director of the United States Information Agency). Ted Turner 's creation of the Cable News Network (CNN) in 1980 inaugurated a new era of 24 - hour satellite news broadcasting. In 1991, the BBC introduced a competitor, BBC World Service Television. Rupert Murdoch 's Australian News Corporation entered the picture with Fox News Channel in the USA, Sky News in Britain, and STAR TV in Asia. Combining this new appartus with the use of embedded reporters, the United States waged the 1991 -- 1992 Gulf War with the assistance of nonstop media coverage. CNN 's specialty is the crisis, to which the network is prepared to shift its total attention if so chosen. CNN news was transmitted via INTELSAT communications satellites. CNN, said an executive, would bring a "town crier to the global village ''. In 1996, the Qatar - owned broadcaster Al Jazeera emerged as a powerful alternative to the Western media, capitalizing in part on anger in the Arab & Muslim world regarding biased coverage of the Gulf War. Al Jazeera hired many news workers conveniently laid off by BBC Arabic Television, which closed in April 1996. It used Arabsat to broadcast. The early internet, known as ARPANET, was controlled by the U.S. Department of Defense and used mostly by academics. It became available to a wider public with the release of the Netscape browser in 1994. At first, news websites were mostly archives of print publications. An early online newspaper was the Electronic Telegraph, published by The Daily Telegraph. A 1994 earthquake in California was one of the first big stories to be reported online in real time. In 1995, the release of web browser Netscape made news sites accessible to more people. On the day of the Oklahoma City bombing in April 1995, people flocked to newsgroups and chatrooms to discuss the situation and share information. The Oklahoma City Daily posted news to its site within hours. Two of the only news sites capable of hosting images, the San Jose Mercury News and Time magazine, posted photographs of the scene. Quantitatively, the internet has massively expanded the sheer volume of news items available to one person. The speed of news flow to individuals has also reached a new plateau. This insurmountable flow of news can daunt people and cause information overload. Zbigniew Brzezinski called this period the "technetronic era '', in which "global reality increasingly absorbs the individual, involves him, and even occasionally overwhelms him. '' In cases of government crackdowns or revolutions, the Internet has often become a major communication channel for news propagation; while it 's a (relatively) simple act to shut down a newspaper, radio or television station, mobile devices such as smartphones and netbooks are much harder to detect and confiscate. The propagation of internet - capable mobile devices has also given rise to the citizen journalist, who provide an additional perspective on unfolding events. News can travel through different communication media. In modern times, printed news had to be phoned into a newsroom or brought there by a reporter, where it was typed and either transmitted over wire services or edited and manually set in type along with other news stories for a specific edition. Today, the term "breaking news '' has become trite as commercial broadcasting United States cable news services that are available 24 hours a day use live communications satellite technology to bring current events into consumers ' homes as the event occurs. Events that used to take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, mobile phone, and the internet. Speed of news transmission, of course, still varies wildly on the basis of where and how one lives. Most large cities in the United States historically had morning and afternoon newspapers. With the addition of new communications media, afternoon newspapers have shut down and morning newspapers have lost circulation. Weekly newspapers have somewhat increased. In more and more cities, newspapers have established local market monopolies -- i.e., a single newspaper is the only one in town. This process has accelerated since the 1980s, commensurate with a general trend of consolidation in media ownership. In China, too, newspapers have gained exclusive status, city - by - city, and pooled into large associations such as Chengdu Business News. These associations function like news agencies, challenging the hegemony of Xinhua as a news provider. The world 's top three most circulated newspapers all publish from Japan. About one - third of newspaper revenue comes from sales; the majority comes from advertising. Newspapers have struggled to maintain revenue given declining circulation and the free flow of information over the internet; some have implemented paywalls for their websites. In the U.S., many newspapers have shifted their operations online, publishing around the clock rather than daily in order to keep pace with the internet society. Prognosticators have suggested that print newspapers will vanish from the U.S. in 5 -- 20 years. Many newspapers have started to track social media engagement for trending news stories to cover. Spain 's Público has reshaped their social media strategy and grew their audience by 40 %. Internationally distributed news channels include BBC News, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, and Sky News. Televisions are densely concentrated in the United States (98 % of households), and the average American watches 4 hours of television programming each day. In other parts of the world, such as Kenya -- especially rural areas without much electricity -- televisions are rare. The largest supplier of international video news is Reuters TV, with 409 subscribers in 83 countries, 38 bureaus, and a reported audience of 1.5 billion people each day. The other major video news service is Associated Press Television News. These two major agencies have agreements to exchange video news with ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, and Eurovision -- itself a sizeable video news exchange. CNN International is a notable broadcaster in times of crisis. Online journalism is news that is reported on the internet. News can be delivered more quickly through this method of news as well as accessed more easily. The internet era has transformed the understanding of news. Because the internet allows communication which is not only instantaneous, but also bi - or multi-directional, it has blurred the boundaries of who is a legitimate news producer. A common type of internet journalism is called blogging, which is a service of persistently written articles uploaded and written by one or more individuals. Millions of people in countries such as the United States and South Korea have taken up blogging. Many blogs have rather small audiences; some blogs are read by millions each month. Social media sites, especially Twitter and Facebook, have become an important source of breaking news information and for disseminating links to news websites. Twitter declared in 2012: "It 's like being delivered a newspaper whose headlines you 'll always find interesting -- you can discover news as it 's happening, learn more about topics that are important to you, and get the inside scoop in real time. '' Cell phone cameras have normalized citizen photojournalism. Michael Schudson, professor at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, has said that "(e) verything we thought we once knew about journalism needs to be rethought in the Digital Age. '' Today the work of journalism can be done from anywhere and done well. It requires no more than a reporter and a laptop. In that way, journalistic authority seems to have become more individual - and less institution - based. But does the individual reporter always have to be an actual journalist? Or can journalistic work be done from anywhere and by anyone? These are questions that refer to the core of journalistic practice and the definition of "news '' itself. As Schudson has given emphasis to, the answer is not easily found; "the ground journalists walk upon is shaking, and the experience for both those who work in the field and those on the outside studying it is dizzying ''. Schudson has identified the following six specific areas where the ecology of news in his opinion has changed: These alterations inevitably have fundamental ramifications for the contemporary ecology of news. "The boundaries of journalism, which just a few years ago seemed relatively clear, and permanent, have become less distinct, and this blurring, while potentially the foundation of progress even as it is the source of risk, has given rise to a new set of journalistic principles and practices '', Schudson puts it. It is indeed complex, but it seems to be the future. Online news has also changed the geographic reach of individual news stories, diffusing readership from city - by - city markets to a potentially global audience. The growth of social media networks have also created new opportunities for automated and efficient news gathering for journalists and newsrooms. Many newsrooms (broadcasters, newspapers, magazines, radio and TV) have started to perform news gathering on social media platforms. Social media is creating changes in the consumer behaviour and news consumption. According to a study by Pew Research, a large portion of Americans read news on digital and on mobile devices. Because internet does not have the "column inches '' limitation of print media, online news stories can, but do n't always, come bundled with supplementary material. The medium of the world wide web also enables hyperlinking, which allows readers to navigate to other pages related to the one they 're reading. Despite these changes, some studies have concluded that internet news coverage remains fairly homogenous and dominated by news agencies. And journalists working with online media do not identify significantly different criteria for newsworthiness than print journalists. News agencies are services which compile news and disseminate it in bulk. Because they disseminate information to a wide variety of clients, who repackage the material as news for public consumption, news agencies tend to use less controversial language in their reports. Despite their importance, news agencies are not well known by the general public. They keep low profiles and their reporters usually do not get bylines. The oldest news agency still operating is the Agence France - Presse (AFP). It was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles - Louis Havas as Agence Havas. By the end of the twentieth century, Reuters far outpaced the other news agencies in profits, and became one of the largest companies in Europe. In 2011, Thomson Reuters employed more than 55,000 people in 100 countries, and posted an annual revenue of $12.9 billion. United Press International gained prominence as a world news agency in the middle of the twentieth century, but shrank in the 1980s and was sold off at low prices. It is owned by the Unification Church company News World Communications. News agencies, especially Reuters and the newly important Bloomberg News, convey both news stories for mass audiences and financial information of interest to businesses and investors. Bloomberg LP, a private company founded by Michael Bloomberg in 1981, made rapid advances with computerized stock market reporting updated in real time. Its news service continued to exploit this electronic advantage by combining computer - generated analytics with text reporting. Bloomberg linked with Agence France Presse in the 1990s. Following the marketization of the Chinese economy and the media boom of the 1990s, Xinhua has adopted some commercial practices including subscription fees, but it remains government - subsidized. It provides newswire, news photos, economic information, and audio and video news. Xinhua has a growing number of subscribers, totaling 16,969 in 2002, including 93 % of Chinese newspapers. It operates 123 foreign bureaus and produces 300 news stories each day. Other agencies with considerable reach include Deutsche Presse - Agentur (Germany), Kyodo News (Japan), the Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (Italy), the Middle East News Agency (Egypt), Tanjug (Serbia), EFE (Spain), and Anadolu Agency (Turkey). On the internet, news aggregators play a role similar to that of the news agency -- and, because of the sources they select, tend to transmit news stories which originate from the main agencies. Of articles displayed by Yahoo! News in the U.S., 91.7 % come from news agencies: 39.4 % from AP, 30.9 % AFP, and 21.3 % Reuters. In India, 60.1 % of Yahoo! News stories come from Reuters. Google News relies somewhat less on news agencies, and has shown high volatility, in the sense of focusing heavily on the most recent handful of salient world events. In 2010, Google News redesigned its front page with automatic geotargeting, which generated a selection of local news items for every viewer. In the 20th century, global news coverage was dominated by a combination of the "Big Four '' news agencies -- Reuters, Associated Press, Agence France Press, and United Press International -- representing the Western bloc, and the Communist agencies: TASS from the Soviet Union, and Xinhua from China. Studies of major world events, and analyses of all international news coverage in various newspapers, consistently found that a large majority of news items originated from the four biggest wire services. Television news agencies include Associated Press Television News, which bought and incorporated World Television News; and Reuters Television. Bloomberg News created in the 1990s, expanded rapidly to become a player in the realm of international news. The Associated Press also maintains a radio network with thousands of subscribers worldwide; it is the sole provider of international news to many small stations. By some accounts, dating back to the 1940s, the increasing interconnectedness of the news system has accelerated the pace of world history itself. The global news system is dominated by agencies from Europe and the United States, and reflects their interests and priorities in its coverage. Euro - American control of the global news system has led to criticism; that events around the world are constantly compared to events like the Holocaust and World War Two which are considered foundational in the West. Since the 1960s, a significant amount of news reporting from the Third World has been characterized by some form "development journalism '', a paradigm which focuses on long - term development projects, social change, and nation - building. When in 1987 the U.S. media reported on a riot in the Dominican Republic -- the first major news item regarding that country in years -- the resulting decline in tourism lasted for years and had a noticeable effect on the economy. The English language predominates in global news exchanges. Critics have accused the global news system of perpetuating cultural imperialism. Critics further charge that the Western media conglomerates maintain a bias towards the status quo economic order, especially a pro-corporate bias. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has promoted a New World Information and Communication Order, which envisions an international news exchange system involving national news agencies in every country. UNESCO encouraged the new states formed from colonial territories in the 1960s to establish news agencies, to generate domestic news stories, exchange news items with international partners, and disseminate both types of news internally. Along these lines, the 1980 MacBride report, "Many Voices, One World '', called for an interdependent global news system with more participation from different governments. To this end, also, UNESCO formed the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool. The Inter Press Service, founded in 1964, has served as an intermediary for Third World press agencies. Inter Press Service 's editorial policy favors coverage of events, institutions, and issues which relate to inequality, economic development, economic integration, natural resources, population, health, education, and sustainable development. It gives less coverage than other agencies to crime, disasters, and violence. Geographically, 70 % of its news reporting concerns Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. IPS has the most subscribers in Latin America and southern Africa. IPS receives grants from organizations such as the United Nations Development Program and other United Nations agencies, Friedrich - Ebert - Stiftung, Federatie Nederlandse Vakbeweging, the Diocese of Graz, the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation, the Ford Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation, and the W. Alton Jones Foundation to report news on chosen topics, including the environment, sustainable development, and women 's issues. Beginning in the 1960s, the United States Agency for International Development, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and UNESCO developed the use of satellite television for international broadcasting. In India, 1975 -- 1976, these agencies implemented an experimental satellite television system, called the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, with assistance from the Indian Space Research Organisation, and All India Radio. By the 1980s, much of the Third World had succumbed to a debt crisis resulting from unrepayably large loans accumulated since the 1960s. At this point, the World Bank took an active role in the governance of many countries, and its authority extended to communications policy. The policy of developing Third World media gave way to a global regime of free trade institutions like the World Trade Organization, which also protected the free flow of information across borders. The World Bank also promoted privatization of national telecommunications, which afforded large multinational corporations the opportunity to purchase networks and expand operations in the Third World. In countries with less telecommunications infrastructure, people, especially youth, tend today to get their news predominantly from mobile phones and, less so, from the internet. Older folks listen more to the radio. The government of China is a major investor in Third World telecommunications, especially in Africa. Some issues relating to global information flow were revisited in light of the internet at the 2003 / 2005 World Summit on the Information Society, a conference which emphasized the role of civil society and the private sector in information society governance. News values are the professional norms of journalism. Commonly, news content should contain the "Five Ws '' (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) of an event. There should be no questions remaining. Newspapers normally place hard news stories on the first pages, so the most important information is at the beginning. Busy readers can read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints. Journalists are often expected to aim for objectivity; reporters claim to try to cover all sides of an issue without bias, as compared to commentators or analysts, who provide opinion or personal point of view. The result is a laying out of facts in a sterile, noncommittal manner, and standing back to "let the reader decide '' which view is true. Several governments impose certain constraints against bias. In the United Kingdom, the government agency of Ofcom (Office of Communications) enforces a legal requirement of "impartiality '' on news broadcasters. Both newspapers and broadcast news programs in the United States are generally expected to remain neutral and avoid bias except for clearly indicated editorial articles or segments. Many single - party governments have operated state - run news organizations, which may present the government 's views. Mid-twentieth - century news reporting in the United States focused on political and local issues with important socio - economic impacts, such as the landing of a living person on the moon or the cold war. The focus similarly remains on political and local issues; the news mass media now comes under criticism for over-emphasis on "non-news '' and "gossip '' such as celebrities ' personal social issues, local issues of little merit, as well as biased sensationalism of political topics such as terrorism and the economy. The dominance of celebrity and social news, the blurring of the boundary between news and reality shows and other popular culture, and the advent of citizen journalism may suggest that the nature of ' news ' and news values are evolving and that traditional models of the news process are now only partially relevant. Newsworthiness does not only depend on the topic, but also the presentation of the topic and the selection of information from that topic. Although newswriters have always laid claim to truth and objectivity, the modern values of professional journalism were established beginning in the late 1800s and especially after World War I, when groups like the American Society of Newspaper Editors codified rules for unbiased news reporting. These norms held the most sway in American and British journalism, and were scorned by some other countries. These ideas have become part of the practice of journalism across the world. Soviet commentators said stories in the Western press were trivial distractions from reality, and emphasized a socialist realism model focusing on developments in everyday life. Even in those situations where objectivity is expected, it is difficult to achieve, and individual journalists may fall foul of their own personal bias, or succumb to commercial or political pressure. Similarly, the objectivity of news organizations owned by conglomerated corporations fairly may be questioned, in light of the natural incentive for such groups to report news in a manner intended to advance the conglomerate 's financial interests. Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression. Because each individual has a particular point of view, it is recognized that there can be no absolute objectivity in news reporting. Journalists can collectively shift their opinion over what is a controversy up for debate and what is an established fact, as evidenced by homogenization during the 2000s of news coverage of climate change. Some commentators on news values have argued that journalists ' training in news values itself represents a systemic bias of the news. The norm of objectivity leads journalists to gravitate towards certain types of acts and exclude others. A journalist can be sure of objectivity in reporting that an official or public figure has made a certain statement. This is one reason why so much news reporting is devoted to official statements. This lemma dates back to the early history of public news reporting, as exemplified by an English printer who on 12 March 1624 published news from Brussels in the form of letters, with the prefacing comment: "Now because you shall not say, that either out of my owne conceit I misliked a phrase, or presumptuously tooke upon me to reforme any thing amisse, I will truly set you downe their owne words. '' Feminist critiques argue that discourse defined as objective by news organizations reflects a male - centered perspective. In their selection of sources, journalists rely heavily on men as sources of authoritative - and objective - seeming statements. News reporting has also tended to discuss women differently, usually in terms of appearance and relationship to men. The critique of traditional norms of objectivity comes from within news organizations as well. Said Peter Horrocks, head of television news at BBC: "The days of middle - of - the - road, balancing Left and Right, impartiality are dead. (...) we need to consider adopting what I like to think of as a much wider ' radical impartiality ' -- the need to hear the widest range of views -- all sides of the story. '' Viewed from a sociological perspective, news for mass consumption is produced in hierarchically structured organizations. Reporters, making up a larger group near the bottom of the structure, are given significant autonomy in researching and preparing reports. Occasionally, decision - makers higher in the structure may intervene. Owners at the top of the news hierarchy influence the content of news indirectly but substantially. The professional norms of journalism discourage overt censorship. Therefore, news organizations have covert but unshakeable policies about how to cover certain topics. These policies are conveyed to journalists through socialization on the job. Journalists never receive the policy in writing; they simply learn how things are done. Journalists comply with these rules for various reasons, including job security. Journalists are also systematically influenced by their education, up to and including journalism school. News production is routinized in several ways. News stories use well - understood formats and subgenres which vary by topic. "Rituals of objectivity '', such as pairing a quotation from one group with a quotation from a competing group, dictate the construction of most news narratives. Many news items, which revolve around press conferences or other scheduled events, are predictable in advance. Further predictability is established by assigning each journalist to a beat: a domain of human affairs, usually involving government or commerce, in which certain types of events routinely occur. A common scholarly frame for understanding news production is to examine the role of gatekeepers in the flow of information. In other words, to ask why and how certain representations of reality make their way from news producers to news consumers. Obvious gatekeepers include journalists, news agency staff, and wire editors of newspapers. Ideology, personal preferences, source of news, and length of a story are among the many considerations which influence gatekeepers. Although social media have changed the structure of news dissemination, gatekeeper effects may obtain in this case also due to the role of a few extremely well - connected nodes in the social network. New factors have emerged in internet - era newsrooms. One issue is "click - thinking '', the editorial selection of news stories -- and of journalists -- who can generate the most website hits and thus advertising revenue. Unlike a newspaper, a news website has differentiated pages and intensive data collection, enabling rapid feedback about which stories are popular and who reads them. The drive for speedy online postings, some journalists have acknowledged, has altered norms of fact - checking so that verification takes place after publication. Journalists ' sometimes unattributed ' cannibalization ' of other news sources can also increase the homogeneity of news feeds. The digital age can accelerate the problem of circular reporting: propagation of the same error through increasingly reliable sources. In 2009, a number of journalists were embarrassed after all reproducing a fictional quotation, originating from Wikipedia. News organizations have historically been male - dominated, though women have acted as journalists since at least the 1880s. The number of female journalists has increased over time, but organizational hierarchies remain controlled mostly by men. Studies of British news organizations estimate that more than 80 % of decision - makers are men. Similar studies have found ' old boys ' networks ' in control of news organizations in the United States and the Netherlands. Further, newsrooms tend to divide journalists by gender, assigning men to "hard '' topics like military, crime, and economics, and women to "soft '', "humanised '' topics. For various reasons, news media usually have a close relationship with the state, and often church as well, even when they cast themselves in critical roles. This relationship seems to emerge because the press can develop symbiotic relationships with other powerful social institutions. In the United States, the Associated Press wire service developed a "bilateral monopoly '' with the Western Union telegraph company. The news agencies which rose to power in the mid-1800s all had support from their respective governments, and in turn served their political interests to some degree. News for consumption has operated under statist assumptions, even when it takes a stance adversarial to some aspect of a government. In practice, a large proportion of routine news production involves interactions between reporters and government officials. Relatedly, journalists tend to adopt a hierarchical view of society, according to which a few people at the top of organizational pyramids are best situated to comment on the reality which serves as the basisi of news. Broadly speaking, therefore, news tends to normalize and reflect the interests of the power structure dominant in its social context. Today, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) rival and may surpass governments in their influence on the content of news. Governments use international news transmissions to promote the national interest and conduct political warfare, alternatively known as public diplomacy and, in the modern era, international broadcasting. International radio broadcasting came into wide - ranging use by world powers seeking cultural integration of their empires. The British government used BBC radio as a diplomatic tool, setting up Arabic, Spanish and Portuguese services in 1937. American propaganda broadcasters include Voice of America and Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, set up during the Cold War and still operating today. The United States remains the world 's top broadcaster, although by some accounts it was surpassed for a time circa 1980 by the Soviet Union. Other major international broadcasters include the People 's Republic of China, Taiwan, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, North Korea, India, Cuba, and Australia. Around the world (and especially, formerly, in the Soviet bloc), international news sources such as the BBC World Service are often welcomed as alternatives to domestic state - run media. Governments have also funneled programming through private news organizations, as when the British government arranged to insert news into the Reuters feed during and after World War Two. Past revelations have suggested that the U.S. military and intelligence agencies create news stories which they disseminate secretly into the foreign and domestic media. Investigation into the Central Intelligence Agency pursued in the 1970s found that it owned hundreds of news organizations (wire services, newspapers, magazines) outright. Soviet news warfare also involved the creation of front groups, like the International Organization of Journalists. The Russian KGB heavily pursued a strategy of disinformation, planting false stories which made their way to news outlets worldwide. Broadcasts into Iraq before the Second Gulf War mimicked the style of local programming. The US also launched Middle East Broadcasting Networks, featuring the satellite TV station Alhurra and radio station Radio Sawa to beam 24 - hour programming to Iraq and environs. Today, Al Jazeera, a TV and internet news network owned by the government of Qatar, has become one of the foremost news sources in the world, appreciated by millions as an alternative to the Western media. State - owned China Central Television operates 18 channels and reaches more than a billion viewers worldwide. Iran 's Press TV and Russia 's Russia Today, branded as RT, also have multiplatform presences and large audiences. Edward Bernays, Propaganda (1928), pp. 152 -- 153. As distinct from advertising, which deals with marketing distinct from news, public relations involves the techniques of influencing news in order to give a certain impression to the public. A standard public relations tactic, the "third - party technique '', is the creation of seemingly independent organizations, which can deliver objective - sounding statements to news organizations without revealing their corporate connections. Public relations agencies can create complete content packages, such as Video News Releases, which are rebroadcast as news without commentary or detail about their origin. Video news releases seem like normal news programming, but use subtle product placement and other techniques to influence viewers. Public relations releases offer valuable newsworthy information to increasingly overworked journalists on deadline. (This pre-organized news content has been called an information subsidy.) The journalist relies on appearances of autonomy and even opposition to established interests -- but the public relations agent seek to conceal their client 's influence on the news,. Thus, public relations works its magic in secret. Public relations can dovetail with state objectives, as in the case of the 1990 news story about Iraqi soldiers taking "babies out of incubators '' in Kuwaiti hospitals. During the Nigerian Civil War, both the federal government and the secessionist Republic of Biafra hired public relations firms, which competed to influence public opinion in the West, and between them established some of the key narratives employed in news reports about the war. Overall, the position of the public relations industry has grown stronger, while the position of news producers has grown weaker. Public relations agents mediate the production of news about all sectors of society. Over the centuries, commentators on newspapers and society have repeatedly observed widespread human interest in news. Elite members of a society 's political and economic institutions might rely on news as one limited source of information, for the masses, news represents a relatively exclusive window onto the operations by which a society is managed. Regular people in societies with news media often spend a lot of time reading or watching news reports. Newspapers became significant aspects of national and literary culture -- as exemplified by James Joyce 's Ulysses, which derives from the newspapers of June 16 (and thereabouts), 1904, and represents the newspaper office itself as a vital part of life in Dublin. A 1945 study by sociologist Bernard Berelson found that during the 1945 New York newspaper strike, New Yorkers exhibited a virtual addiction to news, describing themselves as "lost '', "nervous '', "isolated '', and "suffering '' due to the withdrawal. Television news has become still further embedded in everyday life, with specific programming anticipated at different times of day. Children tend to find the news boring, too serious, or emotionally disturbing. They come to perceive news as characteristic of adulthood, and begin watching television news in their teenage years because of the adult status it confers. People exhibit various forms of skepticism towards the news. Studies of tabloid readers found that many of them gain pleasure from seeing through the obviously fake or poorly constructed stories -- and get their "real news '' from television. An important feature distinguishing news from private information transfers is the impression that when one reads (or hears, or watches) it, one joins a larger public. In this regard news serves to unify its receivers under the banner of a culture, or a society, as well as into the sub-demographics of a society targeted by their favorite kind of news. News thus plays a role in nation - building, the construction of a national identity. Images connected with news can also become iconic and gain a fixed role in the culture. Examples such as Alfred Eisenstaedt 's photograph V-J Day in Times Square, Nick Ut 's photograph of Phan Thi Kim Phuc and other children running from a napalm blast in Vietnam; Kevin Carter 's photograph of a starving child being stalked by a vulture; etc. With the new interconnectedness of global media, the experience of receiving news along with a world audience reinforces the social cohesion effect on a larger scale. As a corollary, global media culture may erode the uniqueness and cohesion of national cultures. This collective form experience can be understood to constitute a political realm or public sphere. In this view, the news media constitute a fourth estate which serves to check and balance the operations of government. This idea, at least as a goal to be sought, has re-emerged in the era of global communications. Today, unprecedented opportunities exist for public analysis and discussion of world events. According to one interpretation of the CNN effect, instantaneous global news coverage can rally public opinion as never before to motivate political action. In 1989, local and global communications media enabled instant exposure to and discussion of the Chinese government 's actions in Tiananmen Square. The news about Tiananmen Square traveled over fax machine, telephone, newspaper, radio, and television, and continued to travel even after the government imposed new restrictions on local telecommunications. As the technological means for disseminating news grew more powerful, news became an experience which millions of people could undergo simultaneously. Outstanding news experiences can exert profound influence on millions of people. Through its power to effect a shared experience, news events can mold the collective memory of a society. One type of news event, the media event, is a scripted pageant organized for mass live broadcast. Media events include athletic contests such as the Super Bowl and the Olympics, cultural events like awards ceremonies and celebrity funerals, and also political events such as coronations, debates between electoral candidates, and diplomatic ceremonies. These events typically unfold according to a common format which simplifies the transmission of news items about them. Usually they have the effect of increasing the perceived unity of all parties involved, which include the broadcasters and audience. Today, international events such as a national declaration of independence, can be scripted in advance with the major news agencies, with staff specially deployed to key locations worldwide in advance of the life news broadcast. Public relations companies can participate in these events as well. The perception that an ongoing crisis is taking place further increases the significance of live news. People rely on the news and constantly seek more of it, to learn new information and to seek reassurance amidst feelings of fear and uncertainty. Crises can also increase the effect of news on social cohesion, and lead the population of a country to "rally '' behind its current leadership. The rise of a global news system goes hand in hand with the advent of terrorism and other sensational acts, which have power in proportion to the audience they capture. In 1979, the capture of American hostages in Iran dominated months of news coverage in the western media, gained the status of a "crisis '', and influenced a presidential election. South Africans overwhelmingly describe the end of Apartheid as a source of the country 's most important news. In the United States, news events such as the assassinations of the 1960s (of John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy), the 1969 moon landing, the 1986 Challenger explosion, the 1997 death of Princess Diana, the intervention of the Supreme Court in the 2000 presidential election and the 2001 September 11 attacks. In Jordan, people cited numerous memorable news events involving death and war, including the death of King Hussein, Princess Diana, and Yitzhak Rabin. Positive news stories found memorable by Jordanians featured political events affecting their lives and families -- such as the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, and the Israel -- Jordan peace treaty. News coverage can also shape collective memory in retrospect. A study of Israeli news coverage leading up to the media event of the nation 's 60th birthday found that news coverage of events like the Holocaust, World War Two, and subsequent Israeli wars increased the perceived importance of these events in the minds of citizens. News making is the act of making the news or doing something that is considered to be newsworthy. When discussing the act of news making, scholars refer to specific models. Five of these models are the Professional Model, Mirror Model, Organizational Model, Political Model, and Civic Journalism Model. The Professional Model is when skilled peoples put certain events together for a specific audience. The reaction of the audience is influential because it can determine the impact that the particular article or newspaper has on the readers. The Mirror Model states that news should reflect reality. This model aims to focus on particular events and provide accuracy in reporting. The Organizational Model is also known as the Bargaining Model. It focuses on influencing various news organizations by applying pressures to governmental processes. The Political Model outlines that news represents the ideological biases of the people as well as the various pressures of the political environment. This model mainly influences journalists and attempts to promote public opinion. The Civic Journalism Model is when the press discovers the concerns of the people and uses that to write stories. This allows the audience to play an active role in society. Models of news making help define what the news is and how it influences readers. But it does not necessarily account for the content of print news and online media. Stories are selected if they have a strong impact, incorporate violence and scandal, are familiar and local, and if they are timely. News Stories with a strong impact can be easily understood by a reader. Violence and scandal create an entertaining and attention - grabbing story. Familiarity makes a story more relatable because the reader knows who is being talked about. Proximity can influence a reader more. A story that is timely will receive more coverage because it is a current event. The process of selecting stories coupled with the models of news making are how the media is effective and impactful in society. Exposure to constant news coverage of war can lead to stress and anxiety. Television coverage of the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, which repeated the same footage over and over, led to symptoms of trauma experienced across the United States. Studies have indicated that children have been traumatized by exposure to television of other frightening events, including the Challenger disaster. Journalists themselves also experience trauma and guilt. Research also suggest that constant representations of violence in the news lead people to overestimate the frequency of its occurrence in the real world, thus increasing their level of fear in everyday situations. The content and style of news delivery certainly have effects on the general public, with the magnitude and precise nature of these effects being tough to determine experimentally. In Western societies, television viewing has been so ubiquitous that its total effect on psychology and culture leave few alternatives for comparison. News is the leading source of knowledge about global affairs for people around the world. According to agenda - setting theory, the general public will identify as its priorities those issues which are highlighted on the news. The agenda - setting model has been well - supported by research, which indicate that the public 's self - reported concerns respond to changes in news coverage rather than changes in the underlying issue itself. The less an issue obviously affects people 's lives, the bigger an influence media agenda - setting can have on their opinion of it. The agenda - setting power becomes even stronger in practice because of the correspondence in news topics promulgated by different media channels. (basis) (Mark Frauenfelder)
what does ar mean in the music business	Artists and repertoire - wikipedia Artists and repertoire (A&R) is the division of a record label or music publishing company that is responsible for talent scouting and overseeing the artistic development of recording artists and songwriters. It also acts as a liaison between artists and the record label or publishing company; every activity involving artists to the point of album release is generally considered under the purview, and responsibility, of A&R. The A&R division of a record label is responsible for finding new recording artists and bringing those artists to the record company. Personnel in the A&R division are expected to understand the current tastes of the market and to be able to find artists that will be commercially successful. For this reason, A&R people are often young and many are musicians, music journalists or record producers. An A&R executive is authorized to offer a record contract, often in the form of a "deal memo '': a short informal document that establishes a business relationship between the recording artist and the record company. The actual contract negotiations will typically be carried out by rival entertainment lawyers hired by the musician 's manager and the record company. A&R executives rely mostly on the word of mouth of trusted associates, critics and business contacts, rather than on unsolicited demo tapes. They also tend to favor the bands that play in the same city as the record label 's offices. The A&R division of a record label oversees the recording process. This includes helping the artist to find the right record producer, scheduling time in a recording studio and advising the artist on all aspects of making a high - quality recording. They work with the artist to choose the best songs (i.e. repertoire) to record. For artists who do not write their own music, the A&R person will assist in finding songs and songwriters. A&R executives maintain contact with their counterparts at music publishing companies to get new songs and material from songwriters and producers. As the record nears completion, the A&R department works closely with the artist to determine whether the record is acceptable to the record company. This process may include suggesting that new songs need to be written or that some album tracks need to be re-recorded. A key issue is whether the album has a single: a particular track which can be used to market the record on radio. Once the record is completed, the A&R department consults with marketing, promotion, the artist and their management to choose one or more singles to help promote the record. The tastes of particular A&R executives have influenced the course of music history. A&R man John H. Hammond discovered Billie Holiday, Bob Dylan, Aretha Franklin and Bruce Springsteen. Hammond 's colleagues were initially skeptical of these artists because none of them appeared to be creating "commercial '' music. Hammond 's instincts proved to be correct, and these artists went on to sell hundreds of millions of records. George Daly, Hammond 's colleague at Columbia Records, proved the same instinct with bands as varied as outliers as the Tubes and Tool during his career. Geffen Records ' Gary Gersh signed the band Nirvana at a time when alternative rock music was not considered commercial. Gersh was able to convince his co-workers to push the record in spite of their misgivings. In cases like these, A&R people have radically changed the direction of popular musical tastes and introduced large numbers of people to new sounds. This kind of prescience is, however, the exception rather than the rule. Historically, A&R executives have tended to sign new artists that fit into recent trends and who resemble acts that are currently successful. For example, Columbia Records ' A&R man in the 1950s, Mitch Miller, favored traditional pop singers like Guy Mitchell and Patti Page, and rejected early rock - ' n ' - rollers Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly. This "trend following '' mindset has generated several waves of narrowly defined genres, leading to a perception of triteness, including teen pop (1998 -- 2001), alternative rock (1993 -- 1996), glam metal (1986 -- 1991) and disco (1976 -- 1978). Trend following can be counter-productive, since it has often led to a backlash. Towards the end of the life of each wave, record companies have found themselves faced with enormous losses, as consumers ' tastes changed. For example, at the end of the disco boom in 1978, millions of records were returned by record retailers, causing a deep recession in the music business that lasted until 1982, when Michael Jackson 's Thriller finally brought the public back into record stores in large numbers. The general move towards more conservative and business - minded signings from the 1980s onwards is seen to be symptomatic of an industry where the most powerful figures are no longer music fans or people with musical backgrounds, but business people. Traditionally A&R executives were composers, arrangers and producers -- Atlantic Records 's heads Jerry Wexler and Ahmet Ertegun were producers and composers respectively -- but an A&R with musical ability and knowledge has become a rarity, with Ron Fair and Martin Kierszenbaum being notable recent exceptions. The composer and arranger Richard Niles has said, What you 've got now is huge multinational companies where most of their A&R staff are businessmen. They 're people who look at music from the standpoint of marketing, not from the standpoint of music and talent. They will say, "Go out and get me anything that 's popular now. '' According to Rhythm King Records and Lizard King Records founder Martin Heath, the A&R community in the UK is more integrated than it is in the US, being very London - centric and encompassing a relatively small number of people. "If scouts are chasing a band, you 'll see the same thirty people in one room. You get a herd mentality in the UK, but also some very diverse signings as well, '' he said in an interview with HitQuarters. Heath believes that in the USA it is more typical for A&R to wait until a band is established -- having attracted other offers or achieved a level of sales -- before taking action, a technique which often works out as being more expensive. New forms of digital distribution have changed the relationship between consumers and the music they choose. Gerd Leonhard and others argue that the wide selection of music on digital services has allowed music consumers to bypass the traditional role of A&R. In the wake of declining record sales, a large number of A&R staffers have been terminated. It is unclear whether A&R executives will shape the future of musical tastes as they have in the past.
posse comitatus act of 1878 18 u.s.c. § 1385	Posse Comitatus Act - wikipedia The Posse Comitatus Act is a United States federal law (18 U.S.C. § 1385, original at 20 Stat. 152) signed on June 18, 1878 by President Rutherford B. Hayes. The purpose of the act -- in concert with the Insurrection Act of 1807 -- is to limit the powers of the federal government in using federal military personnel to enforce domestic policies within the United States. It was passed as an amendment to an army appropriation bill following the end of Reconstruction, and was subsequently updated in 1956 and 1981. The Act only specifically applies to the United States Army and, as amended in 1956, the United States Air Force. While the Act does not explicitly mention the United States Navy and the United States Marine Corps, the Department of the Navy has prescribed regulations that are generally construed to give the Act force with respect to those services as well. The Act does not apply to the Army National Guard or the Air National Guard under state authority from acting in a law enforcement capacity within its home state or in an adjacent state if invited by that state 's governor. The United States Coast Guard, which operates under the Department of Homeland Security, is not covered by the Posse Comitatus Act either, primarily because although the Coast Guard is an armed service, it also has both a maritime law enforcement mission and a federal regulatory agency mission. The title of the act comes from the legal concept of posse comitatus, the authority under which a county sheriff, or other law officer, conscripts any able - bodied man to assist her or him in keeping the peace. The Act, § 15 of the appropriations bill for the Army for 1879, found at 20 Stat. 152, was a response to, and subsequent prohibition of, the military occupation of the former Confederate States by the United States Army during the twelve years of Reconstruction (1865 -- 1877) following the American Civil War (1861 -- 1865). The president withdrew federal troops from the Southern States as a result of a compromise in one of the most disputed national elections in American history, the 1876 U.S. presidential election. Samuel J. Tilden of New York, the Democratic candidate, defeated Republican candidate Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio in the popular vote. Tilden garnered 184 electoral votes to Hayes ' 165; 20 disputed electoral votes remained uncounted. After a bitter fight, Congress struck a deal resolving the dispute and awarded the presidency to Hayes. In return for Southern acquiescence regarding Hayes, Republicans agreed to support the withdrawal of federal troops from the former Confederate states, formally ending Reconstruction. Known as the Compromise of 1877, South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana agreed to certify Rutherford B. Hayes as the President in exchange for the removal of Federal troops from the South. The U.S. Constitution places primary responsibility for the holding of elections in the hands of the individual states. The maintenance of peace, conduct of orderly elections, and prosecution of unlawful actions are all state responsibilities, pursuant of any state 's role of exercising police power and maintaining law and order, whether part of a wider federation or a unitary state. During the local, state, and federal elections of 1874 and 1876 in the former Confederate states, all levels of government chose not to exercise their police powers to maintain law and order. Some historians have concluded most Reconstruction governments did not have the power to suppress the violence. When the U.S. Representatives and Senators from the former Confederate states reached Washington, they set as a priority legislation to prohibit any future President or Congress from directing, by military order or federal legislation, the imposition of federal troops in any U.S. state. By the 1878 election, Congress was dominated by the Democratic Party, and they passed the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878. In the mid-20th century, the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower used an exception to the Posse Comitatus Act, derived from the Enforcement Acts, to send federal troops into Little Rock, Arkansas, during the 1957 school desegregation crisis. The Arkansas governor had opposed desegregation after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1954 in the Brown v. Board of Education that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. The Enforcement Acts, among other powers, allow the President to call up military forces when state authorities are either unable or unwilling to suppress violence that is in opposition to the constitutional rights of the people. The original Posse Comitatus Act referred essentially to the United States Army. The United States Air Force, which had been incorporated within the Army inside the U.S. (and the Navy outside) until 1949, was added in 1956. This law is often relied upon to prevent the Department of Defense from interfering in domestic law enforcement. The United States Coast Guard is not included in the Act even though it is one of the five armed services because it is not a part of the Department of Defense. At the time the Act became law, the modern Coast Guard did not exist. Its predecessor, the United States Revenue Cutter Service, was primarily a customs enforcement agency and part of the United States Department of the Treasury. In 1915, when the Revenue Cutter Service and the United States Lifesaving Service were amalgamated to form the Coast Guard, the service was both explicitly made a military branch and explicitly given federal law enforcement authority. The original provision was enacted as Section 15 of chapter 263, of the Acts of the 2nd session of the 45th Congress. Sec. 15. From and after the passage of this act it shall not be lawful to employ any part of the Army of the United States, as a posse comitatus, or otherwise, for the purpose of executing the laws, except in such cases and under such circumstances as such employment of said force may be expressly authorized by the Constitution or by act of Congress; and no money appropriated by this act shall be used to pay any of the expenses incurred in the employment of any troops in violation of this section and any person willfully violating the provisions of this section shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars or imprisonment not exceeding two years or by both such fine and imprisonment The text of the relevant legislation is as follows: Also notable is the following provision within Title 10 of the United States Code (which concerns generally the organization and regulation of the armed forces and Department of Defense): In 2006, Congress modified the Insurrection Act as part of the 2007 Defense Authorization Bill (repealed as of 2008). On September 26, 2006, President George W. Bush urged Congress to consider revising federal laws so that U.S. armed forces could restore public order and enforce laws in the aftermath of a natural disaster, terrorist attack or incident, or other condition. These changes were included in the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (H.R. 5122), which was signed into law on October 17, 2006. Section 1076 is titled "Use of the Armed Forces in major public emergencies. '' It provided that: The President may employ the armed forces... to... restore public order and enforce the laws of the United States when, as a result of a natural disaster, epidemic, or other serious public health emergency, terrorist attack or incident, or other condition... the President determines that... domestic violence has occurred to such an extent that the constituted authorities of the State or possession are incapable of maintaining public order... or (to) suppress, in a State, any insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful combination, or conspiracy if such... a condition... so hinders the execution of the laws... that any part or class of its people is deprived of a right, privilege, immunity, or protection named in the Constitution and secured by law... or opposes or obstructs the execution of the laws of the United States or impedes the course of justice under those laws. In 2008, these changes in the Insurrection Act of 1807 were repealed in their entirety, reverting to the previous wording of the Insurrection Act. It was originally written to limit Presidential power as much as possible in the event of insurrection, rebellion, or lawlessness. In 2011, President Barack Obama signed National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012 into law. Section 1021 (b) (2) extended the definition of a "covered person '', i.e., someone possibly subject to detention under this law, to include: A person who was a part of or substantially supported al - Qaeda, the Taliban, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners, including any person who has committed a belligerent act or has directly supported such hostilities in aid of such enemy forces. Section 1021 (e) purports to limit the scope of said authority with the text, "Nothing in this section shall be construed to affect existing law or authorities relating to the detention of United States citizens, lawful resident aliens of the United States, or any other persons who are captured or arrested in the United States. '' There are a number of situations in which the Act does not apply. These include: Although it is an armed service, the U.S. Coast Guard, which operates under the Department of Homeland Security during peacetime, is not only not restricted by the Posse Comitatus Act but has explicit authority to enforce federal law. This is true even when the Coast Guard is operating as a service within the U.S. Navy during wartime. In December 1981, the Military Cooperation with Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies Act was enacted clarifying permissible military assistance to domestic law enforcement agencies and the Coast Guard, especially in combating drug smuggling into the United States. Posse Comitatus clarifications emphasize supportive and technical assistance (e.g., use of facilities, vessels, and aircraft, as well as intelligence support, technological aid, and surveillance) while generally prohibiting direct participation of U.S. military personnel in law enforcement (e.g., search, seizure, and arrests). For example, a U.S. Navy vessel may be used to track, follow, and stop a vessel suspected of drug smuggling, but Coast Guard Law Enforcement Detachments (LEDETs) embarked aboard the Navy vessel would perform the actual boarding and, if needed, arrest the suspect vessel 's crew. Federal troops have a long history of domestic roles, including occupying secessionist Southern states during Reconstruction and putting down major urban riots. The Posse Comitatus Act prohibits the use of active duty personnel to "execute the laws ''; however, there is disagreement over whether this language may apply to troops used in an advisory, support, disaster response, or other homeland defense role, as opposed to domestic law enforcement. On March 10, 2009, members of the U.S. Army Military Police Corps from Fort Rucker were deployed to Samson, Alabama, in response to a murder spree. Samson officials confirmed that the soldiers assisted in traffic control and securing the crime scene. The governor of Alabama did not request military assistance nor did President Obama authorize their deployment. Subsequent investigation found that the Posse Comitatus Act was violated and several military members received "administrative actions ''.
how did the green goblin get his powers	Green Goblin - wikipedia The Green Goblin is the alias of several fictional supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first and best known incarnation is Norman Osborn, created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko to be the archenemy of Spider - Man. The Green Goblin is a Halloween - themed supervillain whose weapons resemble bats, ghosts and jack - o ' - lanterns. Comics journalist and historian Mike Conroy writes of the character: "Of all the costumed villains who 've plagued Spider - Man over the years, the most flat - out unhinged and terrifying of them all is the Green Goblin. '' The Green Goblin has appeared in several films including 2002 's Spider - Man as Norman Osborn, and 2007 's Spider - Man 3 and 2014 's The Amazing Spider - Man 2 as Harry Osborn. According to Steve Ditko: "Stan 's synopsis for the Green Goblin had a movie crew, on location, finding an Egyptian - like sarcophagus. Inside was an ancient, mythological demon, the Green Goblin. He naturally came to life. On my own, I changed Stan 's mythological demon into a human villain. '' The Green Goblin debuted in The Amazing Spider - Man # 14. At this time his identity was unknown, but he proved popular and reappeared in later issues, which made a point of his secret identity. According to both Stan Lee and John Romita, Sr., who replaced Ditko as the title 's artist, Lee always wanted the Green Goblin to be someone Peter Parker knew, while Ditko wanted his civilian identity to be someone who had n't yet been introduced. Lee elaborated: "Steve wanted him to turn out to be just some character that we had never seen before. Because, he said, in real life, very often a villain turns out to be somebody that you never knew. And I felt that that would be wrong. I felt, in a sense, it would be like cheating the reader... if it 's somebody you did n't know and had never seen, then what was the point of following all the clues? I think that frustrates the reader. '' However, Lee prefaced this statement by admitting that, due to his self - professed poor memory, he may have been confusing the Green Goblin with a different character, and in an earlier essay he had said that he could not remember whether Norman Osborn being the Green Goblin was his idea or Ditko 's. Ditko has maintained that it was his idea, even claiming that he had decided on it before the first Green Goblin story was finished, and that a character he drew in the background of a single panel of Amazing Spider - Man # 23 was meant to be Norman Osborn (who is not introduced until issue # 37). Ditko left the series with issue # 38, just one issue after Norman Osborn was introduced as the father of Harry Osborn. The first issue without Ditko saw the Green Goblin unmasked. John Romita, Sr., who replaced Ditko as the title 's artist, recalled: Stan would n't have been able to stand it if Ditko did the story and did n't reveal that the Green Goblin was Norman Osborn. I did n't know there was any doubt about Osborn being the Goblin. I did n't know that Ditko had just been setting Osborn up as a straw dog. I just accepted the fact that it was going to be Norman Osborn when we plotted it. I had been following the last couple of issues and did n't think there was really much mystery about it. Looking back, I doubt the Goblin 's identity would have been revealed in Amazing # 39 if Ditko had stayed on. In the landmark story "The Night Gwen Stacy Died '' (The Amazing Spider - Man # 121 - 122), the Green Goblin kills Gwen Stacy and later perishes in a fight against Spider - Man. However, the story 's writer, Gerry Conway, had Harry Osborn adopt the Green Goblin identity in the aftermath of "The Night Gwen Stacy Died '', later remarking that "I never had any intention of getting rid of the Green Goblin as a concept ''. Harry Osborn 's becoming the Green Goblin was mostly well - received, with fans remarking that Harry was more menacing than his father had ever been. Several other characters would take on the Green Goblin identity, and writer Roger Stern later introduced the Hobgoblin to replace the Green Goblin as Spider - Man 's archenemy. In addition, a retcon during the "Clone Saga '' determined that the original Green Goblin survived the events of The Amazing Spider - Man # 122 and had been playing a behind - the - scenes role in Spider - Man 's adventures since then. Norman Osborn is the main character connected with the alias who developed the equipment used by the other Green Goblins ever since he was exposed to the Goblin Formula. Harry Osborn, Norman Osborn 's son, becomes the second Green Goblin. After being defeated and placed under the care of Dr. Bart Hamilton, Harry while under hypnosis reveals many Green Goblin secrets and Hamilton decides to become the third Green Goblin. Harry recovers and fights Hamilton until an explosion renders Harry amnesiac of his time as the Green Goblin and kills Hamilton. Years later, Harry 's memories return and he uses a new stronger Goblin serum to augment his power, but dies from it. Harry would later return thanks to the machinations of Mephisto in "One More Day ''. Dr. Barton "Bart '' Hamilton was a psychologist born in Scarsdale, New York. Before his death, Harry is put under the medical care of Dr. Hamilton, who manages to make Harry bury his vendetta and identity as the Goblin in his subconscious via hypnosis. Dr. Hamilton uses Harry 's secrets to become the third Green Goblin. However, Harry has no knowledge of where the Green Goblin strength - enhancing formula is, and Hamilton is thus unable to locate it. He hatches an elaborate plot to kill Silvermane, but Harry Osborn resumes the Green Goblin identity to stop him. They battle and Hamilton is accidentally killed by a bomb with which he meant to kill Spider - Man, and Harry becomes amnesiac. Years later, there was speculation that Hamilton was the Hobgoblin but this is disproved. A Green Goblin that is presumably Hamilton appears as a member of the second incarnation of the Legion of the Unliving, created by the Grandmaster. After being pitted against the Avengers, the group and their master are vanquished by Death. During the Dead No More: The Clone Conspiracy storyline, Bart Hamilton 's Green Goblin form is cloned by Jackal and his company New U Technologies. After Harry 's insanity relapses and he becomes the Green Goblin again on numerous occasions until he dies from the side effects of a modified Goblin serum, his equipment and the Green Goblin identity are then briefly used by Philip Benjamin "Phil '' Urich (nephew of Ben Urich of the Daily Bugle) trying to gain a reputation as a superhero, although he is sometimes seen as being as maniacal as his villainous predecessors. When his equipment is damaged during a battle against a Sentinel in the Onslaught crossover, Phil is unable to repair or replace it and the fourth Green Goblin thereafter retires. He later forms the team Excelsior. Currently Phil has become the new Hobgoblin, but after being caught by Spider - Man he is broken out of jail and becomes the Goblin Knight a servant of the Green Goblin. After returning from the dead, Norman begins trying to convince the public that he was never the Green Goblin, so he has an associate named Doctor Angst genetically engineer a new Green Goblin, one slavishly devoted to him, to help his case. Norman uses the Goblin as a bodyguard, to torment Spider - Man, and in ploys (such as kidnapping Normie Osborn for ransom) designed to draw public sympathy. After Norman is incapacitated by the Gathering of Five, the Goblin is left alone, and begins to degenerate due to no longer having access to the formula required to keep him stable. The Goblin goes after Harry Osborn 's wife Liz Allan in a desperate bid to find a cure for his condition, but is driven off by Spider - Man. During a second attempt to capture Liz, the Goblin unmasks himself in front of Spider - Man (shuffling through a variety of faces, the most prominent being Harry, after doing so) and melts into a pile of goo as he claims Norman would return. In his first appearances, the Green Goblin seems to be a normal man (albeit very nimble and athletic) who gets his powers from his many gadgets. In later appearances, it is established that due to the "Goblin Formula '', Norman and any successor to the Goblin persona possesses superhuman strength (lifting 9 tons under optimal conditions), increased speed, reflexes, endurance, and healing rate. Though much slower than the likes of Wolverine, he can regenerate damaged tissue and organs. However, if seriously wounded, it would leave scars on his body. His intelligence has been enhanced to gifted levels, though at the price of his sanity. His involvement with the Gathering of the Five loosened his grip on reality, though he is able to maintain his sanity via chemically treated dermal patches. When not impaired by mental illness, Osborn is a cunning businessman, masterful strategist, and highly skilled in electronics, mechanics, engineering and chemistry. The Green Goblin is armed with a variety of bizarre devices. He travels on his bat - shaped "Goblin Glider '', an incredibly fast and maneuverable rocket glider equipped with various armaments. Other weapons the Goblin uses include incendiary Pumpkin Bombs, smoke - and gas - emitting grenades resembling ghosts and jack - ' o ' - lanterns, razor - edged boomerang - like throwing weapons called razor bats and gloves woven with micro-circuited filaments which channel pulsed discharges of electricity at nearly 10,000 volts. He wears a green costume underneath bulletproof chainmail with an overlapping purple tunic. His mask has a built - in gas filter to keep him safe from his own gasses. In the Green Goblin 's first appearance in "The Amazing Spider - Man '' # 14, he rides a steel, rocket powered wingless broomstick, not a glider. In issue # 17, his second appearance, he changes it to the familiar bat - shaped glider. The Goblin Glider 's controls and microprocessor are located behind the head of the glider. The pilot is attached to the glider via electromagnetic clasps on the wings of the glider. It has great maneuverability and is steered mostly by leaning, but manual controls are available behind the head of the glider. The Green Goblin later added radio - linked voice controls to his mask. Its top speed is 90 miles per hour (140 km / h), and it can support about 400 lb (180 kg), though it could lift far more for brief periods. Flying at top speed with a full load and a full fuel tank would deplete its fuel supply in about an hour. In the Goblin 's later appearances, the glider possesses a wide array of armaments, including heat - seeking and smart missiles, machine guns, extending blades, a flamethrower and a pumpkin bomb dispenser / launcher. A grenade used by the Green Goblin, the Pumpkin Bomb resembles a miniature Jack - o ' - lantern and, when thrown, ignites almost soundlessly and produces enough heat to melt through a 3 - inch (76 mm) thick sheet of steel. The Goblin carries these and a variety of other weapons, such as razor bats (akin to bladed boomerangs) and miniature "Ghost Bombs '' in an over-the - shoulder satchel he calls his "Bag Of Tricks ''. The Green Goblin has a range of other "Pumpkin Bombs '' and "Ghost Bombs '' at his disposal, including smoke - and gas - emitting bombs. Some release hallucinogenic gases, while others emit a specially - created mixture that neutralizes Spider - Man 's spider - sense for a limited period of time. Still others emit a flame - retarding gas, which the Goblin uses against the Human Torch. All of these are covered in a light plastic coating. Some time after Harry 's death, his son Normie is abducted by a trio of mysterious female Goblins. With the aid of Ben Urich and Molten Man, Spider - Man discovers that these "Goblinettes '' are robots created by Harry, and controlled by a supercomputer containing copies of Harry and Norman 's minds. The Goblinettes are destroyed along with the computer, which had been programmed to expose Normie to the same version of the Goblin Serum that killed Harry, in attempt to create a new Green Goblin. An offshoot of the Scriers cult founded by Norman, consisting of only his most loyal followers. Following Norman Osborn 's rise and fall from power, a number of Goblin Gangs sprang up across America. Composed mostly of white supremacists who agreed with his plans to remove the Asgardians from the country, they wear purple clothes, green face makeup and have goblin - based tattoos. Vin Gonzales was revealed to have received one of these tattoos while in prison when he passed a message from Norman to Harry about Stanley, Harry 's newborn son. The Goblin Underground is a group of organized crime composed of Goblin - themed villains led by Goblin King against their nemesis Spider - Man. In the eight month timeskip that occurred subsequent to the events of Secret Wars, a heavily bandaged arms dealer claiming to be Norman Osborn began selling Green Goblin - based costumes and equipment on the black market, establishing private armies of "War Goblins ''. As a fictional character, the Green Goblin has appeared in a number of media, from comic books to films and television series. Each version of the character is typically established within its own continuity within parallel universes, to the point where distinct differences in the portrayal of the character can be identified. Various versions of the Goblin are depicted in works such as Marvel 's Ultimate line and Earth X. The Green Goblin has appeared in many Spider - Man related media.
what was going on in the world in 1500 ad	16th century - wikipedia The 16th century begins with the Julian year 1501 and ends with either the Julian or the Gregorian year 1600 (depending on the reckoning used; the Gregorian calendar introduced a lapse of 10 days in October 1582). The 16th century is regarded by historians as the century in which the rise of the West occurred. During the 16th century, Spain and Portugal explored the world 's seas and opened worldwide oceanic trade routes. Large parts of the New World became Spanish and Portuguese colonies, and while the Portuguese became the masters of Asia 's and Africa 's Indian Ocean trade, the Spanish opened trade across the Pacific Ocean, linking the Americas with Asia. This era of colonialism established mercantilism as the leading school of economic thought, where the economic system was viewed as a zero - sum game in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. The mercantilist doctrine encouraged the many intra-European wars of the period and arguably fueled European expansion and imperialism throughout the world until the 19th century or early 20th century. In Europe, the Protestant Reformation gave a major blow to the authority of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church. European politics became dominated by religious conflicts, with the groundwork for the epochal Thirty Years ' War being laid towards the end of the century. In Italy, Luca Pacioli published the first work ever on accounting and Galileo Galilei made the first thermometer. In England, the Italian Alberico Gentili wrote the first book on public international law and divided secularism from canon law and Roman Catholic theology. In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire continued to expand, with the Sultan taking the title of Caliph, while dealing with a resurgent Persia. Iran and Iraq were caught by major popularity of the Shiite sect of Islam under the rule of the Safavid dynasty of warrior - mystics, providing grounds for a Persia independent of the majority - Sunni Muslim world. China evacuated the coastal areas, because of Japanese piracy. Japan was suffering a severe civil war at the time. Mughal Emperor Akbar extended the power of the Mughal Empire to cover most of the South Asian sub continent. His rule significantly influenced arts, and culture in the region. Copernicus proposed the heliocentric universe, which was met with strong resistance, and Tycho Brahe refuted the theory of celestial spheres through observational measurement of the 1572 appearance of a Milky Way supernova. These events directly challenged the long - held notion of an immutable universe supported by Ptolemy and Aristotle, and led to major revolutions in astronomy and science.
