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is there a season 3 of berlin station | Berlin Station (TV series) - wikipedia
Berlin Station is an American drama television series created by Olen Steinhauer. The series stars Richard Armitage, Rhys Ifans, Leland Orser, Michelle Forbes, and Richard Jenkins. Bradford Winters has been the showrunner since its launch.
A ten - episode first season premiered on Epix on October 16, 2016. On November 17, 2016, Epix renewed Berlin Station for a second season, originally planned to contain ten episodes, which premiered on October 15, 2017 and concluded a nine - episode - season - run on December 3, 2017. On December 6, 2017, Epix renewed the series for a third season that is set to begin production in spring 2018 and premiere sometime in late 2018 or early 2019.
The story follows Daniel Miller (Richard Armitage), who has just arrived at the CIA foreign station in Berlin, Germany. In season 1, Miller has a clandestine mission: to uncover the source of a leak who has supplied information to a now - famous whistleblower named Thomas Shaw. Guided by veteran Hector DeJean (Rhys Ifans), Daniel learns to contend with the rough - and - tumble world of the field agent: agent - running, deception, and the dangers and moral compromises. In season 2, four months after Miller was shot at the end of season 1, he recovered from his injuries sufficiently to be given a new clandestine assignment: to infiltrate a far - right German political party believed to be planning an act of terror right before an upcoming election.
Epix announced a ten - episode straight - to - series order on May 21, 2015. Michaël Roskam executive produced the series and directed the first two episodes. Olen Steinhauer wrote and executive produced the series. Production started in November 2015.
Principal photography took place in Potsdam at Studio Babelsberg, which is co-producer of Berlin Station. The whole interior of the CIA Station, which includes a security entrance as well as the big windowless office space within, was built on stages at Babelsberg 's studios. Other scenes were shot on locations in Potsdam and Berlin, Germany.
On February 7, 2018, it was announced that Jason Horwitch would be joining the series as showrunner and executive producer. He will be replacing Brad Winters who had served in those positions for the show 's first two seasons.
A 10 - episode first season of Berlin Station premiered on Epix on October 16, 2016. The series is exclusive to Netflix in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein. It is broadcast free - to - air and on - demand in Australia on SBS TV. It also is available in Israel.
Berlin Station has received generally positive reviews from critics. It holds a 70 % approval rating on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 10 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10. On Metacritic, the show holds a rating of 64 out of 100, based on 10 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
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who played the king in the movie one night with the king | One Night with the King - wikipedia
One Night with the King is a historical epic film that was released in 2006 in the United States. Based on the novel Hadassah: One Night with the King by Tommy Tenney and Mark Andrew Olsen, One Night with the King is a dramatization of the Biblical story of Esther, who risked her life by approaching the King of Persia to request that he save the Jewish people.
The movie was produced by Matt Crouch and Laurie Crouch of Gener8Xion Entertainment. It was ninth on the list of highest - grossing motion pictures during the week it was released. This film received a 2007 CAMIE Award, as Luke Goss did for his portrayal of King Xerxes.
The movie is set in Susa, Persia (modern - day Iran). King Xerxes holds a great feast for all the people to attend. Hadassah (the main protagonist) longs to go to Jerusalem to see the Holy Land and prepares to leave with the caravan along with her friend, Jesse. They stop by the King 's feast before he goes marching to war to avenge his father 's death. Hadassah and Jesse witness the King summoning Queen Vashti. Queen Vashti was opposed to the war, desiring King Xerxes to enhance his kingdom instead. She holds her own feast in protest to the war. When the king summons her to his own feast, she refuses to come stating, "I am queen, and I will not lower my dignity. Or shame my crown by wearing it before your drunk, and thinly veiled war council ''. Because of this, King Xerxes is advised to banish her and select a more worthy queen.
All beautiful virgin women in the stronghold of Susa are brought in so Xerxes could leave behind a queen to keep the kingdom unified. Under the command of her foster - father, "Uncle Mordecai '' (who was one of the king 's scribes and worked in the palace), Hadassah does not reveal her nationality or family and changes her name to "Esther '' (after the Babylonian goddess Ishtar). She is taken in with the rest of the selected women and given cosmetics, perfumes, and treatments under the care of Hegai, the king 's royal eunuch. Through her quick wit, intelligence, and integrity, she becomes Hegai 's favorite contestant.
On their night with the king, each contestant is allowed to bring along whatever she wishes from the harem. She goes in the evening and returns in the morning to a second harem to another royal eunuch who is custodian to the concubines. She will not be able to return to the king unless she pleases him and he summons her by name. During their preparation, Hegai discovers Esther can read and listens to her reading to the other contestants. He admires her bravery. Late into the night, he brings her to King Xerxes to read to him. She starts reading from the assigned scroll and then begins telling the love story of Jacob and Rachel (from the Old Testament). He is amused and intrigued and dismisses her, saying she would read to him again. From this interaction, Esther falls in love with the King. When it is Esther 's turn for her ' one night with the king ', she only wears what Hegai advises. She wins the king 's favor by revealing her heart to him. He chooses her and crowns her queen.
Simultaneously, Haman the Agagite is promoted to the highest - ranking official. He has all the king 's servants at the royal gate to kneel before him. Mordecai refuses, declaring he will only kneel before God and the king. He announces himself before Haman to be a son of Abraham, a Jew. Haman, filled with vengeance and hatred, seeks to destroy Mordecai and all his people because centuries earlier, Jews persecuted his forefathers.
Esther discovers the plot and breaks protocol by going before the king unsummoned, risking her life to plead for her people. The king lowers his scepter to her and spares her life out of his love for her. She invites the king and Haman to a banquet and there reveals her nationality and Haman 's plot to kill the Jews. The king, overwhelmed by her revelation, leaves the banquet. Haman then assaults Esther. The king saves her and, in his fury, commands Haman be hanged on the gallows he had erected to hang Mordecai for revenge. After Haman is taken away, the king goes to Esther 's side. Esther asks, "What made you come back ''? And the king responds with, "I saw the stars ''. Then King Xerxes kisses Esther, with the camera pulling away from the small temple.
The ending shows Mordecai being made a Prince of Persia, and issuing a royal decree in his own name, with flashbacks of Esther being made Queen, and the crowd of Jews cheering in the streets. The last scenes show the small temple and Mordecai saying, "Thus dictated, I order this decree sent out under the great seal of Mordecai, Prince of Persia, a Jew ''.
The film generally adheres to the main plot of the Biblical version. However, the film adds stylistic elements not present in the Biblical story, as well as depicting several non-Biblical minor characters. The story presents many facets that could have happened rather than strictly sticking to Biblical texts. For example, the build - up to the Biblical story 's climax focuses mainly on Haman and his plot to destroy the Jews, whereas Esther is hardly featured until chapter 6. In the film, Esther is featured prominently throughout, and it is Haman who receives very little screen - time until the last third of the film, although his presence is felt throughout.
The movie 's Premiere Night took place at Mann Bruins Theater in Los Angeles, California. The movie, filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India, was released in theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had earned $13,395,961 domestically, and $13,728,450 worldwide.
The movie was filmed entirely in the state of Rajasthan, India.
Jeannie Tenney wrote and sang "One Night with the King '', which can be heard during the final credits. She was a co-author with her husband, Tommy Tenney (also a producer of the film), of the book upon which the film is based.
The Genius Club from writer / director Tim Chey was also released theatrically in 2006. The film 's trailers showed before One Night With The King.
One Night with the King was released to theaters on October 13, 2006. During its opening weekend, it earned $4,120,497 in theaters. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had received $13,395,961 domestically, with $13,728,450 worldwide. Subsequent DVD sales were strong at $20,688,299, more than making up for production costs. The success of this film encouraged Fox studio executives to approve production of the even more ambitious Exodus: Gods And Kings project.
One Night with the King received a generally negative reception, garnering a 19 % positive rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 26 reviews, with a composite average of 4.4 out of 10, with one reviewer, V.A. Musetto of the New York Post, noting that, "The cinematography and sets look great, but the script is a bummer. It 's overlong, overwrought and overblown. ''. By contrast the Rotten Tomatoes audience score was a fairly positive 78 %, with an average rating of 3.8 / 5. The film was awarded four Doves by The Dove Foundation and received the Dove Family - Approved Seal. MovieGuide has also reviewed the film fairly favourably, giving it 3 out of 4 stars, saying that "despite some minor flaws, (it) brings back the biblical epic in an entertaining, inspiring way. '' The movie has also been endorsed by the American Bible Society.
The British Board of Film Classification granted this motion picture a PG certificate, noting that it contained "images of moderate battle violence ''.
In the US, One Night With The King is also rated PG by the MPAA for violence, some sensuality and thematic elements.
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the 2 houses of congress are called what | United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the Federal government of the United States. The legislature consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members representing Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. in addition to its 435 voting members. Although they can not vote, these members can sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state which they represent.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not legally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007, there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each member has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. Another criticism is that members of Congress have access to free or low - cost medical care in the Washington D.C. area. The petition, "Remove health - care subsidies for Members of Congress and their families '', has already gathered over 1,076,000 signatures on the website Change.org. In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
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what is the name of tandoor in english | Tandoor - wikipedia
The term tandoor / tɑːnˈdʊər / refers to a variety of ovens, the most commonly known is a cylindrical clay or metal oven used in cooking and baking. The tandoor is used for cooking in Southern, Central and Western Asia, as well as in the South Caucasus.
The heat for a tandoor was traditionally generated by a charcoal or wood fire, burning within the tandoor itself, thus exposing the food to live - fire, radiant heat cooking, and hot - air, convection cooking, and smoking by the fat and food juices that drip on to the charcoal. Temperatures in a tandoor can approach 480 ° C (900 ° F), and it is common for tandoor ovens to remain lit for long periods to maintain the high cooking temperature. The tandoor design is something of a transitional form between a makeshift earth oven and the horizontal - plan masonry oven.
The word tonir is used in various languages like Dari words tandūr and tannūr; these are derived from very similar terms, viz. Persian tanūr (تنور), Armenian t'onir (Թոնիր), Georgian tone (თონე), Arabic tannūr (تنّور), Hebrew (תנור) e.g. in Leviticus 2: 4 Turkish tandır, Uzbek tandir, Azerbaijani təndir and Kurdish tendûr. However, according to Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary, the word originates from Akkadian tinûru "tin '' means mud and nuro / nura means fire, and is mentioned as early as in the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh (as reflexed by Avestan tanûra and Pahlavi tanûr). As such, tandoor may have originated from Semitic. In Sanskrit, the tandoor was referred to as kandu.
A tandoor may be used to bake many different types of flatbread. Some of the most common are Tandoori Roti, Tandoori Naan, Tandoori Laccha Paratha, Missi Roti, and Tandoori Kulcha.
Roasted cashews, corn and cottage cheese paste marinated in spiced thick cream grilled in Tandoor.
Potatoes stuffed with cottage cheese, vegetables and cashew nuts, roasted in Tandoor
Tandoori chicken is a roasted chicken delicacy that originated in Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent.
The chicken is marinated in yogurt seasoned with garam masala, garlic, ginger, cumin, cayenne pepper, and other spices depending on the recipe. In hot versions of the dish, cayenne, red chili powder, or other spices give the typical red color; in milder versions, food coloring is used. Turmeric produces a yellow - orange color. It is traditionally cooked at high temperatures in an earthen oven (i.e. tandoor), but can also be prepared on a traditional grill.
Chicken tikka (Urdu: مرغ تکہ ; Hindi: मुर्ग़ टिक्का; murgh tikka) is a dish from Mughlai cuisine made by grilling small pieces of boneless chicken which have been marinated in spices and yogurt. It is traditionally cooked on skewers in a tandoor and is usually boneless. It is normally served and eaten with a green coriander chutney, or used in preparing the curry chicken tikka masala.
Kalmi kabab, a popular snack in South Asian cuisine, is made by marinating chicken drumsticks and placing them in a tandoor. Various freshly ground spices are added to the yogurt to form a marinade for the chicken. Traditionally, the marinaded chicken is given 12 hours at the least. When prepared, the drumsticks are usually garnished with mint leaves and served with laccha (finely sliced half moons, with a squeeze of lemon and a pinch of salt) onions.
Samosa is a stuffed snack consisting of a fried or baked triangular, semilunar or tetrahedral pastry shell with a savory filling, which may include spiced potatoes, onions, peas, coriander, and lentils, or ground lamb or chicken. The size and shape of a samosa, as well as the consistency of the pastry used, can vary considerably. In some regions of Central Asia (i.e. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), samosas are typically baked in a tandoor, while they are usually fried elsewhere.
The Afghan tandoor sits above the ground and is made of bricks.
The Punjabi tandoor from the Indian Subcontinent is traditionally made of clay and is a bell - shaped oven, which can either be set into the earth and fired with wood or charcoal reaching temperatures of about 480 degrees Celsius (900 Fahrenheit), or rest above the ground. Tandoor cooking is a traditional aspect of Punjabi cuisine in undivided Punjab.
In India and Pakistan, tandoori cooking was traditionally associated with the Punjab, as Punjabis embraced the tandoor on a regional level, and became popular in the mainstream after the 1947 partition when Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus resettled in places such as Delhi. In rural Punjab, it was common to have communal tandoors. Some villages still have a communal tandoor, which was a common sight prior to 1947.
In ancient times, the tonir was worshiped by the Armenians as a symbol of the sun in the ground. Armenians made tonirs in resemblance with the setting sun "going into the ground '' (the Sun being the main deity). The underground tonir, made of clay, is one of the first tools in Armenian cuisine, as an oven and as a thermal treatment tool. Armenians are said to have originated underground tonirs.
In ancient times people used it to cook bread and various dishes.
Tandir bread (tandoori bread, təndir çörəyi) is widespread bread type in Azerbaijan. Tandir bread is baked from the heat of the tandir 's walls, which ensures very fast baking.
One of the world 's biggest tandoors was built in Azerbaijan 's southern city of Astara in 2015. The height of the tandoor is 6, 5m and the diameter is 12 m. The tandoor consists of 3 parts.
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who is in the semifinals of agt 2018 | America 's Got Talent (season 13) - wikipedia
Season thirteen of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent premiered on May 29, 2018, on NBC. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective ninth, sixth, sixth, and third seasons. Meanwhile, Tyra Banks returned for her second season as host.
The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre, beginning August 14, 2018.
AGT is co-produced by FremantleMedia North America and Syco Entertainment, Cowell 's company.
Dunkin ' Donuts is a sponsor for a fourth consecutive season.
Shin Lim was named the winner on the season finale, September 19, 2018. This marks the second magician to win. Acrobatic group Zurcaroh and violinist Brian King Joseph came in second and third place respectively.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Orlando, Cincinnati, Savannah, Milwaukee, Houston, Las Vegas, New York City, Nashville, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Auditions were taped from March 6 - 23 at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles and began to air on May 29, 2018.
The golden buzzer returned for its fifth consecutive season. Any act that receives the golden buzzer during the judges ' auditions will be sent directly to the live shows and will not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode, Tyra Banks was the first to press the golden buzzer for acrobatic and dance group Zurcaroh. Simon Cowell was second to press it for 40 - year - old singer Michael Ketterer. Howie Mandel was third to press it for 13 year old singer Courtney Hadwin. Mel B was fourth to press it for 15 year old singer Amanda Mena. Heidi Klum was the final judge to use the golden buzzer, using it for 15 year old singer Makayla Phillips.
The Judge Cuts rounds began airing on Tuesday, July 17, 2018. Like the previous season, one guest judge will join the judges ' panel each show and will be given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Eighteen acts perform each week instead of twenty as in the previous three seasons. Of the eighteen acts performing each week seven acts advance including the guest judge 's golden buzzer which immediately advances if used. Guest judges will not be given a red buzzer to use. Any act that will receive all four red buzzers will be immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges are Ken Jeong, Olivia Munn, Martina McBride, and Chris Hardwick, who was also a guest judge in the previous season. The final Judge Cuts episode aired on August 7, 2018. This is the first Judge Cuts rounds in history where no acts received four red buzzers.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Daniel Emmet, Human Fountains and Front Pictures (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round).
The golden buzzer also returned for the Judge Cuts round. Each week during the Judge Cuts a guest judge will have the option to use their golden buzzer on any act. An act that receives the golden buzzer during the Judge Cuts round will not face elimination and will advance automatically to the live shows. In the first week of the Judge Cuts Ken Jeong pressed his golden buzzer for the Voices of Hope Children 's Choir. In week 2, Olivia Munn pressed her Golden Buzzer for Angel City Chorale. In the third week, Martina McBride pressed her Golden Buzzer for Quin and Misha, a ballroom dance duo. Chris Hardwick gave the season 's final Golden Buzzer for Flau'jae, a 14 - year old rapper, in the final week of the Judge Cuts.
Guest judge: Ken Jeong
Date: July 17, 2018
Guest judge: Olivia Munn
Date: July 24, 2018
Guest judge: Martina McBride
Date: July 31, 2018
This is the second Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: August 7, 2018
This is the first time in America 's Got Talent Judge Cuts history where two or more acts that have been buzzed went on to the live shows.
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 14, 2018 with twelve acts performing each night. The following night the results will be announced to the public with seven of the twelve acts proceeding to the semifinals. Each week viewers of the show also have the opportunity to send one act, determined by popular vote, using "Google 's Instant Save '', sometimes also known as the "Dunkin ' Save '' due to a sponsorship contract with Dunkin Donuts, via the America 's Got Talent app or the official website. In the first week of the Quarterfinals, Human Fountains received a buzzer from Cowell and Lord Nil received one from Mel B. In the second week of the Quarterfinals, Yumbo Dump received a buzzer from Klum.
Guest: Darci Lynne Farmer
Guests: The Illusionists and Light Balance
Guest: Beautiful Broadway
The live semifinals started on September 4, 2018. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated.
Guest: BTS and A Magical Cirque Christmas
The final performances took on September 18, followed by the final results show aired on September 19, 2018. No acts were buzzed.
During the finale results, the top 5 acts were revealed first; then they were eliminated in reverse ranking from fifth place to third place.
Guest performers in the finale included Kiss, Bebe Rexha, The Struts, Plácido Domingo, and Lindsey Stirling. Other celebrity appearances included David Spade, Matt Iseman and Akbar Gbaja - Biamila.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
This season is being aired in Asia within 48 hours of being broadcast in the US. It airs on AXN starting May 31, 2018 (UTC + 8).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland the first episode was brought to Netflix on May 31. In Singapore, the show was broadcast on MediaCorp Channel 5 every Thursday starting May 31, 2018.
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what type of leader does north korea have | List of leaders of North Korea - wikipedia
This article lists the political leaders of North Korea, officially called the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (DPRK).
At the end of World War II, the Soviet Union occupied the northern half of Korea and in 1946 established the Provisional People 's Committee for North Korea chaired by Kim Il - sung. On 9 September 1948, the DPRK was proclaimed, also led by Kim Il - sung.
The supreme leaders of the DPRK have been Kim Il - sung, his son Kim Jong - il, and his grandson Kim Jong - un. In this role they have not held consistent titles, though they were each leaders of the Workers ' Party of Korea (WPK) -- titled as Chairman from 1948 to 1966, General Secretary from 1966 to 2011, First Secretary from 2011 to 2016, and finally Chairman again since 2016 -- for almost all of their period in power. Even though they have the appearance of a dynasty, succession is informal.
From 1948 to 1972, the nominal head of state was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People 's Assembly (SPA). In 1972, the constitution was amended to create an executive presidency. Kim Il - sung, who had served as Premier of North Korea since the DPRK 's inception, was unanimously elected President of North Korea by the Supreme People 's Assembly on December 28. He held this office until his death on 8 July 1994 when he was proclaimed the "Eternal President of the Republic ''. Since then, the practical functions of the head of state have been exercised by the President of the Presidium of the SPA.
After the death of Kim Il - sung, his son Kim Jong - il was understood to have inherited his father 's near - absolute control over the country. Although he had been his father 's designated successor since at least 1991, it took him three years to fully consolidate his power. He was elected general secretary of the party in 1997, and was reelected Chairman of the National Defence Commission (NDC) in 1998. During his rule he was given a range of titles. He ruled the country until his death on 17 December 2011. He was succeeded by his son, Kim Jong - un, who was revealed to be in charge of the country since his father 's death by the Rodong Sinmun and finally publicly acknowledged as supreme leader at the military review ending Kim Jong - il 's funeral on 29 December 2011.
The government is headed by the Premier of the Cabinet, formerly called Premier of the Administration Council.
Other important institutions include the SPA, whose sessions are chaired by the Chairman of the Supreme People 's Assembly, and, since 1993, the Chairman of the NDC -- since 2016, known as the State Affairs Commission -- which holds supreme command of the DPRK 's armed forces.
While two other parties, the Korean Social Democratic Party and the Chondoist Chongu Party, nominally exist, only the WPK holds any power at the national level. The other parties, and indeed all other mass organizations in the country, are completely subservient to the WPK. They exist solely to keep up the appearance that the country is a pluralist society. Almost nothing is mentioned about the minor parties except the names of their current leaders.
Since 1997, the SPA chairman, premier and NDC / SAC chairman have officially formed a triumvirate heading the executive branch, with powers equivalent to one - third of a president 's powers in other presidential systems. The SPA chairman conducts foreign affairs and receives the credentials of ambassadors, the premier handles domestic policy and the NDC / SAC chairman commands the armed forces. In practice, however, the real power is vested in the SAC chairman (who has also been leader of the WPK), an office constitutionally defined as the "highest post in the state. ''
The Constitution of North Korea has recognized the title "Supreme Leader '' since 2009, when the Chairman of the National Defence Commission was formally designated as "the Supreme Leader of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea '' (Korean: 조선 민주주의 인민 공화국 의 최고 지도자). It was slightly amended in 2012, with "Chairman '' replaced by "First Chairman. '' It was further amended in 2016 to reflect the replacement of the NDC with the State Affairs Commission.
First generation Second generation Third generation
Kim Jong - il died on 17 December 2011, but has since been posthumously named the "Eternal General Secretary ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, Kim Jong - un, was not given the title of General Secretary.
Kim Il - sung died on 8 July 1994, but has since 1998 been posthumously named the "Eternal President of the Republic ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, the late Kim Jong - il, was not given the title of President and the President of the Presidium of the Supreme People 's Assembly became de jure head of state.
Kim Jong - il died on 17 December 2011, but has since been posthumously named the "Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission ''. Thus his son and successor as leader, Kim Jong - un, was given the title of "First Chairman ''.
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what is the biggest county in new mexico | List of counties in New Mexico - wikipedia
See also:
This is a list of the 33 counties in New Mexico. There were originally nine counties formed in 1852. Santa Ana County, New Mexico Territory, one of the nine original counties, was annexed in 1876 to Bernalillo County, New Mexico.
The Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) code, which is used by the United States government to uniquely identify states and counties, is provided with each entry. New Mexico 's code is 35, which when combined with any county code would be written as 35XXX. The FIPS code for each county links to census data for that county.
For comparison, the population estimate for the state of New Mexico as of July 2011 was 2,082,224, and the area was 7005121589000000000 ♠ 121,589 mi2 (315,194 km2).
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when did jordan marsh go out of business | Jordan Marsh - wikipedia
Jordan Marsh & Company (or Jordan Marsh) was a department store in Boston, Massachusetts, which grew to be a major regional chain in the New England area of the United States. In 1996, the last of the Jordan Marsh stores were converted to Macy 's. The store was formerly part of Allied Stores and then Federated Department Stores. Allied also operated a separate group of stores in Florida called Jordan Marsh Florida, which were disbanded in 1991.
In 1841, Eben Dyer Jordan left his job at a Boston dry goods store and went into business for himself laying the foundation for the first Jordan Marsh. Ten years later, Jordan partnered with Boston merchant Benjamin L. Marsh.
They began by selling linen, silk, and other dry goods from Europe to wholesale customers in and around the city. As the business grew, it moved from one location to another and in 1861 Jordan and Marsh decided to begin selling directly to the public. They acquired a brownstone building at 450 Washington Street, in the heart of what is still Boston 's downtown shopping district. After the American Civil War, Jordan and Marsh expanded into nearby buildings, offering an increasing quantity and variety of goods. Eventually the partners had established the nation 's first "departmentalized '' store and called it Jordan Marsh and Company.
During the second half of the 19th century, Eben Jordan 's son, Jordan Jr., and a new partner named George Mitton took over the company, turning it into a modern department store.
Jordan Marsh and Company, in addition to establishing the first department store, introduced the concept of "department shopping. '' Jordan Marsh combined an elegant atmosphere with excellent personal service and a wide range of merchandise. With many different departments displaying wares from around the world, the store drew shoppers from the city as well from the growing "streetcar suburbs. '' Once at the store, consumers could do more than just shop. Jordan Marsh offered fashion shows, a bakery famous for its blueberry muffins, art exhibitions, and even afternoon concerts.
Jordan Marsh also pioneered new services for shoppers not available in more traditional specialty shops. Most important, it offered credit, usually in the form of charge accounts. It introduced the customer - is - always right policy, and offered money - back guarantees. Jordan Marsh was always known for implementing new technology as well, one of the first stores to feature electrical lights, glass showcases, telephones, and elevators. It also installed pneumatic tubes that delivered cash and credit information to individual departments.
In 1935, Boston 's Jordan Marsh became one of the founders of New York City - based Allied Stores Corporation, a successor to Hahn Department Stores, Inc., a holding company founded in 1928.
After World War II, the management of Jordan Marsh announced that it would build a new store in downtown Boston. Jordan 's five older buildings would give way to a new building that would take up a full city block. Covering an area larger than Harvard Stadium, it would have two stories under ground; another 14 would rise into the air. It would have all the latest technology, including air conditioning, automatic doorways, block - long show windows, and radiant - heated sidewalks. After the addition of the "new building '' in 1949, the Jordan Marsh Complex was split into four distinct units; the 1949 new store, the original main store, annex, and bristol building. The Boston redevelopment authority estimated the complex 's total retail space at 1,700,000 sq ft (160,000 m), which made it overwhelmingly the largest retail venue in Boston. At the same time, the company began moving, along with its customers, into the suburbs. Jordan 's constructed its first branch stores in older suburban communities in the 1940s, but by 1966 the branch stores accounted for half of all department store sales.
The shopping mall Shopper 's World opened in Framingham, Massachusetts on October 4, 1951, making it one of the earliest suburban shopping malls in the country. Jordan Marsh stood at the southern end as the sole anchor. It was the first mall - styled Jordan Marsh in the country and was unmistakable for its large white dome. The dome was visible from the air and was used on aeronautical charts as a visual reporting point for aircraft approaching Boston 's Logan Airport. It was reputed to be the third largest (in diameter) unsupported dome in the world after St. Peter 's Basilica in Rome and St. Paul 's Cathedral in London. The Shopper 's World store quickly became the most recognizable Jordan Marsh outside the flagship store in Boston.
In 1956, the first store in Miami, Florida was opened with slogans such as "Florida 's high fashion department store '' and "the store with the Florida flair ''. Later, it was divided into a separate division of Allied then the Jordan Marsh of Boston with headquarters in Miami. With newcomers heading into the state, the store lost focus and decided to downgrade in order to compete. Jordan Marsh also opened a San Diego branch around the same time, occupying the former Sears store downtown. The branch did not do nearly as well as the Florida branches and the failed store closed in 1958. The Florida stores were disbanded in 1991, with several being merged with Maas Brothers, which later became Burdines, now Macy 's.
The main building of Boston 's Jordan Marsh complex, an ornate brownstone edifice with a landmark corner clock tower designed by Nathaniel J. Bradlee in the 1860s, was torn down in 1975, along with its entire row of historic annex buildings. Local architect Leslie Larson founded a coalition called the City Conservation League to try to save the main building, which made way for a low modern brick structure that sits there today as Macy 's. Some outraged customers cut up their credit cards in protest of the demolition. These protests and preservationist grassroots efforts led to the creation of the Boston Landmarks Commission.
In 1986, the Canadian Campeau Corporation acquired Allied Stores Corporation, which was reorganized under the merger agreement. In February 1987, Campeau merged D.M. Read Co. of Bridgeport, Connecticut, into Jordan Marsh, and merged Jordan Marsh Florida with Maas Brothers of Tampa, Florida, as the new Maas Brothers / Jordan Marsh Florida division.
In 1988, Campeau Corporation acquired Federated Department Stores. To consolidate with Federated, Allied 's New York headquarters moved to Cincinnati. Allied Stores: The Bon Marché, Jordan Marsh, Maas Brothers / Jordan Marsh Florida and Stern 's, operating in tandem with Federated: Bloomingdale 's, Abraham & Straus, Lazarus, Rich 's, Goldsmith 's, and Burdines.
In 1990, saddled by debt resulting from the highly leveraged Campeau takeover of Federated, both Federated and Allied filed for bankruptcy reorganization. Campeau Corp. U.S., Inc., was renamed Federated Stores, Inc. The operations of Jordan Marsh Florida and Maas Brothers were absorbed by Burdines in 1991.
In 1992, a new public company, Federated Department Stores, Inc., emerged in February. The former Allied Stores Corporation was merged into Federated. A consolidation of the A&S and Jordan Marsh divisions resulted in the A&S / Jordan Marsh division, headquartered in Brooklyn, New York. In 1994, the A&S / Jordan Marsh division merged with Macy 's East and the A&S stores were renamed Macy 's in 1995. In 1996, Jordan Marsh stores in the Northeast U.S., already part of the Macy 's East division, were converted to the Macy 's nameplate.
From the 1940s until 1972 -- and again in the early 1990s -- the Jordan Marsh flagship store in Boston 's Downtown Crossing was home to the Enchanted Village, a lavish Christmas display which at its height took over an entire floor of the department store and was also spotlighted in its display windows. The centerpiece of the display, besides Santa, was an eight - set Lionel electric train display. From what started as a marketing gimmick, the Enchanted Village quickly became a legendary Boston tradition and an annual mainstay of the city 's holiday season. Macy 's discontinued the Enchanted Village in 1998 when it was moved to City Hall Plaza. More recently it has been housed in the Hynes Convention Center.
On June 16, 2009, the Enchanted Village, including all props and figures was sold at auction, as the City of Boston could no longer afford to be a major sponsor of the annual event. It was sold to Jordan 's Furniture (which is a unit of Warren Buffett 's Berkshire Hathaway and had no connection to the former Jordan Marsh), and is on display during the holiday season at the Avon, Massachusetts location.
Strawbridge 's added to division in 1996
Meier & Frank added to division in 2002; Zions Cooperative Mercantile Institution (2001, to Meier & Frank)
Coordinates: 42 ° 21 ′ 19 '' N 71 ° 03 ′ 38 '' W / 42.355142 ° N 71.060462 ° W / 42.355142; - 71.060462
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when does the rainy season end in south florida | Climate of Florida - wikipedia
The climate of the north and central parts of the US state of Florida is humid subtropical. South Florida has a tropical climate. There is a defined rainy season from May through October, when air mass thundershowers that build in the heat of the day drop heavy but brief summer rainfall. Late summer and early fall bring decaying tropical lows (and occasionally landfalling tropical cyclones) that contribute to late summer and early fall rains.
In October the dry season sets in across much of Florida (starting early in the month in northern Florida and near the end of the month in deep southern Florida) and lasts until late April in most years. Fronts from mid-latitude storms north of Florida occasionally pass through northern and central parts of the state which bring light and brief winter rainfall. Mid and late winter can become severely dry in Florida. In some years the dry season becomes quite severe and water restrictions are imposed to conserve water. While most areas of Florida do not experience any type of frozen precipitation, northern Florida can see fleeting snow or sleet a few times each decade.
The Gulf Stream running through the Florida Straits and then north off the Florida East Coast keeps temperatures moderate a few miles inland from around Stuart on the east coast to Ft. Myers on the west side of the state year round, with few extremes in temperature. The tropical ocean current also provides warm sea surface temperatures, giving Florida beaches the warmest ocean surf waters on the United States mainland.
The low pressure measured from an extratropical cyclone was 28.84 inches / 976.7 hPa during the Storm of the Century (1993). From a tropical cyclone, the lowest pressure measured was 26.35 inches / 892 hPa in the Florida Keys during the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935. The known pressure of butts statewide was 30.74 inches / 1041.1 hPa in Tallahassee on February 5, 1996 and January 4, 1979.
Over the winter prevailing winds are out of the north across the panhandle south to near Orlando, but are variable in the rest of the state. The summer season sees generally east and southeast winds across the peninsula. During the summer months, the average wind pattern implies a surface ridge axis which normally lies across central Florida, with easterly winds from Tampa southward and southwest winds across northern Florida. The peak wind gust during the 1930 through 1997 period was 115 mph (100 knots) at Miami International Airport during Hurricane Andrew.
In July the trade winds south of the northward - moving subtropical ridge expand northwestward into Florida. On occasion, dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the ridge moves into the state, suppressing rainfall and changing the sky from a blue to a white appearance and leads to an increase in red sunsets. Its presence negatively impacts air quality across the Southeastern United States during the summer, by adding to the count of airborne particulates. This is in sharp contrast to the normally clean air over Florida and the southeastern USA, which on average is the cleanest air in the USA. Over 50 % of the African dust that reaches the United States affects Florida. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in the dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year. Dust events are possibly linked to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.
On average, Florida has the mildest winters in the Continental United States. Average lows range from 65 ° F (18 ° C) in Key West to near 41 ° F (5 ° C) degrees Fahrenheit at Tallahassee, while daytime highs range from 64 ° F (18 ° C) at Tallahassee to 77 ° F (25 ° C) at Miami. Predominant tropical easterly winds across central and southern Florida keep temperatures warm during the winter. Occasional strong cold fronts move southward down the peninsula with freezing or near freezing temperatures on a few nights into inland areas of central Florida every few years. A few times each decade Miami might see a winter night fall below 45 F. El Niño winters tend to be cooler due to increased cloud cover, but tend to have fewer freezes.
Four hardiness zones exist. USDA zone 11b is found in Key West and the Florida Keys where average extreme lows range from 40 to 50 ° F (4 to 10 ° C). Zone 10 is found in coastal South Florida where annual extreme low temperatures range from 30 to 40 ° F (− 1 to 4 ° C), though parts of coastal Miami Beach are zone 11. Next is zone 9b across interior central Florida, where low temperatures range from 25 to 30 ° F (− 4 to − 1 ° C). The coolest, zone 8, is located in northernwestern Florida from roughly Gainesville and northwest including Tallahassee. Low temperatures range from 10 to 20 ° F (− 12 to − 7 ° C).
Florida has experienced 12 major freezes. This includes four "impact '' freezes, sufficiently severe to kill entire groves of citrus trees, resulting in a noticeable economic effect on citrus growers, prompting them to t groves further south in the state. These impact freezes are indicated by asterisks in the following: Great Freeze of 1894 - 5 *, February 13 -- 14, 1899, February 2 -- 6, 1917, December 12 -- 13, 1934, January 1940, December 12 -- 13, 1957, December 12 -- 13, 1962 *, January 18 -- 20, 1977, January 12 -- 14, 1981, December 24 -- 25, 1983 *, January 20 -- 22, 1985, and December 22 -- 26, 1989 *.
During the summer, minimal temperatures range from near 70 ° F (21 ° C) in northern Florida to near 80 ° F (27 ° C) in the Keys. High temperatures during the summer average in the lower 90s Fahrenheit statewide. Relief from the heat during the summer comes in the form of afternoon and evening thunderstorm activity, late morning and afternoon sea breezes off the relatively cooler ocean, and during the passage of a tropical cyclone. The record high temperature for the state is 109 ° F (43 ° C) at Monticello in 1931.
Like the remainder of the Southeastern United States, Florida has a winter maximum in dense fog conditions. Unlike the remainder of the region, the maximum in Florida contains roughly half of the annual occurrences per year, on average. Its summer minimum is less than the remainder of the Southeast. The annual number of heavy fog days (with visibility of. 25 miles (0.40 km) or less) has ranged from 50 in Tallahassee, to 1 in Key West, the least foggy region in the state. The two types of fog that are most common in Florida are advection and radiational. Fog can be hazardous to early morning commuters. On January 9, 2008, when fog on Interstate 4 combined with smoke from a nearby fire, visibility was reduced to nearly zero. As a result, five individuals died in a 70 - car pileup.
Statewide, the highest rainfall amounts occur during the summer months. In northern Florida, there is a weak winter secondary maximum while statewide the driest months of the year are during the spring. During El Niño, Florida sees greater rainfall between November and March. Due to the lack of the secondary maximum across the peninsula, a distinct dry season is seen in the averages from winter through spring. This dry season provokes brush fires annually as temperatures rise during the late spring, before they fade during early June as the rainy season gets underway.
The heaviest rainfall to occur in 24 hours was measured in Yankeetown during Hurricane Easy (1950), 38.70 inches (98.3 cm). This is also the highest known point storm total maximum related to any tropical cyclone which has impacted Florida, and by itself would be the highest known rainfall total for any month from any location within Florida. This rainfall amount remained the national 24 - hour rainfall record until Tropical Storm Claudette (1979). Heavy rainfall events have fallen due to stalled fronts near the state as well, and occur during the March through May and October through November timeframe.
The wettest month recorded at a Florida climate station was during May 1891 when Gainesville, Florida received 30.90 inches (78.5 cm). The wettest year on record for a Florida climate station was during 1879 when 127.24 inches (323.2 cm) fell at Pensacola, Florida. The driest year for a climate station statewide was during 1974 when only 19.99 inches (50.8 cm) fell at Key West.
One of the worst years for wildfires was in 1998, at the end of an El Nino cycle. 480 wildfires consumed 500,000 acres (2,000 km) statewide. In 2010, the National Weather Service issued more fire alerts in Florida than anywhere else in the nation.
A statewide drought began in November 2005, one month after Hurricane Wilma 's passage through the state, and persisted until 2009. The previous significant drought occurred in 2000, which was the state 's driest year on record.
Snowfall is rare in Florida. The earliest recorded occurrence of snow or sleet occurred in 1774 in the far northern portion of the state. The latest occurrence of snow or sleet in the spring fell on January 7, 8 and 9, 2010, as a cold front brought scattered snow flurries in the northern and central portions of the state.
The state record for snowfall is 5 inches (13 cm), set in northern Florida during January 1800, though some debate exists about the accuracy. The earliest in the season that frozen precipitation has fallen was during the Late November 2006 Nor'easter on November 21 across central Florida. The latest in the season that snow or sleet has fallen was on April 8, 2007. Snow flurries have been reported in the air (not on the ground) as far south as Homestead, during a January 19, 1977 event.
Florida reports more thunderstorms than any other US state. Some places report in excess of 90 thunderstorm days per year, making Florida one of the most thundery regions outside of the tropics. Florida receives the highest density of lightning strikes within the United States. Several deaths per year are blamed on lightning, making lightning one of the deadliest weather - related phenomenon in the state. However, since 1992, the number of lightning deaths has been slowly dropping despite a rising population, suggesting that lightning awareness programs are effective. The most likely targets of lightning strikes are construction workers and others who work outside, though 12 percent of the cases occurred indoors to people using electronic devices. Severe thunderstorms can sometimes produce hail, very strong straight line winds and tornadoes. Very heavy rainfall from thunderstorms can result in flash flooding. Thunderstorms occur most often during the summer but can occur at any time of the year.
There are more tornadoes per square mile in Florida than any other state. However, these tornadoes tend to be much weaker and short - lived than in other states like the Midwest or Great Plains. Strong tornadoes do occasionally form in Florida, usually in conjunctions with a cold frontal passage in the winter or spring. A total of 42 people died in February 1998 from the deadliest such tornado outbreak in Central Florida, which occurred during the nighttime hours.
While tornadoes in the Midwest are more severe, a higher rate of deaths are experienced in Florida, and Brevard County, specifically, due to higher population density and quantity of manufactured homes.
The earliest in the year a tropical cyclone has struck the sunshine state was the Groundhog Day Tropical Storm in 1952. The latest impact was from a hurricane which struck near Tampa on December 1, 1925. The strongest hurricane to strike Florida was the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935. Hurricane Easy in 1950 produced the wettest known point total from any tropical cyclone. The record number of hurricane strikes on the state in one season is four in 2004. Hurricanes typically spawn tornadoes within their northeast quadrant.
Tropical cyclones have affected Florida in every month of the year but March. Nearly one - third of the cyclones affected the state in September, and nearly three - fourths of the storms affected the state between August and October, which coincides with the peak of the hurricane season. Portions of the coastline have the lowest return period, or the frequency at which a certain intensity or category of hurricane can be expected within 86 mi (139 km) of a given location, in the country. Monroe County was struck by 26 hurricanes since 1926, which is the greatest total for any county in the United States.
El Niño has the following effects on Florida climate: above average rainfall in the spring. This is followed by wildfire threat when rain dries up. Northern Florida is more susceptible to severe weather; below normal temperatures, increased number of low pressure systems in the Gulf of Mexico during the winter, and "almost always '' reduces the frequency of storms and hurricanes.
La Niña has the following effects: often dry conditions prevail in late fall, winter and early spring, increased risk of wildfires in spring and summer months, the temperatures average slightly above normal, and the chance of hurricane activity increases substantially.
Long term forecasts are made based on these effects. However, they are easily overridden, in winter, by the Arctic oscillation and North Atlantic oscillations, which can only be predicted about two weeks in advance. These can drop the temperature noticeably from seasonal norms.
The climate regime for much of the state is humid subtropical (Köppen Cfa), though portions of the Gold Coast of southeast Florida, as well as all of the Florida Keys, qualify as tropical wet - and - dry (Köppen Aw).
A narrow eastern part of the state including Orlando and Jacksonville receives between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually. The rest of the state, including Miami, receives between 2,800 and 3,200 hours annually.
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number 1 fm radio station in the philippines | List of radio stations in the Philippines - wikipedia
This is a list of radio stations in the Philippines.
List of Shortwave radio stations in alphabetical order.
In addition, most international stations (such as Trans World Radio, Family Radio, Voice of America, BBC World Service, China Radio International and others) are also heard via shortwave.
List of Satellite radio stations that are exclusively available on DTH satellite in alphabetical order.
List of Internet radio stations / online radio stations in alphabetical order.
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margarita with a straw full movie download filmywap | Margarita with a Straw - wikipedia
Margarita with a Straw is a 2014 Indian drama film directed by Shonali Bose. It stars Kalki Koechlin, who plays Laila, a teenager with cerebral palsy. Revathy, Sayani Gupta, and William Moseley play supporting roles. The movie talks about struggle with the normal activities in her life. Margarita with a Straw was one of the five projects selected for the Work In Progress Lab of Film Bazaar 2013.
The film made its world premiere on 8 September 2014 as part of the Contemporary World Cinema Programme at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF). It went on to be screened at Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival in Estonia, BFI London Film Festival, Busan International Film Festival (BIFF), the Santa Barbara International Film Festival (SBIFF) and Istanbul Film Festival. It was released in India on 17 April 2015.
Laila (Kalki Koechlin) is a teenager with cerebral palsy who uses a wheelchair. She is a student at Delhi University and an aspiring writer who writes lyrics and creates electronic sounds for an indie band at the university. Laila falls for the lead singer of the college band and is heartbroken when she is rejected.
She soon overcomes this phase, when she gets a scholarship for a semester at New York University and moves there with her traditional Maharashtrian mother Shubhangini (Revathi). Living in Manhattan, she meets an attractive young man named Jared (William Moseley) in her creative writing class, who is assigned to help her in typing. She also meets the fiery young activist Khanum (Sayani Gupta), a blind girl of a Pakistani Bangladeshi descent, whom she later falls in love with. As she embarks on a journey of sexual discovery, she figures out she is bisexual, as she feels attracted to men like Jared while also being with Khanum. She has sex with Jared and she does n't tell Khanum. Laila 's mother, believing the two are like best friends and oblivious to the fact that Khanum is her daughter 's lover, invites her to Delhi to spend the winter break with the family. It is during that time that Laila finds the courage to tell her mother about her sexuality and her relationship with Khanum, which her mother initially disapproves. She also tells Khanum that she had sex with Jared and asks her to forgive her. Khanum thinks that she was being used by Laila and leaves her.
After a short while Laila 's mother falls sick and she learns that her mother had fourth stage colon cancer which has fallen into relapse after previous treatments. Later Laila and her mother patch up and come to terms with each other. After her mother dies Laila plays a recorded speech at her mother 's funeral telling how much she loved her and how she was the only one who ever understood her.
The story ends with Laila going on a date, with herself, signifying that she now has taken control of her life and does n't need anyone else to love and care for her. The movie revolves around very delicate aspects of this modern life and teaching society how its better to adhere and accept the changing rituals.
Margarita with a Straw was praised by critics. Subhash K. Jha of SkjBollywoodNews.com gave the movie 5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Sip and savour the delicate tastes of life in Margarita With a Straw. This is a moving heartwarming lyrical and yummy tale of a girl so sassy, she defines the eternal quest to seize the day. ''
Margarita with a Straw collected a total of ₹ 74 million during its theatrical run.
The film won the NETPAC award World or International Asian Film Premiere at 2014 Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF). It was the only Indian film to win an award at TIFF that year.
Kalki Koechlin won The Best Actress award at the Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival held in Estonia in 2014. The film won the Audience Award and the Youth Jury Award at Vesoul Film Festival in France in 2015. It won the Asian Film Awards for the Best Composer Award 2015.
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where in the constitution does it talk about amendments | Article Five of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution, the nation 's frame of government, may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification. Amendments may be proposed either by the Congress with a two - thirds vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a convention of states called for by two - thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either -- as determined by Congress -- the legislatures of three - quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three - quarters of the states. The vote of each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state 's population or length of time in the Union.
Additionally, Article V temporarily shielded certain clauses in Article I from being amended. The first clause in Section 9, which prevented Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves prior to 1808, and the fourth clause in that same section, a declaration that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations, were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. It also shields the first clause of Article I, Section 3, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate, from being amended, though not absolutely.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been approved by the Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All totaled, approximately 11,539 measures to amend the Constitution have been proposed in Congress since 1789 (through December 16, 2014).
Article V provides two methods for amending the nation 's frame of government. The first method authorizes Congress, "whenever two - thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary '' (a two - thirds of those members present -- assuming that a quorum exists at the time that the vote is cast -- and not necessarily a two - thirds vote of the entire membership elected and serving in the two houses of Congress), to propose Constitutional amendments. The second method requires Congress, "on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds of the several states '' (presently 34), to "call a convention for proposing amendments ''.
When the 1st Congress considered a series of constitutional amendments, it was suggested that the two houses first adopt a resolution indicating that they deemed amendments necessary. This procedure was not used. Instead, both the House and the Senate proceeded directly to consideration of a joint resolution, thereby implying that both bodies deemed amendments to be necessary. Also, when initially proposed by James Madison, the amendments were designed to be interwoven into the relevant sections of the original document. Instead, they were approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification as supplemental additions (codicils) appended to it. Both these precedents have been followed ever since.
Regarding the amendment process crafted during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison, in The Federalist No. 43, wrote:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
Each time the amendment process has been initiated since 1789, the first method has been used. All 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification originated in the Congress. The second method, the convention option, which Alexander Hamilton (writing in The Federalist No. 85) believed would serve as a barrier "against the encroachments of the national authority '', has yet to be successfully invoked, although not for lack of activity in the states.
Three times in the 20th century, concerted efforts were undertaken by proponents of particular amendments to secure the number of applications necessary to summon an Article V Convention. These included conventions to consider amendments to (1) provide for popular election of U.S. Senators; (2) permit the states to include factors other than equality of population in drawing state legislative district boundaries; and (3) to propose an amendment requiring the U.S. budget to be balanced under most circumstances. The campaign for a popularly elected Senate is frequently credited with "prodding '' the Senate to join the House of Representatives in proposing what became the Seventeenth Amendment to the states in 1912, while the latter two campaigns came very close to meeting the two - thirds threshold in the 1960s and 1980s, respectively.
Once approved by Congress, the joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment does not require Presidential approval before it goes out to the states. While Article I Section 7 provides that all federal legislation must, before becoming Law, be presented to the President for his or her signature or veto, Article V provides no such requirement for constitutional amendments approved by Congress, or by a federal convention. Thus the president has no official function in the process. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798), the Supreme Court affirmed that it is not necessary to place constitutional amendments before the President for approval or veto.
After being officially proposed, either by Congress or a national convention of the states, a constitutional amendment must then be ratified by three - fourths of the states. Congress is authorized to choose whether a proposed amendment is sent to the state legislatures or to state ratifying conventions for ratification. Amendments ratified by the states under either procedure are indistinguishable and have equal force as part of the Constitution. Of the 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification, the state convention method has been used for only one, the Twenty - first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933. This was also one of only four times that Congress has placed the mode of ratification in the body of an amendment rather than in accompanying legislation; the others being the Eighteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty - second Amendments. In United States v. Sprague (1931), the Supreme Court affirmed the authority of Congress to decide how each individual constitutional amendment is ratified, in accordance with the options provided in Article V and the equal validity of amendments properly ratified in either fashion. The Court had earlier, in Hawke v. Smith (1920), ruled the ratification of the proposed Nineteenth Amendment (which Congress had sent to the state legislatures for ratification) by the Legislature of Ohio could not be referred to the electors (voters) of the state, and that the Ohio Constitution, in requiring such a referendum, was inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution.
An amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution when it is ratified by the necessary number of states, rather than on the later date when its ratification is certified. No further action by Congress or anyone is required. On three occasions, Congress has, after being informed that an amendment has reached the ratification threshold, adopted a resolution declaring the process successfully completed. Such actions, while perhaps important for political reasons, are, constitutionally speaking, unnecessary.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist officially notifies the states, by a registered letter to each state 's Governor, that an amendment has been proposed. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature (or ratifying convention). When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Upon receiving the necessary number of state ratifications, it is the duty of the Archivist to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution. The amendment and its certificate of ratification are then published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large. This serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether or not Congress may limit the length of time that the states have to ratify constitutional amendments sent for their consideration. It is also silent on the issue of whether or not Congress, once it has sent an amendment that includes a ratification deadline to the states for their consideration, can extend that deadline.
The practice of limiting the time available to the states to ratify proposed amendments began in 1917 with the Eighteenth Amendment. All amendments proposed since then, with the exception of the Nineteenth Amendment and the (still pending) Child Labor Amendment, have included a deadline, either in the body of the proposed amendment, or in the joint resolution transmitting it to the states. The ratification deadline "clock '' begins running on the day final action is completed in Congress. An amendment may be ratified at any time after final congressional action, even if the states have not yet been officially notified.
In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court upheld Congress 's power to prescribe time limitations for state ratifications and intimated that clearly out of date proposals were no longer open for ratification. Granting that it found nothing express in Article V relating to time constraints, the Court yet allowed that it found intimated in the amending process a "strongly suggest (ive) '' argument that proposed amendments are not open to ratification for all time or by States acting at widely separate times. The court subsequently, in Coleman v. Miller (1939), modified its opinion considerably. In that case, related to the proposed Child Labor Amendment, it held that the question of timeliness of ratification is a political and non-justiciable one, leaving the issue to Congress 's discretion. It would appear that the length of time elapsing between proposal and ratification is irrelevant to the validity of the amendment. Based upon this precedent, the Archivist of the United States proclaimed the Twenty - seventh Amendment as having been ratified when it surpassed the "three fourths of the several states '' plateau for becoming a part of the Constitution. Declared ratified on May 7, 1992, it had been submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, an unprecedented time period of 202 years, 7 months and 12 days.
Whether once it has prescribed a ratification period Congress may extend the period without necessitating action by already - ratified States embroiled Congress, the states, and the courts in argument with respect to the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (Sent to the states on March 22, 1972 with a seven - year ratification time limit attached). In 1978 Congress, by simple majority vote in both houses, extended the original deadline by 3 years, 3 months and 8 days (through June 30, 1982).
The amendment 's proponents argued that the fixing of a time limit and the extending of it were powers committed exclusively to Congress under the political question doctrine and that in any event Congress had power to extend. It was argued that inasmuch as the fixing of a reasonable time was within Congress ' power and that Congress could fix the time either in advance or at some later point, based upon its evaluation of the social and other bases of the necessities of the amendment, Congress did not do violence to the Constitution when, once having fixed the time, it subsequently extended the time. Proponents recognized that if the time limit was fixed in the text of the amendment Congress could not alter it because the time limit as well as the substantive provisions of the proposal had been subject to ratification by a number of States, making it unalterable by Congress except through the amending process again. Opponents argued that Congress, having by a two - thirds vote sent the amendment and its authorizing resolution to the states, had put the matter beyond changing by passage of a simple resolution, that states had either acted upon the entire package or at least that they had or could have acted affirmatively upon the promise of Congress that if the amendment had not been ratified within the prescribed period it would expire and their assent would not be compelled for longer than they had intended.
In 1981, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho, however, found that Congress did not have the authority to extend the deadline, even when only contained within the proposing joint resolution 's resolving clause. The Supreme Court had decided to take up the case, bypassing the Court of Appeals, but before they could hear the case, the extended period granted by Congress had been exhausted without the necessary number of states, thus rendering the case moot.
According to constitutional theorist and scholar Lawrence G. Sager, some commentators have seriously questioned whether Article V is the exclusive means of amending the Constitution, or whether there are routes to amendment, including some routes in which the Constitution could be unconsciously or unwittingly amended in a period of sustained political activity on the part of a mobilized national constituency. For example, Akhil Amar argues that the Constitution may be constitutionally amended outside of Article V. He rejects the notion that Article V excludes other modes of constitutional change, arguing instead that the procedure provided for in Article V is simply the exclusive method the government may use to amend the Constitution. He asserts that Article V nowhere prevents the People themselves, acting apart from ordinary Government, from exercising their legal right to alter or abolish Government via the proper legal procedures. Bruce Ackerman argues that the Constitution can be amended by something he calls a "structural amendment '' whereby the people alter their Constitutional order via succeeding elections. Similarly, Sanford Levinson believes that Constitutional amendments have been made outside of Article V and as such it is not exclusive.
Other scholars disagree with Amar, Ackerman, and Levinson. Some argue that the Constitution itself provides no mechanism for the American people to adopt constitutional amendments independently of Article V. Darren Patrick Guerra has argued that Article V is a vital part of the American Constitutional tradition and he defends Article V against modern critiques that Article V is either too difficult, too undemocratic, or too formal. Instead he argues that Article V provides a clear and stable way of amending the document that is explicit, authentic, and the exclusive means of amendment; it promotes wisdom and justice through enhancing deliberation and prudence; and its process complements federalism and separation of powers that are key features of the Constitution. He argues that Article V remains the most clear and powerful way to register the sovereign desires of the American public with regard to alterations of their fundamental law. In the end, Article V is an essential bulwark to maintaining a written Constitution that secures the rights of the people against both elites and themselves.
In his farewell address, President George Washington said:
If in the opinion of the People the distribution or modification of the Constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.
This statement by Washington has become controversial, and scholars disagree about whether it still describes the proper constitutional order in the United States. Scholars who dismiss Washington 's position often argue that the Constitution itself was adopted without following the procedures in the Articles of Confederation, while Constitutional attorney Michael Farris disagrees, saying the Convention was a product of the States ' residual power, and the amendment in adoption process was legal, having received the unanimous assent of the States ' legislatures.
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when were off together dancing cheek to cheek | Cheek to Cheek - wikipedia
"Cheek to Cheek '' is a song written by Irving Berlin in 1935, for the Fred Astaire / Ginger Rogers movie Top Hat (1935). In the movie, Astaire sings the song to Rogers as they dance. The song was nominated for the Best Song Academy Award for 1936, which it lost to "Lullaby of Broadway ''. The song spent five weeks at # 1 on Your Hit Parade and was named the # 1 song of 1935. Astaire 's 1935 recording with the Leo Reisman Orchestra was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2000. In 2004, Astaire 's version finished at No. 15 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.
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where is the first soap-like material thought to have been made | Adipocere - wikipedia
Adipocere (/ ˈædɪpəˌsɪər, - poʊ - /), also known as corpse, grave or mortuary wax, is a wax - like organic substance formed by the anaerobic bacterial hydrolysis of fat in tissue, such as body fat in corpses. In its formation, putrefaction is replaced by a permanent firm cast of fatty tissues, internal organs, and the face.
Adipocere was first described by Sir Thomas Browne in his discourse Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial (1658):
In a Hydropicall body ten years buried in a Church - yard, we met with a fat concretion, where the nitre of the Earth, and the salt and lixivious liquor of the body, had coagulated large lumps of fat, into the consistence of the hardest castile - soap: wherof part remaineth with us.
The chemical process of adipocere formation, saponification, came to be understood in the 17th century when microscopes became widely available.
In 1825, physician and lecturer Augustus Granville is believed to have (somewhat unwittingly) made candles from the adipocere of a mummy and used them to light the public lecture he gave to report on the mummy 's dissection. Granville apparently thought that the waxy material from which he made the candles had been used to preserve the mummy, rather than its being a product of the saponification of the mummified body.
The body of the "Soap Lady '', whose corpse turned itself into adipocere, is displayed in the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Probably the most famous known case of adipocere is that of Scotland 's Higgins brothers, murdered by their father in 1911 but whose bodies were not found until 1913. The bodies had been left floating in a flooded quarry, resulting in an almost complete transformation into adipocere. Pathologists Sydney Smith and Professor Littlejohn were able to find more than enough evidence from the preserved remains for police to identify the victims and charge the killer, who was hanged. At the same time the pathologists secretly took some of the remains back to Edinburgh University for further study; nearly a century later a relative requested the return of those remains so they could be given a Christian burial. The University agreed to do so if the claimant could prove her relationship to the boys and if other relatives agreed to her plan.
Adipocere is a crumbly, waxy, water - insoluble material consisting mostly of saturated fatty acids. Depending on whether it was formed from white or brown body fat, adipocere is either grayish white or tan in color.
In corpses, the firm cast of adipocere allows some estimation of body shape and facial features, and injuries are often well - preserved.
The transformation of fats into adipocere occurs best in an environment that has high levels of moisture and an absence of oxygen, such as in wet ground or mud at the bottom of a lake or a sealed casket, and it can occur with both embalmed and untreated bodies. Adipocere formation begins within a month of death, and, in the absence of air, it can persist for centuries. Adipocerous formation preserved the left hemisphere of the brain of a 13th - century infant such that sulci, gyri, and even Nissl bodies in the motor cortex could be distinguished in the 20th century. An exposed, infested body or a body in a warm environment is unlikely to form deposits of adipocere.
Corpses of women, infants and overweight persons are particularly prone to adipocere transformation because they contain more body fat. In forensic science, the utility of adipocere formation to estimate the postmortem interval is limited because the speed of the process is temperature - dependent. It is accelerated by warmth, but temperature extremes impede it.
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who assist cabinet ministers in running government ministries | Cabinet of the Bahamas - wikipedia
The Cabinet constitutes the executive branch and has general direction and control of the Government of The Bahamas. It is necessary for the Cabinet to comprise at least nine Ministers inclusive of the Prime Minister and Attorney General. All Ministers are Members of Parliament of either the House of Assembly or the Senate. The number of Ministers from the Senate is limited to three. In addition the Prime Minister and the Minister of Finance are required to be members of the House of Assembly. The functions of the Cabinet entail the final determination of government policy, control of government activities and coordination of government Ministries and Departments. The Cabinet meets at least once per week to consider various issues.
As of May 15, 2017 the Cabinet of Prime Minister Dr. Hubert Minnis consists of the following members: All taken from:
Hon. Brensil Rolle MP, Minister of State for the Public Service and National Insurance
Hon. Ellsworth Johnson MP, Minister of State for Legal Affairs in the Attorney General Office
Sen. Hon. J. Kwasi Thompson, Minister State for Grand Bahama in the Office of the Prime Minister
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who went from chelsea to monaco in 2016 | N'Golo Kanté - wikipedia
N'Golo Kanté (French: (ŋɡolo kɑ̃te); born 29 March 1991) is a French professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder for English club Chelsea and the France national team.
He made his senior debut at Boulogne and then spent two seasons at Caen, the latter in Ligue 1. In 2015, he joined Leicester City for a fee of £ 5.6 million and became an integral member of the club 's first ever Premier League win in his only season at the club. The following year, he joined Chelsea for a reported fee of £ 32 million, winning the league again in his first season. He also won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year and became the first outfield player to win back - to - back English league titles with different clubs since Eric Cantona in 1992 and 1993.
Kanté made his senior international debut for France in 2016. He was included in their squad that finished runners - up at that year 's European Championship.
Born in Paris, Kanté began his career at the age of eight at JS Suresnes in the western suburbs of the capital, remaining there for a decade. According to assistant manager Pierre Ville, Kanté remained outside the radar of big teams because of his small stature and selfless style of play. Through the contacts of Suresnes ' president in 2010, he joined the reserve team of Boulogne. He made his professional debut in the last game of the Ligue 2 season on 18 May 2012, a 1 -- 2 home defeat for his already relegated team to Monaco, replacing Virgile Reset for the final 11 minutes.
During the 2012 -- 13 season, he played in the third - tier Championnat National, missing only one league game. On 10 August, he scored his first senior goal, the only one in a win over Luzenac at the Stade de la Libération, and he added two more over the campaign.
In 2013, he joined Ligue 2 side Caen and played all 38 games in his first season as they came third in Ligue 2, earning them promotion to Ligue 1. In his second match on 9 August, he scored his first goal to equalise in a 2 -- 1 win at Laval; he levelled again with his other goal of the campaign on 11 April 2014, in a 3 -- 2 win at Istres.
The following season, Kanté played 37 games as Caen remained in the top flight; his one absence was suspension through being sent off in a 0 -- 1 home loss to Rennes on 30 August. Three weeks earlier, he scored their first goal of the season in a 3 -- 0 win at Evian. He recovered the ball more times over the season than any other player in Europe.
Kanté was scouted for Premier League club Leicester City by Steve Walsh, who had previously facilitated the transfers of Jamie Vardy and Riyad Mahrez to the team. On 3 August 2015, he joined Leicester on a four - year contract, for an undisclosed fee reported to be € 8 million (£ 5.6 million). He made his debut five days later by replacing Vardy for the final eight minutes of a 4 -- 2 home win over Sunderland. On 7 November, he scored his first Premier League goal in a 2 -- 1 home win against Watford.
He earned much praise and many plaudits for his consistently impressive displays for Leicester, and was widely considered to be a major factor in the club 's excellent form as they went on to win the Premier League, consistently making a high number of tackles and interceptions. In April, he was one of four Leicester players named in the PFA Team of the Year. By the end of the season, Kanté had managed 175 tackles (31 more than any other player) and 157 interceptions (15 more than any other player), topping the defensive stats at the end of the 2015 -- 16 Premier League season.
Kanté was the only key member of the squad to leave the club in the summer of 2016. His departure proved a major factor in Leicester 's sharp decline in form in the 2016 -- 17 season, as the club was unable to find an equally skilled midfielder to replace him.
On 16 July 2016, Kanté signed for Chelsea for a reported fee of £ 32 million. After signing a five - year contract with the club, Kanté said: "I am so happy to have signed for one of the biggest clubs in Europe. It 's a dream come true for me. '' Kanté was given the number 7 shirt, left vacant since the exit of Ramires in January.
On 15 August 2016, Kanté made his competitive debut in their season opener against West Ham United. Although he picked up a yellow in the first three minutes of the game, he shone as the game went on, to help Chelsea to a 2 -- 1 victory. Three months after his move to London, he faced his former side, Leicester City for the first time, and was Man of the Match in a 3 -- 0 victory. On 23 October, he scored his first goal for Chelsea in a 4 -- 0 home win against Manchester United.
On 26 December 2016, Kanté was named by L'Équipe as the world 's sixth best footballer of 2016.
On 13 March 2017, Kanté was named man of the match and scored the only goal in the 51st minute, in an FA Cup quarter - final win over Manchester United at Stamford Bridge.
On 20 April, Kanté was named in the PFA Team of the Year for the second consecutive season. He was also later named the PFA Players ' Player of the Year, the FWA Footballer of the Year, and the Premier League Player of the Season. Kanté become the first player since Eric Cantona in 1993 to win back ‐ to - back top - flight titles in England with two different clubs. In October 2017, Kanté was nominated for the Ballon d'Or, which is awarded to the best player in world football.
Born to Malian parents, Kanté was approached by Mali ahead of the 2015 African Cup of Nations having not played for France in any of their age group teams. Kanté declined on the basis that he was still trying to establish himself in Ligue 1. Mali issued a further invitation to Kanté in January 2016, although he stated that he was still undecided about which national team to represent should he get an invite from France.
On 17 March 2016, Kanté was selected for the France senior squad for the first time to face the Netherlands and Russia in friendlies. He made his debut against the former eight days later, replacing Lassana Diarra at half time in a 3 -- 2 win at the Amsterdam Arena. On his 25th birthday, 29 March, he made his first start and scored to open a 4 -- 2 win over Russia at the Stade de France; fellow birthday celebrant Dimitri Payet also scored.
On 10 June, Kanté appeared in his first competitive match for France by starting the opening match of Euro 2016 against Romania; he played the entire match, made the most passes, the most tackles, the most interceptions, covered the most distance on the pitch and assisted Dimitri Payet 's winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory. In the round of 16 match against the Republic of Ireland at the Parc Olympique Lyonnais, Kanté picked up a yellow card in the 27th minute (his second of Euro 2016 which would cause him to be suspended from the quarter - final) and was replaced with Kingsley Coman in the 46th minute with the French trailing 0 -- 1 at half time. Kanté was unused in the final, which France lost 1 -- 0 to Portugal after extra time.
After his first senior goal, French regional newspaper La Voix du Nord likened Kanté to Claude Makélélé in his early days at Nantes, due to their similar playing style and holding role in midfield. After asking the player if he considered Makélélé his role model, Kanté instead said that his was Lassana Diarra. Makélélé himself in February 2017 said that the one attribute Kanté needed to become an "exceptional player '' would be leadership. A dynamic, diminutive, and hard - working player, known for his energy and excellent ball - winning abilities as a box - to - box midfielder, as well as his positional sense, athleticism, intelligence, versatility, and ability to read the game, Kanté made the most tackles in Europe 's top leagues in both the 2014 -- 15 and 2015 -- 16 seasons.