when did the indian modern postal system started functioning	Postage stamps and postal history of India - Wikipedia This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of India. Indian postal systems for efficient military and governmental communications had developed long before the arrival of Europeans. When the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Danish and British displaced The Marathas who had already defeated the Mughals, their postal systems existed alongside those of many somewhat independent states. The British East India Company gradually displaced other powers and brought into existence a British administrative system over most of India, with a need to establish and maintain both official and commercial mail systems. Although the Indian Post Office was established in 1837, Asia 's first adhesive stamp, the Scinde Dawk, was introduced in 1852 by Sir Bartle Frere, the British East India Company 's administrator of the province of Sind. The Indian postal system developed into an extensive, dependable and robust network providing connectivity to almost all parts of India, Burma, the Straits Settlements and other areas controlled by the British East India Company (EIC). Based on the model postal system introduced in England by the reformer, Rowland Hill, efficient postal services were provided at a low cost and enabled the smooth commercial, military and administrative functioning of the EIC and its successor, the British Raj. The Imperial Posts co-existed with the several postal systems maintained by various Indian states, some of which produced stamps for use within their respective dominions, while British Indian postage stamps were required for sending mail beyond the boundaries of these states. Telegraphy and telephony made their appearance as part of the Posts before becoming separate departments. After the Independence of India in 1947, the Indian postal service continues to function on a countrywide basis and provides many valuable, low cost services to the public of India. The history of India 's postal system begins long before the introduction of postage stamps. The antecedents have been traced to the systems of the Persian Empire instituted by Cyrus the Great and Darius I for communicating important military and political information. The Atharvaveda (or Arthveda) which is one of the oldest books in the world, records a messenger service in ancient India millenniums ago. Systems for collecting information and revenue data from the provinces are mentioned in Chanakya 's Arthashastra (meaning military strategy and skill) (c. 3rd century BCE). In ancient times the kings (or Raja), emperors (or Maharaja), rulers, zamindars (or the feudal lords) protected their land through the intelligence services of specially trained police or military agencies and courier services to convey and obtain information through runners, messengers and even through pigeons in most parts of India. The chief of the secret service, known as the Daakpaal (postmaster), maintained the lines of communication... The people used to send letters to (their) distant relatives through their friends or neighbors. For centuries it was rare for messages to be carried by any means other than a relay of runners on foot. A runner ran from one village or relay post to the next, carrying the letters on a pole with a sharp point. His was a dangerous occupation: the relay of postal runners worked throughout the day and night, vulnerable to attacks by bandits and wild animals. These mail runners were used chiefly by the rulers, for purposes of gathering information and wartime news. They were subsequently used by merchants for trade purpose. It was much later that mail runners came to be in use for the carriage of private mail. The postal history of India primarily began with the overland routes, stretching from Persia to India. What began as mere foot - tracks that more than often included fords across the mountainous streams, gradually evolved over the centuries as highways, used by traders and military envoys on foot and horses, for carriage of missives. The Arab influence of the Caliphate came about with the conquest of Sind by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 A.D. (C.E.). Thereupon, the Diwan - i - Barid (or Department of Posts) established official communication across the far - flung empire. The swiftness of the horse messengers finds mention in many of the texts of that period. The first Sultan of Delhi, after the Mughals colonised India, Qutb - ud - din Aybak was Sultan for only four years, 1206 -- 1210, but he founded the Mamluk Dynasty and created a messenger post system. This was expanded into the dak chowkis, a horse and foot runner service, by Alauddin Khalji in 1296. Sher Shah Suri (1541 -- 1545) replaced runners with horses for conveyance of messages along the northern Indian high road, today known as the Grand Trunk Road, which he constructed between Bengal and Sindh over an ancient trade route at the base of the Himalayas, the Uttarapatha. He also built 1700 ' serais ' where two horses were always kept for the despatch of the Royal Mail Akbar introduced camels in addition to the horses and runners. In the South of India, in 1672 Raja Chuk Deo of Mysore began an efficient postal service which was further improved upon by Haider Ali. The East India Company took constructive steps to improve the existing systems in India when, in 1688, they opened a post office in Bombay followed by similar ones in Calcutta and Madras. Lord Clive further expanded the services in 1766 and in 1774 Warren Hastings made the services available to the general public. The fee charged was two annas per 100 miles. The postmarks applied on these letters are very rare and are named ' Indian Bishop Marks ' after Colonel Henry Bishop, the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom who introduced this practice in Britain. The Post Office Department of the East India Company was first established on 31 March 1774 at Calcutta, followed in 1778 at Madras and in 1792 at Bombay. After 1793, when Cornwallis introduced the Regulation of the Permanent Settlement, the financial responsibility for maintaining the official posts rested with the zamindars. Alongside these, private dawk mail systems sprang up for the commercial conveyance of messages using hired runners. Also, the East India Company created its own infrastructure for the expansion and administration of military and commercial power. The runners were paid according to the distance they travelled and the weight of their letters. Carrying the mail was dangerous work: The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 provided that the Governor - General of India in Council had the exclusive right of conveying letters by post for hire within the territories of the East India Company. Section XX required all private vessels to carry letters at prescribed rates for postage. A handstamp was applied to preadhesive ship letters. The mails were available to certain officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed. On this basis the Indian Post Office was established on 1 October 1837. The urgent European mails were carried overland via Egypt at the isthmus of Suez. This route, pioneered by Thomas Waghorn, linked the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, and thence by steamer via Marseilles, Brindisi or Trieste to European destinations. The Suez Canal did not open until much later (17 November 1869). The time in transit for letters using the Overland Mail route was dramatically reduced. Waghorn 's route reduced the journey from 16,000 miles via the Cape of Good Hope to 6,000 miles; and reduced the time in transit from three months to between 35 and 45 days. The use of the Scinde Dawk adhesive stamps to signify the prepayment of postage began on 1 July 1852 in the Scinde / Sindh district, as part of a comprehensive reform of the district 's postal system. A year earlier Sir Bartle Frere had replaced the postal runners with a network of horses and camels, improving communications in the Indus river valley to serve the military and commercial needs of the British East India Company. The new stamps were embossed individually onto paper or a wax wafer. The shape was circular, with "SCINDE DISTRICT DAWK '' around the rim and the British East India Company 's Merchant 's Mark as the central emblem. The paper was either white or greyish white. The blue stamp was printed onto the paper by the die during the embossing, while the wax version was embossed on a red sealing wax wafer on paper; but all had the same value of 1 / 2 anna. They were used until October 1854, and then officially suppressed. These are quite scarce today, with valuations from US $700 to $10,000 for postally used examples. The unused red stamp was previously valued at £ 65,000.00 by Stanley Gibbons (basis 2006); however, it now appears that no unused examples have survived. The first stamps valid for postage throughout India were placed on sale in October 1854 with four values: 1 / 2 anna, 1 anna, 2 annas, and 4 annas. Featuring a youthful profile of Queen Victoria aet. 15 years, all four values were designed and printed in Calcutta, and issued without perforations or gum. All were lithographed except for the 2 annas green, which was produced by typography from copper clichés or from electrotyped plates. The 4 annas value (illustrated) was one of the world 's first bicolored stamps, preceded only by the Basel Dove, a beautiful local issue. These stamps were issued following a Commission of Inquiry which had carefully studied the postal systems of Europe and America. In the opinion of Geoffrey Clarke, the reformed system was to be maintained "for the benefit of the people of India and not for the purpose of swelling the revenue. '' The Commissioners voted to abolish the earlier practice of conveying official letters free of postage ("franking ''). The new system was recommended by the Governor - General, Lord Dalhousie, and adopted by the East India Company 's Court of Directors. It introduced "low and uniform '' rates for sending mail efficiently throughout the country within the jurisdiction of the East India Company. The basic rate was 1 / 2 anna on letters not more than 1 / 4 tola in weight. The stamps were needed to show the postage was prepaid, a basic principle of the new system, like the fundamental changes of the British system advocated by Rowland Hill and the Scinde reforms of Bartle Frere. These reforms transformed mail services within India. The East India Company already had attempted a 1 / 2 anna vermilion stamp in April 1854, known as the "91⁄2 arches essay ''. This could not be produced in quantity because it required an expensive vermilion pigment not readily available from England, and the substituted Indian pigment destroyed the printing stones. A new design for stamps, with Queen Victoria in an oval vignette inside a rectangular frame, was inscribed "EAST INDIA POSTAGE ''. These stamps were recess printed by De La Rue in England (who produced all the subsequent issues of British India until 1925). The first of these became available in 1855. They continued in use well after the British government took over the administration of India in 1858, following the 1857 Rebellion against the East India Company 's rule. From 1865 the Indian stamps were printed on paper watermarked with an elephant 's head. The volume of mail moved by the postal system increased relentlessly, doubling between 1854 and 1866, then doubling again by 1871. The Post Office Act XIV introduced reforms by 1 May 1866 to correct some of the more apparent postal system deficiencies and abuses. Postal service efficiencies also were introduced. In 1863 new lower rates were set for "steamer '' mail to Europe at 6 annas 8 pies for a 1 / 2 ounce letter. Lower rates were introduced for inland mail, as well. New regulations removed the special postal privileges which had been enjoyed by officials of the East India Company. Stamps for official use were prepared and carefully accounted for to combat the abuse of privileges by officials. In 1854 Spain had printed special stamps for official communications, but in 1866 India was the first country to adopt the simple expedient of overprinting ' Service ' on postage stamps and ' Service Postage ' on revenue stamps. This innovation became widely adopted by other countries in later years. Shortages developed, so these stamps also had to be improvised. Some of the "Service Postage '' overprinted rarities of this year resulted from the sudden changes in postal regulations. New designs for the 4 annas and "6 annas 8 pies '' stamps were issued in 1866. Nevertheless, there was a shortage of stamps to meet the new rates. Provisional six annas stamps were improvised by cutting the tops and bottoms from a current Foreign Bill revenue stamp, and overprinting "POSTAGE ''. Another four new designs appeared, one at a time, between 1874 and 1876. A complete new set of stamps was issued in 1882 for the Empire of India that had been proclaimed five years earlier, in 1877. The designs consisted of the usual Victoria profile, in a variety of frames, inscribed "INDIA POSTAGE ''. The watermark also changed to a star shape. These stamps were heavily used and are still quite common today. Three stamps, featuring a detail from Heinrich von Angeli 's 1885 portrait of Queen Victoria, in 2, 3 and 5 rupee denominations, were introduced in 1895. Other existing designs were reprinted in new colours in 1900. British India had hundreds of Princely States, some 652 in all, but most of them did not issue postage stamps. The stamp - issuing States were of two kinds: the Convention States and the Feudatory States. The postage stamps and postal histories of these States provide great challenges and many rewards to the patient philatelist. Many rarities are to be found here. Although handbooks are available, much remains to be discovered. The Convention States are those which had postal conventions (or agreements) with the Post Office of India to provide postal services within their territories. The adhesive stamps and postal stationery of British India were overprinted for use within each Convention State. The first Convention State was Patiala, in 1884, followed by others in 1885. The stamps of the Convention States all became invalid on 1 January 1951 when they were replaced with stamps of the Republic of India valid from 1 January 1950. The Feudatory States maintained their own postal services within their territories and issued stamps with their own designs. Many of the stamps were imperforate and without gum, as issued. Many varieties of type, paper, inks and dies are not listed in the standard catalogues. The stamps of each Feudatory State were valid only within that State, so letters sent outside that State needed additional British India postage. Both Faridkot and Jind, as feudatory states, issued their own stamps before they joined the Postal Convention. Faridkot joined on 1 January 1887. Jind joined in July 1885; its stamps from the feudatory period became invalid for postage, but they continued to be used for revenue purposes. In 1902 a new series depicting King Edward VII generally reused the frames of the Victoria stamps, with some color changes, and included values up to 25 rupees. The higher values were often used for the payment of telegraph and parcel fees. Generally, such usage will lower a collector 's estimation of a stamp 's value; except those from remote or "used abroad '' offices. The 1911 stamps of King George V were more florid in their design. It is reported that George V, a philatelist, personally approved these designs. In 1919 a 11⁄2 anna stamp was introduced, inscribed "ONE AND HALF ANNA '', but in 1921 this changed to "ONE AND A HALF ANNAS ''. In 1926 the watermark changed to a pattern of multiple stars. The first pictorial stamps appeared in 1931. The set of six, showing the fortress of Purana Qila, Delhi and government edifices, was issued to mark the government 's move from Calcutta to New Delhi. Another pictorial set, also showing buildings, commemorated George V 's Silver Jubilee in 1935. The stamps issued in 1937 depicted various forms of mail transports, with King George VI 's effigy appearing on the higher values. A new issue in 1941, constrained by the austerity of World War II, consisted of rather plain designs using minimal amounts of ink and paper. As Indian Post Offices annually required some billions of stamps for postage, as a measure of economy the large pictorial stamps were immediately withdrawn and smaller stamps were issued. Even this did not ease the paper situation and it was thought desirable to reduce the size even more. A victory issue in 1946 was followed in November 1947 by a first Dominion issue, whose three stamps were the first to depict the Ashoka Pillar and the new flag of India (the third showed an aeroplane). Postage stamps were generally issued separately from the revenue stamps. However, in 1906, the set of King Edward VII stamps were issued in two values, half anna and one anna with the caption "INDIA POSTAGE & REVENUE ''. The George V Series (1911 to 1933) added two more values, two annas and four annas to the Postage & Revenue stamps. These dual - purpose issues were an exception and generally the two types were issued separately. From 1 January 1926 all printing and overprinting of India ' postage stamps was conducted at India Security Press, Nasik. The possibility of printing postage stamps and other security items in India had been enquired into before the First World War but could not be pursued at that time. In 1922, the feasibility of this issue was explored in England by Lt Col C.H. Willis, C.I.E., then master of the Bombay Mint, and Mr F.D. Ascoti, I.C.S., Controller of Printing, Stationery and Stamps. Their favourable report, followed by a successful demonstration of production techniques in Delhi in 1923, led to the decision of the Government to establish a security press at Nashik. The responsibility of setting up the Press was entrusted to none other than the London firm of Thomas De La Rue which already had a six - decade long association with Indian stamps. The construction began in 1924 at an original estimate of Rs 271⁄2 lakhs and was completed in 1925 with additional costs of Rs 67 and 1 / 400,000. The printing of stamps at Nasik began in 1925. The first stamps produced were the definitive series of George V, printed using typography from the same plates used earlier in England by De La Rue, which were now transferred to India. The watermark was changed by the Press to multiple stars. Lithography was now re-introduced and the first stamps printed with this technique were the first Air Mail series of 1929. The Security Press continued to use typography for most stamps, reserving the lithographic process for the most important commemorative issues, the next being the 1931 series commemorating the inauguration of New Delhi as the seat of government in 1931. The one rupee stamp shows the Secretariat and Dominion Columns. This practice continued after independence. The first definitive series to be issued was the misnamed "Archaeological '' series of 16 values; the top four values were produced by lithography and the remaining values by typography. The new technique of photogravure printing was installed in 1952. The October 1952 series of six values on the theme of Saints and Poets was the first to be so produced. However, these were not the first photogravure stamps of India, having been preceded by the first Gandhi series of 1948, which were printed by Courvoisier of Geneva using the photogravure technique. Since then, photogravure has been used to produce all Indian stamps; typography and lithography being reserved for service labels only. The First Stamp of Independent India was issued on 21 November 1947. It depicts the Indian Flag with the patriots ' slogan, Jai Hind (Long Live India), on the top right hand corner. It was valued at three and one - half annas. A memorial to Mahatma Gandhi was issued 15 August 1948 on the first anniversary of Independence. Exactly one year later a definitive series appeared, depicting India 's broad cultural heritage, mostly Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh and Jain temples, sculptures, monuments and fortresses. A subsequent issue commemorated the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950. Definitives included a technology and development theme in 1955, a series all showing the map of India in 1957, denominated in naye paisa (decimal currency), and a series with a broad variety of images in 1965. The old inscription of "INDIA POSTAGE '' was replaced in 1962 with "भारत INDIA '', though three stamps issued between December 1962 / January 1963 carried the earlier inscription. India has printed stamps and postal stationery for other countries, mostly neighbours. Countries which have had stamps printed in India include Burma (before independence), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Portugal, and Ethiopia. The Department of Posts, operating as India Post, is a government - operated postal system, simply referred to within India as "the post office ''. With its far - flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service provides many services such as small savings banking and financial services. As of 31 March 2011, the Indian Postal Service has 154,866 post offices, of which 139,040 (89.78 %) are in rural areas and 15,826 (10.22 %) are in urban areas. It has 25,464 departmental POs and 129,402 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus, the network has registered a sevenfold growth since Independence, with the expansion primarily in rural areas. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.23 sq; km and a population of 7,114 people. India is believed to have the most widely distributed system in the world (China has 57,000, Russia 41,000 and the United States 38,000 offices). This proliferation of offices results from India 's history of having many disparate postal systems, eventually unified in the Indian Union after Independence. India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General, and further divided into units headed by SSPOs & SPOs and Sub Divisions headed by ASPs and IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots and Mail Motor Service exist in various Circles and Regions. Besides the 22 circles, there is a special Base Circle to provide the postal services for the Armed Forces of India. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service holding the rank of a Major General. Gandhi, Nehru and other historic personalities continued to appear on the postal issues coming from the country since Independence, with almost half a century seeing the Gandhi definitives of denominations most frequently used in the era concerned, becoming synonymous with a postage stamp to the Indian people of that respective time period. New themes are now finding their place on Indian postage stamps, with some stamps issued jointly with postal agencies of other countries, renewable energy sources, the local flora and fauna and even the special annual issues wishing season 's greetings. On 9 March 2011 India Post launched an online e-post office. The portal provides electronic money orders, instant money orders, stamps for collectors, postal information, tracking of express and international shipments, PIN code search and registration of feedback and complaints online. Mahatma Gandhi, Rajkot 1896. The National Philatelic Museum of India was inaugurated on 6 July 1968 in New Delhi. It had its beginning at a meeting of the Philatelic Advisory Committee on 18 September 1962. Besides the large collection of India Postage stamps designed, printed and issued, it has a large collection of Indian states, both confederate and feudatory, early essays, proofs and colour trials, a collection of Indian stamps "used abroad '' and as well as early Indian postcards, postal stationery and thematic collections. The museum was extensively renovated in 2009. It now includes more exhibits, a philatelic bureau and other postal objects such as beautiful Victorian post boxes. An international philatelic exhibition was held from 12 -- 18 February 2011, on the centenary of India 's first official air mail. For the occasion of INDIPEX 2011 India Post brought out a special stamp on Gandhi Ji to commemorate the event. It is printed on "khadi '', the handspun cotton material that Gandhi Ji held out as the symbol of self - determination and self - reliance. The Presentation Pack was released by Pratibha Patil, the President of India on Saturday 12 February 2011 at INDIPEX 2011, the World Philatelic Exhibition held in New Delhi, the capital of India.
what year did the first thor come out	Thor (film) - Wikipedia Thor is a 2011 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Paramount Pictures. It is the fourth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was directed by Kenneth Branagh, written by the writing team of Ashley Edward Miller and Zack Stentz along with Don Payne, and stars Chris Hemsworth as the title character, alongside Natalie Portman, Tom Hiddleston, Stellan Skarsgård, Colm Feore, Ray Stevenson, Idris Elba, Kat Dennings, Rene Russo, and Anthony Hopkins. The film sees Thor banished to Earth from Asgard, stripped of his powers and his hammer Mjölnir, after reigniting a dormant war. As his brother Loki plots to take the Asgardian throne, Thor must prove himself worthy. Sam Raimi first developed the concept of a film adaptation of Thor in 1991, but soon abandoned the project, leaving it in "development hell '' for several years. During this time, the rights were picked up by various film studios until Marvel signed Mark Protosevich to develop the project in 2006, and planned to finance it and release it through Paramount. Matthew Vaughn was originally assigned to direct the film for a tentative 2010 release. However, after Vaughn was released from his holding deal in 2008, Branagh was approached and the film 's release was rescheduled to 2011. The main characters were cast in 2009, and principal photography took place in California and New Mexico from January to May 2010. The film was converted to 3D in post-production. Thor premiered on April 17, 2011, in Sydney, Australia and was released on May 6, 2011, in the United States. The film was a financial success and many in the cast received praise, including Hemsworth, although the Earth - based elements of the film received some criticism. A sequel, Thor: The Dark World, was released on November 8, 2013, while a third film, Thor: Ragnarok, was released on November 3, 2017. In 965 AD, Odin, king of Asgard, wages war against the Frost Giants of Jotunheim and their leader Laufey, to prevent them from conquering the nine realms, starting with Earth. The Asgardian warriors defeat the Frost Giants and seize the source of their power, the Casket of Ancient Winters. In the present, Odin 's son Thor prepares to ascend to the throne of Asgard, but is interrupted when Frost Giants attempt to retrieve the Casket. Against Odin 's order, Thor travels to Jotunheim to confront Laufey, accompanied by his brother Loki, childhood friend Sif and the Warriors Three: Volstagg, Fandral, and Hogun. A battle ensues until Odin intervenes to save the Asgardians, destroying the fragile truce between the two races. For Thor 's arrogance, Odin strips his son of his godly power and exiles him to Earth as a mortal, accompanied by his hammer Mjölnir, now protected by an enchantment that allows only the worthy to wield it. Thor lands in New Mexico, where astrophysicist Dr. Jane Foster, her assistant Darcy Lewis, and mentor Dr. Erik Selvig find him. The local populace finds Mjolnir, which S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson soon commandeers before forcibly acquiring Foster 's data about the wormhole that delivered Thor to Earth. Thor, having discovered Mjolnir 's nearby location, seeks to retrieve it from the facility that S.H.I.E.L.D. has constructed, but he finds himself unable to lift it and is captured. With Selvig 's help, he is freed and resigns himself to exile on Earth as he develops a romance with Foster. Loki discovers that he is Laufey 's biological son, adopted by Odin after the war ended. A weary Odin falls into the deep "Odinsleep '' to recover his strength. Loki seizes the throne in Odin 's stead and offers Laufey the chance to kill Odin and retrieve the Casket. Sif and the Warriors Three, unhappy with Loki 's rule, attempt to return Thor from exile, convincing Heimdall, gatekeeper of the Bifröst -- the means of traveling between worlds -- to allow them passage to Earth. Aware of their plan, Loki sends the Destroyer, a seemingly indestructible automaton, to pursue them and kill Thor. The warriors find Thor, but the Destroyer attacks and defeats them, prompting Thor to offer himself instead. Struck by the Destroyer and near death, Thor 's sacrifice proves him worthy to wield Mjölnir. The hammer returns to him, restoring his powers and enabling him to defeat the Destroyer. Kissing Foster goodbye and vowing to return, he and his fellow Asgardians leave to confront Loki. In Asgard, Loki betrays and kills Laufey, revealing his true plan to use Laufey 's attempt on Odin 's life as an excuse to destroy Jotunheim with the Bifröst Bridge, thus proving himself worthy to his adoptive father. Thor arrives and fights Loki before destroying the Bifröst Bridge to stop Loki 's plan, stranding himself in Asgard. Odin awakens and prevents the brothers from falling into the abyss created in the wake of the bridge 's destruction, but Loki apparently commits suicide by allowing himself to fall when Odin rejects his pleas for approval. Thor makes amends with Odin, admitting he is not ready to be king; meanwhile, on Earth, Foster and her team search for a way to open a portal to Asgard. In a post-credits scene, Selvig is taken to a S.H.I.E.L.D. facility, where Nick Fury opens a briefcase and asks him to study a mysterious cube - shaped object, which Fury says may hold untold power. An invisible Loki prompts Selvig to agree, and he does. Additionally, Clark Gregg reprises his role as S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Phil Coulson from the Iron Man films. Adriana Barraza plays diner owner Isabella Alvarez and Maximiliano Hernández plays S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Jasper Sitwell. Joseph Gatt, Joshua Cox, and Douglas Tait portray Frost Giants. Stan Lee and J. Michael Straczynski have cameo appearances as pick - up truck drivers, Walter Simonson has a cameo appearance as one of the guests at a large Asgardian banquet, and Samuel L. Jackson and Jeremy Renner have uncredited cameos as Nick Fury and Clint Barton, respectively. -- Ashley Miller, co-writer of Thor, about the project Sam Raimi originally envisioned the idea for Thor after making Darkman (1990); he met Stan Lee and pitched the concept to 20th Century Fox, but they did not understand it. Thor was abandoned until April 1997, when Marvel Studios was beginning to expand rapidly. The film gained momentum after the success of X-Men (2000). The plan was for Thor to be made for television. UPN was in talks for airing it; excited by the prospect, they pushed for a script and approached Tyler Mane to play Thor. In May 2000, Marvel Studios brought Artisan Entertainment to help finance it as a film, but by June 2004 the project still had yet to be patronised by a studio. Sony Pictures Entertainment finally purchased the film rights, and in December 2004 David S. Goyer was in negotiations to write and direct. By 2005, though there were talks between Goyer and Marvel, Goyer was no longer interested, though at this point the film was still set to be distributed through Sony Pictures. Mark Protosevich, a fan of the Thor comic book, agreed to write the script in April 2006, and the project moved to Paramount Pictures, after it acquired the rights from Sony. That year the film was announced to be a Marvel Studios production. In December 2007, Protosevich described his plans for it "to be like a superhero origin story, but not one about a human gaining super powers, but of a god realizing his true potential. It 's the story of an Old Testament god who becomes a New Testament god ''. In August 2007 Marvel Studios signed Matthew Vaughn to direct the film. Vaughn then rewrote Protosevich 's script in order to bring down the budget to $150 million, as Protosevich 's first draft would have cost $300 million to produce. He intended to start filming in late 2008 and after the success of Iron Man, Marvel Studios announced that they intended to release Thor on June 4, 2010, with Iron Man 2 being used to introduce the character of Thor. -- J Michael Straczynski, co-writer of Thor, on Kenneth Branagh Vaughn was released when his holding deal expired in May 2008, at which point Marvel set Protosevich to work on a new draft and began searching for a new director. Guillermo del Toro entered talks to direct the film. Del Toro was a fan of Jack Kirby 's work on the comics, and said that he loved the character of Loki, but wished to incorporate more of the original Norse mythology into the film, including a "really dingy Valhalla, (with) Vikings and mud ''. However, del Toro ultimately turned down Thor to direct The Hobbit. By September 2008 D.J. Caruso had been discussing taking on the project, though he did not read the script. Later that month, Kenneth Branagh entered into negotiations to direct, and by December 2008, Branagh confirmed that he had been hired. He described it as "a human story right in the center of a big epic scenario. '' Branagh stated that he hoped to begin filming in January 2010 and Marvel Studios set back the release date of the film from its scheduled July 16, 2010 date to June 17, 2011, almost a full year later. They later moved the release date to May 20, 2011, to distance the film 's release from that of Captain America: The First Avenger, another Marvel Studios film that was scheduled to be released on July 22, 2011. In October 2008, Daniel Craig was offered the role, but ultimately turned it down, citing his commitments to the James Bond franchise. In February 2009, Samuel L. Jackson, who had briefly portrayed Nick Fury at the end of the film Iron Man, signed on to reprise the role in Thor as part of an unprecedented nine - picture deal with Marvel Studios. However, in an April 2010 interview, Jackson stated that he would not be appearing in Thor. When asked why not Jackson explained, "I have no idea. I 'm not in charge of making those kinds of decisions. I thought I was; they said I was in the trades, and I was like, ' Ooh! I got a job! ' I called my agent he said, ' Naw, you 're not in it. ' I was like, ' Well shit, they need to pay me if they 're gon na put my name in it. ' '' Later in the month, Jackson revealed that he would be filming a scene for Thor to serve as "connective tissue '' for The Avengers. Also in February, a casting call went out looking for actors with certain physical attributes to audition for the role of Thor. In May 2009, Chris Hemsworth was in negotiations to portray the title role after a back - and - forth process in which the 25 - year - old actor was refused early on, then given a second chance to read for the part. Hemsworth 's brother, Liam also auditioned for the role, but was passed on by Marvel Studios head Kevin Feige. The next day, Marvel announced that Tom Hiddleston, who had worked with Branagh before and had initially been considered to portray the lead role, had been cast as Loki. In June 2009, Feige confirmed that both Hemsworth and Hiddleston had signed on. Feige mentioned that the film would take place on both modern day Earth and Asgard but Thor 's human host, Dr. Donald Blake, would not be included. In July 2009, Marvel announced that Natalie Portman would portray Jane Foster. Jaimie Alexander and Colm Feore were reported to have joined the cast in September, with Alexander portraying Sif and Feore 's role unrevealed, though it was thought to be a villain. In an interview with Swedish news site Ystads Allehanda, Stellan Skarsgård stated that he had joined the cast, though he did not specify his role. By late October Anthony Hopkins had been cast as Odin in the film. The following month, Marvel announced that they had cast the Warriors Three; Fandral was to be played by Stuart Townsend, Hogun was to be played by Tadanobu Asano and Volstagg was to be played by Ray Stevenson. Idris Elba was announced to have joined the cast, portraying Heimdall. Natalie Portman revealed that Kat Dennings would be involved in the project, portraying Darcy, a coworker of Portman 's Jane Foster. In December 2009, Rene Russo was cast as Frigga, Thor 's stepmother and Odin 's wife. Later that month, actors Joseph Gatt, Troy Brenna, and Joshua Cox had been cast in the film, though none of their roles were revealed. In January 2010, Adriana Barraza had joined the film 's cast, in a supporting capacity. Only days before filming began, Stuart Townsend was replaced by Joshua Dallas as Fandral, citing "creative differences ''. When Spider - Man 4 's production stalled, Paramount and Marvel Entertainment pushed up the release of Thor by two weeks to the then vacated date of May 6, 2011. The Science & Entertainment Exchange introduced Marvel Entertainment, Kenneth Branagh, "the screenwriter, and a few people on the design and production side of things '' to three physicists (Sean Carroll, Kevin Hand, and Jim Hartle), as well as physics student Kevin Hickerson, to provide a realistic science background for the Thor universe. The consultation resulted in a change in Jane Foster 's profession, from nurse to particle physicist, and the terminology (Einstein - Rosen bridge) to describe the Bifrost Bridge. In October 2008, Marvel Studios signed a long - term lease agreement with Raleigh Studios to photograph their next four films -- Iron Man 2, Thor, Captain America: The First Avenger and The Avengers -- at Raleigh 's Manhattan Beach, California facility. Production Weekly reported that filming on Marvel 's Thor was scheduled to begin in Los Angeles mid-January, then move to Santa Fe, New Mexico from March until late - April. Principal photography began on January 11, 2010. A few days after filming began, Clark Gregg signed on to reprise his role from Iron Man and Iron Man 2 as Agent Coulson. In February, Paramount Pictures entered negotiations with Del Mar, California to use a 300 - yard stretch of beach to film a scene for Thor involving six horses running down the terrain. Paramount said this coastline was ideal because its gradual slope of sand down to the waterline creates excellent reflective opportunities on film. On March 15, 2010, production of Thor moved to Galisteo, New Mexico where Cerro Pelon Ranch, an old - fashioned Western film town, was extensively modified for the shoot. Branagh, a fan of the comic book since childhood, commented on the challenge of bridging Asgard and the modern world: "Inspired by the comic book world both pictorially and compositionally at once, we 've tried to find a way to make a virtue and a celebration of the distinction between the worlds that exist in the film but absolutely make them live in the same world. It 's about finding the framing style, the color palette, finding the texture and the amount of camera movement that helps celebrate and express the differences and the distinctions in those worlds. If it succeeds, it will mark this film as different... The combination of the primitive and the sophisticated, the ancient and the modern, I think that potentially is the exciting fusion, the exciting tension in the film ''. By April, the prospect for filming parts of Thor in Del Mar, California had fallen through. Paramount Pictures sent a letter informing the city that it has instead chosen an undisclosed Northern California location to film a beachfront scene for the film. The letter cited cost concerns with moving production too far away from its headquarters. Filming wrapped on May 6, 2010. In October 2010, casting calls revealed the film would be undergoing an undisclosed number of reshoots. In March 2011, scenes involving Adriana Barraza were removed from the theatrical cut of the film during the editing process. Branagh sent a letter of apology explaining the reasons for the cut and desire to work with Barraza again in the future. In response Barraza stated, "It saddens me because the movie is great and because I was acting alongside some tremendous actors that I admire very much, but I understand the nature of films, and it 's not the first or last time that scenes will be cut ''. Barraza appears in only one scene in the film 's theatrical cut. In that same month, Douglas Tait revealed that he performed for motion capture of the Frost Giants. On his hiring, Tait said "I am 6'5 '' and have a lean, athletic build, and they hired guys who were 6'7 '' and taller, and weighed over 250 pounds (110 kg). When the film was being edited, they wanted to make them even bigger and move faster. They auditioned people again and Kenneth Branagh chose me to perform the motion capture movements of the Frost Giants ". In April 2011, the IMAX Corporation, Paramount Pictures and Marvel Entertainment announced that they have finalized an agreement to release the film in IMAX 3D, continuing the partnership which began on Iron Man 2. Branagh stated that the 3 - D process initially made him cringe but said "We came to feel that in our case 3 - D could be the very good friend of story and character for a different kind of experience ''. Although the film was shot in 2D, Feige stated that the "special effects for the film were conceived and executed from the beginning in 3D ''. The post-credits scene that sees Nick Fury approach Erik Selvig to ask him to study the Tesseract, was directed by The Avengers 's director, Joss Whedon. BUF Compagnie served as the lead visual effects vendor working on the film, with Digital Domain also providing work on the film. Branagh stated that BUF, who developed the effects for the race through space, were inspired by Hubble photography and other images of deep space. Branagh stated he sent paintings from classic studies by J.M.W. Turner to Digital Domain when creating Jotunheim. Peter Butterworth, VFX supervisor and co-founder of Fuel VFX, said the most challenging task was interpreting what the Bifröst would look like, "You ca n't Google what these things look like -- they are totally imagined and within the heads of the stakeholders. So to extract that and interpret it for the big screen was an interesting challenge creatively. Technically, probably creating fluid simulations that could be art - directed and used for both the Bifröst and Odin 's chamber shots. Part of the difficulty with solving these is that we had to ensure they would work in stereo. In the film, Odin enters what is known as the "Odinsleep '' in his chamber to regenerate. Butterworth stated, "For Odin 's Chamber, we developed a dome and curtain of light rays that hover over Odin 's bed. This dome of light suggests harnessed power and energy that revitalizes him as he sleeps. We took a lot of reference from the natural world such as the corona of the sun and gave the sleep effect plenty of volume and space ''. The film 's score was written by composer Patrick Doyle, a frequent collaborator of Branagh. Doyle described Thor as "the most commercially high profile film I have done since Frankenstein '', adding that the composing process had the challenge of trying to find a tone that fit the duality of Asgard and Earth. Thus Doyle and Branagh had frequent discussions on the musical direction, with the director suggesting a contemporary feel and having a balance between the music and "grand images (that) were not in any way hyperbolized '', and the composer in turn implementing "a strong sense of melody, which he responds to in my work ''. As Doyle declared that his own Celtic background made him familiar with Norse mythology, an old Celtic folk song also provided the inspiration for Thor 's leitmotif. A soundtrack album was released by Buena Vista Records in April 2011. The film also features a song by the Foo Fighters, "Walk '', in both a scene where a powerless Thor shares some boilermakers with Selvig in a roadhouse, and the film 's closing credits. Marvel president Kevin Feige stated that "Walk '' was a last minute addition, that the crew felt had "these eerie appropriate lyrics and themes '' upon hearing it. Branagh in particular thought that "these lyrics about learning to walk again '' were appropriate "of (a) movie about redemption, learning to be a hero. '' Thor held its world premiere at the Event Cinemas theatre in George Street, Sydney on April 17, 2011, with the film opening on April 21, 2011 in Australia. The following weekend it opened in 56 markets, while the premiere at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles, California took place on May 2, 2011. Thor opened on May 6, 2011 in the United States, in 3,955 theaters (of which 214 were IMAX 3D and 2,737 in 3D, a record amount). In July 2010 Marvel Studios held a Thor panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic - Con International during which Kenneth Branagh, Chris Hemsworth, Natalie Portman, Kat Dennings, Tom Hiddleston, and Clark Gregg discussed the film and showed some clips from it. A few days later, this footage was leaked on the internet. The first television advertisement was broadcast during Super Bowl XLV on the Fox network in the United States. The rate for advertising during the game was approximately $3 million per 30 - second spot. Marvel Studios and Acura launched a joint viral marketing promotion at the 2011 Chicago Comic & Entertainment Expo. Other official promotional partners included Burger King, Dr. Pepper, 7 Eleven, and Visa. In May 2011 Marvel Entertainment 's President of Print, Animation and Digital, Dan Buckley, and Marvel Comics Editor - In - Chief, Axel Alonso, rang the NYSE closing bell in celebration of the theatrical release of Thor. A post-credits scene in the film Iron Man 2 showed Coulson reporting the discovery of a large hammer in the desert. Rick Marshall of MTV News believed it to be the weapon Mjöllnir belonging to Thor, writing, "It continues the grand tradition of connecting the film to another property in development around the Marvel movie universe. '' In the commentary track of Iron Man 2 ' home media, Iron Man 2 's director, Jon Favreau, stated that "this is a scene from (the set of) Thor ". Marvel Animation announced a 26 - episode animated series in November 2008, to air in late 2010 before the release of Marvel Studios ' film. The company released an animated direct - to - video film, Thor: Tales of Asgard, to coincide with the live - action film. A video game titled Thor: God of Thunder based on the film was developed by Sega using the voices and likenesses of actors Chris Hemsworth, Tom Hiddleston and Jaimie Alexander, and was released on May 3, 2011. In July 2011, Marvel Studios and Paramount Pictures announced the release of Thor on Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray Disc and DVD. The discs were released by Paramount Home Media Distribution on September 13, 2011 in three editions: a single - disc DVD, a 2 - disc Blu - ray - DVD combo pack, and a 3 - disc Blu - ray / DVD / 3D combo pack. All sets come with deleted scenes and a "Road to The Avengers featurette. The 2 - disc and 3 - disc packs includes a digital copy, the first in a series of Marvel One - Shots, The Consultant, and 7 behind - the - scenes featurettes. Branagh said that the DVD includes at least 20 minutes of deleted scenes. Branagh stated the footage contains "things like the Asgardian parents, Odin and Frigga, played by the beautiful Rene Russo, there 's some beautiful scenes in there that I think people will enjoy. And certainly Thor and Loki interacting in different ways that just fill in a little bit of a back story, that was part of our rehearsal and research. '' In its first week of release, Thor took the number one spot on Blu - ray / DVD sales chart and topped Home Media Magazine 's rental chart for the week. The film was also collected in a 10 - disc box set titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase One -- Avengers Assembled '' which includes all of the Phase One films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on April 2, 2013. Thor earned $181.0 million in North America and $268.3 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $449.3 million. It was the 15th highest - grossing film of 2011. Thor earned $25.5 million on its opening day in the United States and Canada, including $3.3 million from Thursday previews, for a total weekend gross of $65.7 million. $6.2 million of the gross came from IMAX 3D, while 60 % of the gross was from 3D screenings. It became the tenth highest - grossing film of 2011 in the United States and Canada, and the highest - grossing comic - book film from May -- August 2011. Thor 's opening in Australia generated $5.8 million and placing second behind Universal Pictures ' Fast Five. The film 's box office was just 1 % more than Iron Man opening in Australia in 2008, Marvel 's most popular release at the time. The following week, Thor opened in 56 markets and took in $89.2 million through the weekend. The film 's highest grossing markets were the United Kingdom ($22.5 million), Australia ($20.1 million) and Mexico ($19.5 million). The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 77 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.7 / 10 based on 271 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "A dazzling blockbuster that tempers its sweeping scope with wit, humor, and human drama, Thor is mighty Marvel entertainment. '' Metacritic assigned a weighted average score of 57 / 100 based on reviews from 40 film critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Richard Kuipers of Variety stated, "Thor delivers the goods so long as butt is being kicked and family conflict is playing out in celestial dimensions, but is less thrilling during the Norse warrior god 's rather brief banishment on Earth ''. Megan Lehmann of The Hollywood Reporter wrote, "The hammer - hurling god of thunder kicks off this superhero summer with a bang ''. In the Chicago Sun - Times, Richard Roeper liked the film "Thanks in large part to a charming, funny and winning performance from Australian actor Chris Hemsworth in the title role, Thor is the most entertaining superhero debut since the original Spider - Man ''. Conversely, Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave it a negative review stating, "Thor is a failure as a movie, but a success as marketing, an illustration of the ancient carnival tactic of telling the rubes anything to get them into the tent ''. A.O. Scott of The New York Times also disliked the film, calling it "an example of the programmed triumph of commercial calculation over imagination ''. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times had mixed feelings, describing the film as "an aesthetic stand - off between predictable elements and unexpected ones ''. Turan praised the performances of Hemsworth, Hopkins, and Elba, but found the special effects inconsistent and the Earth storyline derivative. A sequel, Thor: The Dark World, directed by Alan Taylor, was released on November 8, 2013. Hemsworth and Hiddleston reprised their roles as Thor and Loki, respectively, along with others from the first film. Christopher Eccleston joined the cast as the Dark Elf Maletkith. Thor: Ragnarok was released on November 3, 2017, directed by Taika Waititi. Eric Pearson and Craig Kyle & Christopher Yost wrote the screenplay, with Kevin Feige again producing. Hemsworth, Hiddleston, Hopkins, Elba, Asano, Zachary Levi, and Stevenson reprised their roles as Thor, Loki, Odin, Heimdall, Hogun, Fandral, and Volstagg, respectively, while Mark Ruffalo and Benedict Cumberbatch appeared as Bruce Banner / Hulk and Stephen Strange respectively, reprising their roles from previous MCU films. Cate Blanchett, Tessa Thompson, Jeff Goldblum and Karl Urban joined the cast as Hela, Valkyrie, Grandmaster, and Skurge, respectively.
who sang i got a brand new pair of rollerskates	Brand New key - wikipedia "Brand New Key '' is a pop song written and sung by folk music singer Melanie. Initially a track of Melanie 's album Gather Me, produced by Melanie 's husband, Peter Schekeryk, it was known also as "The Rollerskate Song '' due to its chorus. It was her greatest success, scoring No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart during December 1971 and January 1972. Billboard ranked it as the No. 9 song of 1972. It also scored No. 1 in Canada and Australia and No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart. The song was featured in the 1997 movie Boogie Nights as well as the 2010 movie Jackass 3D and an episode of Helix. The song is sung from the viewpoint of a girl with roller skates trying to attract the attention of a boy. In an interview with Examiner.com, Melanie described what she claimed was the inspiration for the song: "I was fasting with a 27 - day fast on water. I broke the fast and went back to my life living in New Jersey and we were going to a flea market around six in the morning. On the way back... and I had just broken the fast, from the flea market, we passed a McDonald 's and the aroma hit me, and I had been a vegetarian before the fast. So we pulled into the McDonald 's and I got the whole works... the burger, the shake, and the fries... and no sooner after I finished that last bite of my burger... that song was in my head. The aroma brought back memories of roller skating and learning to ride a bike and the vision of my dad holding the back fender of the tire. And me saying to my dad... ' You 're holding, you 're holding, you 're holding, right? ' Then I 'd look back and he was n't holding and I 'd fall. So that whole thing came back to me and came out in this song. '' Many listeners detect sexual innuendo in the lyrics, with the key in its lock thought to symbolize sexual intercourse, or in phrases such as "I go pretty far '' and "I 've been all around the world ''. Another common viewpoint on the song, is that the song is clearly an innocent reflection upon the typical workings of a child 's mind regarding their possessions (In this case, quad skates and the associated key essential for tightening / loosening a locking clamp on the skates). Melanie has acknowledged the possibility of detecting sexual innuendo in the song, without confirming or denying the intent: (The song), "Brand New Key '', I wrote in about fifteen minutes one night. I thought it was cute; a kind of old thirties tune. I guess a key and a lock have always been Freudian symbols, and pretty obvious ones at that. There was no deep serious expression behind the song, but people read things into it. They made up incredible stories as to what the lyrics said and what the song meant. In some places, it was even banned from the radio. My idea about songs is that once you write them, you have very little say in their life afterward. It 's a lot like having a baby. You conceive a song, deliver it, and then give it as good a start as you can. After that, it 's on its own. People will take it any way they want to take it. Melanie 's version is heard in the 1997 music Boogie Nights as Dirk Diggler (Mark Wahlberg) has his "audition '' with Rollergirl (Heather Graham) in front of Jack Horner (Burt Reynolds). The song is also played in Jackass 3 - D during the "Bungee Boogie '' stunt skit (in which the cast members use bungee cords, skateboards and a ramp to slingshot into a kiddie pool). On April 4, 2016, Jimmy Fallon lip synced the song during a "Lip Sync Battle '' on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, while he competed with actress Melissa McCarthy. On the October 17, 2016, episode of singing competition television show The Voice, Team Miley (Cyrus) contestants Darby Walker and Karlee Metzger performed the song in a battle round. Despite coaches Adam Levine, Blake Shelton, and Alicia Keys all preferring Metzger 's vocal performance, Cyrus chose to name Walker the winner of the battle. Shortly after, Metzger was stolen onto Team Blake, saving her from elimination. The original version appears in season 1 of the FX show The Bridge, as the character Daniel Frye flushes his supply of drugs and alcohol.
who did vince carter play for last year	Vince Carter - wikipedia Vincent Lamar Carter (born January 26, 1977) is an American professional basketball player for the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He is 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) tall and plays both shooting guard and small forward. Carter is one of only seven players ever to play at least 20 seasons in the NBA. A high school McDonald 's All - American, Carter played three years at the University of North Carolina. While there, he twice reached the Final Four of the NCAA Tournament before being selected as the fifth overall pick in the 1998 NBA draft by the Golden State Warriors, who traded him to the Toronto Raptors. He won the 1999 NBA Rookie of the Year Award and won the Slam Dunk Contest at the 2000 NBA All - Star Weekend. That summer, he represented the United States in the Summer Olympics, winning a gold medal. He quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his leaping ability and slam dunks, earning him nicknames such as "Vinsanity '', "Air Canada '', and "Half - Man, Half - Amazing ''. He led the Raptors to their first three playoff appearances. In 2004, he was traded to the New Jersey Nets, and he helped lead them to three playoff berths. In July 2009, Carter was traded to the Orlando Magic, and helped them advance to the Eastern Conference Finals before being traded to the Phoenix Suns in December 2010. He joined the Mavericks in 2011 and the Grizzlies in 2014. In 2017, he signed with the Kings. An eight - time NBA All - Star, Carter is one of only five players, along with Kobe Bryant, LeBron James and Hall of Famers Julius Erving and Michael Jordan, to lead the NBA All - Star Game fan voting more than three times. Carter scored his 20,000 th career point in 2011, becoming the 37th player in league history to do so. Carter is also one of six players in NBA history to average at least 20 points, 4 rebounds and 3 assists per game in 10 straight seasons and was the fifth player in NBA history to record at least 2,000 career three - pointers. He is also one of six players to record at least 24,000 points, 6,000 rebounds, 2,500 assists, 1,000 steals and 1,000 3 - point field goals. Off the court, Carter established his Embassy of Hope Foundation, assisting children and their families in Florida, New Jersey and Toronto. He was recognized in 2000 as Child Advocate of the Year by the Children 's Home Society, and received the Florida Governor 's Points of Light award in 2007 for his philanthropy in his home state. Born in Daytona Beach, Florida, Carter was a 1995 McDonald 's All - American at Mainland High School in Daytona Beach, leading Mainland to its first Class 6A state title in 56 years before spending three seasons playing college basketball at North Carolina under Dean Smith and later, Bill Guthridge. During the 1997 -- 1998 season, he was a member of new coach Guthridge 's "Six Starters '' system that featured Antawn Jamison, Shammond Williams, Ed Cota, Ademola Okulaja, and Makhtar N'Diaye. During his sophomore and junior seasons, Carter helped North Carolina to consecutive ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament titles and Final Four appearances. He finished the 1997 -- 98 season with a 15.6 points per game average and was named second - team All - American, First - Team All - ACC, and to the fan 's guide third - annual Coaches ACC All - Defensive Team. In May 1998, Carter declared for the 1998 NBA draft, following his classmate Jamison, who had declared earlier that spring. During his NBA career, Carter continued his coursework at North Carolina, and in August 2000, he graduated with a degree in African - American studies. On January 31, 2012, Carter was honored as one of the 35 greatest McDonald 's All - Americans, and on February 23, 2012, President Obama, an avid NCAA and NBA basketball fan, gave praise to Carter at a fundraiser event, referring to Carter 's game as a "huge treat for me ever since he 's been playing for the Tar Heels. '' The Raptors struggled in their early years as did their expansion cousins, the Vancouver Grizzlies. After the acquisition of Carter through a draft day trade in 1998 however, the team set league attendance records in 2000, 2001, and 2002 and the value of the Raptors franchise doubled during Carter 's tenure as a Raptor. Carter was instrumental in leading the Raptors to the playoffs in 2000 for the first time in franchise history. He also led them to a then - franchise high of 47 wins and their first ever playoff series win in 2001, advancing to the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Carter was initially drafted by the NBA 's Golden State Warriors with the fifth overall pick, and then traded to the Toronto Raptors for the fourth overall pick, Antawn Jamison, his college teammate and good friend. Carter 's rookie season was the shortened 50 - game 1999 season, after the NBA locked out its players in 1998 -- 99. Carter started almost every game for coach Butch Carter, averaged 18.3 points per game (ppg), and eventually won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. The next year, Carter was selected to an All - Star Team for the first time, averaged 25.7 ppg, made the Third Team All - NBA, and showcased his athleticism and dunking abilities in the 2000 NBA Slam Dunk Contest. He won the contest by performing an array of dunks including a 360 ° windmill, a between the legs bounce dunk, and an "elbow in the rim '' dunk (also known as a "cookie jar '' dunk or the "honey dip ''). ESPN referred to the 2000 Slam Dunk Contest as, "one of the most memorable contests in the entire run. '' Kobe Bryant, who was invited along with Carter, Michael Jordan, Dominique Wilkins, and Julius Erving as judges for the 2007 Slam Dunk Contest, said that among the judges in their prime, Carter would win in a dunk contest. In Carter 's first two seasons, he and his distant cousin Tracy McGrady formed a formidable one - two punch as Raptor teammates. The two led the Raptors to their first playoff berth in the 2000 NBA Playoffs, but they were swept in the first round by the New York Knicks, in three games. Upon McGrady 's departure to the Orlando Magic as a free agent in a sign and trade deal, Carter became the Raptors ' franchise player. Kobe Bryant, whose team won several championships in the decade to follow, believed they could 've competed for several championships if they had stayed together. In 2000 -- 01, his third season, Carter averaged a career - high 27.6 ppg, made the Second Team All - NBA, and was voted in as a starter in the 2001 NBA All - Star Game. The Raptors also finished the regular season with a then franchise - record 47 wins. In the playoffs, the Raptors beat the New York Knicks 3 -- 2 in the first round, and advanced to the 2001 Eastern Conference Semifinals to face off against the Philadelphia 76ers. Carter and Allen Iverson played in a seven - game series that see - sawed back and forth. Carter scored 50 points in game three and set an NBA playoff record for most three - point field goals made in one game. On the morning of Game Seven, Carter attended his graduation at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He had completed the requirements for his degree in African - American Studies the previous summer and said he felt receiving his diploma was personally significant. Television ratings for game seven soared as one of the highest watched in NBC 's history for a non-finals game. As the Sixers and Raptors increased their double team pressures on Carter and Iverson respectively, the game winning shot came down to Carter who missed with 2.0 seconds remaining. "It was incredible. (Carter) had great games at home and I had some great games at home, but both of us were just trying to put our teams on our back and win basketball games. It is great just having those memories and being a part of something like that. '' In the summer of 2001, Carter signed a $94 million, six - year extension with the Raptors. In addition, Carter announced that he would be hosting a charity basketball game featuring fellow NBA stars that would be played at the Air Canada Centre in Toronto on August 3, 2001. The success of the first game being sold out encouraged Carter to make the charity game an annual summer event. The next season was an injury - riddled one for Carter. He started in 60 games and he averaged 24.7 ppg. He was voted into the 2002 NBA All - Star Game, but he could not participate due to injury. The Raptors did not fare well without their All - Star player. The team lost 17 of 18 games to drop to 30 -- 38, then won 12 of their last 14 to finish at 42 -- 40. On December 12, 2001, in a win against the Denver Nuggets, Carter recorded 42 points, 15 rebounds, 6 assists and 5 steals to become only the second player in NBA history to record at least 40 points, 15 rebounds, 5 assists and 5 steals since the NBA started recording steals. Carter was injured during the 2002 NBA Playoffs, and his team was defeated in the first round by the Detroit Pistons, in five games. During the 2003 NBA All - Star Game, Carter gave up his starting All - Star spot to the Washington Wizards ' Michael Jordan to allow Jordan to make his final start as an All - Star. During his Raptors tenure, news came out that Carter had developed Sinding - Larsen - Johansson disease also known as "jumper 's knee '', which drew criticism and questions from local media outlets and fans about Carter 's long term durability as a NBA scorer. Fifty games into the 2003 -- 04 season, Toronto was 25 -- 25 and in a position to make the playoffs, but injuries to Jalen Rose, Alvin Williams, and Carter sent the Raptors plummeting down the standings, and the Raptors fell three games short of making the playoffs. Carter 's individual season performance was 22.5 ppg, with teammate Alvin Williams 's knee injury turning out to be career ending. During the 2004 off - season, G.M. Glen Grunwald and the entire coaching staff were fired after falling three games short of the eighth and final playoff spot in the previous season. Carter became frustrated with the Raptors ' upper management. In particular, Carter was unhappy with Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE) and Raptors president Richard Peddie. In a private meeting, Peddie reassured Carter that MLSE was serious in building a contender in Toronto and that he would pursue established players like point guard Steve Nash and center Jamaal Magloire. Carter was also given the impression that Peddie would consider Julius Erving as a serious candidate for G.M., thinking he could attract star players to Toronto. Though Julius Erving flew into Toronto for an interview, interim G.M. Jack McCloskey publicly disclosed a week prior that Erving was not really in the mix. Peddie instead hired Rob Babcock as G.M. whose first priority in rebuilding the Raptors said was to "establish our philosophy '', stating "we are not really worried about how many wins we get right away, or whether we make the playoffs within the first year or two. '' After hiring Sam Mitchell as new head coach, Babcock 's first move was to select Rafael Araujo with the eighth overall pick in the 2004 NBA draft to fill in the center position, while passing on future all star swingman Andre Iguodala. Babcock later signed guard Rafer Alston to a five - year deal. Consequently, much speculation arose whether Carter wanted to be traded. The Toronto Sun reported that Carter felt misled and felt the Raptors would never be an elite team under the current MLSE structure with Peddie as Raptors president. Some NBA fans raised money to fly a "Keep Vince, Trade Peddie '' banner over the Air Canada Centre just before Carter 's annual charity game. When Rob Babcock was questioned about the trade speculations, he denied Carter asked for a trade but indiscreetly revealed Carter 's agent had approached him for a trade request. During the 2004 -- 05 season, new head coach Sam Mitchell often benched Carter in the 4th quarter to emphasize the new team philosophy he and Babcock wanted players to adapt to, spurring rumors of fights between Carter and Mitchell and new point guard Rafer Alston. On Dec. 18, 2004, the Raptors dealt Carter to the Nets for Alonzo Mourning, Eric Williams, Aaron Williams and a pair of first - round draft picks. Mourning did not report to Toronto. In his first game back in Toronto, on April 15, 2005, Carter was heavily booed and jeered by Raptors fans; some fans were found burning Vince Carter jerseys, while many donned No. 15 baby bibs, ' FUVC ' T - shirts, and other merchandise that labelled Carter as "Wince '' or as "immature '', alluding to Carter 's knee and ankle injuries and his dissent. Much like former Raptors teammate Tracy McGrady, Carter has been booed each time he has returned to Toronto. In early January 2005, when asked by TNT 's John Thompson, "Do you think Vince Carter has pushed himself as hard as he should have pushed himself? '', Carter replied, "In years past, no. I was just fortunate enough to have the talent. You know, you get spoiled when you 're able to do a lot of things and you see that, and you really do n't have to work at it. But now, I think with all the injuries and the things that have gone on, I have to work a little harder and I 'm a little hungrier. '' Though Carter 's comments were perceived by Raptors fans as his confession of quitting on the Raptors, Thompson said the comments were misinterpreted, saying, "That boy never said to me, ' Coach, I just laid down and quit. '... I was embarrassed and felt awful about it for his sake, because I knew what he was communicating to me... he was more expressing a desire of wanting to do better, as we all do. '' Despite Thompson 's defense of Carter, the Toronto Star 's Dave Feschuk in 2007 wrote that Carter "cheated on (the Raptors). He quit on the floor. '' Carter later stated his comments were misconstrued. On the eve of the Raptors -- Nets playoff series in 2007, Carter told New York 's WFAN radio station, "One day, maybe the fans will understand how it all went down. That 's all I can say. '' In November 2011, nearly seven years since the trade to the Nets, Carter, along with his cousin Tracy McGrady and Charles Oakley addressed the Toronto audience in an interview on Off the Record with Michael Landsberg. When asked about being booed in Toronto, Carter said, "They watched myself and Tracy grow up. And when we left they still got to see (us) flourish and become (who we are). For me, I looked at it as, a young child growing up into a grown man and moving on. And I get it. Leaving, hurt a lot of people. It hurt me because I tell you what... I accomplished a lot, I learned a lot, I became the person and player of who I am today because of that experience, through the coaches, players, and everything else. I get it... but regardless I still love the city. I have friends there and my heart is still there because that 's where it all started. '' Later in the interview, when asked about any words to the Toronto fans, Carter said, "I appreciate the fans and whether you cheer for me, boo me, or hate me, I still love you. Toronto 's one of the best kept secrets... puts one of the best products on the floor and one of the top places to play in. '' On November 6, 2012, in an interview with TSN Radio 1050, Carter reiterated his love for the city and his appreciation for the Toronto Raptors organization. The next day, Sam Mitchell and Rob Babcock revealed on Sportsnet 590, The Fan that the night before Carter was traded to New Jersey, Carter phoned Mitchell to express his desire to stay in Toronto and commit to their vision for the team. However, Babcock said it was too late and the trade had already been verbally agreed upon. Looking back on it Mitchell feels he should have personally contacted the MLSE chairman, Larry Tanenbaum, but was reluctant because he did not want to break the chain of command. On November 19, 2014, nearly a decade after the trade, as a part of the Raptors ' 20th anniversary celebration, the team paid tribute to Carter with a video montage during the first quarter of the Raptors - Grizzlies games. Leading up to the game, questions were raised about how Raptor fans would receive the planned video tribute. As the sellout crowd watched the video tribute featuring highlights of Carter 's high - flying Raptors days, what began as the usual booing turned into an overwhelmingly positive standing ovation. An emotional Carter used his warm - up shirt to wipe tears running down his face as he pointed to his heart and waved to the fans in appreciation. He later stated, "It was a great feeling, I could n't write it any better. '' Toronto 's current players were among those standing for Carter as Kyle Lowry, DeMar DeRozan and Terrence Ross all paid tribute to him. Raptors GM Masai Ujiri referred to Carter in April 2014 as "one of the symbols of the Toronto Raptors. '' To this day, Carter remains the Toronto Raptors ' all - time leader in points per game with 23.4, amassing 9,420 points during his 6 ⁄ - year run in Toronto. As a five - time All - Star in Toronto, Carter was also named to two All - NBA teams. As a Net, Carter produced some of his highest numbers. He scored more than 23.5 ppg and attained career high averages in rebounds per game (5.8) and assists per game (4.7) while missing just 11 games in his four full seasons as a Net. Carter helped lead the New Jersey Nets to three playoff runs and is currently in the top 10 of nineteen different all - time Nets statistical categories, including points, points per game (1st all - time of NBA Nets), defensive rebounds, assists, turnover rate, 3 - point field goals, offensive rating, player efficiency rating, and win shares. The 2004 -- 05 season looked gloomy at first for the Nets. Their star Kidd was recovering from his own microfracture surgery and the team got off to a 2 -- 11 start, and even with Jason Kidd returning from injury, the outlook was bleak with Jefferson requiring season ending surgery. However, after the trade, Carter rallied the Nets from more than 10 games out of the playoffs to gain the final seed in the Eastern Conference. In the 2005 -- 06 NBA season, the Carter - Kidd duo co-lead the Nets to 49 wins, an Atlantic Division title, and the number three seed in the playoffs, while averaging 24.2 points, 5.8 rebounds, and 4.3 assists per game. He led the Nets to the second round of the playoffs before losing to the eventual NBA champions Miami Heat in five games. Carter averaged 29.6 points, 7.0 rebounds and 5.3 assists in 11 playoff games. Carter was also named to the All - Star Team in 2006. On November 7, 2005, Carter threw down a very memorable dunk against the Miami Heat, over defensive stalwart, Alonzo Mourning. On December 23, 2005, Carter set an NBA record for the most free throws made in a quarter (4th quarter) with 16 against the Miami Heat. He tied his career high of 51 points in the same game. In the 2006 -- 07 NBA season Carter was named, along with teammate Jason Kidd, as a reserve to the 2007 NBA All - Star Game, after losing out on a starting spot to Gilbert Arenas by 3,010 votes. Both Carter and Kidd made their eighth All - Star game appearance. In a 120 -- 114 overtime win over the Washington Wizards, April 7, 2007, Carter and Jason Kidd became the first teammates in over 18 years to record triple - doubles in the same game since the Chicago Bulls ' Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen achieved this feat against the Los Angeles Clippers in 1989. Carter finished with 46 points, a career - high 16 rebounds, and 10 assists. Kidd finished with 10 points, tied a career - high with 16 rebounds, and tied a season - high with 18 assists. Carter finished the 2006 -- 07 NBA season playing all 82 games, scoring over 24 points with a 21 PER. After the Nets eliminated the Raptors, the Nets were eliminated from the playoffs by LeBron James and the Cleveland Cavaliers (lost series 4 -- 2). During the season, the New York Knicks and Nets had discussed a trade in February around Carter, which was ended with the trading deadline. Shaquille O'Neal when asked which player he would want to play after playing with Kobe and Wade replied, "I 'm gon na have to go with Vince Carter. I think he needs a player like me that can get him to the next level. And I can get him to the next level. '' In the off - season, the two teams again revisited the subject but on July 1, 2007 Carter signed a 4 - year, $61.8 million contract with the Nets. For the 2007 -- 08 season, Jason Kidd was traded mid season and Magic Johnson claimed that Carter 's game was on the decline due to his bad knees. In a 2008 ESPN special later that year, Carter was named behind Dominique Wilkins, Julius Erving, and Michael Jordan as being one of the ' greatest dunkers of all time. ' In it, Reggie Miller noted "Carter is probably the greatest dunker in the NBA I have ever seen. '' ESPN 's Chris Broussard did a follow up piece in 2011 and called Vince Carter as the greatest in - game dunker of all time in the NBA. Carter ended up finishing strong in 2008 with a season average of at least 21 points, 6 rebounds and 5 assists a game, a season accomplishment unique to him, Kobe Bryant, and LeBron James He also led the Nets in freethrow percentage, assists and steals per game (81.6 %, 5.1, 1.2). Rod Thorn credited Carter for becoming a leader since the All - Star break. For the 2008 -- 09 season, the Nets decided to rebuild and Carter was voted team captain to help mentor the young players. Coach Lawrence Frank commented that Carter had "served the term ' captain ' very honorably. Coming with a team that has veterans from other teams, some young guys coming straight from school, a couple of 20 - year - olds and one 21 - year - old. Showing them how you handle every day and the professionalism you approach your job (with), his disposition, his character. Plus, he 's played at a very high level. He 's accepted different roles on the team, at different times, to let other guys thrive and play at a high level, and yet has shown that he still is one of the elite players in the league. '' Two such players Carter helped mentor were Devin Harris and Brook Lopez. Brook Lopez finished 3rd in Rookie of the Year and Devin Harris made his 1st All - Star team and finished 2nd for the NBA Most Improved Player award. In a game against the Toronto Raptors on November 21, 2008, Carter scored 12 points in 44 seconds, including a game - tying 3 - pointer to force overtime and a game winning two - handed reverse alley - oop dunk to lead the Nets from an 18 - point deficit to defeat the Raptors 129 -- 127. Carter finished the game with 39 points, 9 rebounds and 6 assists. On June 25, 2009, the day of the NBA Draft, Carter was traded to his hometown - team, the Orlando Magic with Ryan Anderson for Rafer Alston, Tony Battie and future teammate Courtney Lee; the Magic were searching for a go - to scorer who could take pressure off Dwight Howard. The Nets without Carter ended the season with a record of 12 -- 70. Carter made his season debut with the Magic on October 28, 2009 against the Philadelphia 76ers at home, recording 15 points and 2 assists to help the Magic defeat the Sixers. On February 8, 2010, Carter scored a season - high 48 points in a 123 -- 117 win against the New Orleans Hornets, including 34 points in the second half to help rally the Magic back from a 17 - point deficit. The Orlando Magic finished 59 -- 23, the second best record in the Eastern Conference, and won the Southeast Division. Carter helped lead the Magic to the 2010 NBA Playoffs, sweeping the Charlotte Bobcats and the Atlanta Hawks in the first two rounds, before falling to the Boston Celtics in Eastern Conference Finals in 6 games. This marked the first time Carter made it to the Conference Finals. During the 2010 -- 2011 season with the Magic, he averaged 15.1 ppg, 4.1 rpg, and 2.9 apg in 30.2 mpg. He played 22 games with the Magic that season. On December 18, 2010, Carter was traded to the Phoenix Suns along with Marcin Gortat, Mickaël Piétrus, a 2011 first - round draft pick, and $3 million, for Hedo Türkoğlu, Jason Richardson, and Earl Clark. When asked how he felt about being traded from Orlando, Carter replied, "They gave me an opportunity to play at home and they felt it was time to go in a different direction. You ca n't be mad about that. They 've given me an opportunity to play somewhere else and still chase that dream. He changed his jersey number to 25 from 15 because his teammate Robin Lopez was using 15. On January 16, 2011, Carter scored his 20,000 th point, becoming only the 37th NBA player to reach that plateau. Although the back - court pairing of Carter and Steve Nash was successful together, the Suns ultimately missed the playoffs as they were in midst of a rebuilding phase. Prior to the 2011 -- 12 season, the Suns declined their option on the final year of his contract, making him a free agent. On December 12, 2011, Carter agreed to sign a three - year deal with the defending - champion Dallas Mavericks, with one year guaranteed. This move reunited Carter with former Nets teammate Jason Kidd. He continued to wear number 25 in Dallas as his original number 15 was already retired for Brad Davis. On April 20, 2012, In a game against the Golden State Warriors, Carter became the eighteenth player in NBA history with 1,500 3 - pointers. The Mavericks exercised their option for a second year on July 1, 2012. On February 13, 2013, Carter surpassed Larry Bird on the NBA 's career scoring list after scoring his 6th three - pointer of the night. Carter scored 17 of his 26 points in the 3rd quarter with 5 out of 7 three - pointers made. Carter also became the 11th player in NBA history with at least 1,600 3 pointers made. On February 22, 2013, Carter surpassed Gary Payton on the NBA 's career scoring list after hitting a game winning three against the New Orleans Hornets. On April 15, 2013, Carter surpassed Clyde Drexler on the NBA 's career scoring list. He only needed 4 points to pass Drexler as he went on to score 22 points in a losing effort against the Memphis Grizzlies. Carter finished the season tying his career high of 162 three - pointers made in a season which he first did in the 2000 -- 01 season. On December 23, 2013, in a win against the Houston Rockets, Carter became the 10th player in NBA history to make 1700 career 3 - pointers. On January 10, 2014, in a win against the New Orleans Pelicans, Carter surpassed Dale Ellis on career 3 - pointers made. On March 2, 2014, in a loss against the San Antonio Spurs, Carter surpassed Peja Stojaković on career 3 - pointers made. On March 16, 2014, Carter became the 27th player in NBA history to score 23,000 points after making a 3 - pointer in the 3rd quarter against the Oklahoma City Thunder. On March 19, 2014, Carter passed Rashard Lewis to reach 7th place all time on the NBA 's career 3 - pointers made. On April 7, 2014, Carter surpassed Elgin Baylor on the NBA 's career scoring list. On April 12, 2014, Carter surpassed Adrian Dantley on the NBA 's career scoring list. On April 26, 2014, Carter hit the game - winning three pointer as time expired to give Dallas a 109 - 108 win in game 3 of their round 1 playoff match up against the San Antonio Spurs. The Mavericks took the lead in the series 2 - 1. The Mavericks went on to lose the series in 7 games to the eventual 2014 champion Spurs. On July 12, 2014, Carter signed a multi-year deal with the Memphis Grizzlies. On November 13, 2014, he made a game winning alley - oop assist from the sideline to teammate Courtney Lee at the buzzer to win the game 111 -- 110 over the Sacramento Kings. On December 13, in a game against the Philadelphia 76ers, Carter connected on two three - pointers to pass Chauncey Billups for sixth place on the NBA 's all - time list of three - pointers made (1,831). Four days later, he scored a season - high 18 points in a 117 -- 116 triple overtime win over the San Antonio Spurs, passing Robert Parish in the process for 25th all - time on the NBA scoring list. Carter appeared in just one of the Grizzlies ' first 12 games of the 2015 -- 16 season before scoring six points on consecutive three - pointers in 17 minutes of action against the Houston Rockets on November 20. In his fourth game of the season on November 24, Carter moved to 31st place on the NBA 's all - time games played list, passing Steve Nash. On November 27, he scored 14 points in 22 minutes of action, including a 65 - foot three - pointer from beyond midcourt to end the first quarter, in a loss to the Atlanta Hawks. On February 19, 2016, he scored 15 points in 26 minutes of action, including a 73 - foot heave as the third quarter closed, in a 109 -- 104 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. On February 24, with nine points scored against the Los Angeles Lakers, Carter passed Charles Barkley (23,757) for 24th in career points scored. Two days later, he scored a season - high 19 points in a 112 -- 95 win over the Lakers. Towards the end of the regular season, injuries to Marc Gasol, Mike Conley, Zach Randolph, Tony Allen and other reserves increased Carter 's playing time from 14 to 20 minutes per game. A depleted roster led to Carter starting in the final three games of the season, having previously not made a start all season long. The Grizzlies subsequently lost 10 of their final 11 games to stumble into the playoffs as the seventh seed with a 42 -- 40 record. In the first round of the playoffs, the Grizzlies faced the second - seeded San Antonio Spurs, and in a Game 1 loss on April 17, Carter scored a team - high 16 points in 19 minutes as a starter. The Grizzlies went on to lose the series in four games; Carter started all four contests. After finishing second behind Tim Duncan in the 2014 -- 15 season, Carter was awarded with the Twyman -- Stokes Teammate of the Year Award for the 2015 -- 16 season. On October 30, 2016, Carter scored 18 points on 5 - of - 6 three - pointers in a 112 -- 103 overtime win over the Washington Wizards. On November 1, Carter played in his 1,278 th NBA game, tying him with A.C. Green for 25th on the NBA 's career list. He also became the 24th player in NBA history to surpass 24,000 career points. On November 8, he scored 20 points against the Denver Nuggets and became the oldest player in the NBA to post a 20 - point game since Michael Jordan scored 25 for the Washington Wizards in April 2003, at age 40. It was also Carter 's first 20 - point game since April 30, 2014. On November 12, Carter made seven field goals against the Milwaukee Bucks to pass Gary Payton (8,708) for 21st in NBA history. Carter also passed Charles Oakley for 24th on the NBA 's career games played list with 1,283. On November 14, in a win over the Utah Jazz, Carter had his second 20 - point game of the season, joining Michael Jordan and Patrick Ewing as the only players in NBA history to put up 20 points and 5 + rebounds off the bench at the age of 39, with Carter being the oldest at 39 years and 287 days. Carter missed seven games in early December with a right hip flexor strain. On January 11, 2017, Carter hit his 1,989 th career three - pointer to move ahead of Jason Kidd and into fifth on the all - time list. On February 1, 2017, in a game against the Denver Nuggets, Carter hit his 2000th career three - pointer, making him only the fifth player to ever reach that mark. On February 6, 2017 against San Antonio, Carter joined Karl Malone, Dikembe Mutombo, Kareem Abdul - Jabbar and Robert Parish as the only 40 - year old players to record at least four blocks in a game. On February 15, in a game against the New Orleans Pelicans, Carter passed Allen Iverson for 23rd on the NBA all - time scoring list. On March 13, 2017, Carter made his first start of the season and made all eight of his shots, including six from beyond the arc, to score a season - high 24 points and lead the Grizzlies past the Milwaukee Bucks 113 -- 93. He became the first 40 - year - old in NBA history to hit six triples in one game. At 40 years, 46 days old, Carter also became the oldest player to start an NBA game since Juwan Howard in April 2013. On March 29, 2017 against Indiana, Carter passed Ray Allen for 22nd on the NBA all - time scoring list. In the Grizzlies ' regular - season finale on April 12 against Dallas, Carter played in his 1,347 th game and passed Kobe Bryant for 13th in regular - season games played. On April 22, 2017, Carter became the first 40 - year old to hit at least three 3 - pointers in a playoff game during Game 4 of their first - round series against the San Antonio Spurs. He finished the game with 13 points. On July 10, 2017, Carter signed a one - year, $8 million contract with the Sacramento Kings. On August 18, 2017, during the Players Voice Awards, Carter was named by the NBA Players Association as the Most Influential Veteran. During the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, Carter performed a memorable dunk when he jumped over 7 - foot - 2 - inch (2.18 m) French center Frédéric Weis. Teammate Jason Kidd said it was "One of the best plays I 've ever seen. '' The French media later dubbed it "le dunk de la mort '' ("the Dunk of Death ''). The U.S. team went on to win the gold medal that year and Carter led the team with 14.8 points per game. Carter admitted he channeled his frustrations in his personal life and Tracy McGrady leaving the Raptors before the Olympics. Carter replaced Kobe Bryant on the USA roster for the 2003 FIBA Americas Tournament while Bryant was undergoing surgeries on his knee and shoulder. He wore Bryant 's jersey number 8. Carter 's selection was only for the 2003 FIBA Americas Tournament. However, Bryant later on withdrew due to a legal case he was going through at that time. Carter did not take over the Olympic spot as he felt he needed to take some time off during the summer to rest and heal and he was also getting married at that time. Carter has donated to his high school, Mainland, as well as the foundation he established upon being drafted into the NBA in 1998, The Embassy of Hope. On February 3, 2007, a statue of Carter was unveiled at Mainland. Carter visited with the Duquesne University basketball team in Pittsburgh as a show of support after its shooting incident in September 2006. He is a member of the Omega Psi Phi fraternity. Carter married Ellen Rucker, a chiropractor, in July 2004; the couple divorced in 2006. They have one daughter, Kai Michelle Carter. born on June 1, 2005. While with the Nets, Carter lived in Saddle River, New Jersey on the same street as Jason Kidd, and the two played ping pong and went bowling together. In January 2010, he opened a restaurant, Vince Carter 's, in Daytona, Florida, which closed in 2016. Throughout his career, Carter has been known for not only his dunks and scoring acumen, but for his celebrations and emotion. He celebrated explosive dunks with his patented "Crank it up '' celebration, which is expressed by rolling his wrists as if revving the engine of a motorcycle. As his dunks became more scarce later in his career, the move has served as a tongue in cheek rallying cry, as he and other infrequently dunking players "crank it up '' after routine dunks.
when was the telephone released to the public	Timeline of the telephone - wikipedia This timeline of the telephone covers landline, radio, and cellular telephony technologies and provides many important dates in the history of the telephone.
when is chasing cameron season 2 coming out	Chasing Cameron - wikipedia Chasing Cameron is an American reality television series starring Vine star Cameron Dallas. It premiered on Netflix on December 27, 2016. The series centers around Cameron Dallas, a "social media influencer '', who is best known for his prominence on the video app Vine. He is one of the main members of a group called Magcon (Meet and greet convention), which was short - lived in 2014, but revived, partly with other people, in 2016. During 2016, Magcon went on a tour in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, with events consisting of a show and a meet and greet. The half - hour episodes depict Cameron and other Magcon members ' road to fame, and the price that comes with Internet stardom. The show 's co-starring tour members include Aaron Carpenter and Taylor Caniff, as well as Dallas ' immediate family members. The first season of the show consisted of ten episodes. The series was announced on June 22, 2016 via Variety. The show premiered on Netflix on December 27, 2016. On January 20, 2017, Dallas said in a red carpet interview at the People 's Choice Awards: "For sure. 100 % there will be a season 2. (...) I think it 's gon na dive deeper more into my relationship between my mom and sister, and then kind of a more in - depth view on where we 're going and what 's continuing to go on, because we 're only taking steps forward, so I feel like the more we go, the more interesting it gets ''. Dallas also stated that the second season would feature a different premise altogether. Since the release of Chasing Cameron the series has received generally negative reviews. Common Sense Media 's critical consensus reads, "Internet star 's self - serving reality show has iffy messages '', while giving the show a rating of 1 / 5. Kevin O'Keeffe, writing for mic.com also criticized the show, stating "his hesitance to let go of control makes Chasing Cameron a far worse show than it could have been ''. Michael Andor Brodeur, writing for The Boston Globe, was somewhat more receptive, writing "There 's something about the abundant emptiness of "Chasing Cameron '' that, right now, feels like a necessary refuge (...) basking in its inconsequential glow. ''
godzilla vs mothra and king ghidorah full movie	Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All - Out Attack - Wikipedia Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All - Out Attack (ゴジラ・モスラ・キングギドラ大怪獣総攻撃, Gojira, Mosura, Kingu Gidora: Daikaijū Sōkōgeki, also known as GMK) is a 2001 Japanese science fiction tokusatsu kaiju film featuring Godzilla, produced and distributed by Toho. It is the 26th film in the Godzilla franchise, the 25th Godzilla film produced by Toho, and the third film in the Millennium series. The film is directed by Shūsuke Kaneko, written by Kaneko, Keiichi Hasegawa, and Masahiro Yokotani, and stars Chiharu Niiyama, Ryudo Uzaki, Masahiro Kobayashi, Takashi Nishina, Kaho Minami, Shinya Owada, Kunio Murai, Hiroyuki Watanabe, Shingo Katsurayama, Takeo Nakahara, Toshikazu Fukawa and Hideyo Amamoto. Like the other Millennium films, this is a direct follow - up to the original Godzilla film and ignores the events of the Shōwa and Heisei series. During a meeting of the Japan Self - Defense Forces (JSDF) for the potential return of Godzilla, Admiral Taizo Tachibana briefs cadets about Godzilla 's first attack. A nuclear submarine is reported missing, which is later found to have been destroyed by Godzilla. Tachibana 's daughter, Yuri Tachibana films a docudrama with her crew at Mt. Myoko, where a mysterious earthquake randomly ensues. The odd earthquake returns later that night burying a biker gang and leaving one surviving trucker who witnesses the monster, Baragon. The next day, Yuri is unable to convince her supervisor Haruki Kadokura to report the incident. The JSDF attempts to rescue the buried men using their D - 03 missile. The surviving trucker tries to explain to a military official what he saw but can only explain that he believed it was Godzilla. Yuri 's friend, Teruaki Takeda, supports her theory that a monster may have been the cause of the mysterious Myoko earthquake by giving her a book on The Guardian Monsters. While Mothra attacks a group of teenagers at Lake Ikeda in Kagoshima, the JSDF analyzes underwater footage of what appears to be glowing dorsal fins leaving the destroyed nuclear submarine from before. The conclusion is drawn that the monster is Godzilla. Yuri interviews Hirotoshi Isayama, an elderly man who foretells the return of Godzilla. Isayama explains to her the legend of the guardian monsters, Baragon, Mothra, and King Ghidorah and goes on that they must be awakened before Godzilla destroys Japan. Yuri and her team visit the guardian monsters shrine where she finds a stone. Godzilla comes ashore to Magonote and attacks the Bonin Islands, leaving few survivors. Yuri returns to interview Isayama, and discovers that the souls of those who were killed by the Japanese in World War II are embedded within Godzilla, and wish to destroy Japan as punishment for people 's attempts to forget Japanese wartime atrocities. A few days later, Godzilla and Baragon battle in Hakone; Godzilla is victorious and Yuri is injured. When Takeda refuses to take her to Godzilla 's location, Yuri leaves. Mothra 's cocoon is soon immediately discovered in Lake Ikeda. The JSDF dispatch several fighter jets to fight Godzilla but are wiped out. Tachibana sets up a defense line in Yokohama. Mothra and a yet - to - be-grown Ghidorah awaken and fly towards Yokohama to fight Godzilla. The JSDF incapacitates Ghidorah and Mothra but fail to stop Godzilla. Furious, Godzilla wipes out the defense line and later kills Mothra. Mothra 's spirit merges with Ghidorah and transforms Ghidorah into the 3,000 - year - old dragon King Ghidorah. King Ghidorah injures Godzilla and they fight underwater. Tachibana and his colleague join the fight using the Satsuma submarine. Tachibana attempts to shoot the D - 03 into Godzilla 's wound but fails Yuri and Takeda report the struggle from a bridge that later collapses from Godzilla 's atomic breath. The shrine stone falls from Takeda 's pockets and merges with King Ghidorah 's head. Yuri and Takeda barely survive the fall and swim to the shore while the monsters continue to fight. Godzilla destroys King Ghidorah, unleashing the spirits of the Guardian Monsters, which sink Godzilla down to the deep. After entering Godzilla 's body through its mouth, Tachibana is able to use a D - 03 missile on Godzilla 's wound. Godzilla surfaces to confront Yuri and Takeda, but the D - 03 wounds Godzilla. Godzilla attempts to kill Yuri and Takeda, only to sink once more beneath the water. Tachibana escapes from Godzilla as the monster disintegrates. Japan soon rejoices at their victory against Godzilla, but his disembodied heart is still beating on the ocean floor. Director Shūsuke Kaneko cycled through various script ideas when attempting to conceive this film. In the earliest known script, Godzilla would have faced off against a revamped version of Kamacuras, but this idea was scrapped since Godzilla had fought another insect - like kaiju in the previous film (Godzilla vs. Megaguirus). A second idea involved Godzilla battling a new alien monster in a futuristic setting, but the script was considered too dark for a Godzilla film. The Guardian Monsters concept came next, though Kaneko 's original script originally had Anguirus, Varan and Baragon defend Japan against Godzilla. Toho told him to replace the former two with the more popular King Ghidorah and Mothra, as Anguirus and Varan were not considered bankable enough to guarantee a box - office hit. Skeptical at first, he managed to work the two monsters into the film... The film is especially notable for the changes made to the monsters. For example, Ghidorah typically played the villain in previous Godzilla films; this film has him as a hero. In fact, Ghidorah is actually portrayed a few meters shorter than Godzilla; previous incarnations of the monster were much larger, and towered over Godzilla. Originally, Godzilla was intended to walk with his back and tail parallel to the ground however, this idea was dropped due to the strain it put on Mizuho Yoshida (the actor playing Godzilla), and Godzilla retains his traditional posture. Mothra was also revamped. Like Ghidorah, Mothra is portrayed as being far smaller than normal and looking more like a Butterfly than a Moth. Her poison powder and hurricane wind attacks were removed, and were replaced with a burst of stingers fired from her abdomen. In addition, Mothra 's fairy servants, the Shobijin, are dropped completely, (though a homage exists in the form of twins from Gamera 3: Awakening of Irys who look up in awe at Mothra as she flies overhead). Baragon was also altered. His heat ray was removed, his roar was changed and his horn is no longer bioluminescent. Apparently, the reason behind the changes to Ghidorah, Mothra, and Baragon were made in order to make Godzilla seem stronger. Director Kaneko wanted Godzilla to be the most powerful monster in the film. He originally wanted to use monsters who are notably smaller and less powerful than Godzilla, as his opponents. When advised by Toho to replace them, he compensated by making Ghidorah and Mothra weaker than they normally were. Fuyuki Shinada, who designed the monster suits for the film, was disappointed that Varan (his all - time favorite monster) was n't going to be in the film, so he compromised by putting Varan 's facial features on Ghidorah 's three heads. In addition, the radioactive element has been replaced with a more mystical element. Godzilla has origins rooted in Japan 's World War II past. Although Godzilla is still a mutant dinosaur created by the atomic bomb, he is also described as an incarnation of those killed or who were left to die at the hands of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Pacific War. The extent to which his nuclear and spiritual origins balance is never specified. Kaneko, a lifelong pacifist, wanted to give the film an anti-war angle. The nuclear origin was left in because he knew that audiences wanted a realistic Godzilla, but he thought it worked better with a fantasy element. Produced with a budget of $9,400,000, Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All - Out Attack opened in Japan on December 15, 2001 on a double - bill with an animated film called Hamtaro: Ham Ham Big Land Adventure. In its opening weekend, it grossed approximately $1,900,000. By the end of its box office run, Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All - Out Attack grossed a total of approximately $20,000,000, with 2,400,000 admissions. It was one of the largest - grossing Godzilla films of the Millennium series in Japan. The film was released on DVD on January 27, 2004, and was released on Blu - ray, bundled with Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla, on September 9, 2014. After the film was completed, Toho had their international versions of the movie dubbed in Hong Kong. This dubbed version significantly changes the meaning of several lines throughout the film. Sony licensed GMK and Godzilla vs. Megaguirus with the hope of giving both films a theatrical release in the United States. Sony 's release of Godzilla 2000 proved that traditional Godzilla films failed to attract huge crowds of moviegoers, so plans to give any newer Godzilla films a wide release were scrapped. Instead, Sony prepared edited television versions of both films. These premiered in the United States on the Sci - Fi Channel on August 31, 2003, during the channel 's Labor Day marathon. In February 2004, the uncut international versions of both films were released on DVD with the addition of the original Japanese soundtracks (a first in the US). The film received mixed to positive reviews, with film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reporting a 50 % rating from critics, based on 14 reviews with an average score of 5.1 / 10. The film has been very well received by fans of the series, who have praised it for its darker story, visuals and more decidedly violent battle scenes. Troy Guinn of Eccentric Cinema gave the film a score of 8 / 10, calling it "one of only three Godzilla films I would recommend to anyone besides giant monster - movie fans or sci - fi buffs, the other two being the original Gojira and Mothra vs. Godzilla. '' Bryan Byun of DVD Verdict gave it a positive review, calling it "one of the most exciting entries in Godzilla 's long cinematic history. '' Stomp Tokyo gave the film a score of 3 / 5, calling it "one of the better - looking entries in the series, albeit one of unfulfilled potential. '' John Wallis of DVD Talk felt that "the story is quite weak and somber '' and that "this new take on (Godzilla) does n't really work, '' while Gemma Tarlach of the Milwaukee Journal said that "GMK is best when it embraces its unabashed cheesiness. But when it tries to make Statements with Meaning, whether on Japan 's past aggressions or ersatz samurai ruminations on the duty of a warrior, the movie flounders like a giant lizard hogtied by power lines. '' Film critic Leonard Maltin gave it three out of four stars, one of only two Godzilla films to receive more than two and a half stars, with the other being Godzilla 2000.
prepare a list of capital goods used by the following institutions by visiting them a farm	Capital (economics) - wikipedia In economics, capital consists of anything that can enhance a person 's power to perform economically useful work. Capital goods, real capital, or capital assets are already - produced, durable goods or any non-financial asset that is used in production of goods or services. Adam Smith defines capital as "That part of a man 's stock which he expects to afford him revenue ''. The term "stock '' is derived from the Old English word for stump or tree trunk. It has been used to refer to all the moveable property of a farm since at least 1510. How a capital good is maintained or returned to its pre-production state varies with the type of capital involved. In most cases capital is replaced after a depreciation period as newer forms of capital make continued use of current capital non profitable. It is also possible that advances make an obsolete form of capital practical again. Capital is distinct from land (or non-renewable resources) in that capital can be increased by human labor. At any given moment in time, total physical capital may be referred to as the capital stock (which is not to be confused with the capital stock of a business entity). In a fundamental sense, capital consists of anything that can enhance a person 's power to perform economically useful work -- a stone or an arrow is capital for a caveman who can use it as a hunting instrument, and roads are capital for inhabitants of a city. Capital is an input in the production function. Homes and personal autos are not usually defined as capital but as durable goods because they are not used in a production of saleable goods and services. In Marxian political economy, capital is money used to buy something only in order to sell it again to realize a financial profit. For Marx capital only exists within the process of economic exchange -- it is wealth that grows out of the process of circulation itself, and for Marx it formed the basis of the economic system of capitalism. In more contemporary schools of economics, this form of capital is generally referred to as "financial capital '' and is distinguished from "capital goods ''. Classical and neoclassical economics regard capital as one of the factors of production (alongside the other factors: land and labour). All other inputs to production are called intangibles in classical economics. This includes organization, entrepreneurship, knowledge, goodwill, or management (which some characterize as talent, social capital or instructional capital). This is what makes it a factor of production: These distinctions of convenience have carried over to contemporary economic theory. There was the further clarification that capital is a stock. As such, its value can be estimated at a point in time. By contrast, investment, as production to be added to the capital stock, is described as taking place over time ("per year ''), thus a flow. Marxian economics distinguishes between different forms of capital: Earlier illustrations often described capital as physical items, such as tools, buildings, and vehicles that are used in the production process. Since at least the 1960s economists have increasingly focused on broader forms of capital. For example, investment in skills and education can be viewed as building up human capital or knowledge capital, and investments in intellectual property can be viewed as building up intellectual capital. These terms lead to certain questions and controversies discussed in those articles. Detailed classifications of capital that have been used in various theoretical or applied uses generally respect the following division: Public and private sector accounting differ in goals, time scales and accordingly in accounting. The ownership and control of some forms of capital may accordingly justify differentiating it in an economic theory. A blanket term that attempts to characterize all that clearly physical capital that is considered infrastructure and which supports production in unclear or poorly accounted ways is public capital. This encompasses the aggregate body of all government - owned assets that are used to promote private industry productivity, including highways, railways, airports, water treatment facilities, telecommunications, electric grids, energy utilities, municipal buildings, public hospitals and schools, police, fire protection, courts and still others. However it is a problematic term insofar as many of these assets can be either publicly or privately owned. Separate literatures have developed to describe both natural capital and social capital. Such terms reflect a wide consensus that nature and society both function in such a similar manner as traditional industrial infrastructural capital, that it is entirely appropriate to refer to them as different types of capital in themselves. In particular, they can be used in the production of other goods, are not used up immediately in the process of production, and can be enhanced (if not created) by human effort. There is also a literature of intellectual capital and intellectual property law. However, this increasingly distinguishes means of capital investment, and collection of potential rewards for patent, copyright (creative or individual capital), and trademark (social trust or social capital) instruments. Economist Henry George argued that financial instruments like stocks, bonds, mortgages, promissory notes, or other certificates for transferring wealth is not really capital. Because "Their economic value merely represents the power of one class to appropriate the earnings of another. '' and "their increase or decrease does not affect the sum of wealth in the community ''. Some thinkers, such as Werner Sombart and Max Weber, locate the concept of capital as originating in double - entry bookkeeping, which is thus a foundational innovation in capitalism, Sombart writing in "Medieval and Modern Commercial Enterprise '' that: Within classical economics, Adam Smith (Wealth of Nations, Book II, Chapter 1) distinguished fixed capital from circulating capital. The former designated physical assets not consumed in the production of a product (e.g. machines and storage facilities), while the latter referred to physical assets consumed in the process of production (e.g. raw materials and intermediate products). For an enterprise, both were types of capital. Karl Marx adds a distinction that is often confused with David Ricardo 's. In Marxian theory, variable capital refers to a capitalist 's investment in labor - power, seen as the only source of surplus - value. It is called "variable '' since the amount of value it can produce varies from the amount it consumes, i.e., it creates new value. On the other hand, constant capital refers to investment in non-human factors of production, such as plant and machinery, which Marx takes to contribute only its own replacement value to the commodities it is used to produce. Investment or capital accumulation, in classical economic theory, is the production of increased capital. Investment requires that some goods be produced that are not immediately consumed, but instead used to produce other goods as capital goods. Investment is closely related to saving, though it is not the same. As Keynes pointed out, saving involves not spending all of one 's income on current goods or services, while investment refers to spending on a specific type of goods, i.e., capital goods. Austrian School economist Eugen von Böhm - Bawerk maintained that capital intensity was measured by the roundaboutness of production processes. Since capital is defined by him as being goods of higher - order, or goods used to produce consumer goods, and derived their value from them, being future goods. Human development theory describes human capital as being composed of distinct social, imitative and creative elements: This theory is the basis of triple bottom line accounting and is further developed in ecological economics, welfare economics and the various theories of green economics. All of which use a particularly abstract notion of capital in which the requirement of capital being produced like durable goods is effectively removed. The Cambridge capital controversy was a dispute between economists at Cambridge, Massachusetts based MIT and University of Cambridge in the UK about the measurement of capital. The Cambridge, UK economists, including Joan Robinson and Piero Sraffa claimed that there is no basis for aggregating the heterogeneous objects that constitute ' capital goods. ' Political economists Jonathan Nitzan and Shimshon Bichler have suggested that capital is not a productive entity, but solely financial and that capital values measure the relative power of owners over the broad social processes that bear on profits.
what type of tax is this a state income tax answers.com	Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - wikipedia The Sixteenth Amendment (Amendment XVI) to the United States Constitution allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on the United States Census. This amendment exempted income taxes from the constitutional requirements regarding direct taxes, after income taxes on rents, dividends, and interest were ruled to be direct taxes in the court case of Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co. (1895). The amendment was adopted on February 3, 1913. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Article I, Section 2, Clause 3: Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers... Article I, Section 8, Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. Article I, Section 9, Clause 4: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. This clause basically refers to a tax on property, such as a tax based on the value of land, as well as a capitation. Article I, Section 9, Clause 5: No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. Until 1913, customs duties (tariffs) and excise taxes were the primary sources of federal revenue. During the War of 1812, Secretary of the Treasury Alexander J. Dallas made the first public proposal for an income tax, but it was never implemented. The Congress did introduce an income tax to fund the Civil War through the Revenue Act of 1861. It levied a flat tax of three percent on annual income above $800. This act was replaced the following year with the Revenue Act of 1862, which levied a graduated tax of three to five percent on income above $600 and specified a termination of income taxation in 1866. The Civil War income taxes, which expired in 1872, proved to be both highly lucrative and drawing mostly from the more industrialized states, with New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts generating about 60 percent of the total revenue that was collected. During the two decades following the expiration of the Civil War income tax, the Greenback movement, the Labor Reform Party, the Populist Party, the Democratic Party and many others called for a graduated income tax. The Socialist Labor Party advocated a graduated income tax in 1887. The Populist Party "demand (ed) a graduated income tax '' in its 1892 platform. The Democratic Party, led by William Jennings Bryan, advocated the income tax law passed in 1894, and proposed an income tax in its 1908 platform. Before Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., all income taxes had been considered to be indirect taxes imposed without respect to geography, unlike direct taxes, that have to be apportioned among the states according to population. In 1894, an amendment was attached to the Wilson -- Gorman Tariff Act that attempted to impose a federal tax of two percent on incomes over $4,000 (equal to $113,000 in 2017). The federal income tax was strongly favored in the South, and it was moderately supported in the eastern North Central states, but it was strongly opposed in the Far West and the Northeastern States (with the exception of New Jersey). The tax was derided as "un-Democratic, inquisitorial, and wrong in principle ''. In Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., the U.S. Supreme Court declared certain taxes on incomes -- such as those on property under the 1894 Act -- to be unconstitutionally unapportioned direct taxes. The Court reasoned that a tax on income from property should be treated as a tax on "property by reason of its ownership '' and so should be required to be apportioned. The reasoning was that taxes on the rents from land, the dividends from stocks, and so forth, burdened the property generating the income in the same way that a tax on "property by reason of its ownership '' burdened that property. After Pollock, while income taxes on wages (as indirect taxes) were still not required to be apportioned by population, taxes on interest, dividends, and rental income were required to be apportioned by population. The Pollock ruling made the source of the income (e.g., property versus labor, etc.) relevant in determining whether the tax imposed on that income was deemed to be "direct '' (and thus required to be apportioned among the states according to population) or, alternatively, "indirect '' (and thus required only to be imposed with geographical uniformity). Dissenting in Pollock, Justice John Marshall Harlan stated: When, therefore, this court adjudges, as it does now adjudge, that Congress can not impose a duty or tax upon personal property, or upon income arising either from rents of real estate or from personal property, including invested personal property, bonds, stocks, and investments of all kinds, except by apportioning the sum to be so raised among the States according to population, it practically decides that, without an amendment of the Constitution -- two - thirds of both Houses of Congress and three - fourths of the States concurring -- such property and incomes can never be made to contribute to the support of the national government. Members of Congress responded to Pollock by expressing widespread concern that many of the wealthiest Americans had consolidated too much economic power. On June 16, 1909, President William Howard Taft, in an address to the Sixty - first Congress, proposed a two percent federal income tax on corporations by way of an excise tax and a constitutional amendment to allow the previously enacted income tax. Upon the privilege of doing business as an artificial entity and of freedom from a general partnership liability enjoyed by those who own the stock. An income tax amendment to the Constitution was first proposed by Senator Norris Brown of Nebraska. He submitted two proposals, Senate Resolutions Nos. 25 and 39. The amendment proposal finally accepted was Senate Joint Resolution No. 40, introduced by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island, the Senate majority leader and Finance Committee Chairman. On July 12, 1909, the resolution proposing the Sixteenth Amendment was passed by the Congress and was submitted to the state legislatures. Support for the income tax was strongest in the western and southern states and opposition was strongest in the northeastern states. Supporters of the income tax believed that it would be a much better method of gathering revenue than tariffs, which were the primary source of revenue at the time. From well before 1894, Democrats, Progressives, Populists and other left - oriented parties argued that tariffs disproportionately affected the poor, interfered with prices, were unpredictable, and were an intrinsically limited source of revenue. The South and the West tended to support income taxes because their residents were generally less prosperous, more agricultural and more sensitive to fluctuations in commodity prices. A sharp rise in the cost of living between 1897 and 1913 greatly increased support for the idea of income taxes, including in the urban Northeast. A growing number of Republicans also began supporting the idea, notably Theodore Roosevelt and the "Insurgent '' Republicans (who would go on to form the Progressive Party). These Republicans were driven mainly by a fear of the increasingly large and sophisticated military forces of Japan, Britain and the European powers, their own imperial ambitions and the perceived need to defend American merchant ships. Moreover, these progressive Republicans were, as the name suggests, convinced that central governments could play a positive role in national economies. A bigger government and a bigger military, of course, required a correspondingly larger and steadier source of revenue to support it. Opposition to the Sixteenth Amendment was led by establishment Republicans because of their close ties to wealthy industrialists, although not even they were uniformly opposed to the general idea of a permanent income tax. In 1910, New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes, shortly before becoming a Supreme Court Justice, spoke out against the income tax amendment. While he supported the idea of a federal income tax, Hughes believed the words "from whatever source derived '' in the proposed amendment implied that the federal government would have the power to tax state and municipal bonds. He believed this would excessively centralize governmental power and "would make it impossible for the state to keep any property ''. Between 1909 and 1913, several conditions favored passage of the Sixteenth Amendment. Inflation was high and many blamed federal tariffs for the rising prices. The Republican Party was divided and weakened by the loss of Roosevelt and the Insurgents who joined the Progressive party, a problem that blunted opposition even in the Northeast. The Democrats won both houses and the Presidency in 1912 and the country was generally in a left - leaning mood, with the Socialist Party winning a seat in the House in 1910 and polling six percent of the popular presidential vote in 1912. Three advocates for a federal income tax ran in the presidential election of 1912. On February 25, 1913, Secretary of State Philander Knox proclaimed that the amendment had been ratified by three - fourths of the states and so had become part of the Constitution. The Revenue Act of 1913 was enacted shortly thereafter. According to the United States Government Publishing Office, the following states ratified the amendment: Ratification (by the requisite 36 states) was completed on February 3, 1913 with the ratification by Delaware. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states, bringing the total number of ratifying states to forty - two of the forty - eight then existing: The legislatures of the following states rejected the amendment without ever subsequently ratifying it: The legislatures of the following states never considered the proposed amendment: The Sixteenth Amendment removed the precedent set by the Pollock decision. Professor Sheldon D. Pollack at the University of Delaware wrote: On February 25, 1913, in the closing days of the Taft administration, Secretary of State Philander C. Knox, a former Republican senator from Pennsylvania and attorney general under McKinley and Roosevelt, certified that the amendment had been properly ratified by the requisite number of state legislatures. Three more states ratified the amendment soon after, and eventually the total reached 42. The remaining six states either rejected the amendment or took no action at all. Notwithstanding the many frivolous claims repeatedly advanced by so - called tax protestors, the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution was duly ratified as of February 3, 1913. With that, the Pollock decision was overturned, restoring the status quo ante. Congress once again had the "power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration ''. From William D. Andrews, Professor of Law, Harvard Law School: In 1913 the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted, overruling Pollock, and the Congress then levied an income tax on both corporate and individual incomes. From Professor Boris Bittker, who was a tax law professor at Yale Law School: As construed by the Supreme Court in the Brushaber case, the power of Congress to tax income derives from Article I, Section 8, Clause 1, of the original Constitution rather than from the Sixteenth Amendment; the latter simply eliminated the requirement that an income tax, to the extent that it is a direct tax, must be apportioned among the states. A corollary of this conclusion is that any direct tax that is not imposed on "income '' remains subject to the rule of apportionment. Because the Sixteenth Amendment does not purport to define the term "direct tax, '' the scope of that constitutional phrase remains as debatable as it was before 1913; but the practical significance of the issue was greatly reduced once income taxes, even if direct, were relieved from the requirement of apportionment. Professor Erik Jensen at Case Western Reserve University Law School has written: (The Sixteenth Amendment) was a response to the Income Tax Cases (Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co.), and it exempts only "taxes on incomes '' from the apportionment rule that otherwise applies to direct taxes. Professor Calvin H. Johnson, a tax professor at the University of Texas School of Law, has written: The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution, ratified in 1913, was written to allow Congress to tax income without the hobbling apportionment requirement. ... Pollock was itself overturned by the Sixteenth Amendment as to apportionment of income... From Gale Ann Norton: Courts have essentially abandoned the permissive interpretation created in Pollock. Subsequent cases have viewed the Sixteenth Amendment as a rejection of Pollock 's definition of "direct tax ''. The apportionment requirement again applies only to real estate and capitation taxes. Even if the Sixteenth Amendment is not viewed as narrowing the definition of direct taxes, it at least introduces an additional consideration to analysis under the Apportionment Clause. For the Court to strike an unapportioned tax, plaintiffs must establish not only that a tax is a direct tax, but also that it is not in the subset of direct taxes known as an income tax. From Alan O. Dixler: In Brushaber, the Supreme Court validated the first post - 16th Amendment income tax. Chief Justice White, who as an associate justice had dissented articulately in Pollock, wrote for a unanimous Court. Upholding the income tax provisions of the tariff act of October 3, 1913, Chief Justice White observed that the 16th Amendment did not give Congress any new power to lay and collect an income tax; rather, the 16th Amendment permitted Congress to do so without apportionment... Congress may impose taxes on income from any source without having to apportion the total dollar amount of tax collected from each state according to each state 's population in relation to the total national population. In Wikoff v. Commissioner, the United States Tax Court said: (I) t is immaterial, with respect to Federal income taxes, whether the tax is a direct or an indirect tax. Mr. Wikoff (the taxpayer) relied on the Supreme Court 's decision in Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co... but the effect of that decision has been nullified by the enactment of the 16th Amendment. In Abrams v. Commissioner, the Tax Court said: Since the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, it is immaterial with respect to income taxes, whether the tax is a direct or indirect tax. The whole purpose of the Sixteenth Amendment was to relieve all income taxes when imposed from (the requirement of) apportionment and from (the requirement of) a consideration of the source whence the income was derived. The federal courts ' interpretations of the Sixteenth Amendment have changed considerably over time and there have been many disputes about the applicability of the amendment. In Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad, 240 U.S. 1 (1916), the Supreme Court ruled that (1) the Sixteenth Amendment removes the Pollock requirement that certain income taxes (such as taxes on income "derived from real property '' that were the subject of the Pollock decision), be apportioned among the states according to population; (2) the federal income tax statute does not violate the Fifth Amendment 's prohibition against the government taking property without due process of law; (3) the federal income tax statute does not violate the Article I, Section 8, Clause 1 requirement that excises, also known as indirect taxes, be imposed with geographical uniformity. In Bowers v. Kerbaugh - Empire Co., 271 U.S. 170 (1926), the Supreme Court, through Justice Pierce Butler, stated: It was not the purpose or the effect of that amendment to bring any new subject within the taxing power. Congress already had the power to tax all incomes. But taxes on incomes from some sources had been held to be "direct taxes '' within the meaning of the constitutional requirement as to apportionment. (citations omitted) The Amendment relieved from that requirement and obliterated the distinction in that respect between taxes on income that are direct taxes and those that are not, and so put on the same basis all incomes "from whatever source derived ''. (citations omitted) "Income '' has been taken to mean the same thing as used in the Corporation Excise Tax of 1909 (36 Stat. 112), in the Sixteenth Amendment, and in the various revenue acts subsequently passed. (citations omitted) After full consideration, this court declared that income may be defined as gain derived from capital, from labor, or from both combined, including profit gained through sale or conversion of capital. In Commissioner v. Glenshaw Glass Co., 348 U.S. 426 (1955), the Supreme Court laid out what has become the modern understanding of what constitutes "gross income '' to which the Sixteenth Amendment applies, declaring that income taxes could be levied on "accessions to wealth, clearly realized, and over which the taxpayers have complete dominion ''. Under this definition, any increase in wealth -- whether through wages, benefits, bonuses, sale of stock or other property at a profit, bets won, lucky finds, awards of punitive damages in a lawsuit, qui tam actions -- are all within the definition of income, unless the Congress makes a specific exemption, as it has for items such as life insurance proceeds received by reason of the death of the insured party, gifts, bequests, devises and inheritances, and certain scholarships. Federal courts have ruled that the Sixteenth Amendment allows a direct tax on "wages, salaries, commissions, etc. without apportionment ''. Although the Sixteenth Amendment is often cited as the "source '' of the congressional power to tax incomes, at least one court has reiterated the point made in Brushaber and other cases that the Sixteenth Amendment itself did not grant the Congress the power to tax incomes, a power the Congress had since 1789, but only removed the possible requirement that any income tax be apportioned among the states according to their respective populations. In Penn Mutual Indemnity, the United States Tax Court stated: In dealing with the scope of the taxing power the question has sometimes been framed in terms of whether something can be taxed as income under the Sixteenth Amendment. This is an inaccurate formulation... and has led to much loose thinking on the subject. The source of the taxing power is not the Sixteenth Amendment; it is Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit agreed with the Tax Court, stating: It did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax. Pollock v. Farmers ' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U.S. 429, 158 U.S. 601 (1895), only held that a tax on the income derived from real or personal property was so close to a tax on that property that it could not be imposed without apportionment. The Sixteenth Amendment removed that barrier. Indeed, the requirement for apportionment is pretty strictly limited to taxes on real and personal property and capitation taxes. It is not necessary to uphold the validity of the tax imposed by the United States that the tax itself bear an accurate label. Indeed, the tax upon the distillation of spirits, imposed very early by federal authority, now reads and has read in terms of a tax upon the spirits themselves, yet the validity of this imposition has been upheld for a very great many years. It could well be argued that the tax involved here (an income tax) is an "excise tax '' based upon the receipt of money by the taxpayer. It certainly is not a tax on property and it certainly is not a capitation tax; therefore, it need not be apportioned. We do not think it profitable, however, to make the label as precise as that required under the Food and Drug Act. Congress has the power to impose taxes generally, and if the particular imposition does not run afoul of any constitutional restrictions then the tax is lawful, call it what you will. On December 22, 2006, a three - judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated its unanimous decision (of August 2006) in Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States. In an unrelated matter, the court had also granted the government 's motion to dismiss Murphy 's suit against the Internal Revenue Service. Under federal sovereign immunity, a taxpayer may sue the federal government, but not a government agency, officer, or employee (with some exceptions). The Court ruled: Insofar as the Congress has waived sovereign immunity with respect to suits for tax refunds under 28 U.S.C. § 1346 (a) (1), that provision specifically contemplates only actions against the "United States ''. Therefore, we hold the IRS, unlike the United States, may not be sued eo nomine in this case. An exception to federal sovereign immunity is in the United States Tax Court, in which a taxpayer may sue the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. The original three - judge panel then agreed to rehear the case itself. In its original decision, the Court had ruled that 26 U.S.C. § 104 (a) (2) was unconstitutional under the Sixteenth Amendment to the extent that the statute purported to tax, as income, a recovery for a nonphysical personal injury for mental distress and loss of reputation not received in lieu of taxable income such as lost wages or earnings. Because the August 2006 opinion was vacated, the Court of Appeals did not hear the case en banc. On July 3, 2007, the Court (through the original three - judge panel) ruled (1) that the taxpayer 's compensation was received on account of a nonphysical injury or sickness; (2) that gross income under section 61 of the Internal Revenue Code does include compensatory damages for nonphysical injuries, even if the award is not an "accession to wealth '', (3) that the income tax imposed on an award for nonphysical injuries is an indirect tax, regardless of whether the recovery is restoration of "human capital '', and therefore the tax does not violate the constitutional requirement of Article I, Section 9, Clause 4, that capitations or other direct taxes must be laid among the states only in proportion to the population; (4) that the income tax imposed on an award for nonphysical injuries does not violate the constitutional requirement of Article I, Section 8, Clause 1, that all duties, imposts and excises be uniform throughout the United States; (5) that under the doctrine of sovereign immunity, the Internal Revenue Service may not be sued in its own name. The Court stated that "(a) lthough the ' Congress can not make a thing income which is not so in fact ',... it can label a thing income and tax it, so long as it acts within its constitutional authority, which includes not only the Sixteenth Amendment but also Article I, Sections 8 and 9. '' The court ruled that Ms. Murphy was not entitled to the tax refund she claimed, and that the personal injury award she received was "within the reach of the Congressional power to tax under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution '' -- even if the award was "not income within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment ''. See also the Penn Mutual case cited above. On April 21, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court declined to review the decision by the Court of Appeals.
which of these statements about employee benefits is false answers.com	Yahoo! Answers - Wikipedia Yahoo! Answers is a community - driven question - and - answer (Q&A) website or a knowledge market from Yahoo!, that allows users to both submit questions to be answered and answer questions asked by other users. The website Yahoo! was officially incorporated on March 2, 1995, and was created by Jerry Yang and David Filo. The website began as a search directory for various websites, and soon grew into an established Internet resource that features the "Yahoo! Answers '' platform. Yahoo! Answers was launched on June 28, 2005, while in internal alpha testing by Director of Engineering, Ofer Shaked. Yahoo! Answers was launched to the general public while in beta testing on December 8, 2005, which lasted until May 14, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was finally incorporated for general availability on May 15, 2006. Yahoo! Answers was created to replace Ask Yahoo!, Yahoo! 's former Q&A platform which was discontinued in March 2006. The site gives members the chance to earn points as a way to encourage participation and is based on Naver 's Knowledge iN. Yahoo! Answers is available in 12 languages, but several Asian sites operate a different platform which allows for non-Latin characters. The platform is known as Yahoo! Chiebukuro (Yahoo! 知恵袋) in Japan and as Yahoo! Knowledge in Korea, Taiwan, China, and Hong Kong. An Arabic language Q&A platform called Seen Jeem is available through the Yahoo! subsidiary Maktoob. On December 8, 2016, Yahoo! released an app for the platform called Yahoo! Answers Now (formally known as Yahoo! Hive) for iOS and Android. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule. Yahoo! Answers allows any questions that do not violate Yahoo! Answers community guidelines. To encourage good answers, helpful participants are occasionally featured on the Yahoo! Answers Blog. Though the service itself is free, the contents of the answers are owned by the respective users -- while Yahoo! maintains a non-exclusive royalty - free worldwide right to publish the information. Chat is explicitly forbidden in the Community Guidelines, although categories like Politics and Religion & Spirituality are mostly opinion. Users may also choose to reveal their Yahoo! Messenger ID on their Answers profile page. Misuse of Yahoo! Answers is handled by a user moderation system, where users report posts that are in breach of guidelines or the Terms of Service. Posts are removed if they receive sufficient weight of trusted reports (reports from users with a reliable reporting history). Deletion may be appealed: an unsuccessful appeal receives a 10 - point penalty; a successful one reinstates the post and reduces the ' trust rating ' (reporting power) of the reporter. If a user receives a large number of violations in a relatively short amount of time or a very serious violation, it can cause the abuser 's account to be suspended. In extreme, but rare cases (for a Terms of Service violation), the abuser 's entire Yahoo! ID will be suddenly deactivated without warning. To open an account, a user needs a Yahoo! ID but can use any name as identification on Yahoo! Answers. A user can be represented by a picture from various internet avatar sites or a user - made graphic uploaded to replace their default Yahoo graphic. Yahoo! Avatars was discontinued in 2012. When answering a question, a user can search Yahoo! or Wikipedia, or any source of information that the user wishes, as long as they mention their source. Questions are initially open to answers for four days. However, the asker can choose to pick a best answer for the question after a minimum of one hour. However, comments and answers can still be posted after this time. To ask a question, one has to have a Yahoo! account with a positive score balance of five points or more. The points system is weighted to encourage users to answer questions and to limit spam questions. There are also levels (with point thresholds), which give more site access. Points and levels have no real world value, can not be traded, and serve only to indicate how active a user has been on the site. A notable downside to the points / level system is that it encourages people to answer questions even when they do not have a suitable answer to give to gain points. Users also receive ten points for contributing the "Best Answer '' which is selected by the question 's asker. The voting function, which allowed users to vote for the answer they considered best, was discontinued in April 2014. In addition to points awarded for activity, Yahoo! Answers staff may also award extra points if they are impressed with a user 's contributions. The Yahoo! Answers community manager has stated that "power users '' who defend the company should be thanked and rewarded. Note: All limitations are per day. Users begin on level 1 and receive 100 free points. Prior to this, they began on level 0, could only answer one question, and then were promoted to level 1. Before April 20, 2012, users levels 5 and above could give an unlimited amount of questions, answers, and comments. Yahoo! Answers established an upper limit to curb spam and unproductive answers. Before April 2014 users were also able to vote for a best answer if the asker did not choose one, but this was discontinued. The point system ostensibly encourages users to answer as many questions as they possibly can, up to their daily limit. Once a user achieves and maintains a certain minimum number of such contributions (See Note *, further...), they may receive an orange "badge '' under the name of their avatar, naming the user a Top Contributor (TC). Users can lose this badge if they do not maintain their level of participation. Once a user becomes a "Top Contributor '' in any category, the badge appears in all answers, questions, and comments by the user, regardless of category. A user can be a Top Contributor in a maximum of 3 categories. The list of Top contributors is updated every Monday. Although Yahoo! Answers staff has kept secret the conditions of becoming a TC, many theories exist among users, for example: Out of these, none have an official status. This feature began March 8, 2007. Badge is seen under the name staff members of Yahoo! Answers. This type of badge is found on the name of celebrities (like mentioned above) and government departments like the health department. These badges are found under the name of the companies or organizations who share their personal knowledge and experience with the members of Yahoo! Answers. A number of studies have looked at the structure of the community and the interaction between askers and responders. Studies of user typology on the site have revealed that some users answer from personal knowledge -- "specialists '' -- while others use external sources to construct answers -- "synthesists '', with synthesists tending to accumulate more reward points. Adamic et al. looked at the ego networks of users and showed that it is possible to distinguish "answer people '' from "discussion people '' with the former found in specialist categories for factual information, such as mathematics and the latter more common in general interest categories, such as marriage and wrestling. They also show that answer length is a good predictor of "best answer '' choice. Kim and Oh looked at the comments given by users on choosing best answers and showed that content completeness, solution feasibility and personal agreement / confirmation were the most significant criteria. Researchers found that questions seeking factual information received few answers and that the knowledge on Yahoo! Answers is not very deep. Despite the presence of experts, academics and other researchers, Yahoo! Answers ' base consists of a much more general group; hence, it has been criticized for the large number of dubious questions, such as "how is babby formed how girl get pragnent '' (sic), which sparked an Internet meme. This "Internet language '' of incorrect spelling and improper grammar also contributes to Yahoo! Answers ' reputation of being a source of entertainment rather than a fact based question and answer platform, and for the reliability, validity, and relevance of its answers. A 2008 study found that Yahoo! Answers is suboptimal for questions requiring factual answers and that the quality decreases as the number of users increases. One journalist observed that the structure Yahoo! Answers provides, particularly the persistence of inaccuracies, the inability to correct them, and a point structure that rewards participation more readily than accuracy, all indicate that the site is oriented towards encouraging use of the site, not offering accurate answers to questions. The number of poorly formed questions and inaccurate answers has made the site a target of ridicule. Likewise, posts on many Internet forums and Yahoo! Answers itself indicate that Yahoo! Answers attracts a large number of trolls. The site does not have a system that filters the correct answers from the incorrect answers. At one time, the community could vote for the best answer among the posted answers; but that option was disabled in March 2014. For most of the life of Yahoo! Answers, once the "best answer '' was chosen, there was no way to add more answers nor to improve or challenge the best answer chosen by the question asker; there is a display of thumbs down or thumbs up for each answer, but viewers can not vote. In April 2014, this was changed to allow for additional answers after a best answer is chosen, but the best answer can never be changed. Also, while "best answers '' can be briefly commented upon, the comment is not visible by default and is hence hardly read. (Even the user who posts the question is n't notified, before or after the best answer is picked, about a comment on the question or on the best answer.) If the best answer chosen is wrong or contains problematic information, the only chance to give a better (or correct) answer will be the next time the same question is asked. The older answer will likely get higher priority in search engines. Any new answer will most probably not be seen by any original questioner. The official Yahoo! Answers mascot is a cartoon hamster called Yamster. Yamster is a combination, or portmanteau, of the words "Yahoo '' and "hamster ''. The mascot is also used as an avatar for Yahoo! Answers staff. During beta testing of Yahoo! Answers in 2005, the Director of Product Management would use a Gemmy Kung Fu Hamster to summon employees to meetings. The toy was a battery - operated, dancing, musical plush hamster clothed in a karate uniform. A Yahoo! Answers employee selected a photo of the toy as the staff avatar. A user then questioned the potential trademark / copyright infringement of using such an avatar. At that time, the photo was replaced with the Yahoo! Answers green smiley face. At the beginning of 2006, the green smiley face was replaced by the cartoon Yamster clad in a karate uniform. As of November 2009, the history of Yamster, complete with photos of the toy, was available on the Yahoo! Answers Team Vietnam blog. Several celebrities and notables have appeared on Yahoo! Answers to ask questions. These users have an "official '' badge below their avatar and on their profile page. During the 2008 U.S. Presidential campaign, Hillary Clinton, John McCain, Barack Obama, and Mitt Romney posted questions on Yahoo! Answers, in addition to YouTube. In an awareness campaign, "UNICEF Up Close 2007 '', nine UNICEF ambassadors asked questions. The launch of Answers on Yahoo! India included a question from A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the President of India at that time. Other guests have included international leaders (Queen Rania of Jordan, candidate for United Nations Secretary - General Shashi Tharoor), Nobel Peace Prize laureates (Al Gore, Muhammad Yunus) and other international activists (Bono, Jean - Michel Cousteau), intellectuals (Stephen Hawking, Marilyn vos Savant), and numerous other celebrities. Yahoo! used comScore statistics in December 2006 to proclaim Yahoo! Answers "the leading Q&A site on the web ''. Currently Yahoo! Answers is ranked as the second most popular Q&A site on the web by comScore. The slogan "The world 's leading Q&A site '' has since been adopted by Answers.com. In 2009, Yahoo! Answers staff claimed 200 million users worldwide and 15 million users visiting daily. Google Trends has reported around 4 million unique visitors (Global) daily. In January 2010, the web analytics website Quantcast reported 24 million active users (US) per month; in November 2015, that had fallen by 77 % to 5.6 million. Quantcast traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, January 2010: For January 1 -- 30, 2015: For October 31 -- November 29, 2015: For December 1 -- December 30, 2015: Google Ad Planner traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009: Compete Site Analytics traffic statistics for Yahoo! Answers, December 2009: Yahoo! Answers represents between 1.03 % to 1.7 % of Yahoo! traffic. The comedy / advice podcast My Brother, My Brother and Me features a reoccurring segment in which co-host Griffin McElroy selects and reads a particularly humorous or outrageous question from Yahoo! Answers. The hosts then discuss and attempt to answer the question, to comedic effect. The Internet troll Ken M is a regular user on Yahoo! Answers, posting comments that confound and annoy other users. There are several communities on social media sites such as Reddit and Facebook dedicated to observing his antics, especially on Yahoo! Answers. Ken was named as one of Time 's most influential people online in 2016.