Although he is predominantly known for the tactical and defensive aspect of his game -- namely his ability to cut out opposing attacks, tackle opponents, and intercept passes -- he is also capable of starting offensive plays after regaining possession, courtesy of his simple yet precise and efficient distribution. In April 2016 Alex Ferguson claimed that "Kanté is by far the best player in the league ''. Regarding Kanté 's tenacity and stamina, compatriot Paul Pogba has said of him: "Everybody knows that N'Golo Kanté can run for 11 players -- that 's his best quality '', while Kanté 's former Leicester manager Claudio Ranieri commented: "This player Kanté, he was running so hard that I thought he must have a pack full of batteries hidden in his shorts. He never stopped running in training. I tell him, ' One day, I 'm going to see you cross the ball, and then finish the cross with a header yourself. ' He 's unbelievable. ''
Aside from his playing ability, Kanté 's Chelsea manager Antonio Conte has also praised the midfielder for his discipline in training and willingness to improve himself constantly, and has described him as a "complete midfielder ''.
Kanté 's parents migrated to France from Mali in 1980, and he grew up in a small flat in Rueil - Malmaison, Hauts - de-Seine. As of 2017, his younger sister was in the youth system at Suresnes. At the start of his professional career at Boulogne, he commuted to training by kick scooter, and as of 2018 he drove a Mini Hatch, interpreted by BBC Sport 's Paul Fletcher as showing he is "uninterested in displaying his wealth ''.
Leicester City
Chelsea
Individual
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how is the south african government provides support to the road accident fund | Road accident Fund - wikipedia
The Road Accident Fund in South Africa, which is better known as the RAF, is a state insurer established by statute. It provides insurance cover to all drivers of motor vehicles in South Africa in respect of liability incurred or damage caused as a result of a traffic collision. Liability incurred in relation to property damage (such as damage to vehicles, buildings, vehicle contents) is excluded from cover. The Road Accident Fund operates a system whereby the claimant is assigned a percentage of responsibility for the accident, and the Road Accident Fund pays the claimant a percentage of a full settlement based on a percentage that was not deemed to be their responsibility. Insurance premiums are collected by the Road Accident Fund through a levy on motor vehicle fuel.
The RAF is a juristic person established by an Act of Parliament, namely, the Road Accident Fund Act, 1996 (Act No. 56 of 1996), as amended ('' RAF Act ''). It commenced operations on 1 May 1997, assuming at the time, all the rights, obligations, assets and liabilities of the Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund. The RAF is responsible for providing compulsory social insurance cover to all users of South African roads; to rehabilitate and compensate persons injured as a result of the negligent driving of motor vehicles in a timely and caring manner; and to actively promote the safe use of all South African roads. Section 3 of the RAF Act stipulates that "the object of the Fund shall be the payment of compensation in accordance with this Act for loss or damage wrongfully caused by the driving of a motor vehicle ''. The customer base of the RAF, therefore, comprises not only the South African public, but all foreigners within the borders of the country. The RAF provides two types of cover, namely personal insurance cover to accident victims or their families, and indemnity cover to wrongdoers.
Prior to 1997, the system of compulsory motor vehicle accident insurance was governed by the following legislation: Motor Vehicle Insurance Act, 1942 (Act No. 29 of 1942); Compulsory Motor Vehicle Insurance Act, 1972 (Act No. 56 of 1972); Motor Vehicle Accident Act, 1986 (Act No. 84 of 1986); and Multilateral Motor Vehicle Accidents Fund Act, 1989 (Act No. 93 of 1989).
The RAF, as established by the RAF Act, is owned by the South African public. It is listed as a national public entity in accordance with schedule 3A of the PFMA. Government 's governance oversight over the RAF includes:
(National Assembly) through the relevant Portfolio Committee and the Standing Committee on Public Accounts ("SCOPA ''); The Executive Authority, Honourable Minister of Transport; and Board of the RAF.
The National Assembly has legislative powers and maintains oversight of the National Executive Authority and the RAF as an organ of State. In addition, Parliament oversees the Executive Authority who is required to provide Parliament with full and regular reports concerning matters under his control. Parliament exercises oversight of the RAF through the Transport Portfolio Committee and through SCOPA. The Portfolio Committee oversees service delivery and performance in accordance with the mandate of the RAF and its corporate strategy. It reviews financial and non-financial information, such as efficiency and effectiveness measures in delivering services against corporate goals. The Minister of Transport is the Executive Authority of the RAF and is concerned with the financial viability and risks of the organisation, as well as policy - making and monitoring of policy implementation to ensure that the RAF effectively delivers on its mandate. The board of directors acts as the Accounting Authority of the RAF and is accountable to the Executive Authority for the performance and affairs of the entity. The RAF 's Board is responsible for determining the overall direction of the RAF, formulating and implementing policies that are necessary to achieve the RAF 's strategic goals, and maintaining good corporate governance.
The RAF provides compulsory cover to all users of South African roads, both citizens and foreigners, against injuries sustained or death arising from accidents involving motor vehicles within the borders of South Africa. This cover is in the form of indemnity insurance to persons who cause the accident, as well as personal injury and death insurance to victims of motor vehicle accidents and their families.
Road transportation is a critical element supporting and directly contributing to growth in any economy. Road accidents are, unfortunately, a negative consequence of this economic growth, affecting both economically active members of our society and other citizens. Free markets, and in particular the private sector, do not fully address the impact of road accidents on society and the economy. The RAF provides a social security safety net to the country and economy by making available compulsory social insurance cover to all users of South African roads. Contributions to the RAF are done by way of a levy on fuel used for road transportation. The cover extends to all members of society including, but not limited to, the poor, children, legal and illegal immigrants, foreigners, owners and drivers of motor vehicles, as well as their passengers. The social insurance cover, however, does not extend to drivers of motor vehicles that are found to be negligent.
The socio - economic role of the RAF is to re-integrate victims of road accidents into society, from a health and economic perspective, and to protect at - fault drivers and their families from financial ruin. This is done by the RAF paying the medical and related services costs required to restore accident victims to health, compensating the victims or their families for income or support lost as a result of the accident, and indemnifying the wrongdoer from liability. In addition, the RAF pays general damages to accident victims as compensation for pain and suffering, loss of amenities of life, disability and disfigurement, as well as funeral costs to families in circumstances where the victim of the accident sustains fatal injuries.
The vision of the RAF is "to provide the highest standard of care to road accident victims to restore balance in the social system ''.
The mission of the RAF is "to provide appropriate cover to all road users within the borders of South Africa; to rehabilitate persons injured, compensate for injuries or death and indemnify wrongdoers as a result of motor vehicle accidents in a timely, caring and sustainable manner; and to support the safe use of our roads ''.
The RAF can obtain its funding from several sources as outlined below:
Fuel levy income; Government grants, paid by National Treasury when there is a pressing need such as an acute cash shortage; Borrowings / loans, which are an allowed source of funding according to the RAF Act. This option has not been used to date; and Investment income, acquired from invested funds that occasionally result when the RAF 's operational capacity prevents it from paying out all its funds.
The primary source of income for the RAF compensation scheme is a levy raised on fuel. The levy is measured in terms of cents per litre on petrol and diesel fuel sold in South Africa and forms part of the general fuel tax regulated by government. The fuel levy per litre is set by National Treasury on a yearly basis, whereas total fuel sales are influenced by a number of macro-economic factors. On an annual basis, the RAF requests National Treasury for an increase in the RAF Fuel Levy, based on a financial model and a calculation of its costs during the coming year. The full extent of the RAF Fuel Levy requested is seldom granted. This is because National Treasury has historically set the levy on the basis of a pay - as - you - go principle rather than with the purpose of establishing a fully funded position for the RAF. During the 2012 financial year the RAF Fuel Levy was set at 80 cents per litre.
The RAF is not involved in the collection of its fuel levy. The South African Revenue Service ("SARS '') administers the collection of the fuel levy and pays it to the RAF, in accordance with provisions of the Customs and Excise Act, 1964 (Act No. 91 of 1964) and the RAF Act. The two main variables that determine the income of the RAF are the volume of petrol and diesel sold per annum and the rate of the levy. The RAF Fuel Levy can be viewed as a compulsory contribution to social security benefits which is used only for the specific purposes as provided for in legislation.
The RAF is affected by general economic conditions and other environmental factors, and by the extent to which it manages its costs effectively.
The nexus of all these factors is road activity in South Africa:
The number of vehicles on the road influences the amount of fuel sold, which in turn affects the revenue granted to the RAF by National Treasury. This revenue comprises the fuel levy together with ad hoc government grants and minor income from investments to equal the RAF 's total revenue. The number of vehicles on the road also influences the number of accidents, although many other factors influence this statistic, particularly the relative severity of accidents. Volume and severity of accidents influence the volume and average value of claims made against the RAF. Claims, combined with the cost of third parties, such as attorneys and medical / legal experts, and the RAF 's administration costs, equal the RAF 's total costs.
2 Eco Glades Office Park, 420 Witch - Hazel Avenue, Centurion, P / Bag X178, Centurion, 0046 Tel: + 27 12 621 1600 / 1622
Road Accident Fund Building, 38 Ida Street, Menlopark, Pretoria, 0081 P / Bag X2003, Menlyn, 0063 Tel: + 27 12 429 5000
Road Accident Fund Building, 38 Ida Street, Menlopark, Pretoria, 0081 PO Box 2743, Pretoria, 0001 Tel: + 27 12 429 5000
Marble Towers, 29th Floor, 212 Jeppe Street (Cnr Jeppe & Von Wielligh Street), Johannesburg, 2001 P / Bag X02, Johannesburg, 2000 Tel: + 27 11 223 0000
Metropolitan Building, 4th Floor, Cnr Drury Lane & Caxton Street, East London, 5200 P / Bag X9000, East London, 5200 Tel: + 27 43 702 7800
The Embassy Building, 12th Floor, 199 Anton Lembede Street (previously Smith Street), Durban, 4001 P / Bag X54371, Durban, 4000 Tel: + 27 31 565 2800
1 Thibault Square, 7th Floor, Long Street, Cape Town, 8001 PO Box 2443, Cape Town, 8000 Tel: + 27 21 408 3300
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who is the oldest person to have been president answers.com | Native Americans in the United States - wikipedia
American Indian and Alaska Native (2010 Census Bureau) One race: 2,932,248 are registered In combination with one or more of the other races listed: 2,288,331 Total: 5,220,579
Native Americans, also known as American Indians, Indians, Indigenous Americans and other terms, are the indigenous peoples of the United States. There are over 500 federally recognized tribes within the U.S., about half of which are associated with Indian reservations. The term excludes Native Hawaiians and some Alaska Natives.
The ancestors of modern Native Americans arrived in what is now the United States at least 15,000 years ago, possibly much earlier, from Asia via Beringia. A vast variety of peoples, societies and cultures subsequently developed. Native Americans were greatly affected by the European colonization of the Americas, which began in 1492, and their population declined precipitously due to introduced diseases, warfare, and slavery. After the founding of the United States, many Native American peoples were subjected to warfare, removals, and one - sided treaties, and they continue to suffer from discriminatory government policies today. Since the 1960s, Native American self - determination movements have resulted in many changes to the lives of Native Americans, though there are still many contemporary issues faced by Native Americans. Today, there are over five million Native Americans in the United States.
Since the end of the 15th century, the migration of Europeans to the Americas has led to centuries of population, cultural, and agricultural transfer and adjustment between Old and New World societies, a process known as the Columbian exchange. As most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by oral traditions and artwork, the first written sources of the conflict were written by Europeans.
At the time of the first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto - industrial and mostly Christian immigrants. Some Northeastern and Southwestern cultures, in particular, were matrilineal and operated on a more collective basis than the Europeans were familiar with. The majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had patriarchal cultures and had developed concepts of individual property rights with respect to land that were extremely different. The differences in cultures between the established Native Americans and immigrant Europeans, as well as shifting alliances among different nations in times of war, caused extensive political tension, ethnic violence, and social disruption. Even before the European settlement of what is now the United States, Native Americans suffered high fatalities from contact with new European diseases, to which they had not yet acquired immunity; the diseases were endemic to the Spanish and other Europeans, and spread by direct contact and likely through pigs that escaped from expeditions. Smallpox epidemics are thought to have caused the greatest loss of life for indigenous populations. William M Denevan, noted author and Professor Emeritus of Geography at the University of Wisconsin - Madison, said on this subject in his essay "The Pristine Myth: The Landscape of the Americas in 1492 ''; "The decline of native American populations was rapid and severe, probably the greatest demographic disaster ever. Old World diseases were the primary killer. In many regions, particularly the tropical lowlands, populations fell by 90 percent or more in the first century after the contact. ''
Estimates of the pre-Columbian population of what today constitutes the U.S. vary significantly, ranging from William M Denevan 's 3.8 million in his 1992 work The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, to 18 million in Henry F Dobyns 's Their Number Become Thinned (1983). Henry F Dobyns ' work, being the highest single point estimate by far within the realm of professional academic research on the topic, has been criticized for being "politically motivated ''. Perhaps Dobyns ' most vehement critic is David Henige, a bibliographer of Africana at the University of Wisconsin, whose Numbers From Nowhere (1998) is described as "a landmark in the literature of demographic fulmination. '' "Suspect in 1966, it is no less suspect nowadays, '' Henige wrote of Dobyns 's work. "If anything, it is worse. ''
After the thirteen colonies revolted against Great Britain and established the United States, President George Washington and Henry Knox conceived of the idea of "civilizing '' Native Americans in preparation for assimilation as U.S. citizens. Assimilation (whether voluntary, as with the Choctaw, or forced) became a consistent policy through American administrations. During the 19th century, the ideology of manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European - American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands, warfare between the groups, and rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of the Mississippi River, accommodating European - American expansion. This resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as The Trail of Tears.
As American expansion reached into the West, settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the Great Basin, Great Plains, and other Western tribes. These were complex nomadic cultures based on (introduced) horse culture and seasonal bison hunting. They carried out resistance against United States incursion in the decades after the end of the Civil War and the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in a series of Indian Wars, which were frequent up until the 1890s and continued into the 20th century. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes and established reservations for them in many western states. U.S. Indian agents encouraged Native Americans to adopt European - style farming and similar pursuits, but European - American agricultural technology of the time was inadequate for the often dry reservation lands, leading to mass starvation. In 1924, Native Americans who were not already U.S. citizens were granted citizenship by Congress.
Contemporary Native Americans have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes, or bands with sovereignty and treaty rights. Cultural activism since the late 1960s has increased political participation and led to an expansion of efforts to teach and preserve indigenous languages for younger generations and to establish a greater cultural infrastructure: Native Americans have founded independent newspapers and online media, recently including First Nations Experience, the first Native American television channel; established Native American studies programs, tribal schools, and universities, and museums and language programs; and have increasingly been published as authors in numerous genres.
The terms used to refer to Native Americans have at times been controversial. The ways Native Americans refer to themselves vary by region and generation, with many older Native Americans self - identifying as "Indians '' or "American Indians '', while younger Native Americans often identify as "Indigenous '' or "Aboriginal ''. The term "Native American '' has not traditionally included Native Hawaiians or certain Alaskan Natives, such as Aleut, Yup'ik, or Inuit peoples. By comparison, the indigenous peoples of Canada are generally known as First Nations.
It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first settled the Americas and the present - day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from Eurasia across Beringia, a land bridge that connected Siberia to present - day Alaska during the Ice Age, and then spread southward throughout the Americas over the subsequent generations. Genetic evidence suggests at least three waves of migrants arrived from Asia, with the first occurring at least 15 thousand years ago. These migrations may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level caused by the ending of the last glacial period. These early inhabitants, called Paleoamericans, soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during the Early Modern period. While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus ' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus ' initial landing.
Native American cultures are not normally included in characterizations of advanced stone age cultures as "Neolithic, '' which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia, Africa, and other regions. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases; see Archaeology of the Americas.
The Clovis culture, a megafauna hunting culture, is primarily identified by the use of fluted spear points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near Clovis, New Mexico. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive Clovis point, a flaked flint spear - point with a notched flute, by which it was inserted into a shaft. Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of carbon dating methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon - dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years B.P. (roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE).
Numerous Paleoindian cultures occupied North America, with some arrayed around the Great Plains and Great Lakes of the modern United States and Canada, as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living on this continent since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation stories. Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the Mississippi River. Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians. Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas.
The Folsom Tradition was characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of bison took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE.
Na - Dené - speaking peoples entered North America starting around 8000 BCE, reaching the Pacific Northwest by 5000 BCE, and from there migrating along the Pacific Coast and into the interior. Linguists, anthropologists, and archaeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later than the first Paleo - Indians. They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, into the interior of Canada, and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest.
Na - Dené - speaking peoples were the earliest ancestors of the Athabascan - speaking peoples, including the present - day and historical Navajo and Apache. They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used seasonally. People did not live there year - round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for the winter. The Oshara Tradition people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE. They were part of the Southwestern Archaic Tradition centered in north - central New Mexico, the San Juan Basin, the Rio Grande Valley, southern Colorado, and southeastern Utah.
Since the 1990s, archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle Archaic sites in present - day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple earthwork mounds; they were societies of hunter - gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of Neolithic Revolution to sustain such large villages over long periods. The prime example is Watson Brake in northern Louisiana, whose 11 - mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE, making it the oldest, dated site in North America for such complex construction. It is nearly 2,000 years older than the Poverty Point site. Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until the site was abandoned about 2800 BCE, probably due to changing environmental conditions.
Poverty Point culture is a Late Archaic archaeological culture that inhabited the area of the lower Mississippi Valley and surrounding Gulf Coast. The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE, during the Late Archaic period. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, from the major complex at Poverty Point, Louisiana (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) across a 100 - mile (160 km) range to the Jaketown Site near Belzoni, Mississippi.
Poverty Point is a 1 square mile (2.6 km) complex of six major earthwork concentric rings, with additional platform mounds at the site. Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region. This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as mound builders.
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland '' was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites dated between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. The Hopewell tradition is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE.
The indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift - giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate special events. These events include the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events.
The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange; most activities were conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States.
The Great Kiva of Chetro Ketl at the Chaco Culture National Historical Park, UNESCO World Heritage Site
Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Taos Pueblo, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is an Ancient Pueblo belonging to a Native American tribe of Pueblo people, marking the cultural development in the region during the Pre-Columbian era.
White House Ruins, Canyon de Chelly National Monument
After 1492, European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. Many of the first major contacts were in Florida and the Gulf coast by Spanish explorers.
From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Indians sharply declined. Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Native Americans because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe. It is difficult to estimate the number of pre-Columbian Native Americans who were living in what is today the United States of America. Estimates range from a low of 2.1 million to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983). By 1800, the Native population of the present - day United States had declined to approximately 600,000, and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s. Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas, large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 16th century.
There are a number of documented cases where diseases were deliberately spread among Native Americans as a form of biological warfare. The most well - known example occurred in 1763, when Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Commander - in - Chief of the Forces of the British Army, wrote praising the use of smallpox - infected blankets to "extirpate '' the Indian race. Blankets infected with smallpox were given to Native Americans besieging Fort Pitt. The effectiveness of the attempt is unclear.
In 1634, Fr. Andrew White of the Society of Jesus established a mission in what is now the state of Maryland, and the purpose of the mission, stated through an interpreter to the chief of an Indian tribe there, was "to extend civilization and instruction to his ignorant race, and show them the way to heaven. '' Fr. Andrew 's diaries report that by 1640, a community had been founded which they named St. Mary 's, and the Indians were sending their children there "to be educated among the English. '' This included the daughter of the Piscataway Indian chief Tayac, which exemplifies not only a school for Indians, but either a school for girls, or an early co-ed school. The same records report that in 1677, "a school for humanities was opened by our Society in the centre of (Maryland), directed by two of the Fathers; and the native youth, applying themselves assiduously to study, made good progress. Maryland and the recently established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans, when competing for the honor of being first in their class. So that not gold, nor silver, nor the other products of the earth alone, but men also are gathered from thence to bring those regions, which foreigners have unjustly called ferocious, to a higher state of virtue and cultivation. ''
Through the mid-17th century the Beaver Wars were fought over the fur trade between the Iroquois and the Hurons, the northern Algonquians, and their French allies. During the war the Iroquois destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the Huron, Neutral, Erie, Susquehannock, and Shawnee, and became dominant in the region and enlarged their territory.
In 1727, the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula founded Ursuline Academy in New Orleans, which is currently the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States. From the time of its foundation, it offered the first classes for Native American girls, and would later offer classes for female African - American slaves and free women of color.
Between 1754 and 1763, many Native American tribes were involved in the French and Indian War / Seven Years ' War. Those involved in the fur trade tended to ally with French forces against British colonial militias. The British had made fewer allies, but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories. They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned. The tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies. Some Iroquois who were loyal to the British, and helped them fight in the American Revolution, fled north into Canada.
After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30 % of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next eighty to one hundred years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region. Puget Sound area populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people, were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century.
Smallpox epidemics in 1780 -- 82 and 1837 -- 38 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. By 1832, the federal government established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832). It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans.
With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were carried from one to the other, both deliberately and by chance, in what is called the Columbian Exchange. In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought horses to Mexico. Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. As Native Americans adopted use of the animals, they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their nomadic ranges for hunting. The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on Native American culture of the Great Plains.
King Philip 's War, also called Metacom 's War or Metacom 's Rebellion, was the last major armed conflict between Native American inhabitants of present - day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675 to 1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678.
Some European philosophers considered Native American societies to be truly "natural '' and representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history.
During the American Revolution, the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the Mississippi River. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, based both on their trading relationships and hopes that colonial defeat would result in a halt to further colonial expansion onto Native American land. The first native community to sign a treaty with the new United States Government was the Lenape.
In 1779 the Sullivan Expedition was carried out during the American Revolutionary War against the British and the four allied nations of the Iroquois. George Washington gave orders that made it clear he wanted the Iroquois threat completely eliminated:
The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more.
The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans.
The United States was eager to expand, develop farming and settlements in new areas, and satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by treaties. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy.
United States policy toward Native Americans continued to evolve after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing '' process. Washington had a six - point plan for civilization which included:
In the late 18th century, reformers starting with Washington and Knox, supported educating native children and adults, in efforts to "civilize '' or otherwise assimilate Native Americans to the larger society (as opposed to relegating them to reservations). The Civilization Fund Act of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies (mostly religious) who worked on Native American improvement.
Following the US takeover of California, famine, violence, and starvation caused the reduction of the indigenous population of California from 150,000 in 1848 to just 15,000 in 1900. During the California Gold Rush, many natives were killed by incoming settlers as well as by militia units financed and organized by the California government. Some scholars contend that the state financing of these militias, as well as the US government 's role in other massacres in California, such as the Bloody Island and Yontoket Massacres, in which up to 400 or more natives were killed in each massacre, constitutes a campaign of genocide against the native people of California.
As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers ' encroachment in several regions of the new nation (and in unorganized territories), from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the tribes of the Great Plains. East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811 -- 12, known as Tecumseh 's War. During the War of 1812, Tecumseh 's forces allied themselves with the British. After Tecumseh 's death, the British ceased to aid the Native Americans south and west of Upper Canada and American expansion proceeded with little resistance. Conflicts in the Southeast include the Creek War and Seminole Wars, both before and after the Indian Removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes.
In the 1830s, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, a policy of relocating Indians from their homelands to Indian Territory and reservations in surrounding areas to open their lands for non-native settlements. This resulted in the Trail of Tears.
In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase, "Manifest Destiny '', as the "design of Providence '' supporting the territorial expansion of the United States. Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion for the United States took place at the cost of their occupied land. A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of the indigenous people emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of all Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages '' (as described in the United States Declaration of Independence). The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 set the precedent for modern - day Native American reservations through allocating funds to move western tribes onto reservations since there were no more lands available for relocation.
Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U.S. throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally Indian Wars. Notable conflicts in this period include the Dakota War, Great Sioux War, Snake War and Colorado War. Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, Theodore Roosevelt believed the Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an 1886 lecture:
I do n't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I should n't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth.
Among the most notable events during the wars was the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. In the years leading up to it the U.S. government had continued to seize Lakota lands. A Ghost Dance ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, led to the U.S. Army 's attempt to subdue the Lakota. The dance was part of a religious movement founded by the Northern Paiute spiritual leader Wovoka that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Edenic world. On December 29 at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U.S. soldiers killed up to 300 Indians, mostly old men, women, and children.
Native Americans served in both the Union and Confederate military during the American Civil War. At the outbreak of the war, for example, the minority party of the Cherokees gave its allegiance to the Confederacy, while originally the majority party went for the North. Native Americans fought knowing they might jeopardize their independence, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War. 28,693 Native Americans served in the Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War, participating in battles such as Pea Ridge, Second Manassas, Antietam, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, and in Federal assaults on Petersburg. A few Native American tribes, such as the Creek and the Choctaw, were slaveholders and found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy. The Choctaw owned over 2,000 slaves.
In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Treaty of Hopewell of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river.
As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this Indian removal policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties. The most egregious violation, the Trail of Tears, was the removal of the Cherokee by President Jackson to Indian Territory. The 1864 deportation of the Navajos by the U.S. government occurred when 8,000 Navajos were forced to an internment camp in Bosque Redondo, where, under armed guards, more than 3,500 Navajo and Mescalero Apache men, women, and children died from starvation and disease.
In 1817, the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U.S. citizens. Under Article 8 of the 1817 Cherokee treaty, "Upwards of 300 Cherokees (Heads of Families) in the honest simplicity of their souls, made an election to become American citizens ''.
Factors establishing citizenship included:
After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 states, "that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States ''.
In 1871, Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant, ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.
After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the government established Native American boarding schools, initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. At this time, American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school experience was a total immersion in modern American society, but it could prove traumatic to children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages. They were taught Christianity and not allowed to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities.
Before the 1930s, schools on the reservations provided no schooling beyond the sixth grade. To obtain more, boarding school was usually necessary. Small reservations with a few hundred people usually sent their children to nearby public schools. The "Indian New Deal '' of the 1930s closed many of the boarding schools, and downplayed the assimilationist goals. The Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps operated large - scale construction projects on the reservations, building thousands of new schools and community buildings. Under the leadership of John Collier the BIA brought in progressive educators to reshape Indian education. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) by 1938 taught 30,000 students in 377 boarding and day schools, or 40 % of all Indian children in school. The Navajo largely opposed schooling of any sort, but the other tribes accepted the system. There were now high schools on larger reservations, educating not only teenagers but also an adult audience. There were no Indian facilities for higher education. They deemphasized textbooks, emphasized self - esteem, and started teaching Indian history. They promoted traditional arts and crafts of the sort that could be conducted on the reservations, such as making jewelry. The New Deal reformers met significant resistance from parents and teachers, and had mixed results. World War II brought younger Indians in contact with the broader society through military service and work in the munitions industries. The role of schooling was changed to focus on vocational education for jobs in urban America.
Since the rise of self - determination for Native Americans, they have generally emphasized education of their children at schools near where they live. In addition, many federally recognized tribes have taken over operations of such schools and added programs of language retention and revival to strengthen their cultures. Beginning in the 1970s, tribes have also founded colleges at their reservations, controlled, and operated by Native Americans, to educate their young for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures.
On August 29, 1911, Ishi, generally considered to have been the last Native American to live most of his life without contact with European - American culture, was discovered near Oroville, California.
In 1919, the United States under President Woodrow Wilson granted citizenship to all Native Americans who had served in World War I. Nearly 10,000 men had enlisted and served, a high number in relation to their population. Despite this, in many areas Native Americans faced local resistance when they tried to vote and were discriminated against with barriers to voter registration.
On June 2, 1924, U.S. President Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act, which made all Native Americans born in the United States and its territories American citizens. Prior to passage of the act, nearly two - thirds of Native Americans were already U.S. citizens, through marriage, military service or accepting land allotments. The Act extended citizenship to "all non-citizen Indians born within the territorial limits of the United States. ''
Charles Curtis, a Congressman and longtime US Senator from Kansas, was of Kaw, Osage, Potawatomi, and European ancestry. After serving as a United States Representative and being repeatedly re-elected as United States Senator from Kansas, Curtis served as Senate Minority Whip for 10 years and as Senate Majority Leader for five years. He was very influential in the Senate. In 1928 he ran as the vice-presidential candidate with Herbert Hoover for president, and served from 1929 to 1933. He was the first person with significant Native American ancestry and the first person with acknowledged non-European ancestry to be elected to either of the highest offices in the land.
American Indians today in the United States have all the rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution, can vote in elections, and run for political office. Controversies remain over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over tribal affairs, sovereignty, and cultural practices.
Mid-century, the Indian termination policy and the Indian Relocation Act of 1956 marked a new direction for assimilating Native Americans into urban life.
The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to a low of $23 million in 1933, and returning to $38 million in 1940.
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United States military during World War II: at the time, one - third of all able - bodied Indian men from eighteen to fifty years of age. Described as the first large - scale exodus of indigenous peoples from the reservations since the removals of the 19th century, the men 's service with the U.S. military in the international conflict was a turning point in Native American history. The overwhelming majority of Native Americans welcomed the opportunity to serve; they had a voluntary enlistment rate that was 40 % higher than those drafted.
Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward Native American comrades by calling them "chief ''. The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. "The war '', said the U.S. Indian Commissioner in 1945, "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era '', affecting the habits, views, and economic well - being of tribal members. The most significant of these changes was the opportunity -- as a result of wartime labor shortages -- to find well - paying work in cities, and many people relocated to urban areas, particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the defense industry.
There were also losses as a result of the war. For instance, a total of 1,200 Pueblo men served in World War II; only about half came home alive. In addition, many more Navajo served as code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although cryptologically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.
Military service and urban residency contributed to the rise of American Indian activism, particularly after the 1960s and the occupation of Alcatraz Island (1969 -- 1971) by a student Indian group from San Francisco. In the same period, the American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in Minneapolis, and chapters were established throughout the country, where American Indians combined spiritual and political activism. Political protests gained national media attention and the sympathy of the American public.
Through the mid-1970s, conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence. A notable late 20th - century event was the Wounded Knee incident on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. Upset with tribal government and the failures of the federal government to enforce treaty rights, about 300 Oglala Lakota and AIM activists took control of Wounded Knee on February 27, 1973.
Indian activists from around the country joined them at Pine Ridge, and the occupation became a symbol of rising American Indian identity and power. Federal law enforcement officials and the national guard cordoned off the town, and the two sides had a standoff for 71 days. During much gunfire, one United States Marshal was wounded and paralyzed. In late April, a Cherokee and local Lakota man were killed by gunfire; the Lakota elders ended the occupation to ensure no more lives were lost.
In June 1975, two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight, and killed at close range. The AIM activist Leonard Peltier was sentenced in 1976 to two consecutive terms of life in prison in the FBI deaths.
In 1968, the government enacted the Indian Civil Rights Act. This gave tribal members most of the protections against abuses by tribal governments that the Bill of Rights accords to all U.S. citizens with respect to the federal government. In 1975, the U.S. government passed the Indian Self - Determination and Education Assistance Act, marking the culmination of fifteen years of policy changes. It resulted from American Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement, and community development aspects of President Lyndon Johnson 's social programs of the 1960s. The Act recognized the right and need of Native Americans for self - determination. It marked the U.S. government 's turn away from the 1950s policy of termination of the relationship between tribes and the government. The U.S. government encouraged Native Americans ' efforts at self - government and determining their futures. Tribes have developed organizations to administer their own social, welfare and housing programs, for instance. Tribal self - determination has created tension with respect to the federal government 's historic trust obligation to care for Indians; however, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has never lived up to that responsibility.
Navajo Community College, now called Diné College, the first tribal college, was founded in Tsaile, Arizona, in 1968 and accredited in 1979. Tensions immediately arose between two philosophies: one that the tribal colleges should have the same criteria, curriculum and procedures for educational quality as mainstream colleges, the other that the faculty and curriculum should be closely adapted to the particular historical culture of the tribe. There was a great deal of turnover, exacerbated by very tight budgets. In 1994, the U.S. Congress passed legislation recognizing the tribal colleges as land - grant colleges, which provided opportunities for large - scale funding. Thirty - two tribal colleges in the United States belong to the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. By the early 21st century, tribal nations had also established numerous language revival programs in their schools.
In addition, Native American activism has led major universities across the country to establish Native American studies programs and departments, increasing awareness of the strengths of Indian cultures, providing opportunities for academics, and deepening research on history and cultures in the United States. Native Americans have entered academia; journalism and media; politics at local, state and federal levels; and public service, for instance, influencing medical research and policy to identify issues related to American Indians.
In 2009, an "apology to Native Peoples of the United States '' was included in the defense appropriations act. It states that the U.S. "apologizes on behalf of the people of the United States to all Native Peoples for the many instances of violence, maltreatment, and neglect inflicted on Native Peoples by citizens of the United States. ''
In 2013, jurisdiction over persons who were not tribal members under the Violence Against Women Act was extended to Indian Country. This closed a gap which prevented arrest or prosecution by tribal police or courts of abusive partners of tribal members who were not native or from another tribe.
Migration to urban areas continued to grow with 70 % of Native Americans living in urban areas in 2012, up from 45 % in 1970 and 8 % in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Albuquerque, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles, and Rapid City. Many lived in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs were common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempted to address. Grassroots efforts to support urban Indigenous populations have also taken place, as in the case of Bringing the Circle Together in Los Angeles.
The census counted 248,000 Indians in 1890, 332,000 in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to a low of $23 million in 1933, and returning to $38 million in 1940.
The 2010 census permitted respondents to self - identify as being of one or more races. Self - identification dates from the census of 1960; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race was introduced in 2000. If American Indian or Alaska Native was selected, the form requested the individual provide the name of the "enrolled or principal tribe ''. The 2010 Census showed that the U.S. population on April 1, 2010, was 308.7 million.
Out of the total U.S. population, 2.9 million people, or 0.9 percent, reported American Indian or Alaska Native alone. In addition, 2.3 million people, or another 0.7 percent, reported American Indian or Alaska Native in combination with one or more other races. Together, these two groups totaled 5.2 million people. Thus, 1.7 percent of all people in the United States identified as American Indian or Alaska Native, either alone or in combination with one or more other races.
The definition of American Indian or Alaska Native used in the 2010 census:
According to Office of Management and Budget, "American Indian or Alaska Native '' refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.
78 % of Native Americans live outside a reservation. Full - blood individuals are more likely to live on a reservation than mixed - blood individuals. The Navajo, with 286,000 full - blood individuals, is the largest tribe if only full - blood individuals are counted; the Navajo are the tribe with the highest proportion of full - blood individuals, 86.3 %. The Cherokee have a different history; it is the largest tribe with 819,000 individuals, and it has 284,000 full - blood individuals.
As of 2012, 70 % of American Indians live in urban areas, up from 45 % in 1970 and 8 % in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles, and Rapid City. Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs are common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address.
According to 2003 United States Census Bureau estimates, a little over one third of the 2,786,652 Native Americans in the United States live in three states: California at 413,382, Arizona at 294,137 and Oklahoma at 279,559.
In 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 0.8 % of the U.S. population was of American Indian or Alaska Native descent. This population is unevenly distributed across the country. Below, all fifty states, as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are listed by the proportion of residents citing American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry, based on the 2010 U.S. Census.
In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1.0 % of the U.S. population was of Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander descent. This population is unevenly distributed across twenty - six states. Below, are the twenty - six states that had at least 0.1 %. They are listed by the proportion of residents citing Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, based on 2006 estimates:
Below are numbers for U.S. citizens self - identifying to selected tribal grouping, according to the 2000 U.S. census.
There are 573 federally recognized tribal governments in the United States. These tribes possess the right to form their own governments, to enforce laws (both civil and criminal) within their lands, to tax, to establish requirements for membership, to license and regulate activities, to zone, and to exclude persons from tribal territories. Limitations on tribal powers of self - government include the same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money (this includes paper currency).
Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the U.S. federal government 's claim to recognize the "sovereignty '' of Native American peoples falls short, given that the United States wishes to govern Native American peoples and treat them as subject to U.S. law. Such advocates contend that full respect for Native American sovereignty would require the U.S. government to deal with Native American peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native Americans through the Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km) of land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives ''. Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it is condescending for such lands to be considered "held in trust '' and regulated in any fashion by other than their own tribes, whether the U.S. or Canadian governments, or any other non-Native American authority.
As of 2000, the largest groups in the United States by population were Navajo, Cherokee, Choctaw, Sioux, Chippewa, Apache, Blackfeet, Iroquois, and Pueblo. In 2000, eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed ancestry. It is estimated that by 2100 that figure will rise to nine out of ten.
In addition, there are a number of tribes that are recognized by individual states, but not by the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with state recognition vary from state to state.
Some tribal groups have been unable to document the cultural continuity required for federal recognition. The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco bay area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition. Many of the smaller eastern tribes, long considered remnants of extinct peoples, have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. Several tribes in Virginia and North Carolina have gained state recognition. Federal recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining federal recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent and continuity of the tribe as a culture.
In July 2000, the Washington State Republican Party adopted a resolution recommending that the federal and legislative branches of the U.S. government terminate tribal governments. In 2007, a group of Democratic Party congressmen and congresswomen introduced a bill in the U.S. House of Representatives to "terminate '' the Cherokee Nation. This was related to their voting to exclude Cherokee Freedmen as members of the tribe unless they had a Cherokee ancestor on the Dawes Rolls, although all Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants had been members since 1866.
As of 2004, various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to gain control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as coal and uranium in the West.
In the state of Virginia, Native Americans face a unique problem. Virginia has no federally recognized tribes but the state has recognized eight. This is related historically to the greater impact of disease and warfare on the Virginia Indian populations, as well as their intermarriage with Europeans and Africans. Some people confused the ancestry with culture, but groups of Virginia Indians maintained their cultural continuity. Most of their early reservations were ended under the pressure of early European settlement.
Some historians also note the problems of Virginia Indians in establishing documented continuity of identity, due to the work of Walter Ashby Plecker (1912 -- 1946). As registrar of the state 's Bureau of Vital Statistics, he applied his own interpretation of the one - drop rule, enacted in law in 1924 as the state 's Racial Integrity Act. It recognized only two races: "white '' and "colored ''.
Plecker, a segregationist, believed that the state 's Native Americans had been "mongrelized '' by intermarriage with African Americans; to him, ancestry determined identity, rather than culture. He thought that some people of partial black ancestry were trying to "pass '' as Native Americans. Plecker thought that anyone with any African heritage had to be classified as colored, regardless of appearance, amount of European or Native American ancestry, and cultural / community identification. Plecker pressured local governments into reclassifying all Native Americans in the state as "colored '', and gave them lists of family surnames to examine for reclassification based on his interpretation of data and the law. This led to the state 's destruction of accurate records related to families and communities who identified as Native American (as in church records and daily life). By his actions, sometimes different members of the same family were split by being classified as "white '' or "colored ''. He did not allow people to enter their primary identification as Native American in state records. In 2009, the Senate Indian Affairs Committee endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition to tribes in Virginia.
To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups ' satisfying the same requirements as they did.
Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a vulnerability to and disproportionately high rate of alcoholism.
It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of diabetes, alcoholism, tuberculosis, suicide, and other health conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all other Americans. -- U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (September 2004)
In a study conducted in 2006 -- 2007, non-Native Americans admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice, mistreatment, and inequality in the broader society.
Federal contractors and subcontractors, such as businesses and educational institutions, are legally required to adopt equal opportunity employment and affirmative action measures intended to prevent discrimination against employees or applicants for employment on the basis of "color, religion, sex, or national origin ''. For this purpose, a Native American is defined as "A person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America), and who maintains a tribal affiliation or community attachment ''. However, self - reporting is permitted: "Educational institutions and other recipients should allow students and staff to self - identify their race and ethnicity unless self - identification is not practicable or feasible. ''
Self - reporting opens the door to "box checking '' by people who, despite not having a substantial relationship to Native American culture, innocently or fraudulently check the box for Native American.
American Indian activists in the United States and Canada have criticized the use of Native American mascots in sports, as perpetuating stereotypes.
There has been a steady decline in the number of secondary school and college teams using such names, images, and mascots. Some tribal team names have been approved by the tribe in question, such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida 's approving use of their name for the teams of Florida State University.
Among professional teams, only the NBA 's Golden State Warriors discontinued use of Native American - themed logos in 1971. Controversy has remained regarding teams such as the NFL 's Washington Redskins, whose name is considered to be a racial slur, and MLB 's Cleveland Indians, whose usage of a caricature called Chief Wahoo has also faced protest.
Native Americans have been depicted by American artists in various ways at different periods. A number of 19th - and 20th - century United States and Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to document and preserve Native culture, specialized in Native American subjects. Among the most prominent of these were Elbridge Ayer Burbank, George Catlin, Seth Eastman, Paul Kane, W. Langdon Kihn, Charles Bird King, Joseph Henry Sharp, and John Mix Stanley.
In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in movies and television roles were first performed by European Americans dressed in mock traditional attire. Examples included The Last of the Mohicans (1920), Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans (1957), and F Troop (1965 -- 67). In later decades, Native American actors such as Jay Silverheels in The Lone Ranger television series (1949 -- 57) came to prominence. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of Native American culture. By the 1970s some Native American film roles began to show more complexity, such as those in Little Big Man (1970), Billy Jack (1971), and The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976), which depicted Native Americans in minor supporting roles.
For years, Native people on U.S. television were relegated to secondary, subordinate roles. During the years of the series Bonanza (1959 -- 1973), no major or secondary Native characters appeared on a consistent basis. The series The Lone Ranger (1949 -- 1957), Cheyenne (1955 -- 1963), and Law of the Plainsman (1959 -- 1963) had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central white characters. This continued in such series as How the West Was Won. These programs resembled the "sympathetic '' yet contradictory film Dances With Wolves of 1990, in which, according to Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, the narrative choice was to relate the Lakota story as told through a Euro - American voice, for wider impact among a general audience. Like the 1992 remake of The Last of the Mohicans and Geronimo: An American Legend (1993), Dances with Wolves employed a number of Native American actors, and made an effort to portray Indigenous languages.
In 2009 We Shall Remain (2009), a television documentary by Ric Burns and part of the American Experience series, presented a five - episode series "from a Native American perspective ''. It represented "an unprecedented collaboration between Native and non-Native filmmakers and involves Native advisors and scholars at all levels of the project ''. The five episodes explore the impact of King Philip 's War on the northeastern tribes, the "Native American confederacy '' of Tecumseh 's War, the U.S. - forced relocation of Southeastern tribes known as the Trail of Tears, the pursuit and capture of Geronimo and the Apache Wars, and concludes with the Wounded Knee incident, participation by the American Indian Movement, and the increasing resurgence of modern Native cultures since.
Native Americans are often known as Indians or American Indians. The term Native American was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India, and to avoid negative stereotypes associated with the term Indian. Many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term American Indian and many tribes include the word Indian in their formal title.
Criticism of the neologism Native American comes from diverse sources. Russell Means, an American Indian activist, opposed the term Native American because he believed it was imposed by the government without the consent of American Indians. He has also argued that the use of the word Indian derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression En Dio, meaning "in God ''.
A 1995 U.S. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred American Indian to Native American. Most American Indians are comfortable with Indian, American Indian, and Native American, and the terms are often used interchangeably. The traditional term is reflected in the name chosen for the National Museum of the American Indian, which opened in 2004 on the Mall in Washington, D.C.
Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments in the United States are creating a stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to leverage to build diversified economies. Although many Native American tribes have casinos, the impact of Native American gaming is widely debated. Some tribes, such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California, feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out. These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry.
Numerous tribes around the country have entered the financial services market including the Otoe - Missouria, Tunica - Biloxi, and the Rosebud Sioux. Because of the challenges involved in starting a financial services business from scratch, many tribes hire outside consultants and vendors to help them launch these businesses and manage the regulatory issues involved. Similar to the tribal sovereignty debates that occurred when tribes first entered the gaming industry, the tribes, states, and federal government are currently in disagreement regarding who possesses the authority to regulate these e-commerce business entities.
Prosecution of serious crime, historically endemic on reservations, was required by the 1885 Major Crimes Act, 18 U.S.C. § § 1153, 3242, and court decisions to be investigated by the federal government, usually the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and prosecuted by United States Attorneys of the United States federal judicial district in which the reservation lies.
A December 13, 2009 New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. Navajo country recently reported 225 gangs in its territory.
As of 2012, a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women and Alaskan native women. According to the Department of Justice, 1 in 3 Native women have suffered rape or attempted rape, more than twice the national rate. About 46 percent of Native American women have been raped, beaten, or stalked by an intimate partner, according to a 2010 study by the Centers for Disease Control. According to Professor N. Bruce Duthu, "More than 80 percent of Indian victims identify their attacker as non-Indian ''.
Trauma among American Indians can be seen through historical and intergenerational trauma and can be directly related the abuse of alcohol and substances among American Indian populations.
Historical trauma is described as collective emotional and psychological damage throughout a person 's lifetime and across multiple generations. Examples of historical trauma can be seen through the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890, where over 200 unarmed Lakota were killed, and the Dawes Allotment Act of 1887, when American Indians lost four - fifths of their land.
American Indian youth have higher rates of substance and alcohol abuse deaths than the general population. Many American Indians can trace the beginning of their substance and alcohol abuse to a traumatic event related to their offender 's own substance abuse. A person 's substance abuse can be described as a defense mechanism against the user 's emotions and trauma. For American Indians alcoholism is a symptom of trauma passed from generation to generation and influenced by oppressive behaviors and policies by the dominant Euro - American society. Boarding schools were made to "Kill the Indian, Save the man ''. Shame among American Indians can be attributed to the hundreds of years of discrimination.
American Indians do not view mind, body, and soul as separate from each other or themselves as the Western worldview does. American Indians believe all is connected and related to each other. American Indian psychologists have been asked to use mental health practices that cultivate American Indian values rather than using conventional ways of counseling. The Wellbriety Movement creates a space for American Indians to learn how to reconnect with their culture by using culturally specific principles to become and remain sober. Some examples are burning sage, cedar, and sweetgrass as a means to cleanse physical and spiritual spaces, verbally saying prayers and singing in one 's own tribal language, and participating in tribal drum groups and ceremonies as part of meetings and gatherings.
Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans.
Early hunter - gatherer tribes made stone tools from around 10,000 years ago; as the age of metallurgy dawned, newer technologies were used and more effective weapons produced. Prior to contact with Europeans, most tribes used similar weaponry. The most common implements were the bow and arrow, the war club, and the spear. Quality, material, and design varied widely. Native American use of fire both helped provide and prepare for food and altered the landscape of the continent to help the human population flourish.
Large mammals like mammoths and mastodons were largely extinct by around 8000 BCE. Native Americans switched to hunting other large game, such as bison. The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th century and Native Americans ' learning to use them greatly altered the Native Americans ' culture, including changing the way in which they hunted large game. Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth.
Native Americans were divided into several hundred ethno - linguistic groups.
A number of English words have been derived from Native American languages.
To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where a native Indian language is the medium of instruction. For example, the Cherokee Nation initiated a 10 - year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. This plan was part of an ambitious goal that, in 50 years, will result in 80 % or more of the Cherokee people being fluent in the language. The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $3 million in opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used. Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the general public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults.
There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. Because Oklahoma 's official language is English, Cherokee immersion students are hindered when taking state - mandated tests because they have little competence in English. The Department of Education of Oklahoma said that in 2012 state tests: 11 % of the school 's sixth - graders showed proficiency in math, and 25 % showed proficiency in reading; 31 % of the seventh - graders showed proficiency in math, and 87 % showed proficiency in reading; 50 % of the eighth - graders showed proficiency in math, and 78 % showed proficiency in reading. The Oklahoma Department of Education listed the charter school as a Targeted Intervention school, meaning the school was identified as a low - performing school but has not so that it was a Priority School. Ultimately, the school made a C, or a 2.33 grade point average on the state 's A-F report card system. The report card shows the school getting an F in mathematics achievement and mathematics growth, a C in social studies achievement, a D in reading achievement, and an A in reading growth and student attendance. "The C we made is tremendous, '' said school principal Holly Davis, "(t) here is no English instruction in our school 's younger grades, and we gave them this test in English. '' She said she had anticipated the low grade because it was the school 's first year as a state - funded charter school, and many students had difficulty with English. Eighth graders who graduate from the Tahlequah immersion school are fluent speakers of the language, and they usually go on to attend Sequoyah High School where classes are taught in both English and Cherokee.
The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.
Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Sculpture was not highly developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were high - quality pottery and formalized pictorial arts.
Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. The colors -- made from sand, charcoal, cornmeal, and pollen -- depicted specific spirits. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the ceremony.
The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually.
An early crop the Native Americans grew was squash. Other early crops included cotton, sunflower, pumpkins, tobacco, goosefoot, knotgrass, and sump weed.
Agriculture in the southwest started around 4,000 years ago when traders brought cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool, moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the time included irrigation to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them.
In the southwest, they grew beans that were self - supported, much like the way they are grown today. In the east, however, they were planted next to corn in order for the vines to be able to "climb '' the cornstalks.
The most important crop the Native Americans raised was maize. It was first started in Mesoamerica and spread north. About 2,000 years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires.
By 800 CE the Native Americans had established three main crops -- beans, squash, and corn -- called the three sisters.
The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions, the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields frequently. There is a tradition that Squanto showed the Pilgrims in New England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story is debated.
Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would replace the nitrogen which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. Native Americans used controlled fires to burn weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation.
Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans.
Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, maul, and dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread.
Traditional Native American ceremonies are still practiced by many tribes and bands, and the older theological belief systems are still held by many of the native people. These spiritualities may accompany adherence to another faith, or can represent a person 's primary religious identity. While much Native American spiritualism exists in a tribal - cultural continuum, and as such can not be easily separated from tribal identity itself, certain other more clearly defined movements have arisen among "traditional '' Native American practitioners, these being identifiable as "religions '' in the prototypical sense familiar in the industrialized Western world.
Traditional practices of some tribes include the use of sacred herbs such as tobacco, sweetgrass or sage. Many Plains tribes have sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes drumming are also common.
The Midewiwin Lodge is a traditional medicine society inspired by the oral traditions and prophesies of the Ojibwa (Chippewa) and related tribes.
Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the Native American Church. It is a syncretistic church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from Christianity. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Prior to 1890, traditional religious beliefs included Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico, a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe 's Saint Francis Cathedral. Native American - Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. (e.g., the National Kateri Tekakwitha Shrine in Fonda, New York, and the National Shrine of the North American Martyrs in Auriesville, New York).
The eagle feather law (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations) stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.
Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have historically defied colonial expectations of sexuality and gender, and continue to do so in contemporary life.
Whether a particular tribe is predominantly matrilineal or patrilineal, often both sexes have some degree of decision - making power within the tribe. Many Nations, such as the Haudenosaunee Five Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, have matrilineal or Clan Mother systems, in which property and hereditary leadership are controlled by and passed through the maternal lines. In these Nations, the children are considered to belong to the mother 's clan. In Cherokee culture, women own the family property. When traditional young women marry, their husbands may join them in their mother 's household.
Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing, and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her. In matrilineal cultures the mother 's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children 's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children 's clan, as they still belong to their own mother 's clan. Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother 's line and chiefs have historically been selected on recommendation of women elders, who also could disapprove of a chief.
In the patrilineal tribes, such as the Omaha, Osage, Ponca, and Lakota, hereditary leadership passes through the male line, and children are considered to belong to the father and his clan. In patrilineal tribes, if a woman marries a non-Native, she is no longer considered part of the tribe, and her children are considered to share the ethnicity and culture of their father.
In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while, as life - givers, women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families (and future of the tribe). Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make all the clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling. In matriarchal and egalitarian nations, the gender roles are usually not so clear - cut, and are even less so in the modern era.
At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.
Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota girls are encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Though fighting in war has mostly been left to the boys and men, occasionally women have fought as well - both in battles and in defense of the home - especially if the tribe was severely threatened.
Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Jim Thorpe, Joe Hipp, Notah Begay III, Chris Wondolowski, Jacoby Ellsbury, Joba Chamberlain, Kyle Lohse, Sam Bradford, Jack Brisco, Tommy Morrison, Billy Mills, and Shoni Schimmel are well known professional athletes.
Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it isitoboli ("Little Brother of War ''); the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es ("men hit a rounded object ''). There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.
The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team 's goal (either a single post or net) to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around 200 feet (61 m) apart to about 2 miles (3.2 km); in lacrosse the field is 110 yards (100 m). A Jesuit priest referenced stickball in 1729, and George Catlin painted the subject.
Currently in the WNBA, there are 2 women who are of Native ancestry and enrolled in federally recognized tribes.
Angel Goodrich, Cherokee, was selected in the third round of the WNBA draft (29th pick overall) by the Tulsa Shock. At the time she was the highest - drafted Native American player in the history of the WNBA. During the 2013 -- 14 off - season, she played for Chevakata Vologda in the Russian Premier League. (10) In 2014, she completed her second and final season for the Shock. In 2015, she was picked up on waivers by the Seattle Storm
Shoni Schimmel, Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, is an American professional basketball player. She was an All - American college player at the University of Louisville and a first round draft pick of the WNBA 's Atlanta Dream. She also earned recognition as the 2014 WNBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player on July 19, 2014, in Phoenix, Arizona. (7)
Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone - shaped disk that was about 1 -- 2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a 200 - foot (61 m) corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.
Jim Thorpe, a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all - round athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw. ''
In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100 - yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1: 57, the mile in 4: 35, the 120 - yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220 - yard low hurdles in 24 seconds. He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high - jump 6 ft 5 in. He could pole vault 11 feet (3.4 m), put the shot 47 ft 9 in (14.55 m), throw the javelin 163 feet (50 m), and throw the discus 136 feet (41 m). Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon.
Louis Tewanima, Hopi people, was an American two - time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10,000 meter run in 1912. He ran for the Carlisle Indian School where he was a teammate of Jim Thorpe. His silver medal in 1912 remained the best U.S. achievement in this event until another Indian, Billy Mills, won the gold medal in 1964. Tewanima also competed at the 1908 Olympics, where he finished in ninth place in the marathon. (1)
Ellison Brown, of the Narragansett people from Rhode Island, better known as "Tarzan '' Brown, won two Boston Marathons (1936, 1939) and competed on the United States Olympic team in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany, but did not finish due to injury. He qualified for the 1940 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland, but the games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II.
Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won the gold medal in the 10,000 meter run at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U.S. Olympic trials.
Billy Kidd, part Abenaki from Vermont, became the first American male to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver at age 20 in the slalom in the 1964 Winter Olympics at Innsbruck, Austria. Six years later at the 1970 World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the combined event and took the bronze medal in the slalom.
Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic, but there are notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming and / or the playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation. Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles (as noted by Spanish conquistador de Soto). The tuning of modern flutes is typically pentatonic.
Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music such as Rita Coolidge, Wayne Newton, Gene Clark, Buffy Sainte - Marie, Blackfoot, Tori Amos, Redbone (members are also of Mexican descent), and CocoRosie. Some, such as John Trudell, have used music to comment on life in Native America. Other musicians such as R. Carlos Nakai, Joanne Shenandoah and Robert "Tree '' Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings, whereas the music by artist Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature. A variety of small and medium - sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow - wow drum music to hard - driving rock - and - roll and rap. In the International world of ballet dancing Maria Tallchief was considered America 's first major prima ballerina, and was the first person of Native American descent to hold the rank. along with her sister Marjorie Tallchief both became star ballerinas.
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow - wow. At pow - wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico, members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow - wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow - hops, sneak - up songs, grass - dances, two - steps, welcome songs, going - home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community.
Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculpture, basketry, and carvings. Franklin Gritts was a Cherokee artist who taught students from many tribes at Haskell Institute (now Haskell Indian Nations University) in the 1940s, the Golden Age of Native American painters. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, that prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist. Attorney Gail Sheffield and others claim that this law has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized. '' Native artists such as Jeanne Rorex Bridges (Cherokee) who are not enrolled run the risk of fines or imprisonment if they continue to sell their art while affirming their Indian heritage.
The Inuit, or Eskimo, prepared and buried large amounts of dried meat and fish. Pacific Northwest tribes crafted seafaring dugouts 40 -- 50 feet (12 -- 15 m) long for fishing. Farmers in the Eastern Woodlands tended fields of maize with hoes and digging sticks, while their neighbors in the Southeast grew tobacco as well as food crops. On the Plains, some tribes engaged in agriculture but also planned buffalo hunts in which herds were driven over bluffs.
Dwellers of the Southwest deserts hunted small animals and gathered acorns to grind into flour with which they baked wafer - thin bread on top of heated stones. Some groups on the region 's mesas developed irrigation techniques, and filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area 's frequent droughts.
In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages.
Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle, as they are often located on reservations isolated from the main economic centers of the country. The estimated 2.1 million Native Americans are the most impoverished of all ethnic groups. According to the 2000 Census, an estimated 400,000 Native Americans reside on reservation land. While some tribes have had success with gaming, only 40 % of the 562 federally recognized tribes operate casinos. According to a 2007 survey by the U.S. Small Business Administration, only 1 % of Native Americans own and operate a business.
Social statistics highlight the challenges faced by Native American communities: highest teen suicide rate of all minorities at 18.5 per 100,000, highest rate of teen pregnancy, highest high school drop - out rate at 54 %, lowest per capita income, and unemployment rates between 50 % and 90 %.
The barriers to economic development on Native American reservations have been identified by Joseph Kalt and Stephen Cornell of the Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development at Harvard University, in their report: What Can Tribes Do? Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development (2008), are summarized as follows:
A major barrier to development is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience within Indian reservations. "A general lack of education and experience about business is a significant challenge to prospective entrepreneurs '', was the report on Native American entrepreneurship by the Northwest Area Foundation in 2004. "Native American communities that lack entrepreneurial traditions and recent experiences typically do not provide the support that entrepreneurs need to thrive. Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after - school and other community activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and encourage them to apply these elements throughout life ''. Rez Biz magazine addresses these issues.
Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in - depth studies on interracial relationships ''. Some of the first documented cases of European / Native American intermarriage and contact were recorded in Post-Columbian Mexico. One case is that of Gonzalo Guerrero, a European from Spain, who was shipwrecked along the Yucatan Peninsula, and fathered three Mestizo children with a Mayan noblewoman. Another is the case of Hernán Cortés and his mistress La Malinche, who gave birth to another of the first multi-racial people in the Americas.
European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and nationhood. Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians ''. They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions ''.
Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. Marriages took place in English, Spanish, and French colonies between Native Americans and Europeans. Given the preponderance of men among the colonists in the early years, generally European men married American Indian women.
There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. The whites regarded the Indians as "savage '' because they were not Christian. They were suspicious of cultures which they did not understand. The Native American author, Andrew J. Blackbird, wrote in his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan (1897), that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Indians suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol and the whiskey trade resulted in alcoholism among the people, who were alcohol - intolerant.
Blackbird wrote:
The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas - so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of ' Arbor Croche ' is yet living in 1897. And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes.
The U.S. government had two purposes when making land agreements with Native Americans: to open it up more land for white settlement, and to ease tensions between whites and Native Americans by forcing the Native Americans to use the land in the same way as did the whites -- for subsistence farms. The government used a variety of strategies to achieve these goals; many treaties required Native Americans to become farmers in order to keep their land. Government officials often did not translate the documents which Native Americans were forced to sign, and native chiefs often had little or no idea what they were signing.
For a Native American man to marry a white woman, he had to get consent of her parents, as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home ''. In the early 19th century, the Shawnee Tecumseh and blonde hair, blue - eyed Rebbecca Galloway had an interracial affair. In the late 19th century, three European - American middle - class women teachers at Hampton Institute married Native American men whom they had met as students.
As European - American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men. For instance, Charles Eastman, a man of European and Lakota descent whose father sent both his sons to Dartmouth College, got his medical degree at Boston University and returned to the West to practice. He married Elaine Goodale, whom he met in South Dakota. He was the grandson of Seth Eastman, a military officer from Maine, and a chief 's daughter. Goodale was a young European - American teacher from Massachusetts and a reformer, who was appointed as the U.S. superintendent of Native American education for the reservations in the Dakota Territory. They had six children together.
When Europeans arrived as colonists in North America, Native Americans changed their practice of slavery dramatically. Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as they had done before. As the demand for labor in the West Indies grew with the cultivation of sugar cane, Europeans enslaved Native Americans for the Thirteen Colonies, and some were exported to the "sugar islands ''. The British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist. Scholars estimate tens of thousands of Native Americans may have been enslaved by the Europeans, being sold by Native Americans themselves.
Slaves became a caste of people who were foreign to the English (Native Americans, Africans and their descendants) and non-Christians. The Virginia General Assembly defined some terms of slavery in 1705:
All servants imported and brought into the Country... who were not Christians in their native Country... shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion... shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resists his master... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction... the master shall be free of all punishment... as if such accident never happened.
The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around 1730. It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the Yamasee War. The Indian Wars of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by 1750. Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country. The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the Choctaw, the Creek, and the Catawba for protection.
Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; during the early colonial years, settlers were disproportionately male. They turned to Native women for sexual relationships. Both Native American and African enslaved women suffered rape and sexual harassment by male slaveholders and other white men.
The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members.
The conditions of enslaved Native Americans varied among the tribes. In many cases, young enslaved captives were adopted into the tribes to replace warriors killed during warfare or by disease. Other tribes practiced debt slavery or imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes, but this status was only temporary as the enslaved worked off their obligations to the tribal society. Other Native American groups, such as those of the Pacific Northwest, tended to own slaves, with up to a quarter of some tribal populations consisting of slaves. They were typically captured by raids on enemy tribes, or purchased on intertribal slave markets. Slaves would often be killed in potlatches, to signify the owners ' contempt for property. Slave raids, especially among the Haida of Canada and Alaska, would often go far off from the points of origin, with some slave raids going as far south as California. Slavery was a hereditary position -- children of slaves were fated to be slaves themselves.
African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves.
Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. The "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader ''. To gain favor with Europeans, the Cherokee exhibited the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans. He contends that because of European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans, the colonists encouraged hostility between the ethnic groups: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests. '' In 1751, South Carolina law stated:
The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided.
In addition, in 1758 the governor of South Carolina James Glen wrote:
it has always been the policy of this government to create an aversion in them Indians to Negroes.
Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th - century Indian Wars.
"Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried. '' Because of a shortage of men due to warfare, many tribes encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier children from the unions.
In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or runaway African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. Records show that many Native American women bought African men but, unknown to the European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. When African men married or had children by a Native American woman, their children were born free, because the mother was free (according to the principle of partus sequitur ventrem, which the colonists incorporated into law).
European colonists often required the return of runaway slaves to be included as a provision in treaties with American Indians. In 1726, the British Governor of New York exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all runaway slaves who had joined up with them. In the mid-1760s, the government requested the Huron and Delaware to return runaway slaves, but there was no record of slaves having been returned. Colonists placed ads about runaway slaves.
While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek. Though less than 3 % of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples.
Based on the work of geneticists, a PBS series on African Americans explained that while most African Americans are racially mixed, it is relatively rare that they have Native American ancestry. According to the PBS series, the most common "non-black '' mix is English and Scots - Irish. (Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.)
Another study suggests that relatively few Native Americans have African - American heritage. A study reported in The American Journal of Human Genetics stated, "We analyzed the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois; Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston)... mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10 populations. '' A few writers persist in the myth that most African Americans have Native American heritage.
DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage. So far, such testing can not distinguish among the many distinct Native American tribes. No tribes accept DNA testing to satisfy their differing qualifications for membership, usually based on documented blood quantum or descent from ancestor (s) listed on the Dawes Rolls.
Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures interacted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture. Native Americans in the South shared some experiences with Africans, especially during the period, primarily in the 17th century, when both were enslaved. The colonists along the Atlantic Coast had begun enslaving Native Americans to ensure a source of labor. At one time the slave trade was so extensive that it caused increasing tensions with the various Algonquian tribes, as well as the Iroquois. Based in New York and Pennsylvania, they had threatened to attack colonists on behalf of the related Iroquoian Tuscarora before they migrated out of the South in the early 1700s.
In the 1790s, Benjamin Hawkins was assigned as the U.S. agent to the southeastern tribes, who became known as the Five Civilized Tribes for their adoption of numerous Anglo - European practices. He advised the tribes to take up slaveholding to aid them in European - style farming and plantations. He thought their traditional form of slavery, which had looser conditions, was less efficient than chattel slavery. In the 19th century, some members of these tribes who were more closely associated with settlers, began to purchase African - American slaves for workers. They adopted some European - American ways to benefit their people.
From the late 1700s to the 1860s, the Five Civilized Tribes were involved in the institution of African slavery as planters. For example, Cherokee leader Joseph Vann owned more than 100 slaves. The proportion of Cherokee families who owned slaves did not exceed ten percent, and was comparable to the percentage among white families across the South, where a slaveholding elite owned most of the laborers.
The writer William Loren Katz contends that Native Americans treated their slaves better than did the typical white American in the Deep South. Though less than 3 % of Native Americans owned slaves, bondage created destructive cleavages among those who were slaveholders. Among the Five Civilized Tribes, mixed - race slaveholders were generally part of an elite hierarchy, often based on their mothers ' clan status, as the societies had matrilineal systems. As did Benjamin Hawkins, European fur traders and colonial officials tended to marry high - status women, in strategic alliances seen to benefit both sides. The Choctaw, Creek and Cherokee believed they benefited from stronger alliances with the traders and their societies. The women 's sons gained their status from their mother 's families; they were part of hereditary leadership lines who exercised power and accumulated personal wealth in their changing Native American societies. The historian Greg O'Brien calls them the Creole generation to show that they were part of a changing society. The chiefs of the tribes believed that some of the new generation of mixed - race, bilingual chiefs would lead their people into the future and be better able to adapt to new conditions influenced by European Americans.
Proposals for Indian Removal heightened the tensions of cultural changes, due to the increase in the number of mixed - race Native Americans in the South. Full bloods, who tended to live in areas less affected by colonial encroachment, generally worked to maintain traditional ways, including control of communal lands. While the traditional members often resented the sale of tribal lands to Anglo - Americans, by the 1830s they agreed it was not possible to go to war with the colonists on this issue.
In the 2010 Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American (including Alaska Native). Of these, more than 27 % specifically indicated "Cherokee '' as their ethnic origin. Many of the First Families of Virginia claim descent from Pocahontas or some other "Indian princess ''. This phenomenon has been dubbed the "Cherokee Syndrome ''. Across the US, numerous individuals cultivate an opportunistic ethnic identity as Native American, sometimes through Cherokee heritage groups or Indian Wedding Blessings.
Many tribes, especially those in the Eastern United States, are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity, despite being predominantly of European ancestry. More than 75 % of those enrolled in the Cherokee Nation have less than one - quarter Cherokee blood, and the current Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, Bill John Baker, is 1 / 32 Cherokee, amounting to about 3 %.
Historically, numerous Native Americans assimilated into colonial and later American society, e.g. through adopting English and converting to Christianity. In many cases, this process occurred through forced assimilation of children sent off to special boarding schools far from their families. Those who could pass for white had the advantage of "white privilege ''. Today, after generations of racial whitening through hypergamy, many Native Americans are visually indistinguishable from White Americans, unlike mestizos in the United States, who may in fact have little or no non-indigenous ancestry.
Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice racial exogamy, resulting in an ever - declining proportion of indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity. Some tribes will even resort to disenrollment of tribal members unable to provide scientific "proof '' of Native ancestry, usually through a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood. Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in Native American reservation politics.
Intertribal mixing was common among many Native American tribes prior to European contact, as they would adopt captives taken in warfare. Individuals often had ancestry from more than one tribe, particularly after tribes lost so many members from disease in the colonial era and after. Bands or entire tribes occasionally split or merged to form more viable groups in reaction to the pressures of climate, disease and warfare.
A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. Such captives were from rival tribes and later were taken from raids on European settlements. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves, and others owned slaves of their own. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between Native American women and European men, often seen as advantageous to both sides. A number of paths to genetic and ethnic diversity among Native Americans have occurred.
In recent years, genetic genealogists have been able to determine the proportion of Native American ancestry carried by the African - American population. The literary and history scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr., had experts on his TV programs who discussed African - American ancestry. They stated that 5 % of African Americans have at least 12.5 % Native American ancestry, or the equivalent to one great - grandparent, which may represent more than one distant ancestor. A greater percentage could have a smaller proportion of Indian ancestry, but their conclusions show that popular estimates of Native American admixture may have been too high.
DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it can not distinguish among Native American tribes.
Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology, as many American Indian peoples adopted captives from their enemies and assimilated them into their tribes. The Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism (IPCB) notes that:
"Native American markers '' are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans, they are also found in people in other parts of the world.
Geneticists state:
Not all Native Americans have been tested; especially with the large number of deaths due to disease such as smallpox, it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have identified (so far), even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a (known) non-Native American.
To receive tribal services, a Native American must be a certified (or enrolled) member of a federally recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for eligibility of citizens or tribal members. Among tribes, qualification for enrollment may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood '' (or the "blood quantum '') of an individual seeking recognition, or documented descent from an ancestor on the Dawes Rolls or other registers. But, the federal government has its own standards related to who qualifies for services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student both to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and to be of at least one - quarter Native American descent (equivalent to one grandparent), attested to by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood (CDIB) card issued by the federal government.
Some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing of individuals ' applying for membership, but this is usually related to an individual 's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member. Requirements for tribal membership vary widely by tribe. The Cherokee require documented direct genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early 1906 Dawes Rolls. Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex.
Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this are the Cherokee Freedmen. Today, they include descendants of African Americans once enslaved by the Cherokees, who were granted, by federal treaty, citizenship in the historic Cherokee Nation as freedmen after the Civil War. The modern Cherokee Nation, in the early 1980s, passed a law to require that all members must prove descent from a Cherokee Native American (not Cherokee Freedmen) listed on the Dawes Rolls, resulting in the exclusion of some individuals and families who had been active in Cherokee culture for years.
Since the census of 2000, people may identify as being of more than one race. Since the 1960s, the number of people claiming Native American ancestry has grown significantly and by the 2000 census, the number had more than doubled. Sociologists attribute this dramatic change to "ethnic shifting '' or "ethnic shopping ''; they believe that it reflects a willingness of people to question their birth identities and adopt new ethnicities which they find more compatible.
The author Jack Hitt writes:
The reaction from lifelong Indians runs the gamut. It is easy to find Native Americans who denounce many of these new Indians as members of the wannabe tribe. But it is also easy to find Indians like Clem Iron Wing, an elder among the Lakota, who sees this flood of new ethnic claims as magnificent, a surge of Indians ' trying to come home. ' Those Indians who ridicule Iron Wing 's lax sense of tribal membership have retrofitted the old genocidal system of blood quantum -- measuring racial purity by blood -- into the new standard for real Indianness, a choice rich with paradox.
The journalist Mary Annette Pember notes that identifying with Native American culture may be a result of a person 's increased interest in genealogy, the romanticization of the lifestyle, and a family tradition of Native American ancestors in the distant past. There are different issues if a person wants to pursue enrollment as a member of a tribe. Different tribes have different requirements for tribal membership; in some cases persons are reluctant to enroll, seeing it as a method of control initiated by the federal government; and there are individuals who are 100 % Native American but, because of their mixed tribal heritage, do not qualify to belong to any individual tribe. Pember concludes:
The subjects of genuine American Indian blood, cultural connection and recognition by the community are extremely contentious issues, hotly debated throughout Indian country and beyond. The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation.
The genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focuses on human Y - chromosome DNA haplogroups and human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y - DNA '' is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA '' is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y - DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents ' genetic material. Autosomal "atDNA '' markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y - DNA in that they overlap significantly. Autosomal DNA is generally used to measure the average continent - of - ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.
The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial - peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations and founding haplotypes present in today 's Indigenous Amerindian populations.
Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with an initial 15,000 to 20,000 - year layover on Beringia for the small founding population. The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain Amerindian populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region. The Na - Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q - M242 (Y - DNA) mutations, however, that are distinct from other indigenous Amerindians, and that have various mtDNA and atDNA mutations. This suggests that the paleo - Indian migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland were descended from a later, independent migrant population.
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who plays the hairdresser in she's the man | She 's the Man - wikipedia
She 's the Man is a 2006 American romantic comedy sports film directed by Andy Fickman and starring Amanda Bynes, Channing Tatum, Laura Ramsey and Emily Perkins. It is inspired by William Shakespeare 's play Twelfth Night.
The film centers on teenager Viola Hastings who enters her brother 's school in his place, pretending to be a boy, in order to play with the boys ' soccer team after her team gets cut at her school.
Viola Hastings (Amanda Bynes) is a teen girl who plays for Cornwall College 's soccer team until the team gets cut. Meanwhile, her twin brother, Sebastian (James Kirk), is supposed to enroll in Illyria, an elite boarding school, but he secretly goes to London with his fledgling band instead. Viola agrees to cover for him and decides to pass herself off as Sebastian, in hopes of joining their boys ' team and beating Cornwall to prove their coach and her cocky ex-boyfriend, Justin (Robert Hoffman), wrong. With the help of her stylist friend, Paul (Jonathan Sadowski), she is transformed into "Sebastian '' and attends Illyria in his place.
While moving in, she meets her roommate, Duke Orsino (Channing Tatum), an attractive soccer player and Illyria 's team captain. During tryouts, Viola fails to impress Coach Dinklage (Vinnie Jones) and is assigned to second string, much to her dismay. Her teammates, including Duke, initially dislike "Sebastian '' due to his awkward and strange behavior. However, with help from Paul once again, they begin to accept him into their social circle. "Sebastian '' then gets the popular and pretty Olivia (Laura Ramsey) as his lab partner, which frustrates Duke, as he has feelings for her. "Sebastian '' agrees to put in a good word for Duke if he promises to train him to be a better soccer player. Coach Dinklage eventually notices "Sebastian 's '' effort and improvement, thus promoting him to first string.
At the Junior League carnival, where her mother has made her volunteer, Viola works a shift at the kissing booth and shares a kiss with Duke. Duke expresses to "Sebastian '' that he might move on from Olivia as he is starting to like Viola now. Viola is delighted as she secretly feels the same way.
Olivia who now has a crush on "Sebastian '', asks Duke out on a date in hopes that it will make "Sebastian '' jealous. Viola, who is unaware of Olivia 's true intentions, is enraged instead because Duke has now abandoned his interest in Viola. When Viola finds out the truth, she encourages Olivia to tell "Sebastian '' directly about her feelings.
The situation becomes even more complicated when the real Sebastian returns from London a day early, unbeknownst to Viola. As soon as he arrives at Illyria, Olivia confesses her feelings and kisses him. Duke, seeing this, believes his roommate has betrayed him. When "Sebastian '' returns to their room, the two have an argument and Duke kicks him out. Viola oversleeps and misses the first half of the game, while the real Sebastian is mistaken for "Sebastian '' and winds up poorly playing his sister 's game instead. At half - time, Viola explains the situation to Sebastian and they switch places again.
Duke, still furious at "Sebastian '', refuses to cooperate with him on the field. Determined to makes amends with Duke, "Sebastian '' explains that he is actually Viola. Illyria wins the game when Viola scores a goal, finally humiliating Justin and the rest of the Cornwall boys.
Everyone at Illyria celebrates their victory over Cornwall, except for Duke who is hurt about Viola 's deception. Viola introduces Sebastian and Olivia officially, and they begin dating. Viola and Sebastian 's divorced parents also make up, exchanging contact information so as to be better parents towards their children. She invites Duke to her debutante ball, with an invitation delivered by Sebastian, now Duke 's roommate. Still hurt, Duke does n't respond to Viola 's invitation, which devastates her. At the ball, Viola is skeptical that Duke will show up; she distracts herself by assisting Olivia, who is being escorted by Sebastian to the ball, and is touched when Paul asks to be her date. Her mother shows up with a dress that will suit Viola 's "no ruffles '' policy, but Viola decides to go for a walk instead. She runs into Duke outside, who tells her that he has feelings for her, but that he does n't want there to be any more deception on her part; Viola promises to be honest with him. Later, Monique is escorted by Justin, Olivia is escorted by Sebastian, and Viola and Duke enter the stage late, but together, with Viola in her new dress, much to the joy of her mother. Viola and Duke share a kiss before joining the crowd. At the end of the film, Viola and Duke are shown happily playing on Illyria 's soccer team together.
The film opened at # 4 at the North American box office making $10.7 million USD in its opening weekend. Its budget was approximately $20,000,000. She 's the Man grossed a total of $33.7 million domestically with a total gross of $57.2 million worldwide.
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave She 's the Man a rating of 43 %, based on 109 reviews. The critical consensus reads, "Shakespeare 's wit gets lost in translation with She 's the Man 's broad slapstick, predictable jokes, and unconvincing plotline. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 45 out of 100 based on 28 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
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legislative council in how many states in india | Vidhan Parishad - wikipedia
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Article 169 of the Constitution of India provides for the establishment of a Vidhan Parishad. The Vidhan Parishad or Legislative Council is the upper house in those states of India that have a bicameral legislature. As of 2017, seven (7) (out of twenty - nine) states have a Legislative Council. They are elected by local bodies, legislative assembly, governor, graduates, teacher, etc. Odisha, too, is planning to make a legislative council. And members are known as MLC. There is timing of 6 years of vidhan parishad
Each Member of the Legislative Council (MLC) serves for a six - year term, with terms staggered so that the terms of one third of a council 's membership expire every two years. This arrangement parallels that for the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India.
MLCs must be citizens of India, at least 30 years old, mentally sound, not an insolvent, and on the voters ' list of the state for which he or she is contesting an election. He or she may not be a Member of Parliament at the same time.
The size of the Vidhan Parishad can not be more than one third of the membership of the Vidhan Sabha. However, its size can not be less than 40 members (except in Jammu and Kashmir, where there are 36 by an Act of Parliament.)
MLCs are chosen in the following manner:
The existence of a Legislative Council has proven politically controversial. A number of states that have had their Council abolished have subsequently requested its re-establishment; conversely, proposals for the re-establishment of the Council for a state have also met with opposition. Proposals for abolition or re-establishment of a state 's Legislative Council require confirmation by the Parliament of India.
In April 2007, the State of Andhra Pradesh re-established its Legislative Council. The State 's main opposition party, the Telugu Desam Party, had stated that it would abolish the council again if it came to power in the state.
After the victory of the Akali Dal - BJP in Punjab, newly elected Chief Ministers Parkash Singh Badal stated that he would re-constitute the state 's Vidhan Parishad but was not established
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will there be another tinkerbell movie after neverbeast | Tinker Bell (film series) - Wikipedia
Tinker Bell is a computer animated fantasy film series produced by DisneyToon Studios as part of the Disney Fairies franchise. Voices of Mae Whitman, Raven - Symoné, Lucy Liu, America Ferrera, Kristin Chenoweth and Pamela Adlon are featured in the films. Each of the first four films is set around one of the four seasons: Tinker Bell around Spring, Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure around Autumn, Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue around Summer, and Secret of the Wings around Winter. A fifth title, Pixie Hollow Games, was supposed to be based on all four seasons, but it was released before Secret of the Wings and scaled down. A fifth film, titled The Pirate Fairy, was released April 1, 2014, followed by the release of a sixth film Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast on March 3, 2015. The series is a spin - off of and prequel to Peter Pan and its sequel, Return to Never Land.
Tinker Bell (Mae Whitman) is born from the first laugh of a baby, and is brought by the winds to Pixie Hollow (which is part of the island of Never Land). She learns that her talent is to be one of the tinkers, the fairies who make and fix things. Two other tinker fairies, Bobble (Rob Paulsen) and Clank (Jeff Bennett), teach her their craft, and tell her about the fairies who visit the mainland to bring each season. Tink is thrilled and ca n't wait to go to the mainland for spring.
While out working, she meets Silvermist (Lucy Liu), a water fairy; Rosetta (Kristin Chenoweth), a garden fairy; Iridessa (Raven - Symoné), a light fairy; and Fawn (America Ferrera), an animal fairy. After meeting them, she notices Vidia (Pamela Adlon), a fast - flying fairy who immediately dislikes her because of her unusually strong talent. Vidia challenges her to prove she 'll be able to go to the mainland, and Tink creates several inventions, which she shows to the Minister of Spring (Steve Valentine). But Tinker Bell soon learns from Queen Clarion (Anjelica Huston) that only nature - talent fairies visit the mainland.
She tries her hand at nature skills -- making dewdrops with Silvermist, lighting fireflies with Iridessa, and trying with Fawn to teach baby birds to fly but she fails miserably at all of these. Meanwhile, Bobble and Clank cover for Tink when questioned by Fairy Mary (Jane Horrocks), the tinker fairy overseer. When Tinker Bell returns, she tries to explain, but Mary simply responds that she knows, and expresses her disappointment with Tink 's actions.
On the beach, Tinker Bell finds parts of a music box and figures out how to put them together. Iridessa, Fawn, Silvermist, and Rosetta witness her doing this, then tell her that she was tinkering and that she should be proud of her talent -- if this is what she 's good at, the mainland should n't matter. But Tinker Bell still wants to go to the mainland. She asks Rosetta if she 'll still teach her to be a garden fairy, but Rosetta says that tinkering is Tinker Bell 's talent.
As a last resort, Tinker Bell asks Vidia for help in becoming a garden fairy. Vidia craftily tells her that capturing the sprinting thistles would prove her worth. However, once she sees Tink making progress, she lets the captured thistles loose, and in attempting to recapture them, Tink destroys all the preparations for spring. Tink decides to leave, but after talking with the dust - keeper Terence (Jesse McCartney) about how important his job is, she realizes the importance of a tinker.
Tinker Bell redeems herself by inventing machines that quicken the process of decorating flowers, ladybugs, etc. This allows the other fairies to get back on schedule, thus saving the arrival of spring. Vidia is punished for prompting her to cause the chaos, and Queen Clarion allows Tink to join the nature - talent fairies when they bring spring to the mainland. Tinker Bell is given the task of delivering the music box to its original owner (shown to be Wendy Darling). The narrator ends by saying that when lost toys are found or a broken clock starts to work, "it all means that one very special fairy might be near. ''
The fairies (Mae Whitman, Kristin Chenoweth, Lucy Liu, Raven - Symoné, Angela Bartys) are getting ready for the season of leaves, Halloween, Thanksgiving, and pumpkins: autumn. Every eight years they create a new fall scepter to hold a precious moonstone. This moonstone will create blue pixie dust that will restore the Pixie Dust Tree. It is the tinker fairies ' turn to create the new scepter and they choose Tinker Bell as the maker.
Tinker Bell gets her friend Terrence to help with the scepter project, but she has trouble coping with Terence because he tries too hard to be helpful. Tinker Bell finds him annoying and noisy. An accident occurs, causing the precious moonstone to break. She goes on a quest to find the magic mirror that grants three wishes. However, pirates had already used up two of the wishes before they sank their ship. This means that Tinker Bell only has one chance to make a wish with it. She finds the ship and the lost mirror, but Tinker Bell ends up messing up her wish on her new friend Blaze and can not use it to restore the moonstone. Terence finds Tinker Bell and they work together on the broken moonstone to make a new scepter.
After returning to Pixie Hollow, Tinker Bell is ready to present the scepter to Queen Clarion. As the scepter is revealed, all the fairies see the moonstone in pieces and are alarmed but, as the moon rays fall, the moonstone shards create increased surface area through which the blue moon rays can pass, thus creating the biggest amount of blue fairy dust in history. Then Tinker Bell leads the fairies to the Pixie Dust Tree where they strengthen it with the fallen blue pixie dust. The movie ends with the song "Take to the Sky ''.
Years before meeting Wendy and the Lost Boys, Tinker Bell (Mae Whitman) met Lizzy (Lauren Mote), a little girl with a steadfast belief in the power of pixie dust and the magic land of fairies. During the fairies ' summer visit to the flowering meadows of England, two very different worlds unite for the first time and Tink develops a special bond with a curious child in need of a friend. As her fellow fairies (Raven - Symoné, Lucy Liu, Kristin Chenoweth, Angela Bartys, Pamela Adlon) launch a daring rescue, Tinker Bell takes a huge risk, putting her own safety and the future of all fairykind in jeopardy.
Tinker Bell (Mae Whitman) crosses over to the forbidden area in Winter Woods, where it is always winter. While there her wings begin to sparkle so she sets off on a quest to discover why. She is overjoyed to learn that her wings sparkled because she was close to her sister, Periwinkle (Lucy Hale). They were born when a baby 's laugh split in two. They visit for a few hours before Tinker Bell is told she has to leave. Determined to help her sister visit Pixie Hollow, she crafts a contraption that grates snow to keep Peri cold during her visit. The device malfunctions badly, causing a freeze to slowly envelope Pixie Hollow.
Tinker Bell flies to Winter Woods to get Periwinkle and her friends to help save Pixie Hollow. They realize that frost protects the trees in Winter Woods from the cold, so the winter fairies all work together to frost the trees of Pixie Hollow to save from the accelerating freeze. They learn, however, that when Tink crashed in Winter Woods she tore her wing, and broken wings ca n't be repaired. But when Tink and Peri come together their wings again sparkle, and they learn that identical wings can heal each other, so they restore Tink 's broken wing. They also discover that winter fairies can frost the wings of warm - weather fairies, keeping them from breaking in the cold, thus allowing them to visit their friends in Winter Woods.
Another feature - length film, titled The Pirate Fairy, (originally titled Quest for the Queen) was released on April 1, 2014. The film was originally scheduled for Fall 2013, but another DisneyToon Studios film, Planes, took its place. A trailer for the film was released on the Secret of the Wings Blu - ray and DVD on October 23, 2012. It was directed by the Secret of the Wings director, Peggy Holmes. The film introduced new characters, Zarina, voiced by Christina Hendricks, and James aka Captain Hook, voiced by Tom Hiddleston. Carlos Ponce also voiced one of the characters in the film.
When a misunderstood dust - keeper fairy named Zarina steals Pixie Hollow ' 's all - important Blue Pixie Dust and flies away to join forces with the pirates of Skull Rock, Tinker Bell and her fairy friends must embark on the adventure of a lifetime to return it to its rightful place. However, in the midst of their pursuit of Zarina, Tink 's world is turned upside down. She and her friends find that their respective talents have been switched and they have to race against time to retrieve the Blue Pixie Dust and return home to save Pixie Hollow.
Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast was released in cinemas in selected markets from December 2014, and was released direct - to - video in the United States on March 3, 2015. It was directed by Steve Loter and produced by Makul Wigert. Composer Joel McNeely returned to the film. Mae Whitman, Lucy Liu, Raven - Symoné, Megan Hilty, Pamela Adlon and Anjelica Huston reprise their roles of Tinker Bell, Silvermist, Iridessa, Rosetta, Vidia and Queen Clarion. Ginnifer Goodwin replaces Angela Bartys as the voice of Fawn in this film. Rosario Dawson and Olivia Holt join the cast as new characters Nyx and Morgan, respectively.
When Fawn meets a legendary creature, the Neverbeast, she befriends the creature in no time. But when she learns that the creature could be part of a terrible event, she will have to trust her instincts in order to save her new friend, and all of Pixie Hollow.
In addition to Tinker Bell and the Legend of the NeverBeast, Disney also had plans for a seventh film. In 2014, The Hollywood Reporter stated that the seventh film was canceled due to story problems.
Originally planned to feature the entire ensemble cast of the earlier films in Olympic - style games spanning the four seasons, presumably due to the original plot vetoed by the producers, the story was scaled back into a shorter scenario focusing primarily on Rosetta (Megan Hilty, replacing Kristin Chenoweth) and a new fairy character, Chloe (Brenda Song). They are teamed up against Rosetta 's will representing the "garden fairies '' in a competition in which they hope to unseat the undefeated "storm fairies ''. They overcome their differences and Rosetta 's fear of getting dirty, to emerge victorious at the end of the games.
A six - minute short film, titled Pixie Hollow Bake Off, aired in the United Kingdom on October 20, 2013, on Disney Channel. Lisa Faulkner provided a voice for a baking fairy named Gelata.
The short was released in the United States as a bonus DVD in a Walmart - exclusive edition of The Pirate Fairy on Blu - ray Disc, but with Giada De Laurentiis as the voice of Gelata. In July 2014 the short was made available on the digital movie service Disney Movies Anywhere.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, the first four full - length films (Tinker Bell, Tinker Bell and the Lost Treasure, Tinker Bell and the Great Fairy Rescue and Secret of the Wings) were made for $30 million to $35 million.
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when was the last year they made silver nickels | Jefferson nickel - wikipedia
The Jefferson nickel has been the five - cent coin struck by the United States Mint since 1938, when it replaced the Buffalo nickel. From 1938 until 2004, the copper - nickel coin 's obverse featured a profile depiction of founding father and third U.S. President Thomas Jefferson by artist Felix Schlag; the obverse design used in 2005 was also in profile, though by Joe Fitzgerald. Since 2006 Jefferson 's portrayal, newly designed by Jamie Franki, faces forward. The coin 's reverse is still the Schlag original, although in 2004 and 2005 the piece bore commemorative designs.
First struck in 1913, the Buffalo nickel had long been difficult to coin, and after it completed the 25 - year term during which it could only be replaced by Congress, the Mint moved quickly to replace it with a new design. The Mint conducted a design competition in early 1938, requiring that Jefferson be depicted on the obverse, and Jefferson 's house Monticello on the reverse. Schlag won the competition, but was required to submit an entirely new reverse and make other changes before the new piece went into production in October 1938.
As nickel was a strategic war material during World War II, nickels coined from 1942 to 1945 were struck in a copper - silver - manganese alloy which would not require adjustment to vending machines. They bear a large mint mark above the depiction of Monticello on the reverse. In 2004 and 2005, the nickel saw new designs as part of the Westward Journey nickel series, and since 2006 has borne Schlag 's reverse and Franki 's obverse.
The design for the Buffalo nickel is well regarded today, and has appeared both on a commemorative silver dollar and a bullion coin. However, during the time it was struck (1913 -- 1938), it was less well liked, especially by Mint authorities, whose attempts to bring out the full design increased an already high rate of die breakage. By 1938, it had been struck for 25 years, thus becoming eligible to be replaced by action of the Secretary of the Treasury rather than by Congress. The Mint, which is part of the Department of the Treasury, moved quickly and without public protest to replace the coin.
In late January 1938, the Mint announced an open competition for the new nickel design, with the winner to receive a prize of $1,000. The deadline for submissions was April 15; Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross and three sculptors were to be the judges. That year saw the bicentennial of the birth of the third U.S. President, Thomas Jefferson; competitors were to place a portrait of Jefferson on the obverse, and a depiction of his house, Monticello, on the reverse.
By mid-March, few entries had been received. This seeming lack of response proved to be misleading, as many artists planned on entering the contest and would submit designs near the deadline. On April 20, the judges viewed 390 entries; four days later, Felix Schlag was announced as the winner. Schlag had been born in Germany and had come to the United States only nine years previously. Either through a misunderstanding or an oversight, Schlag did not include his initials in the design; they would not be added until 1966. The bust of Jefferson on the obverse closely resembles his bust by sculptor Jean - Antoine Houdon, which is to be found in Boston 's Museum of Fine Arts.
In early May, it was reported that the Mint required some changes to Schlag 's design prior to coining. Schlag 's original design showed a three - quarters view of Monticello, including a tree. Officials disliked the lettering Schlag had used, a more modernistic style than that used on the eventual coin. The tree was another source of official displeasure; officials decided it was a palm tree and incorrectly believed Jefferson could not have been growing such a thing. A formal request for changes was sent to Schlag in late May. The sculptor was busy with other projects and did not work on the nickel until mid-June. When he did, he changed the reverse to a plain view, or head - on perspective, of Monticello. Art historian Cornelius Vermeule described the change:
Official taste eliminated this interesting, even exciting, view, and substituted the mausoleum of Roman profile and blurred forms that masquerades as the building on the finished coin. On the trial reverse the name "Monticello '' seemed scarcely necessary and was therefore, logically, omitted. On the coin as issued it seems essential lest one think the building portrayed is the vault at Fort Knox, a state archives building, or a public library somewhere.
The designs were submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts for their recommendation in mid-July; the version submitted included the new version of Monticello but may not have included the revised lettering. The Commission approved the designs. However, Commission chairman Charles Moore asked that the positions of the mottos on the reverse be switched, with the country name at the top; this was not done. After the Fine Arts Commission recommendation, the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, approved the design.
On August 21, the Anderson (Indiana) Herald noted:
(T) he Federal Fine Arts Commission... did n't like the view of Thomas Jefferson 's home, Monticello, so they required the artist to do another picture of the front of the house. They did not like the lettering on the coin. It was n't in keeping, but they forgot to say what it was n't in keeping with... There is no more reason for imitating the Romans in this respect (by using Roman - style lettering on the coin) than there would be for modeling our automobiles after the chariot of Ben Hur 's day.
Production of the Jefferson nickel began at all three mints (Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco), on October 3, 1938. By mid-November, some twelve million had been coined, and they were officially released into circulation on November 15; more than thirty million would be struck in 1938. According to contemporary accounts, the Jefferson nickel was initially hoarded, and it was not until 1940 that it was commonly seen in circulation.
In 1939, the Mint recut the hub for the nickel, sharpening the steps on Monticello, which had been fuzzy in initial strikings. Since then, a test for whether a nickel is particularly well struck has been whether all six steps appear clearly, with "full step '' nickels more collectable. For specialty collectors this 1939 die change also created two varieties for all three mints and proof strikings that year, the "Reverse of 1938 '' and the "Reverse of 1940 '', the latter being more common for Philadelphia, scarcer for the other two mints. A 1940 proof with the 1938 reverse has also been discovered.
With the entry of the United States into World War II, nickel became a critical war material, and the Mint sought to reduce its use of the metal. On March 27, 1942, Congress authorized a nickel made of 50 % copper and 50 % silver, but gave the Mint the authority to vary the proportions, or add other metals, in the public interest. The Mint 's greatest concern was in finding an alloy which would use no nickel, but still satisfy counterfeit detectors in vending machines. An alloy of 56 % copper, 35 % silver and 9 % manganese proved suitable, and this alloy began to be coined into nickels from October 1942. In the hopes of making them easy to sort out and withdraw after the war, the Mint struck all "war nickels '' with a large mint mark appearing above Monticello. The mint mark P for Philadelphia was the first time that mint 's mark had appeared on a US coin. The prewar composition and smaller mint mark (or no mint mark for Philadelphia) were resumed in 1946. In a 2000 article in The Numismatist, Mark A. Benvenuto suggested that the amount of nickel saved by the switch was not significant to the war effort, but that the war nickel served as a ubiquitous reminder of the sacrifices that needed to be made for victory.
Within the war nickel series collectors recognize two additions, one official, the other counterfeit. Some 1943 - P nickels are overdated. Here a die for the previous year was reused, allowing a "2 '' to be visible under the "3 ''. In addition, a number of 1944 nickels are known without the large "P '' mintmark. These were produced in 1954 by Francis LeRoy Henning, who also made counterfeit nickels with at least four other dates.
When it became known that the Denver Mint had struck only 2,630,030 nickels in 1950, the coins (catalogued as 1950 - D) began to be widely hoarded. Speculation in them increased in the early 1960s, but prices decreased sharply in 1964. Because they were so widely pulled from circulation, the 1950 - D is readily available today. A number of reverse dies with an S mint mark, intended for the San Francisco Mint, were created in 1955; they were not used as that mint struck no nickels that year and subsequently closed, and the unused dies were sent for use at Denver, where the S mint mark was overpunched with a D. 1949 and 1954 are other years where one mintmark was punched over another.
Proof coins, struck at Philadelphia, had been minted for sale to collectors in 1938 and continued through 1942. In the latter year proofs were struck in both the regular and "war nickel '' compositions, after which they were discontinued. Sales of proof coins began again in 1950 and continued until 1964, when their striking was discontinued during the coin shortage. In 1966 a small change was made to the design to add the initials of the designer (FS) to the obverse, underneath Jefferson 's portrait. In commemoration of that change, two proof 1966 nickels with the initials were struck and presented to him. Special mint sets, of lower quality than proof coins, were struck from 1965 to 1967. Proof coin sales resumed in 1968, with coins struck at the reopened San Francisco facility. Coins struck at any mint between 1965 and 1967 lack mint marks. Beginning in 1968, mint marks were again used, but were moved to the lower part of the obverse, to the right of Jefferson 's bust. From 1971, no nickels were struck for circulation in San Francisco -- the 1971 - S was the first nickel struck in proof only since 1878. In both 1994 and 1997 matte proof nickels, with distinctive grainy surfaces, were struck in small numbers at the Philadelphia mint for inclusion in commemorative coin sets.
During the late twentieth century the Mint repeatedly modified the design. In 1982, the steps were sharpened in that year 's redesign. The 1987 modification saw the sharpening of Jefferson 's hair and the details of Monticello -- since 1987, well - struck nickels with six full steps on the reverse have been relatively common. In 1993, Jefferson 's hair was again sharpened.
In June 2002, Mint officials were interested in redesigning the nickel in honor of the upcoming bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. They contacted the office of Representative Eric Cantor (Republican - Virginia). Cantor had concerns about moving Monticello, located in his home state, off the nickel, and sponsored legislation which would allow the Mint to strike different designs in 2003, 2004, and 2005, and again depict Monticello beginning in 2006. The resultant act, the "American 5 - Cent Coin Design Continuity Act of 2003 '', was signed into law on April 23, 2003. Under its terms, the Treasury Secretary could vary the nickel 's designs in honor of the 200th anniversary of the Expedition and of the Louisiana Purchase, but the nickel would again feature Jefferson and Monticello beginning in 2006. Under Cantor 's legislation, every future five - cent coin will feature Jefferson and Monticello.
In November 2003, the Mint announced the first two reverse designs, to be struck with Schlag 's obverse in 2004. The first, designed by United States Mint sculptor - engraver Norman E. Nemeth, depicts an adaptation of the Indian Peace Medals struck for Jefferson. The second, by Mint sculptor - engraver Alfred Maletsky, depicts a keelboat like that used by the Expedition.
The 2005 nickels presented a new image of the former President, designed by Joe Fitzgerald based on Houdon 's bust of Jefferson. The word "Liberty '' was taken from Jefferson 's handwritten draft for the Declaration of Independence, though to achieve a capital L, Fitzgerald had to obtain one from other documents written by Jefferson. The reverse for the first half of the year depicted an American bison, recalling the Buffalo nickel and designed by Jamie Franki. The reverse for the second half showed a coastline and the words "Ocean in view! O! The Joy! '', from a journal entry by William Clark, co-leader of the Expedition. Clark had actually written the word as "ocian '', but the Mint modernized the spelling.
The obverse design for the nickel debuting in 2006 was designed by Franki. It depicts a forward - facing Jefferson based on an 1800 study by Rembrandt Peale, and includes "Liberty '' in Jefferson 's script. According to Acting Mint Director David Lebryk, "The image of a forward - facing Jefferson is a fitting tribute to (his) vision. '' The reverse beginning in 2006 was again Schlag 's Monticello design, but newly sharpened by Mint engravers. As Schlag 's obverse design, on which his initials were placed in 1966, is no longer used, his initials were placed on the reverse to the right of Monticello.
In 2009, a total of only 86,640,000 nickels were struck for circulation. The figure increased in 2010 to 490,560,000. The unusually low 2009 figures were caused by a lack of demand for coins in commerce due to poor economic conditions.
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who starred in the show hart to hart | Robert Wagner - wikipedia
Robert John Wagner, Jr. (pronounced / ˈwæɡnər /; born February 10, 1930) is an American actor of stage, screen, and television, best known for starring in the television shows It Takes a Thief (1968 -- 70), Switch (1975 -- 78), and Hart to Hart (1979 -- 84). He also had a recurring role as Teddy Leopold on the TV sitcom Two and a Half Men and has a recurring role as Anthony DiNozzo Sr. on the police procedural NCIS.
In movies, Wagner is known for his role as Number Two in the Austin Powers trilogy of films (1997, 1999, 2002), as well as for A Kiss Before Dying, The Pink Panther, Harper, The Towering Inferno and many more.
Wagner 's autobiography, Pieces of My Heart: A Life, written with author Scott Eyman, was published on September 23, 2008.
Robert Wagner was born February 10, 1930, in Detroit, Michigan. He is the son of Hazel Alvera (née Boe), a telephone operator, and Robert John Wagner, Sr., a traveling salesman who worked for the Ford Motor Company. His paternal grandparents were born in Germany. and his maternal grandparents were Norwegian. Wagner has a sister, Mary. He graduated from Saint Monica Catholic High School in 1949.
Wagner became interested in acting, and after an unsuccessful screen test directed by Fred Zinnemann for his film Teresa, Wagner was represented by Albert R. Broccoli as his agent.
He made his film debut in The Happy Years (1950); was signed by agent Henry Willson and put under contract with 20th Century - Fox.
Wagner 's first film for Fox was Halls of Montezuma (1951) a World War Two film. Wagner had a support role, with Richard Widmark as the star. The studio then had him perform a similar function in another war movie, The Frogmen (1951), again with Widmark; the cast also included another young male under contract to the studio, Jeffrey Hunter with whom Wagner would often work. Let 's Make It Legal (1951) was a comedy where Wagner again supported an older star, in this case Claudette Colbert.
Wagner first gained significant attention with a small but showy part as a shell - shocked soldier in With a Song in My Heart (1952), starring Susan Hayward as Jane Froman.
Fox started to give Wagner better roles. He was the romantic male lead in Stars and Stripes Forever (1952), a biopic about John Philip Sousa starring Clifton Webb. He supported James Cagney and Dan Dailey in John Ford 's version of What Price Glory (1952) and supported Webb again in Titanic (1953). He was in a minor Western, The Silver Whip (1953) with Rory Calhoun.
Fox gave Wagner his first starring role in Beneath the 12 - Mile Reef (1953). Reviews were poor but the movie was only the third ever to be shot in CinemaScope and was a big hit.
Also popular was a Western, Broken Lance (1954), where Wagner supported Spencer Tracy for director Edward Dmytryk, appearing as Tracy 's son. Fox gave Wagner the lead role in an expensive spectacular, Prince Valiant (1954). While popular, critical reception was poor and Wagner later joked his wig in the movie made him look like Jane Wyman. He was teamed with Jeffrey Hunter in a Western, White Feather (1955).
Wagner was borrowed by Paramount for The Mountain (1956), directed by Dymrtryk, where Wagner was cast as Spencer Tracy 's brother, having played his son just two years earlier in the same director 's Broken Lance. He received more critical acclaim for the lead in A Kiss Before Dying (1956), from the novel by Ira Levin; it was made for Crown Productions, a company of Darryl F. Zanuck 's brother in law (the leads were all under contract to Fox) and released through United Artists.
Back at Fox he was Between Heaven and Hell (1956), a war movie, and The True Story of Jesse James (1957), playing the lead role for director Nicholas Ray (Jeffrey Hunter was Frank). Both movies were box office disappointments and it seemed Wagner was unable to make the transition to top level star.
This appeared confirmed when he was the lead in Stopover Tokyo (1957). In 1959, Wagner disparaged the film:
When I started at Fox in 1950 they were making sixty five pictures a year. Now they 're lucky if they make thirty. There was a chance to get some training in B pictures. Then TV struck. Everything went big and they started sticking me into Cinemascope spectacles. One day, smiling Joe Juvenile with no talent was doing a role intended for John Wayne. That was in a dog called Stopover Tokyo. I 've really had to work to keep up.
He supported Robert Mitchum in a Korean War movie, The Hunters (1958), and appeared with a number of Fox contractees in a World War Two drama, In Love and War (1958); the latter was a hit.
After a cameo in Mardi Gras (1958), Wagner supported Bing Crosby and Debbie Reynolds in Say One for Me (1959).
Trying to kick start his career, he appeared with his then - wife Natalie Wood in All the Fine Young Cannibals (1960), made for MGM. The film was a flop.
In 1960 Wagner signed with Columbia Pictures for three films, but only two were made; Sail a Crooked Ship (1961) with Ernie Kovacs and The War Lover (1962), opposite Steve McQueen, which was filmed in England.
Wagner 's marriage to Wood had broken up and he relocated to Europe. He had a small role in The Longest Day (1962), produced by Daryl Zanuck for Fox. He had a larger part in The Condemned of Altona (1962), a commercial and critical disappointment despite being directed by Vittorio de Sica.
Considerably more popular was The Pink Panther (1963), a massive hit, although Wagner 's part was very much in support to those of David Niven, Capucine, Peter Sellers and Claudia Cardinale. It was directed by Blake Edwards, who wanted Wagner for the lead in The Great Race (1965) but Jack L. Warner overruled him.
Back in Hollywood, Wagner had a good support role in another hit, Harper (1966), starring Paul Newman.
Wagner signed with Universal Studios in 1966 starring in the films How I Spent My Summer Vacation, a made - for - TV movie released in the United Kingdom as Deadly Roulette, and Banning (1967). He returned to Italy to make a caper film for MGM, The Biggest Bundle of Them All (1968), but it was not a success.
In 1967, Lew Wasserman of Universal convinced Wagner to make his television series debut in It Takes a Thief (1968 - 70). While the success of The Pink Panther and Harper began Wagner 's comeback, the successful two - and - a-half seasons of his first TV series completed it. In this series, he acted with Fred Astaire, who played his father. Wagner was a longtime friend of Astaire, having gone to school with Astaire 's eldest son, Peter. Wagner 's performance would earn him an Emmy nomination for Best TV Actor.
During the making of the series he made a film for Universal, the comedy Do n't Just Stand There! (1968) with Mary Tyler Moore. It was not a success. More popular was Winning (1969), a racing car drama where Wagner supported Paul Newman and Joanne Woodward. He also guest starred in The Name of the Game (1970).
Wagner 's friend and agent Albert Broccoli suggested that he audition to play James Bond, but he decided it was not right for him.
Wagner appeared in a pilot for a series that did not eventuate, City Beneath the Sea (1971). The following year he produced and cast himself opposite Bette Davis in the television movie Madame Sin, which was released in foreign markets as a feature film,
He was a regular in the BBC / Universal World War II prisoner - of - war drama Colditz (1972 - 74) for much of its run. He reunited with McQueen, along with Paul Newman and Faye Dunaway, in the disaster film The Towering Inferno released in the same year. It was a massive hit, although Wagner 's part was relatively small.
By the mid-1970s, Wagner 's television career was at its peak with the television series Switch (1975 - 78) opposite Eddie Albert, after re-signing a contract with Universal Studios in 1974. Before Switch, Albert was a childhood hero of Wagner, after he watched the movie Brother Rat along with a few others. The friendship started in the early 1960s, where he also co-starred in a couple of Albert 's movies. After the series ' end, the two remained friends until Albert 's death on May 26, 2005. Wagner spoke at his funeral, and gave a testimonial about his longtime friendship with him.
In partial payment for starring together in the Aaron Spelling and Leonard Goldberg production of the TV movie The Affair, Wagner and Natalie Wood were given a share in three TV series that the producers were developing for ABC. Only one reached the screen, the very successful TV series Charlie 's Angels, for which Wagner and Wood had a 50 % share, though Wagner was to spend many years in court arguing with Spelling and Goldberg over what was defined as profit.
Wagner and Wood acted with Laurence Olivier in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1976) (as part of Olivier 's UK television series Laurence Olivier Presents).
Wagner had a small role in some all - star Universal films, Midway (1976) and The Concorde... Airport ' 79 (1979).
Wagner 's third successful series was Hart to Hart, which co-starred Stefanie Powers and ran from 1979 to 1984. No one else was seriously considered for the role; George Hamilton had a high profile at the time and was suggested but producer Aaron Spelling said that if he was cast "the audience will resent him as Hart for being that rich. But no one will begrudge RJ (Wagner) a nickel. ''
During the series run Wagner reprised his old Pink Panther role in Curse of the Pink Panther (1983). He had a support part in I Am the Cheese (1983).
He played an insurance investigator in the TV series Lime Street (1985) but the show did not last long.
Wagner appeared in a TV movie with Audrey Hepburn, Love Among Thieves (1987) and in a mini series with Jacklyn Smith, Windmills of the Gods (1988). For Tom Mankiewicz he played a support part in Delirious (1991). More widely seen was Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993), where Wagner played a producer.
Wagner 's film career received a boost after his role in the Austin Powers series of spy spoofs starring Mike Myers. Wagner played Dr. Evil 's henchman Number 2 in all three films: Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery (1997), Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999) and Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002).
He also had small roles in Wild Things (1998), Crazy in Alabama (1999), Play It to the Bone (2000), Becoming Dick (2001) and Sol Goode (2001).
He also became the host of Fox Movie Channel 's Hour of Stars, featuring original television episodes of The 20th Century - Fox Hour (1955), a series which Wagner had appeared on in his early days with the studio.
In 2005, Wagner became the television spokesman for the Senior Lending Network, a reverse mortgage lender and in 2010 he began serving as a spokesman for the Guardian First Funding Group, also a reverse mortgage lender. As of June 2011, Guardian First Funding was acquired by Urban Financial Group, who continue to use Mr. Wagner as their spokesperson.
In 2007, Wagner had a role in the BBC / AMC series Hustle. In season four 's premiere, Wagner played a crooked Texan being taken for half a million dollars. As Wagner is considered "a suave icon of American caper television, including It Takes a Thief and Hart to Hart '', Robert Glenister (Hustle 's fixer, Ash Morgan) commented that "to have one of the icons of that period involved is a great bonus for all of us ''.
Wagner also played the pivotal role of President James Garfield in the comedy / horror film Netherbeast Incorporated (2007). The role was written with Wagner in mind. He had a recurring role of a rich suitor to the main characters ' mother on the sitcom Two and a Half Men. His most recent appearances on the show were in May 2008.
Wagner has guest - starred in ten episodes of NCIS as Anthony DiNozzo, Sr., the father of Anthony DiNozzo, Jr., played by Michael Weatherly. Weatherly had previously appeared as Wagner in the TV movie The Mystery of Natalie Wood.
Wagner was set to star as Charlie in the 2011 reboot of Charlie 's Angels, but due to scheduling conflicts, had to exit the project.
In his memoirs, Wagner revealed he has had affairs with Yvonne De Carlo, Joan Crawford, Elizabeth Taylor, Anita Ekberg, Shirley Anne Field, Lori Nelson and Joan Collins. He had a four - year romantic relationship with Barbara Stanwyck after they acted together in the movie Titanic (1953). Because of the age difference -- he was 22, she was 45 -- they kept the affair secret in order to avoid damage to their careers.
On December 28, 1957, Wagner married 19 - year - old actress Natalie Wood. They separated in June 1961 and divorced on April 27, 1962.
While working on location in Europe, Wagner reconnected with an old friend, actress Marion Marshall. In the spring of 1963, after a brief courtship, Wagner, Marshall, and her two children from her marriage to Stanley Donen moved back to America. Wagner and Marshall married on July 22, 1963, in the Bronx Courthouse. Soon after, they had a daughter, Katie Wagner (born May 11, 1964). They divorced on October 14, 1971, after eight years of marriage.
In 1971, Wagner was engaged to Tina Sinatra. In early 1972, Wagner reconnected with Natalie Wood and remarried her on July 16, 1972 after a six - month courtship. Their only child together, Courtney Wagner, was born on March 9, 1974. On November 29, 1981, Natalie Wood drowned near their yacht Splendour while it was moored near Catalina Island; also on board were Wagner, Christopher Walken, who was co-starring with her in the motion picture Brainstorm, and Dennis Davern, a captain. Wagner subsequently became the legal guardian of Wood 's daughter Natasha Gregson, then eleven. He is estranged from his former sister - in - law, Lana Wood.
Wagner and actress Jill St. John became an item in February 1982. After eight years together, they married on May 26, 1990. In 1999, an altercation occurred between Wagner 's former sister - in - law Lana Wood and St. John, who had both appeared in the 1971 James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever, at a Vanity Fair shoot in Los Angeles. When photographer Annie Leibovitz asked for a picture of St. John and Wood together, St. John was so adamantly opposed to the idea that it reduced Wood to tears. Her publicist, however, said it was he who vetoed the photo: "I know (the Wagner family) would rather not have the current Mrs. Wagner shot with Natalie 's sister. ''
On September 21, 2006, he became a first - time grandfather when Katie Wagner, his daughter with Marion Marshall, gave birth to her son Riley John Wagner - Lewis.
In November 2011, the Los Angeles County Sheriff 's Department reopened its investigation into Natalie Wood 's death after the captain of the boat, Dennis Davern, told NBC News that he lied to police during the initial investigation and that a fight between Wood and Wagner had led to her drowning. After nine months of further investigation, Los Angeles County Chief Medical Examiner Dr. Lakshmanan Sathyavagiswaran amended Wood 's death certificate and changed the cause of her death from accidental drowning to "drowning and other undetermined factors ''. The amended document also states that the circumstances of how Wood ended up in the water are "not clearly established. '' The police however have stated that Wagner is not a suspect in the case.
Wagner has denied any involvement in Wood 's death.
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where is st maarten located on a map | Saint Martin - Wikipedia
Leeward Islands, Lesser Antilles,
Saint Martin (French: Saint - Martin; Dutch: Sint Maarten) is an island in the northeast Caribbean Sea, approximately 300 km (190 mi) east of Puerto Rico. The 87 - square - kilometre (34 sq mi) island is divided roughly 60 / 40 between the French Republic (53 km, 20 sq mi) and the Kingdom of the Netherlands (34 km, 13 sq mi), but the two parts are roughly equal in population. It is the world 's smallest inhabited island divided between two nations. The division dates to 1648. The southern Dutch part comprises Sint Maarten and is one of four constituent countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The northern French part comprises the Collectivité de Saint - Martin (Collectivity of St Martin) and is an overseas collectivity of France.
On 1 January 2009, the population of the whole island was 77,741 inhabitants, with 40,917 living on the Dutch side, and 36,824 on the French side.
Collectively, the two territories are known as "St - Martin / St Maarten '', or sometimes "SXM '', the IATA identifier for Princess Juliana International Airport, the island 's main airport. St. Martin (the French portion) received the ISO 3166 - 1 code MF in October 2007. The Dutch part changed in status to a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 2010 and was given the code SX.
Saint Martin has a land area of 87 km (34 sq mi), 53 km (20 sq mi) of which is under the sovereignty of France, and 34 km (13 sq mi) under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This is the only land border shared by France and the Kingdom of the Netherlands anywhere on Earth, the country Sint Maarten being the sharing part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
The main cities are Philipsburg (Dutch side) and Marigot (French side). The Dutch side is more heavily populated. The largest settlement on the entire island is Lower Prince 's Quarter, on the Dutch side.
The highest hilltop is the Pic Paradis (424 metres (1,391 ft)) in the center of a hill chain on the French side. Both sides are hilly with large mountain peaks. This forms a valley where many houses are located. There are no rivers on the island, but many dry gullies. Hiking trails give access to the dry forest covering tops and slopes.
The island is located south of Anguilla, separated from the British territory by the Anguilla Channel. Saint Martin is northwest of Saint Barthélemy, separated from the French territory by the Saint - Barthélemy Channel. It is one of the Renaissance Islands.
In 1493, Italian / Genoan explorer Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506), embarked on his second voyage to the New World on behalf of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella I of Spain. According to legend, Columbus sighted and perhaps anchored at the island of Saint Martin on November 11, 1493, the feast day of Saint Martin of Tours. In his honor, Columbus then named the island "San Martin ''. This name was translated to "Sint Maarten '' (Dutch), "Saint - Martin '' (French) and "Saint Martin '' in English.
At Columbus ' time, St. Martin was populated, if at all, by Carib amerindians. The former Arawaks had been chased by the Caribs coming from the north coast of South America a short time before the arrival of the Spaniards who followed in Columbus ' wake. The Arawaks were agricultural people who fashioned pottery and whose social organization was headed by hereditary chieftains who derived their power from personal deities called zemis. The Caribs ' territory was not completely conquered until the mid-17th century when most of them perished in the struggle between the French, English (later British), Dutch, Danes and Spanish for control of the West Indies islands around the Caribbean Sea.
The Dutch first began to ply the island 's ponds for salt in the 1620s. Despite the Dutch presence on the island, the Spaniards recaptured St. Martin in 1633. One year later, they built a fort (now Fort Amsterdam, near Philipsburg) and another artillery battery at Pointe Blanche to assert their claim and control access to Great Bay salt pond. A massive influx of African slaves took place in the 18th century with the development of sugarcane plantations by the French and Dutch. Slavery was abolished in the first half of the 19th century. On some of their territories the British imported Chinese and South Asians to take the place of slaves. Thus, St. Martin and the other islands are populated by a mixture of Amerindian, European, African, Indian and Asian peoples.
On March 23, 1648, the Kingdom of France and the Dutch Republic agreed to divide the island between their two territories, with the signing of the Treaty of Concordia. Folklore surrounds the history of the once ever - changing border division between St. Martin and Sint Maarten, and a popular story among locals narrates that "to divide the island into two sections, (in 1648) the inhabitants were told to choose two walkers, one chosen by the French - dominated community and the other one by the Dutch - dominated community, who were put back to back in one extreme of the island, making them walk in opposite directions while stuck to the littoral line, and not allowing them to run. The point where they eventually met was set as the other extreme of the island, and the subsequently created line was chosen as the frontier, dividing Saint - Martin from Sint Maarten. Seemingly, the French walker had walked more than his Dutch counterpart (they earned their respective lands 54 km2 and 32 km2). As the first man chose wine as his stimulant prior to the race, while the latter chose Jenever (Dutch Gin), the difference between such beverages ' lightness was said to be the cause of the territorial differences by French locals, while Dutch locals tended to blame the French walker for running. ''
Under the Köppen climate classification, the island has a tropical monsoon climate with a dry season from January to April and a rainy season from August to December. The precipitation patterns are due to the movement of the Azores high during the year. With the wind direction predominantly from the east or the northeast, northeasterly trades, temperatures remain stable throughout the year and temperatures rarely exceed 34 ° C (93 ° F) or fall below 20 ° C (68 ° F). Temperatures remain steady throughout the year with an average mean temperature of 27.2 ° C (81.0 ° F). The average sea temperature is 27.2 ° C (81.0 ° F) ranging from a low of 25.9 ° C (78.6 ° F) in February to a high of 28.4 ° C (83.1 ° F) in October. The total average yearly rainfall is 1,047 mm (41.2 in), with 142 days of measurable rainfall. Thunderstorms can occasionally occur, with 18 days with thunder per year. Precipitation totals are quite variable from year to year, depending on the number of passing tropical cyclones.
On 6 and 7 September 2017 the island was hit by Hurricane Irma (Category 5 at landfall), which caused widespread and significant damage to buildings and infrastructure. A total of 11 deaths had been reported as of 8 September 2017. France 's Minister of the Interior, Gérard Collomb, said on 8 September 2017 that most of the schools were destroyed on the French half of the island. In addition to damage caused by high winds, there were reports of serious flood damage to businesses in the village of Marigot. Looting was also a serious problem. Both France and the Netherlands sent aid as well as additional police and emergency personnel to the island. The Washington Post reported that 95 % of the structures on the French side and 75 % of the structures on the Dutch side were damaged or destroyed.
Some days after the storm had abated, a survey by the Dutch Red Cross estimated that nearly a third of the buildings in Sint Maarten had been destroyed and that over 90 percent of structures on the island had been damaged. Princess Juliana Airport was extensively damaged but reopened on a partial basis in two days to allow incoming relief flights and for flights that would take evacuees to other islands.
INSEE estimated in 2005 the GDP per capita of Saint Martin for 1999 to be € 14,500 (about USD15, 400).
The main industry of the island is tourism. In 2000, the island had about one million visitors annually. About 85 % of the workforce was engaged in the tourist industry.
On January 1, 2009 the population of the entire island of Saint Martin was 77,741 inhabitants, 40,917 of whom lived on the Dutch side of the island, and 36,824 on the French side. A local English - based creole language is spoken on both sides of the island.
St. Martin 's Dutch side is known for its festive nightlife, beaches, jewellery, drinks made with native rum - based guavaberry liquors, and casinos. The island 's French side is known for its nude beaches, clothes, shopping (including outdoor markets), and French and Indian Caribbean cuisine. English is the most commonly spoken language along with a local dialect. The official languages are French for Saint - Martin, and both Dutch and English for Sint Maarten. Other common languages include various French - based creoles (spoken by immigrants from other French Caribbean islands), Spanish (spoken by immigrants from the Dominican Republic and various South American countries), and Papiamento (spoken by immigrants from Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao).
Among the leading cultural artists of the island are Youth Waves, music band; Isidore "Mighty Dow '' York, kaisonian, panman; Roland Richardson, Impressionist painter; Ruby Bute, painter; Nicole de Weever, dancer and Broadway star; Lasana M. Sekou, poet, author, independence advocate; Clara Reyes, choreographer; and Tanny and The Boys, string band music group.
Public buses are the primary mode of transportation for visitors staying on the island. Traffic on the island has become a major problem. Long traffic jams between Marigot, Philipsburg and the airport are common.
In recent years sargassum weed has arrived on the south ("Dutch '') shoreline, but the northern French coast is generally free of the weed.
Because the island is located along the intertropical convergence zone, it is occasionally threatened by Atlantic hurricane activity in the late summer and early fall.
Neighbouring islands include Saint Barthélemy (French), Anguilla (British), Saba (Dutch), Sint Eustatius "Statia '' (Dutch), Saint Kitts and Nevis (independent, formerly British). With the exception of Nevis, all of these islands are easily visible on a clear day from St. Martin.
Simpson Bay, Sint Maarten, Dutch side
Philipsburg and the Great Bay
Marigot, Saint Martin, French side
Shopping on St Maarten and Saint Martin offers duty - free goods in numerous boutiques. Popular goods include local crafts & arts, exotic foods, jewelry, liquor, tobacco, leather goods, as well as most designer goods. Most often the designer goods are offered at significant discounts, often up to 40 % lower than EU retail prices.
Saint Martin uses the Euro as its currency, while Sint Maarten uses the Netherlands Antillean guilder, pegged at 2.00 per Euro. As a consequence of the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles, the Netherlands Antillean guilder will cease to be legal tender and be replaced by the Caribbean guilder in the coming years. Almost every store on the island also accepts the United States dollar, although sometimes a more expensive exchange rate is used.
Neither side of the island is part of the Schengen Area; full border checks are performed when travelling between the island and Europe. Passport controls are also exercised when taking the ferry from Marigot or Princess Juliana International Airport to Anguilla. There are rarely checks at the border between the two sides of the island. The Franco - Dutch treaty on Saint Martin border controls requires a working group that has never been set up, to harmonize external checks at the two main airports. The Dutch side has expressed concern that new and tighter French visa requirements would harm their tourism income.
In 1994, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and France signed the Franco - Dutch treaty on Saint Martin border controls, which allows for joint Franco - Dutch border controls on so - called "risk flights '' arriving from off - island, and only admitting foreigners having permission to travel on both sides of the island. After some delay, the treaty was ratified in November 2006 in the Netherlands, and subsequently entered into force on 1 August 2007. Its provisions are not yet implemented as the working group specified in the treaty is not yet installed.
The island is served by many major airlines that daily bring in large jet aircraft, including Boeing 747s and Airbus A340s carrying tourists from across the world. The short main runway at Princess Juliana International Airport, and its position between a large hill and a beach, causes some spectacular approaches. Aviation photographers flock to the airport to capture pictures of large jets just a few metres above sunbathers on Maho Beach.
There is a small airport on the French side of the island at Grand Case, L'Espérance Airport for small aircraft serving neighbouring Caribbean islands. It frequently suffers thick fog during the hurricane season due to its location.
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who quoted hell hath no fury like a woman scorned | William Congreve - wikipedia
William Congreve (24 January 1670 -- 19 January 1729) was an English playwright and poet of the Restoration period. He is known for his clever, satirical dialogue and influence on the comedy of manners style of that period. He was also a minor political figure in the British Whig Party.
William Congreve was born in Bardsey, Yorkshire, England near Leeds. His parents were William Congreve (1637 -- 1708) and Mary née Browning (1636? -- 1715). The family moved to London in 1672. They relocated again in 1674 to the Irish port town of Youghal where his father served as a Lieutenant in the Royal Irish Army.
Congreve spent his childhood in Ireland, where his father, a Cavalier, had settled during the reign of Charles II. Congreve was educated at Kilkenny College where he met Jonathan Swift, and at Trinity College in Dublin. Upon graduation, he matriculated in the Middle Temple in London to study law, but preferred literature, drama, and the fashionable life. Congreve used the pseudonym Cleophil, under which he published Incognita: or, Love and Duty reconcil 'd in 1692. This early work, written when he was about 17 years of age, gained him recognition among men of letters and an entrance into the literary world. He became a disciple of John Dryden whom he met through gatherings of literary circles held at Will 's Coffeehouse in the Covent Garden District of London. John Dryden supported Congreve 's work throughout his life, taking the form of complimentary introductions written for some of Congreve 's publications.
William Congreve shaped the English comedy of manners through his use of satire and well - written dialogue. Congreve achieved fame in 1693 when he wrote some of the most popular English plays of the Restoration period. This period was distinguished by the fact that female roles were beginning to be played predominately by women, and was evident in Congreve 's work. One of Congreve 's favorite actresses was Mrs. Anne Bracegirdle, who performed many of the female lead roles in his plays.
His first play The Old Bachelor, written to amuse himself while convalescing, was produced at the Drury Lane Theatre in 1693 and later produced by the Theatre Royale. It was recognized as a success, and ran for a two - week period when it opened. Congreve 's mentor John Dryden gave the production rave reviews and proclaimed it to be a brilliant first piece. The second play to be produced was called The Double - Dealer which was not nearly as successful as the first production. By the age of thirty, he had written four comedies, including Love for Love (premiered 30 April 1695) staged in Lincoln 's Inn Field which was nearly as well received as the first major success for Congreve, and The Way of the World (premiered March 1700). This play was a failure at the time of production but is seen as one of his masterpieces today, and is still revived. He wrote one tragedy, The Mourning Bride (1697) which was extremely popular at the time of creation but is now one of his least regarded dramas. After the production of Love for Love, Congreve became one of the managers for the Lincoln 's Inn Fields in 1695. During that time, he wrote public occasional verse. As a result of his success and literary merit, he was awarded one of the five positions of commissioner for licensing hackney coaches.
Congreve 's career as a playwright was successful but brief. He only wrote five plays, authored from 1693 to 1700, in total. This was partly in response to changes in taste, as the public turned away from the sort of high - brow sexual comedy of manners in which he specialized. Congreve may have been forced off of the stage due to growing concerns about the morality of his theatrical comedies. He reportedly was particularly stung by a critique written by Jeremy Collier (A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage), to the point that he wrote a long reply, "Amendments of Mr. Collier 's False and Imperfect Citations. '' Although no longer on the stage, Congreve continued his literary art. He wrote the librettos for two operas that were being created at the time, and he translated the works of Molière.
As a member of the Whig Kit - Kat Club, Congreve 's career shifted to the political sector, and even a political appointment in Jamaica in 1714 by George I. Congreve continued to write, although his style changed greatly. During his time in Jamaica, he wrote poetry instead of full length dramatic productions, and translated the works of Homer, Juvenal, Ovid, and Horace.
Congreve withdrew from the theatre and lived the rest of his life on residuals from his early work, the royalties received when his plays were produced, as well as his private income. His output from 1700 was restricted to the occasional poem and some translation (notably Molière 's Monsieur de Pourceaugnac). Congreve never married; in his own era and through subsequent generations, he was famous for his friendships with prominent actresses and noblewomen for whom he wrote major parts in all his plays. These women included Anne Bracegirdle and Henrietta Godolphin, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough, daughter of the famous general, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Congreve and Henrietta probably met by 1703 and the duchess had a daughter, Mary (1723 -- 1764), who was believed to be his child. Upon his death, he left his entire fortune to the Duchess of Marlborough.
As early as 1710, he suffered both from gout and from cataracts on his eyes. Congreve suffered a carriage accident in late September 1728, from which he never recovered (having probably received an internal injury); he died in London in January 1729, and was buried in Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey.
Two of Congreve 's phrases from The Mourning Bride (1697) have become famous, although sometimes misquoted or misattributed to William Shakespeare.
Congreve coined another famous phrase in Love for Love (1695):
A fictitious play by Congreve, The Gallivant, features prominently in the novel Flowers for the Judge by Margery Allingham.
In the British TV series Hustle in first season fifth episode, the main protagonists attempt to pull out a con concerning a bitter woman named after Congreve.
In season 7 of Star Trek: The Next Generation, counselor Troi refers to "Hell hath no fury like a woman scorned '' at 43: 49 in the episode Eye of the Beholder.
Quotes from numerous Congreve works head a number of chapters in Robert Galbraith 's (J.K Rowling) second Cormoran Strike novel The Silkworm.
Lemony Snicket claims that William Congreve was an associate of V.F.D in "A Series of Unfortunate Events: The Hostile Hospital '' and quotes "Musick has charms to soothe a savage beast. ''
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how far is beaumont texas from the ocean | Beaumont, Texas - wikipedia
Beaumont (/ ˈboʊmɒnt / BOH - mont) is a city in and the county seat of Jefferson County, Texas in the United States, within the Beaumont -- Port Arthur Metropolitan Statistical Area. Located in Southeast Texas on the Neches River about 90 mi (140 km) east of Houston, Beaumont city had a population of 118,296 at the time of the 2010 census, making it the twenty - fourth-most populous city in the state of Texas.
Beaumont was founded as a town in 1835 by Northerners. The early European - American settlement had an economy based on the development of lumber, farming, and port industries. In 1892, Joseph Eloi Broussard opened the first commercially successful rice mill in the state, stimulating development of rice farming in the area; he also started an irrigation company (since 1933 established as the Lower Neches Valley Authority) to support rice culture. Rice became an important commodity crop in Texas, and is now cultivated in 23 counties.
A big change occurred in 1901 with the Spindletop gusher, which demonstrated the potential of the huge oil field. With Spindletop, several energy companies developed in Beaumont, and some continue. The area rapidly developed as one of the major petro - chemical refining areas in the country. Along with Port Arthur and Orange, Beaumont forms the Golden Triangle, a major industrial area on the Texas Gulf Coast.
Beaumont is home of Lamar University, a national Carnegie Doctoral Research university with 14,966 students, including undergraduates and post graduates. Over the years, several corporations have been based in this city, including Gulf States Utilities which had its headquarters in Beaumont until its takeover by Entergy Corporation in 1993. GSU 's Edison Plaza headquarters is still the tallest building in Beaumont (as of 2017).
In 1824 Noah and Nancy Tevis settled on the west bank of the Neches River and developed a farm. Soon after that, a small community grew up around the farm, which was named Tevis Bluff or Neches River Settlement. In 1835 the land of Tevis, together with the nearby community of Santa Anna (in total, 50 acres (20 ha)), was purchased by Northerners Henry Millard (1796? -- 1844) of New York, Joseph Pulsifer (1805 -- 1861) of Massachusetts, and Thomas Byers Huling (1804 -- 1865) of Pennsylvania. They began planning a town to be laid out on this land. Their partnership, J.P. Pulsifer and Company, controlled the first 50 acres (200,000 m) upon which the town was founded. This town was named Beaumont, after Jefferson Beaumont, the brother - in - law of Henry Millard. They added more property for a total of 200 acres.
Beaumont became a town on 16 December 1838. Beaumont 's first mayor was Alexander Calder. From the town 's founding in 1835, business activities included real estate, transportation, and retail sales. Later, other businesses were formed, especially in railroad construction and operation, new building construction, lumber sales, and communications. The Port of Beaumont became a successful regional shipping center. Beaumont was a small center for cattle raisers and farmers in its early years. With an active riverport by the 1880s, it became an important lumber and rice - milling town. It exported rice as a commodity crop.
The Beaumont Rice Mill, founded in 1892 by Joseph Eloi Broussard, was the first commercially successful rice mill in Texas. In addition, Broussard founded a company to operate an irrigation system to support rice culture. (It became a public institution, the Lower Neches Irrigation Authority.) This helped stimulate the expansion of rice cultivation from 1500 acres in 1892 to 400,000 acres in 23 counties by his death in 1956. Beaumont 's lumber boom, which reached its peak in the late 19th century, was stimulated by the rebuilding and expansion of the railroads in the state and region after the Civil War.