who separated the bible into chapters and verses	Chapters and verses of the Bible - wikipedia The Bible is a compilation of many shorter books written at different times by a variety of authors, and later assembled into the biblical canon. Since the early 13th century, most copies and editions of the Bible present all but the shortest of these books with divisions into chapters, generally a page or so in length. Since the mid-16th century editors have further subdivided each chapter into verses - each consisting of a few short lines or sentences. Sometimes a sentence spans more than one verse, as in the case of Ephesians 2: 8 -- 9, and sometimes there is more than one sentence in a single verse, as in the case of Genesis 1: 2. As the chapter and verse divisions did not appear in the original texts, they form part of the paratext of the Bible. The Jewish divisions of the Hebrew text differ at various points from those used by Christians. For instance, in Jewish tradition, the ascriptions to many Psalms are regarded as independent verses or parts of the subsequent verses, making 116 more verses, whereas established Christian practice treats each Psalm ascription as independent and unnumbered. Some chapter divisions also occur in different places, e.g. Hebrew Bibles have 1 Chronicles 5: 27 -- 41 where Christian translations have 1 Chronicles 6: 1 -- 15. The original manuscripts did not contain the chapter and verse divisions in the numbered form familiar to modern readers. In antiquity Hebrew texts were divided into paragraphs (parashot) that were identified by two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Peh פ indicated an "open '' paragraph that began on a new line, while Samekh ס indicated a "closed '' paragraph that began on the same line after a small space. These two letters begin the Hebrew words open (patuach) and closed (sagoor), and are, themselves, open פ and closed ס. The earliest known copies of the Book of Isaiah from the Dead Sea Scrolls used parashot divisions, although they differ slightly from the Masoretic divisions. (This is different from the use of consecutive letters of the Hebrew alphabet to structure certain poetic compositions, known as acrostics, such as several of the Psalms and most of the Book of Lamentations.) The Hebrew Bible was also divided into some larger sections. In Israel the Torah (its first five books) were divided into 154 sections so that they could be read through aloud in weekly worship over the course of three years. In Babylonia it was divided into 53 or 54 sections (Parashat ha - Shavua) so it could be read through in one year. The New Testament was divided into topical sections known as kephalaia by the fourth century. Eusebius of Caesarea divided the gospels into parts that he listed in tables or canons. Neither of these systems corresponds with modern chapter divisions. (See fuller discussions below.) Chapter divisions, with titles, are also found in the 9th century Tours manuscript, Paris Bibliothèque Nationale MS Lat. 3, the so - called Bible of Rorigo. Archbishop Stephen Langton and Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro developed different schemas for systematic division of the Bible in the early 13th century. It is the system of Archbishop Langton on which the modern chapter divisions are based. While chapter divisions have become nearly universal, editions of the Bible have sometimes been published without them. Such editions, which typically use thematic or literary criteria to divide the biblical books instead, include John Locke 's Paraphrase and Notes on the Epistles of St. Paul (1707), Alexander Campbell 's The Sacred Writings (1826), Richard Moulton 's The Modern Reader 's Bible (1907), Ernest Sutherland Bates ' The Bible Designed to Be Read as Living Literature (1936), The Books of the Bible (2007) from the International Bible Society (Biblica), and the ESV Reader 's Bible from Crossway Books. Since at least 916 the Tanakh has contained an extensive system of multiple levels of section, paragraph, and phrasal divisions that were indicated in Masoretic vocalization and cantillation markings. One of the most frequent of these was a special type of punctuation, the sof passuq, symbol for a full stop or sentence break, resembling the colon (:) of English and Latin orthography. With the advent of the printing press and the translation of the Bible into English, Old Testament versifications were made that correspond predominantly with the existing Hebrew full stops, with a few isolated exceptions. Most attribute these to Rabbi Isaac Nathan ben Kalonymus 's work for the first Hebrew Bible concordance around 1440. The first person to divide New Testament chapters into verses was Italian Dominican biblical scholar Santi Pagnini (1470 -- 1541), but his system was never widely adopted. His verse divisions in the New Testament were far longer than those known today. Robert Estienne created an alternate numbering in his 1551 edition of the Greek New Testament which was also used in his 1553 publication of the Bible in French. Estienne 's system of division was widely adopted, and it is this system which is found in almost all modern Bibles. Estienne produced a 1555 Vulgate that is the first Bible to include the verse numbers integrated into the text. Before this work, they were printed in the margins. The first English New Testament to use the verse divisions was a 1557 translation by William Whittingham (c. 1524 -- 1579). The first Bible in English to use both chapters and verses was the Geneva Bible published shortly afterwards in 1560. These verse divisions soon gained acceptance as a standard way to notate verses, and have since been used in nearly all English Bibles and the vast majority of those in other languages. (Nevertheless, some Bibles have removed the verse numbering, including the ones noted above that also removed chapter numbers; a recent example of an edition that removed only verses, not chapters, is The Message: The Bible in Contemporary Language by Eugene H. Peterson.) The Hebrew Masoretic text of the Bible notes several different kinds of subdivisions within the biblical books: Most important are the verse endings. According to the Talmudic tradition, the division of the text into verses is of ancient origin. In Masoretic versions of the Bible, the end of a verse is indicated by a small mark in its final word called a silluq (which means "stop ''). Less formally, verse endings are usually also indicated by two horizontal dots following the word with a silluq. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called parashot, which are usually indicated by a space within a line (a "closed '' section) or a new line beginning (an "open '' section). The division of the text reflected in the parashot is usually thematic. Unlike chapters, the parashot are not numbered, but some of them have special titles. In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the Aleppo codex), an "open '' section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed '' section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open '' and "closed '' sections is that "open '' sections must always start at the beginning of a new line, while "closed '' sections never start at the beginning of a new line. Another division of the biblical books found in the Masoretic text is the division of the sedarim. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the quantity of text. For the Torah, this division reflects the triennial cycle of reading that was practiced by the Jews of the Land of Israel. The Byzantines also introduced a concept roughly similar to chapter divisions, called kephalaia (singular kephalaion, literally meaning heading). This system, which was in place no later than the 5th century, is not identical to the present chapters. Unlike the modern chapters, which tend to be of roughly similar length, the distance from one kephalaion mark to the next varied greatly in length both within a book and from one book to the next. For example, the Sermon on the Mount, comprising three chapters in the modern system, has but one kephalaion mark, while the single modern chapter 8 of the Gospel of Matthew has several, one per miracle. Moreover, there were far fewer kephalaia in the Gospel of John than in the Gospel of Mark, even though the latter is the shorter text. In the manuscripts, the kephalaia with their numbers, their standard titles (titloi) and their page numbers would be listed at the beginning of each biblical book; in the book 's main body, they would be marked only with arrow - shaped or asterisk - like symbols in the margin, not in the text itself. The titles usually referred to the first event or the first theological point of the section only, and some kephalaia are manifestly incomplete if one stops reading at the point where the next kephalaion begins (for example, the combined accounts of the miracles of the Daughter of Jairus and of the healing of the woman with a haemorrhage gets two marked kephalaia, one titled of the daughter of the synagogue ruler at the beginning when the ruler approaches Jesus and one titled of the woman with the flow of blood where the woman enters the picture -- well before the ruler 's daughter is healed and the storyline of the previous kephalaion is thus properly concluded). Thus the kephalaia marks are rather more like a system of bookmarks or links into a continuous text, helping a reader to quickly find one of several well - known episodes, than like a true system of chapter divisions. Cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro is often given credit for first dividing the Latin Vulgate into chapters in the real sense, but it is the arrangement of his contemporary and fellow cardinal Stephen Langton who in 1205 created the chapter divisions which are used today. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 16th century. Robert Estienne (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in 1551 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible). The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has received criticism from some traditionalists and modern scholars. Critics state that the text is often divided in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate rhetorical points, and that it encourages citing passages out of context. Nevertheless, the chapter and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study. Several modern publications of the Bible have eliminated numbering of chapters and verses. Biblica published such a version of the NIV in 2007 and 2011. In 2014, Crossway published the ESV Reader 's Bible and Bibliotheca published a modified ASV. Projects such as Icthus also exist which strip chapter and verse numbers from existing translations. The number of words can vary depending upon aspects such as whether the Hebrew alphabet in Psalm 119, the superscriptions listed in some of the Psalms, and the subscripts traditionally found at the end of the Pauline epistles, are included. Except where stated, the following apply to the King James Version of the Bible in its modern 66 - book Protestant form including the New Testament and the protocanonical Old Testament, not the deuterocanonical books. 26. Bible verses at TheSocialSwag.com
solzhenitsyn one day in the life of ivan denisovich pdf	One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich - wikipedia One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (Russian: Оди́н день Ива́на Дени́совича Odin den ' Ivana Denisovicha pronounced (ɐˈdjin ˈdjenj ɪˈvanə djɪˈnjisəvjɪtɕə)) is a novel written by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, first published in November 1962 in the Soviet literary magazine Novy Mir (New World). The story is set in a Soviet labor camp in the 1950s and describes a single day in the life of ordinary prisoner, Ivan Denisovich Shukhov. The book 's publication was an extraordinary event in Soviet literary history since never before had an account of Stalinist repression been openly distributed. Novy Mir editor Aleksandr Tvardovsky wrote a short introduction for the issue entitled "Instead of a Foreword '' to prepare the journal 's readers for what they were about to experience. At least five English translations have been made. Of those, the Ralph Parker 's translation (New York: Dutton, 1963) was the first to be published, followed by Ronald Hingley and Max Hayward 's (New York: Praeger, 1963), Bela Von Block 's (New York: Lancer 1963), and Gillon Aitken 's (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1971). The fifth translation, by H.T. Willetts (New York: Noonday / Farrar Straus Giroux, 1991), is the only one that is based on the canonical Russian text and the only one authorized by Solzhenitsyn. The English spelling of some character names differs slightly among the translations; those below are from the Hingley and Hayward translations. Ivan Denisovich Shukhov has been sentenced to a camp in the Soviet gulag system. He was accused of becoming a spy after being captured briefly by the Germans as a prisoner of war during World War II. He is innocent, but is sentenced to ten years in a forced labor camp. The day begins with Shukhov waking up sick. For waking late, he is forced to clean the guardhouse, but this is minor punishment compared with others mentioned in the book. When Shukhov is finally able to leave the guardhouse, he goes to the dispensary to report his illness. It is relatively late in the morning by this time, however, so the orderly is unable to exempt any more workers and Shukhov must work. The rest of the novel deals mainly with Shukhov 's squad (the 104th, which has 24 members), their allegiance to the squad leader, and the work that the prisoners (zeks) do. For example, they are seen working at a brutal construction site where the cold freezes the mortar used for bricklaying if not applied quickly enough. Solzhenitsyn also details the methods used by the prisoners to survive; the whole camp lives by the rule of survival of the fittest. Tiurin, the foreman of gang 104, is strict but kind, and the squad 's fondness of Tiurin becomes more evident as the book progresses. Though a "morose '' man, Tiurin is liked because he understands the prisoners, he talks to them, and he helps them. Shukhov is one of the hardest workers in the squad and is generally well - respected. Rations are meagre at the camp, but they are one of the few things that Shukhov lives for. He conserves the food that he receives and is always watchful for any item that he can hide and trade for food at a later date. At the end of the day, Shukhov is able to provide a few special services for Tsezar (Caesar), an intellectual who is able to do office work instead of manual labor. Tsezar is most notable, however, for receiving packages of food from his family. Shukhov is able to get a small share of Tsezar 's packages by standing in lines for him. Shukhov 's day ends up being productive, even "almost happy ''; "Shukhov went to sleep fully content. He 'd had many strokes of luck that day. '' (p. 139). Those in the camps find everyday life extremely difficult. For example, prisoners are only exempt from outdoor labor if the thermometer reaches − 41 ° C (− 42 ° F); anything above that is considered bearable. The reader is reminded in passing, through Shukhov 's matter - of - fact thoughts, of the harshness of the conditions, worsened by the inadequate bedding and clothing. The boots assigned to the zeks rarely fit (cloth has to be added or taken out, for example), and the thin mittens issued are easily ripped. The prisoners are assigned numbers for easy identification and in an effort to dehumanize them; Ivan Denisovich 's prisoner number is Щ - 854. Each day, the squad leader receives their work assignment for that day, and the squad are then fed according to how they perform. Prisoners in each squad are thus forced to work together and pressure each other to get their task done. If any prisoner is slacking, the whole squad will be punished. Despite this, Solzhenitsyn shows that a surprising loyalty exists among the work gang members, with Shukhov teaming up with other prisoners to steal felt and extra bowls of porridge; even the squad leader defies the authorities by tar - papering over the empty windows at their work site. Indeed, only through such solidarity can the prisoners do anything more than survive from day to day. The 104th is the labor - camp team to which protagonist Ivan Denisovich belongs. There are over 24 members, though the book describes the following characters the most thoroughly: The main themes of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich are totalitarian oppression and camp survival. Specifically discussed are the prison officials ' cruelty and spite towards their fellow man. Solzhenitsyn explains through Ivan Denisovich that everything is managed by the camp commandant to the point that time feels unnoticed; the prisoners always have work to do and never have any free time to discuss important issues. Survival is of the utmost importance to prisoners. Attitude is another crucial factor in survival. Since prisoners are each assigned a grade, it is considered good etiquette to obey. This is outlined through the character of Fetiukov, a ministry worker who has let himself into prison and scarcely follows prison etiquette. Another such incident involves Buinovsky, a former naval captain, who is punished for defending himself and others during an early morning frisking. One Day is a sparse, tersely written narrative of a single day of the ten - year labor camp imprisonment of a fictitious Soviet prisoner, Ivan Denisovich Shukhov. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn had first - hand experience in the Gulag system, having been imprisoned from 1945 to 1953 for writing derogatory comments in letters to friends about the conduct of the war by Joseph Stalin, whom he referred to by epithets such as "the master '' and "the boss ''. Solzhenitsyn claimed the prisoners wept when news of Stalin 's death reached them. He uses the epithet "old man whiskers '' in his novel, where it is translated as "Old Whiskers '' or "Old Man Whiskers ''. This title was considered offensive and derogatory, but prisoners were free to call Stalin whatever they liked: "Somebody in the room was bellowing: ' Old Man Whiskers wo n't ever let you go! He would n't trust his own brother, let alone a bunch of cretins like you! '' Drafts of stories found in Solzhenitsyn 's map case were used to incriminate him (Frangsmyr, 1993). In 1957, after being released from the exile that followed his imprisonment, Solzhenitsyn began writing One Day. In 1962, he submitted his manuscript to Novy Mir, a Russian literary magazine. The editor, Aleksandr Tvardovsky, was so impressed with this detailed description of life in the labor camps that he submitted the manuscript to the Communist Party Central Committee for approval to publish it (until then Soviet writers had not been allowed to refer to the camps). From there it was sent to the de-Stalinist Khrushchev, who, despite the objections of some top party members, ultimately authorized its publication with some censorship of the text. After the novel was sent to the editor, Aleksandr Tvardovsky of Novy Mir, it was subsequently published in November 1962. The labor camp described in the book was one that Solzhenitsyn had served some time at, and was located in Karaganda in northern Kazakhstan. One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was specifically mentioned in the Nobel Prize presentation speech when the Nobel Committee awarded Solzhenitsyn the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1970. Following the publication of One Day... Solzhenitsyn wrote four more books, three in 1963 and a fourth in 1966 which cataclysmically led to the controversy of his publications. In 1968, Solzhenitsyn was accused by the Literary Gazette, a Soviet newspaper, of not following Soviet principles. The Gazette 's editors also made claims that Solzhenitsyn was opposing the basic principles of the Soviet Union, his style of writing had been controversial with many Soviet literary critics especially with the publication of One Day... This criticism made by the paper gave rise to further accusations that Solzhenitsyn had turned from a Soviet Russian into a Soviet enemy, therefore he was branded as an enemy of the state, who, according to the Gazette, had been supporting non-Soviet ideological stances since 1967, perhaps even longer. He, in addition, was accused of de-Stalinisation. The reviews were particularly damaging. Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Soviet Writers ' Union in 1969. He was arrested, then deported in 1974. The novella had sold over 95,000 copies after it was released and throughout the 1960s. "The Soviet Union was destroyed by information - and this wave started from Solzhenitsyn 's One Day '' -- Vitaly Korotich Often considered the most powerful indictment of the USSR 's gulag ever made. It appeared on the Independent newspaper 's poll of the Top 100 books, which surveyed more than 25,000 people. A one - hour dramatization for television, made for NBC in 1963, starred Jason Robards Jr. in the title role and was broadcast on November 8, 1963. A 1970 film adaptation based on the novella starred British actor Tom Courtenay in the title role. Finland banned the film from public view, fearing that it could hurt external relations with its eastern neighbor. Template: JLIST
reflexivity is a concept in intercultural communication that means	Reflexivity (social theory) - wikipedia In epistemology, and more specifically, the sociology of knowledge, reflexivity refers to circular relationships between cause and effect, especially as embedded in human belief structures. A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the cause and the effect affecting one another in a relationship in which neither can be assigned as causes or effects. Within sociology more broadly -- the field of origin -- reflexivity means an act of self - reference where examination or action "bends back on '', refers to, and affects the entity instigating the action or examination. It commonly refers to the capacity of an agent to recognize forces of socialization and alter their place in the social structure. A low level of reflexivity would result in an individual shaped largely by their environment (or "society ''). A high level of social reflexivity would be defined by an individual shaping their own norms, tastes, politics, desires, and so on. This is similar to the notion of autonomy. (See also structure and agency and social mobility.) Within economics, reflexivity refers to the self - reinforcing effect of market sentiment, whereby rising prices attract buyers whose actions drive prices higher still until the process becomes unsustainable. This is an instance of a positive feedback loop. The same process can operate in reverse leading to a catastrophic collapse in prices. In social theory, reflexivity may occur when theories in a discipline should apply equally forcefully to the discipline itself, for example in the case that the theories of knowledge construction in the field of sociology of scientific knowledge should apply equally to knowledge construction by sociology of scientific knowledge practitioners, or when the subject matter of a discipline should apply equally well to the individual practitioners of that discipline, for example when psychological theory should explain the psychological mental processes of psychologists. More broadly, reflexivity is considered to occur when the observations or actions of observers in the social system affect the very situations they are observing, or theory being formulated is disseminated to and affects the behaviour of the individuals or systems the theory is meant to be objectively modelling. Thus for example an anthropologist living in an isolated village may affect the village and the behaviour of its citizens under study. The observations are not independent of the participation of the observer. Reflexivity is, therefore, a methodological issue in the social sciences analogous to the observer effect. Within that part of recent sociology of science that has been called the strong programme, reflexivity is suggested as a methodological norm or principle, meaning that a full theoretical account of the social construction of, say, scientific, religious or ethical knowledge systems, should itself be explainable by the same principles and methods as used for accounting for these other knowledge systems. This points to a general feature of naturalised epistemologies, that such theories of knowledge allow for specific fields of research to elucidate other fields as part of an overall self - reflective process: Any particular field of research occupied with aspects of knowledge processes in general (e.g., history of science, cognitive science, sociology of science, psychology of perception, semiotics, logic, neuroscience) may reflexively study other such fields yielding to an overall improved reflection on the conditions for creating knowledge. Reflexivity includes both a subjective process of self - consciousness inquiry and the study of social behavior with reference to theories about social relationships. The principle of reflexivity was perhaps first enunciated by the sociologists William I. Thomas and Dorothy Swaine Thomas, in their book The Child in America, 1928 "If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences '' The theory was later called the Thomas theorem: that ' the situations that men define as true, become true for them. ' Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1948, 1949) built on the Thomas principle to define the notion of a self - fulfilling prophecy: that once a prediction or prophecy is made, actors may accommodate their behaviours and actions so that a statement that would have been false becomes true or, conversely, a statement that would have been true becomes false - as a consequence of the prediction or prophecy being made. The prophecy has a constitutive impact on the outcome or result, changing the outcome from what would otherwise have happened. Reflexivity was taken up as an issue in science in general by Karl Popper (1957), who called it the ' Oedipal effect ', and more comprehensively by Ernest Nagel (1961). Reflexivity presents a problem for science because if a prediction can lead to changes in the system that the prediction is made in relation to, it becomes difficult to assess scientific hypotheses by comparing the predictions they entail with the events that actually occur. The problem is even more difficult in the social sciences. Reflexivity has been taken up as the issue of "reflexive prediction '' in economic science by Grunberg and Modigliani (1954) and Herbert A. Simon (1954), has been debated as a major issue in relation to the Lucas Critique, and has been raised as a methodological issue in economic science arising from the issue of reflexivity in the sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) literature. Reflexivity has emerged as both an issue and a solution in modern approaches to the problem of structure and agency, for example in the work of Anthony Giddens in his structuration theory and Pierre Bourdieu in his genetic structuralism. Giddens, for example, noted that constitutive reflexivity is possible in any social system, and that this presents a distinct methodological problem for the social sciences. Giddens accentuated this theme with his notion of "reflexive modernity '' -- the argument that, over time, society is becoming increasingly more self - aware, reflective, and hence reflexive. Bourdieu argued that the social scientist is inherently laden with biases, and only by becoming reflexively aware of those biases can the social scientists free themselves from them and aspire to the practice of an objective science. For Bourdieu, therefore, reflexivity is part of the solution, not the problem. Michel Foucault 's The Order of Things can be said to touch on the issue of Reflexivity. Foucault examines the history of Western thought since the Renaissance and argues that each historical epoch (he identifies 3, while proposing a 4th) has an episteme, or "a historical a priori '', that structures and organizes knowledge. Foucault argues that the concept of man emerged in the early 19th century, what he calls the "Age of Man '', with the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. He finishes the book by posing the problem of the age of man and our pursuit of knowledge - where "man is both knowing subject and the object of his own study ''; thus, Foucault argues that the social sciences, far from being objective, produce truth in their own mutually exclusive discourses. Economic philosopher George Soros, influenced by ideas put forward by his tutor, Karl Popper (1957), has been an active promoter of the relevance of reflexivity to economics, first propounding it publicly in his 1987 book The Alchemy of Finance. He regards his insights into market behavior from applying the principle as a major factor in the success of his financial career. Reflexivity is inconsistent with equilibrium theory, which stipulates that markets move towards equilibrium and that non-equilibrium fluctuations are merely random noise that will soon be corrected. In equilibrium theory, prices in the long run at equilibrium reflect the underlying fundamentals, which are unaffected by prices. Reflexivity asserts that prices do in fact influence the fundamentals and that these newly influenced set of fundamentals then proceed to change expectations, thus influencing prices; the process continues in a self - reinforcing pattern. Because the pattern is self - reinforcing, markets tend towards disequilibrium. Sooner or later they reach a point where the sentiment is reversed and negative expectations become self - reinforcing in the downward direction, thereby explaining the familiar pattern of boom and bust cycles An example Soros cites is the procyclical nature of lending, that is, the willingness of banks to ease lending standards for real estate loans when prices are rising, then raising standards when real estate prices are falling, reinforcing the boom and bust cycle. He further suggests that property price inflation is essentially a reflexive phenomenon: house prices are influenced by the sums that banks are prepared to advance for their purchase, and these sums are determined by the banks ' estimation of the prices that the property would command. Soros has often claimed that his grasp of the principle of reflexivity is what has given him his "edge '' and that it is the major factor contributing to his successes as a trader. For several decades there was little sign of the principle being accepted in mainstream economic circles, but there has been an increase of interest following the crash of 2008, with academic journals, economists, and investors discussing his theories. Economist and former columnist of the Financial Times, Anatole Kaletsky, argued that Soros ' concept of reflexivity is useful in understanding the way in which Western analysts believe that China 's "economy is not only slowing, but falling off a cliff. '' The perception that China is the weakest link in the global economy dominated the International Monetary Fund annual meeting in Peru in October 2015. In reality, according to Kaletsky, China 's GDP in 2005 was $2.3 trillion and in 2015 is $10.3 trillion, the renminbi stabilized in October, "capital flight '' dwindled, and there are "better - than - expected reserve figures released by the People 's Bank of China on October 7. '' Kaletsky claims that suspect but powerful financial feedback perceptions are constantly "self - reinforced '' but that they do not reflect economic reality. According to Soros ' concept of reflexivity, "financial markets can create inaccurate expectations and then change reality to accord with them. This is the opposite of the process described in textbooks and built into economic models, which always assume that financial expectations adapt to reality, not the other way round. '' The Chinese government 's "policy of shifting gradually to a market - based exchange rate '' reveals that China may better understand "reflexive interactions among finance, the real economy, and government than "Western devotees of free markets capitalism. '' Kaletsky warned against making the same mistakes as those made in 2008 when "financial expectations '' based on reflexivity, interacted with "policy blunders, turning modest economic problems into major catastrophes, first in the US and then in the eurozone. '' In 2009, Soros funded the launch of the Institute for New Economic Thinking with the hope that it would develop reflexivity further. The Institute works with several types of Heterodox economics, particularly the Post-Keynesian branch. Margaret Archer has written extensively on laypeople 's reflexivity. For her, human reflexivity is a mediating mechanism between structural properties, or the individual 's social context, and action, or the individual 's ultimate concerns. Reflexive activity, according to Archer, increasingly takes the place of habitual action in late modernity since routine forms prove ineffective in dealing with the complexity of modern life trajectories. While Archer emphasizes the agentic aspect of reflexivity, reflexive orientations can themselves be seen as being socially and temporally embedded. For example, Elster points out that reflexivity can not be understood without taking into account the fact that it draws on background configurations (e.g., shared meanings, as well as past social engagement and lived experiences of the social world) to be operative. In anthropology, reflexivity has come to have two distinct meanings, one that refers to the researcher 's awareness of an analytic focus on his or her relationship to the field of study, and the other that attends to the ways that cultural practices involve consciousness and commentary on themselves. The first sense of reflexivity in anthropology is part of social science 's more general self - critique in the wake of theories by Michel Foucault and others about the relationship of power and knowledge production. Reflexivity about the research process became an important part of the critique of the colonial roots and scientistic methods of anthropology in the "writing cultures '' movement associated with James Clifford and George Marcus, as well as many other anthropologists. Rooted in literary criticism and philosophical analysis of the relationship of anthropologist, representations of people in texts, and the people represented, this approach has fundamentally changed ethical and methodological approaches in anthropology. As with the feminist and anti-colonial critiques that provide some of reflexive anthropology 's inspiration, the reflexive understanding of the academic and political power of representations, analysis of the process of "writing culture '' has become a necessary part of understanding the situation of the ethnographer in the fieldwork situation. Objectification of people and cultures and analysis of them only as objects of study has been largely rejected in favor of developing more collaborative approaches that respect local people 's values and goals. Nonetheless, many anthropologists have accused the "writing cultures '' approach of muddying the scientific aspects of anthropology with too much introspection about fieldwork relationships, and reflexive anthropology have been heavily attacked by more positivist anthropologists. Considerable debate continues in anthropology over the role of postmodernism and reflexivity, but most anthropologists accept the value of the critical perspective, and generally only argue about the relevance of critical models that seem to lead anthropology away from its earlier core foci. The second kind of reflexivity studied by anthropologists involves varieties of self - reference in which people and cultural practices call attention to themselves. One important origin for this approach is Roman Jakobson in his studies of deixis and the poetic function in language, but the work of Mikhail Bakhtin on carnival has also been important. Within anthropology, Gregory Bateson developed ideas about meta - messages (subtext) as part of communication, while Clifford Geertz 's studies of ritual events such as the Balinese cock - fight point to their role as foci for public reflection on the social order. Studies of play and tricksters further expanded ideas about reflexive cultural practices. Reflexivity has been most intensively explored in studies of performance, public events, rituals, and linguistic forms but can be seen any time acts, things, or people are held up and commented upon or otherwise set apart for consideration. In researching cultural practices reflexivity plays important role but because of its complexity and subtlety it often goes under - investigated or involves highly specialized analyses. One use of studying reflexivity is in connection to authenticity. Cultural traditions are often imagined as perpetuated as stable ideals by uncreative actors. Innovation may or may not change tradition, but since reflexivity is intrinsic to many cultural activities, reflexivity is part of tradition and not inauthentic. The study of reflexivity shows that people have both self - awareness and creativity in culture. They can play with, comment upon, debate, modify, and objectify culture through manipulating many different features in recognized ways. This leads to the metaculture of conventions about managing and reflecting upon culture. Flanagan has argued that reflexivity complicates all three of the traditional roles that are typically played by a classical science: explanation, prediction and control. The fact that individuals and social collectivities are capable of self - inquiry and adaptation is a key characteristic of real - world social systems, differentiating the social sciences from the physical sciences. Reflexivity, therefore, raises real issues regarding the extent to which the social sciences may ever be viewed as "hard '' sciences analogous to classical physics, and raises questions about the nature of the social sciences.
dj wale babu mera gana chala do cast	Natasa Stankovic - wikipedia Nataša Stanković is a Serbian model, dancer and actress, working in Bollywood. She was part of a dance performance in Prakash Jha 's 2013 Hindi film Satyagraha. Stankovic was born in Serbia. She attended Ballet Dance School for seventeen years, then she started modeling in Serbia. She came to Mumbai in 2012 and started advertisements for Johnson and Johnson. She has appeared in various advertisements including one for Durex with Bollywood actor Ranveer Singh. Stankovic came to India as a model, then she did various television advertisements. She participated in the eighth season of Indian reality show Bigg Boss. Due to some Bigg Boss house rules, Stankovic started to learn Hindi language to stay at Bigg Boss house. On 19 October she got evicted from Bigg Boss 8 and in 2015 she appeared in a song as model dancer with DJ Wale Babu by Badshah.
explain the various modes of dispersal of seeds	Seed dispersal - wikipedia Seed dispersal is the movement or transport of seeds away from the parent plant. Plants have very limited mobility and consequently rely upon a variety of dispersal vectors to transport their propagules, including both abiotic and biotic vectors. Seeds can be dispersed away from the parent plant individually or collectively, as well as dispersed in both space and time. The patterns of seed dispersal are determined in large part by the dispersal mechanism and this has important implications for the demographic and genetic structure of plant populations, as well as migration patterns and species interactions. There are five main modes of seed dispersal: gravity, wind, ballistic, water, and by animals. Some plants are serotinous and only disperse their seeds in response to an environmental stimulus. Seed dispersal is likely to have several benefits for plant species. First, seed survival is often higher away from the parent plant. This higher survival may result from the actions of density - dependent seed and seedling predators and pathogens, which often target the high concentrations of seeds beneath adults. Competition with adult plants may also be lower when seeds are transported away from their parent. Seed dispersal also allows plants to reach specific habitats that are favorable for survival, a hypothesis known as directed dispersal. For example, Ocotea endresiana (Lauraceae) is a tree species from Latin America which is dispersed by several species of birds, including the three - wattled bellbird. Male bellbirds perch on dead trees in order to attract mates, and often defecate seeds beneath these perches where the seeds have a high chance of survival because of high light conditions and escape from fungal pathogens. In the case of fleshy - fruited plants, seed - dispersal in animal guts (endozoochory) often enhances the amount, the speed, and the asynchrony of germination, which can have important plant benefits. Seeds dispersed by ants (myrmecochory) are not only dispersed short distances but are also buried underground by the ants. These seeds can thus avoid adverse environmental effects such as fire or drought, reach nutrient - rich microsites and survive longer than other seeds. These features are peculiar to myrmecochory, which may thus provide additional benefits not present in other dispersal modes. Finally, at another scale, seed dispersal may allow plants to colonize vacant habitats and even new geographic regions. Dispersal distances and deposition sites depend on the movement range of the disperser, and longer dispersal distances are sometimes accomplished through diplochory, the sequential dispersal by two or more different dispersal mechanisms. In fact, recent evidence suggests that the majority of seed dispersal events involves more than one dispersal phase. Seed dispersal is sometimes split into autochory (when dispersal is attained using the plant 's own means) and allochory (when obtained through external means). Long Distance Dispersal of Seeds Long distance seed dispersal (LDD) is a type of spatial dispersal that is currently defined by two forms, proportional and actual distance. A plant 's fitness and survival may heavily depend on this method of seed dispersal depending on certain environmental factors. The first form of LDD, proportional distance, measures the percentage of seeds (1 % out of total number of seeds produced) that travel the farthest distance out of a 99 % probability distribution. The proportional definition of LDD is in actuality a descriptor for more extreme dispersal events. An example of LDD would be that of a plant developing a specific dispersal vector or morphology in order to allow for the dispersal of its seeds over a great distance. The actual or absolute method identifies LDD as a literal distance. It classifies 1 km as the threshold distance for seed dispersal. Here, threshold means the minimum distance a plant can disperse its seeds and have it still count as LDD. There is a second, unmeasurable, form of LDD besides proportional and actual. This is known as the non-standard form. Non-standard LDD is when seed dispersal occurs completely at random. An example of this would be if the lemur dependent dispersal of seeds from the deciduous trees of Madagascar were to wash ashore the coastline of South Africa via the attachment of mermaid purses laid by a shark or common skate. (6) A driving factor for the evolutionary significance of LDD is that it increases plant fitness by decreasing neighboring plant competition for offspring. However, it is still unclear today as to how specific traits, conditions and trade - offs (particularly within short seed dispersal) effect LDD evolution. Autochorous plants disperse their seed without any help from an external vector, as a result this limits plants considerably as to the distance they can disperse their seed. Two other types of autochory not described in detail here are blastochory, where the stem of the plant crawls along the ground to deposit its seed far from the base of the plant, and herpochory (the seed crawls by means of trichomes and changes in humidity). Barochory or the plant use of gravity for dispersal is a simple means of achieving seed dispersal. The effect of gravity on heavier fruits causes them to fall from the plant when ripe. Fruits exhibiting this type of dispersal include apples, coconuts and passionfruit and those with harder shells (which often roll away from the plant to gain more distance). Gravity dispersal also allows for later transmission by water or animal. Ballochory is a type of dispersal where the seed is forcefully ejected by explosive dehiscence of the fruit. Often the force that generates the explosion results from turgor pressure within the fruit or due to internal tensions within the fruit. Some examples of plants which disperse their seeds autochorously include: Impatiens spp., Arceuthobium spp., Ecballium spp., Geranium spp., Cardamine hirsuta and others. An exceptional example of ballochory is Hura crepitans -- this plant is commonly called the dynamite tree due to the sound of the fruit exploding. The explosions are powerful enough to throw the seed up to 100 meters. Allochory refers to any of many types of seed dispersal where a vector or secondary agent is used to disperse seeds. This vectors may include wind, water, animals or others. Wind dispersal (anemochory) is one of the more primitive means of dispersal. Wind dispersal can take on one of two primary forms: seeds can float on the breeze or alternatively, they can flutter to the ground. The classic examples of these dispersal mechanisms, in the temperate northern hemisphere, include dandelions, which have a feathery pappus attached to their seeds and can be dispersed long distances, and maples, which have winged seeds (samaras) and flutter to the ground. An important constraint on wind dispersal is the need for abundant seed production to maximize the likelihood of a seed landing in a site suitable for germination. There are also strong evolutionary constraints on this dispersal mechanism. For instance, Cody and Overton (1996) found that species in the Asteraceae on islands tended to have reduced dispersal capabilities (i.e., larger seed mass and smaller pappus) relative to the same species on the mainland. Also, Helonias bullata, a species of perennial herb native to the United States, evolved to utilize wind dispersal as the primary seed dispersal mechanism; however, limited wind in its habitat prevents the seeds to successfully disperse away from its parents, resulting in clusters of population. Reliance on wind dispersal is common among many weedy or ruderal species. Unusual mechanisms of wind dispersal include tumbleweeds, where the entire plant is blown by the wind. Physalis fruits, when not fully ripe, may sometimes be dispersed by wind due to the space between the fruit and the covering calyx which acts as air bladder. Many aquatic (water dwelling) and some terrestrial (land dwelling) species use hydrochory, or seed dispersal through water. Seeds can travel for extremely long distances, depending on the specific mode of water dispersal; this especially applies to fruits which are waterproof and float. The water lily is an example of such a plant. Water lilies ' flowers make a fruit that floats in the water for a while and then drops down to the bottom to take root on the floor of the pond. The seeds of palm trees can also be dispersed by water. If they grow near oceans, the seeds can be transported by ocean currents over long distances, allowing the seeds to be dispersed as far as other continents. Mangrove trees grow directly out of the water; when their seeds are ripe they fall from the tree and grow roots as soon as they touch any kind of soil. During low tide, they might fall in soil instead of water and start growing right where they fell. If the water level is high, however, they can be carried far away from where they fell. Mangrove trees often make little islands as dirt and other things collect in their roots, making little bodies of land. A special review for oceanic waters hydrochory can be seen at oceanic dispersal. Animals can disperse plant seeds in several ways, all named zoochory. Seeds can be transported on the outside of vertebrate animals (mostly mammals), a process known as epizoochory. Plant species transported externally by animals can have a variety of adaptations for dispersal, including adhesive mucus, and a variety of hooks, spines and barbs. A typical example of an epizoochorous plant is Trifolium angustifolium, a species of Old World clover which adheres to animal fur by means of stiff hairs covering the seed. Epizoochorous plants tend to be herbaceous plants, with many representative species in the families Apiaceae and Asteraceae. However, epizoochory is a relatively rare dispersal syndrome for plants as a whole; the percentage of plant species with seeds adapted for transport on the outside of animals is estimated to be below 5 %. Nevertheless, epizoochorous transport can be highly effective if seeds attach to wide - ranging animals. This form of seed dispersal has been implicated in rapid plant migration and the spread of invasive species. Seed dispersal via ingestion by vertebrate animals (mostly birds and mammals), or endozoochory, is the dispersal mechanism for most tree species. Endozoochory is generally a coevolved mutualistic relationship in which a plant surrounds seeds with an edible, nutritious fruit as a good food for animals that consume it. Birds and mammals are the most important seed dispersers, but a wide variety of other animals, including turtles and fish, can transport viable seeds. The exact percentage of tree species dispersed by endozoochory varies between habitats, but can range to over 90 % in some tropical rainforests. Seed dispersal by animals in tropical rainforests has received much attention, and this interaction is considered an important force shaping the ecology and evolution of vertebrate and tree populations. In the tropics, large animal seed dispersers (such as tapirs, chimpanzees and hornbills) may disperse large seeds with few other seed dispersal agents. The extinction of these large frugivores from poaching and habitat loss may have negative effects on the tree populations that depend on them for seed dispersal. A variation of endozoochory is regurgitation rather than all the way through the digestive track. Seed dispersal by ants (myrmecochory) is a dispersal mechanism of many shrubs of the southern hemisphere or understorey herbs of the northern hemisphere. Seeds of myrmecochorous plants have a lipid - rich attachment called the elaiosome, which attracts ants. Ants carry such seeds into their colonies, feed the elaiosome to their larvae and discard the otherwise intact seed in an underground chamber. Myrmecochory is thus a coevolved mutualistic relationship between plants and seed - disperser ants. Myrmecochory has independently evolved at least 100 times in flowering plants and is estimated to be present in at least 11 000 species, but likely up to 23 000 or 9 % of all species of flowering plants. Myrmecochorous plants are most frequent in the fynbos vegetation of the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa, the kwongan vegetation and other dry habitat types of Australia, dry forests and grasslands of the Mediterranean region and northern temperate forests of western Eurasia and eastern North America, where up to 30 -- 40 % of understorey herbs are myrmecochorous. Seed predators, which include many rodents (such as squirrels) and some birds (such as jays) may also disperse seeds by hoarding the seeds in hidden caches. The seeds in caches are usually well - protected from other seed predators and if left uneaten will grow into new plants. In addition, rodents may also disperse seeds via seed spitting due to the presence of secondary metabolites in ripe fruits. Finally, seeds may be secondarily dispersed from seeds deposited by primary animal dispersers, a process known as diplochory. For example, dung beetles are known to disperse seeds from clumps of feces in the process of collecting dung to feed their larvae. Other types of zoochory are chiropterochory (by bats), malacochory (by molluscs, mainly terrestrial snails), ornithochory (by birds) and saurochory (by non-bird sauropsids). Zoochory can occur in more than one phase, for example through diploendozoochory, where a primary disperser (an animal that ate a seed) along with the seeds it is carrying is eaten by a predator that then carries the seed further before depositing it. Dispersal by humans (anthropochory) used to be seen as a form of dispersal by animals. Recent research points out that human dispersers differ from animal dispersers by a much higher mobility based on the technical means of human transport. Dispersal by humans on the one hand may act on large geographical scales and lead to invasive species. On the other hand, dispersal by humans also acts on smaller, regional scales and drives the dynamics of existing biological populations. Humans may disperse seeds by many various means and some surprisingly high distances have been repeatedly measured. Examples are: dispersal on human clothes (up to 250 m), on shoes (up to 5 km) or by cars (regularly ~ 250 m, singles cases > 100 km). Deliberate seed dispersal also occurs as seed bombing. This has risks as unsuitable provenance may introduce genetically unsuitable plants to new environments. Seed dispersal has many consequences for the ecology and evolution of plants. Dispersal is necessary for species migrations, and in recent times dispersal ability is an important factor in whether or not a species transported to a new habitat by humans will become an invasive species. Dispersal is also predicted to play a major role in the origin and maintenance of species diversity. For example, myrmecochory increased the rate of diversification more than twofold in plant groups in which it has evolved because myrmecochorous lineages contain more than twice as many species as their non-myrmecochorous sister groups. Dispersal of seeds away from the parent organism has a central role in two major theories for how biodiversity is maintained in natural ecosystems, the Janzen - Connell hypothesis and recruitment limitation. Seed dispersal is essential in allowing forest migration of flowering plants. In addition, the speed and direction of wind are highly influential in the dispersal process and in turn the deposition patterns of floating seeds in the stagnant water bodies. The transportation of seeds is led by the wind direction. This effects colonization situated on the banks of a river or to wetlands adjacent to streams relative to the distinct wind directions. The wind dispersal process can also effect connections between water bodies. Essentially, wind plays a larger role in the dispersal of waterborne seeds in a short period of time, days and seasons, but the ecological process allows the process to become balanced throughout a time period of several years. The time period of which the dispersal occurs is essential when considering the consequences of wind on the ecological process.