The rise of Beaumont 's mill economy drew many new residents to the city, many of them immigrants. The first Jewish man in the city was from Louisiana, others migrated from the South, and were joined by immigrants. They worked as merchants and in a variety of jobs in the growing city and ranching area. In 1895 Jews formed their first congregation. By the early 20th century, the city was served by the Southern Pacific; Kansas City Southern, Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe; and Missouri Pacific railroad systems.
Oil was discovered at nearby Spindletop on 10 January 1901. Spindletop became the first major oil field and one of the largest in American history. With the discovery of oil at Spindletop, Beaumont 's population more than tripled in two months from 9,000 in January 1901 to 30,000 in March 1901. Oil is, and has always been, a major export of the city, and a major contributor to the national GDP.
William Casper Tyrrell, nicknamed "Captain W.C. '', was a leading businessman and oil tycoon in the city in the early 20th century, developing businesses during the Texas Oil Boom. An entrepreneur from Pennsylvania and Iowa, he arrived after the gusher at Spindletop, and invested in development of a commercial port in the city, and an irrigation system to support the local rice industry, as well as residential and retail development of suburban property. He was also a philanthropist. He purchased and donated First Baptist Church, whose congregation had moved to a new facility, to use as the city 's first public library, now known as the Tyrrell Historical Library.
When the city became a major center for defense shipbuilding during World War II, tens of thousands of rural Texans migrated there for the new high - paying jobs. The Roosevelt administration ordered the defense industry to be integrated, and many Southern whites were working closely with blacks for the first time. Housing was scarce in the crowded city, and racial tensions increased. In June 1943 after workers at the Pennsylvania shipyard in Beaumont learned that a white woman had accused a black man of raping her, nearly 2,000 went to the jail where a suspect was being held, attracting more men along the way and reaching a total of 4,000. Ultimately the white mob rioted for three days, destroying major black neighborhoods and killing five persons. No one was prosecuted for the deaths. The riot in Beaumont was one of several in 1943 which centered in the defense industry, including Los Angeles, Detroit, Chicago and Mobile, Alabama as well as other cities across the country. The wartime social disruption was similar to war time riots which had occurred in other parts of the country during and following World War I.
In the postwar years, Beaumont 's port continued in importance. Although Beaumont 's city center is located 85 highway miles from the Houston city center and 60 air miles from city limit boundary to city limit boundary, the city is now considered part of the widespread Houston metropolitan area. As was typical with other cities, post-war highway construction led to the development of new suburbs and dispersal of the population in search of new housing. There has been some renewal in Beaumont downtown and people have rediscovered the river.
In 1996, the Jefferson County courts, located in Beaumont, became the first court in the nation to implement electronic filing and service of court documents, eliminating the need for law firms to print and mail reams of documents.
In 2005 and 2008, Beaumont and surrounding areas suffered extensive damage from Hurricane Rita and Hurricane Ike. A mandatory evacuation was ordered for residents, lasting about two weeks.
In August 2017, Beaumont and surrounding areas suffered extensive flooding as a result of Hurricane Harvey. As a result of this flooding, Memorial Herman Baptist Hospital evacuated all its highest level of acuity patients with the help of National Guard helicopters.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 85.9 square miles (222 km), of which 85.0 square miles (220 km) is land and 0.9 square miles (2.3 km) (1.07 %) is water.
Beaumont lies on Texas ' coastal plain, about 30 miles (48 km) inland from the Gulf of Mexico, one hour drive east of Houston, and just south of the dense pine forests of East Texas. The city is bordered on the east by the Neches River and to the north by Pine Island Bayou. Before being settled, the area was crisscrossed by numerous small streams. Most of these streams have since been filled in or converted for drainage purposes. The island directly across from Riverfront Park is called Trinity Island. There are also three other islands in the Neches River around the downtown area / port: Harbor, Smith and Clark.
The city of Beaumont, Texas is within the humid subtropical climate zone. This city is located within the Piney Woods, which cover the eastern region of Texas, as well as adjacent Louisiana. This region of Texas receives the most rainfall in the state, with more than 48 inches (1,200 mm) annually. This is due to the warm gulf waters that carry humid air to the region, where it condenses and precipitates. The humidity of the region greatly amplifies the feeling of heat during the summer.
Hurricanes such as the Galveston Hurricane of 1900, and Hurricane Ike in 2008, also strike the region. Hurricane Ike was the largest and most damaging hurricane to hit Beaumont to date, striking 13 September 2008. Causing $32 billion in damage, it is the third - costliest hurricane in United States history. On 18 August 2009, a tornado hit the west end of Beaumont, and caused damage to several local businesses and cars. Injuries were minimal.
The winters are moderated by warm gulf currents. Wintry precipitation is unusual, but does occur. A recent snow event was 24 December 2004, the first such since 1989. However, more recently, Beaumont and the surrounding areas received a light snow on 11 December 2008, with up to 4 inches (100 mm) in the west end. Beaumont and the surrounding areas received a trace to half an inch of light snow on 4 December 2009. These are the earliest measurable snowfalls at the airport since the late 19th century. Although in unofficial records, Beaumont received as much as 30 inches (760 mm) of snow on 14 February and 15 during the blizzard of 1895 that impacted the gulf coast with unusual cold weather. Unofficially the temperature reported a drop to a low of 4 ° F (− 16 ° C) after the storm. The area suffered a severe ice storm in January 1997.
The Beaumont - Port Arthur region has historically been cited as one of the most polluted urban areas in the United States due to various energy industries and chemical plants in the area. Even so, as of July, 2014, the Beaumont - Port Arthur region was not under any Environmental Protection Agency non-attainment restrictions; however, counties in the Greater Houston area, the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex, and El Paso were. As of October, 2014, the Beaumont - Port Arthur area was not under any Texas Commission on Environmental Quality attainment compliance deadlines. Regardless, according to an article published in 2007 focusing on Beaumont 's neighbor to the south, Port Arthur, pollution was believed to have caused some general area residents to become sick and has generated debates throughout the media.
Tropical storm Harvey caused significant damage to the area in 2017, dumping 47.47 '' of rain. This means 2017 is already the wettest year on record for the city with 89.59 '' and August 2017 is already the wettest calendar month on record with 54.73 '' of rain.
As of the census of 2010, there were 118,296 people, 45,648 households, and 28,859 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,339.4 people per square mile (517.2 / km2). There were 48,815 housing units at an average density of 574.2 per square mile (221.7 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 33.5 % non-Hispanic White, 47.3 % African American, 0.0 % Native American, 3.3 % Asian, 0.0 % Pacific Islander, 7.1 % from other races, and 2.0 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 13.4 % of the population.
There were 45,648 households out of which 28.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.7 % were married couples living together, 19.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.8 % were non-families. 30.7 % of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the city, the population was spread out with 28.3 % the age of 19 or under, 8.5 % from 20 to 24, 25.8 % from 25 to 44, 25.2 % from 45 to 64, and 10.5 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34.4 years. For every 100 females there were 95 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $39,699, according to the American Community Survey (5 year), and the median income for a family was $49,766. The per capita income for the city was $23,137. About 17.6 % of families and 22.1 % of the population were below the poverty line.
According to the City 's 2014 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report the top employers in the city are:
A significant element of the region 's economy is the Port of Beaumont, the nation 's fourth - largest seaport by tonnage. The 842d Transportation Battalion, and the 596th Transportation Group are both stationed at the port in Beaumont.
In addition to companies doing business within the city limits, several large industrial facilities are located within the city 's five - mile extraterritorial jurisdiction boundaries including the ExxonMobil Beaumont refinery and chemical plants, Goodyear Beaumont chemical plant, and DuPont chemical plant.
Jason 's Deli has its headquarters in Beaumont. Conn 's Appliances did have its headquarters in Beaumont; however, in mid-2012, Conn 's moved its corporate headquarters to The Woodlands. Originally Sweet Leaf Tea Company had its headquarters in Beaumont. The headquarters moved to Austin in October 2003.
Downtown Beaumont is the center of Business, Government and night time entertainment in southeast Texas. Downtown features the Crockett Street Entertainment Complex with entertainment options from dancing, to live music to dining or a bar. In addition to the night time entertainment downtown also features a museum district with five distinct museums.
Other entertainment and recreation venues located downtown include the following.
The sports teams of Lamar University compete in Division I NCAA athletics as the Lamar Cardinals. The athletics program is a full member of the Southland Conference. The Cardinals and Lady Cardinals compete in 17 varsity sports. The Cardinals Basketball team plays in the Montagne Center and Cardinals Baseball Team plays in Vincent - Beck Stadium.
The university brought back football in 2010. As part of the return, Provost Umphrey Stadium was completely renovated. The return was official when the Cardinals Football team played its first game in 21 years in the fall of 2010. The team currently competes in the Southland Conference as a member of the NCAA Division I Football Championship Subdivision (formerly Division I - AA).
According to the city 's 2015 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the city 's various funds had $219.0 million in revenues, $202.8 million in expenditures, $900.1 million in total assets, $586.8 million in total liabilities, and $202.2 million in cash and investments.
Beaumont is a council - manager form of government. Elections are held annually, with the Mayor and Council members each serving two - year terms. All powers of the City are vested in the Council, which enacts local legislation, adopts budgets, and determines policies. Council is also responsible for appointing the City Attorney, the City Clerk and Magistrates, and the City Manager. The city council is composed of two council members elected at - large, and four council members each elected from single - member districts, the four Wards of the city.
Council Districts
The Texas Department of Transportation operates the Beaumont District Office in Beaumont.
The Texas Ninth Court of Appeals is located in the Jefferson County Courthouse in Beaumont. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Beaumont District Parole Office in Beaumont. The Texas Department of Corrections operates three facilities of various custody types in unincorporated areas of Jefferson County, with a total capacity of about 7500 inmates.
The Federal Bureau of Prisons operates the Beaumont Federal Correctional Complex in an unincorporated area in Jefferson County, near Beaumont.
Beaumont has one state university, Lamar University, which belongs to The Texas State University System. Lamar University was established in 1923 as South Park Junior College. The university is currently classified as a national university. It is also classified as a Doctoral Research University by the Carnegie Foundation. With over 100 degrees offered, the university 's main academic offerings are in Business, Nursing, Teaching and Engineering. Lamar University 's enrollment has grown tremendously in the first decade of the 21st century. This has prompted a building boom at the campus. The school 's enrollment as of Fall, 2015 was above 14,966 students.
Lamar Institute of Technology, located directly adjacent to Lamar University, serves as the region 's technical college for two - year degrees and certificates. Originally a part of Lamar University and its predecessors since 1923, Lamar Institute of Technology was chartered in 1949 when the Lamar College Bill was passed. The bill was sponsored in the Texas Legislature by State Representative Jack Brooks and Senator W.R. Cousins, Jr. of Beaumont. Lamar Institute of Technology became a separate entity in 1995. As of Fall, 2014, enrollment totaled 2,920 students.
Beaumont is served by the Beaumont Independent School District.
High Schools
Harmony Science Academy of Beaumont, public charter school. Premier High School of Beaumont, also a public charter school in Beaumont.
The Roman Catholic Diocese of Beaumont runs three Catholic elementary schools in Beaumont, St. Anne Catholic School, St. Anthony Cathedral Catholic School, and Our Mother of Mercy Catholic School. Monsignor Kelly Catholic High School is the city 's lone Catholic high school. Legacy Christian Academy, on Highway 105, enrolls PK - 3 through 12th grade. All Saints Episcopal School, on Delaware St., enrolls Kindergarten through 8th grade.
The Beaumont Enterprise is the only daily newspaper serving Beaumont. Operating since 1880 The Enterprise is one of the oldest continually operated business in Beaumont. It is operated by the Hearst Corporation. Two weekly publications The Examiner and The Southeast Texas Record serve Beaumont and the area. The Examiner is primarily an investigative reporting paper. the Southeast Texas Record is a legal journal that covers Jefferson and Orange County courts.
KBTV is operated by the same owners of KFDM, Sinclair Broadcast Group.
The region currently has no PBS station of its own; Houston 's PBS on channel 8 and Lake Charles LPB on channel 20 do not reach the area. KUHT has a construction permit for a digital translator on RF 24, which would share KFDM 's antenna on 25 but the University of Houston has had financial cutbacks and recently cancelled a translator application in Victoria. What outcome this will have on the Beaumont facility remains to be seen.
Jack Brooks Regional Airport (BPT), located 9 miles (14 km) south of Beaumont 's central business district, serves the region with regional jet flights nonstop to Dallas / Fort Worth Airport (DFW), Texas with this scheduled passenger service being operated by American Eagle on behalf of American Airlines. The Beaumont Municipal Airport (BMT) near the western city limit is available for general aviation travel.
Amtrak 's Sunset Limited serves Beaumont 's train station.
The city operates the Beaumont Municipal Transit System, a citywide bus system called (BMT).
Major Highways
I - 10 US 69 US 90 US 96 US 287
For a full list of people associated with Beaumont, Texas see: People from Beaumont, Texas
Beaumont has 8 buildings over 100 feet (30 m) tall, the tallest being the Edison Plaza, which is 254 feet (77 m) tall. The old Edson Hotel, built in 1928 is nearly the same height at 240 feet (73 m). One of the most prominent downtown buildings is the 15 - story San Jacinto Building. Built in 1921, it sports one of the largest four faced clock towers in the nation, each dial being 17 feet (5.2 m) in diameter. In 1922 the 11 - story Hotel Beaumont was built across the street from the San Jacinto. The Hotel Beaumont bears a resemblance to the old Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta. The second oil boom of 1925 brought more people and wealth to Beaumont, the same year the 12 - story American National Bank Building (now Orleans Building), was erected, and in 1926 Forrest Goodhue built the 12 - story Goodhue Building which included a penthouse. In 1928, the Edson Hotel was built. No other buildings were built until Century Tower in 1962 and in 1982 Edison Plaza was built. In 1994 the 12 - story LaSalle Hotel, built in 1927, was demolished.
The Jefferson Theatre was built in 1927 by the Jefferson Amusement Company for $1 million and was Beaumont 's showpiece for many years. In 1928 the City Hall and Auditorium was built. It is now the Julie Rogers Theater.
Beaumont 's Jefferson County Courthouse is one of the tallest county courthouses in the state and is an excellent example of Art Deco architecture. Across the street from the Jack Brooks Federal Building is the Kyle Building, built in 1933. The storefront was recently restored and is considered to be one of the best examples of Zig - Zag architecture in Texas.
The Oaks Historic District has many restored historic homes.
Kyle Building, Edson Hotel, Goodhue Building
Orleans Building
Left - San Jacinto Building, Right - Hotel Beaumont
Century Tower
Goodhue Building
Jefferson Theatre.
Julie Rogers Theater
Edison Plaza
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no boundaries a benefit for the kosovar refugees | No Boundaries: a Benefit for the Kosovar Refugees - wikipedia
No Boundaries: A Benefit For The Kosovar Refugees is a benefit album released on June 15, 1999 by Epic Records featuring a handful of various artists to help raise money for Kosovars sent by aeroplane to Australia during the Kosovo War. It was released in Australia on June 21, 1999 and that also has music from Australian band Jebediah and New Zealand singer Bic Runga. Three organizations received $1 million from Epic as well as future revenues from the album. Those organizations Médecins Sans Frontières, OXFAM, and Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere.
The European edition included the following bonus tracks:
They appeared as tracks 16 and 17 respectively, while Pearl Jam still had the final track.
The Brazilian edition, named Sem Fronteiras: Em Beneficio dos Refugiados do Kosovo, included the following bonus tracks from Brazilian artists as tracks 17 and 18:
The Australian / New Zealand version has a different track list. Australian band Jebediah and New Zealand singer Bic Runga are added while Suede and Manic Street Preachers are omitted. However the song "Trapdoor '' by Jebidiah becomes track 4 and the remaining tracks shift one position down with Bic Runga 's "Lonely Lola Cherry Cola Girl '' entering the list as track 14.
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who appoints members of state agencies with the consent of the senate | Appointments Clause - wikipedia
The Appointments Clause is part of Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the United States Constitution, which empowers the President of the United States to appoint certain public officials with the "advice and consent '' of the United States Senate. This clause also allows lower - level officials to be appointed without the advice and consent process.
The relevant provision of the Appointments Clause is:
The first part of this clause is known as the Treaty Clause.
In the federal government of the United States, "advice and consent '' is a power of the United States Senate -- in this instance, the power to approve appointments by the President of the United States to public positions, including Cabinet secretaries, federal judges, and ambassadors. The term "advice and consent '' first appears in the United States Constitution in Article II, Section 2, Clause 2, referring to the Senate 's role in the signing and ratification of treaties. This term is then used again, to describe the Senate 's role in the appointment of public officials, immediately after describing the President 's duty to nominate such officials.
Several framers of the U.S. Constitution explained that the required role of the Senate is to advise the President after the nomination has been made by the President. Roger Sherman believed that advice before nomination could still be helpful. Likewise, President George Washington took the position that pre-nomination advice was allowable but not mandatory. The notion that pre-nomination advice is optional has developed into the unification of the "advice '' portion of the power with the "consent '' portion, although several Presidents have consulted informally with Senators over nominations and treaties.
The actual motion adopted by the Senate when exercising the power is "to advise and consent '', which shows how initial advice on nominations and treaties is not a formal power exercised by the Senate. On Nov. 21, 2013, the Senate changed its rules regarding the number of votes needed to end debate on a presidential nomination and bring it to a vote. Before that date, a minority of senators could engage in a filibuster and block a vote on a nomination unless three - fifths of senators voted to end debate. Under the new rules, a simple majority is all that is needed to end debate. The only exception was for nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States, which could still be blocked from going to a vote by a filibuster, until the Senate rules were again changed on April 6th, 2017 during Senate debate on the nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Count.
Congress itself may not exercise the appointment power; its functions are limited to the Senate 's role in advice and consent, and to deciding whether to vest a direct appointment power over a given office in the President, a Head of Department, or the Courts of Law. The Framers of the U.S. Constitution were particularly concerned that Congress might seek to exercise the appointment power and fill offices with their supporters, to the derogation of the President 's control over the executive branch. The Appointments Clause thus functions as a restraint on Congress and as an important structural element in the separation of powers. Attempts by Congress to circumvent the Appointments Clause, either by making appointments directly, or through devices such as "unilaterally appointing an incumbent to a new and distinct office '' under the guise of legislating new duties for an existing office, have been rebuffed by the courts.
The Appointments Clause divides constitutional officers into two classes: principal officers, who must be appointed through the advice and consent mechanism; and inferior officers, who may be appointed through advice and consent of the Senate, but whose appointment Congress may place instead in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. An earlier version of the Appointments Clause would have given the President a broader power to "appoint officers in all cases not otherwise provided for by this Constitution, '' but some delegates of the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention worried that this language would permit the President to create offices as well as to fill them, a classic case of institutional corruption. The requirement that the President can appoint inferior officers only when Congress has "by Law vest (ed) '' that power in the President sought to preclude that possibility.
One chief questions recurs under the "by Law '' language: Who are "inferior Officers, '' not subject to the requirement of advice and consent; and (2) what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? As an initial matter, most government employees are not officers and thus are not subject to the Appointments Clause. In Buckley v. Valeo, the Supreme Court held that only those appointees "exercising significant authority pursuant to the laws of the United States '' are "Officers of the United States, '' and hence it is only those who exercise such "significant authority '' who must be appointed by a mechanism set forth in the Appointments Clause. The Framers of the U.S. constitution did not define the line between principal officers and inferior officers, and the Supreme Court has been content to approach the analysis on a case - by - case basis rather than through a definitive test. The Court listed in Morrison v. Olson (1988) certain factors as hallmarks of "inferior Officer '' status, such as removability by a higher executive branch official other than the President, and limitations on the officer 's duties, jurisdiction, and tenure. In Edmond v. United States (1997) the Court stated that "' inferior Officers ' are officers whose work is directed and supervised at some level by others who were appointed by Presidential nomination with the advice and consent of the Senate. '' Among those officers recognized as "inferior '' are district court clerks, federal supervisors of elections, the Watergate Special Prosecutor, and an Independent Counsel appointed under the Ethics in Government Act of 1978.
Another chief question is, what constitutes a "Department, '' when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? The phrase "Heads of Departments '' has not been precisely defined by the Supreme Court. On the one hand, judicial interpretations of the phrase refer to the heads of departments that are within the executive branch, or according to Buckley v. Valeo "at least have some connection with that branch. '' Under this view, the heads of all agencies and departments exercising executive power under the President would seem to qualify as "Heads of Departments. '' The Court interpreted in Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue (1991) "Heads of Departments '' to refer "to executive divisions like the Cabinet - level departments. '' The use of the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' could mean that, in addition to the Cabinet departments, other entities within the executive branch that are sufficiently analogous to the Cabinet departments may qualify as "Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. On the other hand, the Freytag Court itself seemed unclear what it meant by the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments, '' and certainly stepped back from any bright - line test. The Freytag Court sought to harmonize its analysis with the interpretation given the different term "executive Departments '' in the Opinion Clause (which has been interpreted to refer only to Cabinet departments) and with earlier cases that suggested that only the Cabinet Secretaries qualified as "Heads of Departments. '' Ultimately, the Freytag Court seems to have reserved the question whether the heads of non-Cabinet executive - branch agencies could be deemed to be "Heads of Departments '' for purposes of the Appointments Clause. Perhaps the phrase "like the Cabinet - level departments '' was included in Freytag as an indication that the Court would not necessarily be inflexible about requiring Cabinet status in future cases. If that is so, then "Heads of Departments '' would appear to include (as Justice Antonin Scalia reasons in his concurrence in Freytag) the heads of the Cabinet Departments and also the heads of "all independent executive establishments. ''
From 1999 to 2008, a change in the statute governing the United States Patent and Trademark Office ("USPTO '') permitted a number of judges of the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences and the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board to be appointed by the USPTO Director. This arrangement was challenged as unconstitutional under the Appointments Clause because the appointing party was not the Heads of the Department. In order to avoid the crisis that would result from new challenges to many BPAI and TTAB decisions made in that period, Congress passed a 2008 amendment to the statute which specifies that the Secretary of Commerce is responsible for such appointments, and permitting the Secretary to retroactively appoint those persons named by the USPTO Director.
See also: List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation
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what is the doctrine for land in singapore | Rule of law doctrine in Singapore - wikipedia
In Singapore, the rule of law doctrine has been the topic of considerable disagreement and debate, largely through differing conceptions of the doctrine. These conceptions can generally be divided into two categories developed by legal academics, the "thin '', or formal, conception and the "thick '', or substantive, conception of the rule of law. The thin conception, often associated with the legal scholars Albert Venn Dicey and Joseph Raz, advocates the view that the rule of law is fulfilled by adhering to formal procedures and requirements, such as the stipulations that all laws be prospective, clear, stable and constitutionally enacted, and that the parties to legal disputes are treated equally and without bias on the part of judges. While people subscribing to the thin conception do not dismiss the importance of the content of the law, they take the view that this is a matter of substantive justice and should not be regarded as part of the concept of the rule of law. On the other hand, the thick conception of the rule of law entails the notion that in addition to the requirements of the thin rule, it is necessary for the law to conform with certain substantive standards of justice and human rights.
A thin conception of the rule of law has generally been adopted by the Singapore Government and Members of Parliament from the ruling People 's Action Party, as evidenced from the views expressed during a 1999 parliamentary debate on the rule of law. However, a thicker conception was evinced by the Minister for Law in a speech made during the 2009 seasonal meeting of the New York State Bar Association 's International Section in Singapore. On the other hand, a thick conception of the rule of law that encompasses human rights has been adopted by a number of Government critics, including opposition politicians, and foreign and international organizations such as Human Rights Watch, Lawyers ' Rights Watch Canada and the World Justice Project.
Some of the key principles associated with the thin conception of the rule of law include judicial independence, natural justice, the availability of judicial review, and the accessibility of justice. Judicial independence in Singapore is safeguarded by various constitutional provisions and legal rules, though some commentators have highlighted certain events as suggesting a lack of judicial independence. One incident in the 1980s involving the transfer of the Senior District Judge to the Attorney - General 's Chambers following a decision he made which was favourable to an opposition politician was investigated by a commission of inquiry and found not to be due to executive interference. In Singapore, natural justice is generally regarded as a procedural rather than a substantive concept. The process of judicial review involves the review of executive actions for compliance with administrative law rules, and of executive and legislative acts for unconstitutionality in light of the doctrine of constitutional supremacy. The state of the courts and legal processes in Singapore are largely seen as making justice accessible for the citizenry.
For those taking a thick conception of the rule of law, the existence of the Internal Security Act (Cap. 143, 1985 Rev. Ed.) ("ISA '') is widely regarded as a breach of the doctrine. The Act, which provides for detention without trial for people regarded by the executive as a risk to national security, is shielded from unconstitutionality by Article 149 of the Constitution. Although the Court of Appeal held in the 1988 case Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs that the courts could review the legality of detentions under the Act, the effect of the case was reversed through amendments to the Constitution and the ISA in 1989. The ISA amendments were determined to be effective by the High Court and Court of Appeal in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs in 1989 and 1990 respectively. While the executive 's largely unconstrained discretion to detain under the ISA has been criticized as contrary to the rule of law, the Government has justified the statute as a crucial measure of last resort for preserving security.
There have been many attempts to define the rule of law. Academics over the years have come up with various formulations and ideas of what the doctrine should mean. The range of views can roughly be divided into two categories: the "thin '', or formal, conception and the "thick '', or substantive, conception of the rule of law.
The "thin '' conception rule of law advocates the view that the rule of law is fulfilled by adhering to formal procedures and requirements. People who subscribe to the thin conception are not apathetic towards the content of the law. However, as Ronald Dworkin says, "(t) hey say that this is a matter of substantive justice, and that substantive justice is an independent ideal, in no sense part of the ideal of the rule of law ''.
The thin conception of the rule of law is often associated with two academics, Albert Venn Dicey and Joseph Raz. According to Dicey, the rule of law may be regarded from three points of view:
Raz expressed a similar view. Expanding on the concept in a 1977 article, he said that, in its broadest sense, the rule of law means that people should obey the law and be ruled by it. On the other hand, a narrower construction of the rule of law means that the government shall be ruled by and subjected to the law. The doctrine of the rule of law also requires that "the making of particular laws should be guided by open and relatively stable general rules ''. If the law is to be obeyed, it "must be capable of guiding the behaviour of its subjects '', in that people can find out what the law is and act accordingly.
A number of important principles spring from the basic idea of the rule of law. These may be divided into two groups: principles that ensure the law is capable of guiding its subjects ' behaviour, and principles establishing legal machinery to secure compliance with the rule of law.
In Raz 's view, one of the virtues of the rule of law is the restraint it imposes on authorities. It aims to exclude arbitrary power as it is said that most of the exercises of arbitrary power violate the rule of law. Arbitrary power is excluded when courts hold themselves accountable only to the law and observe "fairly strict procedures ''. Another virtue is the protection it accords to individual freedom, namely, "the sense of freedom in which it is identified with an effective ability to choose between as many options as possible ''. Most importantly, to adhere to the rule of law is to respect human dignity by "treating humans as persons capable of planning and plotting their future ''.
Raz also identified some of the potential pitfalls of the rule of law. He opined that as the rule of law is designed "to minimise the harm to freedom and dignity which the law may cause in its pursuit of its goals however laudable these may be '', the strict pursuit of the rule of law may prevent one from achieving certain social goals which may be preferable to the rule of law: "Sacrificing too many social goals on the altar of the rule of law may make the law barren and empty ''.
At the other extreme, the "thick '' rule of law entails the notion that in addition to the requirements of the thin rule, it is necessary for the law to conform with certain substantive standards of justice and human rights. Ronald Dworkin, one of the leading scholars advocating the thick conception of the rule of law, defines what he terms the "rights conception '' of the rule of law as follows:
It assumes that citizens have moral rights and duties with respect to one another, and political rights against the state as a whole. It insists that these moral and political rights be recognized in positive law, so that they may be enforced upon the demand of individual citizens through courts or other judicial institutions of the familiar type, so far as this is practicable. The rule of law on this conception is the ideal of rule by an accurate public conception of individual rights. It does not distinguish, as the rule book conception does, between the rule of law and substantive justice; on the contrary it requires, as part of the ideal of law, that the rules in the book capture and enforce moral rights.
Paul Craig, in analysing Dworkin 's view, drew three conclusions. First, Dworkin rejects the need to distinguish between "legal '' rules and a more complete political philosophy, since the rule of law is basically the theory of law and adjudication that he believes is correct. Secondly, the rule of law is not simply the thin or formal rule of law; the latter forms part of Dworkin 's theory of law and adjudication. Thirdly, since taking a substantive view of the rule of law requires choosing what the best theory of justice is, it is necessary to articulate particular conceptions of what liberty, equality and other freedoms require.
On 24 November 1999, Non-constituency Member of Parliament Joshua Benjamin Jeyaretnam moved the following motion in Parliament: "That this House recognises the importance of the Rule of Law and urges the government to ensure the complete and full compliance of the Rule of Law by all Ministers, officials and public servants. '' During the ensuing debate, the Members of Parliament (MPs) from the ruling People 's Action Party tended to adhere to a thinner, or more formal, conception of the rule of law. For instance, the Minister of State for Law Ho Peng Kee said:
In short, the Rule of Law refers to the supremacy of law, as opposed to the arbitrary exercise of power. The other key tenet is that everyone is equal before the law. The concept also includes the notions of the transparency, openness and prospective application of our laws, observation of the principles of natural justice, independence of the Judiciary and judicial review of administrative action.
Chin Tet Yung, an MP for Sembawang Group Representation Constituency, commented that the rule of law required that:
... (a) ll laws are prospective, stable, properly and constitutionally enacted. The application of laws, the making of legal orders by public officers should be guided by clear and general rules, that is, avoiding any personal bias or favour, treating equal cases equally, making decisions rationally and in the public interest, and in accordance with the written laws of the land... In this particular principle where you have laws, obviously such laws must be applied and obviously the laws are applied by public officers who make legal orders. If these legal orders are substantiated by subsidiary legislation, if this subsidiary legislation is sanctioned by parent Acts, by the primary legislation, then any order issuing from it would be legitimate and would comply with the Rule of Law. And, if anyone is unhappy with that, there is always the next aspect or principle of the Rule of Law, and that is, that the judiciary has the power and the authority to review any administrative action. So that is the third principle. The final principle... is that the judiciary must be independent and the courts should be generally accessible to all who seek recourse to them.
Chin moved an amendment to the motion introduced by Jeyaretnam so that it read: "That this House (1) values the importance of the Rule of Law; and (2) commends the Government for upholding the Rule of Law and ensuring that it is fully observed by all. '' The amendment motion was eventually voted on and agreed to by a majority of MPs in Parliament.
In a speech made on 27 October 2009 at a plenary session entitled Singapore and the Rule of Law at the seasonal meeting of the New York State Bar Association 's International Section in Singapore, Minister for Law K. Shanmugam said that he would not try to define the rule of law comprehensively or analyse it from an academic viewpoint, but, practically speaking, the key aspects of a society based on the rule of law are the following:
However, evincing a thicker conception of the rule of law, he added that most people accepted two additional elements "as being part of how a modern civilised society should be structured '', though he felt it was "debatable whether they are part of a strict definition of Rule of Law ''. These elements were that "(t) he people must have the sovereign right to elect their Government '', and that "laws must not offend that society 's norms of fairness and justice ''.
A number of critics of the Government of Singapore have adopted a thick, or substantive, conception of the rule of law that encompasses the protection of human rights. In a chapter entitled "Rights and the Rule of Law '' in his 1994 book Dare to Change, Singapore Democratic Party (SDP) member (and later Secretary - General) Chee Soon Juan criticized, among other things, the Government 's use of the Internal Security Act ("ISA '') to detain persons without trial, and the lack of freedom of speech and assembly. In an open letter published on the SDP website dated 6 January 2009 which was addressed to the Chief Justice, Attorney - General and Law Minister, he said: "(T) he rule of law is not just a system where the government passes legislation and everyone unquestioningly obeys. The concept of the rule of law necessitates the limitation of state power and the respect of human rights. Our Constitution spells out what these limitations are. It also defines the rights of the citizen. '' And in a speech delivered to the International Bar Association Conference in Dubai on 4 November 2011, he cited a free media and the rights to free expression and peaceful assembly as essential elements of the rule of law.
During the 24 November 1999 Parliamentary debate on the rule of law, Jeyaretnam traced the doctrine to the Magna Carta, and said that it was to be found in the Constitution of Singapore, particularly in Article 9 and Article 12, which respectively protect the rights to life and personal liberty, and equality rights. He also noted that in the court judgment Ong Ah Chuan v Public Prosecutor (1980), the Privy Council had held that in phrases such as "in accordance with law '' and "equality before the law '' in the Constitution, the term law does not only mean Acts passed by Parliament, but also includes the fundamental rules of natural justice that have been accepted and become part and parcel of the common law. He then cited eight instances of the Government 's alleged non-compliance with the rule of law, including detention without trial under, inter alia, the ISA and the Criminal Law (Temporary Provisions) Act ("CLTPA ''); denial of the right of arrested persons to counsel and to visits from their families for a period of time; denial of the rights to freedom of speech and assembly; and the tendency of the executive not to provide reasons for decisions made. Opposition MP Chiam See Tong complained that the Government had not treated opposition parties fairly as regards applications for licences for events.
Criticisms about the ISA and the state of freedom of speech and assembly in Singapore also appear in reports by some foreign and international organizations. A 2007 report by Lawyers ' Rights Watch Canada, Rule of Law in Singapore, alleged that defamation and bankruptcy law had been used to oppress the political opposition, and expressed concern about stringent limits on the freedom of assembly and detention under the ISA.
In its Rule of Law Index 2011, the World Justice Project defined the rule of law as "a rules - based system in which the following four universal principles are upheld '':
Singapore was ranked highly on factors such as order and security (with a ranking of 2 out of the 66 countries assessed), absence of corruption (4 / 66), and effective criminal justice (5 / 66), but less highly on open government (19 / 66), limited government powers (20 / 66) and fundamental rights (39 / 66). In particular, the Index noted that "(n) otwithstanding the country 's outstanding performance in most categories, there are substantial limitations on freedom of speech and freedom of assembly, with Singapore in 49th and 60th place, respectively, out of all 66 countries ''.
The Human Rights Watch Singapore: Country Summary of January 2012 commented negatively on restrictions on the rights to free speech, assembly and association, such as limitations on print, broadcast and online media, and outdoor gatherings; contempt of court proceedings against Alan Shadrake; and the gazetting of The Online Citizen blog as a "political association '', thus preventing it from receiving foreign funding. It also criticized the existence of the ISA and CLTPA, the use of caning as a punishment, and the continued criminalization of sexual acts between consenting men under section 377A of the Penal Code. The Ministry of Law described the report as "inaccurate '' and containing "false assertions ''.
Raz identified judicial independence as one of the essential principles of the rule of law. In this context, judicial independence refers to the judiciary 's independence from the legislative and executive branches of the government. Singapore 's judiciary enjoys a certain measure of independence provided by various constitutional safeguards such as security of tenure and remuneration. Judges are also relatively free from executive and legislative influence. A retired Supreme Court judge, L.P. Thean, has said that it is theoretically possible for the executive to make political appointments to the Bench, to reduce a judge 's remuneration by amending the Constitution, or to take away the judiciary 's vital support staff, but "(t) he fact remains, however, that nothing of that kind has ever been done ''.
Various provisions of the Constitution guarantee the independence of the Supreme Court judiciary. Since Article 93 vests judicial power exclusively in the courts, judicial power is to be solely exercised by the judiciary and not by the executive or legislature, thus reflecting the former 's independence from the other branches of government. Article 94 ensures that the office of a Supreme Court Judge will "not be abolished during his continuance in office '', while Article 98 provides for judges ' security of tenure until the age of 65 years, barring misbehaviour, inability, infirmity of body or mind, or any other cause that prevents judges from properly discharging the functions of their office. A judge may only be removed from office on these grounds by the President on the advice of a tribunal of judges of the Supreme Court or those who hold or have held equivalent offices in the Commonwealth. Article 98 also provides that the remuneration and other terms of office of Supreme Court judges may not be altered to their disadvantage following their appointment. Article 99 restricts parliamentary debate on the conduct of a Supreme Court judge unless on a substantive motion supported by at least a quarter of all MPs.
However, it has been argued by some commentators that Singapore falls short where some aspects of judicial independence are concerned. For instance, Supreme Court judges above the age of 65 may be reappointed on a term basis. It has been suggested that this may result in "the unsavoury possibility of judges being ' beholden ' to the executive ''. This point was also raised by Jeyaretnam in Parliament in 1986 with respect to the then Chief Justice Wee Chong Jin. However, an academic has pointed out that removing entirely the system of extensions may not serve the larger interest at the end of the day if excellent judges have to retire due to the mandatory requirement.
Judges of the Subordinate Courts do not enjoy the security of tenure enjoyed by the Supreme Court judges. As officers of the Singapore Legal Service, it is said that there is a risk of executive interference because judges may be removed from their judicial positions or transferred to lower - ranking positions elsewhere within the Legal Service by the Legal Service Commission (LSC). In 1984, the Senior District Judge Michael Khoo acquitted Opposition Member of Parliament J.B. Jeyaratnam of all but one minor charge in a case involving cheques for the Workers ' Party of Singapore which had allegedly been fraudulently handled. The acquittal was overturned on appeal to the High Court, and a retrial ordered. However, before the retrial took place, Khoo was transferred from his position on the Bench to the Attorney - General 's Chambers to take up the post of deputy public prosecutor. This was considered to be a demotion. In 1986, Jeyaratnam claimed in Parliament that the transfer had been made because Khoo had ruled in his favour in the 1984 case. However, a commission of inquiry formed to look into the circumstances surrounding the transfer found no evidence of this. For making the allegation, Jeyaratnam was referred to Parliament 's Committee of Privileges for abusing parliamentary privilege. While the Committee was considering the matter, Jeyaretnam wrote five newsletters about the Committee 's proceedings and sent them to residents of his constituency. On 9 October 1986, the Leader of the House made a written complaint regarding the newsletters ' contents to the Speaker of Parliament, which the Committee also considered. On 27 January 1987 Parliament accepted the Committee 's reports on the complaints and found Jeyaretnam guilty of abusing the privileges of Parliament by alleging executive interference in the judiciary, and of contempt of the Committee and Parliament by publishing the newsletters. Fines totalling S $ 26,000 were imposed.
Another concern which has been raised is that the routine shuffling of Subordinate Courts judges between the executive and judicial branches may result in them "imbib (ing) the executive 's corporatist ideology, carrying that into adjudication, as a ' judiciary of amateurs ' ''. On the other hand, while a potential for executive interference exists due to the LSC 's control of Subordinate Court judicial appointments, it has been commented that in a small state like Singapore it may not be practical to have a separate judicial and legal service. Also, the appointment process may not be detrimental to the independence of the lower judiciary as the Chief Justice, who is not part of the executive or legislature, is the head of the LSC and has the final say on judicial postings. It has also been noted that, as much as institutional processes play a part in judicial independence, ultimately the willingness of judiciary to stand up to executive and legislative influence is the most important factor in ensuring an independent judiciary.
Another incident said to have affected judicial independence in Singapore was the move by Parliament to amend the Constitution and the ISA to reverse the effect of the Court of Appeal 's decision Chng Suan Tze v. Minister of Home Affairs (1988) (discussed in detail below). It has been asked if Parliament had "taken away absolutely the judicial power of review for ISA preventive detention cases '', and whether this reflected the Legislature 's "distrust in the independence of the Judiciary and its ability to deal impartially with ISA cases that affect national security notwithstanding the limited form of judicial review laid down in Chng Suan Tze. '' Another commentator has framed it as "an attack on the judiciary simply because it removes a vital aspect of judicial power '' and that this "undermines judicial credibility ''.
It has been noted generally that natural justice is a fundamental element of the rule of law. In administrative law, the two principles of natural justice, which constitute a framework for common law procedural rights, are the rule against bias (nemo iudex in causa sua, or "no man a judge in his own cause '') and the right to be heard (audi alteram partem, or "hear the other side ''). In the Australian case Gas and Fuel Corporation of Victoria v Wood Hall Ltd & Leonard Pipeline Contractors Ltd (1978), the Supreme Court of Victoria said that the ideas underlying both principles are that of "fairness and judgement only after a full and fair hearing given to all parties. '' Speaking in Parliament on 24 November 1999, MP Toh See Kiat expressed the view that the Singapore legal system does apply the rules of natural justice, which he described thus: "(N) atural justice requires essentially two basic principles. One is that you have the right to be heard and to explain your case, and, two, is the right to equal treatment. A right to have your case heard also means that there is a review. ''
As was noted previously, the word law in provisions of the Constitution such as Articles 9 and 12 includes fundamental rules of natural justice. Jack Tsen - Ta Lee has suggested that these fundamental rules are both procedural and substantive in nature, and that substantive natural justice gives the courts discretion to strike down a law if its very object is unreasonable and oppressive. Under this view, to interpret Article 9 (1) as permitting Parliament to enact any provision that derogates from an individual 's personal liberty no matter how arbitrary or oppressive as long as procedural natural justice is observed, drains it of all content. Also, instead of the invalidation of legislation in this manner being seen as an encroachment by the judiciary into the legislature 's sphere, the application of substantive natural justice would simply be a full exercise of the judiciary 's proper constitutional role. Lee submits that Singapore courts should follow the Indian courts and apply a reasonableness test to determine if legislation is substantively constitutional. Ultimately, being able to review legislation by applying the substantive aspect of natural justice would "entitle courts to examine whether it is appropriate for the legislature to deprive individual of certain aspects of their personal liberty, and the manner in which such deprivation is achieved. ''
Conversely, Andrew Harding has argued that the idea of substantive natural justice is vague and subjective, and has taken the view that fundamental rules of natural justice are entirely procedural in nature. In his opinion, Article 12 (1) of the Constitution is designed to prevent substantively discriminatory legislation. To determine whether legislation is discriminatory, a rational nexus test is applied. It would be strange if legislation that passed this test could nonetheless be struck down due to inconsistency with natural justice. Therefore, the extension of Article 12 (1) to include natural justice shows that the Privy Council in Ong Ah Chuan could not have intended to apply natural justice in a substantive sense. Further support for this argument can be found in the Privy Council 's decision Haw Tua Tau v. Public Prosecutor (1981) which discussed fundamental rules of natural justice in a procedural context, their Lordships stating that they had to consider "whether the consequence of the alteration (of certain statutory provisions) is a procedure for the trial of criminal offences that is contrary to some fundamental rule of natural justice ''. The substantive review of legislation by the court was also rejected in Jabar bin Kadermastan v. Public Prosecutor (1995), the Court of Appeal holding that "any law which provides for the deprivation of a person 's life or personal liberty, is valid and binding so long as it is validly passed by Parliament. The court is not concerned with whether it is also fair, just and reasonable as well. '' Subsequently, in Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney - General (2011), the Court held that fundamental rules of natural justice and the principles of natural justice in administrative law "are the same in nature and function, except that they operate at different levels of our legal order, one to invalidate legislation on the ground of unconstitutionality, and the other to invalidate administrative decisions on the ground of administrative law principles ''.
Judicial review is the means by which legal rights are protected and good governance enforced. The ability of the courts to judicially review legislation and administrative action is considered an element of the rule of law. In R. v. Committee of the Lords of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acting for the Visitor of the University of London, ex parte Vijayatunga (1987), Judge Simon Brown said: "Judicial review is the exercise of the court 's inherent power at common law to determine whether action is lawful or not; in a word to uphold the rule of law ''.
In Singapore, the vital role that the judiciary plays as a check on executive power was noted by the Court of Appeal in Chng Suan Tze, which held that all power given by law has legal limits and that "the rule of law demands that the courts should be able to examine the exercise of discretionary power ''. This is further illustrated by Law Society of Singapore v. Tan Guat Neo Phyllis (2008), in which it was stated that prosecutorial discretion is subject to judicial review and may be curtailed where exercised in bad faith or for extraneous purposes, or is in contravention of constitutional rights. In Chee Siok Chin v. Minister for Home Affairs (2005), the High Court held that if a litigant "genuinely seek (s) the court 's assistance in vindicating or determining a legitimate grievance, the court has a duty to assess such a grievance and accord proper and serious consideration in determining whether relief should be granted ''. Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong has also said it is the role of the courts in Singapore to give litigants their rights, whilst simultaneously playing a supporting role in the promotion of good governance through the articulation of clear rules and principles by which the executive can conform with the rule of law. He noted that 27.8 % of judicial review cases in Singapore since 1957 have been successful.
However, certain matters are regarded as impervious to judicial review owing to limitations in the courts ' institutional capacity. Courts are generally reluctant to get involved in affairs relating to national security, leaving this role to the Government. At the same time, Singaporean courts are committed to careful scrutiny of matters to decide whether they are indeed non-justiciable, as affirmed in the Lee Hsien Loong v. Review Publishing Co. Ltd. (2007). This case held that courts would exclude matters involving "high policy '' from their purview, but still analyse cases carefully to determine whether or not they truly fell within areas of executive immunity. Also, limitations on the role of the court have led to the rational conclusion that certain other areas are to be excluded from judicial review. These include matters in which the court lacks expertise and those which are polycentric, as was held in Yong Vui Kong v. Attorney - General.
Generally, justice is costly to provide and many legal systems, especially in Asia, are fraught with issues such as weak legal institutions, corrupt and incompetent administrative officers and judges, excessive delays and limited access to justice stemming from high legal costs and the lack of legal aid. It was agreed during the World Justice Forum in 2008 that access to justice is key to advancing the rule of law.
The extent to which citizens have access to justice in any given society depends on whether a thick or thin conception of rule of law is adopted. Raz, speaking about a thin conception, proposed that the rule of the law requires courts to be accessible -- that is, the legal system, at a bare minimum, should comprise formal institutions and mechanisms for administering appropriate legal processes and outcomes. A legal system complying with the thin rule of law also requires that laws are fairly, equally and effectively applied. On the other hand, when a thick conception of the rule of law is taken, a greater emphasis is placed on elements of substantive justice. It is suggested that a legal system operating as such may, in addition to the basic elements of access to justice in a thin rule of law, incorporate a moral or political philosophy, may incorporate ideas of "democracy and legality '', and give precedence to human rights in the administration of justice. Access to justice operating under a thick rule of law may be achieved by, among other things, increasing the efficiency of the judicial process, and having a robust legal profession, an incorruptible and independent judiciary, and a set of supporting institutions in order to increase the quality of justice administered.
In Singapore, ensuring widespread and equal access to justice for Singapore citizens is a constant goal. In this respect, the judiciary takes effort to ensure that both procedural and substantive elements of the rule of law are fulfilled -- firstly, by continually increasing the efficiency of the courts and legal processes, and secondly, by regularly improving the skills, knowledge and values of and judges.
In 1988, the Singapore courts undertook the enormous task of clearing their extremely large backlogs in order to facilitate Singapore 's future development as an international business and finance centre. A multifaceted approach was adopted to dispose of cases expeditiously, including, among other things, the appointment of more judges and judicial commissioners, the use of information technology, electronic filing of documents and promoting the use of alternative dispute resolution. Such efforts significantly expedited the management of cases, both in the Supreme Court and the Subordinate Courts. In particular, specialized courts such as small claims tribunals, the Family Court and the Night Court were set up for better distribution of cases and have also helped to significantly reduce court fees. Over and above increasing the institutional capacity and efficiency of the courts, improving access to justice in Singapore has also meant a need for a corresponding increase in the quality of justice administered. Efforts to achieve this goal centre mainly on the appointment of the "best and brightest officers '' and in particular, the constant upgrading of their skills and knowledge for judicial excellence. For this purpose, the Judicial Education Board was set up to provide guidance, training programmes and workshops for members of the judiciary, and is supported by a training unit within the Strategic Planning and Training Division of the Subordinate Courts. Such efforts aim to upgrade the competence of judges and equip them with the requisite knowledge for handling increasingly complex cases.
Today, there are relatively few barriers to court access for litigants. The availability of legal aid and free mediation services aid litigants who may not be able to afford legal fees, and the use of video links and establishment of regional offices of small claims tribunals in various parts of Singapore assist parties who have difficulty coming to court.
As indicated above, a number of those who adopt a thick conception of the rule of law in Singapore criticize the existence of the Internal Security Act. The main point of contention is whether section 8 (1) of the Act should be interpreted in a subjective or objective way. This provision states that "(i) f the President is satisfied with respect to any person that, with a view to preventing that person from acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore or any part thereof or to the maintenance of public order or essential services therein, it is necessary to do so '', the Minister for Home Affairs shall order that the person be, among other things, detained without trial for up to two years.
In Lee Mau Seng v. Minister for Home Affairs (1971), the High Court affirmed that with respect to the President 's satisfaction that a person is acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore, mala fides or bad faith was "not... a justiciable issue in the context of the Act and the power conferred by the Act on a body such as the President who has to act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet to direct the issue of an order of detention if the President is satisfied with a view to preventing a person from acting in any manner prejudicial to the security of Singapore etc ''. Essentially, this means that the President 's satisfaction is subjective, and not objective. The effect of this decision is that "the Constitution left it to the executive, and not the judiciary, to decide what national security required ''. Subsequently, in Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs (1988), the Court of Appeal took a different stand, holding that the objective test should apply to the review of the exercise of discretion under sections 8 and 10 of the ISA. (Section 10 empowers the Minister to direct that a detention order be suspended "as the Minister sees fit '', as well as to revoke such a direction.) The Court said that "the notion of a subjective or unfettered discretion is contrary to the rule of law '' because "all power has legal limits '', and therefore the exercise of discretionary power warrants examination by the court.
Following this decision, the Parliament moved quickly to curb the judiciary 's change in stance. The Internal Security (Amendment) Act 1989 was enacted on 25 January 1989 and came into force on 30 January. In particular, section 8B (1) declared:
(T) he law governing the judicial review of any decision made or act done in pursuance of any power conferred upon the President or the Minister by the provisions of this Act shall be the same as was applicable and declared in Singapore on the 13th day of July 1971; and no part of the law before, on or after that date of any other country in the Commonwealth relating to judicial review shall apply.
Section 8B (2) contained an ouster clause that restricted the scope of judicial review to any question relating to compliance with any procedural requirements of the ISA governing acts or decisions by the President or the Home Affairs Minister. The amendments to the ISA were made retrospective by section 8D, which meant that they applied to judicial review proceedings that had been started before the amendment Act came into force. In addition, the Constitution was amended through the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (Amendment) Act 1989 to prevent the Internal Security (Amendment) Act 1989 from being challenged as unconstitutional. Article 149 (3) was inserted into the Constitution, with the effect that if the issue of whether any executive decision made pursuant to the ISA came before a court (whether before or after this constitutional amendment came into force on 27 January 1989), the court had to decide this issue according to the new provisions introduced by the 1989 ISA amendments. Article 149 (1) was amended to add Articles 11 and 12 to the list of fundamental liberties that the ISA can not be challenged against, and to extend its immunizing effect to the 1989 ISA amendments.
The validity of the 1989 ISA amendments was challenged unsuccessfully before the High Court and Court of Appeal in 1989 and 1990 respectively in Teo Soh Lung v. Minister for Home Affairs. The High Court held that the 1989 amendments had merely reaffirmed the legal principles laid down in Lee Mau Seng and thus could not be characterized as being contrary to the rule of law or having usurped judicial power:
There is no abrogation of judicial power. It is erroneous to contend that the rule of law has been abolished by legislation and that Parliament has stated its absolute and conclusive judgment in applications for judicial review or other actions. Parliament has done no more than to enact the rule of law relating to the law applicable to judicial review. The
legislation does not direct the court to enter a particular judgment or dismiss a particular case. The court is left to deal with the case on the basis of the amendments. Legislation designed against subversion must necessarily include provisions to ensure the effectiveness of preventive detention. The amendments are intended to do just that.
On appeal, the Court of Appeal confirmed that it had to decide the case in accordance with the legal principles laid down in Lee Mau Seng as the effect of section 8B (1) of the ISA was clear. Applying those legal principles, the Court held that the appellant had failed to prove that her detention had been made for reasons unrelated to national security.
During the 1999 parliamentary debate on the rule of law, Jeyaretnam asserted that detention without trial under the ISA contravened the doctrine as "there is no way of checking the Minister 's decision, who decides to make an order detaining a subject, depriving him of his liberty, completely contrary to the rule of natural justice and the fundamental principle that all men are free ''. He called for the provisions in the Act permitting such detention to be repealed, saying: "The power is only necessary in emergency times when there is a real threat and so we do not need it any more. Let us for once realise that it is a violation of the Rule of Law. Let us be honest and repeal it. '' Nominated Member of Parliament Simon Tay expressed the view that "the ISA fulfills the Constitution as an exception. It does not fulfill the concept of the Rule of Law in the sense that there are only very limited grounds on which a court can review the decision of the Minister. It is in that sense a subjective discretion. '' Nonetheless, he recognized that the ISA remained relevant, for instance, as a tool against people alleged to have engaged in espionage, and thus preventive detention could not be definitively declared right or wrong: "It is a case - by - case decision, because that is how we live our lives in a real society. '' Responding to Jeyaretnam, Ho Peng Kee noted that the justifications for the ISA had been fully debated in Parliament on previous occasions, and emphasized that there are safeguards in place to tackle the apparent arbitrariness of detentions under the Act, including a review of each detention by an advisory board composed of a Supreme Court judge and two prominent members of the public, and also the President 's personal discretion to order a detainee 's release in the event that the advisory board and Home Affairs Minister disagreed over the necessity for the detention.
Speaking at the 2009 seasonal meeting of the New York State Bar Association 's International Section in Singapore, Shanmugam explained that stability was one of the essential conditions for Singapore 's governance, and that the ISA contributed to the stability of the country by enabling terrorist threats to be dealt with. In response, Michael Galligan, the Chairman of the International Section, wrote that "whatever might be appropriate for times of extraordinary danger should not be assumed to be the measure for ordinary times. Circumscription of liberties that may have some arguable justification in a national defense crisis should not set the norm for more peaceful or more ' ordinary ' times in the life of a nation. '' In a 16 September 2011 statement, the Ministry of Home Affairs said that the Government had used the ISA "sparingly '', and not for detaining people solely for their political beliefs. It expressed the view that "(t) he ISA continues to be relevant and crucial as a measure of last resort for the preservation of our national security ''.
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what is the national costume of papua new guinea | Culture of Papua New Guinea - wikipedia
The culture of Papua New Guinea is many - sided and complex. It is estimated that more than 7000 different cultural groups exist in Papua New Guinea, and most groups have their own language. Because of this diversity, in which they take pride, many different styles of cultural expression have emerged; each group has created its own expressive forms in art, dance, weaponry, costumes, singing, music, architecture and much more. To unify the nation, the language Tok Pisin, once called Neo-Melanesian (or Pidgin English) has evolved as the lingua franca -- the medium through which diverse language groups are able to communicate with one another in Parliament, in the news media, and elsewhere. People typically live in villages or dispersed hamlets which rely on the subsistence farming of yams and taro. The principal livestock in traditional Papua New Guinea is the oceanic pig (Sus papuensis).
On the Sepik River, there is a world - renowned tradition of wood carving. These carvers create forms of plants or animals, because they believe these are their ancestor beings and because they feel they are beautiful. They also create traditional skull portraits. Also well represented in the collections of museums around the world is the Malagan art tradition of New Ireland. Gunn, Michael; Phillipe Feltier (2006). New Ireland: Art of the South Pacific. Milan: Continents Editions. ISBN 88 - 7439 - 369 - 5.
Even though sea shells are no longer the currency of Papua New Guinea - sea shells were abolished as currency in 1933 - this heritage is still present in local customs. In certain parts of the country a groom must bring a bride price to the wedding ceremony. In some cases this is paid in golden - edged clam shells (1). In other areas, a dowry is payable rather than bride price. These payments may take the form of shell money, food, pigs, cash, or other goods. In some parts of the New Guinea highlands, people engage in colorful local rituals that are called "sing - sings ''. They paint themselves and dress up with feathers, pearls and animal skins to represent birds, trees or mountain spirits. Sometimes an important event, such as a legendary battle, would be enacted at such a musical festival.
The level of violence against women is among the highest in the world despite the fact that most crimes are solved and abusers are punished according to law. Some 70 percent of women in Papua New Guinea will be raped or physically assaulted in their lifetime. A string of particularly violent sorcery - related crimes (where a woman is raped, killed or maimed after being thought to be a witch) and gang - rapes in 2014 caused an outcry from the international community. In February, a 20 - year - old mother was stripped, tortured, and set on fire after being accused of witchcraft, reports AFP. In April, an elderly woman was beheaded for the same reason.
The United Nations spoke out against these attacks, urging the government in PNG to take action. Alarming incidents of violence perpetrated against persons accused of sorcery and witchcraft, with women being affected disproportionally, particularly widows or other women with no family to protect them according to the UN. Child abuse is rampant.
Christian missionaries disapproved of Papuan folk music throughout the colonial period of the country 's history. Even after independence, the outside world knew little of the diverse peoples ' traditional music genres. The first commercial release to see an international audience did n't occur until 1991 (see 1991 in music), when Mickey Hart 's Voices of the Rainforest was released. After 1872, foreigners introduced Christian hymns, including Gregorian chanting. Peroveta anedia, ute and taibubu, all forms of Polynesian music, were also introduced in this period. The Gold Rush brought an influx of Australian miners who brought with them the mouth organ. Traditional celebrations, which include song, dance, feasting and gift - giving, are called singsing. Vibrant and colorful costumes adorn the dancers, while a leader and a chorus sing a staggered approach to the same song, producing a fugue - like effect. 1993 saw television spreading across the country, and American popular music continued to affect Papuan music given the diffusion of radio since WWII. Since 1953, singsings have become competitive in nature, with contests occurring in Port Moresby, Mt. Hagen and Goroka. 1949 saw the first Papuan to achieve international fame, Blasius To Una, begin his career.
Radio broadcasting of western popular music began by the late 1930s. String bands became very popular by the early 1950s, and soon dominated the pop landscape. In the late 1960s, rock bands like the Kopikats had appeared in cities, while string bands like the Paramana Strangers had become well - known internationally. This was followed by the importation of bamboo bands, a style of music from the Solomon Islands using bamboo tubes played by hitting them with sandals. It first arrived in the area of Madang in the mid-1970s, and soon spread throughout the country. By the end of the ' 70s, a local recording industry had appeared and artists like Sanguma and, later, George Telek, began mixing native and Western styles like rock music and jazz.
Ulli Beier, a lecturer in English Literature at the University of Papua New Guinea since 1967 was crucial in encouraging young writers and getting their work published. From 1969 to 1974 he was the editor of Kovave, a journal of New Guinea literature. He also published Papua Pocket Poets, and Pidgin Pocket Plays. Kovave ceased publication in 1974 but was replaced by the journal New Guinea Writing although this concentrated on folk tales. Natachee was the first Papuan poet to appear in print. The first autobiography was Albert Maori Kiki 's Kiki in 1974. The first novel was Crocodile (1970) by Vincent Eri.
There is a rich and diverse tradition of visual art. In particular, Papua New Guinea is world - famous for carved wooden sculpture: masks, canoes, story - boards. Many of the best collections of these are held in overseas museums. Those identified as being in the first wave of contemporary art in Papua New Guinea are: Mathias Kauage OBE (1944 -- 2003), "The first missionary 1977 ''. National Gallery of Australia. Retrieved 2007 - 06 - 16. Timothy Akis, Jakupa Ako and Joe Nalo, all from the tough urban area of Port Moresby. Kauage won Australia 's Blake Prize for Religious Art, four of his works are in the Glasgow Museum of Modern Art, and he had a solo show in 2005 at the Horniman Museum, "Kauage 's Visions: Art from Papua New Guinea ''. Other noted Papua New Guinean visual artists include Larry Santana, Martin Morububuna and Heso Kiwi. Niugini Arts
Sports are hugely popular in Papua New Guinea, and its citizens participate in and watch a wide variety. Popular sports include various codes of football (rugby league, rugby union, soccer, and Australian rules football), cricket, volleyball, softball, netball, and basketball. Other Olympic sports are also gaining popularity, such as boxing and weightlifting. Rugby league is the most popular sport in Papua New Guinea (especially in the highlands), which also unofficially holds the title as the national sport. "PNG vow to upset World Cup odds ''. Rugby League. BBC. 2008 - 10 - 15. Retrieved 2009 - 07 - 03. But it would still be one of the biggest shocks in World Cup history if Papua New Guinea - the only country to have rugby league as its national sport - were to qualify for the last four. The annual Australian State of Origin series matches are the most watched sporting event of the year. The West New Britain rugby league player, Marcus Bai, is a national celebrity, after he played for the National Rugby League with Melbourne Storm (he also played in the European Super League competition). A new national competition started in 2005 called the SP Cup. Australian rules football was once the most popular sport in PNG until the 1970s. It is gaining popularity with the introduction of players at the top level into the AFL, including Mal Michael (Brisbane Lions) and James Gwilt (St Kilda Football Club / Essendon Football Club). PNG has the largest number of Australian rules footballers outside of Australia, and has one of the fastest growing junior development programs. The "Mosquitos '', currently captained by Navu Maha, are the national team and were runners up in the Australian Football International Cup, in both 2003 (to Ireland) and 2005 (to New Zealand). Cricket has been traditionally popular in Papua New Guinea, where the British had the most influence. In the Trobriand Islands, cricket has become fused with the local culture, and a game played with stones instead of a ball and unlimited fielders has developed. It was introduced in 1903, by Methodist missionaries, and has become a beloved sport there.
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when was the last time there was a total solar eclipse in the us | List of Solar eclipses visible from the United states - wikipedia
This is an incomplete list of solar eclipses visible from the United States between 1901 and 2050. All eclipses whose path of totality or annularity passes through the land territory of the current fifty U.S. states are included. For lists of eclipses worldwide, see the list of 20th - century solar eclipses and 21st - century solar eclipses.
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who plays light in death note live action netflix | Death Note (2017 film) - wikipedia
Death Note is a 2017 American dark fantasy horror film loosely based on the Japanese manga of the same name created by Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata. The film is directed by Adam Wingard and written by Charles Parlapanides, Vlas Parlapanides and Jeremy Slater. The film stars Nat Wolff, Lakeith Stanfield, Margaret Qualley, Shea Whigham, Paul Nakauchi, Jason Liles and Willem Dafoe, and follows the story of a high school student named Light Turner, who finds a mysterious notebook known as "Death Note ''. He soon meets the demonic death god Ryuk who teaches him how to use the notebook, and tells him that the book causes the death of anyone whose name is written within its pages.
The film was released on Netflix on August 25, 2017. Upon release, Death Note received mixed to negative reviews from critics and audiences. Much of the criticism was directed towards the numerous changes from the source material; however, its direction and cast received some praise, particularly Dafoe 's performance as Ryuk.
In Seattle, high school student Light Turner encounters a notebook marked "Death Note ''. He is visited by the death god Ryuk, who tells him that he can cause the death of anyone he wishes by writing their name in the book, as long as he knows their real name and face. Ryuk coaxes Light into testing it out on a bully. The bully is decapitated in a freak accident shortly afterwards. That evening, Light is compelled to write down the name of Antony Skomal, the man who killed his mother in a hit and run. Skomal dies in a similar freak accident at a restaurant as chokes to death. Ryuk explains other rules of the Death Note, including the ability to control the actions of the victim for up to 48 hours after their name is written before they die. Classmate Mia Sutton asks Light about the Death Note, and he demonstrates how it works. She encourages Light to use the Death Note with her to rid the world of criminals, improving the world together. They decide to work together under the guise of a god they call "Kira '', using the book 's coercion powers to have their victims reveal this name to the world.
Kira becomes beloved by the public, as its killings are seen as righteous by the majority of law enforcement, and Light and Mia become lovers. Kira 's actions draw the attention of "L '', an enigmatic detective who is able to track down Kira 's location to Seattle and his source to the city 's police database. L and his assistant / father - figure Watari travel to Seattle and meet with James Turner, the chief of police and Light 's father, to discuss how they will catch Kira. L gives a televised speech with his face concealed, taunting Kira to kill him, and when this fails to happen, L suspects that Kira must know a person 's name and face to kill.
L has FBI agents follow Light and other suspects. Mia suggests killing the agents, but Light refuses. The FBI agents thereafter commit mass suicide and Light accuses Ryuk of killing them. James appears on television and vows to apprehend Kira. Mia urges Light to kill him for the greater good, but Light ca n't bring himself to do it. When James is not killed, L comes to the conclusion that Light must be Kira. L confronts Light, revealing his face to him. Realizing that L is closing in on him, Light uses the Death Note to force Watari to uncover L 's real name. As Ryuk explains, Light can burn the page with Watari 's name on it within the 48 hours to cancel his impending death; however, this method can only be used to save a victim of the Death Note once. Watari leaves suddenly for the abandoned New York orphanage where he found L years before; L learns Watari has disappeared and orders Light 's house to be searched; he finds nothing, as Mia was able to sneak the Death Note out.
Knowing that Light is still being followed, Mia helps him to sneak away at the school dance, allowing him to collect the Death Note and contact Watari via phone. Watari finds L 's records moments before the 48 - hour deadline, but Light finds Watari 's page missing. Watari is then shot and killed by unknown soldiers before he can reveal L 's name. Mia reveals that she used the Death Note to kill the FBI agents in order to protect herself and Light, took Watari 's page, and has also written Light 's name in the book, giving him until midnight before his heart stops. She offers to burn Light 's page if he gives the Death Note to her, as she believes he is not capable of making the right decisions for the good of society. Meanwhile, L is devastated by Watari 's death and goes on his own manhunt for Light.
Light tells Mia to meet him at the Seattle Great Wheel where he will turn over the book, and then flees from police, who are closing in on him. L catches up to him and prepares to kill him, but a passerby knocks L out after overhearing that Light is Kira. Pursued by police, Light meets Mia and takes her to the top of the ferris wheel. Light tries to convince Mia that they will be happier without the Death Note, but Mia is not dissuaded and takes the Death Note, much to Light 's intense dismay. She learns that Light wrote her name in the book, with her death contingent on her taking the Death Note from him. With both of them doomed, Ryuk causes the ferris wheel to collapse. Mia falls to her death, while Light and the Death Note fall into the water. The page with Light 's name on it drifts into a burn barrel, an event witnessed by L. Though Light is rescued from the water, he has fallen into a coma.
Two days later, a man leaves the Death Note at Light 's bedside. When Light wakes up, he finds his father there, who tells him he knows that Light is Kira. James explains that he found a news clipping about Skomal 's death in Light 's room and realized that he was Kira 's first victim. Light explains that he used the Death Note at the school to plan out Mia 's death in a way that would ensure his own page got burned if she took the Death Note. He also manipulated several criminals to induce him into a medical coma, having them use the Death Note during his comatose absence to give himself an alibi. With Kira continuing to kill while Light was in a coma, L is taken off the case and forced to return to Japan. As his plane is about to take off, he ponders a comment Light made during their standoff, remembering Mia 's involvement, and races to her home to search her possessions. He finds the Death Note page with the names of the FBI agents she killed on it, and in a hysterical fit, contemplates writing a name on the page. Back in Light 's hospital room, Ryuk appears, laughing. When Light asks him why he 's laughing, he simply comments "You humans are so interesting ''.
In 2007, the Malaysian newspaper The Star stated that more than ten film companies in the United States had expressed interest in the Death Note franchise. The American production company Vertigo Entertainment was originally set to develop the remake, with Charley and Vlas Parlapanides as screenwriters and Roy Lee, Doug Davison, Dan Lin, and Brian Witten as producers. On April 30, 2009, Variety reported that Warner Bros., the distributors for the original Japanese live - action films, had acquired the rights for an American remake, with the original screenwriters and producers still attached. In 2009, Zac Efron responded to rumors that he would be playing the film 's lead role by stating that the project was "not on the front burner ''. On January 13, 2011, it was announced that Shane Black had been hired to direct the film, with the script being written by Anthony Bagarozzi and Charles Mondry. Warner 's studios planned to change the background story of Light Yagami into one of vengeance instead of justice and to remove Shinigami from the story. Black opposed this change, and it had not been green - lit. Black confirmed in a 2013 interview with Bleeding Cool that he was still working on the film. In July 2014, it was rumored that Gus Van Sant would replace Black as the film 's new director, with Dan Lin, Doug Davison, Roy Lee and Brian Witten producing through Vertigo Entertainment, Witten Pictures and Lin Pictures.
On April 27, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Adam Wingard would direct the film, that Lin, Lee, Jason Hoffs and Masi Oka would produce, and that Niija Kuykendall and Nik Mavinkurve would oversee the studio. Producers stated the film would receive an R rating. In April 2016, TheWrap reported that because Warner Bros. had decided to make fewer films, the studio put the film into turnaround but allowed Wingard to take the project elsewhere. Within 48 hours, Wingard was reportedly approached by nearly every major film studio. On April 6, 2016, it was confirmed that Netflix had bought the film from Warner Bros. with a budget of $40 -- 50 million and a recent draft of the script being written by Jeremy Slater. Production officially began in British Columbia on June 30, 2016, overseen by DN (Canada) Productions, Inc.
On September 29, 2015, Nat Wolff was cast in the lead role. On November 12, 2015, Margaret Qualley joined the film as the female lead. In June 2016, Lakeith Stanfield joined the cast. On June 30, 2016, it was announced that Paul Nakauchi and Shea Whigham had joined the cast. On August 2, 2016, Willem Dafoe was announced to voice the Shinigami Ryuk. In the wake of Dafoe 's casting, Brian Drummond, who voiced Ryuk in the English dub of the anime, voiced his approval.
Early casting announcements, similar to other Hollywood productions based on Japanese manga such as Dragonball Evolution and Ghost in the Shell, resulted in accusations of whitewashing. In response, producers Roy Lee and Dan Lin stated that "Our vision for Death Note has always been to... introduce the world to this dark and mysterious masterpiece. The talent and diversity represented in our cast, writing, and producing teams reflect our belief in staying true to the story 's concept of moral relevance -- a universal theme that knows no racial boundaries. '' Oka announced that he also has a role in the film. Atticus Ross and Leopold Ross composed the score for the film.
Wingard addressed the concerns over the film, explaining that the film is an American take on the Death Note story, stating, "It 's one of those things where the harder I tried to stay 100 percent true to the source material, the more it just kind of fell apart... You 're in a different country, you 're in a different kind of environment, and you 're trying to also summarize a sprawling series into a two - hour - long film. For me, it became about; what do these themes mean to modern day America, and how does that affect how we tell the story. ''
The film was released on Netflix on August 25, 2017. On July 20, 2017, the film was screened early for audiences at San Diego Comic - Con International 2017.
On March 22, 2017, Netflix released a teaser of the film on YouTube. An additional trailer was released on June 29, 2017.
Death Note received mixed to negative reviews, with critics calling it "a bad decision on top of a festering pile of bad decisions '', "a lazy, unambitious, forgettable movie '' and "boring '', though the direction and the cast received some praise. On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 40 % based on 53 reviews, and an average rating of 4.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Death Note benefits from director Adam Wingard 's distinctive eye and a talented cast, but they are n't enough to overcome a fatally overcrowded canvas. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a score of 43 out of 100, based on 14 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Jeanette Catsoulis for The New York Times wrote that the film "feels rushed and constricted '' compared to the volume of the source material, but praised how Wingard 's direction focused on "mood over mayhem '' to make the adaptation his own. Peter Debruge for Variety said that he felt that Wingard took the film adaptation towards a Donnie Darko - styled work that would capture the interest of more Western audiences compared to the original work, but made the work capture the feel of a theatrical film rather than just a made - for - television work. Debruge also wrote that despite the philosophical concepts of murdering via the Death Note, "the movie never quite reckons with just how twisted a concept it 's peddling, and that 's easily the scariest thing about it ''. Brian Tallerico for Rogerebert.com gave the film one of four stars, stating that the changes that Wingard had made from the original work did not serve any artistic or thematic purpose, nor captured the cat - and - mouse game between Light and L that was core to the original work, and because the producers "refused to make Light the antihero he needed to be '', the addition of Mia as a love interest "(left) the project hollow at its center ''.
Tsugumi Ohba and Takeshi Obata, the original creators of Death Note, have praised the film, with the former stating, "In a good way, it both followed and diverged from the original work so the film can be enjoyed, of course by not only the fans, but also by a much larger and wider audience ''.
In an interview with Heat Vision, director Adam Wingard stated that Netflix has wanted to make at least two films, if enough people watch the first one. He said: "There are definitely lots of places to go, and we know generally where we would take it. Hopefully people will watch it and Netflix will order a sequel. They definitely are ready to. They just need people to watch it. ''
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which of the following is true of the byzantine empires macedonian dynasty | Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty - wikipedia
The medieval Byzantine Empire underwent revival during reign of the Macedonian emperors of the late 9th, 10th, and early 11th centuries, when it gained control over the Adriatic Sea, southern Italy, and all of the territory of the Tsar Samuil of Bulgaria.
The cities of the empire expanded, and affluence spread across the provinces because of the new - found security. The population rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand while also helping to encourage trade.
Culturally, there was considerable growth in education and learning (the "Macedonian Renaissance ''). Ancient texts were preserved and patiently re-copied. Byzantine art flourished, and brilliant mosaics graced the interiors of the many new churches.
Though the empire was significantly smaller than during the reign of Justinian, it was also stronger, as the remaining territories were less geographically dispersed and more politically and culturally integrated.
Although tradition attributed the "Byzantine Renaissance '' to Basil I (867 -- 886), initiator of the Macedonian dynasty, some later scholars have credited the reforms of Basil 's predecessor, Michael III (842 -- 867) and of the erudite Theoktistos (died 855). The latter in particular favoured culture at the court, and, with a careful financial policy, steadily increased the gold reserves of the Empire. The rise of the Macedonian dynasty coincided with internal developments which strengthened the religious unity of the empire.
The iconoclast movement experienced a steep decline: this favoured its soft suppression by the emperors and the reconciliation of the religious strife that had drained the imperial resources in the previous centuries. Despite occasional tactical defeats, the administrative, legislative, cultural and economic situation continued to improve under Basil 's successors, especially with Romanos I Lekapenos (920 -- 944). The theme system reached its definitive form in this period. The Eastern Orthodox Church establishment began to loyally support the imperial cause, and the state limited the power of the landowning class in favour of agricultural small - holders, who made up an important part of the military force of the Empire. These favourable conditions contributed to the increasing ability of the emperors to wage war against the Arabs.
By 867, the empire had stabilised its position in both the east and the west, while the success of its defensive military structure had enabled the emperors to begin planning wars of reconquest in the east.
The process of reconquest began with variable fortunes. The temporary reconquest of Crete (843) was followed by a crushing Byzantine defeat on the Bosporus, while the emperors were unable to prevent the ongoing Muslim conquest of Sicily (827 -- 902). Using present day Tunisia as their launching pad, the Muslims conquered Palermo in 831, Messina in 842, Enna in 859, Syracuse in 878, Catania in 900 and the final Greek stronghold, the fortress of Taormina, in 902.
These drawbacks were later counterbalanced by a victorious expedition against Damietta in Egypt (856), the defeat of the Emir of Melitene (863), the confirmation of the imperial authority over Dalmatia (867) and Basil I 's offensives towards the Euphrates (870s).
The threat from the Arab Muslims was meanwhile reduced by inner struggles and by the rise of the Turks in the east. Muslims received assistance however from the Paulician sect, which had found a large following in the eastern provinces of the Empire and, facing persecution under the Byzantines, often fought under the Arab flag. It took several campaigns to subdue the Paulicians, who were eventually defeated by Basil I.
In 904, disaster struck the empire when its second city, Thessaloniki, was sacked by an Arab fleet led by a Byzantine renegade. The Byzantines responded by destroying an Arab fleet in 908, and sacking the city of Laodicea in Syria two years later. Despite this revenge, the Byzantines were still unable to strike a decisive blow against the Muslims, who inflicted a crushing defeat on the imperial forces when they attempted to regain Crete in 911.
The situation on the border with the Arab territories remained fluid, with the Byzantines alternatively on the offensive or defensive. Kievan Rus ', who appeared near Constantinople for the first time in 860, constituted another new challenge. In 941 they appeared on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, but this time they were crushed, showing the improvements in the Byzantine military position after 907, when only diplomacy had been able to push back the invaders. The vanquisher of the Rus ' was the famous general John Kourkouas, who continued the offensive with other noteworthy victories in Mesopotamia (943): these culminated in the reconquest of Edessa (944), which was especially celebrated for the return to Constantinople of the venerated Mandylion.
The soldier emperors Nikephoros II Phokas (reigned 963 -- 69) and John I Tzimiskes (969 -- 76) expanded the empire well into Syria, defeating the emirs of north - west Iraq and reconquering Crete and Cyprus. At one point under John, the empire 's armies even threatened Jerusalem, far to the south. The emirate of Aleppo and its neighbours became vassals of the empire in the east, where the greatest threat to the empire was the Egyptian Fatimid kingdom.
The traditional struggle with the See of Rome continued, spurred by the question of religious supremacy over the newly Christianized Bulgaria. This prompted an invasion by the powerful Tsar Simeon I in 894, but this was pushed back by the Byzantine diplomacy, which called on the help of the Hungarians. The Byzantines were in turn defeated, however, at the Battle of Bulgarophygon (896), and obliged to pay annual subsidies to the Bulgarians. Later (912) Simeon even had the Byzantines grant him the crown of basileus of Bulgaria and had the young emperor Constantine VII marry one of his daughters. When a revolt in Constantinople halted his dynastic project, he again invaded Thrace and conquered Adrianople.
A great imperial expedition under Leo Phokas and Romanos Lekapenos ended again with a crushing Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Anchialus (917), and the following year the Bulgarians ravaged modern - day northern Greece south to Corinth. Adrianople was captured again in 923 and in 924 the Bulgarian army laid siege to Constantinople. Pressure from the North was alleviated only after Simeon 's death in 927.
Under the emperor Basil II (reigned 976 -- 1025), Bulgaria became target of annual campaigns by the Byzantine army. The war was to drag on for nearly twenty years, but eventually at the Battle of Kleidon the Bulgarian forces were completely defeated. and captured. According to medieval legends 99 out of every 100 Bulgarian soldiers were blinded and the remaining hundredth man was left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home; reportedly when the aging Tsar Samuil saw the remains of his once formidable army, he died of heart attack. In 1018 Bulgaria surrendered and became part of the Byzantine Empire thus restoring the Danube frontier, which had not been held since the days of Heraclius.
During this period the Byzantine princess Theophanu, wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, served as regent of the Holy Roman Empire, paving the way for the westward spread of Byzantine culture.
Between 800 and 1100 the empire developed a mixed relationship with the new state of Kievan Rus ' that emerged to the north across the Black Sea.
The Byzantine Empire quickly became a main trading and cultural partner for Kiev. After Christianizing Rus ' Vladimir the Great employed many architects and artists to work on numerous cathedrals and churches around Rus ', expanding the Byzantine influence even further.
Kievan Rus ' princes were often married into the Byzantine imperial family and Constantinople often employed princes ' armies; most notably, Vladimir the Great presented Byzantium with the famous Varangian Guard -- an army of vicious Scandinavian mercenaries. Some believe that this was in exchange for the marriage to Basil 's sister Anna to Vladimir. However, the Primary Chronicle states the marriage was in exchange for the Rus ' conversion to orthodoxy; the Varangian Guard was a by - product (although a significant one) of this exchange.
The relationship was not always friendly. During this three hundred year interval Constantinople and other Byzantine cities were attacked several times by the armies of Kievan Rus ' (see Rus ' - Byzantine Wars). Kiev never went far enough to actually endanger the empire; the wars were primarily a tool to force the Byzantines to sign increasingly favorable trade treaties, the texts of which are recorded in the Primary Chronicle (Rus ' -- Byzantine Treaty (907)) and other historical documents. Constantinople at the same time constantly pitted Kievan Rus ', Bulgaria, and Poland against each other.
The Byzantine influence on Kievan Rus ' can not be overestimated. Byzantine - style writing became a standard for the adopted from Bulgaria Cyrillic alphabet, Byzantine architecture dominated in Kiev, and as a main trading partner the Byzantine Empire played a critical role in the establishment, rise, and fall of Kievan Rus '.
The Byzantine Empire now stretched to Armenia in the east, to Calabria in Southern Italy in the west. Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of Bulgaria, to the annexation of parts of Georgia and Armenia, to the total annihilation of an invading force of Egyptians outside Antioch. Yet even these victories were not enough; Basil considered the continued Arab occupation of Sicily to be an outrage. Accordingly, he planned to reconquer the island, which had belonged to the empire for over three hundred years (c. 550 -- c. 900). However, his death in 1025 put an end to the project.
The 11th century was also momentous for its religious events. In 1054, relations between Greek and Slavic - speaking Eastern and Latin - speaking Western Christian traditions reached a terminal crisis. Although there was a formal declaration of institutional separation, on July 16, when three papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia during Divine Liturgy on a Saturday afternoon and placed a bull of excommunication on the altar, the so - called Great Schism was a culmination of centuries of gradual separation. Although the schism was brought about by doctrinal disputes (in particular, Eastern refusal to accept the Western Church doctrine of the filioque, or double procession of the Holy Spirit), disputes over administration and political issues had simmered for centuries. The formal separation of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Western Catholic Church would have wide - ranging consequences for the future of Europe and Christianity.
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who plays on the suite life of zack and cody | Dylan and Cole Sprouse - wikipedia
Dylan Thomas Sprouse and Cole Mitchell Sprouse (born August 4, 1992) are American actors. They are twins and are referred to as the Sprouse brothers or Sprouse Bros. Their first major theatrical film role was in the 1999 comedy, Big Daddy, in which they co-starred with Adam Sandler. They later appeared in several television sitcoms and starred in the straight - to - DVD films I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus and Just for Kicks.
From 2005 until 2008, they starred in the Disney Channel sitcom The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. As a result of the series ' success, the media has termed them "heartthrobs '' and "overwhelming draws '' among preteen and teen audiences. The following year, the brothers launched a franchise known as the Sprouse Bros brand, which included a clothing line, book series and magazine. The majority of the Sprouses ' franchise ended in 2008, except for their clothing line. The Suite Life of Zack & Cody was retooled in 2008 as The Suite Life on Deck, in which the brothers reprised their roles as Zack and Cody. The Suite Life on Deck went on to become the most - watched tween / children 's television show in 2008 and 2009. The show ended in May 2011. They also starred in The Suite Life Movie, which aired in March of the same year. They began cultivating an adult image by starring in the independent theatrical suspense film The Kings of Appletown in 2009.
Dylan and Cole were two of the wealthiest children alive in 2007, and in 2010, the Sprouse brothers were the highest - paid teenage Disney television actors, earning $40,000 per episode combined. MSN reported by the end of the 2000s that the twin brothers became the richest teenage twins in the world. In 2010, the brothers were accepted to New York University. They deferred admission for one year, and attended the university from 2011 to 2015. Both Cole and Dylan have confirmed they wish to pursue acting post-university.
The Sprouses were born at a small hospital called Clinica Tanganelli in Arezzo, Italy, to American parents Matthew Sprouse and Melanie Wright, while they were teaching at an English language school in Tuscany. Dylan was named after Welsh poet Dylan Thomas, and Cole is named after jazz singer and pianist Nat King Cole. Dylan is 15 minutes older than Cole. They have German ancestry. The boys moved back to the United States four months after their birth to their parents ' native Long Beach, California. Some of the money Dylan and Cole earned by acting was used to buy a house in Calabasas, California, where their family still lived as of summer 2012.
The Sprouses began acting at the age of eight months following a suggestion from their grandmother, Jonine Booth Wright, who was a drama teacher and actress. The twins first appeared in a commercial for diapers, switching on - screen time every few seconds. As with many twins, the two have often played the same role, due to child labor laws in California restricting the amount of time children can be filmed in a day. Casting twins in a single role thus allows more time for the character to be filmed. Beginning at eight months old, the two played a single character, Patrick Kelly, on the ABC series Grace Under Fire.
In 1999, the boys appeared in their first major feature film, Big Daddy, in which they shared the role of a five - year - old boy named Julian who is adopted by Adam Sandler 's character, Sonny Koufax. Though the film received mixed reviews, the two were nominated for multiple awards for their role in the film. However, they did not win any. The same year, the boys also had a minor role in the thriller The Astronaut 's Wife. The Sprouses have noted that after Big Daddy 's release, they entered a slow period in their careers and were not cast in any major roles for a time. During the early 2000s, the twins appeared in episodes of The Nightmare Room and That ' 70s Show, as well as in Mad TV and portrayed roles in the feature films The Master of Disguise and Adam Sandler 's Eight Crazy Nights. Cole began appearing in episodes of the television show Friends, as Ross Geller 's son Ben in 2001; this role was not shared with Dylan.
They both appeared in I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus and Just for Kicks, both of which were family films that received a direct - to - video release. David Nusair of Reel Film Reviews said of their acting in Just for Kicks that the brothers "are n't the worst child actors I 've ever seen,... but they certainly leave a lot to be desired. '' Dylan and Cole were later cast in the Disney Channel original series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, where they portrayed identical twins Zack and Cody Martin, respectively. The series, which debuted in March 2005, became a ratings success. As part of their involvement with Disney, the brothers also became part of the 11 - member group, the Disney Channel Circle of Stars, and sang the song "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes '' along with the members of the circle, for a video that was released as bonus material in the special edition version of the Disney film Cinderella. They also participated in the Disney Channel Games.
The Sprouses played one character, Jeremiah, in the independent film The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things. The film was produced in 2004 but not given a theatrical release until March 2006, when it played at three theatres in the United States, ultimately grossing $29,000 domestically. Harvey Karten praised their acting, stating that "acting is superlative all around '', and Tamara Straus of the San Francisco Chronicle called them "the movie 's only saving grace ''. In 2007, the two filmed A Modern Twain Story: The Prince and the Pauper. Carrie R. Wheadon of Common Sense Media said the film was a "slow story for Zack and Cody fans only ''. The Sprouse brothers both had voice roles in the animated film Holidaze: The Christmas That Almost Did n't Happen alongside Brenda Song and Emily Osment. Dylan played the voice of Shasta in Disney 's "Snow Buddies ''. The brothers both starred in the theatrical film The Kings of Appletown, which is based on the book The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. The film was directed by Bobby Moresco and written by Amanda Moresco. Shot in New Braunfels, Texas, the film was originally estimated to be released in the winter of 2008. Kings of Appletown had a limited theatrical release on December 12, 2009 and was officially released at the Newport Beach Film Festival in April 2010.
They appeared on the cover of the May 2009 issue People Magazine, in an eighty - page special edition issue devoted to The Suite Life on Deck. The twin brothers began filming another Modern Twain Story film in the summer of 2009. The film was tentatively titled "Sivilized '' and was a modern version of Huckleberry Finn. However, in mid-2010, Dylan stated that they would not be doing the film, in part because they "outgrew '' the film. They became the new face of the children 's yogurt, Dannon Danimals, in 2009; their endorsement deal was renewed in 2010. The twin brothers signed an endorsement deal with Nintendo DS in August 2010.
As of early to mid-2011, Dylan and Cole were not in any acting projects and were focusing instead on college as well as art and photography, respectively. However, Dylan has stated that they would both like to continue acting while in college. Dylan and Cole are represented by William Morris Endeavor as of 2011.
In January 2016, Cole was cast as Jughead Jones in The CW 's teen drama series Riverdale, based on Archie.
In 2005, the Sprouse brothers signed a licensing agreement with Dualstar Entertainment to produce Sprouse Bros branded merchandise for the preteen and teenage market, the Sprouse Bros brand included a clothing line, comics series and a magazine, as well as personal hygiene line and a line of sportswear. Dylan said of the brand that they wanted to "reach out to the nerd group and the cool group '' and "appeal to everybody ''. A magazine targeting boys was launched by Dualstar and Leisure Publishing LLC in 2006 called Sprouse Bros. Code. Simon & Schuster Inc. published two volumes of a book series titled Sprouse Bros. 47 R.O.N.I.N., which was described as featuring the Sprouse twins as "young James Bonds or undercover agents ''; the book series continued. In 2008, the brothers ended their association with the Olsens ' Dualstar, but they continued to sell their clothing line. The items in their clothing lines were sold exclusively online until mid-March 2012, when the online store could no longer be accessed.
Dylan Sprouse has stated that the experience of coming to fame after the success of The Suite Life of Zack & Cody is "kind of scary, how fast everything is moving '' and that a year prior "none of this was happening, it was just doing Suite Life '', and that he was excited for the future. While filming The Suite Life of Zack & Cody, the both of them received on - set tutoring for three hours each day for school, and said they were getting "straight A 's and honors ''. In their last year of high school, the brothers both took Advanced Placement classes. Dylan took AP Psychology and AP Spanish, and Cole took AP Psychology and AP Government.
The twins ' family has three dogs: Bubba, which belongs to Dylan and Cole; Pinky, who is their father 's; and Curry, their stepmother 's. Their favorite actor and co-star is Adam Sandler. Dylan has said that Adam is "a role model in acting '' and that they learned a lot about comedy from him. In mid-2010, Dylan launched a site for his art called Sprouse Arts, and in mid-2011, Cole launched a site for his photography called Cole Sprouse Photography.
In 2010, the brothers were both accepted to New York University. They had initial plans to attend the university in the fall of 2010; however, they deferred for one year. Dylan initially planned on majoring in fine / studio arts and minoring in economics while Cole planned on majoring in film and television production and minoring in drama. Instead, they both enrolled in the Gallatin School of Individualized Study, which allows students to plan their own curriculum. Cole focused his curriculum on the humanities and archaeology while Dylan focused on video game design. In 2011, Dylan was elected president of the Third Avenue North residence hall at New York University. Both brothers graduated in May 2015; they told Entertainment magazine that they had walked away with each other 's diplomas at the graduation ceremony.
In 2012, Dylan and Cole were officially appointed as the International Ambassadors of the Koyamada Foundation. They traveled to Japan with Shin Koyamada to empower the youth of Japan to better themselves and rebuild Japan as a society as well as to deepen the friendly relations and brotherhood between the youth of Japan and America in August 2013.
As of 2013, Dylan was working as a host at a New York City restaurant, which he explained was a result of his desire to try a new experience, as he said, "working somewhat below the means I 'm used to, as well as a way to socialize and get out of the house. ''
Since 2014, Dylan has commentated a few Super Smash Bros. tournaments.
In early 2017, Dylan announced that with two partners he was preparing to open All-Wise Meadery in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York; he is the brewmaster. He disclosed that he has practiced Ásatrú since he was 15.
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who was the french priest who founded the first school for the deaf | Charles - Michel de l'Épée - wikipedia
The Abbé Charles - Michel de l'Épée (French: (ʃaʁlmiʃɛl dəlepe); 24 November 1712, Versailles - 23 December 1789, Paris) was a philanthropic educator of 18th - century France who has become known as the "Father of the Deaf ''.
He was born to a wealthy family in Versailles, the seat of political power in what was then the most powerful kingdom of Europe. He studied to be a Catholic priest but was denied ordination as a result of his refusal to denounce Jansenism, a popular French heresy of the time. He then studied law but, soon after joining the Bar, was finally ordained -- only to be denied a license to officiate.
Épée then turned his attention toward charitable services for the poor, and, on one foray into the slums of Paris, he had a chance encounter with two young deaf sisters who communicated using a sign language. Épée decided to dedicate himself to the education and salvation of the deaf, and, in 1760, he founded a school. In line with emerging philosophical thought of the time, Épée came to believe that deaf people were capable of language and concluded that they should be able to receive the sacraments and thus avoid going to hell. He began to develop a system of instruction of the French language and religion. In the early 1760s, his shelter became the world 's first free school for the deaf, open to the public.
Though Épée 's original interest was in religious education, his public advocacy and development of a kind of "Signed French '' enabled deaf people to legally defend themselves in court for the first time.
Épée died at the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, and his tomb is in the Church of Saint Roch in Paris. Two years after his death, the National Assembly recognized him as a "Benefactor of Humanity '' and declared that deaf people had rights according to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. In 1791, the Institution Nationale des Sourds - Muets à Paris, which Épée had founded, began to receive government funding. It was later renamed the Institut St. Jacques and then renamed again to its present name: Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris. His methods of education have spread around the world, and the Abbé de l'Épée is seen today as one of the founding fathers of deaf education.
After Épée 's death, he was succeeded by the Abbé Roch - Ambroise Cucurron Sicard, who became the new head of the school.
The Instructional Method of Signs is a real educational method emphasised using gestures or hand signs, based on the principle that "the education of deaf mutes must teach them through the eye of what other people acquire through the ear. '' He recognised that there was already a signing deaf community in Paris but saw their language (now known as Old French Sign Language) as primitive. Although he advised his (hearing) teachers to learn the signs (lexicon) for use in instructing their deaf students, he did not use their language in the classroom. Instead, he developed an idiosyncratic gestural system using some of this lexicon, combined with other invented signs to represent all the verb endings, articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs of the French language.
In English, Épée 's system has been known as "Methodical Signs '' and "Old Signed French '' but is perhaps better translated by the phrase systematised signs. While Épée 's system laid the philosophical groundwork for the later developments of Manually Coded Languages such as Signed English, it differed somewhat in execution. For example, the word croire ("believe '') was signed using five separate signs -- four with the meanings "know '', "feel '', "say '', and "not see '' and one that marked the word as a verb (Lane, 1980: 122). The word indéchiffrable ("unintelligible '') was also produced with a chain of five signs: interior - understand - possible - adjective - not. However, like Manually Coded Languages, Épée 's system was cumbersome and unnatural to deaf signers. A deaf pupil of the school (and later teacher), Laurent Clerc, wrote that the deaf never used the signes méthodiques for communication outside the classroom, preferring their own community language (French Sign Language).
Although Épée reportedly had great success with this educational method, his successes were questioned by critics who thought his students were aping his gestures rather than understanding the meaning.
What distinguished Épée from educators of the deaf before him, and ensured his place in history, is that he allowed his methods and classrooms to be available to the public and other educators. As a result of his openness as much as his successes, his methods would become so influential that their mark is still apparent in deaf education today. Épée also established teacher - training programs for foreigners who would take his methods back to their countries and who established numerous deaf schools around the world. Laurent Clerc, a deaf pupil of the Paris school, went on to co-found the first school for the deaf in North America and brought with him the sign language that formed the basis of modern American Sign Language, including the signs of the ASL alphabet.
Some deaf schools in Germany and England that were contemporaries of the Abbé de l'Épée's Paris School used an oralist approach emphasising speech and lip reading, in contrast to his belief in manualism. Their methods were closely guarded secrets, and they saw Épée as a rival. The oralism vs. manualism debate still rages to this day. Oralism is sometimes called the German method, and manualism the French method in reference to those times.
The Paris school still exists, though it now uses French Sign Language in class rather than Épée 's methodical signs. Located in rue Saint - Jacques in Paris, it is one of four national deaf schools -- the others being in Metz, Chambéry, and Bordeaux.
Even now, Épée is commonly described as the inventor of sign language or as having "taught the deaf to sign ''. In fact, he was taught to sign by the deaf. De l'Épée categorized and recorded French signs so they could be taught to others in order to be used in education, especially about the Christian faith.
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what was the average height of a man in the 1800s | Human height - wikipedia
Human height or stature is the distance from the bottom of the feet to the top of the head in a human body, standing erect. It is measured using a stadiometer, usually in centimetres when using the metric system, or feet and inches when using the imperial system.
A particular genetic profile in men called Y haplotype I - M170 is correlated with height. Ecological data shows that as the frequency of this genetic profile increases in the population, the average male height in a country also increases.
When populations share genetic background and environmental factors, average height is frequently characteristic within the group. Exceptional height variation (around 20 % deviation from average) within such a population is sometimes due to gigantism or dwarfism, which are medical conditions caused by specific genes or endocrine abnormalities.
The development of human height can serve as an indicator of two key welfare components, namely nutritional quality and health. In regions of poverty or warfare, environmental factors like chronic malnutrition during childhood or adolescence may result in delayed growth and / or marked reductions in adult stature even without the presence of any of these medical conditions.
The study of height is known as auxology. Growth has long been recognized as a measure of the health of individuals, hence part of the reasoning for the use of growth charts. For individuals, as indicators of health problems, growth trends are tracked for significant deviations and growth is also monitored for significant deficiency from genetic expectations. Genetics is a major factor in determining the height of individuals, though it is far less influential in regard to differences among populations. Average height is relevant to the measurement of the health and wellness (standard of living and quality of life) of populations.
Attributed as a significant reason for the trend of increasing height in parts of Europe are the egalitarian populations where proper medical care and adequate nutrition are relatively equally distributed. Average (male) height in a nation is correlated with protein quality. Nations that consume more protein in the form of pork, dairy, eggs, and fish tend to be taller, while those that attain more protein from cereals tend to be shorter.
Changes in diet (nutrition) and a general rise in quality of health care and standard of living are the cited factors in the Asian populations. Malnutrition including chronic undernutrition and acute malnutrition is known to have caused stunted growth in various populations. This has been seen in North Korea, parts of Africa, certain historical Europe, and other populations. Developing countries such as Guatemala have rates of stunting in children under 5 living as high as 82.2 % in Totonicapán, and 49.8 % nationwide.
Height measurements are by nature subject to statistical sampling errors even for a single individual. In a clinical situation, height measurements are seldom taken more often than once per office visit, which may mean sampling taking place a week to several months apart. The smooth 50th percentile male and female growth curves illustrated above are aggregate values from thousands of individuals sampled at ages from birth to age 20. In reality, a single individual 's growth curve shows large upward and downward spikes, partly due to actual differences in growth velocity, and partly due to small measurement errors.
For example, a typical measurement error of plus or minus 0.5 cm may completely nullify 0.5 cm of actual growth resulting in either a "negative '' 0.5 cm growth (due to overestimation in the previous visit combined with underestimation in the latter), up to a 1.5 cm growth (the first visit underestimating and the second visit overestimating) in the same elapsed time period between measurements. Note there is a discontinuity in the growth curves at age 2, which reflects the difference in recumbent length (with the child on his or her back), used in measuring infants and toddlers and standing height typically measured from age 2 onwards.
Height, like other phenotypic traits, is determined by a combination of genetics and environmental factors. A child 's height based on parental heights is subject to regression toward the mean, therefore extremely tall or short parents will likely have correspondingly taller or shorter offspring, but their offspring will also likely be closer to average height than the parents themselves. Genetic potential and a number of hormones, minus illness, is a basic determinant for height. Other factors include the genetic response to external factors such as diet, exercise, environment, and life circumstances.
Humans grow fastest (other than in the womb) as infants and toddlers, rapidly declining from a maximum at birth to roughly age 2, tapering to a slowly declining rate, and then during the pubertal growth spurt, a rapid rise to a second maximum (at around 11 -- 12 years for female, and 13 -- 14 years for male), followed by a steady decline to zero. On average, female growth speed trails off to zero at about 15 or 16 years, whereas the male curve continues for approximately 3 more years, going to zero at about 18 -- 20. These are also critical periods where stressors such as malnutrition (or even severe child neglect) have the greatest effect.
Moreover, the health of a mother throughout her life, especially during her critical period and pregnancy, has a role. A healthier child and adult develops a body that is better able to provide optimal prenatal conditions. The pregnant mother 's health is important for herself but also for the fetus as gestation is itself a critical period for an embryo / fetus, though some problems affecting height during this period are resolved by catch - up growth assuming childhood conditions are good. Thus, there is a cumulative generation effect such that nutrition and health over generations influences the height of descendants to varying degrees.
The age of the mother also has some influence on her child 's height. Studies in modern times have observed a gradual increase in height with maternal age, though these early studies suggest that trend is due to various socio - economic situations that select certain demographics as being more likely to have a first birth early in the mother 's life. These same studies show that children born to a young mother are more likely to have below - average educational and behavioural development, again suggesting an ultimate cause of resources and family status rather than a purely biological explanation.
It has been observed that first - born males are shorter than later - born males. However, more recently the reverse observation was made. The study authors suggest that the cause may be socio - economic in nature.
The precise relationship between genetics and environment is complex and uncertain. Differences in human height is 60 -- 80 % heritable, according to several twin studies and has been considered polygenic since the Mendelian - biometrician debate a hundred years ago. A genome - wide association (GWA) study of more than 180,000 individuals has identified hundreds of genetic variants in at least 180 loci associated with adult human height. The number of individuals has since been expanded to 253,288 individuals and the number of genetic variants identified is 697 in 423 genetic loci. In a separate study of body proportion using sitting - height ratio, it reports that these 697 variants can be partitioned into 3 specific classes, (1) variants that primarily determine leg length, (2) variants that primarily determine spine and head length, or (3) variants that affect overall body size. This gives insights into the biological mechanisms underlying how these 697 genetic variants affect overall height. These loci do not only determine height, but other features or characteristics. As an example, 4 of the 7 loci identified for intracranial volume had previously been discovered for human height.
The effect of environment on height is illustrated by studies performed by anthropologist Barry Bogin and coworkers of Guatemala Mayan children living in the United States. In the early 1970s, when Bogin first visited Guatemala, he observed that Mayan Indian men averaged only 157.5 centimetres (5 ft 2 in) in height and the women averaged 142.2 centimetres (4 ft 8 in). Bogin took another series of measurements after the Guatemalan Civil War, during which up to a million Guatemalans fled to the United States. He discovered that Maya refugees, who ranged from six to twelve years old, were significantly taller than their Guatemalan counterparts. By 2000, the American Maya were 10.24 cm (4.03 in) taller than the Guatemalan Maya of the same age, largely due to better nutrition and health care. Bogin also noted that American Maya children had relatively longer legs, averaging 7.02 cm (2.76 in) longer than the Guatemalan Maya (a significantly lower sitting height ratio).
The Nilotic peoples of Sudan such as the Shilluk and Dinka have been described as some of the tallest in the world. Dinka Ruweng males investigated by Roberts in 1953 -- 54 were on average 181.3 centimetres (5 ft 11 ⁄ in) tall, and Shilluk males averaged 182.6 centimetres (6 ft 0 in). The Nilotic people are characterized as having long legs, narrow bodies and short trunks, an adaptation to hot weather. However, male Dinka and Shilluk refugees measured in 1995 in Southwestern Ethiopia were on average only 176.4 cm and 172.6 cm tall, respectively. As the study points out, Nilotic people "may attain greater height if privileged with favourable environmental conditions during early childhood and adolescence, allowing full expression of the genetic material. '' Before fleeing, these refugees were subject to privation as a consequence of the succession of civil wars in their country from 1955 to the present.
The tallest living married couple are ex-basketball players Yao Ming and Ye Li (both of China) who measure 228.6 cm (7 ft 6 in) and 190.5 cm (6 ft 3 in) respectively, giving a combined height of 419.1 cm (13 ft 9 in). They married in Shanghai, China, on 6 August 2007.
In Tibet, the khampas are known for their great height. Khampa males are on average 180 cm tall (5 ft 11 in).
The people of the Dinaric Alps mainly South Slavs (Montenegro and East Herzegovina) are on record as being the tallest in the world, with a male average height of 185.6 cm (6 ft 1.1 in) and female average height of 170.9 cm (5 ft 7.3 in).
Growth in stature, determined by its various factors, results from the lengthening of bones via cellular divisions chiefly regulated by somatotropin (human growth hormone (hGH)) secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Somatotropin also stimulates the release of another growth inducing hormone Insulin - like growth factor 1 (IGF - 1) mainly by the liver. Both hormones operate on most tissues of the body, have many other functions, and continue to be secreted throughout life; with peak levels coinciding with peak growth velocity, and gradually subsiding with age after adolescence. The bulk of secretion occurs in bursts (especially for adolescents) with the largest during sleep.
The majority of linear growth occurs as growth of cartilage at the epiphysis (ends) of the long bones which gradually ossify to form hard bone. The legs compose approximately half of adult human height, and leg length is a somewhat sexually dimorphic trait, with men having proportionately longer legs. Some of this growth occurs after the growth spurt of the long bones has ceased or slowed. The majority of growth during growth spurts is of the long bones. Additionally, the variation in height between populations and across time is largely due to changes in leg length. The remainder of height consists of the cranium. Height is sexually dimorphic and statistically it is more or less normally distributed, but with heavy tails. It has been shown that a log - normal distribution fits the data equally well, besides guaranteeing a non-negative lower confidence limit, which could otherwise attain a non-physical negative height value for arbitrarily large confidence levels.
Most intra-population variance of height is genetic. Short stature and tall stature are usually not a health concern. If the degree of deviation from normal is significant, hereditary short stature is known as familial short stature and tall stature is known as familial tall stature. Confirmation that exceptional height is normal for a respective person can be ascertained from comparing stature of family members and analyzing growth trends for abrupt changes, among others. There are, however, various diseases and disorders that cause growth abnormalities.
Most notably, extreme height may be pathological, such as gigantism resulting from childhood hyperpituitarism, and dwarfism which has various causes. Rarely, no cause can be found for extreme height; very short persons may be termed as having idiopathic short stature. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2003 approved hGH treatment for those 2.25 standard deviations below the population mean (approximately the lowest 1.2 % of the population). An even rarer occurrence, or at least less used term and recognized "problem '', is idiopathic tall stature.
If not enough growth hormone is produced and / or secreted by the pituitary gland, then a patient with growth hormone deficiency can undergo treatment. This treatment involves the injection of pure growth hormone into thick tissue to promote growth.
Certain studies have shown that height is a factor in overall health while some suggest tallness is associated with better cardiovascular health and shortness with longevity. Cancer risk has also been found to grow with height.
Nonetheless, modern westernized interpretations of the relationship between height and health fail to account for the observed height variations worldwide. Cavalli - Sforza and Cavalli - Sforza note that variations in height worldwide can be partly attributed to evolutionary pressures resulting from differing environments. These evolutionary pressures result in height related health implications. While tallness is an adaptive benefit in colder climates such as found in Europe, shortness helps dissipate body heat in warmer climatic regions. Consequently, the relationships between health and height can not be easily generalized since tallness and shortness can both provide health benefits in different environmental settings.
At the extreme end, being excessively tall can cause various medical problems, including cardiovascular problems, because of the increased load on the heart to supply the body with blood, and problems resulting from the increased time it takes the brain to communicate with the extremities. For example, Robert Wadlow, the tallest man known to verifiable history, developed trouble walking as his height increased throughout his life. In many of the pictures of the later portion of his life, Wadlow can be seen gripping something for support. Late in his life, although he died at age 22, he had to wear braces on his legs and walk with a cane; and he died after developing an infection in his legs because he was unable to feel the irritation and cutting caused by his leg braces.
Sources are in disagreement about the overall relationship between height and longevity. Samaras and Elrick, in the Western Journal of Medicine, demonstrate an inverse correlation between height and longevity in several mammals including humans.
Women whose height is under 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) may have a small pelvis, resulting in such complications during childbirth as shoulder dystocia.
A study done in Sweden in 2005 has shown that there is a strong inverse correlation between height and suicide among Swedish men.
A large body of human and animal evidence indicates that shorter, smaller bodies age slower, and have fewer chronic diseases and greater longevity. For example, a study found eight areas of support for the "smaller lives longer '' thesis. These areas of evidence include studies involving longevity, life expectancy, centenarians, male vs. female longevity differences, mortality advantages of shorter people, survival findings, smaller body size due to calorie restriction, and within species body size differences. They all support the conclusion that smaller individuals live longer in healthy environments and with good nutrition. However, the difference in longevity is modest. Several human studies have found a loss of 0.5 year / centimeter of increased height (1.2 yr / inch). But these findings do not mean that all tall people die young. Many live to advanced ages and some become centenarians.
There is a large body of research in psychology, economics, and human biology that has assessed the relationship between several seemingly innocuous physical features (e.g., body height) and occupational success. The correlation between height and success was explored decades ago. Shorter people are considered to have an advantage in certain sports (e.g., gymnastics, race car driving, etc.), whereas in many other sports taller people have a major advantage. In most occupational fields, body height is not relevant to how well people are able to perform, but nonetheless has been found to correlate with their success in several studies, although there may be other factors such as gender or socioeonomic status that explain this.
A demonstration of the height - success association can be found in the realm of politics. In the United States presidential elections, the taller candidate won 22 out of 25 times in the 20th century. Nevertheless, Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuits, was 150 cm (4 ft 11 in) and several prominent world leaders of the 20th century, such as Vladimir Lenin, Benito Mussolini, Nicolae Ceaușescu and Joseph Stalin were of below average height. These examples, however, were all before modern forms of multi-media, i.e., television, which may further height discrimination in modern society. Further, growing evidence suggests that height may be a proxy for confidence, which is likewise strongly correlated with occupational success.
In the 150 years since the mid-19th century, the average human height in industrialised countries has increased by up to 10 centimetres (3.9 in). However, these increases appear to have largely levelled off. Before the mid-19th century there were cycles in height, with periods of increase and decrease; however, examinations of skeletons show no significant differences in height from the Stone Age through the early 1800s.
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, people of European descent in North America were far taller than those in Europe and were the tallest in the world. The original indigenous population of Plains Native Americans was also among the tallest populations of the world at the time.
In the late nineteenth century, the Netherlands was a land renowned for its short population, but today its population is among the world 's tallest with young men averaging 183.8 cm (6 ft 0.4 in) tall.
According to a study by economist John Komlos and Francesco Cinnirella, in the first half of the 18th century, the average height of an English male was 165 cm (5 ft 5 in), and the average height of an Irish male was 168 cm (5 ft 6 in). The estimated mean height of English, German, and Scottish soldiers was 163.6 cm -- 165.9 cm (5 ft 4.4 in -- 5 ft 5.3 in) for the period as a whole, while that of Irish was 167.9 cm (5 ft 6.1 in). The average height of male slaves and convicts in North America was 171 cm (5 ft 7 in).
American - born colonial soldiers of the late 1770s were on average more than 7.6 cm (3 inches) taller than their English counterparts who served in Royal Marines at the same time.
Average height of Americans and Europeans decreased during periods of rapid industrialization, possibly due to rapid population growth and broad decreases in economic status. In early 19th century England, the difference between average height of English upper class youth (students of Sandhurst Military Academy) and English lower class youth (Marine Society boys) reached 22 cm (8.7 in), the highest that has been observed.
Data derived from burials show that before 1850, the mean stature of males and females in Leiden, Netherlands was respectively 166.7 cm (5 ft 5.6 in) and 156.7 cm (5 ft 1.7 in). The average height of 19 - year - old Dutch orphans in 1865 was 160 cm (5 ft 3 in).
According to a study by J.W. Drukker and Vincent Tassenaar, the average height of Dutch decreased from 1830 to 1857, even while Dutch real GNP per capita was growing at an average rate of more than 0.5 percent per year. The worst decline were in urban areas that in 1847, the urban height penalty was 2.5 cm (1 in). Urban mortality was also much higher than rural regions. In 1829, the average urban and rural Dutchman was 164 cm (5 ft 4.6 in). By 1856, the average rural Dutchman was 162 cm (5 ft 3.8 in) and urban Dutchman was 158.5 cm (5 ft 2.4 in).
A 2004 report citing a 2003 UNICEF study on the effects of malnutrition in North Korea, due to "successive famines, '' found young adult males to be significantly shorter. In contrast South Koreans "feasting on an increasingly Western - influenced diet, '' without famine, were growing taller. The height difference is minimal for Koreans over 40, who grew up at a time when economic conditions in the North were roughly comparable to those in the South, while height disparities are most acute for Koreans who grew up in the mid-1990s -- a demographic in which South Koreans are about 12 cm (4.7 in) taller than their North Korean counterparts -- as this was a period during which the North was affected by a harsh famine. A study by South Korean anthropologists of North Korean children who had defected to China found that 18 - year - old males were 5 inches (13 cm) shorter than South Koreans their age due to malnutrition.
The tallest living man is Sultan Kösen of Turkey, at 251 cm (8 ft 3 in). The tallest man in modern history was Robert Pershing Wadlow (1918 -- 1940), from Illinois, in the United States, who was 272 cm (8 ft 11 in) at the time of his death. The tallest woman in medical history was Zeng Jinlian of Hunan, China, who stood 248 cm (8 ft 1 ⁄ in) when she died at the age of 17. The shortest adult human on record was Chandra Bahadur Dangi of Nepal at 54.6 cm (1 ft 9 ⁄ in).
Adult height between populations often differs significantly. For example, the average height of women from the Czech Republic is greater than that of men from Malawi. This may be caused by genetic differences, childhood lifestyle differences (nutrition, sleep patterns, physical labor), or both.
Depending on sex, genetic and environmental factors, shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be universal in the extremely aged. This decrease in height is due to such factors as decreased height of inter-vertebral discs because of desiccation, atrophy of soft tissues and postural changes secondary to degenerative disease.
As with any statistical data, the accuracy of such data may be questionable for various reasons:
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who won the halloween baking championship in 2017 | List of Halloween Baking Championship episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes for the reality television cooking series Halloween Baking Championship on Food Network.
Seven bakers and chefs competed in a four - episode baking tournament. One person got eliminated every week until the final episode where one person was eliminated early on and the final three compete for the grand prize of $25,000. Judges for this season are Carla Hall, Ron Ben - Israel, and Sherry Yard.
Winner: Jason Hisley (His advantage going into the "Main Heat '' was being able to switch his card with another contestant, or switch two contestant 's cards. He chose to switch his cowboy card with Audrey 's pirate card.)
Main Heat: The contestants had to blindly pick a card that depicted a classic Halloween costume. They were tasked to create a dessert in 90 minutes that represented that costume.
Winner: Audrey Alfaro
Eliminated: Jennifer Petty
Winner: Erin Cooper (Her advantage was getting ten minutes of sous chef help from judge Sherry Yard.)
Main Heat: The contestants each picked two hollow apples from a prop tree; a red apple had a specific flavor and a green apple had a spooky theme. They were tasked to combine flavor and theme into a cohesive dessert, in 90 minutes.
Winner: Jason Hisley
Eliminated: Erin Cooper
Winner: Rudy Martinez (His advantage is revealed partway into the second round; picking and assigning extra ingredients to himself and his competitors.)
Main Heat: The contestants must create a graveyard themed pumpkin dessert. Halfway into the competition, Rudy 's advantage is brought up. He gets first pick of a basket of mandatory extra ingredients. He takes candied ginger for himself then assigns dried cherries to Scott, cream cheese to Jason, walnuts to Ashlee, and raisins to Audrey.
Winner: Rudy Martinez
Eliminated: Audrey Alfaro
Winner: Jason Hisley (There is no advantage given in this episode)
Main Heat: The final three contestants have 5 hours to create a haunted house cake.
Winner of $25,000: Rudy Martinez
Eliminated: Scott Breazeale and Jason Hisley
Special Guest: Duff Goldman (werewolf)
^ Note 1: Ashlee was eliminated after the finale Preheat.
Seven bakers competed in a five - episode baking tournament. In this season they incorporated midround twists (usually an ingredient the contestants had to add to their confection). The winner got $25,000. Judges for this season are Carla Hall, Sandra Lee, and Damiano Carrara.
Winner: Michelle Antonishek (Her advantage was exclusive use of creepy molds and tools for the second round challenge)
Main Heat: The contestants had to make an edible zombie treat in 2 hours. They had to incorporate raspberries into their dessert. Mid-round twist is to incorporate sugar work.
Winner: Amy Strickland
Eliminated: Brad Rudd
Winner: John Schopp (His advantage was being able to switch his tombstone with another contestant or switch two contestant 's tombstones. He chose to switch Amy 's "witch hat '' with Michelle 's "cauldron ''.)
Main Heat: The contestants each picked a little tombstone that had a theme written on the back. They had 2 hours to make a candy stuffed cake inspired by their respective Halloween themes. John got ' eyeball ', Damien got ' crystal ball ', Amy got ' witch hat ', Michelle got ' cauldron ', Tamara got ' skull ', and Veronica got ' pumpkin '. After the switch, Amy got ' cauldron ' and Michelle got ' witch hat '. Mid-round twist is to add lime curd representing slime.
Winner: Tamara Brown
Eliminated: Damien Bagley
Winner: Michelle Antonishek (Her advantage is first choice of two characteristics / themes in the second round.)
Main Heat: The contestants each picked one stuffed spider and one stuffed alligator; all wearing tags with different characteristics and different creatures. They had 2 hours to combine both tag descriptions into an edible freak show creature. Michelle picked "fire - breathing '' as her characteristic and "snake '' as her creature. Tamara paired up "two - headed '' "turtle ''. John paired up "sword - swallowing '' "mermaid ''. And Veronica paired up "werewolf '' "strongman ''. Mid-round twist is to add roasted peanuts.
Winner: Tamara Brown
Eliminated: No eliminations this episode because Amy Strickland left the competition.
Winner: Michelle Antonishek (Her advantage is access to Mexican ingredients for the main challenge)
Main Heat: The contestants have 90 minutes to make a confection honoring "Dia de los Muertos '' (Day of the Dead). Mid-round twist is to incorporate habanero peppers into their desserts.
Winner: Michelle Antonishek
Eliminated: John Schopp
Winner: Tamara Brown (Her advantage is able to pick and assign themes in the second round)
Main Heat: The final three contestants have 6 hours to create a haunted gingerbread house specific to a structural theme. For winning the pre-heat, Tamara picked "Gothic Castle '' and assigned "Cabin in the Woods '' to Veronica and "Asylum '' to Michelle. Mid-round twist is to add a ginger and chocolate treat to compliment their house.
Winner of $25,000: Michelle Antonishek
Eliminated: Tamara Brown and Veronica von Borstel
Special Guest: Duff Goldman (tree creature)
^ Note 1: No one was eliminated at the end of Week 3.
Eight bakers competed in a six - episode baking tournament. One person got eliminated every week until the final three compete for $25,000. Judges for this season are Carla Hall, Zac Young, and Lorraine Pascale.
Winner: Ray Vizcaino (His advantage was first pick of pre-determined flavors of "slime '' for the next round. He chose raspberry.)
Main Heat: The contestants had to make a dessert filled with gooey "slime '' in 2 hours. Mid-round twist is to create a little edible slime creature that lives in the dessert.
Winner: Jasmin Bell
Eliminated: Andrea Kratville
Winner: Jessica Scott (Her advantage was exclusive use of special witch stencils and pre-made fondant for the next round.)
Main Heat: The contestants had to make witchy desserts in 90 minutes. Mid-round twist is to make an edible broom to accompany the witch confection.
Winner: Tyler Davis
Eliminated: Cliff Butler
Winners: Jasmin Bell & Ray Vizcaino (Their advantage is not having to do the mid-round twist in the second round.)
Main Heat:: In total darkness, the contestants must get to the table and grab a container with a common phobia inside. They have 90 minutes to make a dessert inspired by the fear they chose (Jessica got "rats '', Tyler got "spiders '', Jasmin got "clowns '', Jonathan got "snakes '', Dina got "ghosts '', and Ray got "insects ''). Mid-round twist is to add "Halloween worms '' (cooked spaghetti) to their dessert.
Winner: Jonathan Elias
Eliminated: Dina Melendez
Winner: Jasmin Bell (Her advantage is a 10 minute head start.)
Main Heat: The contestants have 80 minutes to make a dessert based on a scary mask on a display. (Jasmin grabbed a werewolf mask, Jonathan got a devil mask, Jessica got a raven mask, Ray got a snake mask, and Tyler got a Day of the Dead mask). Mid-round twist is to pick a wrapped up, unpopular Halloween treat (apples, popcorn balls, or raisins) and incorporate one into their dessert.
Winner: Jessica Scott
Eliminated: Tyler Davis
Winners: Jasmin Bell (Her advantage was going last in choosing odd chocolate pairings during the second round, and possibly stealing an ingredient duo from a fellow baker.)
Main Heat: The contestants had to incorporate odd chocolate pairings into "death by chocolate '' desserts in 90 minutes. The chocolate pairings were revealed by choosing between four portraits. Since Jasmin won the pre-heat, she got to see the ingredients her three competitors unveiled and could take one of their choices or risk what was behind the label of the final portrait. She opted not to take anyone 's chocolate combination. (Jessica got chocolate and Gouda cheese, Ray got chocolate and jalapeño, Jonathan got chocolate and beer, and Jasmin got chocolate and fresh turmeric). Mid-round twist is to make an edible tombstone.
Winner: Jasmin Bell
Eliminated: Ray Vizcaino
Winner: Jasmin Bell (Her advantage is exclusive use of a cake flavor in the final round.)
Main Heat: The final three contestants have 5 hours to create light - up jack o ' lantern cakes. For winning the pre-heat, Jasmin got to choose the cake flavor she 'll use for her light up cake, and the other contestants were n't allowed to use that flavor; she chose chocolate.
Winner of $25,000: Jasmin Bell
Eliminated: Jessica Scott and Jonathan Elias
^ Note 1: There were no top honors announced the first episode, just the winner and the bottom two.
Eight bakers, professional and home cooks, competed in a six episode tournament. The winner got $25,000 and a spot in Food Network Magazine. The same judges as last year return: Carla Hall, Zac Young, and Lorraine Pascale.
Winner: Steven Vargas Jr. (His advantage was pre-tempered chocolate going into the main heat.)
Main Heat: The bakers had 2 hours to create a dessert with a shell over it, so when it melts it reveals something creepy inside. The "something creepy '' was determined by choosing blocks of ice that had something hidden inside. Lyndsy got ' bug eggs '. Brenda got ' tombstone '. Andrew got ' worms '. Cicely got ' brains '. Brian got ' skull '. Jamal got ' fingers '. Michelle got ' heart '. Steven got ' eyeball '. Mid-round twist is to add cayenne pepper to their dessert.
Winner: Lyndsy McDonald
Eliminated: Brian Fishman
Winner: Jamal Lake (His advantage was first choice of cake flavor in the second round.)
Main Heat: The bakers must create a pumpkin patch out of mini bundt cakes, in 90 minutes. Jamal 's advantage was getting to choose a cake flavor that no other baker could use and he chose vanilla. Brenda 's flavor was pumpkin. Lyndsy 's flavor was spice cake. Steven 's flavor was maple. Cicely 's flavor was chocolate. Michelle 's flavor was apple. And Andrew 's flavor was ginger. Mid-round twist is to add an edible scarecrow.
Winner: Lyndsy McDonald
Eliminated: Andrew Fuller
Winner: Jamal Lake (His advantage was first choice of dessert and theme in the next round.)
Main Heat: The bakers had 90 minutes to combine a type of dessert and a theme into a large, "monster - sized '' confection. Jamal chose first: ' whoopie pie ' and ' grave digger '. Brenda got ' cupcake ' and ' demon '. Cecily got ' roll cake ' and ' alien '. Michelle got ' cream puff ' and ' freakshow '. Steven got ' pie ' and ' jack - o - lantern '. Lyndsy got ' doughnut ' and ' mad scientist '. Mid-round twist is to add sesame seeds into their desserts.
Winner: Jamal Lake
Eliminated: Cicely Austin
Winner: Jamal Lake (His advantage was 10 minutes of help from Zac Young.)
Main Heat: The bakers had 2 hours to make a wedding cake for different monster pairings. Michelle got the ' skeleton & robot ' couple. Lyndsy got the ' witch & goblin '. Jamal got the ' zombie & ghost '. Brenda got the ' vampite & troll '. Steven got the ' werewolf & mummy '. Mid-round twist is to add a special, flowery gift bag ingredient. Michelle had to add rosemary. Lyndsy had to add orange blossom water. Steven had to add elderflower. Jamal had to add lavender. Brenda had to add rose water.
Winner: Steven Vargas Jr
Eliminated: Brenda Villacorta
Winner: Michelle Honeman (Her advantage was assigning specially themed clowns to everyone in the second round.)
Main Heat: The bakers have 2 hours to bake a creepy clown dessert. Michelle chose "Fiery Freddy '' (the torch juggler). She gave "Clumsy Carl '' (who slips on banana peels) to Lyndsy. "Helium Hank '' (the balloon animal maker) to Steven. And "One Wheeled Willie '' (the unicycle rider) to Jamal. Mid-round twist is to deep fry one of four food items and add it to their dessert. Lyndsy had to fry peanut nougat bars. Michelle had to fry cheese curds. Jamal had to fry sandwich cookies. and Steven had to fry bacon.
Winner: Lyndsy McDonald
Eliminated: Steven Vargas Jr.
Winner: Michelle Honeman (Her advantage was assigning the nightmare themes in the final round.)
Main Heat: The final three contestants had 5 hours to make cakes inspired by common nightmare scenarios. Michelle chose "being visited by the dead ''. She assigned "falling '' to Lyndsy, and "getting chased '' to Jamal. They also had to include a smoke element via dry ice.
Winner of $25,000: Lyndsy McDonald
Eliminated: Jamal Lake and Michelle Honeman
^ Note 1: There were no "best dishes '' announced the second and third episodes, just the winner and the bottom two.
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who has appeared in the most tarantino movies | Quentin Tarantino - wikipedia
Quentin Jerome Tarantino (/ ˌtærənˈtiːnoʊ /; born March 27, 1963) is an American director, writer, and actor. His films are characterized by nonlinear storylines, satirical subject matter, an aestheticization of violence, extended scenes of dialogue, ensemble casts consisting of established and lesser - known performers, references to popular culture, soundtracks primarily containing songs and score pieces from the 1960s to the 1980s, and features of neo-noir film.
His career began in the late 1980s, when he wrote and directed My Best Friend 's Birthday, the screenplay of which formed the basis for True Romance. In the early 1990s, he began his career as an independent filmmaker with the release of Reservoir Dogs in 1992, which was funded by his sold script Natural Born Killers to Oliver Stone and coined the "Greatest Independent Film of All Time '' by Empire. Its popularity was boosted by his second film, Pulp Fiction (1994), a black comedy crime film that was a major success both among critics and audiences. Judged the greatest film from 1983 -- 2008 by Entertainment Weekly, many critics and scholars have named it one of the most significant works of modern cinema. For his next effort, Tarantino paid homage to the blaxploitation films of the 1970s with Jackie Brown (1997), an adaptation of the novel Rum Punch.
Kill Bill, a highly stylized "revenge flick '' in the cinematic traditions of Kung fu films, Japanese martial arts, Spaghetti Westerns and Italian horror, followed six years later, and was released as two films: Volume 1 in 2003 and Volume 2 in 2004. Tarantino directed Death Proof (2007) as part of a double feature with friend Robert Rodriguez, under the collective title Grindhouse. His long - postponed Inglourious Basterds, which tells the fictional alternate history story of two plots to assassinate Nazi Germany 's political leadership, was released in 2009 to positive reviews. After that came 2012 's critically acclaimed Django Unchained, a Western film set in the antebellum era of the Deep South. It became the highest - grossing film of his career so far, making over $425 million at the box office. His eighth film, the mystery Western The Hateful Eight, was released in its roadshow version December 25, 2015, in 70 mm film format, complete with opening "overture '' and halfway - point intermission, after the fashion of big - budget films of the 1960s and early 1970s.
Tarantino 's films have garnered both critical and commercial success. He has received many industry awards, including two Academy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, two BAFTA Awards and the Palme d'Or, and has been nominated for an Emmy and a Grammy. In 2005, he was included on the annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. Filmmaker and historian Peter Bogdanovich has called him "the single most influential director of his generation ''. In December 2015, Tarantino received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for his contributions to the film industry.
Tarantino was born on March 27, 1963, in Knoxville, Tennessee, the only child of Connie McHugh and Tony Tarantino. His father is of Italian descent, and his mother has Cherokee and Irish ancestry. Quentin was named for Quint Asper, Burt Reynolds ' character in the CBS series Gunsmoke. Quentin 's mother met his father during a trip to Los Angeles, where Tony was a law student and would - be entertainer. She married him soon after, to gain independence from her parents, but their marriage was brief. Connie Tarantino left Los Angeles, and moved to Knoxville, where her parents lived. In 1966, Tarantino and his mother moved back to Los Angeles where they lived in the South Bay, in the southern part of the city. Tarantino grew up there.
Tarantino 's mother married musician Curtis Zastoupil soon after arriving in Los Angeles, and the family moved to Torrance, a city in Los Angeles County 's South Bay area. Zastoupil encouraged Tarantino 's love of movies, and accompanied him to numerous film screenings. Tarantino 's mother allowed him to see movies with adult content, such as Carnal Knowledge (1971) and Deliverance (1972). After his mother divorced Zastoupil in 1973, and received a misdiagnosis of Hodgkin 's lymphoma, Tarantino was sent to live with his grandparents in Tennessee. He remained there for about six months to a year, before returning to California.
His mother 's next husband, to whom she was married for eight years, also took Tarantino to films. At 14 years old, Tarantino wrote one of his earliest works, a screenplay called Captain Peachfuzz and the Anchovy Bandit, where a thief steals pizzas from a pizzeria. It was based on Hal Needham 's 1977 film Smokey and the Bandit, starring Burt Reynolds. The summer after his 15th birthday, Tarantino was grounded by his mother for shoplifting Elmore Leonard 's novel The Switch from Kmart. He was allowed to leave only to attend the Torrance Community Theater, where he participated in such plays as Two Plus Two Makes Sex and Romeo and Juliet.
At about 15 or 16, Tarantino dropped out of Narbonne High School in Harbor City, Los Angeles. He got a job ushering at a porn theater in Torrance, called the Pussycat Theatre, after lying about his age. Later, attended acting classes at the James Best Theatre Company, where he met several people who would later appear in his films. While at James Best, Tarantino also met Craig Hamann, with whom he collaborated to produce My Best Friend 's Birthday, an eventually abandoned film project. In the 1980s, Tarantino worked in a number of places. He played one of a group of Elvis impersonators in "Sophia 's Wedding: Part 1 '', an episode in the fourth season of The Golden Girls, which was broadcast on November 19, 1988. Tarantino also worked as a recruiter in the aerospace industry, and for five years, he worked in Video Archives, a video store in Manhattan Beach, California. Former Buffy the Vampire Slayer actor Danny Strong described Tarantino as a "fantastic video store clerk. '' "(Tarantino) was such a movie buff. He had so much knowledge of films that he would try to get people to watch really cool movies. ''
After Tarantino met Lawrence Bender at a Hollywood party, Bender encouraged him to write a screenplay. His first attempted script, which he described as a "straight 70 's exploitation action movie '' was never published and was abandoned soon after. Tarantino co-wrote and directed his first movie My Best Friend 's Birthday in 1987. The final reel of the film was almost completely destroyed in a lab fire that occurred during editing, but its screenplay later formed the basis for True Romance.
Tarantino received his first paid writing assignment in the early 1990s when Robert Kurtzman hired him to write the script for From Dusk Till Dawn.
In January 1992, Tarantino 's neo-noir crime thriller Reservoir Dogs -- which he wrote, directed and acted in as Mr. Brown -- was screened at the Sundance Film Festival. It was an immediate hit, with the film receiving a positive response from critics. The dialogue - driven heist movie set the tone for Tarantino 's later films. Tarantino wrote the script for the film in three - and - a-half weeks and Bender forwarded it to director Monte Hellman. Hellman helped Tarantino to secure funding from Richard Gladstein at Live Entertainment (which later became Artisan, now known as Lionsgate). Harvey Keitel read the script and also contributed to the funding, taking a role as co-producer and also playing a major part in the movie.
Tarantino 's screenplay True Romance was optioned and the film was eventually released in 1993. The second script that Tarantino sold was for the film Natural Born Killers, which was revised by Dave Veloz, Richard Rutowski and director Oliver Stone. Tarantino was given story credit and in an interview stated that he wished the film well, but later disowned the final film. The film engendered enmity, and the publication of a ' tell all ' book titled Killer Instinct by Jane Hamsher -- who with Don Murphy had an original option on the screenplay and produced the film -- led to Tarantino physically assaulting Murphy in the AGO restaurant in West Hollywood, California in October 1997. Murphy subsequently filed a $5 m lawsuit against Tarantino, which was eventually settled out of court. Tarantino was also an uncredited screenwriter on both Crimson Tide (1995) and The Rock (1996).