which one of the following u.s. cities has the most continental climate	Continental climate - wikipedia Continental climates are defined in the Köppen climate classification as having a coldest month mean temperature below - 3 ° C (26.6 ° F) or 0 ° C depending on which isotherm used for the coldest month and four months above 10 ° C. In the Köppen climate system, Continental climates are bordered to the south by Temperate climates or C climates (coldest month above 0 ° C, but below 18 ° C) and to the north by Boreal climate or E climates (only 1 to 3 months with a mean temperature of 10 ° C or 50 ° F). Köppen also defined continental climates as having more than 30 days with continuous snowcover on the ground. Continental climates often have a significant annual variation in temperature (hot summers and cold winters). They tend to occur in the middle latitudes (40 to 55 north), where prevailing winds come from over land, and temperatures are not moderated by bodies of water such as oceans or seas. Continental climates occur mostly in the Northern Hemisphere which has the large landmasses required for this type of climate to develop. Most of northern and northeastern China, eastern and southeastern Europe, central and southeastern Canada, and the central and upper eastern United States have this type of climate. In Continental climates, Precipitation tends to be moderate in amount, concentrated mostly in the warmer months. Only a few areas, in the mountains of the Pacific Northwest of North America and in Iran, northern Iraq, adjacent Turkey, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Central Asia show a winter maximum in precipitation. A portion of the annual precipitation falls as snowfall, and snow often remains on the ground for more than a month. Summers in continental climates can feature thunderstorms and frequent cool temperatures, however summer weather is more stable than winter weather. The timing of intermediate spring - like or autumn - like temperatures in this zone vary depending on latitude and / or elevation. For example, spring may arrive as soon as early March in the southern parts of this zone, or as late as May in the north. Annual precipitation in this zone is usually between 600 millimetres (24 in) and 1,200 millimetres (47 in), most of it in the form of snow during winter. It also has cold winters and warm summers. Most such areas fit Köppen classifications of Dfa, Dwa (cold winters, hot summers; "w '' indicating very dry winters characteristic especially of China) or Dfb or Dwb (cold winters, warm summers, same distinction for winter dryness). Dry summer continental climates (Dsa and Dsb) exist in high altitude areas near Mediterranean climates. In some cases, the semi-arid climate classification of BSk can also be considered to be continental as long it has cold winter. The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows: the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below − 3 ° C (26.6 ° F) and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 ° C (50 ° F). Some climatologists use the 0 ° C isotherm instead for the coldest month. Continental climates exist where cold air masses infiltrate during the winter and warm air masses form in summer under conditions of high sun and long days. Places with continental climates are as a rule either far from any moderating effects of oceans (examples: Omaha, Nebraska and Kazan, Russia) or are so situated that prevailing winds tend to head offshore (example: Boston, USA). Such regions get quite warm in the summer, achieving temperatures characteristic of tropical climates but are colder than any other climates of similar latitude in the winter. These climates grade off toward subtropical climates equator - ward where winters are less severe and semiarid climates where precipitation becomes inadequate for tall - grass prairies. In Europe these climates may grade off into oceanic climates in which the influence of cool oceanic air masses is more marked toward the west. The subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc), with very cold, long and dry winters, but with at least one month above 10 ° C (50 ° F), might be considered a sub-type of the continental climate. A statue of Ilanaaq, mascot of the 2010 Olympics, located on Whistler Mountain North Saskatchewan River valley in Edmonton The Forks, with St. Boniface Cathedral in the background in Winnipeg Toronto skyline taken from Colonel Samuel Smith Park in Etobicoke. Downtown Calgary from Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT) campus Olympic Stadium in Montreal Québec City shore Halifax as seen from the Dartmouth waterfront Duckworth Street in St. John 's Rainbow Bridge and the American Falls in Niagara Falls Downtown Pittsburgh from Station Square Boone, NC as seen from Howard 's Knob Mixed forest in Vermont during autumn Boston 's skyline in the background, with fall foliage in the foreground San Francisco Peaks from Flagstaff, AZ
when did msu go to the rose bowl	List of Michigan State Spartans bowl games - wikipedia The Michigan State Spartans college football team competes as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), representing Michigan State University in the Big Ten Conference (Big Ten). Since the establishment of the team in 1896, Michigan State has appeared in 26 bowl games. Included in these games are five appearances in the Rose Bowl Game. Through the history of the program, eight separate coaches have led the Spartans to bowl games with Mark Dantonio having the most appearances with nine. The Spartans currently have a bowl record of 11 -- 15 (. 423). Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
goa is in south india or north india	Goa - Wikipedia Goa / ˈɡoʊ. ə / (listen) is a state in India within the coastal region known as the Konkan in India. It is bounded by Maharashtra to the north and Karnataka to the east and south, with the Arabian Sea forming its Western coast. It is India 's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Goa has the highest GDP per capita among all Indian states, that is two and a half times that of the country. It was ranked the best placed state by the "Eleventh Finance Commission '' for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the best quality of life in India by the National Commission on Population based on the 12 Indicators. Panaji is the state 's capital, while Vasco da Gama is its largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the cultural influence of the Portuguese, who first landed in the early 16th century as merchants and conquered it soon thereafter. Goa is a former Portuguese province; the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961. Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year for its beaches, places of worship and world heritage architecture. It has rich flora and fauna, owing to its location on the Western Ghats range, a biodiversity hotspot. In ancient literature, Goa was known by many names, such as Gomanchala, Gopakapattana, Gopakapattam, Gopakapuri, Govapuri, Govem, and Gomantak. In the 3rd century BC, Goa was known as Aparantha and is mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy. In the 13th century, the Greeks referred to Goa as Nelkinda. Other historical names for Goa are Sindapur, Sandabur, and Mahassapatam. Rock art engravings found in Goa exhibit the earliest traces of human life in India. Goa, situated within the Shimoga - Goa Greenstone Belt in the Western Ghats (an area composed of metavolcanics, iron formations and ferruginous quartzite), yields evidence for Acheulean occupation. Rock art engravings (petroglyphs) are present on laterite platforms and granite boulders in Usgalimal near the west flowing Kushavati river and in Kajur. In Kajur, the rock engravings of animals, tectiforms and other designs in granite have been associated with what is considered to be a megalithic stone circle with a round granite stone in the centre. Petroglyphs, cones, stone - axe, and choppers dating to 10,000 years ago have been found in various locations in Goa, including Kazur, Mauxim, and the Mandovi - Zuari basin. Evidence of Palaeolithic life is visible at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigao, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, and Aquem - Margaon. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds poses a problem for determining the exact time period. Early Goan society underwent radical change when Indo - Aryan and Dravidian migrants amalgamated with the aboriginal locals, forming the base of early Goan culture. In the 3rd century BC, Goa was part of the Maurya Empire, ruled by the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka of Magadha. Buddhist monks laid the foundation of Buddhism in Goa. Between the 2nd century BC and the 6th century AD, Goa was ruled by the Bhojas of Goa. Chutus of Karwar also ruled some parts as feudatories of the Satavahanas of Kolhapur (2nd century BC to the 2nd century AD), Western Kshatrapas (around 150 AD), the Abhiras of Western Maharashtra, Bhojas of the Yadav clans of Gujarat, and the Konkan Mauryas as feudatories of the Kalachuris. The rule later passed to the Chalukyas of Badami, who controlled it between 578 and 753, and later the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed from 753 to 963. From 765 to 1015, the Southern Silharas of Konkan ruled Goa as the feudatories of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. Over the next few centuries, Goa was successively ruled by the Kadambas as the feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. They patronised Jainism in Goa. In 1312, Goa came under the governance of the Delhi Sultanate. The kingdom 's grip on the region was weak, and by 1370 it was forced to surrender it to Harihara I of the Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara monarchs held on to the territory until 1469, when it was appropriated by the Bahmani sultans of Gulbarga. After that dynasty crumbled, the area fell into the hands of the Adil Shahis of Bijapur, who established as their auxiliary capital the city known under the Portuguese as Velha Goa (or Old Goa). In 1510, the Portuguese defeated the ruling Bijapur sultan Yousuf Adil Shah with the help of a local ally, Timayya. They set up a permanent settlement in Velha Goa. This was the beginning of Portuguese rule in Goa that would last for four and a half centuries, until its annexation in 1961. In 1843 the Portuguese moved the capital to Panaji from Velha Goa. By the mid-18th century, Portuguese Goa had expanded to most of the present - day state limits. Simultaneously the Portuguese lost other possessions in India until their borders stabilised and formed the Estado da Índia Portuguesa or State of Portuguese India, of which Goa was the largest territory. After India gained independence from the British in 1947, India requested that Portuguese territories on the Indian subcontinent be ceded to India. Portugal refused to negotiate on the sovereignty of its Indian enclaves. On 19 December 1961, the Indian Army began military operations with Operation Vijay resulting in the annexation of Goa, Daman, and Diu into the Indian union. Goa, along with Daman and Diu, was organised as a centrally administered union territory of India. On 30 May 1987, the union territory was split, and Goa was made India 's twenty - fifth state, with Daman and Diu remaining a union territory. Goa encompasses an area of 3,702 km (1,429 sq mi). It lies between the latitudes 14 ° 53 ′ 54 '' N and 15 ° 40 ′ 00 '' N and longitudes 73 ° 40 ′ 33 '' E and 74 ° 20 ′ 13 '' E. Goa is a part of the coastal country known as the Konkan, which is an escarpment rising up to the Western Ghats range of mountains, which separate it from the Deccan Plateau. The highest point is the Sonsogor, with an altitude of 1,167 metres (3,829 ft). Goa has a coastline of 101 km (63 mi). Goa 's seven major rivers are the Zuari, Mandovi, Terekhol, Chapora, Galgibag, Kumbarjua canal, Talpona and the Sal. The Zuari and the Mandovi are the most important rivers, interspaced by the Kumbarjua canal, forming a major estuarine complex. These rivers are fed by the Southwest monsoon rain and their basin covers 69 % of the state 's geographical area. These rivers are some of the busiest in India. Goa has more than 40 estuarine, eight marine, and about 90 riverine islands. The total navigable length of Goa 's rivers is 253 km (157 mi). Goa has more than 300 ancient water - tanks built during the rule of the Kadamba dynasty and over 100 medicinal springs. The Mormugao harbour on the mouth of the River Zuari is one of the best natural harbours in South Asia. Most of Goa 's soil cover is made up of laterites rich in ferric - aluminium oxides and reddish in colour. Further inland and along the riverbanks, the soil is mostly alluvial and loamy. The soil is rich in minerals and humus, thus conducive to agriculture. Some of the oldest rocks in the Indian subcontinent are found in Goa between Molem and Anmod on Goa 's border with Karnataka. The rocks are classified as Trondjemeitic Gneiss estimated to be 3,600 million years old, dated by rubidium isotope dating. A specimen of the rock is exhibited at Goa University. Goa features a tropical monsoon climate under the Köppen climate classification. Goa, being in the tropical zone and near the Arabian Sea, has a hot and humid climate for most of the year. The month of May is usually the hottest, seeing daytime temperatures of over 35 ° C (95 ° F) coupled with high humidity. The state 's three seasons are: Southwest monsoon period (June -- September), post monsoon period (October -- January) and fair weather period (February -- May). Over 90 % of the average annual rainfall (120 inches) is received during the monsoon season. The state is divided into two districts: North Goa and South Goa. Each district is administered by a district collector, appointed by the Indian government. Panaji is the headquarters of North Goa district and is also the capital of Goa. North Goa is further divided into three subdivisions -- Panaji, Mapusa, and Bicholim; and five taluks -- Ilhas de Goa (Tiswadi), Bardez (Mapusa), Pernem, Bicholim, and Sattari (Valpoi), Margão is the headquarters of South Goa district. South Goa is further divided into five subdivisions -- Ponda, Mormugao (Vasco da Gama), Margao, Quepem, and Dharbandora; and seven taluks -- Ponda, Mormugao, Salcete (Margao), Quepem, and Canacona (Chaudi), Sanguem, and Dharbandora. (Ponda Taluka shifted from North Goa to South Goa in January 2015). Goa 's major cities include Vasco da Gama, Margão, Panaji, Mapusa and Ponda. Panajim And Margao are the two Municipal Corporations in Goa. There are thirteen Municipal Councils: Margao, Mormugao (including Vasco da Gama), Pernem, Mapusa, Bicholim, Sanquelim, Valpoi, Ponda, Cuncolim, Quepem, Curchorem, Sanguem, and Canacona. The politics of Goa are a result of the uniqueness of this region due to 450 years of Portuguese rule, in comparison to three centuries of British colonialism experienced by the rest of India. The Indian National Congress was unable to achieve electoral success in the first two decades after the State 's incorporation into India. Instead, the state was dominated by the communal politics of the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party and the United Goans Party. Government In the Parliament of India, Goa has two seats in the Lok Sabha (House of the People), one representing each district, and one seat in the Rajya Sabha (Council of the States). Goa 's administrative capital is Panaji in English, Pangim in Portuguese, and Ponjê in the local language. It lies on the left bank of the Mandovi. The seat of the Goa assembly is in Porvorim, across the Mandovi from Panaji. As the state comes under the Bombay High Court, Panaji has a bench of it. Unlike other states, which follow the British Indian model of civil laws framed for individual religions, the Portuguese Goa Civil Code, a uniform code based on the Napoleonic code, has been retained in Goa. Goa has a unicameral legislature of 40 members, headed by a speaker. The Chief Minister heads the executive, which is made up from the party or coalition elected with a majority in the legislature. The Governor, the head of the state, is appointed by the President of India. After having stable governance for nearly thirty years up to 1990, Goa is now notorious for its political instability having seen fourteen governments in the span of the fifteen years between 1990 and 2005. In March 2005 the assembly was dissolved by the Governor and President 's Rule was declared, which suspended the legislature. A by - election in June 2005 saw the Indian National Congress coming back to power after winning three of the five seats that went to polls. The Congress Party and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) are the two largest parties in the state. In the assembly poll of 2007, the INC - led coalition won and formed the government. In the 2012 Vidhan Sabha Elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party along with the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party won a clear majority, forming the new government with Manohar Parrikar as the Chief Minister. Other parties include the United Goans Democratic Party, the Nationalist Congress Party.In the 2017 assembly elections, the Indian National Congress gained the maximum number of seats with the BJP coming in second. However, no party was able to gain a majority in the 40 member house. The BJP was invited to form the Government by Governor Mridula Sinha. The Congress claimed the use of money power on the part of the BJP and moved the Supreme Court. However, the Manohar Parikkar led Government was able to prove its majority in the Supreme Court mandated floor test. Equatorial forest cover in Goa stands at 1,424 km (549.81 sq mi), most of which is owned by the government. Government owned forest is estimated at 1,224.38 km (472.74 sq mi) whilst private is given as 200 km (77.22 sq mi). Most of the forests in the state are located in the interior eastern regions of the state. The Western Ghats, which form most of eastern Goa, have been internationally recognised as one of the biodiversity hotspots of the world. In the February 1999 issue of National Geographic Magazine, Goa was compared with the Amazon and the Congo basins for its rich tropical biodiversity. Goa 's wildlife sanctuaries boast of more than 1512 documented species of plants, over 275 species of birds, over 48 kinds of animals and over 60 genera of reptiles. Goa is also known for its coconut cultivation. The coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (like a grass), enabling farmers and real estate developers to clear land with fewer restrictions. Rice is the main food crop, and pulses (legume), Ragi (Finger Millet) and other food crops are also grown. Main cash crops are coconut, cashewnut, arecanut, sugarcane and fruits like pineapple, mango and banana. Goa 's state animal is the Gaur, the state bird is the Ruby Throated Yellow Bulbul, which is a variation of Black - crested Bulbul, and the state tree is the Asan. The important forests products are bamboo canes, Maratha barks, chillar barks and the bhirand. Coconut trees are ubiquitous and are present in almost all areas of Goa barring the elevated regions. A large number of deciduous trees, such as teak, Sal tree, cashew and mango trees are present. Fruits include jackfruit, mango, pineapple and "black - berry '' ("podkoam '' in Konkani language). Goa 's forests are rich with medicinal plants. Foxes, wild boar and migratory birds are found in the jungles of Goa. The avifauna (bird species) includes kingfisher, myna and parrot. Numerous types of fish are also caught off the coast of Goa and in its rivers. Crab, lobster, shrimp, jellyfish, oysters and catfish are the basis of the marine fishery. Goa also has a high snake population. Goa has many famous "National Parks '', including the renowned Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary on the island of Chorão. Other wildlife sanctuaries include the Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary, Molem Wildlife Sanctuary, Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, Madei Wildlife Sanctuary, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary, and Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary. Goa has more than 33 % of its geographic area under government forests (1224.38 km2) of which about 62 % has been brought under Protected Areas (PA) of Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Park. Since there is a substantial area under private forests and a large tract under cashew, mango, coconut, etc. plantations, the total forest and tree cover constitutes 56.6 % of the geographic area. Goa 's state domestic product for 2007 is estimated at $3 billion at current prices. Goa is one of India 's richest states with the highest GDP per capita -- two and a half times that of the country -- with one of its fastest growth rates: 8.23 % (yearly average 1990 -- 2000). Tourism is Goa 's primary industry: it gets 12 % of foreign tourist arrivals in India. Goa has two main tourist seasons: winter and summer. In winter, tourists from abroad (mainly Europe) come, and summer (which, in Goa, is the rainy season) sees tourists from across India. The land away from the coast is rich in minerals and ores, and mining forms the second largest industry. Iron, bauxite, manganese, clays, limestone and silica are mined. The Marmagao port handled 31.69 million tonnes of cargo last year, which was 39 % of India 's total iron ore exports. Sesa Goa (now owned by Vedanta Resources) and Dempo are the lead miners. Rampant mining has been depleting the forest cover as well as posing a health hazard to the local population. Corporations are also mining illegally in some areas. Agriculture, while of shrinking importance to the economy over the past four decades, offers part - time employment to a sizeable portion of the populace. Rice is the main agricultural crop, followed by areca, cashew and coconut. Fishing employs about 40,000 people, though recent official figures indicate a decline of the importance of this sector and also a fall in catch, due perhaps, to traditional fishing giving way to large - scale mechanised trawling. Medium scale industries include the manufacturing of pesticides, fertilisers, tyres, tubes, footwear, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, wheat products, steel rolling, fruits and fish canning, cashew nuts, textiles, brewery products. Currently there are 16 planned SEZs in Goa. The Goa government has recently decided to not allow any more special economic zones (SEZs) in Goa after strong opposition to them by political parties and the powerful Goa Catholic Church. Goa is also notable for its low priced beer, wine and spirits prices due to its very low excise duty on alcohol. Another source of cash inflow into the state is remittance from many of its citizens who work abroad to their families. It is said to have some of the largest bank savings in the country. A native of Goa is called a Goan in English, Goenkar in Konkani, goês or goesa in Portuguese and Govekar in Marathi. The local Indian Christians were called "indiacatos '' and the mixed population, mestiços by the Portuguese. Goa has a population of 1.459 million residents, making it India 's fourth smallest (after Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh). The population has a growth rate of 8.23 % per decade. There are 394 people for each square kilometre of land which is higher than national average 382 per km. Goa is the state with highest proportion of urban population with 62.17 % of the population living in urban areas. The sex ratio is 973 females to 1000 males. The birth rate is 15.70 per 1,000 people in 2007. Goa also is the state with lowest proportion of Scheduled Tribes at 0.04 %. The Goa, Daman and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani in the Devanagari script the sole official language of Goa, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes ''. Portuguese was the sole official language during Portuguese colonial rule. It is now, however, mostly spoken by only the elderly Portuguese - educated populations and is no longer an official language. There is a now a growing interest in Portuguese with the organization of several contests and programs to promote the same. The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Whilst there have been demands for according Konkani in the Roman script official status in the state, there is widespread support for keeping Konkani as the sole official language of Goa. It is however notable to mention that the entire liturgy and communication of the Catholic church in Goa is done solely in the Roman script of Konkani. Konkani is spoken as a native language by about 61 % of the people in the state but almost all Goans can speak and understand Konkani. Other linguistic minorities in the state as per the 2001 census are speakers of Marathi (23 %), Kannada (3 %), Hindi (5 %), and Urdu (4 %). With the exception of Konkani, English, Portuguese and Marathi, all other mentioned languages are primarily migrant - based languages, natively spoken in other Indian states. Religion in Goa (2011) According to the 2011 census, in a population of 1,458,545 people, 66.1 % were Hindu, 25.1 % were Christian, and 8.3 % were Muslim. Smaller minorities of about 0.1 % each followed Sikhism, Buddhism, or Jainism. Due to the economic decline of the Estado da India from the eighteenth century, there was a large scale migration of Goan Catholics. The local Indian Christians were called "indiacatos '' and the mixed population, mestiços by the Portuguese. The population moved from 64.5 % Christians and 35 % Hindus in 1851 to 50 % Christians and 50 % Hindus in 1900, with a steady increase in the Hindu proportion from then onwards. The Catholics in Goa state and Daman and Diu union territory are served by the Metropolitan Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Goa and Daman, the primatial see of India, in which the titular Patriarchate of the East Indies is vested. Tourism is generally focused on the coastal areas of Goa, with decreased tourist activity inland. In 2010, there were more than two million tourists reported to have visited Goa, about 1.2 million of whom were from abroad. As of 2013 Goa was a destination of choice for Indian and foreign tourists, particularly Britons and Russians, with limited means who wanted to party. The state was hopeful that changes could be made which would attract a more upscale demographic. Goa also stands 6th in the Top 10 Nightlife cities in the world in a National Geographic Book. One of the biggest tourist attractions in Goa is water sports. Beaches like Baga and Calangute offer jet - skiing, parasailing, banana boat rides, water scooter rides and more. Over 450 years of Portuguese rule and the influence of the Portuguese culture presents to visitors to Goa a different cultural environment than what is found elsewhere in India. Goa is often described as a fusion between Eastern and Western culture with Portuguese culture having a dominant position in the state be it in its architectural, cultural or social settings. The state of Goa is famous for its excellent beaches, churches, and temples. The Bom Jesus Cathedral, Fort Aguada and a new wax museum on Indian history, culture and heritage in Old Goa are other tourism destinations. Goa has two World Heritage Sites: the Bom Jesus Basilica and churches and convents of Old Goa. The Basilica holds the mortal remains of St. Francis Xavier, regarded by many Catholics as the patron saint of Goa (the patron of the Archdiocese of Goa is actually Saint Joseph Vaz). These are both Portuguese - era monuments and reflect a strong European character. The relics are taken down for veneration and for public viewing, as per the prerogative of the Church in Goa, not every ten or twelve years as popularly thought and propagated. The last exposition was held in 2014. Goa also has the Sanctuary of Saint Joseph Vaz in Sancoale. Pilar monastery which holds novenas of Venerable Padre Agnelo Gustavo de Souza from 10 November to 20 November yearly. There is also a claimed Marian Apparition at the Church of Saints Simon and Jude at Batim Ganxim, near Pilar, where a number of Goans and non-resident Goans visit. There is also the statue of the bleeding Jesus on the Crucifix at the Santa Monica Convent in Velha Goa. There are a number of churches (Igorzo), like the Baroque styled Nixkollounk Gorb - Sombhov Saibinnich Igorz (Church of the Our Lady of Immaculate Conception) in Panaji, the Gothic styled Mater Dei (Dêv Matechi Igorz / Mother of God) church in Saligao and each church having its own style and heritage, besides Kopelam / Irmidi (Chapels). The Velhas Conquistas regions are also known for its Goa - Portuguese style architecture. There are many forts in Goa such as Tiracol, Chapora, Corjuem, Aguada, Reis Magos, Nanus, Mormugao, Fort Gaspar Dias and Cabo de Rama. In many parts of Goa, mansions constructed in the Indo - Portuguese style architecture still stand, though in some villages, most of them are in a dilapidated condition. Fontainhas in Panaji has been declared a cultural quarter, showcasing the life, architecture and culture of Goa. Some influences from the Portuguese era are visible in some of Goa 's temples, notably the Shanta Durga Temple, the Mangueshi Temple and the Mahalasa Temple, although after 1961, many of these were demolished and reconstructed in the indigenous Indian style. Goa also has a few museums, the two important ones being Goa State Museum and the Naval Aviation Museum. The aviation museum is one among three of its kind in the India, the other two being in Delhi and Bengaluru. Also, a place not well known to tourists is the Goa Science Centre, which is located in Miramar, Panaji. The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) is also located in Goa at Dona Paula. Having been a Portuguese territory for over 450 years, Goa 's culture is an interesting amalgamation of both Eastern and Western styles, with the latter having a more dominant role. The tableau of Goa showcases religious harmony by focusing on the Deepastambha, the Cross and Ghode Modni followed by a chariot. Western royal attire of kings is as much part of Goa 's cultural heritage as are regional dances performed depicting a unique blend of different religions and cultures of this State. Prominent local festivals are Christmas, Easter, Carnival, Diwali, Shigmo, Chavoth, Samvatsar Padvo, Dasara etc. The Goan Carnival and Christmas - new year celebrations are well known to attract a large number of tourists. The Gomant Vibhushan Award, the highest civilian honour of the State of Goa, is given annually by Government of Goa since 2010. Traditional Goan art forms are Dekhnni, Fugdi, Corridinho, Mando, Dulpod and Fado. Goan Catholics are fond of social gatherings and Tiatr (Teatro). As part of its Portuguese history, music is an integral part of Goan homes. It is often said that "Goans are born with music and sport ''. Western musical instruments like the Piano, guitars and violins are widely used in most religious and social functions of the Catholics. Goan Hindus are very fond of Natak, Bhajan and Kirtan. Many famous Indian classical singers hail from Goa, including Mogubai Kurdikar, Kishori Amonkar, Kesarbai Kerkar, Jitendra Abhisheki and Pandit Prabhakar Karekar. Goa is also known as the origin of Goa trance. Natak, Tiatr (most popular) and Jagor are the chief forms of Goa 's traditional performance arts. Other forms are Ranmale, Dashavatari, Kalo, Goulankala, Lalit, Kala and Rathkala. Stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with more modern social subjects are narrated with song and dance. "Jagor '', the traditional folk dance - drama, is performed by the Hindu Kunbi and Christian Gauda community of Goa, to seek the Devine Grace for protection and prosperity of the crop. Literal meaning of Jagor is "jagran '' or wakeful nights. The strong belief is that the night long performance, awakens the deities once a year and they continue to remain awake throughout the year guarding the village. Perni Jagor is the ancient mask dance -- drama of Goa, performed by Perni families, using well crafted and painted wooden masks, depicting various animals, birds, super natural power, deities, demons and social characters. Gauda Jagor, is an impression of social life, that displays all the existing moods and modes of human characters. It is predominantly based on three main characters, Gharasher, Nikhandar and Parpati wearing shining dress and headgears. The performance is accompanied by vibrant tunes of Goan folk instruments like Nagara / Dobe, Ghumat, Madale and Kansale. In some places, Jagor performances are held with participation of both Hindus and Christian community, whereby, characters are played by Hindus and musical support is provided by Christian artistes. Tiatr (Teatro) and its artists play a major role in keeping the Konkani language & music alive. Tiatr 's are conducted solely in the Roman script of Konkani as it is primarily a Christian community based act. They are played in scenes with music at regular intervals, the scenes are portrayals of daily life and are known to depict social and cultural scenarios. Tiatrs are regularly held especially on weekends mainly at Kala Academy, Panaji, Pai Tiatrist Hall at Ravindra Bhavan, Margao and most recent shows have also started at the new Ravindra Bhavan, Baina, Vasco. Western Musical Instruments such as Drums, bass, Keyboards, Trumpets etc. are part of the show and most of them are played acoustically. It is one of Goa 's few art forms that is renowned across the world with performances popular among Goans in the Middle - East, Americas and Europe. Konkani cinema is an Indian film industry, where films are made in the Konkani language, which is spoken mainly in the Indian states of Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka and to a smaller extent in Kerala. Konkani films have been produced in Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala. The first full length Konkani film was Mogacho Anvddo, released on 24 April 1950, and was produced and directed by A.L. Jerry Braganza, a native of Mapusa, under the banner of ETICA Pictures. Hence, 24 April is celebrated as Konkani Film Day. Konkani film Paltadcho manis has been included in the world 's best films of 2009 list. Konkani films are eligible for the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Konkani. The most commercially successful Konkani film (as of June 2011) is O Maria directed by Rajendra Talak. In 2012, the whole new change adopted in Konkani Cinema by introducing Digital Theatrical Film "The Victim '' directed by Milroy Goes. Some old Konkani films are Sukhachem Sopon, Amchem Noxib, Nirmonn, Mhoji Ghorkarn, Kortubancho Sonvsar, Jivit Amchem Oxem, Mog ani Moipas, Bhuierantlo Munis, Suzanne, Boglantt, Padri and Bhogsonne. Ujwadu is a 2011 Konkani film directed by Kasargod Chinna and produced by KJ Dhananjaya and Anuradha Padiyar. Rice with fish curry (xit koddi in Konkani) is the staple diet in Goa. Goan cuisine is famous for its rich variety of fish dishes cooked with elaborate recipes. Coconut and coconut oil are widely used in Goan cooking along with chili peppers, spices, and vinegar is used in the Catholic cuisine, giving the food a unique flavour. The Goan cuisine is heavily influenced by Portuguese cuisine. Goan food may be divided into Goan Catholic and Goan Hindu cuisine with each showing very distinct tastes, characteristics, and cooking styles. Pork dishes such as Vindalho, Xacuti, chouriço, and Sorpotel are cooked for major occasions among the Goan Catholics. An exotic Goan vegetable stew, known as Khatkhate, is a very popular dish during the celebrations of festivals, Hindu and Christian alike. Khatkhate contains at least five vegetables, fresh coconut, and special Goan spices that add to the aroma. Sannas, Hitt, are variants of idli and Polle, Amboli, and Kailoleo are variants of dosa; all are native to Goa. A rich egg - based, multi-layered sweet dish known as bebinca is a favourite at Christmas. There are some places in Goa which are famous for Goa 's traditional & special cuisines. The most popular alcoholic beverage in Goa is feni; cashew feni is made from the fermentation of the fruit of the cashew tree, while coconut feni is made from the sap of toddy palms. Goa also has a rich wine culture. The architecture of Goa is a combination of Indian, Islamic and Portuguese styles. Since the Portuguese ruled for four centuries, many churches and houses bear a striking element of the Portuguese style of architecture. Goan Hindu houses do not show any Portuguese influence, though the modern temple architecture is an amalgam of original Goan temple style with Dravidian, Hemadpanthi, Islamic, and Portuguese architecture. The original Goan temple architecture fell into disuse as the temples were demolished by the Portuguese and the Sthapati known as Thavayi in Konkani were converted to Christianity though the wooden work and the Kavi murals can still be seen. (see: Goa: Hindu temples and deities by Rui Gomes Pereira). Goa is served by almost all television channels available in India. Channels are received through cable in most parts of Goa. In the interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, has two free terrestrial channels on air. DTH (Direct To Home) TV services are available from Dish TV, Videocon D2H, Tata Sky & DD Direct Plus. The All India Radio is the only radio channel in the state that broadcasts on both FM and AM bands. Two AM channels are broadcast, the primary channel at 1287 kHz and the Vividh Bharati channel at 1539 kHz. AIR 's FM channel is called FM Rainbow and is broadcast at 105.4 MHz. A number of independent FM radio channels are available, Big FM at 92.7 MHz, Radio Mirchi at 98.3 MHz, and Radio Indigo at 91.9 MHz. There is also an educational radio channel, Gyan Vani, run by IGNOU broadcast from Panaji at 107.8 MHz. In 2006, St Xavier 's College, Mapusa, became the first college in the state to launch a campus community radio station "Voice of Xavier 's ''. Major cellular service operators include Bharti Airtel, Vodafone Essar, Idea Cellular, Telenor, Reliance Infocomm, Tata DoCoMo and BSNL CellOne. Local publications include the English language O Heraldo (Goa 's oldest, once a Portuguese language paper), The Gomantak Times and The Navhind Times. In addition to these, The Times of India and The Indian Express are also received from Mumbai and Bangalore in the urban areas. The Times of India has recently started publication from Goa itself, serving the local population news directly from the state capital. Among the list of officially accredited newspapers are O Heraldo, The Navhind Times and The Gomantak Times in English; Bhaangar Bhuin in Konkani (Devanagari script); and Tarun Bharat, Gomantak, Navprabha, Goa Times, Sanatan Prabhat, Govadoot and Lokmat (all in Marathi). All are dailies. Other publications in the state include Planet Goa (English, monthly), Goa Today (English, monthly), Goan Observer (English, weekly), Vauraddeancho Ixtt (Roman - script Konkani, weekly) Goa Messenger, Vasco Watch, Gulab (Konkani, monthly), Bimb (Devanagari - script Konkani). Normally other states are fond of cricket but, association football is the most popular sport in Goa and is embedded in Goan culture as a result of the Portuguese influence. Its origins in the state are traced back to 1883 when the visiting Irish priest Fr. William Robert Lyons established the sport as part of a "Christian education ''. On 22 December 1959 the Associação de Futebol de Goa was formed, which continues to administer the game in the state under the new name Goa Football Association. Goa, along with West Bengal and Kerala is the locus of football in India and is home to many football clubs in the national I - League. The state 's football powerhouses include Salgaocar Sports Club, Dempo Sports Club, Churchill Brothers, Vasco Sports Club and Sporting Clube de Goa. The first Unity World Cup was held in Goa in 2014. The state 's main football stadium, Fatorda Stadium, is located at Margao and also hosts cricket matches. A number of Goans have represented India in football and six of them, namely Samir Naik, Climax Lawrence, Brahmanand Sankhwalkar, Bruno Coutinho, Mauricio Afonso and Roberto Fernandes have all captained the national team. Goa has its own state football team and league, the Goa Professional League. It is probably the only state in India where cricket is not considered the most important of all sports. Goa also has its own cricket team. Dilip Sardesai remains the only Goan to date to play international cricket for India. The Indian Olympic Association (IOA) has won the right to host the Asian Beach Games in 2018. Goa had India 's earliest educational institutions built with European support. The Portuguese set up seminaries for religious education and parish schools for elementary education. Founded circa 1542 by saint Francis Xavier, Saint Paul 's College, Goa was a Jesuit school in Old Goa, which later became a college. St Paul 's was once the main Jesuit institution in the whole of Asia. It housed the first printing press in India and published the first books in 1556. Medical education began in 1801 with the offering of regular medical courses at the Royal and Military Hospital in the old City of Goa. Built in 1842 as the Escola Médico - Cirúrgica de (Nova) Goa (Medical - Surgical School of Goa), Goa Medical College is one of Asia 's oldest medical colleges and has one of the oldest medical libraries (since 1845). It houses the largest hospital in Goa and continues to provide medical training to this day. According to the 2011 census, Goa has a literacy rate of 87 %, with 90 % of males and 84 % of females being literate. Each taluka is made up of villages, each having a school run by the government. Private schools are preferred over government run schools. All schools come under the Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education, whose syllabus is prescribed by the state education department. There are also a few schools that subscribe to the all - India ICSE syllabus or the NIOS syllabus. Most students in Goa complete their high school with English as the medium of instruction. Most primary schools, however, use Konkani and Marathi (in private, but government - aided schools). As is the case in most of India, enrolment for vernacular media has seen a fall in numbers in favour of English medium education. As per a report published in The Times of India, 84 % of Goan primary schools run without an administrative head. The best known schools in Goa include Sharada Mandir School in Miramar, St Mary Angels Convent High School in Chinchinim, Perpetual Succour Convent High school, Navelim, Our Lady of the Rosary High School at Dona Paula, Vidya Prabhodini at Porvorim, K.B. Hedgewar High School, the Progress High School, Don Bosco High School, People 's High School, Mushtifund High School in Panaji, Saraswat Vidyalaya High School in Mapusa, Sunshine Worldwide school in Old Goa, Shiksha Niketan and Nisha 's Playschool in Torda, A.J. de Almeida High School in Ponda, S.S. Samiti 's I.V.B.D. High School in Dhawali -- Ponda, Vidya Bharati, Mahila And Nutan English High School in Margao, Manovikas in Margao, Loyola High School in Margao, St. Joseph 's Institute, Deepvihar High School in Vasco da Gama and Rosary High School in Navelim. Lourdes Convent High School in Saligao. After ten years of schooling, students join a Higher Secondary school, which offers courses in popular streams such as Science, Arts, Law and Commerce. A student may also opt for a course in vocational studies. Additionally, they may join three - year diploma courses. Two years of college is followed by a professional degree programme. Goa University, the sole university in Goa, is located in Taleigão and most Goan colleges are affiliated to it. There are six engineering colleges in the state. Goa Engineering College and National Institute of Technology Goa are government funded colleges whereas the private engineering colleges include Don Bosco College of Engineering at Fatorda, Shree Rayeshwar Institute of Engineering and Information Technology at Shiroda, Agnel Institute of Technology and Design (AITD), Assagao, Bardez and Padre Conceicao College of Engineering at Verna. In 2004, BITS Pilani one of the premier institutes in India, inaugurated its second campus, the BITS Pilani Goa Campus, at Zuarinagar near Dabolim. The Indian Institute of Technology Goa (IIT Goa) began functioning from its temporary campus, located in Goa Engineering College since 2016. The site for permanent campus is yet to be finalised. There are colleges offering pharmacy, architecture and dentistry along with numerous private colleges offering law, arts, commerce and science. There are also two National Oceanographic Science related centres: the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research in Vasco da Gama and the National Institute of Oceanography in Dona Paula. Goa Institute of Management located at Sanquelim, near Panaji is one of India 's premier business schools. In addition to the engineering colleges, there are government polytechnic institutions in Panaji, Bicholim and Curchorem, and aided institutions like Father Agnel Polytechnic in Verna and the Institute of Shipbuilding Technology in Vasco da Gama which impart technical and vocational training. Other colleges in Goa include Shri Damodar College of Commerce and Economics, V.V.M 's R.M. Salgaocar Higher Secondary School in Margao, G.V.M 's S.N.J.A higher secondary school, Don Bosco College, D.M. 's College of Arts, Science and Commerce, St Xavier 's College, Carmel College, The Parvatibai Chowgule College, Dhempe College, Damodar College, MES College, S.S. Samiti 's Higher Secondary School of Science and Rosary College of Commerce & Arts. Goa International Airport, is a civil enclave at INS Hansa, a Naval airfield located at Dabolim near Vasco da Gama. The airport caters to scheduled domestic and international air services. Goa has scheduled international connections to Doha, Dubai, Muscat, Sharjah and Kuwait in the Middle East by airlines like Air Arabia, Air India, GoAir, Indigo, Oman Air, SpiceJet, Jet Airways, JetKonnect and Qatar Airways. The proposed greenfield Mopa Airport will be built at Mopa in Pernem taluka. Goa 's public transport largely consists of privately operated buses linking the major towns to rural areas. Government - run buses, maintained by the Kadamba Transport Corporation, link major routes (like the Panaji -- Margao route) and some remote parts of the state. The Corporation owns 15 bus stands, 4 depots and one Central workshop at Porvorim and a Head Office at Porvorim. In large towns such as Panajiand Margao, intra-city buses operate. However, public transport in Goa is less developed, and residents depend heavily on their own transportation, usually motorised two - wheelers and small family cars. Goa has four National Highways passing through it. NH - 66 (ex NH - 17) runs along India 's west coast and links Goa to Mumbai in the north and Mangalore to the south. NH - 4A running across the state connects the capital Panaji to Belgaum in east, linking Goa to cities in the Deccan. The NH - 366 (ex NH - 17A) connects NH - 66 to Mormugao Port from Cortalim. The new NH - 566 (ex NH - 17B) is a four - lane highway connecting Mormugao Port to NH - 66 at Verna via Dabolim Airport, primarily built to ease pressure on the NH - 366 for traffic to Dabolim Airport and Vasco da Gama. NH - 768 (ex NH - 4A) links Panaji and Ponda to Belgaum and NH - 4. Goa has a total of 224 km (139 mi) of national highways, 232 km (144 mi) of state highway and 815 kilometres (506 miles) of district highway. National Highways in Goa are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access - controlled expressways. Hired forms of transport include unmetered taxis and, in urban areas, auto rickshaws. Another form of transportation in Goa is the motorcycle taxi, operated by drivers who are locally called "pilots ''. These vehicles transport a single pillion rider, at fares that are usually negotiated. Other than buses, "pilots '' tend to be the cheapest mode of transport. River crossings in Goa are serviced by flat - bottomed ferry boats, operated by the river navigation department. Goa has two rail lines -- one run by the South Western Railway and the other by the Konkan Railway. The line run by the South Western Railway was built during the colonial era linking the port town of Vasco da Gama, Goa with Belgaum, Hubli, Karnataka via Margao. The Konkan Railway line, which was built during the 1990s, runs parallel to the coast connecting major cities on the western coast. The Mormugao harbour near the city of Vasco handles mineral ore, petroleum, coal, and international containers. Much of the shipments consist of minerals and ores from Goa 's hinterland. Panaji, which is on the banks of the Mandovi, has a minor port, which used to handle passenger steamers between Goa and Mumbai till the late 1980s. There was also a short - lived catamaran service linking Mumbai and Panaji operated by Damania Shipping in the 1990s. 15th century 16th century 15th century 16th century 17th century 18th century 19th century 16th century 17th century 15th century 16th century Portuguese India 17th century Portuguese India 18th century Portuguese India 16th century 17th century 19th century Portuguese Macau 20th century Portuguese Macau 15th century (Atlantic islands) 16th century (Canada) 16th century 17th century 18th century 19th century
i said a boom boom boom everybody say wayo	Boom Boom Boom - wikipedia "Boom Boom Boom '' is a 1995 song by the American hip house duo The Outhere Brothers from their debut album 1 Polish, 2 Biscuits & a Fish Sandwich. The song peaked at number sixty - five on the Billboard Hot 100. Outside the United States, "Boom Boom Boom '' topped the charts in Germany, the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom. In the latter two countries, "Boom Boom Boom '' became the duo 's second chart - topping song. The original version of the song contained sexually explicit lyrics which were removed for the radio edit but were retained in remixes of the track on the single. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
who has more records between messi and ronaldo	Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry - wikipedia The Messi -- Ronaldo rivalry is an association football rivalry between fans of Argentine forward Lionel Messi and Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo and supposedly between the athletes themselves. Having won a combined ten Ballon d'Or / FIFA Ballon d'Or awards (5 for Messi and 5 for Ronaldo), both are widely regarded as the two best players of their generation and among the best of all time in the sport. Both players have regularly broken the 50 goal barrier in a single season, and have scored over 600 + goals each in their careers for club and country. They are also the only two players to score seven UEFA Champions League hat - tricks. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to establish who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to past global sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Björn Borg -- John McEnroe rivalry in tennis and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry in Formula One motor racing. In a 2012 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry by saying: "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '', while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United, Alex Ferguson opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi has denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''. In response to claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented: "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating: "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing ''. Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two, while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes depicted as an theatrical showoff, while Messi is portrayed as a shy, humble character. When asked which he preferred, then FIFA president Sepp Blatter commented that Messi will "always get a lot of votes because he plays well and scores goals '' before saying that Ronaldo "is like a commander on the field of play. This is the other side of football and it 's good to have commanders on the field. They do n't have the same attitude and that gives life to football. One has more expenses for the hairdresser than the other but that does n't matter. I ca n't say who is the best. I like both of them, but I prefer Messi ''. At club level, with Messi and Ronaldo representing rivals Barcelona and Real Madrid, the two players face each other at least twice every season in the world 's most popular regular - season club game, El Clásico, which had a global audience of 400 million viewers in March 2014. Off the field, they are the face of two rival sportswear manufacturers, Messi of Adidas and Ronaldo of Nike, which are also the respective kit suppliers of their national teams and the opposite for their clubs. The two highest paid players in football, Ronaldo and Messi are among the world 's best paid sports stars: in combined income from salaries, bonuses and off - field earnings in 2016, Ronaldo was first earning $88 million and Messi was second with $81.4 million. They have the two biggest social media followings in the world among sportspeople with a combined 200 million Facebook fans by July 2016. Born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, Santa Fe Province, Messi has spent his entire professional career at Spanish club Barcelona. His prodigious talents were spotted at an early age; he was discovered by Barcelona scout Josep Maria Minguella at the age of 13, and promptly moved to Spain where he progressed through Barcelona 's youth academy La Masia, before making his senior debut on 16 October 2004. At the age of 10, Messi was diagnosed with growth hormone deficiency and upon joining Barcelona, the club paid for his treatment. Throughout the early years of his career, Messi had to endure the pressure of the tag New Maradona, comparisons furthered by scoring goals comparable to those Diego Maradona scored against England in the 1986 FIFA World Cup; on 19 April 2007, he scored a mazy dribble against Getafe which bore remarkable resemblance to that of Maradona 's, before scoring his own version of the Hand of God on 9 June against rivals Espanyol. Maradona himself said of the comparison "I have seen the player who will inherit my place in Argentinian football and his name is Messi ''. Messi is the all - time top goalscorer in La Liga, has scored co-record seven UEFA Champions League hat - tricks, and holds a single Champions League game scoring record with five goals. On 17 April 2016, Messi scored his 500th professional career goal. While representing Argentina under - 20 at the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship, he scored a total of six goals, including two goals in the final to help Argentina win the tournament, and was awarded the Golden Ball and the Golden Boot as the tournament 's best player and top scorer respectively. He made his senior debut two months later, coming on as a substitute, but was sent off for violent conduct minutes later. He has scored five goals in World Cups, with his first coming in 2006, while the other four were scored in 2014 as Argentina reached the final for the first time in 24 years, before losing to Germany. Messi was awarded the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament. During the 2007 Copa América, Messi scored in the quarter - finals and semi-finals to help Argentina reach the final. He was named the best young player of the tournament. In the 2015 Copa América semi-final, he assisted three goals to help Argentina reach another Copa América final, only to be defeated on penalties. Messi was reportedly offered the Golden Ball as the best player of the tournament, but refused to accept it. In the Copa América Centenario the following season, he scored five goals and provided four assists, to become the all - time leading assists provider in Copa América history, and led Argentina to their third consecutive final in a major tournament, but missed his penalty in the resulting shoot - out, leading to a second consecutive defeat to Chile in the Copa América Final. Messi won an Olympic gold medal when he represented Argentina 's Olympic team in the 2008 Olympic games, as Argentina successfully defended the title they won four years previously in 2004. Born on 5 February 1985 in Funchal, Madeira, Ronaldo began his professional career with Sporting CP, making his senior debut on 7 October 2002, and in 2003 caught the attention of Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson, who signed him for £ 12.2 million (€ 15 million). Ronaldo 's talents were noted early on, with United legend George Best saying "There have been a few players described as ' the new George Best ' over the years, but this is the first time it 's been a compliment to me ''. Ronaldo spent six years at Manchester United, helping them win three consecutive Premier League titles between 2006 and 2009, an FA Cup in 2004, and reach two UEFA Champions League finals in 2008 and 2009, scoring United 's goal in the former. He departed United having scored 118 goals in 292 appearances, before he became the world 's most expensive player when he moved to Real Madrid in 2009 in a transfer worth £ 80 million (€ 94 million). During the 2007 -- 08 Premier League season, he scored a record 31 goals in a 38 - game season, including his first senior hat - trick in a 6 -- 0 win against Newcastle United. After the end of his eight season at Real Madrid, Ronaldo had already amassed a total of 406 goals, making him the top scorer in the club 's history. Former Real manager José Mourinho referred to him as a "goalscoring machine. '' He holds the record for most goals in a single Champions League season, after scoring a total of 17 goals in 2013 -- 14. This tally included one from a penalty kick in the final as the club won La Decima, where he became the first player to score for two different teams in Champions League finals. He is also alongside Messi the only player to score seven Champions League hat - tricks as well as the only player to score a Champions League hat - trick in consecutive matches. In December 2014, Ronaldo became the fastest player to score 200 goals in La Liga when, in his 178th La Liga game, he scored a hat - trick against Celta Vigo; his 23rd hat - trick was also a La Liga record. Cristiano Ronaldo is the all - time top goalscorer for the Portugal national football team. As of 10 September 2017, he has scored 78 goals in 145 appearances since his debut in 20 August 2003. He has scored goals in three consecutive World Cups, having scored against Iran in 2006, North Korea in 2010, and Ghana in 2014. Ronaldo has also scored a total of nine goals in the UEFA European Championship, making him the all - time joint top scorer of the competition along with Michel Platini. Including qualifying games, Ronaldo is the all - time top goalscorer with 29 goals, following his 23rd goal, against Armenia in 2014. At Euro 2016, Cristiano Ronaldo helped Portugal to win their first major tournament by scoring three goals and providing another three. Although he missed the majority of the final through injury, he was still awarded the Silver Boot as one of the second - highest goalscorers of the tournament. He has been voted into the UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament three times, in 2004, 2012 and 2016. In 2007, Ronaldo and Messi finished as runners - up to A.C. Milan 's Kaká in both the Ballon d'Or, an award rewarded to the player voted as the best in the world by an international panel of sports journalists, and the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year, an award voted for by coaches and captains of international teams. In an interview that year, Messi was quoted as saying "Cristiano Ronaldo is an extraordinary player and it would be brilliant to be in the same team as him ''. They first played in a game together when United were drawn to play Barcelona in the 2007 -- 08 UEFA Champions League semi-finals, and were immediately pitted as major rivals. Ronaldo missed a penalty in the first leg, but United eventually advanced to the final via a Paul Scholes goal. At the end of the year, Ronaldo was awarded the Ballon d'Or and vowed that he would win the award again. The 2009 UEFA Champions League Final was contested between Man Utd and Barcelona on 27 May 2009 at Stadio Olimpico in Rome, Italy. The match, described as a "dream clash '', was again hyped as the latest battle between the two, this time to settle who was the best player in the world; Ronaldo claimed he was the better of the two, while Messi 's club - mate Xavi sided with him. United manager Alex Ferguson was more diplomatic, praising both players as being amongst the world 's elite talents. Messi, playing in a central role he was unaccustomed to so he would avoid a direct battle with United left - back Patrice Evra, scored Barcelona 's second in a 2 -- 0 victory with a header in the 70th minute. Meanwehile, Ronaldo was subdued for much of the game despite some early chances to score, and his frustration eventually showed when he was booked for a rash tackle on Carles Puyol. On 11 June 2009, Manchester United accepted an offer of £ 80 million (€ 94 million) for Ronaldo to be transferred to Barcelona 's El Clásico rivals Real Madrid. The transfer was confirmed on 1 July. At the end of the year, Messi was awarded the Ballon d'Or by a record margin of 240 points. In the first league meeting of the two players, on 29 November 2009, it was Messi 's Barcelona who came out on top, winning 1 -- 0 with a goal from Zlatan Ibrahimović. In the second El Clásico of the season, Messi scored his 40th goal of the season in a 2 -- 0 win. Messi was said to have made a fool out of Ronaldo by the Spanish press, which claimed that Ronaldo 's "reign in the football world has ended ''. On 20 November 2010, the pair both scored hat - tricks on the same day for the first time; Ronaldo hit three goals against Athletic Bilbao in a 5 -- 1 win, while Messi scored three as Barcelona thrashed Almería 8 -- 0. The achievement was said to have proven why they are widely considered "the world 's best players ''. In January 2011, Messi won the inaugural combined version of the FIFA Ballon d'Or. The two players faced each other whilst representing their international sides for the first time on 9 February 2011, as Argentina played Portugal in a friendly in Geneva, Switzerland, their first meeting for 40 years. Both players were on the scoresheet, with Ronaldo scoring an equaliser before Messi scored an 89th - minute penalty to win the game 2 -- 1. The two came face - to - face in four pulsating games in the season finale, and the fixtures were hyped as the definitive games as to which of the two was the better player. In the first game of the series on 16 April 2011, Messi scored a 51st - minute penalty to give Barcelona the lead until the 82nd minute, when Ronaldo scored a penalty of his own to give Real Madrid a share of the points. In the second game, the 2011 Copa del Rey Final, Ronaldo scored the only goal of the game in extra time to give Real Madrid a 1 -- 0 win, and the club 's first trophy under manager José Mourinho. The third game was the first leg of the Champions League semi-final. The match was ugly and ill - tempered, with Madrid 's Pepe and Barcelona 's José Manuel Pinto both sent off, before Messi provided two moments of magic, including one described as "one of the best goals in Champions League history '', to give Barcelona a two - goal lead in the tie. Following the game, Messi was praised as both the current best in the world and amongst the greatest players of all time. Of the seven goals scored in the four games, Messi scored three and Ronaldo scored two. On 24 September 2011, both players scored a hat - trick on the same day for the second time; Ronaldo scored three in a 6 -- 2 win against Rayo Vallecano, and Messi scored three in a 5 -- 0 win over Atlético Madrid. In January, Messi won his third consecutive FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming only the fourth player to win the award three times after Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten. Having been drawn against each other in the Copa Del Rey quarter - finals later in the month, Ronaldo scored a goal in each game, but Barcelona advanced 4 -- 3 on aggregate. On 7 March 2012, Messi became the first player in the Champions League era to score five goals in a single game as Barcelona beat Bayer Leverkusen 10 -- 2 on aggregate. Following the achievement, Messi was hailed as the best in the world by his manager Pep Guardiola, and club mate Xavi. while journalists and pundits debated whether he was the greatest player of all time. Later in the month, he became Barcelona 's all - time leading goalscorer when he scored a hat - trick against Granada, overtaking César Rodríguez Álvarez 's record of 232 goals. On 21 April 2012, Ronaldo scored the winning goal in El Clásico as Real Madrid won 2 -- 1 and closed in on the league championship. In the first El Clásico of the season on 7 October 2012, both players scored twice in a 2 -- 2 at the Camp Nou, the sixth straight match between the two clubs that Ronaldo had scored in. Ronaldo scored in the 23rd minute to put Madrid 1 -- 0 in front, then Messi scored two either side of half - time to put Barcelona in the lead, but for only five minutes before Ronaldo scored a 66th - minute equaliser. Messi finished the calendar year of 2012 with an all - time record of 91 goals for both club and country, overtaking Gerd Müller 's record of 85 goals. In January, Messi won his record fourth consecutive FIFA Ballon d'Or. At the end of the month, the players scored hat - tricks on the same day for the third time; Ronaldo scored three against Getafe as Real Madrid won 4 -- 0 before Messi went one better by scoring four goals against Osasuna as Barcelona won 5 -- 1. It was Ronaldo 's 20th hat - trick and Messi 's 200th career league goal. In the Copa Del Rey semi-final second leg, Ronaldo scored two goals to help Real Madrid advance to the final in a 3 -- 1 victory. The goals meant he had scored in six consecutive El Clásico 's at the Nou Camp. On 6 September 2013, Ronaldo scored his first hat - trick whilst representing Portugal, helping them come from 2 -- 1 down against Northern Ireland to win 4 -- 2. Later in the month, the players scored hat - tricks on the same Champions League matchday for the first time; Ronaldo scored three against Galatasaray as Real Madrid won 6 -- 1, while a day later Messi scored a hat - trick against Ajax as Barcelona won 4 -- 0. This latest accomplishment was said to "defy the accepted wisdom that football is a team game ''. On November 19, 2013, Ronaldo scored all four of Portugal 's goals in the two - legged play - off against Sweden which ensured Portugal 's place at 2014 FIFA World Cup. His hat - trick in the second - leg made him tied for Portugal 's all - time top goalscorer after equalling Pauleta 's record tally of 47 international goals. The next day, it was announced the voting period for the 2013 FIFA Ballon d'Or had been extended, much to the chagrin of Barcelona president Sandro Rosell. At the beginning of 2014, Ronaldo ended Messi 's reign as the best player in world when he was awarded the 2013 FIFA Ballon d'Or. With both players captaining their respective country and therefore receiving the opportunity to vote, neither player voted for the other to decide who would receive the award or for the player who finished third, Franck Ribéry, with Ronaldo instead choosing to vote for Radamel Falcao, Gareth Bale and Mesut Özil, and Messi voting for clubmates Andrés Iniesta, Xavi and Neymar. In the second El Clásico of the season on 23 March 2014, Messi became the all - time top scorer in the fixture after he scored a hat - trick, including two penalty kicks, as Barcelona defeated Real Madrid 4 -- 3, while Ronaldo also scored a goal from the penalty spot which initially put Real Madrid 3 -- 2 in front; it was a match described as "astonishing '', "thrilling '' and "the best Clasico in recent years ''. At the start of the season, the race to beat Raúl 's Champions League goal scoring record of 71 goals dominated the headlines, with Messi beating Ronaldo to equal the record when he scored against Ajax on 5 November, and beating the record on 25 November with three goals against APOEL in a 4 -- 0 victory. Following this milestone goal, Barcelona manager Luis Enrique claimed Messi was the "greatest player of all time ''. Ronaldo equalled Raúl 's tally on 26 November when he scored the only goal of the game against Basel. For the second time in the season, the two players faced each other, this time in the shirts of their respective nations at Old Trafford, and was their last meeting before the announcement of the 2014 FIFA Ballon d'Or. The British press called the match an "international version of the Premier League 's 39th game '', which claimed that it "offers unique opportunity for a new seam of support to become embroiled in the Ronaldo v Messi arguments ''. Portugal defeated Argentina 1 -- 0, although neither Ronaldo nor Messi appeared on the score sheet. On 3 November, in a 4 -- 0 victory over Granada, Ronaldo made league history when he scored his 17th league goal of the season in just 10 games; the record was previously held by Isidro Lángara, who scored 16 goals in the first ten games of the 1935 -- 36 season for Real Oviedo. On 22 November, Messi equalled, and then went past, Telmo Zarra 's goalscoring record of 251 when he scored a hat - trick against Sevilla. Luis Enrique praised him following the achievement, saying that he is "one - of - a-kind and we 'll never see anyone like him ever again and we are privileged to have him and be able to watch him ''. On 6 December, Ronaldo overtook Zarra 's record of 22 La Liga hat - tricks, which he jointly held with Alfredo Di Stéfano, when he scored three against Celta Vigo. The goals meant he became the quickest player to reach 200 La Liga goals, accomplishing the feat in just 178 games, surpassing Zarra 's record of 219 games to reach the milestone. The following day, Messi responded by scoring his third hat - trick in his four games, his 21st La Liga hat - trick in total. The continuous record breaking was said be down to the pairs ' "spellbinding skill, relentless application, athletic charisma '', while journalist Sid Lowe said that this latest accomplishment "probably does n't count as a story any more ''. On 12 January 2015, Ronaldo won his second consecutive Ballon d'Or, garnering 37.66 % of the votes, ahead of Messi with 15.76 %. Both players again refused to vote for each other; Ronaldo voted for Real Madrid teammates Sergio Ramos, Gareth Bale and Karim Benzema, while Messi voted for teammates from both club and country, picking Ángel Di María, Andrés Iniesta and Javier Mascherano. Both players were praised for their accomplishments throughout 2014, with neither player clearly being the world 's best a "tribute simply to the status of both men '', while Ronaldo was declared a "truly worthy recipient '', having scored 61 goals to Messi 's 58, and it was declared that the time had come to finally give Ronaldo the respect he deserves within the confines of the rivalry. On 5 April, Ronaldo scored five times in one game for the first time in his career, including an eight - minute hat - trick, in a 9 -- 1 defeat of Granada in La Liga. He followed this up on 8 April with a goal against Rayo Vallecano in a 2 -- 0 victory; his 300th Real Madrid goal. 10 days later, he became the second player in the history of football to score 50 or more goals in a season on five occasions, when he scored the third goal in a 3 -- 1 victory against Málaga, while earlier in the day, Messi scored his 400th Barcelona goal in a 2 -- 0 win against Valencia. The 2015 -- 16 season started with Ronaldo scoring five goals against Espanyol to overtake Raúl 's La Liga tally for Real Madrid, before scoring twice against Malmö in the Champions League to equal Raúl 's overall total of 323 goals, the first of which was his 500th career goal. Raúl described Ronaldo as "incredible ''. Ronaldo surpassed Raúl 's overall goalscoring record on 17 October 2015, scoring the second goal in a 3 -- 0 La Liga win for Real Madrid at home against Levante to take his overall tally to 324 goals. On 8 December 2015, Ronaldo set a Champions League record of 11 goals in the group stage after scoring four goals against Malmö. His four - goal haul equalled a club record in the competition, jointly held by Alfredo Di Stéfano, Ferenc Puskás, and Hugo Sánchez. On 17 February 2016, Messi scored his 300th La Liga goal in a 1 -- 3 away win against Sporting Gijon. By scoring four goals in a 7 -- 1 home win over Celta Vigo on 5 March, Ronaldo arrived at 252 goals in La Liga to become the competition 's second - highest scorer in history behind Messi. Ronaldo scored a hat - trick against Wolfsburg to send his club into the Champions League semi-finals despite a 2 -- 0 first - leg defeat. The treble took his tally in the competition to 16 goals, making him the top scorer for the fourth consecutive season and the fifth overall. Messi finished the 2015 -- 16 season by setting up both goals in Barcelona 's 2 -- 0 extra time win over Sevilla in the 2016 Copa del Rey Final, at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, on 22 May 2016, as the club celebrated winning the domestic double for the second consecutive season. In total, Messi scored 41 goals and provided 23 assists, as Barcelona 's attacking trio of Messi, Suárez and Neymar (MSN) managed a Spanish record of 131 goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season. Suffering apparent fitness issues, Ronaldo gave a poorly - received performance in the final against Atlético Madrid, in a repeat of the 2014 final, though his penalty in the subsequent shoot - out secured La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th victory. For the sixth successive year, he ended the season having scored more than 50 goals across all competitions. Throughout the existence of the rivalry, the pair have dominated awards ceremonies and broken a multitude of goalscoring records for both club and country, feats which have been described as "incredible '', "ridiculous '', and "remarkable ''. The rivalry itself has been described as one about records and reputation of the players, rather than one based in loathing. Awards ceremonies to crown the world 's best player were held annually since 1956, when the inaugural Ballon d'Or awarding took place. The Ballon d'Or was presented to the player who had been voted to have performed the best over the previous year, and was established by French journalist Gabriel Hanot. Originally, votes could only be awarded to European players before a 1995 rule change. In the voting for the 2004 Ballon d'Or, Ronaldo received his first votes, finishing in joint 12th with Milan Baroš on 11 points. In 2005 he received three points, and in 2006 received five points, the same year Messi earned his first votes, finishing with three points. The FIFA World Player of the Year was established in 1991. In the voting for the 2004 FIFA World Player of the Year, Ronaldo received his first votes, finishing 13th with 45 points. In 2005 he received 13 points, and in 2006 received 69 points. Messi received his first votes in 2007. Both players dominated the voting of both awards from 2007 until the 2010 merging, winning their first trophies in 2008 and 2009, respectively, and continued to reign in the combined FIFA Ballon d'Or. In 2010, it was announced that the two awards would be merged into one main award applicable for players worldwide, with an expanded panel of voters. The Laureus World Sports Awards is an annual award ceremony honouring remarkable individuals from the world of sports along with the greatest sporting achievements throughout the year. With five and four nominations respectively, Messi and Ronaldo are the only footballers to be nominated on multiple occasions. Messi was also part of the Barcelona side which won the Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year in 2012, and were runners - up in 2006, 2007, 2010 and 2016. When playing for Manchester United, Ronaldo was part of the team which finished runners - up in 2009, and in 2015 and 2017 was part of the Real Madrid team which also finished as runners - up. The European Golden Shoe is awarded to the top goalscorer in Europe. It is awarded based on a weighted points system that allows players in tougher leagues to win even if they score fewer goals than a player in a weaker league. Goals scored in the top five leagues according to the UEFA coefficients rankings are multiplied by a factor of two, and goals scored in the leagues ranked six to 21 are multiplied by 1.5. Since the points system was established in 1996, Ronaldo and Messi are two of only four players, along with Mário Jardel and Luis Suárez, to score 80 or more points, while Messi is the only player to score 100 points. He was also the first player to win the award three times. Messi received his fourth Golden Boot in 2016 -- 17 season. Ronaldo was the first player to win the award four times. By virtue of being the top scorer in Europe, each also received the Premier League Golden Boot and the Pichichi Trophy in the respective seasons. In every edition of the FIFA Club World Cup, three players are awarded as Golden, Silver and Bronze ball winners. Messi is the only player to have won two Golden Balls, receiving them in the successful campaigns of 2009 and 2011, and got the Silver Ball in 2015. Ronaldo received the Silver Ball in his championships in 2008, 2014 and 2017, and got his first Golden Ball in 2016. Cristiano Ronaldo is the UEFA Champions league all - time top goalscorer with 113 goals while Messi is second with 97 to his name. The two had broken each other 's record over the course of 2015, after Messi surpassed the previous record holder, Raúl, in November 2014. Ronaldo opened a gap in the 2015 -- 16 season when he became the first player to score double figures in the group stage of the Champions League, setting the record at 11 goals. Messi overtook Alfredo Di Stéfano 's record of 18 El Clásico goals when he scored a hat - trick on 23 March 2014. In the history of the fixture, Ronaldo is the only player to score in six consecutive games. Note *: The selection includes results from lower categories. In recent years, it has been said that the rivalry between Real Madrid and Barcelona has been "encapsulated '' by the individual rivalry between Ronaldo and Messi, with neither player ever participating in a goalless El Clásico. Last updated 13 August 2017 A hat - trick occurs in association football when a player scores three goals in a single game. Ronaldo holds the record of most La Liga hat - tricks with 32. Messi & Ronaldo both share the record for most UEFA Champions League hat - tricks with seven. In 2017, Messi said: "No, I have always said it -- and (Ronaldo) from his part -- that he is armed with the presence of us both. We try to achieve the best every year for our team, and what is said outside of that, I do n't think is very important. He is a phenomenal player with a lot of quality. All the world knows, and that is why he is one of the best of the world. ''
what role did denzel washington won an oscar for	List of awards and nominations received by Denzel Washington - wikipedia The following is a list of awards and nominations received by actor Denzel Washington.