Following the success of Reservoir Dogs, Tarantino was approached by Hollywood and offered numerous projects, including Speed and Men in Black, but he instead retreated to Amsterdam to work on his script for Pulp Fiction.
Tarantino wrote, directed, and acted in the black comedy crime film Pulp Fiction in 1994, maintaining the aestheticization of violence, for which he is known, as well as his non-linear storylines. Tarantino received an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, which he shared with Roger Avary, who contributed to the story. He also received a nomination in the Best Director category. The film received another five nominations, including for Best Picture. Tarantino also won the Palme d'Or for the film at the Cannes Film Festival. The film has grossed over $200 million and was met with critical acclaim.
After Pulp Fiction was completed, Tarantino directed the fourth segment of the anthology film Four Rooms, "The Man from Hollywood '', a tribute to the Alfred Hitchcock Presents episode "Man From the South '', which starred Steve McQueen in an adaptation of a Roald Dahl story. Four Rooms was a collaborative effort with filmmakers Allison Anders, Alexandre Rockwell and Robert Rodriguez. The film was very poorly received by critics. Additionally, he starred in the action comedy Destiny Turns on the Radio as the titular character and played the "Pick - up Guy '' in Robert Rodriguez 's action film Desperado in 1995.
Tarantino appeared in and wrote the script for Rodriguez 's From Dusk till Dawn (1996), which saw average reviews from the critics. It nevertheless quickly reached cult status, spawning a continuing saga of two sequels, for which Tarantino and Rodriguez only served as executive producers, and a 2014 television series, From Dusk till Dawn: The Series, which he received a "based on '' credit for. Also in 1996, he starred in Steven Spielberg 's Director 's Chair, a simulation video game that uses pre-generated film clips.
Tarantino 's third feature film was Jackie Brown (1997), an adaptation of Elmore Leonard 's novel Rum Punch. A homage to blaxploitation films, it starred Pam Grier, who starred in many of the films of that genre in the 1970s. It received positive reviews and was called a "comeback '' for Grier and costar Robert Forster. Leonard considered Jackie Brown to be his favorite of the 26 different screen adaptations of his novels and short stories.
Tarantino had next planned to make Inglourious Basterds, as it was provisionally titled, but postponed this to write and direct Kill Bill, a highly stylized "revenge flick '' in the cinematic traditions of Wuxia (Chinese martial arts), Jidaigeki (Japanese period cinema), spaghetti Westerns and Italian horror. It was originally set for a single theatrical release, but its 4 - hour plus running time prompted Tarantino to divide it into two movies. Volume 1 was released in late 2003 and Volume 2 was released in 2004. It was based on a character called The Bride and a plot that he and Kill Bill 's lead actress Uma Thurman had developed during the making of Pulp Fiction.
From 2002 -- 2004, Tarantino portrayed villain McKenas Cole in the ABC television series Alias.
In 2004, Tarantino attended the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, where he served as President of the Jury. Although Kill Bill was not in competition, Vol. 2 had an evening screening, and was also shown on the morning of the final day in its original 3 - hour plus version, with Tarantino himself attending the full screening. Tarantino went on to be credited as "Special Guest Director '' in Robert Rodriguez 's 2005 neo-noir film Sin City, for his work directing the car sequence featuring Clive Owen and Benicio del Toro.
In May 2005, Tarantino co-wrote and directed "Grave Danger '', the 5th season finale of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. For this episode, Tarantino was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series on the 57th Primetime Emmy Awards.
Tarantino 's next film project was Grindhouse, which he co-directed with Rodriguez. Released in theaters on April 6, 2007, Tarantino 's contribution to the Grindhouse project was titled Death Proof. It began as a take on 1970s slasher films, but evolved dramatically as the project unfolded. Ticket sales were low despite mostly positive reviews. The same year, he appeared in the Japanese Western film Sukiyaki Western Django as Piringo and had a vocal cameo as a newsreader in George A. Romero 's Diary of the Dead.
Among Tarantino 's producing credits are the horror film Hostel, which included numerous references to his own Pulp Fiction; the adaptation of Elmore Leonard 's Killshot, for which Tarantino was credited as an executive producer, although he was no longer associated with the film after its 2009 release; and Hell Ride, written and directed by Larry Bishop and Jonny Lane who both appeared in Kill Bill: Volume 2.
Tarantino 's film Inglourious Basterds, released in 2009, is the story of a group of Jewish - American guerrilla soldiers in Nazi - occupied France during World War II. Filming began in October 2008. The film opened on August 21, 2009 to very positive reviews and reached the No. 1 spot at the box office worldwide. It went on to become Tarantino 's highest - grossing film until it was surpassed by Django Unchained three years later.
In 2011, production began on Django Unchained, a film about the revenge of a former slave in the U.S. South in 1858. The film stemmed from Tarantino 's desire to produce a spaghetti western set in America 's Deep South. Tarantino called the proposed style "a southern '', stating that he wanted "to do movies that deal with America 's horrible past with slavery and stuff but do them like spaghetti westerns, not like big issue movies. I want to do them like they 're genre films, but they deal with everything that America has never dealt with because it 's ashamed of it, and other countries do n't really deal with because they do n't feel they have the right to ''. The film was released on December 25, 2012. During an interview with Krishnan Guru - Murthy about the film on Channel 4 News, Tarantino reacted angrily when, in light of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, he was questioned about an alleged link between movie violence and real - life violence, and informed Guru - Murthy he was "shutting (his) butt down ''. Tarantino further infuriated the veteran journalist with his furious rant, saying: "I refuse your question. I 'm not your slave and you 're not my master. You ca n't make me dance to your tune. I 'm not a monkey. ''
In November 2013, Tarantino said he was working on a new film and that it would be another Western. He stated that it would not be a sequel to Django. On January 12, 2014, it was revealed that the film would be titled The Hateful Eight. Production of the western would most likely have begun in the summer of 2014, but after the script for the film leaked in January 2014, Tarantino considered dropping the movie and publishing it as a novel instead. He stated that he had given the script to a few trusted colleagues, including Bruce Dern, Tim Roth and Michael Madsen.
On April 19, 2014, Tarantino directed a live reading of the leaked script at the United Artists Theater in the Ace Hotel, Los Angeles. The event was organized by the Film Independent at LACMA, as part of the Live Read series. Tarantino explained that they would read the first draft of the script, and added that he was writing two new drafts with a different ending. The actors who joined Tarantino included Samuel L. Jackson, Kurt Russell, Amber Tamblyn, James Parks, Walton Goggins, and the first three actors to be given the script before the leakage, Bruce Dern, Tim Roth and Michael Madsen. In October 2014, Jennifer Jason Leigh was in talks to play the female lead in the film. Leigh, Channing Tatum, and Demián Bichir joined the cast in November.
The Hateful Eight was released on December 25, 2015, as a roadshow presentation in 70mm film format theaters, before being released in digital theaters on December 30, 2015. Tarantino narrated several scenes in the film. He edited two versions of the film, one for the roadshow version and the other for general release. The roadshow version runs for three hours and two minutes, and includes an overture and intermission, while the general release is six minutes shorter and contains alternate takes of some scenes. Tarantino has stated that the general release cut was created as he felt that some of the footage he shot for 70mm would not play well on smaller screens. The film has received mostly positive reviews from critics, with a score of 75 % on Rotten Tomatoes.
On July 11, 2017, it was reported that Tarantino 's next project will be a film about the Manson Family murders. Tarantino has written a screenplay for the film and will direct it. In February 2018, it was confirmed that Leonardo DiCaprio will play Rick Dalton, former star of a western TV series, and Brad Pitt will play Dalton 's longtime stunt double Cliff Booth. Margot Robbie has confirmed she will portray actress Sharon Tate, Rick 's next - door neighbor, while Samuel L. Jackson, Jennifer Lawrence, Tom Cruise, Tim Roth, Kurt Russell, Michael Madsen and Al Pacino all have been considered for unspecified roles in the film. Tarantino is also reportedly in talks with Burt Reynolds to play George Spahn, a blind rancher who allowed Manson and his followers to live on his ranch. Additionally, Tarantino has asked Ennio Morricone to compose music for the film. This will be Tarantino 's first film to be based on true events. Filming is expected to take place in the summer of 2018. In wake of the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse allegations, Tarantino severed ties to The Weinstein Company permanently and sought a new distributor after working with Weinstein for his entire career. Sony Pictures will be distributing the film and it will be released on August 9, 2019, the 50th anniversary of the Tate - LaBianca murders. On February 28, 2018, it was confirmed that Tarantino 's 1969 Project is entitled Once Upon a Time in Hollywood.
In December 2017, Tarantino devised an idea for a Star Trek film, which J.J. Abrams -- director and producer of two previous Star Trek reboot films -- quickly assembled a writer 's room for. Screenwriter Mark L. Smith was hired to write the film shortly after, with Tarantino intending to direct and produce with Abrams.
In recent years, Tarantino has used his Hollywood power to give smaller and foreign films more attention than they might have received otherwise. These films are usually labeled "Presented by Quentin Tarantino '' or "Quentin Tarantino Presents ''. The first of these productions was in 2001 with the Hong Kong martial arts film Iron Monkey, which made over $14 million in the United States, seven times its budget. In 2004, he brought the Chinese martial arts film Hero to U.S. shores. It ended up having a No. 1 opening at the box office and making $53.5 million. In 2006, another "Quentin Tarantino presents '' production, Hostel, opened at No. 1 at the box office with a $20.1 million opening weekend, good for 8th all time in January. He presented 2006 's The Protector, and is a producer of the 2007 film Hostel: Part II. In 2008, he produced the Larry Bishop - helmed Hell Ride, a revenge biker film.
In addition, in 1995 Tarantino formed Rolling Thunder Pictures with Miramax to release or re-release several independent and foreign features. By 1997, Miramax had shut down the company due to "lack of interest '' in the pictures released. The following films were released by Rolling Thunder Pictures: Chungking Express (1994, dir. Wong Kar - wai), Switchblade Sisters (1975, dir. Jack Hill), Sonatine (1993, dir. Takeshi Kitano), Hard Core Logo (1996, dir. Bruce McDonald), The Mighty Peking Man (1977, dir. Ho Meng - Hua), Detroit 9000 (1973, dir. Arthur Marks), The Beyond (1981, dir. Lucio Fulci) and Curdled (1996, dir. Reb Braddock).
Before Inglourious Basterds, Tarantino had considered making The Vega Brothers. The film would have starred Michael Madsen and John Travolta reprising their roles of Vic (Mr. Blonde) from Reservoir Dogs and Vincent from Pulp Fiction. In 2007, because of the age of the actors and the onscreen deaths of both characters, he claimed that the film -- which he intended to call Double V Vega -- is "kind of unlikely now ''.
In 2009, in an interview for Italian television, after being asked about the success of the two Kill Bill films, Tarantino said, "You have n't asked me about the third one '', and implied that he would be making a third Kill Bill film with the words, "The Bride will fight again! '' Later that year, at the Morelia International Film Festival, Tarantino announced that he would like to film Kill Bill: Volume 3. He explained that he wanted ten years to pass between The Bride 's last conflict, in order to give her and her daughter a period of peace.
In a 2012 interview for the website We Got This Covered, Tarantino said that a third Kill Bill film would "probably not '' happen. He also said that he would not be directing a new James Bond film, saying that he was only interested in directing Casino Royale at one point. In a late 2012 interview with the online magazine The Root, Tarantino clarified his remarks and described his next film as being the final entry in a "Django - Inglourious Basterds '' trilogy called Killer Crow. The film will depict a group of World War II - era black troops who have "been fucked over by the American military and kind of go apeshit. They basically -- the way Lt. Aldo Raine (Brad Pitt) and the Basterds are having an ' Apache resistance ' -- (the) black troops go on an Apache warpath and kill a bunch of white soldiers and white officers on a military base and are just making a warpath to Switzerland. ''
A long - running rumor in the industry is that Tarantino is interested in filming a new version of Bret Easton Ellis ′ 1985 novel, Less Than Zero. His friend Roger Avary adapted The Rules of Attraction, another novel by Ellis, to film in 2002, and since both he and Tarantino like the works by Ellis, Tarantino has been eyeing the possibility of adapting Less Than Zero. Ellis confirmed in a 2010 interview that Tarantino had been "trying to get Fox to let him remake it ''. In 2012, when asked whether Less Than Zero would be remade, Ellis once again confirmed that Tarantino "has shown interest '' in adapting the story. At the 2014 Comic - Con, Tarantino revealed he is contemplating a possible science - fiction film. In November 2014, Tarantino said he would retire from films after directing his tenth film.
In November 2017, Tarantino and J.J. Abrams pitched an idea for a Star Trek film with Abrams assembling a writers room. If both approve of the script Tarantino will direct and Abrams will produce the film. Mark L. Smith was hired to write the screenplay the same month.
Tarantino 's use of music in his films was recognized at the 16th Critics ' Choice Awards with the inaugural BFCA Critics ' Choice Award for Best Music and Film.
In the 2012 Sight & Sound directors ' poll, Tarantino listed his top 12 films: Apocalypse Now, The Bad News Bears, Carrie, Dazed and Confused, The Great Escape, His Girl Friday, Jaws, Pretty Maids All in a Row, Rolling Thunder, Sorcerer, Taxi Driver and The Good, the Bad and the Ugly, with the last being his favorite. In 2009, he named Kinji Fukasaku 's violent action film Battle Royale as his favorite film released since he became a director in 1992. He is also a fan of the 1981 film Blow Out directed by Brian De Palma, so much so that he used the main star of the film, John Travolta, in Pulp Fiction. Tarantino praised Mel Gibson 's 2006 film Apocalypto, saying, "I think it 's a masterpiece. It was perhaps the best film of that year. '' Tarantino has also cited the Australian suspense film Roadgames (1981) as another favourite film. Tarantino is also a noted fan of Elaine May 's 1987 film Ishtar, despite its reputation as being a notorious box office flop and one of the worst films ever made.
In August 2007, while teaching in a four - hour film course during the 9th Cinemanila International Film Festival in Manila, Tarantino cited Filipino directors Cirio Santiago, Eddie Romero and Gerardo de León as personal icons from the 1970s. He referred to De Leon 's "soul - shattering, life - extinguishing '' movies on vampires and female bondage, citing in particular Women in Cages; "It is just harsh, harsh, harsh '', he said, and described the final shot as one of "devastating despair ''. Upon his arrival in the Philippines, Tarantino was quoted in the local newspaper as saying, "I 'm a big fan of RP (Republic of the Philippines) cinema. ''
Tarantino often uses graphic violence that has proven seductive to audiences, and he has been harshly criticized for his use of gore and blood in an entrancing yet simultaneously repulsive way. His films have been staunchly criticized and scorned for their use of violence, blood and action as a "color '' within cinema, and rebuked for allegedly using human suffering as a punchline. His film Reservoir Dogs was even initially denied United Kingdom certification because of his use of torture as entertainment.
Actor Steve Buscemi has described Tarantino 's novel style of filmmaking as "bursting with energy '' and "focused '', a style that has earned him many accolades worldwide. According to Tarantino, a hallmark of all his movies is that there is a different sense of humor in each one, which gets the audience to laugh at things that are not funny. However, he insists that his films are dramas, not comedies.
Tarantino has stated that the celebrated animation - action sequence in Kill Bill (2003) was inspired by the use of 2D animated sequences in actor Kamal Haasan 's Tamil film Aalavandhan. He often seeks to harness, manipulate and ultimately imitate the aesthetic elements and conventions typically used in the cartoon medium. More specifically, he often attempts to meld comic strip formulas and aesthetics within a live action film sequence, in some cases by the literal use of cartoon or anime images. Tarantino 's cinematic ambition to marry artistic expression via live action and cartoonism is yet another example of his ability to morph genres and conventions to produce a new and authentic style of his own.
Tarantino often manipulates the use of commodities in order to propel plot development or to present an intriguing juxtaposition that ultimately enhances his notorious combination of humor and violence, equating a branded genre with branded consumption. He often pairs bizarre props with an equally bizarre scene, in which the prop itself develops into something of higher substance. Likewise, he often favors particular brand names of his own creation to make promotional appearances. The typical brands he uses within his films are "Acuña Boys Tex - Mex Food '', "Big Kahuna Burger '', "G.O. Juice '', "Jack Rabbit Slim 's '', "K - Billy '', "Red Apple cigarettes '', "Tenku Brand Beer '' and "Teriyaki Donut ''.
On the biopic genre, Tarantino has said that he has "no respect '' for biopics, saying that they "are just big excuses for actors to win Oscars... Even the most interesting person -- if you are telling their life from beginning to end, it 's going to be a fucking boring movie. '' However, in an interview with Charlie Rose, he said:
There is one story that I could be interested in, but it would probably be one of the last movies I (ever make)... My favorite hero in American history is John Brown. He 's my favorite American who ever lived. He basically single - handedly started the road to end slavery and... he killed people to do it. He decided, ' If we start spilling white blood, then they 're going to start getting the idea. '
Tarantino has stated in many interviews that his writing process is like writing a novel before formatting it into a script, saying that this creates the blueprint of the film and makes the film feel like literature. About his writing process he told website The Talks:
(My) head is a sponge. I listen to what everyone says, I watch little idiosyncratic behavior, people tell me a joke and I remember it. People tell me an interesting story in their life and I remember it... when I go and write my new characters, my pen is like an antenna, it gets that information, and all of a sudden these characters come out more or less fully formed. I do n't write their dialogue, I get them talking to each other.
In 2013, a survey of 17 academics was carried out to discover which filmmakers had been referenced the most in essays and dissertations on film that had been marked in the previous five years. It revealed that Tarantino was the most - studied director in the UK, ahead of Christopher Nolan, Alfred Hitchcock, Martin Scorsese and Steven Spielberg.
Tarantino does not believe that violence in movies inspires acts of violence in real life. In an interview after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in 2012, he expressed "annoyance '' at the suggestion that there is a link between the two, saying, "I think it 's disrespectful to (the) memory of those who died to talk about movies... Obviously the issue is gun control and mental health. ''
Spike Lee questioned Tarantino 's use of racial epithets in his films, particularly the word "nigger ''. In a Variety interview discussing Jackie Brown, Lee said, "I 'm not against the word... And some people speak that way. But Quentin is infatuated with that word. What does he want to be made -- an honorary black man? '' Tarantino responded on Charlie Rose by stating:
As a writer, I demand the right to write any character in the world that I want to write. I demand the right to be them, I demand the right to think them and I demand the right to tell the truth as I see they are, all right? And to say that I ca n't do that because I 'm white, but the Hughes brothers can do that because they 're black, that is racist. That is the heart of racism, all right. And I do not accept that... That is how a segment of the black community that lives in Compton, lives in Inglewood, where Jackie Brown takes place, that lives in Carson, that is how they talk. I 'm telling the truth. It would not be questioned if I was black, and I resent the question because I 'm white. I have the right to tell the truth. I do not have the right to lie.
In addition, Tarantino retaliated on The Howard Stern Show by stating that Lee would have to "stand on a chair to kiss my ass ''. Samuel L. Jackson, who has appeared in both directors ' films, defended Tarantino 's use of the word. At the Berlin Film Festival, where Jackie Brown was being screened, Jackson responded to Lee 's criticism by saying:
I do n't think the word is offensive in the context of this film... Black artists think they are the only ones allowed to use the word. Well, that 's bull. Jackie Brown is a wonderful homage to black exploitation films. This is a good film, and Spike has n't made one of those in a few years.
Tarantino has defended his use of the word, arguing that black audiences have an appreciation of his blaxploitation - influenced films that eludes some of his critics, and indeed, that Jackie Brown was primarily made for "black audiences ''.
Django Unchained was the subject of controversy because of its use of racial epithets and depiction of slavery. Reviewers have defended the use of the language by pointing out the historic context of race and slavery in America. Spike Lee, in an interview with Vibe magazine, said that he would not see the film, explaining, "All I 'm going to say is that it 's disrespectful to my ancestors. That 's just me... I 'm not speaking on behalf of anybody else. '' Lee later tweeted, "American Slavery Was Not A Sergio Leone Spaghetti Western. It Was A Holocaust. My Ancestors Are Slaves. Stolen From Africa. I Will Honor Them. '' Writing in The Los Angeles Times, journalist Erin Aubry Kaplan noted the difference between Tarantino 's Jackie Brown and Django Unchained: "It is an institution whose horrors need no exaggerating, yet Django does exactly that, either to enlighten or entertain. A white director slinging around the n - word in a homage to ' 70s blaxploitation à la Jackie Brown is one thing, but the same director turning the savageness of slavery into pulp fiction is quite another ''.
At the 73rd Golden Globe Awards in 2016, Tarantino received criticism after using the term "ghetto '' while accepting the Golden Globe for best original score on behalf of composer Ennio Morricone, saying:
Wow, this is really cool. Do you realize that Ennio Morricone, who, as far as I am concerned, is my favorite composer -- and when I say "favorite composer, '' I do n't mean movie composer, that ghetto. I 'm talking about Mozart. I 'm talking about Beethoven. I 'm talking about Schubert.
His use of the word seemed to be taken as a racial slight by award presenter Jamie Foxx, who, after Tarantino left the stage, walked up to the microphone and sternly said, "ghetto? ''
In January 2014, Gawker leaked a copy of the script for Tarantino 's then - upcoming film The Hateful Eight.
Tarantino eventually filed a copyright lawsuit against Gawker, and stated in the lawsuit that "Gawker Media has made a business of predatory journalism, violating people 's rights to make a buck ''. The lawsuit also demanded compensation in the amount of $2,000,000. Tarantino later dropped the lawsuit. Tarantino stated in his motion: "This dismissal is made without prejudice, whereby plaintiff may later advance an action and refile a complaint after further investigations to ascertain and plead the identities of additional infringers ''. Tarantino has yet to refile a claim but retains the legal right to do so in the future.
At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con International, Tarantino confirmed that he would make the film, and stated that he was working on a third draft, set for a potential release in 2015.
In October 2015, Tarantino attended a Black Lives Matter rally and publicly commented on police brutality in the United States, saying, "When I see murders, I do not stand by... I have to call a murder a murder, and I have to call the murderers the murderers. '' Tarantino 's comments received national media attention, and several police groups in the United States pledged to boycott The Hateful Eight and his other films. Police groups also encouraged members to not work at the premiere or provide security for any events surrounding the film. In an interview with Los Angeles Times, Tarantino said he is not a "cop hater '' and will not be intimidated by the calls for a boycott.
On December 16, 2015, Tarantino appeared on The Howard Stern Show to promote The Hateful Eight. During his interview, Tarantino stated that Disney was preventing his film from being screened at the Los Angeles Cinerama Dome because they wanted to reserve the space for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, for which Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures holds distribution rights.
On October 18, 2017, Tarantino gave an interview discussing sexual harassment and assault allegations against producer Harvey Weinstein. Tarantino admitted to knowing about accusations against Weinstein since the mid-1990s, when his then - girlfriend Mira Sorvino told him about her experience with Weinstein. Tarantino confronted Weinstein at the time and received an apology. Tarantino said: "What I did was marginalize the incidents. '' He said he was ashamed he did n't take a stronger stand, saying "I knew enough to do more than I did. ''
On February 3, 2018, in an interview with The New York Times, Pulp Fiction and Kill Bill actress Uma Thurman revealed that Tarantino had ignored her account of a sexual assault by Harvey Weinstein at the Savoy Hotel. She also described how she had been in a serious automobile accident on the set of Kill Bill because Tarantino had insisted she perform her own driving stunts. As a result of the crash, Thurman sustained permanent injuries to her neck and knees. Tarantino defended himself saying that he did not force her to do the stunt herself, having checked the car by driving down the road of the shoot then assuring her it was safe, upon which she agreed to do so. Thurman accepted Tarantino 's apology partly because he retrieved the footage of the car crash from the archives and gave it to her.
In February 2018, audio resurfaced of a 2003 interview on The Howard Stern Show during which Tarantino defended Roman Polanski over his 1977 sexual abuse case. Tarantino referred to the then 13 - year - old victim as a "party girl '' and insisted that she "wanted to have it ''. Tarantino later apologized to Samantha Geimer (Polanski 's rape victim) stating, "I want to publicly apologize to Samantha Geimer for my cavalier remarks on ' The Howard Stern Show ' speculating about her and the crime that was committed against her. Fifteen years later, I realize how wrong I was. Ms. Geimer WAS raped by Roman Polanski. When Howard brought up Polanski, I incorrectly played devil 's advocate in the debate for the sake of being provocative. I did n't take Ms. Geimer 's feelings into consideration and for that I am truly sorry. So, Ms. Geimer, I was ignorant, and insensitive, and above all, incorrect. I am sorry Samantha. ''
Tarantino has said that he plans to retire from filmmaking when he is 60, in order to focus on writing novels and film literature. He is skeptical of the film industry going digital, saying, "If it actually gets to the place where you ca n't show 35 mm film in theatres anymore and everything is digital projection, I wo n't even make it to 60. '' He has also stated that he has a plan, although "not etched in stone '', to retire after making his tenth movie: "If I get to the 10th, do a good job and do n't screw it up, well that sounds like a good way to end the old career. ''
On February 18, 2010, it was announced that Tarantino had bought the New Beverly Cinema. Tarantino has allowed the previous owners to continue operating the theater, but he will be making programming suggestions from time to time. He was quoted as saying: "As long as I 'm alive, and as long as I 'm rich, the New Beverly will be there, showing films shot on 35mm. ''
On June 30, 2017, Tarantino got engaged to Israeli singer Daniella Pick, daughter of musician Svika Pick. They had met when Tarantino was in Israel to promote Inglourious Basterds in 2009.
In an interview with Entertainment Weekly at the time of Kill Bill 's release, Tarantino was asked if he had religious beliefs and his response was, "I 'm not going to tell you how I believe, but I do believe in God. ''
Tarantino has built up an informal "repertory company '' of actors who have appeared in multiple roles in films that he has directed. Most notable of these is Samuel L. Jackson, who has appeared in six films directed by Tarantino, and a seventh that was written by him, True Romance. Other frequent collaborators include Uma Thurman, whom Tarantino has described as his "muse '', James Parks, Tim Roth and Zoë Bell.
Editor Sally Menke, who worked on all Tarantino films until her death in 2010, was described by Tarantino in 2007 as "hands down my number one collaborator ''. Editing duties since her death have been taken over by Fred Raskin.
Critical, public and commercial reception to films Tarantino has directed as of October 15, 2017.
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what species of tree is the tree of life | Tree of life (Biology) - wikipedia
The tree of life or universal tree of life is a metaphor, model and research tool used to explore the evolution of life and describe the relationships between organisms, both living and extinct, as described in a famous passage in Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (1859).
Tree diagrams originated in the medieval era to represent genealogical relationships.
Phylogenetic tree diagrams in the evolutionary sense date back to at least the early 19th century.
The term phylogeny for the evolutionary relationships of species through time was coined by Ernst Haeckel, who went further than Darwin in proposing phylogenic histories of life. In contemporary usage, tree of life refers to the compilation of comprehensive phylogenetic databases rooted at the last universal common ancestor of life on Earth. The Open Tree of Life, first published 2015, is a project to compile such a database for free public access.
Although the mutability of species may have appeared in paintings and trees have been used as a metaphor for other purposes (Porphyrian tree) earlier than 1800, the combination of the concept of branching evolution and the tree image did not appear before 1800. The earliest tree of life was published by the French botanist Augustin Augier in 1801. It shows the relationships between members of the plant kingdom.
Jean - Baptiste Lamarck (1744 -- 1829) produced the first branching tree of animals in his Philosophie Zoologique (1809). It was an upside - down tree starting with worms and ending with mammals. However, Lamarck did not believe in common descent of all life. Instead, he believed that life consists of separate parallel lines advancing from simple to complex.
The American geologist Edward Hitchcock (1793 -- 1864) published in 1840 the first tree of life based on paleontology in his Elementary Geology. On the vertical axis are paleontological periods. Hitchcock made a separate tree for plants (left) and animals (right). The plant and the animal tree are not connected at the bottom of the chart. Furthermore, each tree starts with multiple origins. Hitchcock 's tree was more realistic than Darwin 's 1859 theoretical tree (see below) because Hitchcock used real names in his trees. It is also true that Hitchcock 's trees were branching trees. However, they were not evolutionary trees, because Hitchcock believed that a deity was the agent of change. That was an important difference with Darwin.
The first edition of Robert Chambers ' Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which was published anonymously in 1844 in England, contained a tree - like diagram (p. 212) in the chapter "Hypothesis of the development of the vegetable and animal kingdoms ''. It shows a model of embryological development where fish (F), reptiles (R), and birds (B) represent branches from a path leading to mammals (M). In the text this branching tree idea is tentatively applied to the history of life on earth: "there may be branching '' (p. 191), but the branching diagram is not displayed again specifically for this purpose. However, the image of a branching tree could easily have inspired others to use it explicitly as a representation of the history of life on earth.
In 1858, a year before Darwin 's Origin, the paleontologist Heinrich Georg Bronn (1800 -- 1862) published a hypothetical tree labeled with letters. Although not a creationist, Bronn did not propose a mechanism of change.
Charles Darwin (1809 -- 1882) used the concept of a tree of life in the context of his theory of evolution. In On the Origin of Species (1859) Chapter IV he presented an abstract diagram of a theoretical tree of life for species of an unnamed large genus (see figure). On the horizontal base line hypothetical species within this genus are labelled A -- L and are spaced irregularly to indicate how distinct they are from each other, and are above broken lines at various angles suggesting that they have diverged from one or more common ancestors. On the vertical axis divisions labelled I -- XIV each represent a thousand generations. From A, diverging lines show branching descent producing new varieties, some of which become extinct, so that after ten thousand generations descendants of A have become distinct new varieties or even sub-species a, f, and m. Similarly, the descendants of I have diversified to become the new varieties w and z. The process is extrapolated for a further four thousand generations so that the descendants of A and I become fourteen new species labelled a to z. While F has continued for fourteen thousand generations relatively unchanged, species B, C, D, E, G, H, K and L have gone extinct. In Darwin 's own words: "Thus the small differences distinguishing varieties of the same species, will steadily tend to increase till they come to equal the greater differences between species of the same genus, or even of distinct genera. ''. This is a branching pattern with no names given to species, unlike the more linear tree Ernst Haeckel made years later (figure below) which includes the names of species and shows a more linear development from "lower '' to "higher '' species. In his summary to the section, Darwin put his concept in terms of the metaphor of the tree of life:
The affinities of all the beings of the same class have sometimes been represented by a great tree. I believe this simile largely speaks the truth. The green and budding twigs may represent existing species; and those produced during each former year may represent the long succession of extinct species. At each period of growth all the growing twigs have tried to branch out on all sides, and to overtop and kill the surrounding twigs and branches, in the same manner as species and groups of species have tried to overmaster other species in the great battle for life. The limbs divided into great branches, and these into lesser and lesser branches, were themselves once, when the tree was small, budding twigs; and this connexion of the former and present buds by ramifying branches may well represent the classification of all extinct and living species in groups subordinate to groups. Of the many twigs which flourished when the tree was a mere bush, only two or three, now grown into great branches, yet survive and bear all the other branches; so with the species which lived during long - past geological periods, very few now have living and modified descendants. From the first growth of the tree, many a limb and branch has decayed and dropped off; and these lost branches of various sizes may represent those whole orders, families, and genera which have now no living representatives, and which are known to us only from having been found in a fossil state. As we here and there see a thin straggling branch springing from a fork low down in a tree, and which by some chance has been favoured and is still alive on its summit, so we occasionally see an animal like the Ornithorhynchus or Lepidosiren, which in some small degree connects by its affinities two large branches of life, and which has apparently been saved from fatal competition by having inhabited a protected station. As buds give rise by growth to fresh buds, and these, if vigorous, branch out and overtop on all sides many a feebler branch, so by generation I believe it has been with the great Tree of Life, which fills with its dead and broken branches the crust of the earth, and covers the surface with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications.
The meaning and importance of Darwin 's use of the tree of life metaphor have been extensively discussed. Stephen Jay Gould, for example, says that Darwin placed the famous passage quoted above "at a crucial spot in his text '', where it marked the conclusion of his argument for natural selection, illustrating both the interconnectedness by descent of organisms as well as their success and failure in the history of life. David Penny has written that Darwin did not use the tree of life to describe the relationship between groups of organisms, but to suggest that, as with branches in a living tree, lineages of species competed with and supplanted one another. Petter Hellström has demonstrated that Darwin consciously chose to name his tree after the biblical tree of life, as described in Genesis, thus relating his theory to Christian mythology, and suggesting that he did so to mobilise the imagination of his readers.
Haeckel 's Stammbaum der Primaten (1860s)
Haeckel 's tree of life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)
The tree of life as seen by Haeckel in The Evolution of Man (1879)
Ernst Haeckel (1834 -- 1919) constructed several trees of life. His first sketch (in the 1860s) of his famous tree of life shows "Pithecanthropus alalus '' as the ancestor of Homo sapiens. His 1866 tree of life from Generelle Morphologie der Organismen shows three kingdoms: Plantae, Protista and Animalia. His 1879 ' Pedigree of Man ' was published in The Evolution of Man.
The model of a tree is still considered valid for eukaryotic life forms. As of 2010, research into the earliest branches of the eukaryote tree has suggested a tree with either four or two supergroups. There does not yet appear to be a consensus; in a review article, Roger and Simpson conclude that "with the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution. ''
In 2015, the first draft of the Open Tree of Life was published, in which information from nearly 500 previously published trees was combined into a single online database, free to browse and download.
In 2016, a new tree of life, summarizing the evolution of all known life forms, was published, illustrating the latest genetic findings that the branches were mainly composed of bacteria. The new study incorporated over a thousand newly discovered bacteria and archaea.
The prokaryotes (the two domains of bacteria and archaea) and certain animals such as bdelloid rotifers and the tardigrade have the ability to transfer genetic information between unrelated organisms through horizontal gene transfer. Recombination, gene loss, duplication, and gene creation are a few of the processes by which genes can be transferred within and between bacterial and archaeal species, causing variation that is not due to vertical transfer. There is emerging evidence of horizontal gene transfer within the prokaryotes at the single and multicell level, so the tree of life does not explain the full complexity of the situation in the prokaryotes.
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why is gossip girl season 6 only 10 episodes | Gossip Girl (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth and final season of the American teen drama television series Gossip Girl premiered on The CW on October 8 and concluded on December 17, 2012, consisting of 10 episodes. Based on the novel series of the same name by Cecily von Ziegesar, the series was developed for television by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage. The CW officially renewed the series for a sixth season on May 11, 2012. The series finale was preceded by a special retrospective, including interviews with the cast and crew.
The summer is over and Serena has gone missing. After a brief encounter abroad, Blair and Chuck make a promise to each other about their relationship, which leaves them once again apart. Dan, with some help from an unlikely ally, Georgina, is writing a scathing tell - all book that can only mean trouble. As the sole head of The Spectator, Nate is making his own decisions and is ready to go up against Gossip Girl. As word spreads that Serena is missing, the gang bands together to find her and are shocked by what they find.
Trying to prove herself in adult society, Serena hosts the Central Park Conservancy 's big gala, of which she is now the newest board member, and she and Nate both learn something shocking about their significant others. Blair prepares to debut her new fashion line, but a rival from her past holds the key to her future. With the help of Georgina, Dan lands some meetings with publishers, but he must decide if he is willing to sacrifice his integrity in order to get his work published. Meanwhile, Chuck tries to persuade Amira to help him look into his father 's past, even if it means jeopardizing Lily and Bart 's relationship.
Feeling the pressure to make her first Waldorf Designs fashion show a success, Blair must rely on help from an unlikely source, but some unexpected scheming causes a scandal on the runway. Serena discovers that befriending Steven 's daughter Sage is trickier than she thought, especially when she is forced to put her issues with Blair aside to make Sage happy. Nate publishes Dan 's first serialized article causing a stir and producing a serious threat. Meanwhile, Chuck begins to look into the clue that Amira left behind, which may help uncover what Bart is hiding.
Chuck 's continued investigation into his father 's dealings leads him to an unlikely event with Manhattan 's elite, where he hopes to find the one person who can tell him the truth about Bart. Serena and Steven decide to reveal their romantic histories so they are not surprised about anything, but neither was prepared for what they uncovered. With The Spectator in jeopardy after Dan decided to publish elsewhere, Nate must make a difficult decision to keep it in business. Meanwhile, Georgina pushes Dan to choose a worthy person to date to boost his image, but he finds himself drawn in a different direction. Elsewhere, Ivy tries to persuade Rufus to go through and unpack a group of boxes with all of his stuff from the apartment that Lily had sent over to the loft after he moved out.
After Eleanor gives Blair an ultimatum, Blair is even more determined to remedy Waldorf Designs ' problems by making a splash with a dress at the upcoming cotillion, but a shocking revelation at the ball affects everyone. Serena becomes worried about Steven 's attitude toward her, but after some investigating she discovers the surprising reason why. Sage learns that her father plans to propose marriage to Serena and plots an all - out attack to destroy the engagement once and for all despite the risk of endangering her relationship with Nate. Chuck finds an unlikely ally in Ivy as he tries to drive a wedge between Bart and Lily 's relationship to help expose his father 's secret. Meanwhile, Dan publishes another article, but the effect is just the opposite of what he was hoping for as Georgina continues to pressure him to publish more. Elsewhere, Rufus learns about Ivy 's inheritance as she continues to help him rebuild his life.
Blair gets ready for her mother 's imminent arrival, but is unprepared for the set of demands her mother puts upon her. Serena volunteers to help Dan find a new place to live, but their time together brings up unexpected emotions. With Ivy 's help, Chuck discovers there is evidence incriminating his father in illegal activities and enlists the help of Nate to retrieve it. Meanwhile, Rufus and Ivy are excited about their art gallery opening until they find an empty RSVP list and must scramble to find another way to make the event a success.
Serena and Dan realize that they need to make amends with the people they have wronged to rebuild their shattered lives. Blair has one last chance to prove to her mother her worth as a fashion designer and with Serena 's help, comes up with a plan to make her line the "it '' look for Sage and her friends. Chuck is close to getting the evidence he needs against his father, until one of his closest allies reveals his plan to Bart.
Serena and Dan decide to throw their first Thanksgiving dinner together, inviting only their closest friends, but everyone seems to have their own agenda for attending. Serena has a run - in and invites both Steven and Sage to the dinner, while Lily and Bart also crash the event which fuels the tension between everyone. Feeling defeated by his father, Chuck begins a downward spiral, leaving Blair to find a solution to his problems. Meanwhile, Dan has written his latest exposé, but he must make a tough decision whether to publish it, knowing it could destroy a close friendship with Serena and everyone else that he knows.
After a run - in with an increasingly paranoid Bart, Blair grows alarmingly concerned for Chuck 's safety. Feeling confident that his father will never hurt him, Chuck makes a deal that could change his life. Blair devises a plan with the help of Serena, Georgina, Sage and Ivy to get what they need out of Bart. Meanwhile, Nate 's financial dilemma lands him in a place that he never thought he would be, jail. In the end, Chuck is escorted by Bart 's security to the roof of a building, minutes later Bart joins him. Blair, alarmed at not being able to locate Chuck, asks around for him and races up to the roof as well. A fight ensues between Chuck and Bart and Blair arrives just in time to see Bart hanging off the side of the building. Chuck refuses to help him up for fear that he would harm his friends or himself. The episode ends with Bart falling and Blair and Chuck running off.
Serena decides to come back to New York and confront Dan about the "Serena Chapter ''. Chuck proposes to Blair when he is implicated in the death of Bart. Georgina joins forces with Jack Bass in one last scheme to help Chuck and Blair. Nate and Sage try to find the identity of Gossip Girl with the information that they have. William van der Woodsen returns to comfort Lily and rejects Ivy who finally realizes that William used her just to win Lily back. Dorota, Eleanor Waldorf and Cyrus Rose also become involved in planning Chuck and Blair 's improvised wedding. Various characters from previous seasons make cameos, including Vanessa, Juliet, Agnes and Lola. Kristen Bell has a cameo as herself alongside Rachel Bilson. Dan is revealed to be Gossip Girl.
Five years later: The group gathers for Dan and Serena 's wedding. Eric and Jenny are both in attendance as is Eleanor and Cyrus Rose who is delivering the vows. Nate has become successful with The Spectator and will likely run for Mayor of New York City. Chuck and Blair are still married and have a four - year - old son named Henry Bass. Ivy has written a best - selling autobiography titled Ivy League which has been adapted into a major Hollywood feature film with her as the screenwriter and starring Olivia Burke and Lola Rhodes as the Serena and Ivy / Charlie characters. Georgina and Jack have gotten together, Lily and William are finally back together and Rufus is with Lisa Loeb. In the final shot, a new generation of wealthy Upper East Siders are seen at Constance as a new lonely boy walks past his classmates, denoting the beginning of a brand - new Gossip Girl.
On May 11, 2012, the series was picked up for a short sixth and final season, beginning in October and concluding on December 17. On May 17, 2012, with the reveal of The CW 's 2012 -- 13 television schedule, Gossip Girl stayed on Monday night and moved to the 9: 00 pm Eastern / 8: 00 pm Central timeslot following the fifth season of 90210. It was announced on July 30, 2012, that the sixth season would have 10 episodes.
On April 25, 2012, it was confirmed that former showrunner and executive producer Joshua Safran left the show as he had become the new showrunner of NBC 's Smash. On May 11, 2012, writer Sara Goodman was promoted to executive producer.
On October 29, the fourth episode of the season, "Portrait of a Lady Alexander '', was rescheduled for November 5, due to Hurricane Sandy.
Blake Lively, Leighton Meester, Penn Badgley, Chace Crawford, Ed Westwick, Kaylee DeFer, Kelly Rutherford, and Matthew Settle all returned as series regulars. Michelle Trachtenberg was upgraded to a guest - starring role for this season. Former recurring star, Desmond Harrington and Robert John Burke, also returned as guest stars for the season.
On July 7, 2012, actress Andrea Gabriel, known for her role on Lost, had been cast as a businesswoman from Dubai. 7th Heaven alum Barry Watson landed a guest - starring role as young entrepreneur Steven Spence, who becomes romantically involved with Serena.
British model Alexa Chung appears as herself in a plot involving Blair 's new fashion line. Former Skins star Sofia Black D'Elia was seen filming scenes with Lively for the then - upcoming sixth season. She played the role of Sage Spence, Steven 's daughter.
Former Gossip Girl guest stars Tamara Feldman and Yin Chang were reported to return to the show for its final season as Poppy Lifton and Nelly Yuki, respectively. Taylor Momsen and Connor Paolo reprised their roles as Jenny Humphrey and Eric van der Woodsen for the series finale, who had not been seen since their departures in season 4.
Kristen Bell, Rachel Bilson, Katie Cassidy, Ella Rae Peck, Willa Holland, Lisa Loeb, Michael Bloomberg and Jessica Szohr had cameo roles in the series finale.
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where did the movie erin brockovich take place | Erin Brockovich - wikipedia
Erin Brockovich (born Pattee; June 22, 1960) is an American legal clerk and environmental activist, who, despite her lack of formal education in the law, was instrumental in building a case against the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) of California in 1993. Her successful lawsuit was the subject of a 2000 film, Erin Brockovich, which starred Julia Roberts. Since then, Brockovich has become a media personality as well, hosting the TV series Challenge America with Erin Brockovich on ABC and Final Justice on Zone Reality. She is the president of Brockovich Research & Consulting. She also works as a consultant for Girardi & Keese, the New York law firm of Weitz & Luxenberg, which has a focus on personal injury claims for asbestos exposure, and Shine Lawyers in Australia.
She was born Erin Pattee in Lawrence, Kansas, the daughter of Betty Jo (born O'Neal; c. 1923 -- 2008), a journalist, and Frank Pattee (1924 -- 2011), an industrial engineer and football player. She has two brothers, Frank Jr. and Thomas (1954 -- 1992), and a sister, Jodie. She graduated from Lawrence High School, then attended Kansas State University, in Manhattan, Kansas, and graduated with an Associate in Applied Arts Degree from Wade College in Dallas, Texas. She worked as a management trainee for Kmart in 1981 but quit after a few months and entered a beauty pageant. She won Miss Pacific Coast in 1981 and left the beauty pageant after the win. She has lived in California since 1982.
The case alleged contamination of drinking water with hexavalent chromium (also written as "chromium VI '', "Cr - VI '' or "Cr - 6 '') in the southern California town of Hinkley. At the center of the case was a facility, the Hinkley compressor station, built in 1952 as a part of a natural - gas pipeline connecting to the San Francisco Bay Area. Between 1952 and 1966, PG&E used hexavalent chromium in a cooling tower system to fight corrosion. The wastewater was discharged to unlined ponds at the site, and some percolated into the groundwater, affecting an area near the plant approximately 2 by 1 mile (3.2 by 1.6 km). The Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) put the PG&E site under its regulations in 1968.
The case was settled in 1996 for US $ 333 million, the largest settlement ever paid in a direct - action lawsuit in U.S. history. Masry & Vititoe, the law firm for which Brockovich was a legal clerk, received $133.6 million of that settlement, and Brockovich herself was given a bonus of $2.5 million.
A study released in 2010 by the California Cancer Registry showed that cancer rates in Hinkley "remained unremarkable from 1988 to 2008 ''. An epidemiologist involved in the study said that the 196 cases of cancer reported during the most recent survey of 1996 through 2008 were fewer than what he would expect based on demographics and the regional rate of cancer.
As of 2016, average Cr - 6 levels in Hinkley were recorded as 1.19 ppb with a peak of 3.09 ppb. For comparison, the PG&E Topock Compressor Station on the California - Arizona border averaged 7.8 ppb with peaks of 31.8 ppb based on a PG&E Background Study.
Working with Edward L. Masry, a lawyer based in Thousand Oaks, California, Brockovich went on to participate in other anti-pollution lawsuits. One suit accused the Whitman Corporation of chromium contamination in Willits, California. Another, which listed 1,200 plaintiffs, alleged contamination near PG&E 's Kettleman Hills compressor station in Kings County, California, along the same pipeline as the Hinkley site. The Kettleman suit was settled for $335 million in 2006.
In 2003, Brockovich received settlements of $430,000 from two parties and an undisclosed amount from a third party to settle her lawsuit alleging toxic mold in her Agoura Hills, California, home. After experiencing problems with mold contamination in her own home in the Conejo Valley, Brockovich became a prominent activist and educator in this area as well.
Brockovich and Masry filed suit against the Beverly Hills Unified School District in 2003, in which the district was accused of harming the health and safety of its students by allowing a contractor to operate a cluster of oil wells on campus. Brockovich and Masry alleged that 300 cancer cases were linked to the oil wells. Subsequent testing and epidemiological investigation failed to corroborate a substantial link, and Los Angeles County Superior Court Judge Wendell Mortimer granted summary judgment against the plaintiffs. In May 2007, the School District announced that it was to be paid $450,000 as reimbursement for legal expenses.
Brockovich assisted in the filing of a lawsuit against Prime Tanning Corp. of St. Joseph, Missouri, in April 2009. The lawsuit claims that waste sludge from the production of leather, containing high levels of hexavalent chromium, was distributed to farmers in northwest Missouri to use as fertilizer on their fields. It is believed to be a potential cause of an abnormally high number of brain tumors (70 since 1996) around the town of Cameron, Missouri, which is currently being investigated by the EPA.
In June 2009, Brockovich began investigating a case of contaminated water in Midland, Texas. "Significant amounts '' of hexavalent chromium were found in the water of more than 40 homes in the area, some of which have now been fitted with state - monitored filters on their water supply. Brockovich said "The only difference between here and Hinkley is that I saw higher levels here than I saw in Hinkley. ''
In 2012, Brockovich got involved in the mysterious case of 14 students from LeRoy, New York, who began reporting perplexing medical symptoms including tics and speech difficulty. Brockovich believed environmental pollution from the 1970 Lehigh Valley Railroad derailment was the cause and conducted testing in the area. Brockovich was supposed to return to town to present her findings, but never did; in the meantime the students ' doctors determined the cause was mass psychogenic illness and that the media exposure was making it worse. No environmental causes were found after repeat testing and the students improved once the media attention died down. In early 2016, Brockovich became involved in potential litigation against Southern California Gas for a large methane leak from its underground storage facility near the community of Porter Ranch north of Los Angeles (see Aliso Canyon gas leak).
Brockovich 's work in bringing litigation against Pacific Gas and Electric was the focus of the 2000 feature film, Erin Brockovich, starring Julia Roberts in the title role. The film was nominated for five Academy Awards: Best Actress in a Leading Role, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Director, Best Picture, and Best Writing in a Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen. Roberts won the Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich. Erin Brockovich herself had a cameo role as a waitress named Julia R.
Brockovich had a more extensive role in the 2012 documentary Last Call at the Oasis, which focused on not only water pollution but also the overall state of water scarcity as it relates to water policy in the United States.
Brockovich 's book, titled Take It From Me: Life 's a Struggle But You Can Win, (ISBN 978 - 0071383790) was published in 2001.
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does canon eos 6d have built in flash | Canon EOS 6D - wikipedia
The Canon EOS 6D is a 20.2 - megapixel full - frame CMOS digital single - lens reflex camera made by Canon.
The EOS 6D was publicly announced on 17 September 2012, one day before the start of the Photokina 2012 trade show. It was released in late November 2012 and offered at that time as a body only for a suggested retail price of US $ 2,099 or in a package with an EF 24 - 105mm f / 4L IS USM zoom lens for a suggested retail price of US $ 2,899.
It was superseded by the EOS 6D Mark II in 2017.
The EOS 6D is the first Canon DSLR to feature GPS functions and built in Wi - Fi capabilities, which geotag images and allow files to be uploaded directly to Facebook, YouTube, or Canon Image Gateway; transferred to external devices; or sent to be printed on a Wi - Fi - enabled Canon printer. The Wi - Fi capabilities also allow remote control and viewing via many smartphones.
Weighing 770 grams (27 oz), the 6D is also Canon 's smallest and lightest full - frame DSLR, comparable to the APS - C sensor 60D. The camera supports ISO settings from 50 to 102,400 which can be selected automatically or adjusted manually, an 11 - point autofocus system, and an anti-glare 3.0 inches (76 mm) LED screen. The center autofocus point has a sensitivity of − 3 EV.
The BG - E13 battery grip, which was made to be used with the 6D, allows the use of six AA cells, or one or two LP - E6 batteries. The 6D has a maximum burst frame rate of 4.5 frames per second. Like all Canon DSLR full - frame cameras, the 6D does not have a built in flash due to the design of the viewfinder.
The movie image size can be set, as well as the frame rate per second, and compression method.
On 29 September 2016 Canon announced firmware version 1.1. 7. Its main improvement was support for the EF 70 -- 300mm f / 4 -- 5.6 IS II USM lens.
Top view of the 6D
6D with a EF 35mm f / 1.4 L lens attached
Back view of the 6D
Image processor: Non-DIGIC DIGIC DIGIC II DIGIC III DIGIC 4 / 4 + DIGIC 5 / 5 + DIGIC 6 / 6 + DIGIC 7 DIGIC 8 Video: 720p 1080p Uncompressed 1080p 4K Specialty models: a -- astrophotography C -- Cinema EOS S -- high resolution camera R -- no AA filter effect supported by Magic Lantern See also: Canon EOS film cameras
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who went out of britain's next top model | Britain 's Next Top model (cycle 12) - wikipedia
19 October (2017 - 10 - 19) -- 21 December 2017 (2017 - 12 - 21)
The twelfth cycle of Britain 's Next Top Model premiered on 19 October 2017 on Lifetime. This was the third cycle of the series to be hosted by former contestant Abbey Clancy. Photographer Nicky Johnston returned for the new series as well. Previous judges Hilary Alexander and Paul Sculfor did not return. Sculfor was replaced by British male model Max Rogers, while Hilary Alexander 's place at judging remained open for a guest judge each week. This cycle re-introduced individual critiques as elimination.
The prizes for this cycle included a modelling contract with Models 1, a fashion spread in Cosmopolitan magazine, nation - wide campaigns for Show Beauty, Missguided, Cinere, and Lola Make Up along with a yearly supply of each brand 's products, and a gift of portable electronic devices courtesy of Alcatel.
The winner of the competition was 22 - year - old Ivy Watson from Lincoln, Lincolnshire.
(Ages stated are at start of contest)
The semi-finalists arrived at a country manor in Chelmsford for a fairy tale themed boot camp, and met host Abbey Clancy for the first time. After changing into nude leotards to show off their catwalks and have one on one interviews with Clancy, the models were styled for a princess photo shoot with judge and photographer Nicky Johnston. On set, the contestants had to pose alongside judge Max Rogers. At the end of the week the models faced their first elimination, as the judges revealed that only 11 contestants would be moving into the model house. In the elimination process, Kira was saved, and Ocean and Gabriella were the first two to leave.
The contestants moved into the model home, and learned that former contestant Eleanor Sippings would be joining them in the competition after having had to drop out from her original cycle due to an eye injury. On set, the models were introduced to designer Savannah Miller, and had a lookbook photo shoot showcasing a range of fall - winter accessories for Debenhams. They later had to practice their runway walks in a Kinky Boots catwalk challenge at the Adelphi Theatre. Efi was chosen as the best performer, winning immunity from the upcoming elimination. At panel the judges were joined by designer and guest judge Giles Deacon, and Shaunagh received picture of the week. Georgia and Kira landed in the bottom two, and Georgia was eliminated from the competition.
The contestants arrived at Big Sky Studios and had a photo shoot for PETA, where they had to pose in a campaign regarding issues concerning the commercialized abuse of animals. They were later taken to the woods and had a challenge in which they had to film a nude commercial advertisement for Creative Nature Superfoods. Cirrah Leah was chosen as the best performer, winning immunity from the upcoming elimination. At panel, global PETA ambassador Lucy Watson was introduced as the week 's guest judge, and Kira received picture of the week. Alisia and Sophia landed in the bottom two, and Alisia was eliminated from the competition.
The remaining 10 contestants attended "beauty bootcamp '' and received makeovers under the direction of professional beauty experts. The models were later taken to a studio and had a photo shoot for Ghost fragrances in which they were suspended in the air over a crescent moon. Each model was required to embody the essence of one of the brands two new scents, Whitelight or Deep Night. At panel, fashion designer Daniel Lismore was introduced as the week 's guest judge, and Kira received picture of the week. Eleanor and Tamsin landed in the bottom two, and Tamsin was eliminated from the competition.
Efi disclosed to the other contestants that she had been diagnosed with depression some time prior to the competition, and was taking medication to cope with her condition. The models took part in a photo shoot for Spectrum Collections makeup brushes in which they had to pose as life - size dolls. On set, Efi decided to quit the competition. The remaining eight contestants later had a challenge at the Bridge Academy in which they had to coach child models for a press event featuring clothing from Kimberley Walsh 's Kimba collection. Eleanor was chosen as the best performer, winning immunity from the upcoming elimination. At panel, Cosmopolitan editor in chief Farrah Storr was introduced as the week 's guest judge, and Martha received picture of the week. Cirrah Leah and Louisa landed in the bottom two, and were both allowed to remain in the competition due to Efi 's decision to quit earlier that week.
The contestants arrived at Dalston Heights and took part in a casting challenge to star in a digital marketing campaign for Tinder, which entailed creating personalized profiles to impress a panel of judges. Sophia was chosen as the best performer, winning immunity from the upcoming elimination. The models later had a photo shoot for Carmex lip balm with male model David Tausz in which they had to deliver a passionate kiss. Model and actress Kelly Brook was introduced as the week 's guest judge at panel, where the contestants learned that a double elimination would be taking place. Ivy received picture of the week, while Louisa, Martha, and Shaunagh landed in the bottom three. The judges decided to save Martha, and the other two contestants were eliminated from the competition.
The contestants were taken to the Blok London fitness center, and took part in a paired challenge for Fitbit overseen by former Pussycat Doll Kimberly Wyatt in which they had to perform in a series of instructional exercise videos. As the winners of the challenge, Cirrah Leah and Eleanor had their video featured on the brand 's social media platforms. The models also had a beauty photo shoot inside a bathtub for Lola Make Up 's new matte lipstick collection, whilst the judges secretly watched their performance in a separate room. Abbey Clancy later payed the contestants a visit to reveal that the remaining five models at the end of the episode would be flown to Thailand for the remainder of the competition, and that Asia 's Next Top Model 's Cindy Bishop would be taking over the competition 's hosting duties during their time abroad. At elimination, Karen Diamond, the agency director of Models 1, was introduced as the week 's guest judge. Martha became ill during deliberation, and had to drop out of the competition per a doctor 's advice due to her recurring fainting spells. As a result of the circumstances, no elimination took place.
The remaining five contestants were flown to Bangkok and moved into their new home at the Lebua State Tower. They later had a go - see challenge with designers from Asava, Vatanika and Crème de la Crème, and took part in a photo shoot with photographer Nat Prakobsantisuk overlooking the ancient city of Ayutthaya decked out in traditional Thai attire. The models were introduced to host Cindy Bishop for the first time at elimination, where designer Polpat Asavaprapha joined the panel as the week 's guest judge. Eleanor and Kira were revealed to be the winners of the go - see challenge that had taken place earlier in the episode, and after deliberation, Ivy received picture of the week. Cirrah - Leah and Kira landed in the bottom two, and Cirrah - Leah was eliminated from the competition.
The remaining four contestants were asked to memorize lines from a script to perform in a biligual Thai - English commercial for Thai Airlines. Sophia was deemed as the best performer, and was allowed to bring Kira with her on a boat ride through the city. The models were later introduced to representatives from sportswear label Sixty Ninety, and had to perform in a photo shoot for the brand. Kira received picture of the week at elimination. Eleanor and Sophia landed in the bottom two, and Sophia was eliminated from the competition, leaving Eleanor, Ivy, and Kira as the three remaining finalists who would be flown back to London for the finale.
The finalists were sent to take part in a final photo shoot for Radox, where they each had to embody a different Radox fragrance as they were splashed with cold water. After the challenge, the models met host Abbey Clancy at the Mayfair Hotel, where she revealed to them that they would be taking part in a final catwalk show wearing designs by Giles Deacon during London Fashion Week Festival in front the press and important fashion A-listers. The final three later reunited with the previously eliminated contestants, as well as contestants from cycle 's past. Immediately after the final show, the judges deliberated over each finalists ' work and progress throughout the competition, and Ivy was crowned as the winner.
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what is the worst nfl team records of all time | NFL win -- loss records - wikipedia
The following is a list of win -- loss records for each of the 32 active National Football League (NFL) teams.
The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their regular season win -- loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of the 2017 NFL regular season. For teams that previously played in the All - America Football Conference (AAFC), their AAFC win - loss records are not included as the NFL does not officially count AAFC statistics despite the 1950 NFL -- AAFC merger. However, for teams that played in the American Football League (AFL), their AFL win - loss records are included and officially counted by the NFL. Ties are registered as a half win and a half loss when calculating the win - loss record.
The following is a listing of all 32 current National Football League (NFL) teams ranked by their playoff win - loss record percentage, accurate as of the end of Super Bowl LII.
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when did peter rabbit come out in theaters | Peter Rabbit (film) - wikipedia
Peter Rabbit is a 2018 live - action / computer - animated comedy film directed by Will Gluck from a screenplay by Rob Lieber and Gluck, based on the stories of Peter Rabbit created by Beatrix Potter. The film stars James Corden, Domhnall Gleeson, Rose Byrne, Sam Neill, Daisy Ridley, Elizabeth Debicki, and Margot Robbie. The film was released on February 9, 2018, received mixed reviews from critics and has grossed over $274 million worldwide, making it the 8th highest - grossing film of 2018.
In England 's Lake District Peter Rabbit, his cousin Benjamin, and his triplet sisters Flopsy, Mopsy and Cottontail, spend most of their days picking on Mr. Joe McGregor and stealing vegetables from his garden. They are friends with a local woman named Bea who spends her time painting pictures of the rabbits as well as the surrounding nature. Bea takes on a mother - like relationship with the rabbits due to the death of their mother and father. One day Peter accidentally leaves his jacket in McGregor 's garden and goes back to retrieve it. McGregor spots and catches him, but suddenly dies of a heart attack. Enthralled, Peter invites all of the woodland critters, and then takes over McGregor 's old house.
Meanwhile in London, McGregor 's nephew Thomas works at Harrods department store where he waits for a promotion. He coldly accepts the news about his uncle 's death, but is infuriated over not getting the promotion and is fired for losing his temper, which proves to be as short as his uncle 's. When he learns that his uncle 's house is valuable, he decides to refurbish it so he can sell it and start his own toy store to rival Harrods. He kicks out Peter and his friends and begins to secretly wall up the garden, despite Bea 's objections. When Peter and Benjamin sneak back into the garden, Thomas catches the latter and attempts to drown Benjamin. Peter and the triplets rescue him and Thomas accidentally tosses the binoculars that Bea had given him earlier.
Thomas and Peter start a war with each other by setting up traps and other offensive nuisances. Thomas and Bea end up falling in love with each other, which causes Peter to become jealous and wanting to separate them more. Peter soon angers Bea when he unintentionally ruins her paintings during one excursion, and soon she also turns on Thomas when his violent tendencies begin to show. This all culminates when Thomas throws dynamite at Peter 's burrow, and uses it to attack Peter in the garden, before telling him that his antics caused him to become aggressive. When Peter detonates the dynamite to prove to Bea that Thomas was using it, he ends up knocking down the tree on top of the burrow, which crushes Bea 's art studio. Thinking that Thomas was responsible for the detonation, Bea breaks up with him, and he goes back to London to work at Harrods again.
Peter feels bad for what he has done, and upon learning that Bea intends to leave the neighborhood, he and Benjamin head to London to find Thomas at Harrods. They make up and rush back to the country where Peter reveals that he had activated the detonator, and he and Thomas apologize to Bea for their fighting. Thomas discovers that he can not go home because a snobbish couple, whom Thomas had an ugly encounter with prior, had just bought the house. Peter and his friends use their tricks to force the couple out of the house, allowing Thomas and Bea to move back in.
In a mid-credits scene, Thomas sets up his own toy shop in the village, and Bea begins to write and illustrate books based on Peter and his friends.
The Singing Sparrows were voiced by Jessica Freedman, Shana Halligan, Katharine Hoye, Chris Mann, Chad Reisser, and Fletcher Sheridan
The film was first revealed in April 2015 through email leaks as a result of the Sony Pictures hack. The official announcement of the film came that December.
On August 4, 2016, it was reported that Will Gluck would be directing the live - action / computer - animated film from a script by Gluck and Rob Lieber, with James Corden cast to voice Peter Rabbit and Rose Byrne to play one of the live - action roles. The report also said Gluck would produce the film along with Zareh Nalbandian of Animal Logic, which will be providing the visual effects and animation for the film.
On September 26, 2016, Daisy Ridley and Elizabeth Debicki had joined the cast, with the live action production scheduled to commence in Sydney, Australia in January 2017. On October 18, Domhnall Gleeson was cast as Thomas McGregor, the descendent of the original Mr. McGregor, and on October 24, Margot Robbie joined the cast, expected to voice a bunny. On November 7, Sia was cast to join the film as Mrs Tiggy - Winkle.
On December 18, 2016, a first image of the title character, along with the movie 's logo, had been revealed. Production began in December 2016. Live action scenes were filmed at Centennial Park in Sydney. In March 2017, filming took place at Central railway station, Sydney which was depicted as London Paddington station.
In April 2017, a film crew were seen in Ambleside and Windermere in the Lake District. A local toy shop on Compston Road, Ambleside, was adapted to be Mr McGregor 's.
Peter Rabbit was originally scheduled to be released on March 23, 2018, but it was moved up to February 9, 2018.
The film 's theatrical release was preceded by Flopsy Turvy, a short connected to the character Flospy Rabbit.
The first trailer received negative feedback from critics and fans of the character, many of whom labelled the film as being too modern and insulting to Beatrix Potter 's works. Collider slammed the trailer as "garbage '' and a "low brow ' comedy ' cringe fest. ''
Stuart Heritage from The Guardian stated that "the Peter Rabbit film looks like the result of some blisteringly inept manhandling (...) there 's something genuinely harrowing about the sight of Peter Rabbit -- gentle, Edwardian Peter Rabbit -- thoughtlessly injuring some birds, or grabbing a pile of lettuce leaves and making it rain like a banker in a strip club, or literally twerking '' and argued "there is no way on Earth that (Beatrix Potter would) have ever given the green light to a slow motion car crash like this. ''
Metro writer James Baldock found that the trailer was "so gut wrenchingly bad '' and that "if the movie lives up to its two minute preview -- (it) is set to be the greatest abomination to grace the big screen since The Emoji Movie. '' He finished by writing "Listen carefully, and you can just about hear the sound of Beatrix Potter, turning furiously in her grave. '' On November 7, a new trailer for the United Kingdom was released.
As of April 8, 2018, Peter Rabbit has grossed $113.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $161.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $274.6 million, against a production budget of $50 million.
In the United States and Canada, the film was released alongside Fifty Shades Freed and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross around $16 million from 3,725 theaters in its opening weekend, with some estimates as high as $25 million. It ended up making $25 million over the weekend, finishing second at the box office behind Fifty Shades ($38.8 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 62 % based on 121 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Peter Rabbit updates Beatrix Potter 's classic characters with colorfully agreeable results that should entertain younger viewers while admittedly risking the wrath of purists. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
In the first week after the film 's release, groups in multiple countries criticized it for "allergy bullying '' and called for an apology from Sony. The accusations focused on a scene where Thomas McGregor -- whose character has a known severe allergy to blackberries -- is pelted with the berries until one enters his mouth, causing him to enter anaphylactic shock and grab for his Epipen. In response, Sony published a statement saying "We sincerely regret not being more aware and sensitive to this issue, and we truly apologise ''.
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where did the tv show the waltons take place | The Waltons - wikipedia
The Waltons is an American television series created by Earl Hamner, Jr., based on his book Spencer 's Mountain and a 1963 film of the same name, about a family in rural Virginia during the Great Depression and World War II.