of which religion is the avesta a sacred book	Avesta - wikipedia The Avesta / əˈvɛstə / is the primary collection of religious texts of Zoroastrianism, composed in the otherwise unrecorded Avestan language. Collected during the Sassanid Period of much more ancient oral accounts, according to Jean Kellens, "The book was originally given the name abestag, which the Parsees later turned into Avesta and which probably comes from the Old Iranian upa - stavaka, ' praise (of Ahura Mazda) '. ''. The Avesta texts fall into several different categories, arranged either by dialect, or by usage. The principal text in the liturgical group is the Yasna, which takes its name from the Yasna ceremony, Zoroastrianism 's primary act of worship, and at which the Yasna text is recited. The most important portion of the Yasna texts are the five Gathas, consisting of seventeen hymns attributed to Zoroaster himself. These hymns, together with five other short Old Avestan texts that are also part of the Yasna, are in the Old (or ' Gathic ') Avestan language. The remainder of the Yasna 's texts are in Younger Avestan, which is not only from a later stage of the language, but also from a different geographic region. Extensions to the Yasna ceremony include the texts of the Vendidad and the Visperad. The Visperad extensions consist mainly of additional invocations of the divinities (yazata s), while the Vendidad is a mixed collection of prose texts mostly dealing with purity laws. Even today, the Vendidad is the only liturgical text that is not recited entirely from memory. Some of the materials of the extended Yasna are from the Yasht s, which are hymns to the individual yazatas. Unlike the Yasna, Visperad and Vendidad, the Yashts and the other lesser texts of the Avesta are no longer used liturgically in high rituals. Aside from the Yashts, these other lesser texts include the Nyayesh texts, the Gah texts, the Siroza, and various other fragments. Together, these lesser texts are conventionally called Khordeh Avesta or "Little Avesta '' texts. When the first Khordeh Avesta editions were printed in the 19th century, these texts (together with some non-Avestan language prayers) became a book of common prayer for lay people. The term Avesta is from the 9th / 10th - century works of Zoroastrian tradition in which the word appears as Zoroastrian Middle Persian abestāg, Book Pahlavi ʾp (y) stʾkʼ. In that context, abestāg texts are portrayed as received knowledge, and are distinguished from the exegetical commentaries (the zand) thereof. The literal meaning of the word abestāg is uncertain; it is generally acknowledged to be a learned borrowing from Avestan, but none of the suggested etymologies have been universally accepted. The surviving texts of the Avesta, as they exist today, derive from a single master copy produced by Sasanian Empire - era (224 -- 651 CE) collation and recension. That master copy, now lost, is known as the ' Sassanian archetype '. The oldest surviving manuscript (K1) of an Avestan language text is dated 1323 CE. Summaries of the various Avesta texts found in the 9th / 10th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition suggest that about three - quarters of the corpus has since been lost. A pre-Sasanian history of the Avesta, if it had one, is in the realm of legend and myth. The oldest surviving versions of these tales are found in the ninth to 11th century texts of Zoroastrian tradition (i.e. in the so - called "Pahlavi books ''). The legends run as follows: The twenty - one nasks ("books '') of the Avesta were created by Ahura Mazda and brought by Zoroaster to his patron Vishtaspa (Denkard 4A, 3A). Supposedly, Vishtaspa (Dk 3A) or another Kayanian, Daray (Dk 4B), then had two copies made, one of which was stored in the treasury, and the other in the royal archives (Dk 4B, 5). Following Alexander 's conquest, the Avesta was then supposedly destroyed or dispersed by the Greeks after they translated the scientific passages that they could make use of (AVN 7 -- 9, Dk 3B, 8). Several centuries later, one of the Parthian emperors named Valaksh (one of the Vologases) supposedly then had the fragments collected, not only of those that had previously been written down, but also of those that had only been orally transmitted (Dk 4C). The Denkard also transmits another legend related to the transmission of the Avesta. In that story, credit for collation and recension is given to the early Sasanian - era priest Tansar (high priest under Ardashir I, r. 224 -- 242, and Shapur I, r 240 / 242 -- 272), who had the scattered works collected, and of which he approved only a part as authoritative (Dk 3C, 4D, 4E). Tansar 's work was then supposedly completed by Adurbad Mahraspandan (high priest of Shapur II, r. 309 -- 379) who made a general revision of the canon and continued to ensure its orthodoxy (Dk 4F, AVN 1.12 -- 1.16). A final revision was supposedly undertaken in the 6th century under Khosrow I (Dk 4G). In the early 20th century, the legend of the Parthian - era collation engendered a search for a ' Parthian archetype ' of the Avesta. In the theory of Friedrich Carl Andreas (1902), the archaic nature of the Avestan texts was assumed to be due to preservation via written transmission, and unusual or unexpected spellings in the surviving texts were assumed to be reflections of errors introduced by Sasanian - era transcription from the Aramaic alphabet - derived Pahlavi scripts. The search for the ' Arsacid archetype ' was increasingly criticisized in the 1940s and was eventually abandoned in the 1950s after Karl Hoffmann demonstrated that the inconsistencies noted by Andreas were actually due to unconscious alterations introduced by oral transmission. Hoffmann identifies these changes to be due in part to modifications introduced through recitation; in part to influences from other Iranian languages picked up on the route of transmission from somewhere in eastern Iran (i.e. Central Asia) via Arachosia and Sistan through to Persia; and in part due to the influence of phonetic developments in the Avestan language itself. The legends of an Arsacid - era collation and recension are no longer taken seriously. It is now certain that for most of their long history the Avesta 's various texts were handed down orally, and independently of one another, and that it was not until around the 5th or 6th century that they were committed to written form. However, during their long history, only the Gathic texts seem to have been memorized (more or less) exactly. The other less sacred works appear to have been handed down in a more fluid oral tradition, and were partly composed afresh with each generation of poet - priests, sometimes with the addition of new material. The Younger Avestan texts are therefore composite works, with contributions from several different authors over the course of several hundred years. The texts became available to European scholarship comparatively late. Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil - Duperron travelled to India in 1755, and discovered the texts among Indian Zoroastrian (Parsi) communities. He published a set of French translations in 1771, based on translations provided by a Parsi priest. Anquetil - Duperron 's translations were at first dismissed as a forgery in poor Sanskrit, but he was vindicated in the 1820s following Rasmus Rask 's examination of the Avestan language (A Dissertation on the Authenticity of the Zend Language, Bombay, 1821). Rask also established that Anquetil - Duperron 's manuscripts were a fragment of a much larger literature of sacred texts. Anquetil - Duperron 's manuscripts are at the Bibliothèque nationale de France (' P ' - series manuscripts), while Rask 's collection now lies in the Royal Library, Denmark (' K ' - series). Other large Avestan language manuscript collections are those of the British Museum (' L ' - series), the K.R. Cama Oriental Library in Mumbai, the Meherji Rana library in Navsari, and at various university and national libraries in Europe. In its present form, the Avesta is a compilation from various sources, and its different parts date from different periods and vary widely in character. Only texts in the Avestan language are considered part of the Avesta. According to the Denkard, the 21 nasks (books) mirror the structure of the 21 - word - long Ahuna Vairya prayer: each of the three lines of the prayer consists of seven words. Correspondingly, the nasks are divided into three groups, of seven volumes per group. Originally, each volume had a word of the prayer as its name, which so marked a volume 's position relative to the other volumes. Only about a quarter of the text from the nasks has survived until today. The contents of the Avesta are divided topically (even though the organization of the nasks is not), but these are not fixed or canonical. Some scholars prefer to place the categories in two groups, the one liturgical, and the other general. The following categorization is as described by Jean Kellens (see bibliography, below). The Yasna (from yazišn "worship, oblations '', cognate with Sanskrit yajña), is the primary liturgical collection, named after the ceremony at which it is recited. It consists of 72 sections called the Ha - iti or Ha. The 72 threads of lamb 's wool in the Kushti, the sacred thread worn by Zoroastrians, represent these sections. The central portion of the Yasna is the Gathas, the oldest and most sacred portion of the Avesta, believed to have been composed by Zarathushtra (Zoroaster) himself. The Gathas are structurally interrupted by the Yasna Haptanghaiti ("seven - chapter Yasna ''), which makes up chapters 35 -- 42 of the Yasna and is almost as old as the Gathas, consists of prayers and hymns in honour of the Supreme Deity, Ahura Mazda, the Angels, Fire, Water, and Earth. The younger Yasna, though handed down in prose, may once have been metrical, as the Gathas still are. The Visperad (from vîspe ratavo, "(prayer to) all patrons '') is a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Visparad is subdivided into 23 or 24 kardo (sections) that are interleaved into the Yasna during a Visperad service (which is an extended Yasna service). The Visperad collection has no unity of its own, and is never recited separately from the Yasna. The Vendidad (or Vidēvdāt, a corruption of Avestan Vī - Daēvō - Dāta, "Given Against the Demons '') is an enumeration of various manifestations of evil spirits, and ways to confound them. The Vendidad includes all of the 19th nask, which is the only nask that has survived in its entirety. The text consists of 22 Fargards, fragments arranged as discussions between Ahura Mazda and Zoroaster. The first fargard is a dualistic creation myth, followed by the description of a destructive winter on the lines of the Flood myth. The second fargard recounts the legend of Yima. The remaining fargards deal primarily with hygiene (care of the dead in particular) (fargard 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 16, 17, 19) as well as disease and spells to fight it (7, 10, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22). Fargards 4 and 15 discuss the dignity of wealth and charity, of marriage and of physical effort, and the indignity of unacceptable social behaviour such as assault and breach of contract, and specify the penances required to atone for violations thereof. The Vendidad is an ecclesiastical code, not a liturgical manual, and there is a degree of moral relativism apparent in the codes of conduct. The Vendidad 's different parts vary widely in character and in age. Some parts may be comparatively recent in origin although the greater part is very old. The Vendidad, unlike the Yasna and the Visparad, is a book of moral laws rather than the record of a liturgical ceremony. However, there is a ceremony called the Vendidad, in which the Yasna is recited with all the chapters of both the Visparad and the Vendidad inserted at appropriate points. This ceremony is only performed at night. The Yasht s (from yešti, "worship by praise '') are a collection of 21 hymns, each dedicated to a particular divinity or divine concept. Three hymns of the Yasna liturgy that "worship by praise '' are -- in tradition -- also nominally called yashts, but are not counted among the Yasht collection since the three are a part of the primary liturgy. The Yashts vary greatly in style, quality and extent. In their present form, they are all in prose but analysis suggests that they may at one time have been in verse. The Siroza ("thirty days '') is an enumeration and invocation of the 30 divinities presiding over the days of the month. (cf. Zoroastrian calendar). The Siroza exists in two forms, the shorter ("little Siroza '') is a brief enumeration of the divinities with their epithets in the genitive. The longer ("great Siroza '') has complete sentences and sections, with the yazatas being addressed in the accusative. The Siroza is never recited as a whole, but is a source for individual sentences devoted to particular divinities, to be inserted at appropriate points in the liturgy depending on the day and the month. The five Nyayeshes, abbreviated Ny., are prayers for regular recitation by both priests and laity. They are addressed to the Sun and Mithra (recited together thrice a day), to the Moon (recited thrice a month), and to the Waters and to Fire. The Nyayeshes are composite texts containing selections from the Gathas and the Yashts, as well as later material. The five gāhs are invocations to the five divinities that watch over the five divisions (gāh s) of the day. Gāhs are similar in structure and content to the five Nyayeshes. The Afrinagans are four "blessing '' texts recited on a particular occasion: the first in honor of the dead, the second on the five epagomenal days that end the year, the third is recited at the six seasonal feasts, and the fourth at the beginning and end of summer. All material in the Avesta that is not already present in one of the other categories falls into a "fragments '' category, which -- as the name suggests -- includes incomplete texts. There are altogether more than 20 fragment collections, many of which have no name (and are then named after their owner / collator) or only a Middle Persian name. The more important of the fragment collections are the Nirangistan fragments (18 of which constitute the Ehrbadistan); the Pursishniha "questions, '' also known as "Fragments Tahmuras ''; and the Hadokht Nask "volume of the scriptures '' with two fragments of eschatological significance. Only texts preserved in the Avestan language count as scripture and are part of the Avesta. Several other secondary works are nonetheless crucial to Zoroastrian theology and scholarship. The most notable among the Middle Persian texts are the Dēnkard ("Acts of Religion ''), dating from the ninth century; the Bundahishn ("Primordial Creation ''), finished in the eleventh or twelfth century, but containing older material; the Mainog - i - Khirad ("Spirit of Wisdom ''), a religious conference on questions of faith; and the Book of Arda Viraf, which is especially important for its views on death, salvation and life in the hereafter. Of the post-14th century works (all in New Persian), only the Sad - dar ("Hundred Doors, or Chapters ''), and rivayats (traditional treatises) are of doctrinal importance. Other texts such as Zartushtnamah ("Book of Zoroaster '') are only notable for their preservation of legend and folklore. The Aogemadaeca "we accept, '' a treatise on death is based on quotations from the Avesta. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Avesta
who is often credited as the first modern director	Method acting - wikipedia Method acting is a range of training and rehearsal techniques that seek to encourage sincere and emotionally expressive performances, as formulated by a number of different theatre practitioners, principally in the United States, where it is among the most popular -- and controversial -- approaches to acting. These techniques are built on the Stanislavski 's "system '' of the Russian actor and director Konstantin Stanislavski. Though many have contributed to the development of the Method, three teachers are associated with "having set the standard of its success '', though each emphasized different aspects of the approach: Lee Strasberg (the psychological aspects), Stella Adler (the sociological aspects), and Sanford Meisner (the behavioral aspects). The approach was first developed when they worked together at the Group Theatre in New York. All three subsequently claimed to be the rightful heirs of Stanislavski 's approach. His three major books were An Actor Prepares, Building a Character, and Creating a Role. "The Method '' is an elaboration of the Stanislavski 's "system '' of acting developed by the Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski. In the first three decades of the 20th century, Stanislavski organized his training, preparation, and rehearsal techniques into a coherent, systematic methodology. The "system '' brought together and built on: (1) the director - centred, unified aesthetic and disciplined, ensemble approach of the Meiningen company; (2) the actor - centred realism of the Maly; (3) and the Naturalistic staging of Antoine and the independent theatre movement. The "system '' cultivates what Stanislavski calls the "art of experiencing '' (to which he contrasts the "art of representation ''). It mobilises the actor 's conscious thought and will in order to activate other, less - controllable psychological processes -- such as emotional experience and subconscious behaviour -- sympathetically and indirectly. In rehearsal, the actor searches for inner motives to justify action and the definition of what the character seeks to achieve at any given moment (a "task ''). Later, Stanislavski further elaborated the "system '' with a more physically grounded rehearsal process known as the "Method of Physical Action ''. Minimising at - the - table discussions, he now encouraged an "active analysis '', in which the sequence of dramatic situations are improvised. "The best analysis of a play '', Stanislavski argued, "is to take action in the given circumstances. '' The transmission of the earliest phase of Stanislavski 's work via the students of the First Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre (MAT) revolutionized acting in the West. When the MAT toured the US in the early 1920s, the young Lee Strasberg saw all of their productions and was deeply impressed by their ensemble performances. At that time, Richard Boleslavsky, one of Stanislavski 's students from the First Studio, presented a series of lectures on the "system '' that were eventually published as Acting: The First Six Lessons (1933). The interest generated led to a decision by Boleslavsky and Maria Ouspenskaya (another student at the First Studio) to emigrate to the US and to establish the American Laboratory Theatre. The version of Stanislavski 's practice that travelled to the US with them was that developed in the 1910s, rather than the more fully elaborated version of the "system '' detailed in Stanislavski 's acting manuals from the 1930s, An Actor 's Work and An Actor 's Work on a Role. The first half of An Actor 's Work, which treated the psychological elements of training, was published in a heavily abridged and misleadingly translated version in the US as An Actor Prepares in 1936. English - language readers often confused the first volume on psychological processes with the "system '' as a whole. Many of the American practitioners who came to be identified with the Method were taught by Boleslavsky and Ouspenskaya at the American Laboratory Theatre. The approaches to acting subsequently developed by their students -- including Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, and Sanford Meisner -- are often confused with Stanislavski 's "system ''. Strasberg 's adaptation relied exclusively on psychological techniques and contrasted sharply with Stanislavski 's multivariate, holistic and psychophysical approach, which explores character and action both from the "inside out '' and the "outside in ''. As well as Stanislavski 's early work, the ideas and techniques of his student Yevgeny Vakhtangov (who had died in 1922 at the age of 39) were also an important influence on the development of the Method. Vakhtangov 's "object exercises '' were developed further by Uta Hagen as a means for actor training and the maintenance of skills. Strasberg attributed to Vakhtangov the distinction between Stanislavski 's process of "justifying '' behaviour with the inner motive forces that prompt that behaviour in the character and "motivating '' behaviour with imagined or recalled experiences relating to the actor and substituted for those relating to the character. Following this distinction, actors ask themselves "What would motivate me, the actor, to behave in the way the character does? '' rather than the more Stanislavskian question "Given the particular circumstances of the play, how would I behave, what would I do, how would I feel, how would I react? '' Among the concepts and techniques of method acting are substitution, "as if '', sense memory, affective memory, and animal work (all of which were first developed by Stanislavski). Contemporary method actors sometimes seek help from psychologists in the development of their roles. In Strasberg 's approach, actors make use of experiences from their own lives to bring them closer to the experience of their characters. This technique, which Stanislavski came to call emotion memory (Strasberg tends to use the alternative formulation, "affective memory ''), involves the recall of sensations involved in experiences that made a significant emotional impact on the actor. Without faking or forcing, actors allow those sensations to stimulate a response and try not to inhibit themselves. Every afternoon for five weeks during the summer of 1934 in Paris, Stanislavski worked with the American actress Stella Adler, who had sought his assistance with the blocks she had confronted in her performances. Given the emphasis that emotion memory had received in New York, Adler was surprised to find that Stanislavski rejected the technique except as a last resort. Under the influence of Richard Boleslavsky, emotion memory had become a central feature of Strasberg 's training at the Group Theatre in New York. In contrast, Stanislavski recommended to Stella Adler an indirect pathway to emotional expression via physical action. In his biography of Stanislavski, Jean Benedetti writes: "It has been suggested that Stanislavski deliberately played down the emotional aspects of acting because the woman in front of him was already over-emotional. The evidence is against this. What Stanislavski told Stella Adler was exactly what he had been telling his actors at home, what indeed he had advocated in his notes for Leonidov in the production plan for Othello. '' Stanislavski confirmed this emphasis in his discussions with Harold Clurman in late 1935. The news that this was Stanislavski 's approach would have significant repercussions in the US; Strasberg angrily rejected it and refused to modify his approach. In training, as distinct from rehearsal process, the recall of sensations to provoke emotional experience and the development of a vividly imagined fictional experience remained a central part both of Stanislavski 's and the various Method - based approaches that developed out of it. A widespread misconception about method acting -- particularly in the popular media -- equates method actors with actors who choose to remain in character even offstage or off - camera for the duration of a project. In his book A Dream of Passion, Strasberg wrote that Stanislavski, early in his directing career, "require (d) his actors to live ' in character ' off stage '', but that "the results were never fully satisfactory ''. Stanislavski did experiment with this approach in his own acting before he became a professional actor and founded the Moscow Art Theatre, though he soon abandoned it. Some method actors employ this technique, such as Daniel Day - Lewis, but Strasberg did not include it as part of his teachings and it "is not part of the Method approach ''. Strasberg 's students included many prominent American actors of the latter half of the 20th century, including Paul Newman, Al Pacino, George Peppard, Dustin Hoffman, James Dean, Jared Leto, Marilyn Monroe, Jane Fonda, Jack Nicholson, Mickey Rourke, among others. Some American acting teachers inspired by Stanislavski broke off with Strasberg, believing his method was not an authentic adaptation of Stanislavski 's system. Sanford Meisner, another Group Theatre pioneer, believed the method was far too focused on the internal workings of the actor, and that acting should be "outside in '' rather than "inside out ''. His ideas came to be called the Meisner technique. He advocated actors fully immersing themselves "in the moment '' and concentrating on their partner (what Stanislavski called "communication '' and "adaptation ''). Meisner taught actors to achieve spontaneity by understanding the given circumstances of the scene. He designed interpersonal exercises to help actors invest emotionally in the scene, freeing them to react "honestly '' as the character. Meisner described acting as "living truthfully under imaginary circumstances ''. Robert Lewis also broke with Strasberg. In his books Method -- or Madness? and the more autobiographical Slings and Arrows, Lewis argued that method acting was too focused on pure emotional training and neglected vocal and physical training, which forms a fundamental part both of classical actor - training and of Stanislavski 's system. The method 's reliance on emotion, he felt, could too easily encourage overacting. Stella Adler, an actress and acting teacher whose students included Marlon Brando, Warren Beatty, and Robert De Niro, also broke with Strasberg after she studied with Stanislavski, by which time he had modified many of his earliest ideas. Her version of the method is based on the idea that actors should stimulate emotional experience by imagining the scene 's "given circumstances '', rather than recalling experiences from their own lives. Adler 's approach also seeks to stimulate the actor 's imagination through the use of "as ifs '', which substitute more personally affecting imagined situations for the circumstances experienced by the character. Adler argued that "drawing on personal experience alone was too limited. Brando himself claimed he never studied with Strasberg and never liked him for being so selfish and ambitious. Brando was a student of Stella Adler 's, and in his book, he claimed to have abhorred Lee Strasberg 's teachings and praised Adler for her work. The charge that Strasberg 's method distorted Stanislavski 's system has been responsible for a considerable revivalist interest in Stanislavski 's "pure '' teachings. As the use of the Method has declined considerably from its peak in the mid-20th century, acting teachers claiming to teach Stanislavski 's unadulterated system are becoming more numerous. Alfred Hitchcock described his work with Montgomery Clift in I Confess as difficult "because you know, he was a method actor ''. He recalled similar problems with Paul Newman in Torn Curtain. Lillian Gish quipped: "It 's ridiculous. How would you portray death if you had to experience it first? '' Charles Laughton, who worked closely for a time with Bertolt Brecht, argued that "Method actors give you a photograph '', while "real actors give you an oil painting. ''
where was the creature from the black lagoon filmed at	Creature from the Black Lagoon - wikipedia Creature from the Black Lagoon is a 1954 American black - and - white 3D monster horror film from Universal - International, produced by William Alland, directed by Jack Arnold, that stars Richard Carlson, Julia Adams, Richard Denning, Antonio Moreno and Whit Bissell. The Creature was played by Ben Chapman on land and by Ricou Browning underwater. The film premiered in Detroit on February 12 and was released on a regional basis, opening on various dates. Creature from the Black Lagoon was filmed in 3D and originally projected by the polarized light method. The audience wore viewers with gray polarizing filters, similar to the viewers most commonly used today. Because the brief 1950s 3D film fad had peaked in mid-1953 and was fading fast in early 1954, many audiences actually saw the film "flat '', in 2D. Typically, the film was shown in 3D in large downtown theaters and flat in smaller neighborhood theaters. In 1975 Creature from the Black Lagoon was re-released to theaters in the inferior red - and - blue - glasses anaglyph 3D format, which was also used for a 1980 home video release on Beta and VHS videocassettes. For marketing reasons, a comedic short TV special was aired prior to the film 's release titled Abbott and Costello Meet the Creature from the Black Lagoon. Ben Chapman reprised his role as the Gill - Man for the program. Creature from the Black Lagoon generated two sequels: Revenge of the Creature (1955), which was also filmed and released in 3D in hopes of reviving the format, and The Creature Walks Among Us (1956), filmed in 2D. The creature, also known as the Gill - man, is usually counted among the classic Universal Monsters. A geology expedition in the Amazon uncovers fossilized evidence (a skeletal hand with webbed fingers) from the Devonian period that provides a direct link between land and sea animals. Expedition leader Dr. Carl Maia (Antonio Moreno) orders his two assistants to stay in camp while he visits the marine biology institute. Maia reunites with his friend and former student, ichthyologist Dr. David Reed (Richard Carlson). Dr. Reed works at an aquarium in California, but more recently he has been a guest at Maia 's institute in Brazil to study lungfish. Reed persuades his boss, the financially minded Dr. Mark Williams (Richard Denning), to fund a return expedition to the Amazon to look for the remainder of the skeleton. Soon after Dr. Maia leaves camp, a piscine amphibious humanoid, a living member of the same species from which the fossil originated, becomes curious about the expedition 's camp. When its sudden appearance frightens the assistants, they panic and attack, and in response the enraged creature kills them both. The group goes aboard the tramp steamer Rita, captained by crusty Lucas (Nestor Paiva). The expedition consists of David, Carl, Mark, as well as Reed 's girlfriend and colleague, Kay Lawrence (Julie Adams), and another scientist, Dr. Edwin Thompson (Whit Bissell). When they arrive at the camp, they discover Maia 's assistants have been killed while he was away. Lucas suggests it was likely done by a jaguar, but the others are unsure. A further excavation of the area where Carl found the fossil turns up nothing. Mark is ready to give up the search, but David suggests that perhaps thousands of years ago the part of the embankment containing the rest of the skeleton fell into the water and was washed downriver, broken up by the current. Carl says the tributary empties into a lagoon. Lucas calls it the "Black Lagoon '', a paradise from which no one has ever returned. The scientists decide to risk it, unaware that the amphibious "Gill - man '' that killed Carl 's assistants has been watching them. Taking notice of the beautiful Kay, the creature follows the Rita all the way downriver to the Black Lagoon. Once the expedition arrives, David and Mark go diving to collect rock samples from the lagoon floor. After they return, Kay goes swimming and is stalked underwater by the Gill - man, who then gets briefly caught in one of the ship 's drag lines. Although it escapes, the creature leaves a claw behind in the net, revealing its existence. Subsequent encounters with the Gill - man claim the lives of Lucas 's crew members, before the creature is captured and locked in a cage aboard the Rita. It escapes during the night, attacking Thompson, who was guarding it. Kay smashes the creature with a lantern, driving it off, but Thompson is severely injured. Following this incident, David decides they should return to civilization. Mark, obsessed with capturing (or killing) the creature, objects. As the Rita tries to leave, they find the lagoon 's entrance blocked by fallen logs, courtesy of the Gill - man. While the others attempt to remove the logs, Mark is mauled to death while trying to capture the creature single - handedly, underwater. It then abducts Kay and takes her to its cavern lair. David, Lucas and Carl give chase, and Kay is rescued. The creature is riddled with bullets before retreating to the lagoon, where its body sinks into the watery depths. Producer William Alland was attending a 1941 dinner party during the filming of Citizen Kane (in which he played the reporter Thompson) when Mexican cinematographer Gabriel Figueroa told him about the myth of a race of half - fish, half - human creatures in the Amazon River. Alland wrote story notes titled "The Sea Monster '' 10 years later. His inspiration was Beauty and the Beast. In December 1952, Maurice Zimm expanded this into a treatment, which Harry Essex and Arthur Ross rewrote as The Black Lagoon. Following the success of the 3D film House of Wax in 1953, Jack Arnold was hired to direct the film in the same format. The designer of the approved Gill - man was Disney animator Milicent Patrick, though her role was deliberately downplayed by make - up artist Bud Westmore, who for half a century would receive sole credit for the creature 's conception. Jack Kevan, who worked on The Wizard of Oz (1939) and made prosthetics for amputees during World War II, created the bodysuit, while Chris Mueller Jr. sculpted the head. Ben Chapman portrayed the Gill - man for the majority of the scenes shot at Universal City, California. Many of the on - top of the water scenes were filmed at Rice Creek near Palatka, Florida. The costume made it impossible for Chapman to sit for the 14 hours of each day that he wore it, and it overheated easily, so he stayed in the back lot 's lake, often requesting to be hosed down. He also could not see very well while wearing the headpiece, which caused him to scrape Julie Adams ' head against the wall when carrying her in the grotto scenes. Ricou Browning played the Gill - Man in the underwater shots, which were filmed by the second unit in Wakulla Springs, Florida. Creature from the Black Lagoon received positive reviews from critics upon its release and is now considered a classic. Leonard Maltin awarded the film three out of a possible four stars, writing, "Archetypal ' 50s monster movie has been copied so often that some of the edge is gone, but... is still entertaining, with juicy atmosphere and luminous underwater photography sequences. '' Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 84 %, based on 32 reviews, with an overall rating average of 6.9 / 10. The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists: In 1980, Universal released Creature from the Black Lagoon on video cassette in an anaglyph 3D version, using the Deep Vision anaglyph 3D release as its source. Subsequent releases on VHS, Beta and DVD were the 2D version. On October 2, 2012, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray as a 2D / Blu - ray 3D dual format disc as part of the "Universal Classic Monsters: The Essential Collection '' box set. On June 4, 2013, the Creature from the Black Lagoon Blu - ray disc was released as a stand - alone title. Creature from the Black Lagoon was novelized in 1954 by John Russell Fearn under the pseudonym of "Vargo Statten '', then later, in 1977, in mass market paperback under the pseudonym of "Carl Dreadstone ''. This was part of a short - lived series of books based on the classic Universal horror films. The 1977 book was introduced by Ramsey Campbell, but was written by Walter Harris. The 1977 novel offers a completely different Gill - man, who in this version of the story is gigantic, almost as big as the Rita herself, weighing in at 30 tons. It is both coldblooded and warmblooded, is a hermaphrodite, and also possesses a long whip - like tail. The gigantic creature is dubbed "AA '', for "Advanced Amphibian '', by the expedition team members. After slaying most of the team members, destroying a Sikorsky helicopter, and kidnapping Kay more than once, the creature is killed by the crew of a United States Navy torpedo boat. The 1977 novel also differs greatly with respect to the human characters. Only David Reed and Kay Lawrence remain the same. Mark Williams is a German named "Bruno Gebhardt '' and dies not as a result from drowning, but by the monster falling on him. Lucas is named "Jose Goncalves Fonseca de Souza '' and is a mostly sympathetic character, until his suggestion of throwing the wounded and unconscious Reed to the monster makes an enraged Gebhardt / Williams throw "him '' to the beast instead. Dr. Thompson and Dr. Maia both die grisly deaths, whereas in the movie they survive; Maia is eaten by the monster, and Thompson is impaled on a long tree branch flung at him by the creature like a spear (in an apparent nod to a deleted scene from Revenge of the Creature wherein the Gill - man killed a guard in this fashion). Creature from the Black Lagoon spawned two sequels: Revenge of the Creature (1955), which was also filmed and released in 3D in hopes of reviving the format, and The Creature Walks Among Us (1956), filmed in 2D. A comedic short TV special was aired prior to the film 's release titled Abbott and Costello Meet the Creature from the Black Lagoon. In 1982, John Landis wanted Jack Arnold to direct a remake of the film, and Nigel Kneale was commissioned to write the screenplay. Kneale completed the script, which involved a pair of creatures, one destructive and the other calm and sensitive, being persecuted by the United States Navy. A decision to make the film in 3D led to the remake being canceled by producers at Universal, both for budgetary concerns and to avoid a clash with Jaws 3 - D. In 1992, John Carpenter was developing the remake at Universal. He originally hired Bill Phillips to write the script while Rick Baker was hired to create the 3D model of the Creature, but the project never got green - lit. Herschel Weingrod and Timothy Harris wrote a new script, and Universal offered Peter Jackson the director 's position in 1995, but he chose to work on King Kong instead. In February 1996, Ivan Reitman was planning to direct the remake, but the outing never materialized. With the financial success of The Mummy remake in May 1999, development of the Creature from the Black Lagoon remake was revived. In December 2001, Gary Ross signed on to write and produce the remake with his father, Arthur A. Ross, one of the original 's writers. He told The Hollywood Reporter, "The story my father wrote embodies the clash between primitive men and civilized men, and that obviously makes it a fertile area for re-examination. '' In August 2002, Guillermo del Toro, a fan of the original, was attached as director. He had hoped to do a story focused more on the Creature 's perspective and letting him have romantic success, which he would later turn into the 2017 film The Shape of Water, but Universal heads rejected this concept. Because of these creative clashes and his commitments to numerous other projects, Universal was forced to go without del Toro and hired Tedi Sarafian (credited on Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines) to write a script in March 2003. In October 2005, Breck Eisner signed on as director. "As a kid, I remember loving Jack Arnold 's original version of this film '', he explained. "What I really want to do is update an iconic image from the ' 50s and bring in more of the sci - fi sensibility of Alien or John Carpenter 's The Thing (1982). '' Ross said in March 2007 the Gill - man 's origin would be reinvented, with him being the result of a pharmaceutical corporation polluting the Amazon. "It 's about the rainforest being exploited for profit '', he said. However, the production was delayed by the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike; as a result, Eisner made The Crazies (2010) the number one on his priority list instead. His new goal was to finish filming The Crazies and then begin filming Creature from the Black Lagoon in Manaus, Brazil and on the Amazon River in Peru. Eisner was inspired to shoot on location by the film Fitzcarraldo, and the boat set had been built. Eisner continued to rewrite the script, which was to be a summer blockbuster full of "action and excitement, but (still) scary ''. Eisner spent six months designing the new incarnation of the Gill - man with Mark McCreery (Jurassic Park, and Davy Jones ' designer). The director said the design was "very faithful to the original, but updated '' and that the Gill - man would still be sympathetic. In 2009, it was reported that Carl Erik Rinsch might direct a 2010 remake that would be produced by Marc Abraham, Eric Newman and Gary Ross; however, a project featuring this ensemble had been abandoned by 2011. In March 2012, Universal announced that a remake was in production, and would simply be titled The Black Lagoon rather than Creature from the Black Lagoon, in order to distinguish the two versions. In October 2012, the studio hired Dave Kajganich to write the film. The film was expected to hit theaters by May 2014, but was ultimately cancelled. Universal Pictures is developing a shared universe of rebooted modern - day versions of their classic Universal Monsters, with various films in different stages of development. The series begins with The Mummy (2017) and will continue with Bride of Frankenstein (2019). The Creature from the Black Lagoon has a story written by Jeff Pinkner and a script written by Will Beall. In June 2017, Kurtzman revealed that the Gill - man will be from the Amazon. But on November 8, 2017, Alex Kurtzman and Chris Morgan moved on to other projects, leaving the future of the Dark Universe in doubt. On January 15, 2018, it was reported by Omega Underground that the production team for the Bride of Frankenstein has reassembled and are now eyeing Gal Gadot for the lead role, so there is still hope for the Dark Universe and the other Universal reboots. The 2017 film The Shape of Water was partly inspired by Guillermo del Toro 's childhood memories of Creature from the Black Lagoon; he wished to see Gill - man and the film 's co-star Julie Adams succeed in their romance.
lego dc comics super heroes the flash (2018) trailer	Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: the Flash - Wikipedia Lego DC Comics Super Heroes: The Flash is an American direct - to - video animated film. It is a superhero action - adventure comedy, based on the DC Comics and Lego brands. It is produced by DC Entertainment, The Lego Group and Warner Bros. Animation and distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment, and was released digitally on February 13, 2018 and was released on DVD and Blu - ray on March 13, 2018. It is the seventh Lego DC Comics Super Heroes film. As The Atom is being introduced into the Justice League they receive word that The Joker is invading Metropolis with the intent of poisoning the city with his Joker gas and remodeling the Daily Planet. As the Justice League arrive at Metropolis, they notice the absence of The Flash, much to Batman 's chagrin. Meanwhile Flash is busy getting snacks across the country and catching criminals (including stopping Captain Cold from robbing a bank and stopping Captain Boomerang in a car chase) along the way and is horrified when he discovers he missed the trouble alert and by the time he arrives at Metropolis, although The Atom was able to create an antidote for the Joker Gas, Joker succeeded in redecorating the Daily Planet with his "Fun Cannon '' (though Flash is able to undo this). The Justice League is upset with Flash 's impulsive decisions and state that he needs to slow down and put more thought into his actions. Right at that moment, a yellow, vibrating speedster taunts Flash for his inferior speed and a chase ensues that ends with Flash waking up in his bed the next day. After realizing how similar the events to this day are to the previous, Flash realizes he had been sent back to the morning of that day and thus is able to prevent Joker from firing his Fun Cannon. But the yellow speedster returns and taunts Flash again which results in Flash repeatedly having to chase the speedster in the form of a time loop and prevent the various crimes that occurred on that day. When Batman realizes that Flash is in a time loop he gives him advice on how to stop it, but once again the yellow speedster returns and gives Flash the chase. Following the speedster into a dimensional gateway, Flash has had enough of his taunts and pushes his own power past its maximum which results in him overtaking the speedster and breaking the loop, but at a cost. Flash returns to Central City having unknowingly been sent five days into the future and to his surprise, the city has turned against him, his powers are gone and he has been framed for various pranks pulled on the Justice League (to the point where Batman revokes his membership). Crestfallen and depowered, Flash ponders about what to do now. At that moment, the speedster that continuously taunted him (and the true perpetrator of the pranks on the Justice League) reveals himself as the Reverse Flash, a speedster from the future who grew envious of Flash 's fame in the past and traveled back in time to steal Flash 's fame and purpose and plans to do the same to the rest of the Justice League. Atom, having shrunk down and followed Flash home overhears everything, but as Reverse Flash rushes off and restrains Flash, his suit short circuits, preventing him from returning to his normal size. Fortunately, Atom manages to free Flash and phone Doctor Fate in order to help the Flash regain his powers. While Flash is teleported to Doctor Fate 's residence, Atom attempts to return to the Hall of Justice to reveal Reverse Flash 's plan to his fellow Leaguers, which at his small size is much easier said than done. Meanwhile Reverse Flash is able to prevent crime and commit acts of heroism at a rate quicker than the Justice League can get to them. This allows Reverse Flash to gain the popularity of the public and render the Justice League obsolete. Elsewhere, Flash finds himself at Doctor Fate 's tower and is introduced to Doctor Fate and his assistant Zatanna. After Flash explains his predicament to Doctor Fate, Doctor Fate reveals that by overloading his powers, he broke his connection to the Speed Force which he proceeds to explain to the Flash. Doctor Fate and Zatanna then proceed to send Flash into the Speed Force where Flash will be placed with various trials in order to prove his worthiness of his powers. Remembering the advice of his fellow Justice Leaguers, Flash is able to complete the trials and is introduced to the Speed Force Nexus, the primary source of power in the Speed Force. Right at that moment, Reverse Flash arrives and reveals that he planned for Flash to complete the trials so that he could acquire the Nexus without having to deal with the trials himself. As Reverse Flash steals the Nexus and places it into his suit, his powers become increased exponentially and he is able to leave Flash trapped in the Speed Force. As the Justice League face retiring, Reverse Flash arrives and using the power of the Speed Force Nexus, he is able to encase the Hall of Justice in an oversized statue of himself which is made of bricks from the Speed Force impervious to their powers. Atom is able to arrive at the Hall of Justice just as the statue is completed and with the help of Ace the Bat - Hound, Krypto and the Green Lantern B'dg, he is able to repair his suit (returning him to his normal size), help the Justice League fend off the security robots Reverse Flash reprogrammed and help the Justice League escape to the Batcave. Flash also manages to return from the Speed Force by creating a vehicle out of the same material as Reverse Flash 's statue. Believing to have rightfully defeated the Justice League, Reverse Flash builds more statues of himself around multiple international landmarks and declares himself the ruler of Earth, threatening that those who disobey him will meet the same fate as the Justice League. However, to his surprise the Justice League arrive to defeat him and using the bricks Flash brought with him from the Speed Force, they are able to rival Reverse Flash 's speed and destroy his statues (thus sending the bricks he used to build them back to the Speed Force) before he can prevent this, allowing Flash to steal the Speed Force Nexus from him, allowing him to not only regain his powers, but also acquire greater speed than Reverse Flash. Flash then proceeds to taunt Reverse Flash much like he did during the time loop, prompting Reverse Flash to exceed the use of his own powers, resulting in him returning to the Hall of Justice depowered and arrested by the Justice League. With his powers restored, Flash returns the Nexus to the Speed Force in order to avoid its power from ever falling into the wrong hands again and is reinstated into the Justice League. Batman then reveals that he was fully aware of the time loop and the fact that Reverse Flash was responsible for the pranks pulled on the Justice League and fired Flash so that Atom could spy on him to prove him right and notify Doctor Fate. Flash is grateful for the restoration of his powers and the advice the Justice League gave him and the Justice League celebrate their victory as Doctor Fate overlooks everything. The film was released digitally on February 13, 2018 and on DVD and Blu - ray on March 13, 2018.
when did teenage pregnancy become a problem in the us	Teenage pregnancy in the United States - Wikipedia Teenage pregnancy in the United States relates to girls under the age of 20 who become pregnant. Most occurrences take place out - of - wedlock. According to the Centers for Disease Control, more than 4 out of 5, or 80 %, of teenage pregnancies are unintended. In 2010, of the majority of pregnancies to adolescent females in the United States, an estimated 60 % ended in live birth, 15 % ended in miscarriage, and 30 % in abortion. In 2012, there were 104,700 maternal hospital stays for pregnant teens; the number of hospital stays for teen pregnancies decreased by 47 percent from 2000 - 2012. In 2014, 249,078 babies were born to women aged 15 -- 19 years old. This is a birth rate of 24.2 per 1000 women. Pregnancies are much less common among girls younger than 15. In 2008, 6.6 pregnancies occurred per 1,000 teens aged 13 -- 14. In other words, fewer than 1 % of teens younger than 15 became pregnant in 2008. Pregnant teenagers tend to gain less weight than older mothers, due to the fact that they are still growing and fighting for nutrients with the baby during the pregnancy. Teen pregnancy is defined as pregnancies in women under the age of 20, regardless of marital status. Teen pregnancy rates have dropped 9 % since 2013. Between 1991 and 2014, teenage birth rates dropped 61 % nationwide. Teenage birth rates, as opposed to pregnancies, peaked in 1991, when there were 61.8 births per 1,000 teens, and the rate dropped in 17 of the 19 years that followed. 3 in 10 American girls will get pregnant before age 20. That is almost 750,000 pregnancies a year. Nearly 89 % of teenage births occur outside of marriage. Of all women, 16 % will be teen mothers. The largest increases in unintended pregnancies were found among women who were cohabiting, had lower education, and low income. Black, Latina, and American Indian youth experience the highest rates of teenage pregnancy and childbirth. Studies show that Asians (23 per 1,000) and whites (43 per 1,000) and have lower rates of pregnancy before the age of 20. The pregnancy rate among black teens decreased 48 % between 1990 and 2008, more than the overall U.S. teen pregnancy rate declined during the same period (42 %). The teen birth rate decline broken down by race in 2014 from 2013: Teen birth rates in the United States are higher than that of many other developed countries. In 2013, the lowest birth rates were reported in the Northeast, while the highest rates were located in the south east. For example, a 2001 study by UNICEF found that the US teenage birth rate was the highest among 28 OECD nations in the review; in a 1999 comparison by the Guttmacher Institute, U.S. teen pregnancy and teen birth rates were the second - highest among the 46 developed countries studied. In 2002, the U.S. was rated 84th out of 170 World Health Organization member countries based on teenage fertility rate. Sexually active teens in the US are less likely to use any contraceptive method, including condoms, and are especially less likely to use highly effective hormonal methods, primarily the pill, than their peers in other countries. Among adolescents who had sex in the past month: almost 25 % of males and 40 % of females did not use a condom. The research also found that US teens who become pregnant are less likely to choose abortion. This could be due to the fact that the resources for abortions are not readily available. 75 % of women in rural areas have to drive at least 50 miles for abortion services. 87 % of United States counties do not have an abortion provider. There were 334,000 births among girls aged 19 or younger in 2011, representing 8 % of all U.S. births. Births to teen mothers peaked in 1991 at 62 births per 1,000 girls. This rate was halved by 2011 when there were 31 births per 1,000 girls. About 25 % of teenage mothers have a second child within 24 months of the first birth. Teenagers are becoming better contracepters because they realize that their sexual partners may not be a reliable coparent. Marriage rates within the past 25 years with teenagers has drastically declined because of this realization. Since contraception has become more obtainable for teenagers, they are preventing unwanted pregnancies. For every 1,000 black boys in the United States, 29 of them are fathers, compared to 14 per 1,000 white boys. The rate of teen fatherhood declined 36 % between 1991 and 2010, from 25 to 16 per 1,000 males aged 15 -- 19. This decline was more substantial among blacks than among whites (50 % vs. 26 %) and about half of the rate among teen girls. Nearly 80 % of teenage fathers do not marry the teenage mother of their child. Teenage fathers have 10 - 15 % lower annual earnings than teenagers who do not father children. Most female teens report that they would be very upset (58 %) or a little upset (29 %) if they got pregnant, while the remaining 13 % report that they would be a little or very pleased. Most male teens report that they would be very upset (47 %) or a little upset (34 %) if they got someone pregnant, while the remaining 18 % report that they would be a little or very pleased. Parenting as a teenager has detrimental effects on the children. Children born to teenage mothers are more likely to: be born prematurely, 50 % more likely to repeat a grade, live in poverty, and suffer higher rates of abuse. The sons of teen mothers are 13 % more likely to end up incarcerated, and the daughters of teenage mothers are 22 % more likely to become teenage mothers. More than 25 % of teen mothers live in poverty during their 20 's. Teenage Pregnancy imposes lasting hardships on two generations: mother and child. Evidence from U.S. studies show that women who bear their first child at an early age bear more children rapidly and have more unwanted and out - of - wedlock births. Children of teenage parents are more likely to have lower academic achievements and tend to repeat the cycle of early marriage and early childbearing of their parents. Since the Great Recession, young people take three times longer to gain financial independence than it took for young people three decades ago. It is much harder for teenage parents to be able to support a family compared to the past due to the competitive work environment. More than 50 % of teenage mothers do not graduate from high school. Some high schools in the United States offer a program for pregnant and parenting teens to continue their education. These are sometimes referred to as "Teen Parent Programs ''. There are several benefits to these school based programs, the number one benefit being teens are able to continue their high school education. Studies have shown that when teen parents stay in school after being pregnant, they have a better chance of graduating high school. Less than 2 % of teen moms earn a college degree by age 30. Many of these programs offer on - campus childcare. Some even require the pregnant and parenting teens to attend parenting classes or practicum classes. The parenting classes offer a place for these young parents to learn about the basic needs of a child. While, the practicum classes offer a hands on experience caring for the children in the childcare center. Statistics show that less than 10 % of teen parents earn their high school diploma by their eighteenth birthday. These programs are trying to change those statistics. Currently (2016), San Diego County has 7 high schools that offer these teen parent programs. The United States has the highest rates of teenage pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases in developed countries. The two primary reasons given by teenagers for not using protection is that the chance of becoming pregnant is small, and the failure to anticipate intercourse. Teen pregnancies can be prevented. The best method of reducing the consequences of teenage parenthood is by providing reproductive health services to prevent teenagers from becoming pregnant in the first place. Prevention can not only be beneficial on a micro level but it is also beneficial on a more macro scale. Nationally, teen pregnancies cost tax payers an average of $9.4 billion each year. These costs are associated with health care, foster care, criminal justice, public assistance and lost tax revenue. Teen Pregnancies can help be prevented by increasing access to contraceptives and increasing correct and consistent use of contraceptives, more parental involvement, and more education about sexual intercourse. The best method of preventing teenage pregnancy is by integrating sex and STD education into the science curriculum as well as addressing the effects of teenage pregnancies in social studies for middle and high school students. After gathering data from each of the following countries including: Canada, France, Great Britain, Sweden and of course the United States. It is shown that there are large differences in adolescent pregnancy rates. Showing that the United States not only has the highest number of teen pregnancies but also the highest number of STD 's compared to the other four countries. By the late 1990s in France and Sweden, pregnancies were 20 per 1,000 women at ages 15 -- 19. In Canada and Great Britain the levels were twice that. Leaving the United States with 4 times the rate a whopping 84 per 1,000 women would be pregnant. The likelihood of abortions in teenagers across the four countries differ and exclude miscarriages. In the U.S. abortion rates for 15 -- 19 years are 35 % while in Sweden it was 69 %. Leaving Great Britain with 39 %, Canada with 46 % and France with 51 %. It seems that the U.S. rate of teen pregnancy is higher because in America a majority of sexual education classes teach abstinence. As a result, these adolescents are not fully aware of how to respond to sexual activity if it comes their way. The mentality of some education systems in America have the idea that if they do n't teach safe sex, adolescents will refrain from sex. As the data concludes from above that compared to the other developed countries America is four times as likely to have a teen pregnancy. Yet the U.S. also uses less contraceptive, has more abortions and more prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases than the other developed countries. In America all states are involved in sex education, but each state has differences in what they teach. Some states choose to go in detail others just cover the bases. Which include 39 states that require "some '' education related to sexuality. There are 21 states that are required by law to teach sexuality and STD education. 17 states only require the teaching of STDs and not sexual education. There are also 11 states that have no requirement and leave it up to that state to decide whether or not they teach sex education. Although, there is a noticeable decline in U.S. teen pregnancy the current rate is still 2 - 4 times more than in the other four countries. The biggest difference in the rate of pregnancies in the United States compared to the other countries is that in America there is a very high unintended pregnancy rate. This unintended pregnancy rate is higher than the total teenage pregnancy rate in all of the four countries. In 2010 there was a rate of 57 pregnancies per 1,000 women aged 15 -- 19. Most of those women reported that it was an unplanned pregnancy. This shows a 15 % drop in pregnancies from 2008 to 2010. There is a huge decline in adolescent pregnancy for the nation as a whole. The cause of these declines are from abstaining from sex or better use of contraceptives. Birth rates among younger teens ages 15 -- 17 have also fallen faster -- dropping by 50 %, compared with a 39 % decline among older teens ages 18 and 19. Researchers have concluded that these declines stem from improvement in use of contraceptives.
the guy that died in fast and furious 7	Paul Walker - Wikipedia Paul William Walker IV (September 12, 1973 -- November 30, 2013) was an American actor best known for his role as Brian O'Conner in The Fast and Furious franchise. Walker first gained prominence in 1999 with roles in the teen films She 's All That and Varsity Blues. In 2001, he gained international fame for his performance in the street racing action film The Fast and the Furious (2001), a role he reprised in five of the next six installments, but died in 2013 in the middle of filming Furious 7 (2015). Walker began his career guest - starring on TV shows such as The Young and the Restless and Touched by an Angel. He later starred in films such as Joy Ride (2001), Timeline (2003), Into the Blue (2005), Eight Below (2006), and Running Scared (2006). He also appeared in the National Geographic series Expedition Great White (2010) and in ads for Davidoff Cool Water cologne. He founded the disaster - relief charity Reach Out Worldwide (ROWW) in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. Walker died on November 30, 2013, at the age of 40 as a passenger in a single - car crash alongside friend and driver Roger Rodas. Walker was working on three films at the time of his death which were released posthumously: Hours (2013), Brick Mansions (2014), and Furious 7 (2015). The Wiz Khalifa song "See You Again '', featuring Charlie Puth, was commissioned for the Furious 7 soundtrack as a tribute to Walker. It was nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Original Song in 2015 and was the number - one song in the United States for 12 weeks. Walker was born in Glendale, California, and was the son of Cheryl (née Crabtree), a fashion model, and Paul William Walker III, a sewer contractor and boxer who was a two - time Golden Gloves champion. Paul 's paternal grandfather had a boxing career as "' Irish ' Billy Walker ''. Paul 's ancestry was mostly English, with some German, Swiss, and Irish. One of his grandfathers raced factory cars for Ford in the 1960s. The oldest of five siblings, Walker was raised primarily in the Sunland community of Los Angeles and attended high school in the San Fernando Valley, graduating from Sun Valley 's Village Christian School in 1991. He was raised as a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints. After high school, Walker attended several community colleges in Southern California, majoring in marine biology. Walker began his small screen career as a toddler, when he starred in a television commercial for Pampers. He began modeling at the age of two and began working on television shows in 1985, with roles in shows such as Highway to Heaven, Who 's the Boss?, The Young and the Restless, and Touched by an Angel. That year he starred in a commercial for Showbiz Pizza. Walker 's film career began in 1986, with the horror / comedy film Monster in the Closet. In 1987 he appeared in The Retaliator (aka Programmed to Kill), a low budget cyborg action film, with Robert Ginty. He and his sister Ashlie were contestants on a 1988 episode of the game show I 'm Telling!; they finished in second place. In 1993 he played Brandon Collins on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless. He and his co-star Heather Tom, who played Victoria Newman, were nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress in a soap opera at the Youth in Film Awards. In 1998, Walker made his feature film debut in the comedy Meet the Deedles, which finally gained him fame. This subsequently led to supporting roles in the movies Pleasantville (1998), Varsity Blues (1999), She 's All That (1999), and The Skulls (2000). In 2001, Walker 's breakthrough role arrived when he starred opposite actor Vin Diesel in the successful action film The Fast and the Furious, the first film in the franchise. The film established Walker as a notable film star and leading man and led to his reprise of the role in the 2003 sequel 2 Fast 2 Furious. He continued his career with leading roles in films such as Joy Ride (2001), Timeline (2003), and Into the Blue (2005). He had a supporting role in Clint Eastwood 's adaptation of Flags of Our Fathers (2006). Walker then starred in the crime thriller Running Scared and Walt Disney Pictures ' Eight Below, both released in 2006. Eight Below garnered critical - acclaim and opened in first place at the box office, grossing over US $20 million during its first weekend. During the filming of Running Scared, director Wayne Kramer stated that "(Walker) is that guy on some level '' when comparing Walker with his character in the movie, Joey Gazelle. Kramer continued on to say that he "loved working with (Walker) because as a director he 's completely supportive of my vision of what the film is. And even better, he 's completely game for it. '' Walker starred in the independent film The Lazarus Project, which was released on DVD on October 21, 2008. He subsequently returned to The Fast and the Furious franchise, reprising his role in Fast & Furious, which was released on April 3, 2009. Walker then appeared in the crime drama Takers, which began filming in September 2008 and was released in August 2010. The Coty Prestige fragrance brand Davidoff Cool Water for Men announced in January 2011 that Walker was going to be the new face of the brand as of July 2011. He reprised his role in the fifth installment of The Fast and the Furious series, Fast Five (2011), and again in Fast & Furious 6 (2013). For this film, he won the 2014 MTV Movie Award as best on - screen duo, with Vin Diesel. He was part of an ensemble cast in Wayne Kramer 's Pawn Shop Chronicles (2013), which was Walker 's last film released before his death. Shortly after his death, the Hurricane Katrina based film Hours, which he had completed earlier in 2013, was released on December 13, 2013. He had also completed the action film Brick Mansions, a remake of the French film District 13, which was released in April 2014. At the time of his death, Walker had been filming Furious 7, which was slated for release in July 2014. The film was completed by using his brothers Caleb and Cody as his body doubles / stand - ins, and CGI, and was released in April 2015. Walker was also set to play Agent 47 in the video game adaptation Hitman: Agent 47, but died before production began. Walker lived in Santa Barbara with his dogs. He and Rebecca McBrain, a one - time girlfriend, had a daughter named Meadow Rain Walker, who lived with her mother in Hawaii for 13 years and then moved to California to live with Walker in 2011. Her godfather is Vin Diesel. At the time of his death, Walker was dating Jasmine Pilchard - Gosnell. He held a brown belt in Brazilian jiu - jitsu under Ricardo "Franjinha '' Miller at Paragon Jiu - Jitsu and was awarded his black belt by Miller posthumously. Walker held an interest in marine biology; he joined the board of directors of The Billfish Foundation in 2006. He fulfilled a lifelong dream by starring in a National Geographic Channel series Expedition Great White (later retitled Shark Men), which premiered in June 2010. He spent 11 days as part of the crew, catching and tagging seven great white sharks off the coast of Mexico. The expedition, led by Chris Fischer, founder and CEO of Fischer Productions, along with Captain Brett McBride and Dr. Michael Domeier of the Marine Conservation Science Institute, took measurements, gathered DNA samples, and fastened real - time satellite tags to the great white sharks. This allowed Dr. Domeier to study migratory patterns, especially those associated with mating and birthing, over a five - year period. In March 2010, Walker went to Constitución, Chile, to offer his help and support to the people injured in the 8.8 magnitude earthquake that struck on February 27. He flew with his humanitarian aid team, Reach Out Worldwide, to Haiti to lend a helping hand to the 2010 Haiti earthquake victims. A car enthusiast, he competed in the Redline Time Attack racing series in which he raced an M3 E92 and was on the AE Performance Team. His car was sponsored by Etnies, Brembo Brakes, Ohlins, Volk, OS Giken, Hankook, Gintani, and Reach Out Worldwide. Walker had been preparing for an auto show prior to his death. Roger Rodas became Walker 's financial adviser in 2007 and helped to establish Reach Out Worldwide. Rodas, a pro-am racer was the CEO of Always Evolving, a Valencia high - end vehicle performance shop owned by Walker. Walker was a close friend of his 2 Fast 2 Furious co-star Tyrese Gibson. Vin Diesel considered Walker to be like a brother, both on and off screen, and affectionately called him "Pablo ''. Walker 's mother referred to her son as Diesel 's "other half ''. Walker, who was raised in a Mormon household, later became a non-denominational Christian. On November 30, 2013, at about 3: 30 p.m. PST, Walker and Roger Rodas, 38, left an event for Walker 's charity Reach Out Worldwide for victims of Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), with Rodas driving his Porsche Carrera GT. In a 45 miles per hour (72 km / h) speed zone on Hercules Street near Kelly Johnson Parkway in Valencia, Santa Clarita, California, the car crashed into a concrete lamp post and two trees and caught fire. Rodas died of multiple trauma while Walker died from the combined effects of trauma and burns. Both of their bodies were burned beyond recognition. The curve where Walker and Rodas were killed is a popular spot for drifting cars. No alcohol or other drugs were found in either man 's system, and neither mechanical failure nor road conditions appeared to play a role. Police found no evidence of drag racing. The investigation concluded that the car 's speed -- between 80 mph (130 km / h) and 93 mph (150 km / h) -- and age of the tires were the primary reasons for the crash. With Furious 7 in the middle of filming at the time of Walker 's death, Universal announced an indeterminate hiatus on the production, citing a desire to speak with his family before determining what to do with the film. Numerous friends and movie stars posted tributes to Walker on social media. His body was cremated and his ashes were buried in a non-denominational ceremony at Forest Lawn Memorial Park. In December 2014, Walker 's father, Paul III, filed a wrongful death claim against Rodas 's estate seeking the return of, or "a proportionate share '' of revenue generated by a group of automobiles that were jointly owned by both Walker and Rodas. In September 2015, Walker 's daughter Meadow filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Porsche for the death of her father, claiming that the Porsche Carrera GT had numerous design defects including a history of instability, and that its seat belt placement can cause harm upon impact. Porsche 's response denied any wrongdoing and blamed Walker himself, stating: "The perils, risk, and danger were open and obvious and known to him, and he chose to conduct himself in a manner so as to expose himself to such perils, dangers, and risks, thus assuming all the risks involved in using the vehicle. '' In April 2016, U.S. District Court Judge Philip S. Gutierrez ruled in favor of Porsche in a separate lawsuit filed by Roger Rodas ' widow, Kristine. The ruling had no bearing on two other cases against Porsche which have been filed by Walker 's father, who is also the executor of the actor 's estate, and his daughter. Walker 's father and daughter both reached an agreement with Porsche.
prem ratan dhan payo actor and actress name	Prem Ratan Dhan Payo - Wikipedia Prem Ratan Dhan Payo (English: Found a Treasure Called Love) is a 2015 Indian romantic drama film, written and directed by Sooraj Barjatya, produced by Rajshri Productions and distributed by Fox Star Studios. It stars Salman Khan and Sonam Kapoor in lead roles. This is the fourth collaboration between Barjatya and Khan after their previous films Maine Pyar Kiya, Hum Aapke Hain Koun...!, and Hum Saath Saath Hain. The cinematography of the movie was done by V. Manikandan and was edited by Sanjay Sankla. The soundtrack was composed by Himesh Reshammiya, and the background music done by Sanjoy Chowdhury. The film was released in India and Pakistan on 12 November 2015. It emerged as a commercial success and ranks among the highest - grossing Bollywood films, with a gross of ₹ 400 crore (US $62 million) worldwide. The movie was reported to be inspired by the South Korean movie Masquerade which itself was loosely based on the novel The Prisoner of Zenda by Anthony Hope. The film was also released in Telugu and Tamil versions as Prema Leela and Meymarandhen Paaraayo respectively. Yuvraj Vijay Singh (Salman Khan) is the very rich crown prince of Pritampur, who is soon to be crowned as king (namesake, as there are no official kings, kingdoms in Modern India). He is engaged to Maithili (Sonam Kapoor) a princess from the royal family of a neighboring kingdom. However, due to his stiff and stubborn nature Vijay faces many problems with Maithili as well as with his brother and sisters. His rich half sisters Rajkumari Chandrika (Swara Bhaskar) and Rajkumari Radhika (Aashika Bhatia) live in a separate rented bungalow outside the royal palace with Chandrika working as an accounts head in a municipal school and have filed case against Vijay for a share in the royal property, because they felt their mother (Lata Sabharwal) (a poet and later mistress to the late King) was wronged by the Queen (Karuna Pandey) when she disgraced her in the presence of all of the King 's children. Furthermore, Radhika 's and Maithili earlier who were best friends during school times, their friendship is shattered owing her engagement with Vijay. Similarly, his half brother Yuvraj Ajay Singh (Neil Nitin Mukesh) vows vengeance and has been wanting to kill him and take the crown for himself. He enlists the help of his manager Chirag Singh (Armaan Kohli) and Vijay 's secretary Sameera (Samaira Rao), Chirag is misguiding Ajay at every step while betraying him at his back. Yuvraj Vijay barely escapes an assassination plan coordinated by Yuvraj Ajay and Chirag to kill him but gets badly injured. He 's hidden in a secret chamber maintained by two doctors. Meanwhile, Vijay 's lookalike Prem Dilwale (Salman Khan), a love guru, perky, lively and carefree stage actor who falls in love with Princess Maithili, reaches Pritampur to meet her along with his friend Kanhaiya (Deepak Dobriyal). At a bus stop, the Security Head of Pritampur Palace, Sanjay (Deepraj Rana), notices him by chance, and takes him to Diwan Sahib (Anupam Kher). Upon witnessing the striking resemblance between Prem and Yuvraj Vijay, Diwan asks Prem to take Yuvraj Vijay 's place while Yuvraj recovers from coma. Prem acts as Yuvraj Vijay but with his simple and caring nature, he impresses Maithili who earlier wanted to break up with Vijay and falls in love with Prem unknowingly. Prem also attempts to reconcile with his sisters by bringing them back to the royal palace; he prepares legal documents handing over all of the royal family 's properties to them. His half - sisters are so moved by this gesture that, with a little push from Maithili, they eventually have a change of heart and decline to deprive prince of his fortune and reconcile with him as his sisters. Meanwhile, Yuvraj Ajay and Chirag find out that Prem is only playing the part of the prince, and thus they kidnap the real Yuvraj Vijay. Chirag decides to double cross Ajay, as he frees Vijay and feeds him false information to pit him against Ajay and Prem. Vijay and Ajay get involved in a sword fight when Prem and Kanhaiya intervene and clear the confusion. Chirag tries to shoot them down but falls to his death. Ajay regrets his deeds, and Vijay reconciles with him. Maithili is shocked to know the truth about Prem not being Yuvraj Vijay, after Prem has left to return to his home. At the end, the royal family reaches Prem 's house to reunite Prem and Maithili, they get happily married along with Kanhaiyya and Sameera. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 4.5 / 5 stating that "On the whole, PRDP is the perfect Diwali entertainer for the entire family. The film will win abundant love (prem), while its investors will reap a harvest (dhan), making it a memorable Diwali for all concerned. '' Srijana Mitra Das of Times of India rated the film with 3.5 / 5 stars stating that PRDP is Salman Khan 's triumph and he "simply blows the top off the theatres with a double role that makes you laugh, gasp, sigh -- and cry. '' She also appreciated the performance of Sonam Kapoor, Deepak Dobriyal, Aashika and Swara Bhaskar. Sonia Chopra of Sify gave 3 / 5 stars rating saying that the film has its faults, but with actor Salman Khan 's dual role, the movie is sure to hit the right spots with the family audience. Rajeev Masand of CNN - IBN gave the film a rating of 3 / 5 stars saying that the director employed the same successful formula he had tried in his previous films, but now "the tropes have gotten rusty, the emotions seldom feel genuine, and the writing is strictly surface level ''. He concluded that the film 's only saving grace is the presence of Salman Khan who is in good form. Shubhra Gupta of Indian Express gave the film a low rating of 1.5 / 5 stars, calling it a re-imagining of Ramayan and its million stories, criticizing it as "an out - dated, overblown rehash of the director 's previous films '', while Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times gave the film only 2 / 5 stars, calling it "as a film straight out of the ' 80s '' rehashing the director 's same formula, but appreciated music director Himesh Reshammiya and lead actor Salman Khan as "quite likeable and his comic timing has gotten better ''. Anna MM Vetticad of First Post thrashed the film as "half - baked, lifeless, low - IQ film with its juvenile humour and family politics that resembles circumstances in the cheapest saas - bahu soaps now running on Hindi fiction TV. '' and "lacks even the few qualities that made his earlier ventures bearable ". Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com rated the film a 2.5 / 5 stars stating, '' PRDP sticks to its beliefs on sibling affection, family values and coy courtship and takes a lengthy route to assert so. Yet it is not the predictability but the lop - sided sentimentality of the director 's narrative that hurts PRDP 's intentions the most. '' She criticized the director for recycling "men versus women sporting contests, midnight kitchen rendezvous and the pristine aura of Prem '', but appreciated the performance of Salman Khan even though it never matched his previous Bajrangi Bhaijaan act. Prem Ratan Dhan Payo collected ₹ 40.35 crore (US $6.3 million) net on its opening day and became highest opener of the year by beating the record previously held by Bajrangi Bhaijaan.It is also the second film in Hindi cinema to gross over ₹ 40 crore (US $6.2 million) in a single day after Happy New Year. The Gross collections of the film was ₹ 55.03 crore (US $8.6 million) on the first day, which is highest in India. On its second day the film saw a 25 % drop in its business as it collected ₹ 31.05 crore (US $4.8 million) nett which is the highest non-holiday second day ever. The film collected ₹ 30.07 crore (US $4.7 million) nett on its third day which is also the highest non-holiday third day ever to take its three - day total to ₹ 101.47 crore (US $16 million) nett. The film becomes fourth Hindi movie to gross more than ₹ 100 crore (US $16 million) in flat three days. On its fourth day the film collected ₹ 28.30 crore (US $4.4 million) nett to take its extended opening weekend total to ₹ 129.77 crore (US $20 million) nett which is the highest four - day total for a Hindi movie beating the previous records of Bajrangi Bhaijaan and Dhoom 3. The film drops on its fifth day as it collected ₹ 13.62 crore (US $2.1 million) nett. On its sixth day the film collected ₹ 12.04 crore (US $1.9 million) nett to take its six - day total to ₹ 155.43 crore (US $24 million) and becomes second highest grosser of the year by beating the lifetime collection of Tanu Weds Manu Returns. The film collected ₹ 10.02 crore (US $1.6 million) on its seventh day to take its seven - day total to ₹ 165.45 crore (US $26 million) nett and beat the first week records of Kick and Chennai Express. The film collected ₹ 172.82 crore (US $27 million) nett in its extended first week which is the fourth highest first week collection of all time. The film grossed ₹ 58.67 crore (US $9.1 million) in Mumbai circuit alone from its first week and become second highest first week grosser in that circuit after PK. The film collected ₹ 5.50 crore (US $860,000), ₹ 6.70 crore (US $1.0 million) nett on its second Friday and Saturday respectively. On its second Sunday the film collected ₹ 8.20 crore (US $1.3 million) nett to take its total to ₹ 193.22 crore (US $30 million) nett after second weekend. The film collected a total of ₹ 201.52 crore (US $31 million) on its second Wednesday and thus becomes only second movie of the year to collect over ₹ 200 crore (US $31 million) nett after Bajrangi Bhaijaan another Salman Khan starer. With this total the film made 100 % profit for the producers. The film grossed ₹ 30.71 crore (US $4.8 million) in its second week to take its two - weeks total to ₹ 203.53 crore (US $32 million) and beats the lifetime collection of Happy New Year. The film collected ₹ 3.10 crore (US $480,000) nett in its third weekend to take its total to ₹ 206.63 crore (US $32 million) nett. The film grossed $1.6 million (10.62 crores) on its opening day at overseas. The two days total of the film was $3.87 million (25.58 crores). The film grossed $8.9 million (59 crores) in its first four days from International Markets. After its second weekend the film grossed $13.04 million (86.57 crores) at International Markets. It has beaten the lifetime international business record of "Baahubali: The Beginning '' in 11 days. "Prem Ratan Dhan Payo '' has managed to retain maximum number of cinema halls that it was holding in its opening week, but its business has dropped by over 75 % in the key international markets. In its second weekend, "Prem Ratan Dhan Payo '' has grossed $438,662 from 283 screens in the US, US $163,382 from 24 screens in Canada, £ 2, 16,899 from 103 screens in the UK, A $1, 18,146 from 30 screens in Australia, NZ $99,180 from 27 screens in New Zealand, MYR29, 788 from 16 screens in Malaysia and € 3,650 from 21 in Germany. "Prem Ratan Dhan Payo '' has collected a total of $13.04 million (Rs 86.57 crore) at the overseas box office in 11 days. The film grossed $14.10 million (94 crores) after its third weekend. The music rights of the film were sold to T - Series for a record amount of ₹ 17 crore (US $2.7 million) satellite rights were sold to star network for ₹ 50 crore (US $7.8 million), making it the most expensive music rights deal in the Bollywood film industry at the time. The full music album of Prem Ratan Dhan Payo was released on 10 October 2015. Sanjoy Chowdhury composed the original background score, while Reshammiya was credited for the themes based on his songs. All lyrics written by Irshad Kamil; all music composed by Himesh Reshammiya. Critic Aelina Kapoor of Rediff.com gave the album 3.5 stars out of 5, saying that "the music of ' Prem Ratan Dhan Payo ' is well done, has a strong traditional flavour, have a paarivaarik feel and is exactly what the filmmaker ordered. '' Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gave the album a score 4.5 out of 5 and stated that Himesh Reshammiya has delivered his "best ever in his musical career '' and "the soundtrack exceeds the massive expectations one had from it. '' He described the album as brilliant, and praised the lyrics by Irshad Kamil. Kasmin Fernandes of The Times of India gave the album 4 / 5 and complimented that "music of the film is pleasant and is reminiscent of jubilant songs from the 1990s. '' She however, adored the lyrics by Irshad Kamil. Critic R.M. Vijayakar in his review for India - West assigned a score of 3.5 out of 5 to the soundtrack. He summarised that "the score deserves "hosannas '' for its courage and conviction in delivering deep and rich Indian melody, good poetry and thematic veracity against today 's depraved trends. '' He also pointed that the album is a pure one, without any "crass words, western beats, rap, and multiple music makers! '' In his critical review for The New Indian Express, Vipin Nair awards the album a score of 6.5 out of 10. He stated that the album might "be a hit with the people who love 90s Bollywood melodies. '' However, he also pointed that it is a bit dated. Surabhi Redkar for Koimoi.com assigned the album a low rating of 2 stars out of 5 stating the soundtrack "may be better with visuals. '' An official game titled "Prem Game '', based on this film has been released by Hungama Digital Services, for Android mobile phone users.
where does the last name dawson come from	Dawson (surname) - wikipedia Dawson is an English surname. Notable persons with the surname include:
how many games do they play in the first round of mlb playoffs	Major League Baseball postseason - wikipedia The Major League Baseball postseason is an elimination tournament held after the conclusion of the MLB regular season. As of 2012, the playoffs for each league -- American and National -- consist of a one - game wild - card playoff between two wild card teams, two best - of - five Division Series (LDS) featuring the wild - card winner and the winner of each division, and finally the best - of - seven League Championship Series (LCS). The winners of the American League Championship Series (ALCS) and the National League Championship Series (NLCS) play each other in the best - of - seven World Series. Major League Baseball is the oldest of America 's major professional sports organizations, steeped in tradition with roots dating back to the 1870s. The final series to determine its champion has been called the "World Series '' (originally "World 's Championship Series '' and then "World 's Series '') as far back as the National League 's contests with the American Association starting at the beginning of the 1880s. In 1903, the two modern Major League Baseball leagues began annual postseason play with a one - round system in which the American League team with the best record faced the National League team with the best record in a best - of - seven series (in 1903, 1919, 1920, and 1921 it was best - of - nine) called the World Series; however, there was no 1904 Series because the National League Champion, the New York Giants, refused to play. This single - tiered approach persisted through 1968, even with the expansions of 1961 -- 1962 that expanded both leagues to 10 teams. In 1969, both leagues expanded to twelve teams, which made it more difficult to compete for a league championship because there were more teams competing for the AL and NL pennants. In addition, a team would play other clubs in its own region of the country more than clubs in the rest of the country, creating an unbalanced schedule that in some years could give a team from one region an advantage in fighting for a single pennant. To remedy this, and imitating the other major sports ' long - standing playoff traditions, Major League Baseball split each league into Eastern and Western divisions, creating four divisions overall and no worse than a sixth - place finish for any team in any division until later expansions in 1977 and 1993. This created a new postseason round, which was dubbed the League Championship Series (LCS), a best - of - five series. In 1985 the LCS was expanded to a best - of - seven series. Under this system, it was possible for one of the best teams in a league to be left out of the postseason if it did n't win its division. Most notably, in 1993, the Atlanta Braves and San Francisco Giants finished with the two best records in the majors, with 104 and 103 wins, respectively. However, since both teams played in the National League West, the Giants missed the postseason by a single game. The baseball players ' strike of 1981 uniquely -- for this era -- added another round to the postseason. Because the strike split the season into two roughly equal halves, the division winners of each half of the 1981 season first met in a best - of - five Division Series. The winners of the division series then progressed to the league championship series, with the remainder of the postseason following a similar format to other years in this era. Major League Baseball went through a realignment in 1994, when both the American and National leagues expanded to three divisions: Eastern, Central, and Western. To avoid a playoff with an odd number of divisional winners, the league added a wild card playoff spot to each league, imitating the original post-merger NFL system. The wild - card for each league would be the team with the best record that did not win their division, eliminating a circumstance where a team with the second - best record in the entire league would miss the playoff because of not winning its division. This new format doubled the postseason contenders in each league from two to four, and from four teams overall to eight. The addition of a second wild card spot occurred in 2012. The additional teams meant another elimination round was necessary. This new round would become the new first round of the postseason, the best - of - five Division Series. This term had first been used for the extra round required in 1981 due to the "split - season '' scheduling anomaly following the midseason baseball players strike. This format was in place for the 1994 season, but that year 's players ' strike canceled the postseason. The format was realized on the field in 1995. Under this format, in the two Divisional Series, the wild card team played the divisional champion outside its own division that had the better record, with the remaining two teams playing each other in the second Division Series for each league. The two Division Series winners from each league go on to play each other in the League Championship Series. As with the previous postseason format, the winners of each League Championship Series met in the World Series. With the adoption of the new collective bargaining agreement in November 2011, baseball commissioner Bud Selig announced that a new playoff system would begin within two years; the change was ultimately put into place in 2012. The format chosen was the one - game wild - card playoff. Under this format, a second wild card team has been added to each league, i.e., the team with the second - highest win total in each league among non-division winners. The two wild card teams play in a one - game playoff after the end of the regular season, with the winner advancing to the Division Series. The divisional champions qualify for the Division Series just as in the previous format; however, under the expanded wild card format the winner of the one - game wild card playoff faces the top - seeded divisional champion in the Division Series, regardless of whether the two teams are in the same division, while the second - and third - seeded divisional champions play each other in the other Division Series. The format for placement in the League Championship Series and World Series remains. The World Series used several different formats in its early years. Initially it generally followed an alternating home - and - away pattern, except that if a seventh game was possible, its site was determined by coin toss prior to the sixth game. In 1924 the Series began using a 2 - 3 - 2 format, presumably to save on travel costs, a pattern that has continued to this day with the exception of a couple of the World War II years when wartime travel restrictions compelled a 3 - 4 format (used in 1943 and 1945, but not in the 1944 series, which was contested between crosstown rivals the St. Louis Browns and St. Louis Cardinals; all games were held in the same stadium in St. Louis). From the start of the 2 - 3 - 2 format through the 2002 season, home - field advantage generally alternated between leagues each year. Prior to the 1994 strike, the National League champion received home - field advantage in even - numbered years and the American League champion in odd - numbered years; these were reversed for 1995 -- 2002 (because 1994 would have been the NL 's turn to have home - field, but the World Series was cancelled by the aforementioned strike). That changed starting in 2003. The 2002 All - Star Game had ended in a tie, much to the displeasure of both fans and sportswriters who complained about a lack of intensity and competitiveness on the part of the players. This hit especially close to home for Commissioner Bud Selig, as the game had been played in his home city of Milwaukee, Wisconsin. In response, to give some real meaning to the game, in 2003 MLB began assigning home - field advantage in the World Series to the winner of that year 's All - Star Game, which is typically held in mid-July. Following the acceptance of a new collective bargaining agreement after the 2016 season, home - field advantage in the World Series will no longer be tied to the outcome of the All - Star Game, but will instead go to the team with the better regular - season record. Until 1998, the LCS alternated home - field advantage with a 2 - 3 format in the best - of - 5 era (1969 -- 84) and a 2 - 3 - 2 format when it went to best - of - 7 (1985 -- present). Since 1998 the team with the better record has had this advantage, except that in no case can the wild card ever secure the extra home game, regardless of regular - season records. Until 1998, the Division Series rotated which of the three division champions would not have home - field advantage, with the wild card never having it. Now the two division winners with the best records in each league have home field, with the least - winning divisional winner and the wild card not having home field. The DS used a 2 - 3 format until 1998 and now uses a 2 - 2 - 1 format. This is seen as a more fair distribution of home - field advantage because previously under the 2 - 3 format, the team hosting the first two games had absolutely no chance of winning the series at home. With the current 2 - 2 - 1 format however, both teams have the home - field advantage in a sense. While one team gets to host three games (including the critical first and last game), the other team does get two chances out of three (games 3 and 4) of winning the series on its home field. With the adoption of the expanded playoff format in 2012, the five - game Division Series began with two home games for the lower seeds, followed by up to three home games for the higher seeds. This one - year change eliminated a travel day prior to a decisive Game 5 of a Division Series and was necessary because the 2012 regular - season schedule was announced before the agreement on the new postseason was reached. For 2013, the Division Series returned to the 2 - 2 - 1 format that was used from 1998 to 2011. There are three factors that determine the actual amount of bonus money paid to any individual player: (1) the size of the bonus pool; (2) their team 's success in the season / post-season; and (3) the share of the pool assigned to the individual player. There is a separate pool for each series -- the Wild Card games, the Division Series, the League Championship Series, and the World Series. The players ' bonus pool is funded with 60 % of the gate receipts for each of the Wild Card games, the first three games of each Division Series, the first four games of each LCS and the first four games of the World Series; limiting the funding for the pool to these games, the minimum number in each series, removes incentive to extend the series for merely fiscal sake. The value of the gate is determined by the size of the venues, the amount of high - priced premium seating in the venues, the number of games played in the series and whether the games sell out. Ticket prices for each series are set by MLB, not the home teams, so they are relatively uniform across baseball. The World Series winner gets 36 %, the World Series loser gets 24 %, both League Championship Series losers get 12 %, the four Division Series losers get 3.25 %, and the two Wild Card playoff losers get 1.5 %. The division of the team 's share of the pool is voted upon by the players who have been on the team during the entire regular season, in a meeting chaired by their union representative. This meeting follows the trade deadline on July 31. Players who have been with the team for the full season automatically receive a full share. At the meeting, the full - season players vote on whether anyone else -- including players who have not been with the team for the full season, coaches, and trainers -- is to be granted a full share, less than a full share, a cash award, or no share. After the World Series, the pool of money is split according to the shares determined in the vote. There is no limit to the number of shares that may be granted, but a greater number of shares dilutes the value of each share, and consequently the amount each player is awarded. As an example, playoff - pool full - share holders for the St. Louis Cardinals received US $362,183.97 (equivalent to $439,667 in 2017) each when the team won the World Series in 2006.
who does peter end up with in forgetting sarah marshall	Forgetting Sarah Marshall - wikipedia Forgetting Sarah Marshall is a 2008 American romantic comedy - drama film directed by Nicholas Stoller and starring Jason Segel, Kristen Bell, Mila Kunis and Russell Brand. The film, which was written by Segel and co-produced by Judd Apatow, was released by Universal Studios. Filming began in April 2007 at the Turtle Bay Resort on the North Shore of Oahu Island in Hawaii. The film was released for North American theaters on April 18, 2008 and in the UK a week later on April 25, 2008. The story revolves around Peter Bretter, who is a music composer for a TV show that happens to feature his girlfriend, Sarah Marshall, in the lead role. After a five - year relationship, Sarah abruptly breaks up with Peter. Devastated by this event, he chooses to go on a vacation in Hawaii, in order to try to move forward with his life. Trouble ensues when he runs into his ex on the island as she is vacationing with her new boyfriend. Composer Peter Bretter (Jason Segel) is in a five - year relationship with actress Sarah Marshall (Kristen Bell), who stars in a CSI - like television show titled Crime Scene: Scene of the Crime. One day, as Peter stands stark naked in their apartment, Sarah announces that she is breaking up with him. Devastated, and unable to banish his grief through one - night stands, Peter takes a trip to Hawaii. However, the vacation is ruined when he learns that Sarah and her new rock star boyfriend Aldous Snow (Russell Brand) are also guests of the resort. Taking pity on him, hotel concierge Rachel (Mila Kunis) offers him an expensive suite for free in exchange for cleaning up the room himself. Peter begins spending time with Rachel and starts to develop feelings for her. Meanwhile, the relationship between Sarah and Aldous begins to falter. Much of the discord is triggered by the news that Sarah 's TV show has been canceled and that Aldous is about to embark on a world tour with his group, Infant Sorrow, for 18 months. During a day of surf and sand Aldous and Peter run into each other and begin talking. Inadvertently, Aldous informs Peter that he and Sarah began having sex a full year before she broke up with Peter. When Peter confronts Sarah, she tells him she began feeling disconnected emotionally from him and she could n't do anything to make their relationship work. Further exacerbating the situation is Sarah 's obvious jealousy of the budding relationship between Peter and Rachel, while Peter (through observing Sarah 's relationship with Aldous) begins to realize that his relationship with her was n't as great as he remembered. Sarah, Aldous, Peter, and Rachel later share an awkward dinner together. After the dinner, Peter takes Rachel back to his hotel room and they begin to have sex. Sarah hears them through the wall and initiates sex with Aldous, moaning loudly for the benefit of the couple next door, and Rachel and Peter turn the situation into a competition and become even louder. When Aldous realizes Sarah is clearly putting on a performance to provoke a reaction from Peter, he stops the sex and tells her the trip was a mistake as she 's clearly not over Peter. They bicker furiously, prompting Aldous to announce that the relationship is over. The next day Peter encounters Aldous, and learns that he and Sarah have broken up and that he is flying back to England. Peter goes to Sarah 's room to console her where she admits she still loves him and tries to rekindle their romance. The two start to engage in sexual activity, but Peter abruptly cuts it off because of his feelings for Rachel, and his now ambivalent feelings towards Sarah. Peter immediately goes to Rachel to confess what happened, but she is hurt and demands that he leave and never contact her again. Before leaving, Peter takes down a naked picture of Rachel from a local bar despite enduring a beat - down from the owner. He flies back to Los Angeles and after a period of sadness and self - loathing, he begins working on his Dracula puppet comedy - rock opera, A Taste for Love. He sends an invitation to Rachel for the opening night performance. Although extremely hesitant at first, Rachel eventually decides to attend. After the performance Rachel congratulates Peter and tells him she 's looking into attending school in the area. She leaves so Peter can bask in the success of his show, but quickly returns to Peter 's dressing room to tell him she misses him. Peter tells her that he has missed her, too. The film ends as they embrace and kiss. The puppets seen in the film were created by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop. The following have performed the puppets in this film: Stoller stated that Judd Apatow was very involved in the casting process and the development of the script. Regarding the nudity in the film, he added that the first draft of the script called for the (Peter Bretter) character to get dressed after the breakup, but he thought it would be funnier if the character stayed naked the entire time. However, he confirmed the picture of Mila Kunis used in the film was created on a computer and not real. All filming locations were in the state of Hawaii and in Los Angeles. While filming, lead actor Jason Segel told a New York Times interviewer that the naked breakup scenes were based on a real - life experience he had. The film features a great deal of improvised dialogue; according to director Nicholas Stoller, it 's "60 or 70 percent scripted and then 30 or 40 percent improv ''. Segel and Lyle Workman wrote music for the film, which includes music by Infant Sorrow and a song from the Dracula musical. Eric Carmen, Blondie, and Kenny Loggins were also used in previews for the film. The soundtrack of Forgetting Sarah Marshall was released on April 22, 2008. Several songs are featured in the film that were not included on the soundtrack, including "Heaven Knows I 'm Miserable Now '' by The Smiths and the version of "Nothing Compares 2 U '' by Sinéad O'Connor, both of which are heard in the background during the scene in which Peter 's brother deletes all of Peter 's photos. "Amber '' by 311 can be heard in the background during the bar scene after Peter and Rachel 's first date, as well as "Playa Azul '' from Los Amigos Invisibles. "Move Your Feet '' by Junior Senior is briefly played in background in the scene at the beginning when they are showing Access Hollywood clips. Another song not featured on the soundtrack is "Heavy Lifting '' from New York band Ambulance Ltd. Forgetting Sarah Marshall has received positive reviews from numerous critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85 % of 178 critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7 out of 10. The site 's consensus is that "With ample laughs and sharp performances, Forgetting Sarah Marshall finds just the right mix of romantic and raunchy comedy. '' Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 67 out of 100, based on 37 reviews. Matt Pais of the Chicago Tribune said it 's "the kind of movie you could watch all day because, like a new flame, you ca n't get enough of its company and are just glad to see where it takes you. '' Richard Roeper highly praised the film for its laugh - out - loud moments as well as its worthiness to be an instant classic and went as far as to say he would put it on his list of 50 favorite comedies of all time. Other positive reviews come from Entertainment Weekly who gave the film a B+ and applauded "Jason Segel 's riff on varieties of male bewilderment, '' and Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle, who wrote "Segel 's breakthrough movie, Forgetting Sarah Marshall, deserves to ride the wave of the latest, hottest micro-trend in pictures: the romantic comedy for guys. '' The film was promoted with a "teaser '' billboard campaign, featuring the text "I hate Sarah Marshall '' and the URL for the film 's website. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $17.7 million in 2,798 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking # 2 at the box office behind The Forbidden Kingdom, and averaging $6,335 per theater in the US and per theater in Canada. It opened behind other Apatow productions such as Superbad, Knocked Up, The 40 - Year - Old Virgin and Talladega Nights, but ahead of contemporary Apatow films Walk Hard and Drillbit Taylor. Forgetting Sarah Marshall grossed $105.2 million worldwide; $63.2 million in North America and $42 million in other territories. The DVD and Blu - ray editions were released on September 30, 2008. At the DVD sales chart, Forgetting Sarah Marshall opened at # 2 and sold 652,000 units, translating to $12,905,492 in revenue. As of (November 2009) 1,785,744 DVD units have been sold, acquiring revenue of $29,145,295. This does not include Blu - ray sales / DVD rentals. It was released in a single - disc DVD edition, a three - disc collector 's DVD edition, a two - disc Blu - ray edition, and the Ultimate Unrated Comedy Collection containing the collectors ' editions of Forgetting Sarah Marshall, The 40 - Year - Old Virgin, and Knocked Up on either DVD or Blu - ray Disc. It was released on DVD in Australia (region 4) on August 20, 2008 in a single and 2 - Disc Unforgettable Edition and was also released on Blu - ray in Australia on November 5, 2008. Forgetting Sarah Marshall was nominated for five awards for the 2008 Teen Choice Awards, though it did not win any awards. The nominations were: On The Comedy Festival Presents: Funniest Movies of the Year 2008 on TBS, Forgetting Sarah Marshall was voted "The Funniest Film of 2008 ''. Get Him to the Greek is the spin - off / follow - up to Forgetting Sarah Marshall. The film was released on June 4, 2010, reuniting director Nicholas Stoller and producer Judd Apatow with stars Russell Brand and Jonah Hill. Brand reprises his role of Aldous Snow, while Hill plays an entirely new character. Bell also briefly reprises her role as Sarah Marshall where she appears in a promo for a new NBC drama Blind Medicine where she portrays a visually impaired surgeon.
what was the first valuable use of horses for settlers in the new world	Indian trade - wikipedia The Native American Trade refers to historic trade between Europeans and their North American descendants and the Indigenous people of North America (today known as Native Americans in the United States, and First Nations in Canada, but formerly as "Indians ''), beginning before the colonial period and continuing through the 19th century, although declining it around 1937. The term Indian Trade describes the people involved in the trade. The products involved varied by region and era. In most of Canada the term is synonymous with the fur trade, since fur for making beaver hats was by far the most valuable product of the trade, from the European point of view. Demand for other products resulted in trade in those items: Europeans asked for deerskin in the Southeast coast of the United States, and for buffalo skins and meat, and pemmican on the Great Plains. In turn, Native American demand influenced the trade goods brought by Europeans. Economic contact between Native Americans and European colonists began in the 16th century and lasted until the late 19th century. Although the relationship between Europeans and Indians was often marred by conflicts, many tribes established peaceful trade relations with the new colonists during the early stages of European settlement. From the 17th to the 19th century, the English and French mainly traded for animal pelts and fur with Native Americans. On the other hand, trading between the Spanish and Native Americans was sporadic and lasted only for a couple of decades. Eventually, wars, the dwindling of Native American populations and the westward expansion of the United States led to the confinement of tribes to reservations and the end of this kind of economic relations between Indians and European Americans. Other economic relations continued, especially in the alcohol trade around many reservations, and for Native arts and crafts. Today, many Native Americans satisfy a different kind of demand with the associated trades of their gaming casinos on sovereign land. These have been developed as entertainment and conference resorts, serving a wide market of customers, and generating substantial revenues for tribes to use for economic development, as well as welfare and education of their people. The first explorers to conduct trade with Native Americans were Giovanni da Verrazano and Jacques Cartier in the 1520s - 1540s. Verrazano noted in his book, "If we wanted to trade with them for some of their things, they would come to the seashore on some rocks where the breakers were most violent while we remained on the little boat, and they sent us what they wanted to give on a rope, continually shouting to us not to approach the land. '' As visits from Europeans became more frequent and some Europeans began to settle in North America, Indians began to establish regular trade relations with these new colonists. The ideal locations for fur trading were near harbors where ships could come in. Plymouth and Jamestown In order to set up a thriving colony, settlers in the New World needed the five factors of production that contribute to the creation of wealth: land (natural resources), labor, capital, entrepreneurship and knowledge. Often, trading with Native Americans resulted in colonists gaining needed knowledge and natural resources. Examples of this can be seen in the English settlements of Plymouth Bay and Jamestown. Chief Massasoit, a Wampanoag, and Squanto, a Patuxet Indian, helped the Pilgrims of Plymouth Bay establish their colony by teaching them skills in cultivating this land and hunting. In return for weapons and tools, these Native Americans provided the colonists with important natural resources, including food. In 1621 Chief Massasoit established one of the earliest trading pacts between Europeans and Indians by signing a treaty with Plymouth Colony to engage in peaceful trade. As the number of English colonists in the New England area began to grow, the Wampanoag became uneasy of losing their land to these new settlers. Gradually, tensions escalated, leading to King Philip 's War, an armed conflict between the Pilgrims and the Native Americans in the area. The war ended with the defeat of the Indian tribe, causing a serious fracture amongst relations between the Pilgrims and Native Americans. Relations between settlers in the Jamestown area and Native Americans ended similarly. Initially, the Powahatan aided the English settlers with food and clothing, helping them survive the early difficult years. However, relations between the two groups deteriorated after three years, resulting in a war. Fur trading posts Fur trading was one of the main economic activities in Northern America from the late 16th century to the mid-19th century. At the time, demand for fur was surging in Europe as it was used to make cloth and fancy hats. Data collected from England in the 18th century highlights that the years from 1746 to 1763 saw an increase of 12 shillings per pelt. It has been calculated that over 20 million beaver hats were exported from England alone from 1700 to 1770. Both trading partners, Native Americans and Europeans, provided the other a comparative advantage in the fur trade industry. The opportunity cost of hunting beavers in Europe was extremely high: by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Eurasian beaver was near extinction in England and France. On the other hand, traders and trappers thought the wildlife in the New World was essentially limitless. Native Americans made use of the trade goods received, particularly knives, axes, and guns. The fur trade provided a stable source of income for many Native Americans until the mid-19th century, when changing fashion trends in Europe and a decline in the beaver population in North America brought about a collapse in demand for fur. Trade with the Spanish Trading between Spanish settlers and Native Americans was rare and occurred in parts of New Mexico and California. The Spanish mainly intended to spread the Christian faith to Indians and to use them as slaves for work. The most significant effect of trading with the Spanish was the introduction of the horse to the Ute in New Mexico. Gradually, horses bred and their use was adopted across the Great Plains, dramatically altering the lifestyles and customs of many Native American tribes. Many Indians switched from a hunter - gatherer economy to a nomadic lifestyle after they began using horses for transportation. They had a greater range for hunting bison and trading with other tribes. Relationship between Europeans and Indians It took time for Europeans and Native Americans to learn the customs of the other side. When Europeans first encountered a tribe, they would often be offered fur, food or other items as gifts. The Europeans did not understand they were supposed to take on an alliance with the natives, including helping them against their enemies. Native American tribes regularly practice gift giving as part of their social relations. Because the Europeans did not (or most of them), they were considered to be rude and crude. After observing that Europeans wanted to trade goods for the skins and other items, Native Americans entered into that. Both sides became involved in the conflicts of the other. In New France, in Carolina, Virginia, and New England and in New Netherland, the Europeans became drawn into the endemic warfare of their trading partners. As Native Americans were pressed into alliances by the Europeans for Queen Anne 's War, the Seven Years ' War, the Nine Years ' War, and other standing competitions among the European powers: France, Great Britain and Spain, with whom they were dealing in North America, they felt drawn into the Europeans ' endemic warfare. After the United States became independent, it enacted legislation to regulate trading with the Indians / Native Americans, under the Trade and Intercourse Act, first passed on July 22, 1790. Later the Indian Office, which was then part of the War Department, issued licenses to traders in the Indian Territory. Under removal, the largest tribes from the Southeast and north of the Ohio were moved west of the Mississippi river. By 1834 Indian Territory had been designated as what was then most of the United States west of the Mississippi, primarily what became Arkansas, Kansas and Oklahoma. Territories of the upper West were still occupied by native tribes as well. Mountain men and traders from Mexico freely operated there independently of the US. After the formation of the United States, the commerce clause of the constitution gave Congress the power to "regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. '' In the 19th century, the American government passed legislation to support relocation of tribes to reservations in order to extinguish their title to lands that could be sold to European Americans. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced tribes such as the Cherokee and the Choctaw to move out of their homelands. Resistance by Native Americans to relocate resulted in conflicts such as the Second Seminole War, that caused the deaths of 3000 Native Americans. Forcing tribes to relocate and to adjust to isolated reservations often unsuitable for the subsistence farming they were encouraged to undertake, made many of them dependent on the U.S. government for annuities and supplies. They had difficulty trying to develop economic systems of their own. As outlined by Kalt and Cornell in their book, What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development, on reservations, tribes lacked access to capital, were assigned to areas with poor natural resources (or had their resources stolen or kept from their control), and did not possess skilled labor. Today, many programs, such as the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, exist to foster conditions that will help reservations become independent and financially stable communities. Since the late 20th century, many tribes have established gaming casinos. The most successful ones use part of the revenues for economic development of their nations, as well as for welfare and education for all their tribal members. N.p.: W.W. Norton &, 2011. Print.
who sang more than a number in my little red book	The Drifters discography - wikipedia This discography focuses solely on that of American vocal group The Drifters as managed by the Treadwell family. b / w "Your Promise To Be Mine ''
what is the difference between evil and good	Good and evil - wikipedia In religion, ethics, philosophy, and psychology "good and evil '' is a very common dichotomy. In cultures with Manichaean and Abrahamic religious influence, evil is usually perceived as the dualistic antagonistic opposite of good, in which good should prevail and evil should be defeated. In cultures with Buddhist spiritual influence, both good and evil are perceived as part of an antagonistic duality that itself must be overcome through achieving Śūnyatā meaning emptiness in the sense of recognition of good and evil being two opposing principles but not a reality, emptying the duality of them, and achieving a oneness. Evil, in a general context, is the absence or opposite of that which is described as being good. Often, evil is used to denote profound immorality. In certain religious contexts, evil has been described as a supernatural force. Definitions of evil vary, as does the analysis of its motives. However, elements that are commonly associated with evil involve unbalanced behavior involving expediency, selfishness, ignorance, or neglect. The philosophical question of whether morality is absolute, relative, or illusory leads to questions about the nature of evil, with views falling into one of four opposed camps: moral absolutism, amoralism, moral relativism, and moral universalism. Every language has a word expressing good in the sense of "having the right or desirable quality '' (ἀρετή) and bad in the sense "undesirable ''. A sense of moral judgment and a distinction "right and wrong, good and bad '' are cultural universals. In the eastern part of ancient Persia almost three thousand years ago a religious philosopher called Zoroaster simplified the pantheon of early Iranian gods into two opposing forces: Ahura Mazda (Illuminating Wisdom) and Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit) which were in conflict. This idea developed into a religion which spawned many sects, some of which embraced an extreme dualistic belief that the material world should be shunned and the spiritual world should be embraced. Gnostic ideas influenced many ancient religions which teach that gnosis (variously interpreted as enlightenment, salvation, emancipation or ' oneness with God ') may be reached by practising philanthropy to the point of personal poverty, sexual abstinence (as far as possible for hearers, total for initiates) and diligently searching for wisdom by helping others. In Western civilisation, the basic meanings of κακός and ἀγαθός are "bad, cowardly '' and "good, brave, capable '', and their absolute sense emerges only around 400 BC, with Pre-Socratic philosophy, in particular Democritus. Morality in this absolute sense solidifies in the dialogues of Plato, together with the emergence of monotheistic thought (notably in Euthyphro, which ponders the concept of piety (τὸ ὅσιον) as a moral absolute). The idea is further developed in Late Antiquity by Neoplatonists, Gnostics, and Church Fathers. This development from the relative or habitual to the absolute is also evident in the terms ethics and morality both being derived from terms for "regional custom '', Greek ήθος and Latin mores, respectively (see also siðr). Medieval theology was largely shaped by St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Thomas Aquinas. According to the classical definition of St. Augustine of Hippo, sin is "a word, deed, or desire in opposition to the eternal law of God. '' (3) (4) Many medieval Christian theologians both broadened and narrowed the basic concept of Good and evil until it came to have several, sometimes complex definitions such as: Today the basic dichotomy often breaks down along these lines: The modern English word evil (Old English yfel) and its cognates such as the German Übel and Dutch euvel are widely considered to come from a Proto - Germanic reconstructed form of * ubilaz, comparable to the Hittite huwapp - ultimately from the Proto - Indo - European form * wap - and suffixed zero - grade form * up - elo -. Other later Germanic forms include Middle English evel, ifel, ufel, Old Frisian evel (adjective and noun), Old Saxon ubil, Old High German ubil, and Gothic ubils. The nature of being good has been given many treatments; one is that the good is based on the natural love, bonding, and affection that begins at the earliest stages of personal development; another is that goodness is a product of knowing truth. Differing views also exist as to why evil might arise. Many religious and philosophical traditions claim that evil behavior is an aberration that results from the imperfect human condition (e.g. "The Fall of Man ''). Sometimes, evil is attributed to the existence of free will and human agency. Some argue that evil itself is ultimately based in an ignorance of truth (i.e., human value, sanctity, divinity). A variety of Enlightenment thinkers have alleged the opposite, by suggesting that evil is learned as a consequence of tyrannical social structures. In Confucianism and Taoism, there is no direct analogue to the way good and evil are opposed, although references to demonic influence is common in Chinese folk religion. Confucianism 's primary concern is with correct social relationships and the behavior appropriate to the learned or superior man. Evil would thus correspond to wrong behavior. Still less does it map into Taoism, in spite of the centrality of dualism in that system, but the opposite of the basic virtues of Taoism (compassion, moderation, and humility) can be inferred to be the analogue of evil in it. Pyrrhonism holds that good and evil do not exist by nature, meaning that good and evil do not exist within the things themselves. All judgments of good and evil are relative to the one doing the judging. Benedict de Spinoza states: 1. By good, I understand that which we certainly know is useful to us. 2. By evil, on the contrary I understand that which we certainly know hinders us from possessing anything that is good. Spinoza assumes a quasi-mathematical style and states these further propositions which he purports to prove or demonstrate from the above definitions in part IV of his Ethics: Friedrich Nietzsche, in a rejection of the Judeo - Christian morality, addresses this in two works, Beyond Good and Evil and On the Genealogy of Morals, where he essentially says that the natural functional non-good has been socially transformed into the religious concept of evil by the slave mentality of the weak and oppressed masses who resent their masters (the strong). Carl Jung, in his book Answer to Job and elsewhere, depicted evil as the dark side of the Devil. People tend to believe evil is something external to them, because they project their shadow onto others. Jung interpreted the story of Jesus as an account of God facing his own shadow. In 2007, Philip Zimbardo suggested that people may act in evil ways as a result of a collective identity. This hypothesis, based on his previous experience from the Stanford prison experiment, was published in the book The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. The Bahá'í Faith asserts that evil is non-existent and that it is a concept for the lacking of good, just as cold is the state of no heat, darkness is the state of no light, forgetfulness the lacking of memory, ignorance the lacking of knowledge. All of these are states of lacking and have no real existence. Thus, evil does not exist, and is relative to man. ` Abdu'l - Bahá, son of the founder of the religion, in Some Answered Questions states: "Nevertheless a doubt occurs to the mind -- that is, scorpions and serpents are poisonous. Are they good or evil, for they are existing beings? Yes, a scorpion is evil in relation to man; a serpent is evil in relation to man; but in relation to themselves they are not evil, for their poison is their weapon, and by their sting they defend themselves. '' Thus, evil is more of an intellectual concept than a true reality. Since God is good, and upon creating creation he confirmed it by saying it is Good (Genesis 1: 31) evil can not have a true reality. The primal duality in Buddhism is between suffering and enlightenment, so the good vs. evil splitting has no direct analogue in it. One may infer however from the general teachings of the Buddha that the catalogued causes of suffering are what correspond in this belief system to ' evil '. Practically this can refer to 1) the three selfish emotions -- desire, hate and delusion; and 2) to their expression in physical and verbal actions. See ten unvirtuous actions in Buddhism. Specifically, evil means whatever harms or obstructs the causes for happiness in this life, a better rebirth, liberation from samsara, and the true and complete enlightenment of a buddha (samyaksambodhi). "What is evil? Killing is evil, lying is evil, slandering is evil, abuse is evil, gossip is evil: envy is evil, hatred is evil, to cling to false doctrine is evil; all these things are evil. And what is the root of evil? Desire is the root of evil, illusion is the root of evil. '' Gautama Siddhartha, the founder of Buddhism, 563 - 483 B.C. In Hinduism the concept of Dharma or righteousness clearly divides the world into good and evil, and clearly explains that wars have to be waged sometimes to establish and protect Dharma, this war is called Dharmayuddha. This division of good and evil is of major importance in both the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. However, the main emphasis in Hinduism is on bad action, rather than bad people. The Hindu holy text, the Bhagavad Gita, speaks of the balance of good and evil. When this balance goes off, divine incarnations come to help to restore this balance. In adherence to the core principle of spiritual evolution, the Sikh idea of evil changes depending on one 's position on the path to liberation. At the beginning stages of spiritual growth, good and evil may seem neatly separated. However, once one 's spirit evolves to the point where it sees most clearly, the idea of evil vanishes and the truth is revealed. In his writings Guru Arjan explains that, because God is the source of all things, what we believe to be evil must too come from God. And because God is ultimately a source of absolute good, nothing truly evil can originate from God. Nevertheless, Sikhism, like many other religions, does incorporate a list of "vices '' from which suffering, corruption, and abject negativity arise. These are known as the Five Thieves, called such due to their propensity to cloud the mind and lead one astray from the prosecution of righteous action. These are: One who gives in to the temptations of the Five Thieves is known as "Manmukh '', or someone who lives selfishly and without virtue. Inversely, the "Gurmukh, who thrive in their reverence toward divine knowledge, rise above vice via the practice of the high virtues of Sikhism. These are: There is no concept of absolute evil in Islam, as a fundamental universal principle that is independent from and equal with good in a dualistic sense. Within Islam, it is considered essential to believe that all comes from Allah, whether it is perceived as good or bad by individuals; and things that are perceived as evil or bad are either natural events (natural disasters or illnesses) or caused by humanity 's free will to disobey Allah 's orders. See Devil (Islam). According to the Ahmadiyya understanding of Islam, evil does not have a positive existence in itself and is merely the lack of good, just as darkness is the result of lack of light. In Judaism, no individual can be defined as categorically, absolutely "good '' or "evil. '' Judaism recognizes human beings ' psychological complexity. God gave the Children of Israel the Torah as a guide to overcome evil. A common theme of medieval Jewish philosophy is that people who do good deeds will be rewarded in olam haba. Judaism has two conflicting attitudes toward the existence of evil. In one interpretation, evil is not real, it is per se not part of God 's creation, but comes into existence through man 's bad actions. In the other interpretation, evil was created by God since God created everything and to suggest otherwise would be to engage in dualism, and is therefore antithetical to the core Jewish belief in monotheism. Evil according to a Christian worldview is any action, thought or attitude that is contrary to the character or will of God. This is shown through the law given in both the Old and New Testament. There is no moral action given in the Bible that is contrary to God 's character or God 's will. Therefore, evil in a Christian world view is contrasted by and in conflict with God 's character or God 's will. This evil shows itself through deviation from the character or will of God. Christian theology draws its concept of evil from the Old and New Testaments. The Christian Bible exercises "the dominant influence upon ideas about God and evil in the Western world. '' In the Old Testament, evil is understood to be an opposition to God as well as something unsuitable or inferior such as the leader of the fallen angels Satan In the New Testament the Greek word poneros is used to indicate unsuitability, while kakos is used to refer to opposition to God in the human realm. Officially, the Catholic Church extracts its understanding of evil from its canonical antiquity and the Dominican theologian, Thomas Aquinas, who in Summa Theologica defines evil as the absence or privation of good. French - American theologian Henri Blocher describes evil, when viewed as a theological concept, as an "unjustifiable reality. In common parlance, evil is ' something ' that occurs in experience that ought not to be. '' In Mormonism, mortal life is viewed as a test of faith, where one 's choices are central to the Plan of Salvation. See Agency (LDS Church). Evil is that which keeps one from discovering the nature of God. It is believed that one must choose not to be evil to return to God. Christian Science believes that evil arises from a misunderstanding of the goodness of nature, which is understood as being inherently perfect if viewed from the correct (spiritual) perspective. Misunderstanding God 's reality leads to incorrect choices, which are termed evil. This has led to the rejection of any separate power being the source of evil, or of God as being the source of evil; instead, the appearance of evil is the result of a mistaken concept of good. Christian Scientists argue that even the most evil person does not pursue evil for its own sake, but from the mistaken viewpoint that he or she will achieve some kind of good thereby. In the originally Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, the world is a battle ground between the god Ahura Mazda (also called Ormazd) and the malignant spirit Angra Mainyu (also called Ahriman). The final resolution of the struggle between good and evil was supposed to occur on a day of Judgement, in which all beings that have lived will be led across a bridge of fire, and those who are evil will be cast down forever. In Afghan belief, angels and saints are beings sent to help us achieve the path towards goodness. It is possible to treat the essential theories of value by the use of a philosophical and academic approach. In properly analyzing theories of value, everyday beliefs are not only carefully catalogued and described, but also rigorously analyzed and judged. There are at least two basic ways of presenting a theory of value, based on two different kinds of questions: The two questions are subtly different. One may answer the first question by researching the world by use of social science, and examining the preferences that people assert. However, one may answer the second question by use of reasoning, introspection, prescription, and generalization. The former kind of method of analysis is called "descriptive '', because it attempts to describe what people actually view as good or evil; while the latter is called "normative '', because it tries to actively prohibit evils and cherish goods. These descriptive and normative approaches can be complementary. For example, tracking the decline of the popularity of slavery across cultures is the work of descriptive ethics, while advising that slavery be avoided is normative. Meta - ethics is the study of the fundamental questions concerning the nature and origins of the good and the evil, including inquiry into the nature of good and evil, as well as the meaning of evaluative language. In this respect, meta - ethics is not necessarily tied to investigations into how others see the good, or of asserting what is good. A satisfying formulation of goodness is valuable because it might allow one to construct a good life or society by reliable processes of deduction, elaboration, or prioritization. One could answer the ancient question, "How should we then live? '' among many other important related questions. It has long been thought that this question can best be answered by examining what it is that necessarily makes a thing valuable, or in what the source of value consists. One attempt to define goodness describes it as a property of the world with transcendental realism. According to this claim, to talk about the good is to talk about something real that exists in the object itself, independent of the perception of it. Plato advocated this view, in his expression that there is such a thing as an eternal realm of forms or ideas, and that the greatest of the ideas and the essence of being was goodness, or The good. The good was defined by many ancient Greeks and other ancient philosophers as a perfect and eternal idea, or blueprint. The good is the right relation between all that exists, and this exists in the mind of the Divine, or some heavenly realm. The good is the harmony of a just political community, love, friendship, the ordered human soul of virtues, and the right relation to the Divine and to Nature. The characters in Plato 's dialogues mention the many virtues of a philosopher, or a lover of wisdom. A theist is a person who believes that the Supreme Being exists or gods exist (monotheism or polytheism). A theist may, therefore, claim that the universe has a purpose and value according to the will of such creator (s) that lies partially beyond human understanding. For instance, Thomas Aquinas -- a proponent of this view -- believed he had proven the existence of God, and the right relations that humans ought to have to the divine first cause. Monotheists might also hope for infinite universal love. Such hope is often translated as "faith '', and wisdom itself is largely defined within some religious doctrines as a knowledge and understanding of innate goodness. The concepts of innocence, spiritual purity, and salvation are likewise related to a concept of being in, or returning to, a state of goodness -- one that, according to various teachings of "enlightenment '', approaches a state of holiness (or Godliness). Aristotle believed that virtues consisted of realization of potentials unique to humanity, such as the use of reason. This type of view, called perfectionism, has been recently defended in modern form by Thomas Hurka. An entirely different form of perfectionism has arisen in response to rapid technological change. Some techno - optimists, especially transhumanists, avow a form of perfectionism in which the capacity to determine good and trade off fundamental values, is expressed not by humans but by software, genetic engineering of humans, artificial intelligence. Skeptics assert that rather than perfect goodness, it would be only the appearance of perfect goodness, reinforced by persuasion technology and probably brute force of violent technological escalation, which would cause people to accept such rulers or rules authored by them. Welfarist theories of value say things that are good are such because of their positive effects on human well - being. It is difficult to figure out where an immaterial trait such as "goodness '' could reside in the world. A counterproposal is to locate values inside people. Some philosophers go so far as to say that if some state of affairs does not tend to arouse a desirable subjective state in self - aware beings, then it can not be good. Most philosophers that think goods have to create desirable mental states also say that goods are experiences of self - aware beings. These philosophers often distinguish the experience, which they call an intrinsic good, from the things that seem to cause the experience, which they call "inherent '' goods. Failing to distinguish the two leads to a subject -- object problem in which it is not clear who is evaluating what object. Some theories describe no higher collective value than that of maximizing pleasure for individual (s). Some even define goodness and intrinsic value as the experience of pleasure, and bad as the experience of pain. This view is called hedonism, a monistic theory of value. It has two main varieties: simple, and Epicurean. Simple hedonism is the view that physical pleasure is the ultimate good. However, the ancient philosopher Epicurus used the word ' pleasure ' in a more general sense that encompassed a range of states from bliss to contentment to relief. Contrary to popular caricature, he valued pleasures of the mind to bodily pleasures, and advocated moderation as the surest path to happiness. Jeremy Bentham 's book The Principles of Morals and Legislation prioritized goods by considering pleasure, pain and consequences. This theory had a wide effect on public affairs, up to and including the present day. A similar system was later named Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. More broadly, utilitarian theories are examples of Consequentialism. All utilitarian theories are based upon the maxim of utility, which states that good is whatever provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number. It follows from this principle that what brings happiness to the greatest number of people, is good. A benefit of tracing good to pleasure and pain is that both are easily understandable, both in oneself and to an extent in others. For the hedonist, the explanation for helping behaviour may come in the form of empathy -- the ability of a being to "feel '' another 's pain. People tend to value the lives of gorillas more than those of mosquitoes because the gorilla lives and feels, making it easier to empathize with them. This idea is carried forward in the ethical relationship view and has given rise to the animal rights movement and parts of the peace movement. The impact of sympathy on human behaviour is compatible with Enlightenment views, including David Hume 's stances that the idea of a self with unique identity is illusory, and that morality ultimately comes down to sympathy and fellow feeling for others, or the exercise of approval underlying moral judgments. A view adopted by James Griffin attempts to find a subjective alternative to hedonism as an intrinsic value. He argues that the satisfaction of one 's informed desires constitutes well - being, whether or not these desires actually bring the agent happiness. Moreover, these preferences must be life - relevant, that is, contribute to the success of a person 's life overall. Desire satisfaction may occur without the agent 's awareness of the satisfaction of the desire. For example, if a man wishes for his legal will to be enacted after his death, and it is, then his desire has been satisfied even though he will never experience or know of it. Meher Baba proposed that it is not the satisfaction of desires that motivates the agent but rather "a desire to be free from the limitation of all desires. Those experiences and actions which increase the fetters of desire are bad, and those experiences and actions which tend to emancipate the mind from limiting desires are good. '' It is through good actions, then, that the agent becomes free from selfish desires and achieves a state of well - being: "The good is the main link between selfishness thriving and dying. Selfishness, which in the beginning is the father of evil tendencies, becomes through good deeds the hero of its own defeat. When the evil tendencies are completely replaced by good tendencies, selfishness is transformed into selflessness, i.e., individual selfishness loses itself in universal interest. '' The idea that the ultimate good exists and is not orderable but is globally measurable is reflected in various ways in economic (classical economics, green economics, welfare economics, gross national happiness) and scientific (positive psychology, the science of morality) well - being measuring theories, all of which focus on various ways of assessing progress towards that goal, a so - called genuine progress indicator. Modern economics thus reflects very ancient philosophy, but a calculation or quantitative or other process based on cardinality and statistics replaces the simple ordering of values. For example, in both economics and in folk wisdom, the value of something seems to rise so long as it is relatively scarce. However, if it becomes too scarce, it leads often to a conflict, and can reduce collective value. In the classical political economy of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, and in its critique by Karl Marx, human labour is seen as the ultimate source of all new economic value. This is an objective theory of value (see value theory), which attributes value to real production - costs, and ultimately expenditures of human labour - time (see also law of value). It contrasts with marginal utility theory, which argues that the value of labour depends on subjective preferences by consumers, which may however also be objectively studied. The economic value of labour may be assessed technically in terms of its use - value or utility or commercially in terms of its exchange - value, price or production cost (see also labour power. But its value may also be socially assessed in terms of its contribution to the wealth and well - being of a society. In non-market societies, labour may be valued primarily in terms of skill, time, and output, as well as moral or social criteria and legal obligations. In market societies, labour is valued economically primarily through the labour market. The price of labour may then be set by supply and demand, by strike action or legislation, or by legal or professional entry - requirements into occupations. Conceptual metaphor theories argue against both subjective and objective conceptions of value and meaning, and focus on the relationships between body and other essential elements of human life. In effect, conceptual metaphor theories treat ethics as an ontology problem and the issue of how to work - out values as a negotiation of these metaphors, not the application of some abstraction or a strict standoff between parties who have no way to understand each other 's views. A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendent definition of evil, or whether evil is determined by one 's social or cultural background. C.S. Lewis, in The Abolition of Man, maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder. However, the numerous instances in which rape or murder is morally affected by social context call this into question. Up until the mid-19th century, the United States -- along with many other countries -- practiced forms of slavery. As is often the case, those transgressing moral boundaries stood to profit from that exercise. Arguably, slavery has always been the same and objectively evil, but men with a motivation to transgress will justify that action. The Nazis, during World War II, considered genocide to be acceptable, as did the Hutu Interahamwe in the Rwandan genocide. One might point out, though, that the actual perpetrators of those atrocities probably avoided calling their actions genocide, since the objective meaning of any act accurately described by that word is to wrongfully kill a selected group of people, which is an action that at least their victims will understand to be evil. Universalists consider evil independent of culture, and wholly related to acts or intents. Thus, while the ideological leaders of Nazism and the Hutu Interhamwe accepted (and considered it moral) to commit genocide, the belief in genocide as fundamentally or universally evil holds that those who instigated this genocide are actually evil. Other universalists might argue that although the commission of an evil act is always evil, those who perpetrate may not be wholly evil or wholly good entities. To say that someone who has stolen a candy bar, for instance, becomes wholly evil is a rather untenable position. However, universalists might also argue that a person can choose a decidedly evil or a decidedly good life career, and genocidal dictatorship plainly falls on the side of the former. Views on the nature of evil tend to fall into one of four opposed camps: Plato wrote that there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are countless ways to do evil, which can therefore have a much greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other beings capable of suffering. One school of thought that holds that no person is evil, and that only acts may be properly considered evil. Psychologist and mediator Marshall Rosenberg claims that the root of violence is the very concept of evil or badness. When we label someone as bad or evil, Rosenberg claims, it invokes the desire to punish or inflict pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the person we are harming. He cites the use of language in Nazi Germany as being a key to how the German people were able to do things to other human beings that they normally would not do. He links the concept of evil to our judicial system, which seeks to create justice via punishment -- punitive justice -- punishing acts that are seen as bad or wrong. He contrasts this approach with what he found in cultures where the idea of evil was non-existent. In such cultures when someone harms another person, they are believed to be out of harmony with themselves and their community, are seen as sick or ill and measures are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relations with themselves and others. Psychologist Albert Ellis agrees, in his school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy, or REBT. He says the root of anger, and the desire to harm someone, is almost always related to variations of implicit or explicit philosophical beliefs about other human beings. He further claims that without holding variants of those covert or overt belief and assumptions, the tendency to resort to violence in most cases is less likely. American psychiatrist M. Scott Peck on the other hand, describes evil as militant ignorance. The original Judeo - Christian concept of sin is as a process that leads one to miss the mark and not achieve perfection. Peck argues that while most people are conscious of this at least on some level, those that are evil actively and militantly refuse this consciousness. Peck describes evil as a malignant type of self - righteousness which results in a projection of evil onto selected specific innocent victims (often children or other people in relatively powerless positions). Peck considers those he calls evil to be attempting to escape and hide from their own conscience (through self - deception) and views this as being quite distinct from the apparent absence of conscience evident in sociopaths. According to Peck, an evil person: He also considers certain institutions may be evil, as his discussion of the My Lai Massacre and its attempted coverup illustrate. By this definition, acts of criminal and state terrorism would also be considered evil. Martin Luther argued that there are cases where a little evil is a positive good. He wrote, "Seek out the society of your boon companions, drink, play, talk bawdy, and amuse yourself. One must sometimes commit a sin out of hate and contempt for the Devil, so as not to give him the chance to make one scrupulous over mere nothings... '' According to certain schools of political philosophy, leaders should be indifferent to good or evil, taking actions based only upon practicality; this approach to politics was put forth by Niccolò Machiavelli, a 16th - century Florentine writer who advised politicians "... it is far safer to be feared than loved. '' The international relations theories of realism and neorealism, sometimes called realpolitik advise politicians to explicitly ban absolute moral and ethical considerations from international politics, and to focus on self - interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly amoral and dangerous. Political realists usually justify their perspectives by laying claim to a higher moral duty specific to political leaders, under which the greatest evil is seen to be the failure of the state to protect itself and its citizens. Machiavelli wrote: "... there will be traits considered good that, if followed, will lead to ruin, while other traits, considered vices which if practiced achieve security and well being for the Prince. '' Anton LaVey, founder of the Church of Satan, was a materialist and claimed that evil is actually good. He was responding to the common practice of describing sexuality or disbelief as evil, and his claim was that when the word evil is used to describe the natural pleasures and instincts of men and women, or the skepticism of an inquiring mind, the things called evil are really good. John Rawls ' book A Theory of Justice prioritized social arrangements and goods based on their contribution to justice. Rawls defined justice as fairness, especially in distributing social goods, defined fairness in terms of procedures, and attempted to prove that just institutions and lives are good, if rational individuals ' goods are considered fairly. Rawls 's crucial invention was the original position, a procedure in which one tries to make objective moral decisions by refusing to let personal facts about oneself enter one 's moral calculations. One problem with the thinkings of Rawls is that it is overly procedural. Procedurally fair processes of the type used by Rawls may not leave enough room for judgment, and therefore, reduce the totality of goodness. For example, if two people are found to own an orange, the standard fair procedure is to cut it in two and give half to each. However, if one wants to eat it while the other wants the rind to flavor a cake, cutting it in two is clearly less good than giving the peel to the baker and feeding the core to the eater. Applying procedural fairness to an entire society therefore seems certain to create recognizable inefficiencies, and therefore be unfair, and (by the equivalence of justice with fairness) unjust. However, procedural processes are not always necessarily damning in this way. Immanuel Kant, a great influence for Rawls, similarly applies a lot of procedural practice within the practical application of The Categorical Imperative, however, this is indeed not based solely on ' fairness '. Even though an example like the one above regarding the orange would not be something that required the practical application of The Categorical Imperative, it is important to draw distinction between Kant and Rawls, and note that Kant 's Theory would not necessarily lead to the same problems Rawls ' does -- i.e., the cutting in half of the orange. Kant 's Theory promotes acting out of Duty -- acting for the Summum Bonum for him, The Good Will -- and in fact encourages Judgement, too. What this would mean is that the outcome of the Orange 's distribution would not be such a simple process for Kant as the reason why it would be wanted by both parties would necessarily have to be a part of the Judgement process, thus eliminating the problem that Rawls ' account suffers here. Many views value unity as a good: to go beyond eudaimonia by saying that an individual person 's flourishing is valuable only as a means to the flourishing of society as a whole. In other words, a single person 's life is, ultimately, not important or worthwhile in itself, but is good only as a means to the success of society as a whole. Some elements of Confucianism are an example of this, encouraging the view that people ought to conform as individuals to demands of a peaceful and ordered society. According to the naturalistic view, the flourishing of society is not, or not the only, intrinsically good thing. Defenses of this notion are often formulated by reference to biology, and observations that living things compete more with their own kind than with other kinds. Rather, what is of intrinsic good is the flourishing of all sentient life, extending to those animals that have some level of similar sentience, such as Great Ape personhood. Others go farther, declaring that life itself is of intrinsic value. By another approach, one achieves peace and agreement by focusing, not on one 's peers (who may be rivals or competitors), but on the common environment. The reasoning: As living beings it is clearly and objectively good that we are surrounded by an ecosystem that supports life. Indeed, if we were n't, we could neither discuss that good nor even recognize it. The anthropic principle in cosmology recognizes this view. Under materialism or even embodiment values, or in any system that recognizes the validity of ecology as a scientific study of limits and potentials, an ecosystem is a fundamental good. To all who investigate, it seems that goodness, or value, exists within an ecosystem, Earth. Creatures within that ecosystem and wholly dependent on it, evaluate good relative to what else could be achieved there. In other words, good is situated in a particular place and one does not dismiss everything that is not available there (such as very low gravity or absolutely abundant sugar candy) as "not good enough '', one works within its constraints. Transcending them and learning to be satisfied with them, is thus another sort of value, perhaps called satisfaction. Values and the people that hold them seem necessarily subordinate to the ecosystem. If this is so, then what kind of being could validly apply the word "good '' to an ecosystem as a whole? Who would have the power to assess and judge an ecosystem as good or bad? By what criteria? And by what criteria would ecosystems be modified, especially larger ones such as the atmosphere (climate change) or oceans (extinction) or forests (deforestation)? "Remaining on Earth '' as the most basic value. While green ethicists have been most forthright about it, and have developed theories of Gaia philosophy, biophilia, bioregionalism that reflect it, the questions are now universally recognized as central in determining value, e.g. the economic "value of Earth '' to humans as a whole, or the "value of life '' that is neither whole - Earth nor human. Many have come to the conclusion that without assuming ecosystem continuation as a universal good, with attendant virtues like biodiversity and ecological wisdom it is impossible to justify such operational requirements as sustainability of human activity on Earth. One response is that humans are not necessarily confined to Earth, and could use it and move on. A counter-argument is that only a tiny fraction of humans could do this -- and they would be self - selected by ability to do technological escalation on others (for instance, the ability to create large spacecraft to flee the planet in, and simultaneously fend off others who seek to prevent them). Another counter-argument is that extraterrestrial life would encounter the fleeing humans and destroy them as a locust species. A third is that if there are no other worlds fit to support life (and no extraterrestrials who compete with humans to occupy them) it is both futile to flee, and foolish to imagine that it would take less energy and skill to protect the Earth as a habitat than it would take to construct some new habitat. Accordingly, remaining on Earth, as a living being surrounded by a working ecosystem, is a fair statement of the most basic values and goodness to any being we are able to communicate with. A moral system without this axiom seems simply not actionable. However, most religious systems acknowledge an afterlife and improving this is seen as an even more basic good. In many other moral systems, also, remaining on Earth in a state that lacks honor or power over self is less desirable -- consider seppuku in bushido, kamikazes or the role of suicide attacks in Jihadi rhetoric. In all these systems, remaining on Earth is perhaps no higher than a third - place value. Radical values environmentalism can be seen as either a very old or a very new view: that the only intrinsically good thing is a flourishing ecosystem; individuals and societies are merely instrumentally valuable, good only as means to having a flourishing ecosystem. The Gaia philosophy is the most detailed expression of this overall thought but it strongly influenced deep ecology and the modern Green Parties. It is often claimed that aboriginal peoples never lost this sort of view. Anthropological linguistics studies links between their languages and the ecosystems they lived in, which gave rise to their knowledge distinctions. Very often, environmental cognition and moral cognition were not distinguished in these languages. Offenses to nature were like those to other people, and Animism reinforced this by giving nature "personality '' via myth. Anthropological theories of value explore these questions. Most people in the world reject older situated ethics and localized religious views. However small - community - based and ecology - centric views have gained some popularity in recent years. In part, this has been attributed to the desire for ethical certainties. Such a deeply rooted definition of goodness would be valuable because it might allow one to construct a good life or society by reliable processes of deduction, elaboration or prioritisation. Ones that relied only on local referents one could verify for oneself, creating more certainty and therefore less investment in protection, hedging and insuring against consequences of loss of the value. An event is often seen as being of value simply because of its novelty in fashion and art. By contrast, cultural history and other antiques are sometimes seen as of value in and of themselves due to their age. Philosopher - historians Will and Ariel Durant spoke as much with the quote, "As the sanity of the individual lies in the continuity of his memories, so the sanity of the group lies in the continuity of its traditions; in either case a break in the chain invites a neurotic reaction '' (The Lessons of History, 72). Assessment of the value of old or historical artifacts takes into consideration, especially but not exclusively: the value placed on having a detailed knowledge of the past, the desire to have tangible ties to ancestral history, or the increased market value scarce items traditionally hold. Creativity and innovation and invention are sometimes upheld as fundamentally good especially in Western industrial society -- all imply newness, and even opportunity to profit from novelty. Bertrand Russell was notably pessimistic about creativity and thought that knowledge expanding faster than wisdom necessarily was fatal. The issue of good and evil in the human visuality, often associated with morality, is regarded by some biologists (notably Edward O. Wilson, Jeremy Griffith, David Sloan Wilson and Frans de Waal) as an important question to be addressed by the field of biology.