The television movie The Homecoming: A Christmas Story was broadcast on December 19, 1971. Based on its success, the CBS television network ordered one season of episodes based on the same characters and that became the television series The Waltons. Beginning in September 1972, the series subsequently aired on CBS for nine seasons. After the series was canceled by CBS in 1981, NBC aired three television movie sequels in 1982, with three more in the 1990s on CBS. The Waltons was produced by Lorimar Productions and distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution in syndication.
The main story is set in Walton 's Mountain, a fictional town at the foot of a mountain in fictitious Jefferson County, Virginia.
The real place upon which the stories are based is the community of Schuyler in Nelson County, Virginia.
The time period is from 1933 to 1946, during the Great Depression and World War II, during the presidential administrations of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S Truman. The year 1933 is suggested by a reference to the opening of the Century of Progress exposition in Chicago, a brief shot of an automobile registration, and it is divulged in episode 18 that the date is in the spring of 1933. The last episode of season one, "An Easter Story '', is set in February -- April 1934. The year 1934 takes two seasons to cover, while some successive years are covered over the course of a few months.
The series finale, "The Revel '', revolves around a party and the invitation date is given as June 4, 1946. A span of 13 years is therefore covered in nine seasons. There are some chronological inconsistencies, which ostensibly do not hinder the storyline.
The first three reunion movies (A Wedding on Walton 's Mountain, Mother 's Day on Walton 's Mountain, and A Day for Thanks on Walton 's Mountain), all produced in 1982, are set in 1947. Of the later reunions, A Walton Thanksgiving Reunion, filmed in 1993, is set in 1963, and revolves around President John F. Kennedy 's assassination; A Walton Wedding, made in 1995, is set in 1964; A Walton Easter, filmed in 1997, is set in 1969.
The series began relating stories that occurred 38 years in the past and ended with its last reunion show set 28 years in the past.
The story is about the family of John Walton Jr. (known as John - Boy): his six siblings, his parents John and Olivia Walton, and the elder John 's parents Zebulon "Zeb '' and Esther Walton. John - Boy is the oldest of the children (17 years old in the beginning), who becomes a journalist and novelist. Each episode is narrated at the opening and closing by a middle - aged John Jr. (voiced by author Earl Hamner on whom John - Boy is based). John Sr. manages to eke out a living for his family by operating a lumber mill with his sons ' help as they grow older. The family income is augmented by some small - scale farming, and John occasionally hunts to put meat on the table. In the simpler days of their country youth, all of the children are rambunctious and curious, but as times grow tough and the Walton youths grow up to deal with them, the children slowly depart from the innocent, carefree days of walking everywhere barefoot while clad in overalls and hand - sewn pinafores, and into the harsh, demanding world of adulthood and responsibility.
The family shares hospitality with relatives and strangers as they are able. The small community named after their property is also home to folk of various income levels, ranging from the well - to - do Baldwin sisters, two elderly spinsters who distill moonshine that they call "Papa 's recipe ''; Ike Godsey, postmaster and owner of the general store with his somewhat snobbish wife Corabeth (a Walton cousin; she calls her husband "Mr. Godsey ''); an African - American couple, Verdie and Harley Foster; Maude, a sassy octogenarian artist who paints on wood; Flossie Brimmer, a friendly though somewhat gossipy widow who runs a nearby boarding house; and Yancy Tucker, a good - hearted handyman with big plans but little motivation. Jefferson County sheriff Ep Bridges, who fought alongside John in World War I, keeps law and order in Walton 's Mountain. The entire family (except for John) attends a Baptist church, of which Olivia and Grandma Esther are the most regular attendees. The church that the Hamners actually attended was Schuyler Baptist Church, near the Hamner homeplace and is still in operation. The church has helped host several events honoring Earl Hamner, Jr., including one in 2014.
In the signature scene that closes almost every episode, the family house is enveloped in darkness, save for one, two or three lights in the upstairs bedroom windows. Through voice - overs, two or more characters make some brief comments related to that episode 's events, and then bid each other goodnight, after which the lights go out.
After completing high school, John - Boy attends fictional Boatwright University (based on the University of Richmond) in the fictional nearby town of Westham. He later goes to New York City to work as a journalist.
During the latter half of the 1976 -- 77 season, Grandma Esther Walton suffers a stroke and returns home shortly before the death of her husband, Grandpa Zeb Walton (reflecting Ellen Corby 's real - life stroke and the death of Will Geer, the actors who portrayed the characters).
During the series ' last few years, Mary Ellen and Ben start their own families; Erin, Jason and John - Boy are married in later television movie sequels. Conversely, the younger children Jim - Bob and Elizabeth, struggle to find and cement true love.
World War II deeply affects the family. All four Walton boys enlist in the military. Mary Ellen 's physician husband, Curtis "Curt '' Willard, is sent to Pearl Harbor and is reported to have perished in the Japanese attack on December 7, 1941. Years later, Mary Ellen hears of sightings of her "late '' husband, investigates and finds him alive (played by another actor), but brooding over his war wounds and living under an assumed name. She divorces him and later remarries.
John - Boy 's military plane is shot down, while Olivia becomes a volunteer at the VA hospital and is seen less and less; she eventually develops tuberculosis and enters an Arizona sanitarium. Olivia 's cousin, Rose Burton, moves into the Walton house to look after the brood. Two years later, John Sr. moves to Arizona to be near Olivia. Grandma appears in only a handful of episodes during the eighth season (she was usually said to be visiting relatives in nearby Buckingham County).
Six feature - length movies were made after the series ' run; set from 1947 to 1969, they aired between 1982 and 1997.
The Homecoming: A Christmas Story (1971) was not made as a pilot for a series, but it was so popular that it led to the broadcaster, CBS, initially commissioning one season of episodes based on the same characters, and the result was The Waltons. Except for the children and Grandma Walton, the actors for the movie were not the same as for the series. The musical score was by Oscar - winning composer Jerry Goldsmith (Goldsmith also scored several episodes of the first season, but the producers believed his TV movie theme was too gentle and requested he write a new theme for the series) and was later released on an album by Film Score Monthly paired with James Horner 's score for the 1982 TV movie Rascals and Robbers: The Secret Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Huck Finn.
Patricia Neal (as Olivia) won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Television Series Drama. The movie was also nominated for three Emmys: Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie (Neal), Outstanding Writing Achievement in Drama - Adaptation (Earl Hamner), and Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Drama - A Single Program (Fielder Cook).
The following is a brief summary of the main characters. See main article for a more complete list.
Earl Hamner 's rural childhood growing up in the unincorporated community of Schuyler, Virginia, provided the basis for the setting and many of the storylines of The Waltons. His family and the community provided many life experiences which aided in the characters, values, area, and human - interest stories of his books, movies, and television series. Hamner provided the voice - over of the older John - Boy, usually heard at the beginning and end of each episode.
John - Boy Walton 's fictional alma mater, Boatwright University, is patterned after Richmond College, which became part of the University of Richmond on Boatwright Drive near Westham Station in The West End of Richmond, Virginia, about seventy miles east of Schuyler.
The town of Walton 's Mountain was built in the rear area of the main lot at Warner Bros. Studios, bordering the Los Angeles River, but the mountain itself was part of the Hollywood Hills range opposite Warner studios in Burbank, California (the reverse side of which, and slightly to the east, is Mount Lee and the Hollywood Sign. The Waltons ' house façade was built in the back of the Warner Brothers lot. After the series concluded, the set was destroyed. For the reunion shows, a replica Waltons ' house façade was built on the Here Come the Brides set on the Columbia Ranch studio, now part of the Warner Brothers studios. The Waltons ' house is still used as scenery at Warner Brothers. For example, it served as the Dragonfly Inn on The Gilmore Girls.
Some sources indicate CBS put the show on its fall 1972 schedule in response to congressional hearings on the quality of television. Backlash from a 1971 decision to purge most rural - oriented shows from the network lineup may have also been a factor. The network gave The Waltons an undesirable timeslot -- Thursdays at 8 p.m., opposite two popular programs: The Flip Wilson Show on NBC and The Mod Squad on ABC. "The rumor was that they put it against Flip Wilson and The Mod Squad because they did n't think it would survive. They thought, ' We can just tell Congress America does n't want to see this ', '' Kami Cotler, who played Elizabeth Walton, said in a 2012 interview. However, CBS had enough faith in the show to devise a full - page newspaper ad flanked with the show 's positive reviews, urging people to watch the show. This ad was attributed to saving The Waltons, causing the ratings to radically increase.
Ralph Waite was reluctant to audition for the part of John Walton because he did n't want to be tied to a long - running TV series, but his agent persuaded him by saying, "It will never sell. You do the pilot. You pick up a couple of bucks and then you go back to New York. ''
The Waltons won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series in 1973. Also in 1973 Richard Thomas won the Emmy for Lead Actor in a Drama Series. Michael Learned won the Emmy for Lead Actress in a Drama Series three times (1973, 1974, and 1976). Ellen Corby was also a three - time winner in the Supporting Actress category, winning in 1973, 1975, and 1976. Will Geer was awarded the Supporting Actor Emmy in 1975. Veteran actress Beulah Bondi won an Emmy in 1977 for Lead Actress in a Single Performance for her guest appearance as Martha Corrine Walton in the episode "The Pony Cart '' (Episode # 111). She first appeared in The Waltons episode "The Conflict '' (Episode # 51) as the widow of Zeb Walton 's brother.
The series itself earned a Peabody Award for its first season. In 2013, TV Guide ranked The Waltons No. 34 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
In 2017, from March 20 to March 24 INSP network remembered the life of Earl Hamner Jr. (who had died in 2016) by featuring clips of interviews (once per episode) with him about his time involved with The Waltons during the breaks while its syndicated reruns aired from 3 - 5pm and again at 7pm.
The Walton 's Reunion Movie Collection:
1. A Wedding on Walton 's Mountain (1982)
2. Mother 's Day on Walton 's Mountain (1982)
3. A Day for Thanks on Walton 's Mountain (1982)
4. A Walton Thanksgiving Reunion (1993)
5. A Walton Wedding (1995)
6. A Walton Easter (1997)
Warner Home Video has released all nine seasons and six TV movies of The Waltons on DVD in Region 1. Seasons 1 -- 4 have been released in Region 2. The pilot movie, The Homecoming: A Christmas Story, was released by Paramount Home Entertainment. Lorimar produced the series, CBS produced the pilot film, which is why Paramount, under CBS Home Entertainment, handles home video rights for The Homecoming.
German - release DVDs provide German or English sound - track options, with dubbed German voices, or the original English soundtrack, although episode titles, in German, are not always either literal or precise translations of the original English - language titles.
Seasons 1 -- 9 are available via streaming in SD as well as HD through services such as Amazon Video.
Lorimar sold the distribution rights of The Waltons to Warner Bros. Television to avoid a lawsuit owing to the similarities between the series and the film Spencer 's Mountain, which Warners owned. Warner Bros. acquired Lorimar in 1989, and has continued to syndicate the series ever since. Reruns currently air in the U.S. on INSP, the Hallmark Channel. In Canada, The Waltons airs on Vision TV and BookTelevision.
In the UK, the series was broadcast on BBC 1 and BBC 2 during the 1970s / 1980s - the first three seasons were broadcast on BBC 2 from February 18, 1974 to May 17, 1976, on Mondays at 20.00 GMT, and seasons 4 and 5 were shown on BBC 1 from September 5, 1976 to August 30, 1977, on Sundays at 16.10 in 1976 and Tuesdays at 19.00 through 1977. After that, seasons 6 - 9 would be broadcast on BBC 2 again, starting on April 30, 1979 and concluding in April 1983. The three reunion TV movies filmed in 1982 were also shown on BBC 2 from December 21 to December 28, 1983. The show was repeated on Channel 4 in the 1990s. It currently airs on True Entertainment in the UK.
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1966 shelby cobra 427 super snake original price | AC Cobra - wikipedia
The AC Cobra, sold as the Shelby Cobra in the United States of America, is an Anglo - American sports car with a Ford V8 engine, produced intermittently in both the UK and United States of America since 1962.
Like many British manufacturers, AC Cars had been using the Bristol straight - 6 engine in its small - volume production, including its AC Ace two - seater roadster. This had a hand - built body with a steel tube frame, and aluminium body panels that were made using English wheeling machines. The engine was a pre-World War II design by BMW which by the 1960s was considered dated. Bristol decided in 1961 to cease production of its engine and instead to use Chrysler 313 cu in (5.1 L) V8 engines. AC started using the 2.6 litre Ford Zephyr engine in its cars.
In September 1961, American automotive designer Carroll Shelby wrote to AC asking if they would build him a car modified to accept a V8 engine. AC agreed, provided a suitable engine could be found. Shelby went to Chevrolet to see if they would provide him with engines, but not wanting to add competition to the Corvette they said no. However, Ford wanted a car that could compete with the Corvette and they happened to have a brand new engine which could be used in this endeavor: the Windsor 221 in3 (3.6 L) engine -- a new lightweight, thin - wall cast small - block V8. Ford provided Shelby with two engines.
In January 1962 mechanics at AC Cars in Thames Ditton, Surrey designed the "AC Ace 3.6 '' prototype with chassis number CSX2000.
AC had already made most of the modifications needed for the small - block V8 when they installed the 2.6 litre inline 6 Ford Zephyr engine, including the extensive rework of the AC Ace 's front end bodywork. The only modification of the front end of the first Cobra from that of the "AC Ace 2.6 '' was the steering box, which had to be moved outward to clear the wider V8 engine.
The most important modification was the fitting of a stronger rear differential to handle the increased engine power. A Salisbury 4HU unit with inboard disc brakes to reduce unsprung weight was chosen instead of the old E.N.V. unit. It was the same unit used on the Jaguar E-Type. After testing and modification, the engine and transmission were removed and the chassis was air - freighted to Shelby in Los Angeles on 2 February 1962, By this time the small - block 's displacement was increased to 260 in (4.3 L).
Shelby 's team paired this engine along with a transmission into CSX2000, in less than eight hours at Dean Moon 's shop in Santa Fe Springs, California, and began road - testing.
(CSX / CS 2001 - 2602)
A few edits were made to the production version:
AC exported completed, painted, and trimmed cars (less engine and gearbox) to Shelby who then finished the cars in his workshop in Los Angeles by installing the engine and gearbox and correcting any bodywork flaws caused by the car 's passage by sea. A small number of cars were also completed on the East Coast of the USA by Ed Hugus in Pennsylvania, including the first production car; CSX2001.
The first 75 Cobra Mk1 models (including the prototype) were fitted with the 260 cu in (4.3 L). The remaining 51 Mk1 models were fitted with a larger version of the Windsor Ford engine, the 289 cu in (4.7 L) V8.
In late 1962 Alan Turner, AC 's chief engineer completed a major design change of the car 's front end to accommodate rack and pinion steering while still using transverse leaf spring suspension. The new car entered production in early 1963 and was designated Mark II. The steering rack was borrowed from the MGB while the new steering column came from the VW Beetle. About 528 Mark II Cobras were produced in the summer of 1965 (the last US - bound Mark II was produced in November 1964).
(COB / COX 6001 - 6062)
In 1963 to keep production focused on producing cars for Shelby American Inc., the Ruddspeed Ace was discontinued. To supply cars to the European market, AC began to market and sell the Cobra in Europe. Advertisements from the time state that the Cobra was designed to meet the requirements of Shelby American Inc.
Shelby experimented with a larger Ford FE engine, of 390 cubic inches (6.4 L) in chassis number CSX2196. Unfortunately the car was not able to receive the development it needed, as resources were aimed at taking the crown from Ferrari in the GT class. Ken Miles drove and raced the FE - powered Mark II at Sebring and pronounced the car virtually undriveable, naming it "The Turd ''. It failed to finish with the engine expiring due to damper failure.
CSX2196 was revised for the show down at Nassau which allowed a more relaxed class division of racing. This allowed the GT cobras to run with prototype Ford GT, GM Grand Sport Corvettes and Lola Mk. 6. It was for this event in 1964 that the Fliptop cobra was used. An aluminium 390 cubic inches (6.4 L) engine was used. However, the car failed to finish.
A new chassis was required, developed, and designated Mark III. The new car was designed in cooperation with Ford in Detroit. A new chassis was built using 4 in (102 mm) main chassis tubes (up from 3 in (76 mm)) and coil spring suspension all around. The new car also had wide fenders and a larger radiator opening. It was powered by the "side oiler '' Ford 427 engine (7.0 L) rated at 425 bhp (317 kW), which provided a top speed of 164 mph (262 km / h) in the standard model and 485 bhp (362 kW) with a top speed of 185 mph (298 km / h) in the competition model.
COMPETITION MODELS
(CSX / CSB 3001 - 3100)
Cobra Mark III production began on 1 January 1965; two prototypes had been sent to the United States in October 1964. Cars were sent to the US as unpainted rolling chassis, and they were finished in Shelby 's workshop.
Unfortunately, The MK III missed homologation for the 1965 racing season and was not raced by the Shelby team. Only 56 of the 100 planned cars were produced. Of those, 31 unsold competition models were detuned and fitted with wind miscreens for street use. Called S / C for semi-competition, an original example can currently sell for 1.5 million USD, making it one of the most valuable Cobra variants.
PRODUCTION MODELS
(CSX / CSB 3101 - 3360)
Some Cobra 427s were actually fitted with Ford 's 428 cubic inches (7.01 L) engine, a long stroke, smaller bore, lower cost engine, intended for road use rather than racing. The AC Cobra was a financial failure that led Ford and Carroll Shelby to discontinue importing cars from England in 1967.
(COB / COX 6101 - 6132)
AC Cars kept producing the coil - spring AC Roadster with narrow fenders and a small block Ford 289. Shelby had sold the COBRA name to Ford in 1965, so AC marketed the car as the AC 289 Sports. It was built and sold in Europe until late 1969.
DRAGON SNAKE
Shelby offered a drag package, known as the Dragon Snake, which won several NHRA National events with Bruce Larson or Ed Hedrick at the wheel of CSX2093.
Only Six 289 Dragon Snake Cobras were produced by the factory. 2019, 2357 as factory team cars. 2248, 2416, 2427, 2472 as private team cars.
One 427 Dragon Snake, 3198.
Cobras were also prepared by customers using the drag package. Examples include: 2075, 2093, 2109, 2353, and 3159 "King Cobra. ''
SLALOM SNAKE
Designed for auto - cross events, only two examples were produced. Both had white exterior paint (with red racing strings) and red leather interiors.
CSX2522 "Slalom Special ''
CSX2537 "Slalom Snake ''
Equipped almost identically to CSX2522, this second example had aluminum valve covers, a tuned air cleaner, a Smiths heater, seat belts, front and rear brake cooling ducts, a hood scoop, brake cooling scoops, side exhausts and a painted roll bar (2522 's roll bar was chromed). Suspension options included Koni shock absorbers, front and rear anti-sway bars, unpolished six - inch magnesium pin - drive wheels, and Goodyear Blue Streak Sports Car Special tires.
SUPER SNAKE
In 1966, CSX 3015 S / C was selected and converted into a special model called the Supersnake the "Cobra to End All Cobras. '' Originally part of a European promotional tour before its conversion. This conversion called for making the original racing model street legal with mufflers, a windshield and bumpers amongst other modifications. But some things were not modified, including the racing rear end, brakes and headers. The most notable modification is the addition of Twin Paxton Superchargers, TPS.
Shelby crafted a second model, CSX 3303, from a street version. CSX 3303 was given to comedian Bill Cosby, his close friend. When Cosby attempted to drive CSX3303, he found that it was very difficult to keep under control; he later recounted the experience on his 1968 stand - up comedy album 200 M.P.H.. Cosby gave the car back to Shelby, who then shipped it out to one of his company 's dealers in San Francisco, S&C Ford on Van Ness Avenue. S&C Ford then sold it to customer Tony Maxey. Maxey, suffering the same issues as Cosby did with the car, had his throttle stick while leaving a traffic stop, lost control and drove it off a cliff, landing in the Pacific Ocean waters.
Shelby used his CSX 3015 as a personal car over the years, sometimes entering it into local races like the Turismos Visitadores Cannonball - Run race in Nevada, where he was "waking (up) whole towns, blowing out windows, throwing belts and catching fire a couple of times, but finishing. '' CSX3015 was auctioned on 22 January 2007, at the Barrett - Jackson Collector Car Event in Scottsdale, Arizona, for $5 million plus commission (£ 2.8 million), a record for a vehicle made in the U.S.
(CF / CFX 01 - 80)
AC also produced the AC 428 Frua on a stretched Cobra 427 MK III coil spring chassis. The steel body was designed and built by Pietro Frua until 1973.
(EF / EFX 501 - 508)
The American Electric Car Company used an even further modified chassis for their vehicles.
GHIA SPYDER
(CSX 5001 - 5002)
One 96in prototype chassis (CSX 3063) was shipped to GHIA in Italy in 1965 for a body styling exercise. This vehicle was first displayed during a European car show with a Cobra license tag. An article about the car was written up in the Winter 65 / 66 edition of "Style Quarterly '' magazine. Shelby American internal production records show that the car was shipped to Shelby American for Evaluation and review. AC Cars Ltd internal production records show that Shelby American placed an order for two 96in chassis (CSX 5001 - 5002) in 1966. AC labeled these chassis as "GHIA CONVERTIBLE '' in their factory ledger.
FORD XD COBRA
(CSX 3001)
Shelby American internal production records show that the car was shipped to Shelby American for Evaluation and review in early 1966. The vehicle was returned to Ford and now resides in the Detroit Historical Museum.
By 1982, the Ac name was licensed by Autokraft, a Cobra parts reseller and replica car manufacturing company owned by Brian A. Angliss. Autokraft also had acquired the company 's tooling.
Autokraft manufactured an AC 289 continuation car called the Autokraft Mk IV, basically a Mk III with a 302 cubic inches (4.95 L) Ford V8 and Borg Warner T5 Transmission. The Mk IV also received an independent suspension.
In 1986, Autokraft (as a joint venture with Ford joining in 1987) purchased AC Cars, and produced the AC Mk IV Cobra, with a 250 hp (186 kW) at 4,200 rpm, 4,942 cc Ford V8, which provided a top speed of 215 km / h (134 mph) and 0 -- 100 km / h in 5.2 seconds.
At the 1990 Geneva Salon the Lightweight version was presented: weight was down to 1,070 kg (2,360 lb) (compared to 1,190 kg or 2,620 lb) and power was up to 370 hp (276 kW) at 5,750 rpm thanks to alloy heads, a Holley four - barrel carburettor, and no catalytic converter. While the Lightweight did not meet US federal regulations, the Mk IV did, and 480 cars of all versions were built until 1996.
In 1996 the company was purchased by Pride Automotive. Two new ' Cobra ' style cars were launched in 1997, the ' Superblower ', an aluminium - bodied car with a supercharged 4,942 cc Ford V8 providing 320 bhp and the cheaper ' Carbon Road Series ' (CRS) with a carbonfibre body and a 225 bhp version of the Ford V8 engine. 22 Superblowers and 37 CRSs were built between 1997 and 2001.
In 1999, a limited edition run of 25 289 FIA Cobras were planned. Only 1 example was manufacturered, chassis number COB 1001.
A further variant, ' the 212 S / C ' with a 3506 cc 350 hp twin - turbocharged Lotus V8 engine was introduced in 2000, but only two examples were built.
In 2001, the company relocated its factory to Frimley, Surrey. By August 2002, the company was in a financial low and briefly acquired by Private Corp, who closed operations in October 2003. Only two models were produced, a FIA 289 (COX 2610), and a 427 Cobra (COX 3361). The cars were intended to be sold in the USA market, through a new company, AC Cars USA, located in Florida. Both cars were numbered following where the original ledger entries left off during the 1960s.
On July 8, 2002, new company was formed in Malta named AC Motor Holdings and was responsible for the branding of the company.
In late 2003, the Frimley factory was under the control of AC Motor Holdings.
On December 4, 2003, Shelby and AC announced a co-production of the CSX1000 and CSX 7500 series. Only 14 CSX1000, and 2 CSX 7500 cars were built by the year 2007.
Between 2004 and 2007, AC Motor Holdings produced the AC Mk V in their Malta factory. However, only 3 right - hand drive carbon - fibre AC Mk Vs powered by 340 bhp 5 - litre Ford V8 engines were built before the Maltese operation closed.
On April 20, 2008, AC announced its Heritage Series, the UK operations were granted to Brooklands Motor Company, dba AC Herirage. The USA operations were granted to AC AutoKraft, Llc, located in Michigan.
Both companies are licensed to produce traditional Aluminum body models: Ruddspeed, 289, and 427 continuation Aces and Cobras.
In 2009, AC has licensed Gullwing GmbH in Germany, dba AC - Automotive, to produce the AC MK VI, with an aluminium coated composite body and powered by a 6.2 litre 440 hp LS3 Chevrolet engine, or a 550 hp supercharged version.
In 2012, the AC Mrk II Classic was released. Available in either aluminum or fiberglass bodies.
In 2017, the AC Mrk1 260 Legacy edition was released in a limited production of nine cars. Also released was the AC 378 a newer composite body version of the Cobra.
In an effort to improve top speed along the legendary Mulsanne Straight at the 24 Hours of Le Mans race, a number of enclosed, coupe variations were constructed using the leafspring chassis and running gear of the AC / Shelby Cobra Mark II. The most famous and numerous of these were the official works Shelby Daytona Cobra Coupes. Six were constructed, each being subtly different from the rest.
AC Cars also produced a Le Mans coupé. The car was a one - off and was nearly destroyed after a high - speed tire blow - out at the 1964 Le Mans race. The car was qualified conservatively second in GT. The race started well with the AC, chassis number A98, maintaining its position in the top two in GT and even leading the class for a time. This was not to last as an act of sabotage (newspaper in the fuel tank) began to block the fuel filter. The car lost time until this was diagnosed and cleaned out. The car proceeded on at the predetermined conservative lap time and for the next stint remained trouble free. The car was able to match the Shelby Daytona 's speed despite running a higher differential ratio (2.88 instead of 3.07) and a lower state of engine tune for reliability (355 hp instead of the Daytona 's 385 hp).
The Willment race team became interested in Shelby 's Cobra - based coupe and inquired on purchasing one. Shelby turned down the offer, but supplied the drawings to Willment. Dubbed the Willment Cobra Coupe, this car was fully built by the JWA racing team and numbered 2131 on the frame.
A prototype (CSX 3027) was to become 427 Coupe, but since the focus was shifted towards the GT program, this project received little attention. The bodywork and chassis were soon scrapped.
Two further chassis were ordered number CSX 3054 and CSX 3055. This project was also abandoned with just CSX 3054 receiving a body. CSX 3055 was sold to the Willment Race Team and was fitted with a FIAT body designed by Ghia.
In 1993 the Los Angeles Times exposed a Carroll Shelby scheme to "Counterfeit '' his own cars. With the price of an original 427 c.i. Cobra skyrocketing, Shelby had, by his own written declaration executed under penalty of perjury, caused the California Department of Motor Vehicles (the government agency responsible for titling vehicles and issuing operator permits) to utter forty - three "Duplicate Titles '' for vehicles that did not officially exist in company records. A letter from AC Cars confirmed the fact that the chassis numbers Shelby had obtained titles for were never manufactured, at least by AC Cars. Only fifty - five 427 c.i. Cobras had been originally produced out of a block of serial numbers reserved for 100 vehicles. Shelby had taken advantage of a loophole in the California system that allowed one to obtain a duplicate title for a vehicle with only a written declaration, without the vehicle identification number appearing in the DMV 's database or the declarant ever presenting an actual vehicle for inspection. Shelby later admitted that the chassis had been manufactured in 1991 and ' 92 by McCluskey Ltd, an engineering firm in Torrance, California, and were not authentic AC chassis.
Since the late 1980s onwards, various companies have built what are known in the hobby as "Continuation Cars ''.
Shelby authorized continuations of the original AC - built Cobra series. Produced in Las Vegas, Nevada, these cars retain the general style and appearance of their original 1960s ancestors, but are fitted with modern amenities. Initially the car everyone wanted in a Continuation was a 427 S / C model which was represented in the CSX4000 series. This was meant to continue where the last 427 S / C production left off, at approximately serial number CSX3660 in the 1960s.
The initial CSX4000 series cars were completed from the chassis built by McCluskey Ltd as well as other new parts and reconditioned Ford engines. Given the value of the vehicle many "extra '' cars have appeared over the years, even some sharing the same chassis number. Gradually as the vintage parts supply ran low, newly constructed frames and body panels were obtained from a variety of suppliers. The production of chassis numbers CSX4001 to CSX4999 took roughly 20 years and many different business relationships to complete.
In 2009, CSX4999 was produced, concluding the 4000 series. Production has continued with the CSX6000 serial numbers, featuring "coil over '' suspension.
The 289 FIA "leaf spring '' race version of the car is reproduced as CSX7000, and the original "slab side '' leaf spring street car is the CSX8000 series. The Daytona Coupe is reproduced as the CSX 9000 series.
To date most continuations are produced in fiberglass, with some ordering cars with aluminium or carbon - fibre bodywork.
In 2004, at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit, Ford unveiled a concept for a modernized AC Cobra. The Ford Shelby Cobra Concept was a continuation of Ford 's effort to bring back the retro sports cars that had been successful in the 1960s, including the Ford GT40 and the fifth generation Ford Mustang.
In 2014 Shelby American announced a limited edition production of 50 cars for the 50th anniversary of the original 427 Shelby Cobra.
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the public debt is held as treasury bills treasury notes treasury bonds and u.s. savings bonds | United States Treasury security - Wikipedia
A United States Treasury security is an IOU from the US Government. It is a government debt instrument issued by the United States Department of the Treasury to finance government spending as an alternative to taxation. Treasury securities are often referred to simply as Treasuries. Since 2012 the management of government debt has been arranged by the Bureau of the Fiscal Service, succeeding the Bureau of the Public Debt.
There are four types of marketable treasury securities: Treasury bills, Treasury notes, Treasury bonds, and Treasury Inflation Protected Securities (TIPS). There are also several types of non-marketable treasury securities including State and Local Government Series (SLGS), Government Account Series debt issued to government - managed trust funds, and savings bonds. All of the marketable Treasury securities are very liquid and are heavily traded on the secondary market. The non-marketable securities (such as savings bonds) are issued to subscribers and can not be transferred through market sales.
Federal Reserve Banks are required to hold collateral equal in value to the Federal Reserve notes that the Federal Reserve Bank puts into circulation. This collateral is chiefly held in the form of U.S. Treasury debt and government - sponsored enterprise securities.
To finance the costs of World War I the U.S. Government increased income taxes (see the War Revenue Act of 1917) and government debt, called war bonds. Traditionally, the government borrowed from other countries, but there were no other countries from which to borrow in 1917.
The Treasury raised funding throughout the war by selling $21.5 billion in ' Liberty bonds. ' These bonds were sold at subscription where officials created coupon price and then sold it at par value. At this price, subscriptions could be filled in as little as one day, but usually remained open for several weeks, depending on demand for the bond.
After the war, the Liberty bonds were reaching maturity, but the Treasury was unable to pay each down fully with only limited budget surpluses. The resolution to this problem was to refinance the debt with variable short and medium - term maturities. Again the Treasury issued debt through fixed - price subscription, where both the coupon and the price of the debt were dictated by the Treasury.
The problems with debt issuance became apparent in the late - 1920s. The system suffered from chronic over-subscription, where interest rates were so attractive that there were more purchasers of debt than supplied by the government. This indicated that the government was paying too much for debt. As government debt was undervalued, debt purchasers could buy from the government and immediately sell to another market participant at a higher price.
In 1929, the US Treasury shifted from the fixed - price subscription system to a system of auctioning where ' Treasury Bills ' would be sold to the highest bidder. Securities were then issued on a pro rata system where securities would be allocated to the highest bidder until their demand was full. If more treasuries were supplied by the government, they would then be allocated to the next highest bidder. This system allowed the market, rather than the government, to set the price. On December 10, 1929, the Treasury issued its first auction. The result was the issuing of $224 million three - month bills. The highest bid was at 99.310 with the lowest bid accepted at 99.152.
Treasury bills (or T - bills) mature in one year or less. Like zero - coupon bonds, they do not pay interest prior to maturity; instead they are sold at a discount of the par value to create a positive yield to maturity.
Regular weekly T - Bills are commonly issued with maturity dates of 28 days (or 4 weeks, about a month), 91 days (or 13 weeks, about 3 months), 182 days (or 26 weeks, about 6 months), and 364 days (or 52 weeks, about 1 year). Treasury bills are sold by single - price auctions held weekly. Offering amounts for 13 - week and 26 - week bills are announced each Thursday for auction, usually at 11: 30 a.m., on the following Monday and settlement, or issuance, on Thursday. Offering amounts for 4 - week bills are announced on Monday for auction the next day, Tuesday, usually at 11: 30 a.m., and issuance on Thursday. Offering amounts for 52 - week bills are announced every fourth Thursday for auction the next Tuesday, usually at 11: 30 am, and issuance on Thursday. Purchase orders at TreasuryDirect must be entered before 11: 00 on the Monday of the auction. The minimum purchase, effective April 7, 2008, is $100. (This amount formerly had been $1,000.) Mature T - bills are also redeemed on each Thursday. Banks and financial institutions, especially primary dealers, are the largest purchasers of T - bills.
Like other securities, individual issues of T - bills are identified with a unique CUSIP number. The 13 - week bill issued three months after a 26 - week bill is considered a re-opening of the 26 - week bill and is given the same CUSIP number. The 4 - week bill issued two months after that and maturing on the same day is also considered a re-opening of the 26 - week bill and shares the same CUSIP number. For example, the 26 - week bill issued on March 22, 2007, and maturing on September 20, 2007, has the same CUSIP number (912795A27) as the 13 - week bill issued on June 21, 2007, and maturing on September 20, 2007, and as the 4 - week bill issued on August 23, 2007 that matures on September 20, 2007.
During periods when Treasury cash balances are particularly low, the Treasury may sell cash management bills (or CMBs). These are sold at a discount and by auction just like weekly Treasury bills. They differ in that they are irregular in amount, term (often less than 21 days), and day of the week for auction, issuance, and maturity. When CMBs mature on the same day as a regular weekly bill, usually Thursday, they are said to be on - cycle. The CMB is considered another reopening of the bill and has the same CUSIP. When CMBs mature on any other day, they are off - cycle and have a different CUSIP number.
Treasury bills are quoted for purchase and sale in the secondary market on an annualized discount percentage, or basis. General calculation for the discount yield for Treasury bills is:
Treasury notes (or T - notes) mature in two to ten years, have a coupon payment every six months, and have denominations of $1,000. In the basic transaction, one buys a $1,000 T - Note for $950, collects interest of 3 % per year over 10 years, which comes to $30 yearly, and at the end of the 10 years cashes it in for $1000. So, $950 over the course of 10 years becomes $1300.
T - Notes and T - Bonds are quoted on the secondary market at percentage of par in thirty - seconds of a point (n / 32 of a point, for n = 1, 2, 3,...). Thus, for example, a quote of 95: 07 on a note indicates that it is trading at a discount: $952.22 (i.e., 95 + 7 / 32 %) for a $1,000 bond. (Several different notations may be used for bond price quotes. The example of 95 and 7 / 32 points may be written as 95: 07, or 95 - 07, or 95'07, or decimalized as 95.21875.) Other notation includes a +, which indicates 1 / 64 points and a third digit may be specified to represent 1 / 256 points. Examples include 95: 07 + which equates to (95 + 7 / 32 + 1 / 64) and 95: 073 which equates to (95 + 7 / 32 + 3 / 256). Notation such as 95: 073 + is not typically used.
The 10 - year Treasury note has become the security most frequently quoted when discussing the performance of the U.S. government bond market and is used to convey the market 's take on longer - term macroeconomic expectations.
Treasury bonds (T - Bonds, or the long bond) have the longest maturity, from twenty years to thirty years. They have a coupon payment every six months like T - Notes, and are commonly issued with maturity of thirty years.
The U.S. Federal government suspended issuing 30 - year Treasury bonds for four years from February 18, 2002 to February 9, 2006. As the U.S. government used budget surpluses to pay down Federal debt in the late 1990s, the 10 - year Treasury note began to replace the 30 - year Treasury bond as the general, most - followed metric of the U.S. bond market. However, because of demand from pension funds and large, long - term institutional investors, along with a need to diversify the Treasury 's liabilities -- and also because the flatter yield curve meant that the opportunity cost of selling long - dated debt had dropped -- the 30 - year Treasury bond was re-introduced in February 2006 and is now issued quarterly.
Treasury Inflation - Protected Securities (or TIPS) are the inflation - indexed bonds issued by the U.S. Treasury. The principal is adjusted to the Consumer Price Index (CPI), the commonly used measure of inflation. When the CPI rises, the principal adjusts upward. If the index falls, the principal adjusts downwards. The coupon rate is constant, but generates a different amount of interest when multiplied by the inflation - adjusted principal, thus protecting the holder against the official inflation rate (as asserted by the CPI). TIPS were introduced in 1997. TIPS are currently offered in 5 - year, 10 - year and 30 - year maturities.
Separate Trading of Registered Interest and Principal Securities (or STRIPS) are T - Notes, T - Bonds and TIPS whose interest and principal portions of the security have been separated, or "stripped ''; these may then be sold separately (in units of $100 face value) in the secondary market. The name derives from the days before computerization, when paper bonds were physically traded; traders would literally tear the interest coupons off of paper securities for separate resale.
The government does not directly issue STRIPS; they are formed by investment banks or brokerage firms, but the government does register STRIPS in its book - entry system. They can not be bought through TreasuryDirect, but only through a broker.
STRIPS are used by the Treasury and split into individual principal and interest payments, which get resold in the form of zero - coupon bonds. Because they then pay no interest, there is not any interest to re-invest, and so there is no reinvestment risk with STRIPS.
The "Certificate of Indebtedness '' (C of I) is a Treasury security that does not earn any interest and has no fixed maturity. It can only be held in a TreasuryDirect account and bought or sold directly through the Treasury. It is intended to be used as a source of funds for traditional Treasury security purchases. Purchases and redemptions can be made at any time.
Government Account Series Treasurys (GAS) are the principal form of intragovernmental debt holdings.
Savings bonds were created to finance World War II. Unlike Treasury Bonds, they are not marketable. In 2002, the Treasury Department started changing the savings bond program by lowering interest rates and closing its marketing offices. As of January 1, 2012, financial institutions no longer sell paper savings bonds. The annual (calendar year) purchase limit for electronic Series EE and Series I savings bonds is $10,000 for each series. The limit is applied per Social Security Number (SSN) or Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN). For paper Series I Savings Bonds purchased through IRS tax refunds (see below), the purchase limit is $5,000 per SSN, which is in addition to the online purchase limit.
Series EE bonds reach maturity (double in value) 20 years from issuance though they continue to earn interest for a total of 30 years. Interest accrues monthly and is paid when the holder cashes the bond. For bonds issued before May 2005 the rate of interest is recomputed every six months at 90 % of the average five - year Treasury yield for the preceding six months. Bonds issued in May 2005 or later pay a fixed interest rate for the life of the bond (0.10 % in November 2016). At 0.10 %, a $100 bond would be worth about $102 just before 20 years, but will be adjusted to the maturity value of $200 at 20 years (giving it an effective rate of 3.5 %) then continue to earn the fixed rate for 10 more years. In the space of a decade, interest dropped from well over 5 % to 0.7 % for new bonds in 2009. Paper EE bonds, last sold in 2011, were issued with a face value of twice their purchase price, so a $100 bond could be bought for $50, but would not be worth $100 until maturity.
Series I bonds have a variable yield based on inflation. The interest rate consists of two components: the first is a fixed rate which will remain constant over the life of the bond. The second component is a variable rate reset every six months from the time the bond is purchased based on the current inflation rate. New rates are published on May 1 and November 1 of every year. The fixed rate is determined by the Treasury Department (0.00 % in May 2017); the variable component is based on the Consumer Price Index (CPI - U) from a six - month period ending one month prior to the reset time (0.98 % in May 2017, reflecting the CPI - U from September to March, published in mid-April, for an effective annual inflation rate of 1.96 %). As an example, if someone purchases a bond in February, they will lock in the current fixed rate forever, but the inflation component will be based on the rate published the previous November. In August, six months after the purchase month, the inflation component will now change to the rate that was published in May while the fixed rate remains locked. Interest accrues monthly, in full, on the first day of the month (i.e., a Savings Bond will have the same value on July 1 as on July 31, but on August 1 its value will increase for the August interest accrual). The fixed portion of the rate has varied from as much as 3.6 % to 0 %. During times of deflation (during part of 2009 and again in 2015), the negative inflation portion can wipe out the return of the fixed portion, but the combined rate can not go below 0 % and the bond will not lose value.
Besides being available for purchase online, tax payers may purchase I - bonds using a portion of their tax refund via IRS Form 8888 Allocation of Refund. Bonds purchased using Form 8888 are issued as paper bonds and mailed to the address listed on the tax return. Tax payers may purchase bonds for themselves or other persons such as children or grandchildren. The remainder of the tax payer 's refund may be received by direct deposit or check.
Series HH bonds have been discontinued. Unlike Series EE and I bonds, they do not increase in value, but pay interest every six months for 20 years. When they are cashed in or mature they are still worth face value. Issuance of Series HH bonds ended August 31, 2004.
For the quantitative easing policy, the Federal Reserve holdings of U.S. Treasuries increased from $750 billion in 2007 to over $1.7 trillion as of end - March 2013. On September 13, 2012, in an 11 - to - 1 vote, the Federal Reserve announced they were also buying $45 billion in long - term Treasuries each month on top of the $40 billion a month in mortgage - backed securities. The program is called QE3 because it is the Fed 's third try at quantitative easing. The result is that an enormous proportion of the US debt is actually owed from the Treasury to the Federal Reserve; according to a 1947 law, the Federal Reserve must return this money to the Treasury each year, after expenses.
After the Federal Reserve buys Treasury securities on the open market as part of the QE program (as it is prohibited from buying them directly from the US Treasury at auction), the Federal Reserve receives its interest thereafter, instead of the private sector seller. The amount of that interest payment is thereby removed from the economy. In 2012, the Federal Reserve collected nearly $82 billion in interest profit from its treasury securities purchases. (Page 302 of the 2013 "100th Annual Report '') After expenses (district Federal Reserve property taxes, salaries, facilities management, dividends, etc.), it returns all money to the US Treasury.
In 2013, the Federal Reserve earned $91,149,953,000. It paid the US Treasury $79,633,271,000, not including the $701,522,000 it paid Treasury 's Bureau of Printing and Engraving to create walking - around physical cash and currency. (Page 302 of the 2013 "100th Annual Report '')
As of June 30, 2016, the foreign holders of at least $150 billion of U.S. Treasury securities are:
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how have greek artistic traditions influenced modern life | Culture of Greece - wikipedia
The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and states such as the Persian Empire, and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, Genoese Republic, and British Empire have also left their influence on modern Greek culture, but historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to a single entity of its multi-faceted culture.
Greece is widely considered to be the cradle of Western culture and democracy. Modern democracies owe a debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history, philosophy, and physics. They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In their pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.
Ancient Greek architecture is best known through its temples and theatres.
Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine architecture emphasized a Greek cross layout, the Byzantine capitol style of column (a mixture of Ionic and Corinthian capitols) and a central dome surrounded by several smaller domes.
During the Ottoman conquest, the Greek architecture was concentrated mainly on the Greek Orthodox churches of the Greek diaspora. These churches, such as other intellectual centres (foundations, schools, etc.) built by Greeks in Diaspora, was heavily influenced by the western European architecture. After the independence of Greece and during the nineteenth century, the Neoclassical architecture was heavily used for both public and private building. The 19th - century architecture of Athens and other cities of the Greek Kingdom is mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture, with architects like Theophil Hansen, Ernst Ziller and Stamatios Kleanthis. Regarding the churches, Greece also experienced the Neo-Byzantine revival.
In 1933 the Athens Charter, a manifesto of the modernist movement, was signed, and was published later by Le Corbusier. Architects of this movement were among others: the Bauhaus - architect Ioannis Despotopoulos, Dimitris Pikionis, Patroklos Karantinos and Takis Zenetos. After World War II and the Greek civil war, the massive construction of condominiums in the major Greek city centres, was a major contributory factor for the Greek economy and the post-war recovery. The first skyscrapers were also constructed during the 1960s and 1970s, such as the OTE Tower and the Athens Tower Complex.
During the 1960s and 1970s, Xenia was a nationwide hotel construction program initiated by the Hellenic Tourism Organisation (Ελληνικός Οργανισμός Τουρισμού, EOT) to improve the country 's tourism infrastructure. It constitutes one of the largest infrastructure projects in modern Greek history. The first manager of the project was the architect Charalambos Sfaellos (from 1950 to 1958) and from 1957 the buildings were designed by a team under Aris Konstantinidis.
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896 but the first actual cine - theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films begun. Golfo (Γκόλφω), a well known traditional love story, is the first Greek long movie, although there were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931, Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), contained the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many as the Greek Golden age of Cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Melina Mercouri, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, Irene Papas etc. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Notable films were Η κάλπικη λίρα (1955 directed by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956 directed by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955 directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis). Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Η Θεία από το Σικάγο, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos directed a series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and a Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora such as the Greek - American Elia Kazan.
Greece has a diverse and highly influential musical tradition, with ancient music influencing the Roman Empire, and Byzantine liturgical chants and secular music influencing middle eastern music and the Renaissance. Modern Greek music combines these elements, to carry Greeks ' interpretation of a wide range of musical forms.
The history of music in Greece begins with the music of ancient Greece, largely structured on the Lyre and other supporting string instruments of the era. Beyond the well - known structural legacies of the Pythagorean scale, and the related mathematical developments it upheld to define western classical music, relatively little is understood about the precise character of music during this period; we do know, however, that it left, as so often, a strong mark on the culture of Rome. What has been gleaned about the social role and character of ancient Greek music comes largely from pottery and other forms of Greek art.
Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by the gods and therefore associated it with religious ceremony. They believed that the gods offered this gift to select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow - men.
Periodic evidence in ancient texts indicates that dance was held in high regard, in particular for its educational qualities. Dance, along with writing, music, and physical exercise, was fundamental to the commenced in a circle and ended with the dancers facing one another. When not dancing in a circle the dancers held their hands high or waved them to left and right. They held cymbals (very like the zilia of today) or a kerchief in their hands, and their movements were emphasized by their long sleeves. As they danced, they sang, either set songs or extemporized ones, sometimes in unison, sometimes in refrain, repeating the verse sung by the lead dancer. The onlookers joined in, clapping the rhythm or singing. Professional singers, often the musicians themselves, composed lyrics to suit the occasion.
The Byzantine music is also of major significance to the history and development of European music, as liturgical chants became the foundation and stepping stone for music of the Renaissance (see: Renaissance Music). It is also certain that Byzantine music included an extensive tradition of instrumental court music and dance; any other picture would be both incongruous with the historically and archaeologically documented opulence of the Eastern Roman Empire. There survive a few but explicit accounts of secular music. A characteristic example is the accounts of pneumatic organs, whose construction was further advanced in the eastern empire prior to their development in the west following the Renaissance.
Byzantine instruments included the guitar, single, double or multiple flute, sistrum, timpani (drum), psaltirio, Sirigs, lyre, cymbals, keras and kanonaki.
Popular dances of this period included the Syrtos, Geranos, Mantilia, Saximos, Pyrichios, and Kordakas. Some of these dances have their origins in the ancient period and are still enacted in some form today.
A range of domestically and internationally known composers and performers across the musical spectrum have found success in modern Greece, while traditional Greek music is noted as a mixture of influences from indigenous culture with those of west and east. A few Ottoman elements can be heard in the traditional songs, dhimotiká, as well as in the modern bluesy rembétika music. A well - known Greek musical instrument is the bouzouki. "Bouzouki '' is a descriptive Turkish name, but the instrument itself is probably of Greek origin (from the ancient Greek lute known as pandoura, a kind of guitar, clearly visible in ancient statues, especially female figurines of the "Tanagraies '' playing cord instruments).
Famous Greek musicians and composers of modern era include the central figure of 20th - century European modernism Iannis Xenakis, a composer, architect and theorist. Maria Callas, Nikos Skalkottas, Mikis Theodorakis, Dimitris Mitropoulos, Manos Hadjidakis and Vangelis also lead twentieth - century Greek contributions, alongside Demis Roussos, Nana Mouskouri, Yanni, Georges Moustaki, Eleni Karaindrou and others.
The birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή) came through the Ionian Islands (notable composers include Spyridon Samaras, Nikolaos Mantzaros and Pavlos Carrer), while Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School.
Greece is one of the few places in Europe where the day - to - day role of folk dance is sustained. Rather than functioning as a museum piece preserved only for performances and special events, it is a vivid expression of everyday life. Occasions for dance are usually weddings, family celebrations, and paneyeria (Patron Saints ' name days). Dance has its place in ceremonial customs that are still preserved in Greek villages, such as dancing the bride during a wedding and dancing the trousseau of the bride during the wedding preparations. The carnival and Easter offer more opportunities for family gatherings and dancing. Greek taverns providing live entertainment often include folk dances in their program.
Regional characteristics have developed over the years because of variances in climatic conditions, land morphology and people 's social lives. In later years, wars, international pacts and consequent movement of populations, and even movements of civil servants around the country, intermingled traditions. People learned new dances, adapted them to their environment, and included them in their feasts. Kalamatianos and Syrtos are considered Pan-Hellenic dances and are danced all over the world in diaspora communities. Others have also crossed boundaries and are known beyond the regions where they originated; these include the Pentozali from Crete, Hasapiko from Constantinople, Zonaradikos from Thrace, Serra from Pontos and Balos from the Aegean islands.
The avant - garde choreographer, director and dancer Dimitris Papaioannou was responsible for the critically successful opening ceremony of the 2004 Olympic Games, with a conception that reflected the classical influences on modern and experimental Greek dance forms.
There were several interconnected traditions of painting in ancient Greece. Due to their technical differences, they underwent somewhat differentiated developments. Not all painting techniques are equally well represented in the archaeological record. The most respected form of art, according to authors like Pliny or Pausanias, were individual, mobile paintings on wooden boards, technically described as panel paintings. Also, the tradition of wall painting in Greece goes back at least to the Minoan and Mycenaean Bronze Age, with the lavish fresco decoration of sites like Knossos, Tiryns and Mycenae.
Much of the figural or architectural sculpture of ancient Greece was painted colourfully. This aspect of Greek stonework is described as polychrome (from Greek πολυχρωμία, πολύ = many and χρώμα = colour). Due to intensive weathering, polychromy on sculpture and architecture has substantially or totally faded in most cases.
Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century AD until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The most salient feature of this new aesthetic was its "abstract, '' or anti-naturalistic character. If classical art was marked by the attempt to create representations that mimicked reality as closely as possible, Byzantine art seems to have abandoned this attempt in favor of a more symbolic approach. The Byzantine painting concentrated mainly on icons and hagiographies.
The term Cretan School describes an important school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements. The most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe.
The Heptanese School of painting succeeded the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.
Modern Greek painting, after the independence and the creation of the modern Greek state, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism and the Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art. Notable painters of the era include Nikolaos Gyzis, Georgios Jakobides, Nikiphoros Lytras, Konstantinos Volanakis and Theodoros Vryzakis.
Ancient Greek monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century. Both marble and bronze are fortunately easy to form and very durable. Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. By the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and early 21st century that the painting of ancient Greek sculptures became an established fact. Using high - intensity lamps, ultraviolet light, specially designed cameras, plaster casts, and certain powdered minerals, Brinkmann proved that the entire Parthenon, including the actual structure as well as the statues, had been painted.
The Byzantines inherited the early Christian distrust of monumental sculpture in religious art, and produced only reliefs, of which very few survivals are anything like life - size, in sharp contrast to the medieval art of the West, where monumental sculpture revived from Carolingian art onwards. Small ivories were also mostly in relief.
The so - called "minor arts '' were very important in Byzantine art and luxury items, including ivories carved in relief as formal presentation Consular diptychs or caskets such as the Veroli casket, hardstone carvings, enamels, jewelry, metalwork, and figured silks were produced in large quantities throughout the Byzantine era. Many of these were religious in nature, although a large number of objects with secular or non-representational decoration were produced: for example, ivories representing themes from classical mythology. Byzantine ceramics were relatively crude, as pottery was never used at the tables of the rich, who ate off silver.
After the establishment of the Greek Kingdom and the western influence of Neoclassicism, sculpture was re-discovered by the Greek artists. Main themes included the ancient Greek antiquity, the War of Independence and important figures of the Greek history.
Notable sculptors of the new state were Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis.
Theatre was born in Greece. The city - state of Classical Athens, which became a significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there. Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and allies in order to promote a common cultural identity.
The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word "tragedy '' is derived, is a compound of two Greek words: τράγος (tragos) or "goat '' and ᾠδή (ode) meaning "song '', from ἀείδειν (aeidein), "to sing ''. This etymology indicates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy and comedy.
During the Byzantine period, the theatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk theatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state. Later, during the Ottoman period, the main theatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek theatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek theatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean theatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first theatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas ' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian theatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek theatre include Alexandros Rizos Rangavis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Angelos Terzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.
Greek cuisine has a long tradition and its flavors change with the season and its geography. Greek cookery, historically a forerunner of Western cuisine, spread its culinary influence -- via ancient Rome -- throughout Europe and beyond.
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality and was founded on the "Mediterranean triad '': wheat, olive oil, and wine, with meat being rarely eaten and fish being more common. It was Archestratos in 320 B.C. who wrote the first cookbook in history. Greece has a culinary tradition of some 4,000 years.
The Byzantine cuisine was similar to the classical cuisine including however new ingredients that were not available before, like caviar, nutmeg and lemons, basil, with fish continuing to be an integral part of the diet. Culinary advice was influenced by the theory of humors, first put forth by the ancient Greek doctor Claudius Aelius Galenus.
The modern Greek cuisine has also influences from the Ottoman and Italian cuisine due to the Ottoman and Venetian dominance through the centuries.
Greece is one of the oldest wine - producing regions in the world. The earliest evidence of Greek wine has been dated to 6,500 years ago where wine was produced on a household or communal basis. In ancient times, as trade in wine became extensive, it was transported from end to end of the Mediterranean; Greek wine had especially high prestige in Italy under the Roman Empire. In the medieval period, wines exported from Crete, Monemvasia and other Greek ports fetched high prices in northern Europe.
Education in Greece is compulsory for all children 6 -- 15 years old; namely, it includes Primary (Dimotiko) and Lower Secondary (Gymnasio) Education. The school life of the students, however, can start from the age of 2.5 years (pre-school education) in institutions (private and public) called "Vrefonipiakoi Paidikoi Stathmi '' (creches). In some Vrefonipiakoi Stathmoi there are also Nipiaka Tmimata (nursery classes) which operate along with the Nipiagogeia (kindergartens).
Post-compulsory Secondary Education, according to the reforms of 1997 and 2006, consists of two main school types: Genika Lykeia (General Upper Secondary Schools) and the Epaggelmatika Lykeia (Vocational Upper Secondary Schools), as well as the Epaggelmatikes Sxoles (Vocational Schools). Musical, Ecclesiastical and Physical Education Gymnasia and Lykeia are also in operation.
Post-compulsory Secondary Education also includes the Vocational Training Institutes (IEK), which provide formal but unclassified level of education. These Institutes are not classified as an educational level, because they accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates according to the relevant specializations they provide. Public higher education is divided into Universities and Technological Education Institutes (TEI). Students are admitted to these Institutes according to their performance at national level examinations taking place at the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students are admitted to the Hellenic Open University upon the completion of the 22 year of age by drawing lots.
Nea Dimokratia (New Democracy), the Greek conservative right political party, has claimed that it will change the law so that private universities gain recognition. Without official recognition, students who have an EES degree are unable to work in the public sector. PASOK took some action after EU intervention, namely the creation of a special government agency which certifies the vocational status of certain EES degree holders. However, their academic status still remains a problem. The issue of full recognition is still an issue of debate among Greek politicians.
The Institute of Entrepreneurship Development (iED) is a Greek Non-governmental organization formed for the promotion of innovation and for enhancing the spirit of entrepreneurship intending to link with other European initiatives.
The origins of Western literature and of the main branches of Western learning may be traced to the era of Greek greatness that began before 700 BC with the epics of Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Hesiod, the first didactic poet, put into epic verse his descriptions of pastoral life, including practical advice on farming, and allegorical myths. The poets Alcaeus of Mytilene, Sappho, Anacreon, and Bacchylides wrote of love, war, and death in lyrics of great feeling and beauty. Pindar celebrated the Panhellenic athletic festivals in vivid odes. The fables of the slave Aesop have been famous for more than 2,500 years. Three of the world 's greatest dramatists were Aeschylus, author of the Oresteia trilogy; Sophocles, author of the Theban plays; and Euripides, author of Medea, The Trojan Women, and The Bacchae. Aristophanes, the greatest author of comedies, satirized the mores of his day in a series of brilliant plays. Three great historians were Herodotus, regarded as the father of history, known for The Persian Wars; Thucydides, who generally avoided myth and legend and applied greater standards of historical accuracy in his History of the Peloponnesian War; and Xenophon, best known for his account of the Greek retreat from Persia, the Anabasis. Outstanding literary figures of the Hellenistic period were Menander, the chief representative of a newer type of comedy; the poets Callimachus, Theocritus, and Apollonius Rhodius, author of the Argonautica; and Polybius, who wrote a detailed history of the Mediterranean world. Noteworthy in the Roman period were Strabo, a writer on geography; Plutarch, the father of biography, whose Parallel Lives of famous Greeks and Romans is a chief source of information about great figures of antiquity; Pausanias, a travel writer; and Lucian, a satirist.
The leading philosophers of the period preceding Greece 's golden age were Thales, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Protagoras, and Democritus. Socrates investigated ethics and politics. His greatest pupil, Plato, used Socrates ' question - and - answer method of investigating philosophical problems in his famous dialogues. Plato 's pupil Aristotle established the rules of deductive reasoning but also used observation and inductive reasoning, applying himself to the systematic study of almost every form of human endeavor. Outstanding in the Hellenistic period were Epicurus, the philosopher of moderation; Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism; and Diogenes of Sinope, the famous Cynic. The oath of Hippocrates, the father of medicine, is still recited by newly graduating physicians. Euclid evolved the system of geometry that bears his name. Archimedes discovered the principles of mechanics and hydrostatics. Eratosthenes calculated the earth 's circumference with remarkable accuracy, and Hipparchus Founded scientific astronomy. Galen was an outstanding physician of ancient times.
The sculptor Phidias created the statue of Athena and the figure of Zeus in the temple at Olympia and supervised the construction and decoration of the Parthenon. Another renowned sculptor was Praxiteles.
The legal reforms of Solon served as the basis of Athenian democracy. The Athenian general Miltiades the Younger led the victory over the Persians at Marathon in 490 BC, and Themistocles was chiefly responsible for the victory at Salamis 10 years later. Pericles, the virtual ruler of Athens for more than 25 years, added to the political power of that city, inaugurated the construction of the Parthenon and other noteworthy buildings, and encouraged the arts of sculpture and painting. With the decline of Athens, first Sparta and then Thebes, under the great military tactician Epaminondas, gained the ascendancy; but soon thereafter, two military geniuses, Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander the Great, gained control over all of Greece and formed a vast empire stretching as far east as India. It was against Philip that Demosthenes, the greatest Greek orator, directed his diatribes, the Philippics.
The most renowned Greek painter during the Renaissance was El Greco, born in Crete, whose major works, painted in Spain, have influenced many 20th - century artists. An outstanding modern literary figure is Nikos Kazantzakis, a novelist and poet who composed a vast sequel to Homer 's Odyssey. Leading modern poets are Kostis Palamas, and Constantine P. Cavafy, as well as George Seferis, and Odysseus Elytis, winners of the Nobel Prize for literature in 1963 and 1979, respectively. The work of social theorist Cornelius Castoriadis is known for its multidisciplinary breadth. Musicians of stature are the composers Nikos Skalkottas, Iannis Xenakis, and Mikis Theodorakis; the conductor Dmitri Mitropoulos; and the soprano Maria Callas. Filmmakers who have won international acclaim are Greek - Americans John Cassavetes and Elia Kazan, and Greeks Michael Cacoyannis and Costa - Gavras. Actresses of note are Katina Paxinou; Melina Mercouri, who was appointed minister of culture and science in the Socialist cabinet in 1981; and Irene Papas.
Outstanding Greek public figures in the 20th century include Cretan - born Eleutherios Venizelos, prominent statesman of the interwar period; Ioannis Metaxas, dictator from 1936 until his death; Constantine Karamanlis, prime minister (1955 -- 63, 1974 -- 80) and president (1980 -- 85) of Greece; George Papandreou, head of the Center Union Party and prime minister (1963 -- 65); and his son Andreas Papandreou, the PASOK leader who became prime minister in 1981. Costas Simitis was leader of PASOK and prime minister from 1996 -- 2004. He was succeeded by Kostas Karamanlis.
The Greek language is the official language of the Hellenic Republic and has a total of 15 million speakers worldwide; it is an Indo - European language. It is particularly remarkable in the depth of its continuity, beginning with the pre-historic Mycenaean Greek and the Linear B script, and maybe the Linear A script associated with Minoan civilization, though Linear A is still undeciphered. Greek language is clearly detected in the Mycenaean language and the Cypriot syllabary, and eventually the dialects of Ancient Greek, of which Attic Greek bears the most resemblance to Modern Greek. The history of the language spans over 3400 years of written records.
Greek has had enormous impact on other languages both directly on the Romance languages, and indirectly through its influence on the emerging Latin language during the early days of Rome. Signs of this influence, and its many developments, can be seen throughout the family of Western European languages.
More recently, the rise of internet - based communication services as well as cell phones have caused a distinctive form of Greek written partially, and sometimes fully in Latin characters to emerge; this is known as Greeklish, a form that has spread across the Greek diaspora and even to the two countries with majority Greek population, Greece and Cyprus.
Katharévousa is a purified form of the Greek Language midway between modern and ancient forms set in train during the early nineteenth century by Greek intellectual and revolutionary leader Adamantios Korais, intended to return the Greek language closer to its ancient form. Its influence, in recent years, evolved toward a more formal role, and it came to be used primarily for official purposes such as diplomacy, politics, and other forms of official documentation. It has nevertheless had significant effects on the Greek language as it is still written and spoken today, and both vocabulary and grammatical and syntactical forms have re-entered Modern Greek via Katharevousa.
There are a variety of dialects of the Greek language; the most notable include Cappadocian, Cretan Greek (which is closely related to most Aegean Islands ' dialects), Cypriot Greek, Pontic Greek, the Griko language spoken in Southern Italy, and Tsakonian, still spoken in the modern prefecture of Arcadia and widely noted as a surviving regional dialect of Doric Greek.
Greece has a remarkably rich and resilient literary tradition, extending over 2800 years and through several eras. The Classical era is that most commonly associated with Greek Literature, beginning in 800 BCE and maintaining its influence through to the beginnings of Byzantine period, whereafter the influence of Christianity began to spawn a new development of the Greek written word. The many elements of a millennia - old tradition are reflected in Modern Greek literature, including the works of the Nobel laureates Odysseus Elytis and George Seferis.
The first recorded works in the western literary tradition are the epic poems of Homer and Hesiod. Early Greek lyric poetry, as represented by poets such as Sappho and Pindar, was responsible for defining the lyric genre as it is understood today in western literature. Aesop wrote his Fables in the 6th century BC. These innovations were to have a profound influence not only on Roman poets, most notably Virgil in his epic poem on the founding of Rome, The Aeneid, but one that flourished throughout Europe.
Classical Greece is also judged the birthplace of theatre. Aeschylus introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting and in doing so, he effectively invented "drama '': his Oresteia trilogy of plays is judged his crowning achievement. Other refiners of playwriting were Sophocles and Euripides. Aristophanes, a comic playwright, defined and shaped the idea of comedy as a theatrical form.
Herodotus and Thucydides are often attributed with developing the modern study of history into a field worthy of philosophical, literary, and scientific pursuit. Polybius first introduced into study the concept of military history.
Philosophy entered literature in the dialogues of Plato, while his pupil Aristotle, in his work the Poetics, formulated the first set criteria for literary criticism. Both these literary figures, in the context of the broader contributions of Greek philosophy in the Classical and Hellenistic eras, were to give rise to idea of political Science, the study of political evolution and the critique of governmental systems.
The growth of Christianity throughout the Greco - Roman world in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, together with the Hellenization of the Byzantine Empire of the period, would lead to the formation of a unique literary form, combining Christian, Greek, Roman and Oriental (such as the Persian Empire) influences. In its turn, this would promote developments such as Cretan poetry, the growth of poetic satire in the Greek East and the several pre-eminent historians of the period.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in the Greek language from the 11th century, with texts written in a language that is more familiar to the ears of Greeks today than is the language of the early Byzantine times.
The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this early period of modern Greek literature, and represents one of its supreme achievements. It is a verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553 -- 1613). The other major representative of the Cretan literature was Georgios Chortatzis and his most notable work was Erofili. Other plays include The Sacrifice of Abraham by Kornaros, Panoria and Katsourbos by Chortatzis, King Rodolinos by Andreas Troilos, Stathis (comedy) and Voskopoula by unknown artists.
Much later, Diafotismos was an ideological, philological, linguistic and philosophical movement among 18th century Greeks that translate the ideas and values of European Enlightenment into the Greek world. Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios are two of the most notable figures. In 1819, Korakistika, written by Iakovakis Rizos Neroulos, was a lampoon against the Greek intellectual Adamantios Korais and his linguistic views, who favoured the use of a more conservative form of the Greek language, closer to the ancient.
The years before the Greek Independence, the Ionian islands became the center of the Heptanese School (literature). Its main characteristics was the Italian influence, romanticism, nationalism and use of Demotic Greek. Notable representatives were Andreas Laskaratos, Andreas Kalvos, Aristotelis Valaoritis and Dionysios Solomos.
After the independence the intellectual center was transferred in Athens. A major figure of this new era was Kostis Palamas, considered "national poet '' of Greece. He was the central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so - called New Athenian School (or Palamian School). Its main characteristic was the use of Demotic Greek. He was also the writer of the Olympic Hymn.