where do you find catalase in the body	Catalase - wikipedia 1DGB, 1DGF, 1DGG, 1DGH, 1F4J, 1QQW 847 12359 ENSG00000121691 ENSMUSG00000027187 P04040 P24270 NM_001752 NM_009804 NP_001743 NP_033934 Catalase is a common enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen (such as bacteria, plants, and animals). It catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. It is a very important enzyme in protecting the cell from oxidative damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Likewise, catalase has one of the highest turnover numbers of all enzymes; one catalase molecule can convert millions of hydrogen peroxide molecules to water and oxygen each second. Catalase is a tetramer of four polypeptide chains, each over 500 amino acids long. It contains four iron - containing heme groups that allow the enzyme to react with the hydrogen peroxide. The optimum pH for human catalase is approximately 7, and has a fairly broad maximum: the rate of reaction does not change appreciably between pH 6.8 and 7.5. The pH optimum for other catalases varies between 4 and 11 depending on the species. The optimum temperature also varies by species. Human catalase forms a tetramer composed of four subunits, each of which can be conceptually divided into four domains. The extensive core of each subunit is generated by an eight - stranded antiparallel b - barrel (b1 - 8), with nearest neighbor connectivity capped by b - barrel loops on one side and a9 loops on the other. A helical domain at one face of the b - barrel is composed of four C - terminal helices (a16, a17, a18, and a19) and four helices derived from residues between b4 and b5 (a4, a5, a6, and a7). Alternative splicing may result in different protein variants. Catalase was not noticed until 1818 when Louis Jacques Thénard, who discovered H O (hydrogen peroxide), suggested its breakdown is caused by an unknown substance. In 1900, Oscar Loew was the first to give it the name catalase, and found it in many plants and animals. In 1937 catalase from beef liver was crystallised by James B. Sumner and Alexander Dounce and the molecular weight was found in 1938. The amino acid sequence of bovine catalase was determined in 1969, and the three - dimensional structure in 1981. Catalase catalyzes the following reaction: The presence of catalase in a microbial or tissue sample can be demonstrated by adding hydrogen peroxide and observing the reaction. The production of oxygen can be seen by the formation of bubbles. This easy test, which can be seen with the naked eye, without the aid of instruments, is possible because catalase has a very high specific activity, which produces a detectable response, as well as the fact that one of the products is a gas. While the complete mechanism of catalase is not currently known, the reaction is believed to occur in two stages: Here Fe () - E represents the iron center of the heme group attached to the enzyme. Fe (IV) - E (. +) is a mesomeric form of Fe (V) - E, meaning the iron is not completely oxidized to + V, but receives some stabilising electron density from the heme ligand, which is then shown as a radical cation (. +). As hydrogen peroxide enters the active site, it interacts with the amino acids Asn148 (asparagine at position 148) and His75, causing a proton (hydrogen ion) to transfer between the oxygen atoms. The free oxygen atom coordinates, freeing the newly formed water molecule and Fe (IV) = O. Fe (IV) = O reacts with a second hydrogen peroxide molecule to reform Fe (III) - E and produce water and oxygen. The reactivity of the iron center may be improved by the presence of the phenolate ligand of Tyr358 in the fifth coordination position, which can assist in the oxidation of the Fe (III) to Fe (IV). The efficiency of the reaction may also be improved by the interactions of His75 and Asn148 with reaction intermediates. In general, the rate of the reaction can be determined by the Michaelis - Menten equation. Catalase can also catalyze the oxidation, by hydrogen peroxide, of various metabolites and toxins, including formaldehyde, formic acid, phenols, acetaldehyde and alcohols. It does so according to the following reaction: The exact mechanism of this reaction is not known. Any heavy metal ion (such as copper cations in copper (II) sulfate) can act as a noncompetitive inhibitor of catalase. Furthermore, the poison cyanide is a competitive inhibitor of catalase at high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide. Arsenate acts as an activator. Three - dimensional protein structures of the peroxidated catalase intermediates are available at the Protein Data Bank. Hydrogen peroxide is a harmful byproduct of many normal metabolic processes; to prevent damage to cells and tissues, it must be quickly converted into other, less dangerous substances. To this end, catalase is frequently used by cells to rapidly catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into less - reactive gaseous oxygen and water molecules. Mice genetically engineered to lack catalase are initially phenotypically normal., however, catalase deficiency in mice may increase the likelihood of developing obesity, fatty liver, and type 2 diabetes. Some humans have very low levels of catalase (acatalasia), yet show few ill effects. Catalase is usually located in a cellular organelle called the peroxisome. Peroxisomes in plant cells are involved in photorespiration (the use of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide) and symbiotic nitrogen fixation (the breaking apart of diatomic nitrogen (N) to reactive nitrogen atoms). Hydrogen peroxide is used as a potent antimicrobial agent when cells are infected with a pathogen. Catalase - positive pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Legionella pneumophila, and Campylobacter jejuni, make catalase to deactivate the peroxide radicals, thus allowing them to survive unharmed within the host. Like alcohol dehydrogenase, catalase converts ethanol to acetaldehyde, but it is unlikely that this reaction is physiologically significant. The large majority of known organisms use catalase in every organ, with particularly high concentrations occurring in the liver in mammals. One unique use of catalase occurs in the bombardier beetle. This beetle has two sets of liquids that are stored separately in two paired glands. The larger of the pair, the storage chamber or reservoir, contains hydroquinones and hydrogen peroxide, while the smaller, the reaction chamber, contains catalases and peroxidases. To activate the noxious spray, the beetle mixes the contents of the two compartments, causing oxygen to be liberated from hydrogen peroxide. The oxygen oxidizes the hydroquinones and also acts as the propellant. The oxidation reaction is very exothermic (ΔH = − 202.8 kJ / mol) and rapidly heats the mixture to the boiling point. Almost all aerobic microorganisms use catalase. It is also present in some anaerobic microorganisms, such as Methanosarcina barkeri. Catalase is also universal among plants and occurs in most fungi. Catalase enzymes from various species have vastly differing optimum temperatures. Poikilothermic animals typically have catalases with optimum temperatures in the range of 15 - 25 ° C, while mammalian or avian catalases might have optimum temperatures above 35 ° C, and catalases from plants vary depending on their growth habit. In contrast, catalase isolated from the hyperthermophile archaeon Pyrobaculum calidifontis has a temperature optimum of 90 ° C. Catalase is used in the food industry for removing hydrogen peroxide from milk prior to cheese production. Another use is in food wrappers where it prevents food from oxidizing. Catalase is also used in the textile industry, removing hydrogen peroxide from fabrics to make sure the material is peroxide - free. A minor use is in contact lens hygiene -- a few lens - cleaning products disinfect the lens using a hydrogen peroxide solution; a solution containing catalase is then used to decompose the hydrogen peroxide before the lens is used again. The catalase test is one of the three main tests used by microbiologists to identify species of bacteria. If the bacteria possess catalase (i.e., are catalase - positive), when a small amount of bacterial isolate is added to hydrogen peroxide, bubbles of oxygen are observed. The catalase test is done by placing a drop of hydrogen peroxide on a microscope slide. An applicator stick is touched to the colony, and the tip is then smeared onto the hydrogen peroxide drop. While the catalase test alone can not identify a particular organism, it can aid identification when combined with other tests such as antibiotic resistance. The presence of catalase in bacterial cells depends on both the growth condition and the medium used to grow the cells. Capillary tubes may also be used. A small sample of bacteria is collected on the end of the capillary tube, without blocking the tube, to avoid false negative results. The opposite end is then dipped into hydrogen peroxide, which is drawn into the tube through capillary action, and turned upside down, so that the bacterial points downwards. The hand holding the tube is then tapped on the bench, moving the hydrogen peroxide down until it touches the bacteria. If bubbles form on contact, this indicates a positive catalase result. This test can detect catalase - positive bacteria at concentrations above about 10 cells / mL, and is simple to use. Neutrophils and other phagocytes use peroxide to kill bacteria. The enzyme NADPH oxidase generates superoxide within the phagosome, which is converted via hydrogen peroxide to other oxidising substances like hypochlorous acid which kill phagocytosed pathogens. In individuals with chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) there is a defect in producing peroxide via mutations in phagocyte oxidases such as myeloperoxidase. Normal cellular metabolism will still produce a small amount of peroxide and this peroxide can be used to produce hypochlorous acid to eradicate the bacterial infection. However, if individuals with CGD are infected with catalase - positive bacteria, the bacterial catalase can destroy the excess peroxide before it can be used to produce other oxidising substances. In these individuals the pathogen survives and becomes a chronic infection. This chronic infection is typically surrounded by macrophages in an attempt to isolate the infection. This wall of macrophages surrounding a pathogen is called a granuloma. Many bacteria are catalase positive, but some are better catalase - producers than others. The mnemonic "cats Need PLACESS to Belch their Hairballs '' can be used to memorise the catalase - positive bacteria: nocardia, pseudomonas, listeria, aspergillus, candida, E. coli, staphylococcus, serratia, B. cepacia and H. pylori. Low levels of catalase may play a role in the graying process of human hair. Hydrogen peroxide is naturally produced by the body and broken down by catalase. If catalase levels decline, hydrogen peroxide can not be broken down so well. The hydrogen peroxide interferes with the production of melanin, the pigment that gives hair its color. Catalase has been shown to interact with the ABL2 and Abl genes. Infection with the murine leukemia virus causes catalase activity to decline in the lungs, heart and kidneys of mice. Conversely, dietary fish oil increased catalase activity in the heart, and kidneys of mice.
how is music from the romantic era generally characterized	Romantic music - wikipedia Romantic music is a period of Western classical music that began in the late 18th or early 19th century. It is related to Romanticism, the European artistic and literary movement that arose in the second half of the 18th century, and Romantic music in particular dominated the Romantic movement in Germany. In the Romantic period, music became more expressive and emotional, expanding to encompass literary, artistic, and philosophical themes. Famous early Romantic composers include Beethoven (whose works span both this period and the preceding Classical period), Schubert, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Bellini, and Berlioz. The late 19th century saw a dramatic expansion in the size of the orchestra and in the dynamic range and diversity of instruments used in this ensemble. Also, public concerts became a key part of urban middle class society, in contrast to earlier periods, when concerts were mainly paid for by and performed for aristocrats. Famous composers from the second half of the century include Bruckner, Johann Strauss II, Brahms, Liszt, Tchaikovsky, Dvořák, Verdi, and Wagner. Between 1890 and 1910, a third wave of composers including Mahler, Richard Strauss, Puccini, and Sibelius built on the work of middle Romantic composers to create even more complex -- and often much longer -- musical works. A prominent mark of late 19th century music is its nationalistic fervor, as exemplified by such figures as Dvořák, Sibelius, and Grieg. Other prominent late - century figures include Saint - Saëns, Fauré, Rachmaninoff and Franck. The Romantic movement was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 19th century in Europe and strengthened in reaction to the Industrial Revolution (Encyclopædia Britannica n.d.). In part, it was a revolt against social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature (Casey 2008). It was embodied most strongly in the visual arts, music, and literature, but had a major impact on historiography (Levin 1959,) and education (Gutek 1995, 220 -- 54), and was in turn influenced by developments in natural history (Nichols 2005, 308 -- 309). One of the first significant applications of the term to music was in 1789, in the Mémoires by the Frenchman André Grétry, but it was E.T.A. Hoffmann who really established the principles of musical romanticism, in a lengthy review of Ludwig van Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony published in 1810, and in an 1813 article on Beethoven 's instrumental music. In the first of these essays Hoffmann traced the beginnings of musical Romanticism to the later works of Haydn and Mozart. It was Hoffmann 's fusion of ideas already associated with the term "Romantic '', used in opposition to the restraint and formality of Classical models, that elevated music, and especially instrumental music, to a position of pre-eminence in Romanticism as the art most suited to the expression of emotions. It was also through the writings of Hoffmann and other German authors that German music was brought to the centre of musical Romanticism (Samson 2001). Characteristics often attributed to Romanticism: Such lists, however, proliferated over time, resulting in a "chaos of antithetical phenomena '', criticized for their superficiality and for signifying so many different things that there came to be no central meaning. The attributes have also been criticized for being too vague. For example, features of the "ghostly and supernatural '' could apply equally to Mozart 's Don Giovanni from 1787 and Stravinsky 's The Rake 's Progress from 1951 (Kravitt 1992, 93 -- 95). From a musical stance the following aspect could be used to distinguish romantic music from previous era 's: Events and changes that happen in society such as ideas, attitudes, discoveries, inventions, and historical events always affect music. For example, the Industrial Revolution was in full effect by the late 18th century and early 19th century. This event had a very profound effect on music: there were major improvements in the mechanical valves, and keys that most woodwinds and brass instruments depend on. The new and innovative instruments could be played with greater ease and they were more reliable (Schmidt - Jones and Jones 2004, 3). Another development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class. Composers before this period lived on the patronage of the aristocracy. Many times their audience was small, composed mostly of the upper class and individuals who were knowledgeable about music (Schmidt - Jones and Jones 2004, 3). The Romantic composers, on the other hand, often wrote for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers, who had not necessarily had any music lessons (Schmidt - Jones and Jones 2004, 3). Composers of the Romantic Era, like Elgar, showed the world that there should be "no segregation of musical tastes '' (Young 1967, 525) and that the "purpose was to write music that was to be heard '' (Young 1967, 527). During the Romantic period, music often took on a much more nationalistic purpose. For example, Jean Sibelius ' Finlandia has been interpreted to represent the rising nation of Finland, which would someday gain independence from Russian control (Child 2006). Frédéric Chopin was one of the first composers to incorporate nationalistic elements into his compositions. Joseph Machlis states, "Poland 's struggle for freedom from tsarist rule aroused the national poet in Poland.... Examples of musical nationalism abound in the output of the romantic era. The folk idiom is prominent in the Mazurkas of Chopin '' (Machlis 1963, 149 -- 50). His mazurkas and polonaises are particularly notable for their use of nationalistic rhythms. Moreover, "During World War II the Nazis forbade the playing of... Chopin 's Polonaises in Warsaw because of the powerful symbolism residing in these works '' (Machlis 1963, 150). Other composers, such as Bedřich Smetana, wrote pieces that musically described their homelands; in particular, Smetana 's Vltava is a symphonic poem about the Moldau River in the modern - day Czech Republic and the second in a cycle of six nationalistic symphonic poems collectively titled Má vlast (My Homeland) (Grunfeld 1974, 112 -- 13). Smetana also composed eight nationalist operas, all of which remain in the repertory. They established him as the first Czech nationalist composer as well as the most important Czech opera composer of the generation who came to prominence in the 1860s (Ottlová, Tyrrell, and Pospíšil 2001).
who was the us president when the eu was founded	European Union - wikipedia The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km (1,728,099 sq mi) and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The Communities and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its predecessors, the United Kingdom signified an intention to leave after a membership referendum in June 2016 and is negotiating its withdrawal. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009. The European Union provides more foreign aid than any other economic union. Covering 7.3 % of the world population, the EU in 2017 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 19.670 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 24.6 % of global nominal GDP and 16.5 % when measured in terms of purchasing power parity. Additionally, 27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. Victor Hugo, International Peace Congress, 1849. During the centuries following the fall of Rome in 476, several European States viewed themselves as translatio imperii of the defunct Roman Empire: the Frankish Empire (481 -- 843) and the Holy Roman Empire (962 -- 1806) were attempts to resurrect Rome in the West. The Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the Empire (1547 -- 1917), declared Moscow to be Third Rome and inheritor of the Eastern tradition after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The gap between Greek East and Latin West had already been widened by the political scission of the Roman Empire in the 4th century and the Great Schism of 1054; and would be eventually widened again by the Iron Curtain (1945 -- 91). The Medieval Christendom and political power of the Papacy are also often cited as premisses to European integration and unity. Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal ideas of the French and American Revolutions after the demise of Napoléon 's Empire (1804 -- 15). In the decades following the outcomes of the Congress of Vienna, ideals of European unity flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of Wojciech Jastrzębowski, Giuseppe Mazzini or Theodore de Korwin Szymanowski. The term United States of Europe (French: États - Unis d'Europe) was famously used at that time by Victor Hugo during a speech at the International Peace Congress held in Paris in 1849. During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent. In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that "a Free Trade Union should be established... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union. '' During the same decade, Richard von Coudenhove - Kalergi, one of the first to imagine of a modern political union of Europe, founded the Pan-Europa Movement. His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among which then Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the later gave a famous speech in favour of a European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent. In a speech delivered on 19 September 1946 at the University of Zürich, Switzerland, Winston Churchill postulated the emerging of a United States of Europe during the 20th century. The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe, where Europe 's future leaders would live and study together. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe. '' The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul - Henri Spaak. These men and others are officially credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958. The EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities. Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission). In 1973, the Communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later left the Communities in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. This was marked by a special international friendly football match at Wembley Stadium between two teams called "The Three '' and "The Six '' which finished 2 - 0 to "The Three ''. Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986. In 1985, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states. In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the EEC and the Single European Act was signed. In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Communities as part of a reunified Germany. A close fiscal integration with the introduction of the euro was not matched by institutional oversight making things more troubling. Attempts to solve the problems and to make the EU more efficient and coherent had limited success. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord. The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty -- whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand -- came into force on 1 November 1993. The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred as such before the treaty. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries. The euro currency became the second largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union. In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. The same year, Slovenia adopted the euro, followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014, and by Lithuania in 2015. On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe. '' In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member. From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from the Middle East, and the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the EU. A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held on 23 June 2016, with 51.9 % of participants voting to leave. This is referred to in common parlance throughout Europe as Brexit, a portmanteau of "Britain '' and "exit ''. The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017 initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU, committing the UK to leave the EU on 29 March 2019. The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union, in terms of structural development driven by international treaties: The EU 's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi). The EU 's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level. The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level. The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long. Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North - East Europe) to tropical (French Guiana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North - Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe). The EU 's population is highly urbanised, with some 75 % of inhabitants living in urban areas as of 2006. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux. In 1957, when the EEC was founded, it had no environmental policy. Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology. According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics. European policy - makers originally increased the EU 's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem. Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state. In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987. Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU 's Sixth Environmental Action Programme, which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions. EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management. Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20 % of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 % compared to 1990 levels. The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy. The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city. As of 1 January 2016, the population of the European Union is about 510.1 million people (6.9 % of the world population). In 2015, 5.1 million children were born in the EU - 28, corresponding to a birth rate of 10 per 1,000, which is 8 births below the world average. For comparison, the EU - 28 birth rate had stood at 10.6 in 2000, 12.8 in 1985 and 16.3 in 1970. Its population growth rate was positive at an estimated 0.23 % in 2016. In 2010, 47.3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4 % of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3 %) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2 %) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million). The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the three megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of London, Paris, and the Rhine - Ruhr. In addition to large agglomerations, the EU also includes several densely populated polycentric urbanised regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass a large metropolis. The largest of these polycentric metropolis include Rhine - Ruhr with approximately 11.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad with approx. 8.2 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine - Main with approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish Diamond with approx. 5.5 million (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.), Upper Silesia with approx. 5.2 million (Katowice, Ostrava et al.) and Greater Copenhagen with approx. 4 million (Copenhagen, Malmö). Paris Berlin Survey 2012. Native: Native language Total: EU citizens able to hold a conversation in this language The European Union has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions. Due to the high number of official idioms, most of the institutions use only a handful of working languages. The European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages: English, French, and German. Similarly, the European Court of Justice uses French as the working language, while the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English. Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens. English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being understood by 51 % of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers. German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16 % of the EU population.) More than a half (56 %) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue. Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo - European language family, represented by the Balto - Slavic, the Italic, the Germanic, the Hellenic, and the Celtic branches. Some EU languages however, namely Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian (all three Uralic), Basque (Vasconic) and Maltese (Semitic) do not belong to Indo - European languages. The three official alphabets of the European Union (Cyrillic, Latin, and modern Greek), all derive from the Archaic Greek scripts. Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people. Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe. The EU has no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations '' as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations ''. The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe ''. Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped. Christians in the European Union are divided among members of Catholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numerous Protestant denominations (Anglicans, Lutherans, and Reformed forming the bulk of this category), and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million. The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population. According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2015 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 71.6 % of the EU population. Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 45.3 % of the EU population, while Protestants make up 11.1 %, Eastern Orthodox make up 9.6 %, and other Christians make up 5.6 %. Eurostat 's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 % of EU citizens believed in a God, 27 % in "some sort of spirit or life force '', and 18 % had no form of belief. Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 %) and the Czech Republic (19 %). The most religious countries were Malta (95 %, predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90 % of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale ''. Basic education is an area where the EU 's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life. There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007 -- 2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU. Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe. Scientific development is facilitated through the EU 's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects. EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels. Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities ''. The European Commission 's Directorate - General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people 's health, on the consumers ' rights, on the safety of food and other products. All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries. A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high - quality cross-border healthcare for European patients. The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective can not be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives). Through successive enlargements, the European Union has grown from the six founding states (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) to the current 28. Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty ''. To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country 's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council. No member state has yet left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985. The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50, providing for a member to leave the EU. There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey, though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates, with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application. The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU 's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties. The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation. The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe) constitute the European Union: The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision - making. EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. The EU 's seven principal decision making bodies -- known as the Institutions of the European Union are: Beyond the EU institutions is the Council of Europe (CoE) which is a wider international organisation with 47 member states whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Its legislative principles are promulgated by the European Convention on Human Rights and its judicial agent is the European Court of Human Rights. These ethical institutions are distinct from the legislative European Union institutions mentioned above, although ECHR decisions are enforcable upon the EU institutions and upon the several judiciaries of sovereign member states of the EU The Venice Commission formally The European Commission for Democracy through Law provides advice regarding constitutional matters in order to improve functioning of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in member states of the Council of Europe Apart from the national political structures within member states and the directly elected European Parliament the EU also encourages citizen participation via development projects such as CORDIS (the EU Community Research and Development Information Service) and the ERASMUS (The European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students). Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision - making process The Five Presidents (in 2017) were led by: By working together, they seek provide a forward policy consideration nucleus for the various European "think - tanks '' which discuss various possible future social and economic scenarios that will eventually require ratification by the EU electorate. The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated. It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states. However, since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation, such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual and majority voting in the decision - making process of the general level of government, without becoming a federation per se. Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation, being an instance of neither political structure. For this reason, the organisation is termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind), although some argue that this designation is no longer valid. The organisation has traditionally used the terms "Community '' and later "Union '' to describe itself. The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations). They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions. Especially in terms of the European tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU can not be called a federation -- at least, not without qualification. It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states, a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state. The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund, an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund (confederation of states) and the Bundesstaat (federal state), consistent with this concept. This may be a long - lived political form. Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state, but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system. The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area. - Provides impetus and direction - - Legislature - - Legislature - - Executive - - Judiciary - - Central bank - - Financial auditor - The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU 's legislature. The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system. The European Union council, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission fulfilled the duties as the executive for the parliament. The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years. The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union 's "supreme political authority ''. It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU 's policy agenda and strategies. The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state '' and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties). Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU, driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them. The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg. The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council '' and the "Council of Ministers '', its former title) forms one half of the EU 's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body. In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy. In some policies, there are several member states that ally with strategic partners within the Union. Visegrad Group, Benelux, Baltic Assembly, Nordic Council or Craiova Group. The European Commission acts as the EU 's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day - to - day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state. One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean - Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council. The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament. The 2011 EU budget (€ 141.9 bn) The EU had an agreed budget of € 120.7 billion for the year 2007 and € 864.3 billion for the period 2007 -- 2013, representing 1.10 % and 1.05 % of the EU - 27 's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03 % of GDP. In the 2010 budget of € 141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness '' with around 45 % of the total budget. Next comes "agriculture '' with approximately 31 % of the total. "Rural development, environment and fisheries '' takes up around 11 %. "Administration '' accounts for around 6 %. The "EU as a global partner '' and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice '' bring up the rear with approximately 6 % and 1 % respectively. The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions ''. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions. The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget. The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level. In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error. The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was € 1,863 million. EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but can not enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws. That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area. The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories: The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties. These are power - giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants. The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties. Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions. The judicial branch of the EU -- formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union -- consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states. The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU 's courts, and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service. Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law. The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. '' In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU 's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states. '' The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights. Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership, previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede. The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it. Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership. The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures, and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions. Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states. When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states. Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy. Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom, security and justice, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces, Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors, and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities. The EU also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime. Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition, family law, asylum law, and criminal justice. Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work - place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination. Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU 's common commercial policy. Steps for a more wide - ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty. The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU 's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq. The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union. Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU 's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries. This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power '', as opposed to military "hard power ''. The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes. 22 EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality. The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU. According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest. Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries ' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council. Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO ''. To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU 's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel. EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia. EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff. Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states. The European Commission 's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO '', provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to € 874 million, 51 % of the budget went to Africa and 20 % to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 % to the Middle East and Mediterranean. Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 %) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30 %). The EU 's external action financing is divided into ' geographic ' instruments and ' thematic ' instruments. The ' geographic ' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, € 16.9 billion, 2007 -- 2013), which must spend 95 % of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes. The European Development Fund (EDF, € 22.7 bn, 2008 -- 2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget - financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 % target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight. In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 % and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 % target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom. The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 511 million citizens. In 2016, the EU had a combined GDP of $20 trillion international dollars, a 17 % share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP). As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33 %) net wealth in the world, equal to 25 % (US $72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth. 19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 342 million EU citizens. The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar. Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU. In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 % while inflation was at 2.2 %, and the current account balance at − 0.9 % of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around € 24,000 (US $30,000) in 2015, which was about 70 % of that in the United States. There is a significant variance for Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS - 2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14 % (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average (€ 29,200) to 935 % (Inner London - West, UK), or from € 4,100 to € 207,300. Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe. Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU 's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area. Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU, and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they can not be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union. Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU. Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries. Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states. The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states. The free movement of services and of establishment allows self - employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60 -- 70 % of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services. According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised. The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed - on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism. In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19 countries. The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states. The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU 's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU. To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level. In 2006, the EU - 27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe). Around 46 % of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54 % was imported. In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3 % is produced in the EU. The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007. The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy - rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies. In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 % of their oil, 57 % of their natural gas and 97.48 % of their uranium demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce. The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans - European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours. Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe - wide standard for train control and command systems. The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda. The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada. The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU 's dependency on the US - operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community. The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers. It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60 % of the then European Community 's annual budget, and as of 2013 accounts for around 34 %. The policy 's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction. These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their products outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under - cutting farmers outside Europe, especially those in the developing world. Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms included the introduction of set - aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas and, more recently, the ' de-coupling ' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels. One of these reforms entailed the modification of the EU 's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African - Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU. The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market. The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid. The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans - national corporations. For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority. Another high - profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over € 777 million following nine years of legal action. Contemporary European culture is the heir of several historical periods, from Biblical Israel, Indo - European culture, the Graeco - Roman world and Christianity, to the modern phenomena of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty. Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven - year programme, the European Cultural Month event, and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra. The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city. Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing. Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship. The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs. The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project. The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. The blue represents the West, while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity, respectively. Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present Union, in 1986. United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils. Since 1985, the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven 's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions. Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union 's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards. Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe ''), has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification. Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people. Benedict of Nursia (c. 2 March 480 -- 543 or 547 AD) is a patron saint of Europe, venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Catholic Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion and Old Catholic Churches. Pope Benedict XVI said that he "exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture '' and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history '' that followed the fall of the Roman empire. In 1997, Polish - born Pope John Paul II canonised Poland 's 14th - century monarch Jadwiga as Saint Hedwig, the patron saint of queens and of European unification There are five other recognised patron saints of Europe, declared so by Pope John Paul II between 1980 and1999: Cyril and Methodius, Saint Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross. Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU ''. The vast majority of media in the European Union are national - oriented. However, some EU - wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe. ARTE is a public Franco - German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80 % of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel 's European partners. The MEDIA Programme of the European Union intends to support the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond. Official: Overviews and data: News and interviews: Educational resources:
where is the great basin on a map	Great Basin - wikipedia The Great Basin is the largest area of contiguous endorheic watersheds in North America. It spans sections of Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, Oregon, and California. It is noted for both its arid climate and the basin and range topography that varies from the North American low point at Badwater Basin to the highest point of the contiguous United States, less than 100 miles (160 km) away at the summit of Mount Whitney. The region spans several physiographic divisions, biomes / ecoregions, and deserts. The term "Great Basin '' is applied to hydrographic, biological, floristic, physiographic, topographic, and ethnographic geographic areas. The name was originally coined by John C. Fremont, who, based on information gleaned from Joseph R. Walker as well as his own travels, recognized the hydrographic nature of the landform as "having no connection to the ocean ''. The hydrographic definition is the most commonly used, and is the only one with a definitive border. The other definitions yield not only different geographical boundaries of "Great Basin '' regions, but regional borders that vary from source to source. The Great Basin Desert is defined by plant and animal communities, and, according to the National Park Service, its boundaries approximate the hydrographic Great Basin, but exclude the southern "panhandle ''. The Great Basin Floristic Province was defined by botanist Armen Takhtajan to extend well beyond the boundaries of the hydrographically defined Great Basin: it includes the Snake River Plain, the Colorado Plateau, the Uinta Basin, and parts of Arizona north of the Mogollon Rim. The Great Basin physiographic section is a geographic division of the Basin and Range Province defined by Nevin Fenneman in 1931. The United States Geological Survey adapted Fenneman 's scheme in their Physiographic division of the United States. The "section '' is somewhat larger than the hydrographic definition. The Great Basin Culture Area or indigenous peoples of the Great Basin is a cultural classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas and a cultural region located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The culture area covers approximately 400,000 sq mi (1,000,000 km), or just less than twice the area of the hydrographic Great Basin. The hydrographic Great Basin is a 209,162 - square - mile (541,730 km) area that drains internally. All precipitation in the region evaporates, sinks underground or flows into lakes (mostly saline). As observed by Fremont, creeks, streams, or rivers find no outlet to either the Gulf of Mexico or the Pacific Ocean. The region is bounded by the Wasatch Mountains to the east, the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges to the west, and the Snake River Basin to the north. The south rim is less distinct. The Great Basin includes most of Nevada, half of Utah, substantial portions of Oregon and California and small areas of Idaho, Wyoming, and Mexico. The term "Great Basin '' is slightly misleading; the region is actually made up of many small basins. The Great Salt Lake, Pyramid Lake, and the Humboldt Sink are a few of the "drains '' in the Great Basin. The Salton Sink is another closed basin within the Great Basin. The Great Basin Divide separates the Great Basin from the watersheds draining to the Pacific Ocean. The southernmost portion of the Great Basin is the watershed area of the Laguna Salada. The Great Basin 's longest and largest river is the Bear River of 350 mi (560 km), and the largest single watershed is the Humboldt River drainage of roughly 17,000 sq mi (44,000 km). Most Great Basin precipitation is snow, and the precipitation that neither evaporates nor is extracted for human use will sink into groundwater aquifers, while evaporation of collected water occurs from geographic sinks. Lake Tahoe, North America 's largest alpine lake, is part of the Great Basin 's central Lahontan subregion. The hydrographic Great Basin contains multiple deserts and ecoregions, each with its own distinctive set of flora and fauna. The ecological boundaries and divisions in the Great Basin are unclear. The Great Basin overlaps four different deserts: portions of the hot Mojave and Colorado (a region within the Sonoran desert) Deserts to the south, and the cold Great Basin and Oregon High Deserts in the north. The deserts can be distinguished by their plants: the Joshua tree and creosote bush occur in the hot deserts, while the cold deserts have neither. The cold deserts are generally higher than the hot, and have their precipitation spread throughout the year. The climate and flora of the Great Basin is strongly dependent on elevation: as the elevation increases, the precipitation increases and temperature decreases. Because of this, forests occur at higher elevations. Utah juniper / single - leaf pinyon (southern regions) and mountain mahogany (northern regions) form open pinyon - juniper woodland on the slopes of most ranges. Stands of limber pine and Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) can be found in some of the higher ranges. In riparian areas with dependable water cottonwoods (Populus fremontii) and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) groves exist. Because the forest ecosystem is distinct from a typical desert, some authorities, such as the World Wildlife Fund, separate the mountains of the Great Basin desert into their own ecoregion: the Great Basin montane forests. Many rare and endemic species occur in this ecoregion, because the individual mountain ranges are isolated from each other. During the last ice age, the Great Basin was wetter. As it dried during the Holocene, some species retreated to the higher isolated mountains and have high genetic diversity. Other authorities divide the Great Basin into different ecoregions, depending on their own criteria. Armen Takhtajan defined the "Great Basin floristic province ''. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency divides the Great Basin into three ecoregions roughly according to latitude: the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion, the Central Basin and Range ecoregion, and the Mojave Basin and Range ecoregion. Great Basin wildlife includes pronghorn, mule deer, mountain lion, and lagomorphs such as black - tailed jackrabbit and desert cottontail and the coyotes that prey on them. Packrats, kangaroo rats and other small rodents are also common, and are predominantly nocturnal. Elk and bighorn sheep are present but uncommon. Small lizards such as the Great Basin fence lizard, longnose leopard lizard and horned lizard are common, especially in lower elevations. Rattlesnakes and gopher snakes are also present. The Inyo Mountains salamander is endangered. Shorebirds such as phalaropes and curlews can be found in wet areas. American white pelicans are common at Pyramid Lake. Golden eagles are also very common in the Great Basin. Mourning dove, western meadowlark, black - billed magpie, and common raven are other common bird species. Two endangered species of fish are found in Pyramid Lake: the Cui - ui sucker fish (endangered 1967) and the Lahontan cutthroat trout (threatened 1970). Large invertebrates include tarantulas (genus Aphonopelma) and Mormon crickets. Exotic species, including chukar, grey partridge, and Himalayan snowcock, have been successfully introduced to the Great Basin, although the latter has only thrived in the Ruby Mountains. Cheatgrass, an invasive species which was unintentionally introduced, forms a critical portion of their diets. Feral horses (mustangs) and wild burros are highly reproductive, and ecosystem - controversial, alien species. Most of the Great Basin is open range and domestic cattle and sheep are widespread. The Great Basin includes valleys, basins, lakes and mountain ranges of the Basin and Range Province. Geographic features near the Great Basin include the Continental Divide of the Americas, the Great Divide Basin, and the Gulf of California. The Great Basin physiographic section of the Basin and Range Province contains the Great Basin, but extends into eastern Oregon, southern Idaho, and the Colorado River watershed (including the Las Vegas metropolitan area and the northwest corner of Arizona). The Basin and Range region is the product of geological forces stretching the earth 's crust, creating many north - south trending mountain ranges. These ranges are separated by flat valleys or basins. These hundreds of ranges make Nevada the most mountainous state in the country. The Great Basin 's two most populous metropolitan areas are the Reno - Sparks metropolitan area to the west and Wasatch Front to the east. The region between these two areas is sparsely populated, but includes the smaller cities of Elko, Ely, Wendover, West Wendover, and Winnemucca. To the north are; in California Susanville, in Oregon Burns and Hines, in Idaho Malad and in Wyoming Evanston. To the south are Cedar City, Tonopah, and Bishop and the very southern area of the basin has the communities of Pahrump, Palmdale, Victorville, and Palm Springs. Interstate Highways traversing the Great Basin are Interstate 80 (I - 80) and I - 15, and I - 70 and I - 84 have their respective endpoints within its boundaries. Other major roadways are U.S. Route 6 (US 6), US 50, US 93, US 95 and US 395. The section of US 50 between Delta, Utah, and Fallon, Nevada, is nicknamed "The Loneliest Road in America '', and Nevada State Route 375 is designated the "Extraterrestrial Highway ''. The Great Basin is traversed by several rail lines including the Union Pacific Railroad 's Overland Route (Union Pacific Railroad) through Reno and Ogden, Feather River Route, Central Corridor and Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad. Sediment build - up over thousands of years filled the down - faulted basins between ranges and created relatively flat lacustrine plains from Pleistocene lake beds of the Great Basin. For example, after forming about 32,000 years ago, Lake Bonneville overflowed about 14,500 years ago in the Bonneville Flood through Red Rock Pass and lowered to the "Provo Lake '' level (the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake, Sevier Lake, Rush Lake, and Little Salt Lake remain). Lake Lahontan, Lake Manly, and Lake Mojave were similar Pleistocene lakes. Paleo - Indian habitation by the Great Basin tribes began as early as 10,000 B.C. (the Numic - speaking Shoshonean peoples arrived as late as 1000 A.D.). Archaeological evidence of habitation sites along the shore of Lake Lahontan date from the end of the ice age when its shoreline was approximately 500 feet (150 m) higher along the sides of the surrounding mountains. The Great Basin was inhabited for at least several thousand years by Uto - Aztecan language group - speaking Native American Great Basin tribes, including the Shoshone, Ute, Mono, and Northern Paiute. European exploration of the Great Basin occurred during the 18th century Spanish colonization of the Americas. The first immigrant American to cross the Great Basin from the Sierra Nevada was Jedediah Strong Smith in 1827. Peter Skene Ogden of the British Hudson 's Bay Company explored the Great Salt Lake and Humboldt River regions in the late 1820s, following the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada to the Gulf of California. Benjamin Bonneville explored the northeast portion during an 1832 expedition. The United States had acquired control of the area north of the 42nd parallel via the 1819 Adams -- Onís Treaty with Spain and 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain. The US gained control of most of the rest of the Great Basin via the 1848 Mexican Cession. The first non-indigenous settlement was in 1847 in the Great Salt Lake Valley, leading to first American religious settlement effort of the Mormon provisional State of Deseret in 1849 in present - day Utah and northern Nevada. Later settlements were connected with the eastern regions of the 1848 California Gold Rush, with its immigrants crossing the Great Basin on the California Trail along Nevada 's Humboldt River to Carson Pass in the Sierras. The Oregon Territory was established in 1848 and the Utah Territory in 1850. In 1869 the First Transcontinental Railroad was completed at Promontory Summit in the Great Basin. Around 1902, the San Pedro, Los Angeles and Salt Lake Railroad was constructed in the lower basin and Mojave Desert for California - Nevada rail service to Las Vegas, Nevada. To close a 1951 Indian Claims Commission case, the Western Shoshone Claims Distribution Act of 2004 established the United States payment of $117 million to the Great Basin tribe for the acquisition of 39,000 square miles (100,000 km). The Dixie Valley, Nevada, earthquake (6.6 -- 7.1) in the Great Basin was in 1954. Climate varies throughout the Great Basin by elevation, latitude, and other factors. Higher elevations tend to be cooler and receive more precipitation. The western areas of the basin tend to be drier than the eastern areas because of the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada. Most of the basin experiences a semi-arid or arid climate with warm summers and cold winters. However, some of the mountainous areas in the basin are high enough in elevation to experience an Alpine climate. Due to the region 's altitude and aridity, most areas in the Great Basin experience a substantial Diurnal temperature variation.
where was when the boat comes in set	When the Boat Comes in - wikipedia When the Boat Comes In is a British television period drama produced by the BBC between 1976 and 1981. The series stars James Bolam as Jack Ford, a First World War veteran who returns to his poverty - stricken (fictional) town of Gallowshield in the North East of England. The series dramatises the political struggles of the 1920s and 1930s and explores the impact of national and international politics upon Ford and the people around him. The memorable traditional tune "When The Boat Comes In '' was adapted by David Fanshawe and sung by Alex Glasgow for the title theme of the series. Fanshawe also composed the incidental music. The BBC revived the series in 1981, with the fourth series telling the story of Jack Ford as he returns to Britain penniless, after six years spent bootlegging in the United States, and follows him as he sets up in London. The series ' creator James Mitchell also wrote three tie - in books to the T.V. show: When the Boat Comes In, When the Boat Comes In: The Hungry Years and When the Boat Comes In: Upwards and Onwards. The final book brings the reader up to date with the end of the second series of the TV show. The majority of episodes were written by creator Mitchell, but in Season 1 north - eastern writers Tom Hadaway, Sid Chaplin and Alex Glasgow contributed episodes, and in Season 3 Jeremy Burnham and Colin Morris shared writing duties with Mitchell. All four series are available on DVD in the UK.
who came up with the three strikes law	Three - Strikes Law - wikipedia In the United States, habitual offender laws (commonly referred to as three - strikes laws) were first implemented on March 7, 1994 and are part of the United States Justice Department 's Anti-Violence Strategy. These laws require a person guilty of committing both a severe violent felony and two other previous convictions to serve a mandatory life sentence in prison. The purpose of the laws is to drastically increase the punishment of those convicted of more than two serious crimes. Twenty - eight states have some form of a "three - strikes '' law. A person accused under such laws is referred to in a few states (notably Connecticut and Kansas) as a "persistent offender '', while Missouri uses the unique term "prior and persistent offender ''. In most jurisdictions, only crimes at the felony level qualify as serious offenses; however, misdemeanor offenses can qualify for application of the three - strikes law in California, whose harsh application has been the subject of controversy. The three - strikes law significantly increases the prison sentences of persons convicted of a felony who have been previously convicted of two or more violent crimes or serious felonies, and limits the ability of these offenders to receive a punishment other than a life sentence. The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders (versus first - time offenders who commit the same crime) is nothing new, as judges often take into consideration prior offenses when sentencing. However, there is a more recent history of mandatory prison sentences for repeat offenders. For example, New York State had a long - standing Persistent Felony Offender law dating back to the early 20th century (partially ruled unconstitutional in 2010, but reaffirmed en banc shortly after). But such sentences were not compulsory in each case, and judges had much more discretion as to what term of incarceration should be imposed. The first true "three - strikes '' law was passed in 1993, when Washington voters approved Initiative 593. California passed its own in 1994, when their voters passed Proposition 184 by an overwhelming majority, with 72 % in favor and 28 % against. The initiative proposed to the voters had the title of Three Strikes and You 're Out, referring to de facto life imprisonment after being convicted of three violent or serious felonies which are listed under California Penal Code section 1192.7. The concept swiftly spread to other states, but none of them chose to adopt a law as sweeping as California 's. By 2004, twenty - six states and the federal government had laws that satisfy the general criteria for designation as "three - strikes '' statutes -- namely, that a third felony conviction brings a sentence of 20 to life where 20 years must be served before becoming parole eligible. After the hype leading to the institution of these laws across the country, it soon became apparent that they were not bringing the results the public expected. Data shows that the laws did n't necessarily reduce violent crime, but instead, in states such as California where a "strike '' did not have to be a violent felony, put away more "criminals '' for non-violent and petty crimes, dramatically raising the prison population. This led to the drastic reduction of the power of the Three - Strikes Law in California in 2012 by approval of Proposition 36. The following states have enacted three - strikes laws: The exact application of the three - strikes laws varies considerably from state to state, but the laws call for life sentences for at least 25 years on their third strike. Most states require one or more of the three felony convictions to be for violent crimes in order for the mandatory sentence to be pronounced. Crimes that fall under the category of "violent '' include: murder, kidnapping, sexual abuse, rape, aggravated robbery, and aggravated assault. Some states include additional, lesser offenses that one would not normally see as violent. For example, the list of crimes that count as serious or violent in the state of California is much longer than that of other states, and consists of many lesser offenses that include: firearm violations, burglary, simple robbery, arson, and providing hard drugs to a minor, and drug possession. As another example, Texas does not require any of the three felony convictions to be violent, but specifically excludes certain "state jail felonies '' from being counted for enhancement purposes. One application of the Three - strikes Law was the Leonardo Andrade Case in California that took place in 2009. In this case, Leandro Andrade attempted to rob $153 in videotapes from two San Bernardino K - Mart stores. He was charged under California 's Three - strikes Law because of his criminal history concerning drugs and other burglaries. Because of his past criminal records, he was sentenced 50 years in prison with no parole after this last burglary of K - Mart. Although this sentencing was disputed by Erwin Chemerinsky, who represented Andrade, as cruel and unusual punishment under the 8th Amendment, the Supreme Court ruled in support for the life sentencing. In 1995, Sioux City, Iowa native Tommy Lee Farmer, a professional criminal who had served 43 years in prison for murder and armed robbery was the first person in the United States to be convicted under the Three - Strikes Law when he was sentenced to life in prison for an attempted robbery at an eastern Iowa convenience store. The sentencing was considered so significant that President Bill Clinton interrupted a vacation to make a press statement about it. Another example of the three - strikes law involves Timothy L. Tyler who, in 1992 at age 24, was sentenced to life in prison without parole when his third conviction (a federal offense) triggered the federal three - strikes law, even though his two prior convictions were not considered violent, and neither conviction resulted in any prison time served. Some states, such as California, have seen dramatic drops in their crime rates since the enactment of the Three - Strikes Law. In 2011, Los Angeles, California reported crime had decreased by half of the current amount since 1994, which is the same year the Three - Strikes Law was put into place. Although this decrease in crime might be attributed to the enactment of stricter sentences, Los Angeles officials speculate the drop in crime might also be related to better relationships within the community and better crime - predicting tools. In 2004, The Effect of Three - Strikes Legislation on Serious Crime in California study analyzed the effect of the Three - Strikes legislation as a means of deterrence and incapacitation. The study found that the Three - Strikes Law did not have a very significant effect on deterrence of crime, but also that this ineffectiveness may be due to the diminishing marginal returns associated with having pre-existing repeat offender laws in place. A study, Does Three Strikes Deter? A Non-Parametric Estimation, published by researches at George Mason University found that arrest rates in California were up to 20 % lower for the group of offenders convicted of two - strike eligible offenses, compared to those convicted of one - strike eligible offenses. The study concluded that the three - strikes policy was deterring recidivists from committing crimes. A study written by Robert Parker, director of the Presley Center for Crime and Justice Studies at UC Riverside, states that, violent crime began falling almost two years before California 's three - strikes law was enacted in 1994. The study argues that the decrease in crime is linked to lower alcohol consumption and unemployment. A 2007 study from the Vera Institute of Justice in New York examined the effectiveness of incapacitation under all forms of sentencing. The study estimated that if US incarceration rates were increased by 10 per cent, the crime rate would decrease by at least 2 %. However, this action would be extremely costly to implement. Another study, I 'd rather be Hanged for a Sheep than a Lamb: The Unintended Consequences of ' Three - Strikes ' Laws, released by the National Bureau of Economic Research found that Three - strikes Laws discourages criminals from committing misdemeanors in fear of getting sentenced to life in prison. Although this deters crime and contributes to lower crime rates, the laws also have the possibility to push previously convicted criminals to commit more serious offenses. The study 's author argues that this is so because under such laws, felons realize that they could face a long jail sentence for their next crime, and therefore they have little to lose by committing serious crimes rather than minor offenses. Through these findings, the study weighs both the pros and cons for the law. A 2015 study found that three - strikes laws were associated with a 33 % increase in the risk of fatal assaults on law enforcement officers.
ye rishta kia kehlata hai 23 june 2017 full episode	Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai - Wikipedia Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai (English: What Is This Relationship Called?) is a Hindi language television drama that premiered on January 12, 2009 in India and airs every Monday through Friday at 9: 30 pm on Star Plus. The show, which focuses on the daily happenings within the household of an Udaipur based Rajasthani family, is produced by Rajan Shahi 's Director 's Kut Productions. It is the longest running Hindi series on Indian television by episode count, surpassing Balika Vadhu. The show stars Naira, played by Shivangi Joshi; Kartik, played by Mohsin Khan; and Naksh, played by Rishi Dev, as the lead characters. The series initially starred Naira 's parents Hina Khan and Karan Mehra and Rohan Mehra as the lead characters. Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai is the story of a young couple who live in a Marwari joint family in Udaipur. The story showcases their journey as a married couple going through adjustment issues, as parents of young children, and how they learn to love each other and their respective extended families while becoming mature members of their household. Naitik meant with an accident where he is in a coma. Naksh (Akshara - Naitik 's son) is now 5 and does n't know about his father. One day, Naitik comes back and a first Naksh does n't accept him but then he does. When events take place now. Soon the family travel and Gayatri (Naitik 's mother) dies. Now Rajpuna (Naitik 's dad) is asked to marry someone, and he marries Devyani, who comes with her two children from a divorced marriage. Later, Bhabimaa 's husband died, and Bhabimaa (Naitik 's aunt) blames it on Akshara and kicks her out of the house, after Akshara 's daughter Naira is born. Akshara, Naitik, Naksh and Naira leave the house. Naksh as a now mature adult and Naira is a diva teenager. Akshara and Naitik, along with Naksh and Naira, live in Cape Town. Naksh returns to Udaipur. He tries to clear up the misunderstanding with Bhabima. After many days, Akshara is forgiven and is allowed to return. The story then focuses on Naksh. He falls in love with Tara, and preparations for their wedding are made. Just minutes before the ceremony, she breaks up with him. The show focuses on teenage Naira, who flees from her house and now lives in Rishikesh, nursing hatred for her mother. After finding Naira, the story takes a new twist: a love triangle that forms between Kartik (Naitik 's employee), Naira and Gayu (Naitik 's niece). Naira and Kartik have feelings for each other but do n't know that it 's love. Meanwhile Gayu loves Kartik, unaware that Kartik does n't love her back. When Kartik proposes Naira, she initially rejects him, but by the time she realizes that Gayu also loves him, she thinks of sacrificing her happiness in favor of Gayu. When Mishti reveals that Kartik loves only Naira, Kartik and Naira confess their love for each other; Gayatri understands. Kartik does n't want to talk about his family as he hates them. Meanwhile, on Akshara 's birthday, everyone goes for a veneration, but Akshara dies in a car accident. Singhanias blame Kartik for Akshara 's death as Kartik was found drunk and injured at the accident site. Kartik 's family shows up and supports Kartik. Later, Naira finds that Kartik is not the culprit. She proves Kartik 's innocence by finding the real culprit. Kartik does n't like his father and stepmother as he thinks they were responsible for his mother 's death. Seeing Kartik 's feelings towards a Singhanias, his family approves of their relationship in spite of not being much in favor of it. The two families start making preparations for their wedding. Naira unexpectedly enters the Goenka house during the Tilak ceremony (which is considered to be unlucky before the wedding); Karthik 's grandmother demands Naira 's name to be changed as a solution. Just before the wedding, Kartik discovers the real culprit who ran Akshara over and yearns to tell Naira, but his uncle convinces him that he will tell her. He reneges and tells Naira only that Kartik is missing his mother. Finally, the wedding takes place. Currently the series is about the situations following the wedding. Just one day after the wedding, Kartik finds out about the promise Naira made to Suwarna before the wedding that she would try to convince Kartik to stay in the Goenka house forever. He immediately leaves with Naira to stay in a separate flat; Naira is not happy about it. Naira is injured by robbers, causing them to move back to the Goenka home. Naira meets the man whose brother is in jail for killing her mother and learns that Akshara 's accident was caused by Mansi, Karthik 's sister. The news reaches the Singhanias and they are heartbroken. The Goenkas come to apologize. Naira is initially very hurt and angry with Karthik, but she understands that it 's not his fault. She takes Akshara 's accident case back and forgives Mansi. On Karthik 's birthday, he comes to know that Aditya tortures Keerthi and, along with Naira, decides to expose him. Parallel with Akshara and Naitik 's stories, the stories of their respective siblings also form significant story arcs in the series. Past plots have been built around the lives of Naitik 's sisters Nandini and Rashmi. The series has also focused on Naitik 's step - siblings. The series also paralleled the story of Akshara - Naitik with that of Varsha - Shaurya. Varsha is Akshara 's best friend, and Shaurya is Akshara 's older brother. The shows also focus on Naksh, Kartik, Naira, Gayatri "Gayu '' Deora and Tara. Naksh is Naitik and Akshara 's son; Gayu is Nikhil - Rashmi 's daughter (Sameer 's stepdaughter). Naira, the youngest child and only daughter of Akshara and Naitik, is now the main female lead character of the show. Kartik, Naitik 's employee and Naira 's love interest, is the new male lead character of the show. Tara was Naksh 's fiancée until she leaves him. Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai had several crossover episodes with various shows. In 2009, the show had a connection with Sapna Babul Ka... Bidaai. In 2012, the show had a crossover episode with Diya Aur Baati Hum. In 2016, Diya Aur Baati Hum 's lead actress Deepika Singh made an entry. The show is one of the most often awarded shows of Indian Television and is India 's longest running television series by episode count. Hina Khan participated in the ' Power of 49 ' campaign in which soap opera actors used their influence to urge women to vote. Shoma Munshi said the show has "simplicity and highly emotional content '' and was noted for placing female characters in the historical tradition of a large joint family. The show is also broadcast by Urdu 1 and Star Plus sister channel STAR Utsav. The show always maintained the top spot among Indian TV serials that aired in Pakistan. The show was beaten three to four times by Kumkum Bhagya that aired on Geo Kahani but recovered its leading position. The show also recorded one of the highest TRP in Pakistan. Star Parivaar Awards New Talent Awards Indian Television Academy Awards Indian Telly Awards Kalakar Awards Lions Gold Awards Star Guild Awards Garv Indian TV Awards BIG Star Young Entertainers Awards BIG Star Entertainment Awards FICCI Excellence Awards and Frames Honours

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