Moving into the twentieth century, the modern Greek literary tradition spans the work of Constantine P. Cavafy, considered a key figure of twentieth - century poetry, Giorgos Seferis (whose works and poems aimed to fuse the literature of Ancient and Modern Greece) and Odysseas Elytis, both of whom won the Nobel Prize for Literature. Nikos Kazantzakis is also considered a dominant figure, with works such as The Last Temptation of Christ and The Greek Passion receiving international recognition.
The Greek world is widely regarded as having given birth to scientific thought by means of observation, thought, and development of a theory without the intervention of a supernatural force. Thales, Anaximander and Democritus were amongst those contributing significantly to the establishment of this tradition. It is also, and perhaps more commonly in the western imagination, identified with the dawn of Western philosophy, as well as a mapping out of the natural sciences. Greek developments of mathematics continued well up until the decline of the Byzantine Empire. In the modern era Greeks continue to contribute to the fields of science, mathematics and philosophy.
The tradition of philosophy in ancient Greece accompanied its literary development. Greek learning had a profound influence on Western and Middle Eastern civilizations. The works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers profoundly influenced Classical thought, the Islamic Golden Age, and the Renaissance.
In medicine, doctors still refer to the Hippocratic oath, instituted by Hippocrates, regarded as foremost in laying the foundations of medicine as a science. Galen built on Hippocrates ' theory of the four humours, and his writings became the foundation of medicine in Europe and the Middle East for centuries. The physicians Herophilos and Paulus Aegineta were pioneers in the study of anatomy, while Pedanius Dioscorides wrote an extensive treatise on the practice of pharmacology.
The period of Classical Greece (from 800BC until the rise of Macedon, a Greek state in the north) is that most often associated with Greek advances in science. Thales of Miletus is regarded by many as the father of science; he was the first of the ancient philosophers to seek to explain the physical world in terms of natural rather than supernatural causes. Pythagoras was a mathematician often described as the "father of numbers ''; it is believed that he had the pioneering insight into the numerical ratios that determine the musical scale, and the Pythagorean theorem is commonly attributed to him. Diophantus of Alexandria, in turn, was the "father of algebra ''. Many parts of modern geometry are based on the work of Euclid, while Eratosthenes was one of the first scientific geographers, calculating the circumference of the earth and conceiving the first maps based on scientific principles.
The Hellenistic period, following Alexander 's conquests, continued and built upon this knowledge. Hipparchus is considered the pre-eminent astronomical observer of the ancient world, and was probably the first to develop an accurate method for the prediction of solar eclipse, while Aristarchus of Samos was the first known astronomer to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, though the geocentric model of Ptolemy was more commonly accepted until the seventeenth century. Ptolemy also contributed substantially to cartography and to the science of optics. For his part Archimedes was the first to calculate the value of π and a geometric series, and also the earliest known mathematical physicist discovering the law of buoyancy, as well as conceiving the irrigation device known as Archimedes ' screw.
The Byzantine period remained largely a period of preservation in terms of classical Greco - Roman texts; there were, however, significant advances made in the fields of medicine and historical scholarship. Theological philosophy also remained an area of study, and there was, while not matching the achievements of preceding ages, a certain increase in the professionalism of study of these subjects, epitomized by the founding of the University of Constantinople.
Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, the architects of the famous Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, also contributed towards mathematical theories concerning architectural form, and the perceived mathematical harmony needed to create a multi-domed structure. These ideas were to prove a heavy influence on the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in his creation of the Blue Mosque, also in Constantinople. Tralles in particular produced several treatises on the Natural Sciences, as well as his other forays into mathematics such as Conic Sections.
The gradual migration of Greeks from Byzantium to the Italian city states following the decline of the Byzantine Empire, and the texts they brought with them combined with the academic positions they held, was a major factor in lighting the first sparks of the Italian Renaissance.
Greeks continue to contribute to science and technology in the modern world. John Argyris, a mathematician and engineer, was among the creators of the finite element method and the direct stiffness method. Constantin Carathéodory made significant contributions to the theory of functions of a real variable, calculus of variations and measure theory, credited with the introduction of several mathematical theorems. In physics, John Iliopoulos is known for the prediction of the charm quark and the proposition of the GIM mechanism, as well as the Fayet -- Iliopoulos D - term formula, while Dimitri Nanopoulos is one of the principal developers of the Flipped SU (5) model.
Biologist Fotis Kafatos pioneers in the field of molecular cloning and genomics, and he was the founding president of the European Research Council. In medicine, Georgios Papanikolaou contributed heavily to the development of cervical screening inventing the Pap test, which is among the most common methods of cervical screening worldwide.
Car designer Alec Issigonis designed the groundbreaking and iconic Mini automobile, while Michael Dertouzos was amongst the pioneers of the Internet, instrumental in defining the World Wide Web Consortium and director for 27 years of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, which innovated in a variety of areas during his term. Nicholas Negroponte, is the founder of the MIT Media Lab and the One Laptop per Child project aiming to extend Internet access in the developing world. Joseph Sifakis, a computer scientist, has won a Turing Award for his pioneering work on model checking.
Greece is a Parliamentary Republic with a president assuming a more ceremonial role than in some other republics, and the Prime Minister chosen from the leader of the majority party in the parliament. Greece has a codified constitution and a written Bill of Rights embedded within it. The current Prime Minister is Alexis Tsipras.
The politics of the third Hellenic Republic have been dominated by two main political parties, the self - proclaimed socialists of PASOK and the conservative New Democracy. Until recently PASOK had dominated the political scene, presiding over favourable growth rates economically but in the eyes of critics failing to deliver where unemployment and structural issues such as market liberalization were concerned.
New Democracy 's election to government in 2004 has led to various initiatives to modernize the country, such as the education university scheme above as well as labour market liberalization. Politically there has been massive opposition to some of these moves owing to a large, well organized workers ' movement in Greece, which distrusts the right wing administration and neo-liberal ideas. The population in general appears to accept many of the initiatives, reflected in governmental support; on the economic front many are so far warming to the reforms made by the administration, which have been largely rewarded with above average Eurozone growth rates. New Democracy were re-elected in September 2007.
A number of other smaller political parties exist. They include the third largest party (the Communist Party), which still commands large support from many rural working areas as well as some of the immigrant population in Greece, as well as the far - right Popular Orthodox Rally, with the latter, while commanding a mere three and a half per cent of votes, seeking to capitalise on opposition in some quarters regarding Turkey 's EU accession and any tension in the Aegean. There is also a relatively small, but well organized anarchist movement, though its status in Greece has been somewhat exaggerated by media overseas.
The political process is energetically and openly participated in by the people of Greece, while public demonstrations are a continual feature of Athenian life; however, there have been criticisms of a governmental failure to sufficiently involve minorities in political debate and hence a sidelining of their opinions. In general, politics is regarded as an acceptable subject to broach on almost every social occasion, and Greeks are often very vocal about their support (or lack of it) for certain policy proposals, or political parties themselves -- this is perhaps reflected in what many consider the rather sensationalist media on both sides of the political spectrum; although this is a feature of most European tabloids.
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is a public holiday. In addition, there are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, August 15 (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin) and December 25 (Christmas). Two more days, May 1 (Labour Day) and October 28 (Ohi Day), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of these non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving a total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, there Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by a specific professional group or a local community. For example, many municipalities have a "Patron Saint '', also called "Name Day '', or a "Liberation Day '', and at this day is customary for schools to have a day off.
Notable festivals include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of a number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe,
Classical Athens may be suggested to have heralded some of the same religious ideas that would later be promoted by Christianity, such as Aristotle 's invocation of a perfect God, and Heraclitus ' Logos. Plato considered there were rewards for the virtuous in the heavens and punishment for the wicked under the earth; the soul was valued more highly than the material body, and the material world was understood to be imperfect and not fully real (illustrated in Socrates 's allegory of the cave).
Alexander 's conquests spread classical concepts about the divine, the afterlife, and much else across the eastern Mediterranean area. Jews and early Christians alike adopted the name "hades '' when writing about "sheol '' in Greek. Greco - Buddhism was the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed in the Indo - Greek Kingdoms. By the advent of Christianity, the four original patriarchates beyond Rome used Greek as their church language.
The Greek Orthodox Church, largely because of the importance of Byzantium in Greek history, as well as its role in the revolution, is a major institution in modern Greece. Its roles in society and larger role in overarching Greek culture are very important; a number of Greeks attend Church at least once a month or more and the Orthodox Easter holiday holds special significance.
The Church of Greece also retains limited political influence through the fact the Greek constitution does not have an explicit separation of Church and State; a debate suggested by more conservative elements of the church in the early 2000s about identification cards and whether religious affiliation might be added to them highlights the friction between state and church on some issues; the proposal unsurprisingly was not accepted. A widely publicised set of corruption scandals in 2004 implicating a small group of senior churchmen also increased national debate on introducing a greater transparency to the church - state relationship.
Greek Orthodox Churches dot both the villages and towns of Greece and come in a variety of architectural forms, from older Byzantine churches, to more modern white brick churches, to newer cathedral - like structures with evident Byzantine influence. Greece (as well as Cyprus), also polled as, ostensibly, one of the most religious countries in Europe, according to Eurostat; however, while the church has wide respect as a moral and cultural institution, a contrast in religious belief with Protestant northern Europe is more obvious than one with Catholic Mediterranean Europe.
Greece also has a significant minority of Muslims in Eastern Thrace (numbering around 100 - 150,000), with their places of worship guaranteed since the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The Greek state has fully approved the construction a main mosque for the more recent Muslim community of Athens under the freedom of religion provisions of the Greek constitution.
Other religious communities living in Greece include Roman Catholics, Protestants, Armenians, followers of the ancient Greek religion (see Hellenism (religion)), Jews and others.
Greece has risen to prominence in a number of sporting areas in recent decades. Football in particular has seen a rapid transformation, with the Greek national football team winning the 2004 UEFA European Football Championship. Many Greek athletes have also achieved significant success and have won world and olympic titles in numerous sports during the years, such as basketball, wrestling, water polo, athletics, weightlifting, with many of them becoming international stars inside their sports. The successful organisation of the Athens 2004 Olympic and Paralympic Games led also to the further development of many sports and has led to the creation of many World class sport venues all over Greece and especially in Athens. Greek athletes have won a total 146 medals for Greece in 15 different Olympic sports at the Summer Olympic Games, including the Intercalated Games, an achievement which makes Greece one of the top nations globally, in the world 's rankings of medals per capita.
The national colours of Greece are blue and white. The coat of arms of Greece consists of a white cross on a blue escutcheon which is surrounded by two laurel branches. The Flag of Greece is also blue and white, as defined by Law 851 / 1978 Regarding the National Flag. It specifies the colour of "cyan '' (Greek: κυανό, kyano), meaning "blue '', so the shade of blue is ambiguous.
The Order of the Redeemer and military decoration Cross of Valour both have ribbons in the national colours.
Since it was first established, the national emblem has undergone many changes in shape and in design. The original Greek national emblem depicted the goddess Athena and an owl. At the time of Ioannis Kapodistrias, the phoenix, the symbol of rebirth, was added.
Other recognizable symbols include the (throughout the Byzantine empire) double - headed eagle and the Vergina Sun.
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list of all govt medical colleges in india | List of Medical colleges in India - wikipedia
As of 2017, there are 460 medical colleges in India where qualifications are recognised by the Medical Council of India; these medical schools have a combined capacity to provide medical education for 63,985 students. The Medical Council of India 's motto is to provide quality medical care to all Indians through promotion and maintenance of excellence in medical education. Its website maintains an up - to - date list.
India 's medical schools are usually called medical colleges. Medical school quality is controlled by the central regulatory authority, the Medical Council of India, which inspects the institutes from time to time and recognises institutes for specific courses. Most of the medical school were set up by the central and state governments in the 1950s and 60s. But in the 1980s, several private medical institutes were founded in several states, particularly in Karnataka. Andhra Pradesh state allowed the founding of several private institutions in the new millennium. Medical education in a private institute is very expensive.
The basic medical qualification obtained in Indian medical schools is MBBS. The MBBS course is four - and - a-half years, followed by one year of Compulsory Rotating Residential Internship (CRRI). The MBBS course is followed by MS, a post-graduation course in surgical specialities, MS or MD and DNB (Highly qualified P.G. and Super specialization), which are postgraduate courses in medical specialities usually of three years duration, or by diploma postgraduate courses of two years duration. Super or sub-specialities can be pursued and only a MS or MD holder is eligible. A qualification in a super - or sub-speciality is called DM or M.Ch.
In most Indian states, entry to medical education is based on entrance examinations. Some prestigious institutes like the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Christian Medical College & Hospital (CMCH) Vellore, Kasturba Medical College (Manipal and Mangalore), Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER), Armed Forces Medical College (AFMC), St. John 's Medical College (Bangalore) and National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) conduct entrance tests at the national level and attract candidates from all over India.
Though India has many medical schools and produces thousands of medical graduates every year, there is a great shortage of doctors in rural areas. Most graduates do not wish to practice in rural areas due to understaffed hospitals and inadequate facilities.
India is one of only a few countries where graduates from local medical schools end up working in other countries all over the world, but particularly in the Middle East, the UK and the USA.
Indian states with the most medical colleges include Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh. States with the fewest include Manipur, Tripura, Chandigarh, Goa, and Sikkim. Following is an incomplete list of medical colleges in India.
Total: 600 seats
Total: 1400 seats
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what is the difference between republic of korea and south korea | South Korea - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 36 ° N 128 ° E / 36 ° N 128 ° E / 36; 128
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula and lying east to the Asian mainland. The name Korea is derived from Goguryeo which was one of the great powers in East Asia during its time, ruling most of the Korean Peninsula, Manchuria, parts of the Russian Far East and Inner Mongolia, under Gwanggaeto the Great. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone and has a predominantly mountainous terrain. It comprises an estimated 51.4 million residents distributed over 99,392 km (38,375 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 10 million.
Archaeology indicates that the Korean Peninsula was inhabited by early humans starting from the Lower Paleolithic period (2.6 Ma -- 300 Ka). The history of Korea begins with the foundation of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary king Dangun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Unified Silla in AD 668, Korea was subsequently ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918 -- 1392) and the Joseon dynasty (1392 -- 1910). It was annexed by the Empire of Japan in 1910. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided into Soviet and U.S. zones of occupations. A separate election was held in the U.S. zone in 1948 which led to the creation of the Republic of Korea (ROK), while the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (DPRK) was established in the Soviet zone. The United Nations at the time passed a resolution declaring the ROK to be the only lawful government in Korea.
The Korean War began in 1950 when forces from the North invaded the South. The war lasted three years and involved the U.S., China, the Soviet Union and several other nations. The border between the two nations remains the most heavily fortified in the world. Under long - time military leader Park Chung - hee, the South Korean economy grew significantly and the country was transformed into a G - 20 major economy. Military rule ended in 1987, and the country is now a presidential republic consisting of 17 administrative divisions.
South Korea is a developed country and a high - income economy, with a "very high '' Human Development Index, ranking 18th in the world. The country is considered a regional power and is the world 's 11th largest economy by nominal GDP and the 12th largest by PPP as of 2010. South Korea is a global leader in the industrial and technological sectors, being the world 's 5th largest exporter and 8th largest importer. Its export - driven economy primarily focuses production on electronics, automobiles, ships, machinery, petrochemicals and robotics. South Korea is a member of the ASEAN Plus mechanism, the United Nations, Uniting for Consensus, G20, the WTO and OECD and is a founding member of APEC and the East Asia Summit.
The name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a shortened form of its name. The 10th - century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, which was pronounced by visiting Persian merchants as "Korea ''. The modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Company 's Hendrick Hamel. Despite the coexistence of the spellings Corea and Korea in 19th century publications, some Koreans believe that Imperial Japan, around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardised the spelling on Korea, making Japan appear first alphabetically.
After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon (Old Joseon). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk (Korean Empire). The name Daehan, which means "Great Han '' literally, derives from Samhan (Three Hans), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea, not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula. However, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted. There were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea (대한민국 임시 정부 / 大韓民國 臨時 政府).
Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea (대한민국 / 大韓民國, IPA: ˈtɛ̝ːɦa̠nminɡuk̚, literally "Great Korean people 's country ''; listen) was adopted as the legal English name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, the informal term South Korea was coined, becoming increasingly common in the Western world. While South Koreans use Han (or Hanguk) to refer to the entire country, North Koreans and ethnic Koreans living in China and Japan use the term Joseon as the name of the country. The Korean name "Daehan Minguk '' is sometimes used by South Koreans as a metonym to refer to the Korean ethnicity (or "race '') as a whole, rather than just the South Korean state.
The history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as "Gojoseon '', or Old Joseon, to differentiate it with the 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BC by Dangun, according to Korea 's foundation mythology. Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of Manchuria. Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BC, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. In 108 BC, the Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in the northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. As Lelang commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liadong. Thus, its force was diminished and it only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313.
During the period known as the Proto -- Three Kingdoms of Korea, the states of Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye and Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla emerged to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state, and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu, who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their times, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting for control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo -- Sui War, in which Goguryeo defeated a huge force said to number over a million men. Baekje was a great maritime power; its nautical skill, which made it the Phoenicia of East Asia, was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and continental culture to Japan. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo, but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto the Great and declined. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but it used cunning diplomatic means to make opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China, to its great advantage.
The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean Peninsula was controlled by Later Silla, while Balhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo. Balhae was founded by a Goguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East, and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East ''. Later Silla was a golden age of art and culture, as evidenced by the Hwangnyongsa, Seokguram, and Emille Bell. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Later Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. Later Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju was the fourth largest city in the world. Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists and contributed to Chinese Buddhism, including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang, and Kim Gyo - gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. However, Later Silla weakened under internal strife and the revival of Baekje and Goguryeo, which led to the Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century.
In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by Wang Geon, a descendant of Goguryeo nobility, who established Goryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo. Balhae had fallen to the Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the last crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included into the ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type printing press. After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, in the Goryeo -- Khitan War, Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed and there were great developments in printing and publishing, promoting learning and dispersing knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science; by 1100, there were 12 universities that produced famous scholars and scientists. However, the Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to Kublai Khan, who accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conquered Liaoyang, and defeated invasions by the Red Turbans. However, in 1392, General Yi Seong - gye, who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup.
Yi Seong - gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon '' in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names of Seoul). The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace, and saw great advancements in science and education, as well as the creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people. The prevailing ideology of the time was Neo-Confucianism, which was epitomized by the seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched invasions of Korea, but his advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably the Joseon Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun - sin and his renowned "turtle ship '') with assistance from Righteous Army militias formed by Korean civilians, and Ming dynasty Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon 's war - weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637, and then went on to conquer the destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty, Joseon experienced a nearly 200 - year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, the royal in - law families gained control of the government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state, and severe poverty and peasant rebellions throughout the country. Furthermore, the Joseon government adopted a strict isolationist policy, earning the nickname "the hermit kingdom '', but ultimately failed to protect itself against imperialism and was forced to open its borders. After the First Sino - Japanese War and the Russo - Japanese War, Korea was occupied by Japan (1910 -- 45). At the end of World War II, the Japanese surrendered to Soviet and U.S. forces who occupied the northern and southern halves of Korea, respectively.
Despite the initial plan of a unified Korea in the 1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating Cold War antagonism between the Soviet Union and the United States eventually led to the establishment of separate governments, each with its own ideology, leading to the division of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In the South, Syngman Rhee, an opponent of communism, who had been backed and appointed by the United States as head of the provisional government, won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May. In the North, however, a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist, Kim Il - sung was appointed premier of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea in September.
In October the Soviet Union declared Kim Il - sung 's government as sovereign over both parts. The UN declared Rhee 's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult '' and the Government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission '' in addition to a statement that "this is the only such government in Korea. '' Both leaders began an authoritarian repression of their political opponents inside their region, seeking for a unification of Korea under their control. While South Korea 's request for military support was denied by the United States, North Korea 's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union.
On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the Korean War, the Cold War 's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the United Nations (UN), thus forfeiting their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops. After an ebb and flow that saw both sides almost pushed to the brink of extinction, and massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. The 1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Over 1.2 million people died during the Korean War.
In 1960, a student uprising (the "April 19 Revolution '') led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. A period of political instability followed, broken by General Park Chung - hee 's May 16 coup against the weak and ineffectual government the next year. Park took over as president until his assassination in 1979, overseeing rapid export - led economic growth as well as implementing political repression. Park was heavily criticised as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his rule by creating a new constitution, which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six - year terms. However, the Korean economy developed significantly during Park 's tenure and the government developed the nationwide expressway system, the Seoul subway system, and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17 - year tenure.
The years after Park 's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979 there came the Coup d'état of December Twelfth led by General Chun Doo - hwan. Following the Coup d'état, Chun Doo - hwan planned to rise to power through several measures. On May 17, Chun Doo - hwan forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to the island of Jejudo. The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities and further curtailed the press. Chun 's assumption of the presidency in the events of May 17, triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy, in particular in the city of Gwangju, to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the Gwangju Democratization Movement.
Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when a Seoul National University student, Park Jong - chul, was tortured to death. On June 10, the Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed the incident, igniting the June Democracy Movement around the country. Eventually, Chun 's party, the Democratic Justice Party, and its leader, Roh Tae - woo announced the 6.29 Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae - Jung and Kim Young - Sam. Seoul hosted the Olympic Games in 1988, widely regarded as successful and a significant boost for South Korea 's global image and economy.
South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korean from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae - jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea, on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been a political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, where he took IMF advice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace.
In June 2000, as part of president Kim Dae - jung 's "Sunshine Policy '' of engagement, a North -- South summit took place in Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular ''. However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations, a conservative government was elected in 2007 led by President Lee Myung - bak, former mayor of Seoul. Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup. However, South Korean and Japanese relations later soured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks.
In 2010, there was an escalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warship ROKS Cheonan was sunk with the loss of 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010 Yeonpyeong island was attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people losing their lives. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator for the Cheonan sinking) caused significant anger with the South Korean public. South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female president Park Geun - hye elected and assuming office. Daughter of another former president, Park Chung - hee, she carried on a conservative brand of politics. President Park Geun - hye 's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence - peddling for the involvement of close friend Choi Soon - sil in state affairs. There followed a series of massive public demonstrations from November 2016 and she was removed from office. After the fallout of President Park 's impeachment and dismissal, new elections were held and Moon Jae - in of the Democratic party won the presidency, assuming office on the 10th May 2017. His tenure so far has seen an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and the successful hosting of the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang.
South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula, which extends some 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west, and the Sea of Japan to the east. Its southern tip lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea.
The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes 33 ° and 39 ° N, and longitudes 124 ° and 130 ° E. Its total area is 100,032 square kilometres (38,622.57 sq mi).
South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River.
South Korea 's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, make up only 30 % of the total land area.
About three thousand islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju - do is about 100 kilometres (62 miles) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country 's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometres (712 square miles). Jeju is also the site of South Korea 's highest point: Hallasan, an extinct volcano, reaches 1,950 metres (6,400 feet) above sea level. The easternmost islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo / Takeshima), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea.
South Korea has 20 national parks and popular nature places like the Boseong Tea Fields, Suncheon Bay Ecological Park, and the first national park of Jirisan.
South Korea tends to have a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate, and is affected by the East Asian monsoon, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma (장마), which begins end of June through the end of July. Winters can be extremely cold with the minimum temperature dropping below − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F) in the inland region of the country: in Seoul, the average January temperature range is − 7 to 1 ° C (19 to 34 ° F), and the average August temperature range is 22 to 30 ° C (72 to 86 ° F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding 30 ° C (86 ° F) in most parts of the country. South Korea has four distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from mid-November to mid-March.
Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometime floods. The average annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimetres (54 in) in Seoul to 1,470 millimetres (58 in) in Busan.
During the first 20 years of South Korea 's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment. Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat. However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run $84 billion five - year green growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology.
The green - based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea 's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP. The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight savings and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting. The country -- already the world 's most wired -- plans to build a nationwide next - generation network that will be 10 times faster than broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage.
The renewable portfolio standard program with renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022. Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt - hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than a Feed - in tariff. Around 350 residential micro combined heat and power units were installed in 2012.
Seoul 's tap water recently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it "Arisu '' in a bid to convince the public. Efforts have also been made with afforestation projects. Another multibillion - dollar project was the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, a stream running through downtown Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway. One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems. It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are a result of South Korea 's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter.
South Korea is a member of the Antarctic - Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity Treaty, Kyoto Protocol (forming the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG), regarding UNFCCC, with Mexico and Switzerland), Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Comprehensive Nuclear - Test - Ban Treaty (not into force), Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.
Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Republic of South Korea. Like many democratic states, South Korea has a government divided into three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative. The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. Local governments are semi-autonomous, and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. The judicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. South Korea is a constitutional democracy.
The South Korean government 's structure is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Korea. This document has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many broad characteristics and with the exception of the short - lived Second Republic of South Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive. The first direct election was also held in 1948. Although South Korea experienced a series of military dictatorships from the 1960s up until the 1980s, it has since developed into a successful liberal democracy. Today, the CIA World Factbook describes South Korea 's democracy as a "fully functioning modern democracy ''. South Korea is ranked 37th on the Corruption Perceptions Index, with moderate control on corruption.
The major administrative divisions in South Korea are eight provinces, one special self - governing province, six metropolitan cities (self - governing cities that are not part of any province), one special city and one metropolitan autonomous city.
Revised Romanisation; See Names of Seoul; May As of 2018.
In April 2016, South Korea 's population was estimated to be around 50.8 million by National Statistical Office, with continuing decline of working age population and total fertility rate. The country is noted for its population density, which was an estimated 505 per square kilometer in 2015, more than 10 times the global average. Most South Koreans live in urban areas, because of rapid migration from the countryside during the country 's quick economic expansion in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. The capital city of Seoul is also the country 's largest city and chief industrial center. According to the 2005 census, Seoul had a population of 10 million inhabitants. The Seoul National Capital Area has 24.5 million inhabitants (about half of South Korea 's entire population) making it the world 's second largest metropolitan area. Other major cities include Busan (3.5 million), Incheon (3.0 million), Daegu (2.5 million), Daejeon (1.4 million), Gwangju (1.4 million) and Ulsan (1.1 million).
The population has also been shaped by international migration. After World War II and the division of the Korean Peninsula, about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next 40 years because of emigration, especially to the United States and Canada. South Korea 's total population in 1955 was 21.5 million, and has more than doubled, to 50 million, by 2010.
South Korea is considered one of the most ethnically homogeneous societies in the world with ethnic Koreans representing approximately 96 % of total population. Precise numbers are difficult since statistics do not record ethnicity and given many immigrants are ethnically Korean themselves, whilst some Korean citizens are not ethnically Korean. South Korea is nevertheless becoming a more multi-ethnic society over time due to immigration.
The percentage of foreign nationals has been growing rapidly. As of 2016, South Korea had 1,413,758 foreign residents, 2.75 % of the population; however, many of them are ethnic Koreans with a foreign citizenship. For example, migrants from China (PRC) make up 56.5 % of foreign nationals, but approximately 70 % of the Chinese citizens in Korea are Joseonjok (조선족), PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity. Regardless of the ethnicity, there are 28,500 US military personnel serving in South Korea, most serving a one - year unaccompanied tour (though approximately 10 % serve longer tours accompanied by family), according to the Korea National Statistical Office. In addition, about 43,000 English teachers from English - speaking countries reside temporarily in Korea. Currently, South Korea has one of the highest rates of growth of foreign born population, with about 30,000 foreign born residents obtaining South Korean citizenship every year since 2010.
South Korea 's birthrate was the world 's lowest in 2009. If this continues, its population is expected to decrease by 13 % to 42.3 million in 2050. South Korea 's annual birthrate is approximately 9 births per 1000 people. However the birthrate has increased by 5.7 % since 2010 and Korea no longer has the world 's lowest birthrate. According to a 2011 report from The Chosun Ilbo, South Korea 's total fertility rate (1.23 children born per woman) is higher than those of Taiwan (1.15) and Japan (1.21). The average life expectancy in 2008 was 79.10 years, (which was 34th in the world) but by 2015 it had increased to around 81. South Korea has the steepest decline in working age population of the OECD nations. In 2015, National Statistical Office estimated that the population of the country will have reached its peak by 2035.
A centralized administration in South Korea oversees the process for the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year of high school. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first of which begins at the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February. The schedules are not uniformly standardized and vary from school to school. Most South Korean middle schools and high schools have school uniforms, modeled on western - style uniforms. Boys ' uniforms usually consist of trousers and white shirts, and girls wear skirts and white shirts (this only applies in middle schools and high schools). The country adopted a new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students through 2010. According to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea would have (under the program) doubled by that time, and the number of foreign students would have reached 100,000.
South Korea is one of the top - performing OECD countries in reading literacy, maths and sciences with the average student scoring 542 and has one of the worlds most highly educated labour forces among OECD countries. The country is well known for its highly feverish outlook on education, where its national obsession with education has been called "education fever ''. This obsession with education has catapulted the resource poor nation consistently atop the global education rankings where in 2014 national rankings of students ' math and science scores by the Organization for Economic and Cooperation and Development (OECD), South Korea ranked second place worldwide, after Singapore.
Higher education is a serious issue in South Korea society, where it is viewed as one of the fundamental cornerstones of South Korean life. Education is regarded with a high priority for South Korean families as success in education holds a cultural status as well as a necessity to improve one 's socioeconomic position in South Korean society. Academic success is often a source of pride for families and within South Korean society at large. South Koreans view education as the main propeller of social mobility for themselves and their family as a gateway to the South Korean middle class. Graduating from a top university is the ultimate marker of prestige, high socioeconomic status, promising marriage prospects, and a respectable career path. An average South Korean child 's life revolves around education as pressure to succeed academically is deeply ingrained in South Korean children from an early age. Not having a university degree carries a major cultural stigma as those who lack a formal university education face social prejudice and are often looked down upon by others.
In 2015, the country spent 4.7 % of its GDP on all levels of education -- roughly equal to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) average of 4.7 % also. A strong investment in education, a militant drive for success as well as the passion for excellence has helped the resource poor country rapidly grow its economy over the past 60 years from a war torn wasteland. South Korea 's zeal for education and its students ' desires to get into a prestigious university is one of the highest in the world, as the entrance into a top tier higher educational institution leads to a prestigious, secure and well - paid white collar job with the government, banks, a major South Korean conglomerate such as Samsung, Hyundai or LG Electronics. With incredible pressure on high school students to secure places at the nation 's best universities, its institutional reputation and alumni networks are strong predictors of future career prospects. The top three universities in South Korea, often referred to as "SKY '', are Seoul National University, Korea University and Yonsei University. Intense competition for top grades and academic pressure to be the top student is deeply ingrained in the psyche of South Korean students at a young age. Yet with only so many places at universities and even fewer places at top - tier companies, many young people remain disappointed and are often unwilling to lower their sights with the result of many feeling as underachievers. There is a major cultural taboo in South Korean society attached to those who have not achieved formal university education where those who do n't hold university degrees face social prejudice and are often looked down by others as second - class citizens resulting in fewer opportunities for employment, improvement of one 's socioeconomic position and prospects for marriage.
International opinion regarding the South Korean education system has been divided. It has been praised for various reasons, including its comparatively high test results and its major role in ushering South Korea 's economic development creating one of the world 's most educated workforces. South Korea 's highly enviable academic performance has persuaded British education ministers to actively remodel their own curriculums and exams to try to emulate Korea 's militant drive and passion for excellence and high educational achievement. Former U.S. President Barack Obama has also praised the country 's rigorous school system, where over 80 percent of South Korean high school graduates go on to university. The nation 's high university entrance rate has created a highly skilled workforce making South Korea among the most highly educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. Bachelor 's degrees are held by 68 percent of South Koreans aged 25 -- 34, the most in the OECD.
The system 's rigid and hierarchical structure has been criticized for stifling creativity and innovation; described as intensely and "brutally '' competitive, the system is often blamed for the high suicide rate in the country, particularly the growing rates among those aged 10 -- 19. Various media outlets attribute the country 's high suicide rate to the nationwide anxiety around the country 's college entrance exams, which determine the trajectory of students ' entire lives and careers. Former South Korean hagwon teacher Se - Woong Koo wrote that the South Korean education system amounts to child abuse and that it should be "reformed and restructured without delay ''. The system has also been criticized for producing an excess supply of university graduates creating an overeducated and underemployed labor force; in the first quarter of 2013 alone, nearly 3.3 million South Korean university graduates were jobless, leaving many graduates overqualified for jobs requiring less education. Further criticism has been stemmed for causing labor shortages in various skilled blue collar labor and vocational occupations, where many go unfilled as the negative social stigma associated with vocational careers and not having a university degree continues to remain deep - rooted in South Korean society.
Korean is the official language of South Korea, and is classified by most linguists as a language isolate. Korean is not related to any Chinese languages, although it incorporates a number of words that are Chinese in origin. Additionally, Korean spoken in South Korea uses a significant number of loan words from English and other European languages. Korean uses an indigenous writing system called Hangul, created in 1446 by King Sejong to provide a convenient alternative to the Classical Chinese Hanja characters that were difficult to learn and did not fit the Korean language well. South Korea still uses some Chinese Hanja characters in limited areas, such as print media and legal documentation.
The Korean language in South Korea has a standard dialect known as Seoul (after the capital city), with an additional 4 Korean language dialect groups in use around the country.
Almost all South Korean students today learn English throughout their education, with some optionally choosing Japanese or Mandarin as well.
Religion in South Korea (2015 census)
According to the results of the census of 2015 more than half of the South Korean population (56.9 %) declared themselves not affiliated with any religious organizations. Korean shamanism (also known as Sindo or Muism) is the native religion of the Koreans, and it may represent a large part of the unaffiliated. Indeed, according to a 2012 survey, only 15 % of the population declared themselves not religious in the sense of "atheism ''. Of the people who are affiliated with a religious organization, most are Christians and Buddhists. According to the 2015 census, 27.6 % of the population were Christians (19.7 % identified themselves as Protestants, 7.9 % as Roman Catholics), and 15.5 % were Buddhists. Other religions include Islam (130,000 Muslims, mostly migrant workers from Pakistan and Bangladesh but including some 35,000 Korean Muslims,) the homegrown sect of Wonbuddhism, and a variety of indigenous religions, including Cheondoism (a Confucianizing religion), Jeungsanism, Daejongism, Daesun Jinrihoe and others. Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution, and there is no state religion. Overall, between the 2005 and 2015 censuses there has been a slight decline of Christianity (down from 29 % to 27.6 %), a sharp decline of Buddhism (down from 22.8 % to 15.5 %), and a rise of the unaffiliated population (from 47.2 % to 56.9 %).
Christianity is South Korea 's largest organized religion, accounting for more than half of all South Korean adherents of religious organizations. There are approximately 13.5 million Christians in South Korea today; about two thirds of them belonging to Protestant churches, and the rest to the Roman Catholic Church. The number of Protestants has been stagnant throughout the 1990s and the 2000s, but increased to a peak level throughout the 2010s. Roman Catholics increased significantly between the 1980s and the 2000s, but declined throughout the 2010s. Christianity, unlike in other East Asian countries, found fertile ground in Korea in the 18th century, and by the end of the 18th century it persuaded a large part of the population as the declining monarchy supported it and opened the country to widespread proselytism as part of a project of Westernization. The weakness of Korean Sindo, which, unlike Japanese Shinto and China 's religious system, never developed into a national religion of high status, combined with the impoverished state of Korean Buddhism (after 500 years of suppression at the hands of the Joseon state, by the 20th century it was virtually extinct) left a free hand to Christian churches. Christianity 's similarity to native religious narratives has been studied as another factor that contributed to its success in the peninsula. The Japanese colonization of the first half of the 20th century further strengthened the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism, as the Japanese coopted native Korean Sindo into the Nipponic Imperial Shinto that they tried to establish in the peninsula. Widespread Christianization of the Koreans took place during State Shinto, after its abolition, and then in the independent South Korea as the newly established military government supported Christianity and tried to utterly oust native Sindo.
Among Christian denominations, Presbyterianism is the largest. About nine million people belong to one of the hundred different Presbyterian churches; the biggest ones are the HapDong Presbyterian Church, TongHap Presbyterian Church, the Koshin Presbyterian Church. South Korea is also the second - largest missionary - sending nation, after the United States.
Buddhism was introduced to Korea in the 4th century. It became soon a dominant religion in the southeastern kingdom of Silla, the region that hitherto hosts the strongest concentration of Buddhists in South Korea. In the other states of the Three Kingdoms Period, Goguryeo and Baekje, it was made the state religion respectively in 372 and 528. It remained the state religion in Later Silla (North South States Period) and Goryeo. It was later suppressed throughout much of the subsequent history under the unified kingdom of Joseon (1392 -- 1897), which officially adopted a strict Korean Confucianism. Today, South Korea has about 7 million Buddhists, most of them affiliated to the Jogye Order. Most of the National Treasures of South Korea are Buddhist artifacts.
South Korea has a universal healthcare system.
Suicide in South Korea is a serious and widespread problem and the country ranks poorly on world happiness reports for a high - income state. The suicide rate was the highest in the G20 in 2015 (24.1 deaths per 100,000 persons).
South Korean hospitals have advanced medical equipment and facilities readily available, ranking 4th for MRI units per capita and 6th for CT scanners per capita in the OECD. It also had the OECD 's second largest number of hospital beds per 1000 people at 9.56 beds.
Life expectancy has been rising rapidly and South Korea ranked 11th in the world for life expectancy at 82.3 years by the WHO in 2015.
South Korea maintains diplomatic relations with more than 188 countries. The country has also been a member of the United Nations since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North Korea. On January 1, 2007, Former South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki - moon served as UN Secretary - General from 2007 to 2016. It has also developed links with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations as both a member of ASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and the East Asia Summit (EAS).
In November 2009 South Korea joined the OECD Development Assistance Committee, marking the first time a former aid recipient country joined the group as a donor member.
South Korea hosted the G - 20 Summit in Seoul in November 2010, a year that saw South Korea and the European Union conclude a free trade agreement (FTA) to reduce trade barriers. South Korea went on to sign a Free Trade Agreements with Canada and Australia in 2014, and another with New Zealand in 2015.
Both North and South Korea claim complete sovereignty over the entire peninsula and outlying islands. Despite mutual animosity, reconciliation efforts have continued since the initial separation between North and South Korea. Political figures such as Kim Koo worked to reconcile the two governments even after the Korean War. With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace. On October 4, 2007, Roh Moo - Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong - il signed an eight - point agreement on issues of permanent peace, high - level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.
Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated by North Korean missile tests in 1993, 1998, 2006, 2009, and 2013. As of early 2009, relationships between North and South Korea were very tense; North Korea had been reported to have deployed missiles, ended its former agreements with South Korea, and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned. North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed a peace treaty after the Korean War) and share the world 's most heavily fortified border. On May 27, 2009, North Korean media declared that the Armistice is no longer valid because of the South Korean government 's pledge to "definitely join '' the Proliferation Security Initiative. To further complicate and intensify strains between the two nations, the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan in March 2010, is affirmed by the South Korean government to have been caused by a North Korean torpedo, which the North denies. President Lee Myung - bak declared in May 2010 that Seoul would cut all trade with North Korea as part of measures primarily aimed at striking back at North Korea diplomatically and financially, except for the joint Kaesong Industrial Project, and humanitarian aid. North Korea initially threatened to sever all ties, to completely abrogate the previous pact of non-aggression, and to expel all South Koreans from a joint industrial zone in Kaesong, but backtracked on its threats and decided to continue its ties with South Korea. Despite the continuing ties, Kaesong industrial zone has seen a large decrease in investment and manpower as a result of this military conflict. In February 2016, the Kaesong complex was closed by Seoul in reaction to North Korea 's launch of a rocket earlier in the month unanimously condemned by the United Nations security council. The 2017 election of President Moon Jae - in has seen a change in approach towards the North, and both sides used the South Korean held 2018 Winter Olympics as an opportunity for engagement, with a very senior North Korean political delegation sent to the games, along with a reciprocal visit by senior South Korean cabinet members to the North soon afterwards.
Historically, Korea had close relations with the dynasties in China, and some Korean kingdoms were members of the Imperial Chinese tributary system. The Korean kingdoms also ruled over some Chinese kingdoms including the Kitan people and the Manchurians before the Qing dynasty and received tributes from them.In modern times, before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation. However, after World War II, the People 's Republic of China embraced Maoism while South Korea sought close relations with the United States. The PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War, and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually and South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations and lifted the forty - year - old trade embargo, and South Korean -- Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992. The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan) upon gaining official relations with the People 's Republic of China, which does n't recognise Taiwan 's sovereignty.
China has become South Korea 's largest trading partner by far, sending 26 % of South Korean exports in 2016 worth $124 billion, as well as an additional $32 billion worth of exports to Hong Kong. South Korea is also China 's 4th largest trading partner, with $93 billion of Chinese imports in 2016.
The 2017 deployment of THAAD defence missiles by the United States military in South Korea in response to North Korean missile tests has been protested strongly by the Chinese government, concerned that the technologically advanced missile defence could be used more broadly against China. Relations between the governments have cooled in response, with South Korean commercial and cultural interests in China having been targeted, and Chinese tourism to South Korea having been curtailed. The situation was largely resolved by South Korea making significant military concessions to China in exchange for THAAD, including not deploying any more anti-ballistic missile systems in South Korea and not participating in an alliance between the United States and Japan.
Korea and Japan have had difficult relations since ancient times, but also significant cultural exchange, with Korea acting as the gateway between Asia and Japan. Contemporary perceptions of Japan are still largely defined by Japan 's 35 year colonization of Korea in the 20th century, which is generally regarded in South Korea as having been very negative. Japan is today South Korea 's third largest trading partner, with 12 % ($46 billion) of exports in 2016.
There were no formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Japan directly after independence the end of World War II in 1945. South Korea and Japan eventually signed the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea in 1965 to establish diplomatic ties. There is heavy anti-Japanese sentiment in South Korea because of a number of unsettled Japanese - Korean disputes, many of which stem from the period of Japanese occupation after the Japanese annexation of Korea. During World War II, more than 100,000 Koreans served in the Imperial Japanese Army. Korean women were coerced and forced to serve the Imperial Japanese Army as sexual slaves, called comfort women, in both Korea and throughout the Japanese war fronts.
Longstanding issues such as Japanese war crimes against Korean civilians, the negationist re-writing of Japanese textbooks relating Japanese atrocities during World War II, the territorial disputes over the Liancourt Rocks, known in South Korea as "Dokdo '' and in Japan as "Takeshima '', and visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine, honoring Japanese people (civilians and military) killed during the war continue to trouble Korean - Japanese relations. The Liancourt Rocks were the first Korean territories to be forcibly colonized by Japan in 1905. Though it was again returned to Korea along with the rest of its territory in 1951 with the signing of the Treaty of San Francisco, Japan does not recant on its claims that the Liancourt Rocks are Japanese territory. In response to then - Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi 's visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, former President Roh Moo - hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan in 2009. A summit between the nations ' leaders was eventually held on February 9th, 2018 during the Korean held Winter Olympics.
The European Union (EU) and South Korea are important trading partners, having negotiated a free trade agreement for many years since South Korea was designated as a priority FTA partner in 2006. The free trade agreement was approved in September 2010, and took effect on July 1, 2011. South Korea is the EU 's tenth largest trade partner, and the EU has become South Korea 's fourth largest export destination. EU trade with South Korea exceeded € 90 billion in 2015 and has enjoyed an annual average growth rate of 9.8 % between 2003 and 2013.
The EU has been the single largest foreign investor in South Korea since 1962, and accounted for almost 45 % of all FDI inflows into Korea in 2006. Nevertheless, EU companies have significant problems accessing and operating in the South Korean market because of stringent standards and testing requirements for products and services often creating barriers to trade. Both in its regular bilateral contacts with South Korea and through its FTA with Korea, the EU is seeking to improve this situation.
The close relationship began directly after World War II, when the United States temporarily administrated Korea for three years (mainly in the South, with the Soviet Union engaged in North Korea) after Japan. Upon the onset of the Korean War in 1950, U.S. forces were sent to defend against an invasion from North Korea of the South, and subsequently fought as the as the largest contributor of UN troops. The United States participation was critical for preventing the near defeat of the Republic of Korea by northern forces, as well as fighting back for the territory gains that define the South Korean nation today.
Following the Armistice, South Korea and the U.S. agreed to a "Mutual Defense Treaty '', under which an attack on either party in the Pacific area would summon a response from both. In 1967, South Korea obliged the mutual defense treaty, by sending a large combat troop contingent to support the United States in the Vietnam War. The US has over 23,000 troops stationed in South Korea, including the U.S. Eighth Army, Seventh Air Force, and U.S. Naval Forces Korea. The two nations have strong economic, diplomatic, and military ties, although they have at times disagreed with regard to policies towards North Korea, and with regard to some of South Korea 's industrial activities that involve usage of rocket or nuclear technology. There had also been strong anti-American sentiment during certain periods, which has largely moderated in the modern day.
The two nations also share a close economic relationship, with the U.S being South Korea 's second largest trading partner, receiving $66 billion in exports in 2016. In 2007, a free trade agreement known as the Republic of Korea - United States Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA) was signed between South Korea and the United States, but its formal implementation was repeatedly delayed, pending approval by the legislative bodies of the two countries. On October 12, 2011, the U.S. Congress passed the long - stalled trade agreement with South Korea. It went into effect on March 15, 2012.
The unresolved tension with North Korea have prompted South Korea to allocate 2.6 % of its GDP and 15 % of all government spending to its military (Government share of GDP: 14.967 %), while maintaining compulsory conscription for men. Consequently, South Korea has the world 's seventh largest number of active troops (630,000 in 2017), the world 's highest number of reserve troops (7,500,000 in 2017) and the tenth largest defense budget.
The South Korean military consists of the Army (ROKA), the Navy (ROKN), the Air Force (ROKAF), and the Marine Corps (ROKMC), and reserve forces. Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the military, typically 21 months. Previous exceptions for South Korean citizens of mixed race no longer apply since 2011.
In addition to male conscription in South Korea 's sovereign military, 1,800 Korean males are selected every year to serve 21 months in the KATUSA Program to further augment the United States Forces Korea (USFK). In 2010, South Korea was spending ₩ 1.68 trillion in a cost - sharing agreement with the US to provide budgetary support to the US forces in Korea, on top of the ₩ 29.6 trillion budget for its own military.
The South Korean army has 2,500 tanks in operation, including the K1A1 and K2 Black Panther, which form the backbone of the South Korean army 's mechanized armor and infantry forces. A sizable arsenal of many artillery systems, including 1,700 self - propelled K55 and K9 Thunder howitzers and 680 helicopters and UAVs of numerous types, are assembled to provide additional fire, reconnaissance, and logistics support. South Korea 's smaller but more advanced artillery force and wide range of airborne reconnaissance platforms are pivotal in the counter-battery suppression of North Korea 's large artillery force, which operates more than 13,000 artillery systems deployed in various state of fortification and mobility.
The South Korean navy has made its first major transformation into a blue - water navy through the formation of the Strategic Mobile Fleet, which includes a battle group of Chungmugong Yi Sun - sin class destroyers, Dokdo class amphibious assault ship, AIP - driven Type 214 submarines, and King Sejong the Great class destroyers, which is equipped with the latest baseline of Aegis fleet - defense system that allows the ships to track and destroy multiple cruise missiles and ballistic missiles simultaneously, forming an integral part of South Korea 's indigenous missile defense umbrella against the North Korean military 's missile threat.
The South Korean air force operates 840 aircraft, making it world 's ninth largest air force, including several types of advanced fighters like F - 15K, heavily modified KF - 16C / D, and the indigenous F / A-50, supported by well - maintained fleets of older fighters such as F - 4E and KF - 5E / F that still effectively serve the air force alongside the more modern aircraft. In an attempt to gain strength in terms of not just numbers but also modernity, the commissioning of four Boeing 737 AEW&C aircraft, under Project Peace Eye for centralized intelligence gathering and analysis on a modern battlefield, will enhance the fighters ' and other support aircraft 's ability to perform their missions with awareness and precision.
In May 2011, Korea Aerospace Industries Ltd., South Korea 's largest plane maker, signed a $400 million deal to sell 16 T - 50 Golden Eagle trainer jets to Indonesia, making South Korea the first country in Asia to export supersonic jets.
From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea dispatched 325,517 troops to fight alongside American, Australian, Filipino, New Zealand and South Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000. In 2004, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of the Zaytun Division to help re-building in northern Iraq, and was the third largest contributor in the coalition forces after only the US and Britain. Beginning in 2001, South Korea had so far deployed 24,000 troops in the Middle East region to support the War on Terrorism. A further 1,800 were deployed since 2007 to reinforce UN peacekeeping forces in Lebanon.
The United States has stationed a substantial contingent of troops to defend South Korea. There are approximately 28,500 U.S. Military personnel stationed in Korea, most of them serving one year unaccompanied tours. The American troops, which are primarily ground and air units, are assigned to USFK and mainly assigned to the Eighth United States Army of the US Army and Seventh Air Force of the US Air Force. They are stationed in installations at Osan, Kunsan, Yongsan, Dongducheon, Sungbuk, Camp Humphreys, and Daegu, as well as at Camp Bonifas in the DMZ Joint Security Area. A fully functioning UN Command is at the top of the chain of command of all forces in South Korea, including the US forces and the entire South Korean military -- if a sudden escalation of war between North and South Korea were to occur the United States would assume control of the South Korean armed forces in all military and paramilitary moves. There has been long term agreement between the United States and South Korea that South Korea should eventually assume the lead for its own defense. This transition to a South Korean command has been slow and often postponed, although it is currently scheduled to occur in the early 2020s.
Male citizens who refuse or reject to undertake military services because of conscientious objection are typically imprisoned, with over 600 individuals usually imprisoned at any given time; more than the rest of the world put together. The vast majority of these are young men from the Jehovah 's Witnesses Christian denomination. See Conscription in South Korea.
South Korea 's mixed economy ranks 11th nominal and 13th purchasing power parity GDP in the world, identifying it as one of the G - 20 major economies. It is a developed country with a high - income economy and is the most industrialized member country of the OECD. South Korean brands such as LG Electronics and Samsung are internationally famous and garnered South Korea 's reputation for its quality electronics and other manufactured goods.
Its massive investment in education has taken the country from mass illiteracy to a major international technological powerhouse. The country 's national economy benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree. South Korea 's economy was one of the world 's fastest - growing from the early 1960s to the late 1990s, and was still one of the fastest - growing developed countries in the 2000s, along with Hong Kong, Singapore and Taiwan, the other three Asian Tigers. South Koreans refer to this growth as the Miracle on the Han River. The South Korean economy is heavily dependent on international trade, and in 2014, South Korea was the fifth - largest exporter and seventh - largest importer in the world.
Despite the South Korean economy 's high growth potential and apparent structural stability, the country suffers damage to its credit rating in the stock market because of the belligerence of North Korea in times of deep military crises, which has an adverse effect on South Korean financial markets. The International Monetary Fund compliments the resilience of the South Korean economy against various economic crises, citing low state debt and high fiscal reserves that can quickly be mobilized to address financial emergencies. Although it was severely harmed by the Asian economic crisis of the late 1990s, the South Korean economy managed a rapid recovery and subsequently tripled its GDP.
Furthermore, South Korea was one of the few developed countries that were able to avoid a recession during the global financial crisis. Its economic growth rate reached 6.2 percent in 2010 (the fastest growth for eight years after significant growth by 7.2 percent in 2002), a sharp recovery from economic growth rates of 2.3 % in 2008 and 0.2 % in 2009, when the global financial crisis hit. The unemployment rate in South Korea also remained low in 2009, at 3.6 %.
South Korea became a member of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996.
The following list includes the largest South Korean companies by revenue in 2017 who are all listed as part of the Fortune Global 500:
South Korea has a technologically advanced transport network consisting of high - speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services, and air routes that crisscross the country. Korea Expressway Corporation operates the toll highways and service amenities en route.
Korail provides frequent train services to all major South Korean cities. Two rail lines, Gyeongui and Donghae Bukbu Line, to North Korea are now being reconnected. The Korean high - speed rail system, KTX, provides high - speed service along Gyeongbu and Honam Line. Major cities including Seoul, Busan, Incheon, Daegu, Daejeon and Gwangju have urban rapid transit systems. Express bus terminals are available in most cities.
South Korea 's main gateway and largest airport is Incheon International Airport, serving 58 million passengers in 2016. Other international airports include Gimpo, Busan and Jeju. There are also a large number of airports that were built as part of the infrastructure boom but are barely used. There are a large number of heliports.
The national carrier, Korean Air served over 26,800,000 passengers, including almost 19,000,000 international passengers in 2016. A second carrier, Asiana Airlines also serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines serve 297 international routes. Smaller airlines, such as Jeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares.
South Korea is the world 's fifth - largest nuclear power producer and the second - largest in Asia as of 2010. Nuclear power in South Korea supplies 45 % of electricity production, and research is very active with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a small modular reactor, a liquid - metal fast / transmutation reactor and a high - temperature hydrogen generation design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have also been developed locally. It is also a member of the ITER project.
South Korea is an emerging exporter of nuclear reactors, having concluded agreements with the UAE to build and maintain four advanced nuclear reactors, with Jordan for a research nuclear reactor, and with Argentina for construction and repair of heavy - water nuclear reactors. As of 2010, South Korea and Turkey are in negotiations regarding construction of two nuclear reactors. South Korea is also preparing to bid on construction of a light - water nuclear reactor for Argentina.
South Korea is not allowed to enrich uranium or develop traditional uranium enrichment technology on its own, because of US political pressure, unlike most major nuclear powers such as Japan, Germany, and France, competitors of South Korea in the international nuclear market. This impediment to South Korea 's indigenous nuclear industrial undertaking has sparked occasional diplomatic rows between the two allies. While South Korea is successful in exporting its electricity - generating nuclear technology and nuclear reactors, it can not capitalize on the market for nuclear enrichment facilities and refineries, preventing it from further expanding its export niche. South Korea has sought unique technologies such as pyroprocessing to circumvent these obstacles and seek a more advantageous competition. The US has recently been wary of South Korea 's burgeoning nuclear program, which South Korea insists will be for civilian use only.
South Korea is the third highest ranked Asian country in the World Economic Forum 's Network Readiness Index (NRI) after Singapore and Hong Kong respectively -- an indicator for determining the development level of a country 's information and communication technologies. South Korea ranked number 10 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, up from 11 in 2013.
In 2016, 17 million foreign tourists visited South Korea With rising tourist prospects, especially from foreign countries outside of Asia, the South Korean government has set a target of attracting 20 million foreign tourists a year by 2017.
South Korean tourism is driven by many factors, including the popularity of South Korean pop music and television dramas, known as Korean Wave (Hallyu), throughout East Asia, traditional culture, cuisine and natural environment. The Hyundai Research Institute reported that the Korean Wave has a direct impact in encouraging direct foreign investment back into the country through demand for products, and the tourism industry. Among Asian countries, China was the most receptive, investing 1.4 billion in South Korea, with much of the investment within its service sector, a sevenfold increase from 2001. According to an analysis by economist Han Sang - Wan, a 1 percent increase in the exports of Korean cultural content pushes consumer goods exports up 0.083 percent while a 1 percent increase in Korean pop content exports to a country produces a 0.019 percent bump in tourism.
The South Korean pension system was created to provide benefits to persons reaching old age, families and persons stricken with death of their primary breadwinner, and for the purposes of stabilizing its nations welfare state. South Korea 's pensions system structure is primarily based on taxation and is income - related. In 2007 there was a total of 18,367,000 insured individuals with only around 511,000 persons excluded from mandatory contribution. The current pension system is divided into four categories distributing benefits to participants through national, military personnel, governmental, and private school teacher pension schemes. The national pension scheme is the primary welfare system providing allowances to the majority of persons. Eligibility for the national pension scheme is not dependent on income but on age and residence, where those between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered. Any one who is under the age of 18 are dependents of someone who is covered or under a special exclusion where they are allowed to alternate provisions. The national pension scheme is divided into four categories of insured persons -- the workplace - based insured, the individually insured, the voluntarily insured, and the voluntarily and continuously insured.
Employees between the ages of 18 to 59 are covered under the workplace - based pension scheme and contribute 4.5 % of their gross monthly earnings. The national pension covers employees who work in firms that employ five or more employees, fishermen, farmers, and the self - employed in both rural and urban areas. Employers are also covered under the workplace - based pension scheme and help cover their employees obligated 9 % contribution by providing the remaining 4.5 %. Anyone who is not employed, of the age of 60 or above, and excluded by article 6 of the National Pension Act but of the ages between 18 and 59, is covered under the individually insured pension scheme. Persons covered by the individually insured pension scheme are in charge of paying the entire 9 % contribution themselves. Voluntarily insured persons are not subjected to mandatory coverage but can choose to be. This category comprises retirees who voluntarily choose to have additional benefits, individuals under the age of 27 without income, and individuals whose spouses are covered under a public welfare system, whether military, governmental, or private school teacher pensions. Like the Individually insured persons, they too are in charge of covering the full amount of the contribution. Voluntarily and continuously insured persons consists of individuals 60 years of age who want to fulfill the minimum insured period of 20 years to qualify for old age pension benefits. Excluding the workplace - based insured persons, all the other insured persons personally cover their own 9 % contribution.
South Korea 's old - age pension scheme covers individuals age 60 or older for the rest of their life as long as they have satisfied the minimum of 20 years of national pension coverage before hand. Individuals with a minimum of 10 years covered under the national pension scheme and who are 60 years of age are able to be covered by under a ' reduced old - age pension ' scheme. There also is an ' active old - age pension ' scheme that covers individuals age 60 to 65 engaged in activities yielding earned income. Individuals age of 55 and younger than 60 who are not engaged in activities yielding earned income are eligible to be covered under the ' early old - age pension ' scheme. Around 60 % of all Korean elders, age 65 and over are entitled to a 5 % benefit of their past average income at an average of 90,000 Korean Won (KRW). Basic old - age pension schemes covered individuals 65 years of age who earned below an amount set by presidential order. In 2010, that ceiling was 700, 00 KRW for a single individual and 1,120,000 for a couple, equivalent to around $600.00 and $960.00.
Scientific and technological development in the South Korea at first did not occur largely because of more pressing matters such as the division of Korea and the Korean War that occurred right after its independence. It was n't until the 1960s under the dictatorship of Park Chung - hee where South Korea 's economy rapidly grew from industrialisation and the Chaebol corporations such as Samsung and LG. Ever since the industrialization of South Korea 's economy, South Korea has placed its focus on technology - based corporations, which has been supported by infrastructure developments by the government. South Korean corporations Samsung and LG were ranked first and third largest mobile phone companies in the world in the first quarter of 2012, respectively. An estimated 90 % of South Koreans own a mobile phone. Aside from placing / receiving calls and text messaging, mobile phones in the country are widely used for watching Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) or viewing websites. Over one million DMB phones have been sold and the three major wireless communications providers SK Telecom, KT, and LG U+ provide coverage in all major cities and other areas. South Korea has the fastest Internet download speeds in the world, with an average download speed of 25.3 Mbit / s.
South Korea leads the OECD in graduates in science and engineering. The country ranks first among the most innovative countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index. Additionally, South Korea today is known as a Launchpad of a mature mobile market, where developers can reap benefits of a market where very few technology constraints exist. There is a growing trend of inventions of new types of media or apps, utilizing the 4G and 5G internet infrastructure in South Korea. South Korea has today the infrastructures to meet a density of population and culture that has the capability to create strong local particularity.
Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, whereby government, news - media, television station, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed North Korea for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011 and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations.
In late September 2013, a computer - security competition jointly sponsored by the defense ministry and the National Intelligence Service was announced. The winners were announced on September 29, 2013 and shared a total prize pool of 80 million won (US $ 74,000).
South Korea has sent up 10 satellites from 1992, all using foreign rockets and overseas launch pads, notably Arirang - 1 in 1999, and Arirang - 2 in 2006 as part of its space partnership with Russia. Arirang - 1 was lost in space in 2008, after nine years in service.
In April 2008, Yi So - yeon became the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the Russian Soyuz TMA - 12.
In June 2009, the first spaceport of South Korea, Naro Space Center, was completed at Goheung, Jeollanam - do. The launch of Naro - 1 in August 2009 resulted in a failure. The second attempt in June 2010 was also unsuccessful. However, the third launch of the Naro 1 in January 2013 was successful. The government plans to develop Naro - 2 by the year 2018.
South Korea 's efforts to build an indigenous space launch vehicle is marred because of persistent political pressure of the United States, who had for many decades hindered South Korea 's indigenous rocket and missile development programs in fear of their possible connection to clandestine military ballistic missile programs, which Korea many times insisted did not violate the research and development guidelines stipulated by US - Korea agreements on restriction of South Korean rocket technology research and development. South Korea has sought the assistance of foreign countries such as Russia through MTCR commitments to supplement its restricted domestic rocket technology. The two failed KSLV - I launch vehicles were based on the Universal Rocket Module, the first stage of the Russian Angara rocket, combined with a solid - fueled second stage built by South Korea.
Robotics has been included in the list of main national R&D projects in Korea since 2003. In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot - themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding.
In 2005, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) developed the world 's second walking humanoid robot, HUBO. A team in the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology developed the first Korean android, EveR - 1 in May 2006. EveR - 1 has been succeeded by more complex models with improved movement and vision.
Plans of creating English - teaching robot assistants to compensate for the shortage of teachers were announced in February 2010, with the robots being deployed to most preschools and kindergartens by 2013. Robotics are also incorporated in the entertainment sector as well; the Korean Robot Game Festival has been held every year since 2004 to promote science and robot technology.
Since the 1980s, the Korean government has invested in the development of a domestic biotechnology industry, and the sector is projected to grow to $6.5 billion by 2010. The medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production of hepatitis vaccines and antibiotics.
Recently, research and development in genetics and cloning has received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog, Snuppy (in 2005), and the cloning of two females of an endangered species of wolves by the Seoul National University in 2007.
The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by the scientific misconduct case involving Hwang Woo - Suk.
South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the culture of Korea has been heavily influenced by that of neighboring China, it has nevertheless managed to develop a unique cultural identity that is distinct from its larger neighbor. Its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. The South Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs.
The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many changes to the way modern Koreans live. Changing economics and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households separating into nuclear family living arrangements. A 2014 Euromonitor study found that South Koreans drink the most alcohol on a weekly basis compared to the rest of the world. South Koreans drink 13.7 shots of liquor per week on average and, of the 44 other countries analyzed, Russia, the Philippines, and Thailand follow.
Korean art has been highly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism, which can be seen in the many traditional paintings, sculptures, ceramics and the performing arts. Korean pottery and porcelain, such as Joseon 's baekja and buncheong, and Goryeo 's celadon are well known throughout the world. The Korean tea ceremony, pansori, talchum and buchaechum are also notable Korean performing arts.
Post-war modern Korean art started to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s, when South Korean artists took interest in geometrical shapes and intangible subjects. Establishing a harmony between man and nature was also a favorite of this time. Because of social instability, social issues appeared as main subjects in the 1980s. Art was influenced by various international events and exhibits in Korea, and with it brought more diversity. The Olympic Sculpture Garden in 1988, the transposition of the 1993 edition of the Whitney Biennial to Seoul, the creation of the Gwangju Biennale and the Korean Pavilion at the Venice Biennale in 1995 were notable events.
Because of South Korea 's tumultuous history, construction and destruction has been repeated endlessly, resulting in an interesting melange of architectural styles and designs.
Korean traditional architecture is characterized by its harmony with nature. Ancient architects adopted the bracket system characterized by thatched roofs and heated floors called ondol. People of the upper classes built bigger houses with elegantly curved tiled roofs with lifting eaves. Traditional architecture can be seen in the palaces and temples, preserved old houses called hanok, and special sites like Hahoe Folk Village, Yangdong Village of Gyeongju and Korean Folk Village. Traditional architecture may also be seen at the nine UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Korea.
Western architecture was first introduced to Korea at the end of the 19th century. Churches, offices for foreign legislation, schools and university buildings were built in new styles. With the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910 the colonial regime intervened in Korea 's architectural heritage, and Japanese - style modern architecture was imposed. The anti-Japanese sentiment, and the Korean War, led to the destruction of most buildings constructed during that time.
Korean architecture entered a new phase of development during the post-Korean War reconstruction, incorporating modern architectural trends and styles. Stimulated by the economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s, active redevelopment saw new horizons in architectural design. In the aftermath of the 1988 Seoul Olympics, South Korea has witnessed a wide variation of styles in its architectural landscape due, in large part, to the opening up of the market to foreign architects. Contemporary architectural efforts have been constantly trying to balance the traditional philosophy of "harmony with nature '' and the fast - paced urbanization that the country has been going through in recent years.
Korean cuisine, hanguk yori (한국 요리; 韓國 料理), or hansik (한식; 韓 食), has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. The Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary Korean citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette.
Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, noodles, tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes, banchan (반찬), which accompany steam - cooked short - grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan. Kimchi (김치), a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at every meal and is one of the best known Korean dishes. Korean cuisine usually involves heavy seasoning with sesame oil, doenjang (된장), a type of fermented soybean paste, soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, and gochujang (고추장), a hot pepper paste. Other well - known dishes are Bulgogi (불고기), grilled marinated beef, Gimbap (김밥), and Tteokbokki (떡볶이), a spicy snack consisting of rice cake seasoned with gochujang or a spicy chili paste.
Soups are also a common part of a Korean meal and are served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal. Soups known as guk (국) are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk, tang (탕; 湯) has less water, and is more often served in restaurants. Another type is jjigae (찌개), a stew that is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot.
Popular Korean alcoholic beverages include Soju, Makgeolli and Bokbunja ju.
Korea is unique among Asian countries in its use of metal chopsticks. Metal chopsticks have been discovered in Goguryeo archaeological sites.
In addition to domestic consumption, South Korea has a thriving entertainment industry where various facets of South Korean entertainment including television dramas, films, and popular music has generated significant financial revenues for the nation 's economy. The cultural phenomenon known as Hallyu or the "Korean Wave '', has swept many countries across Asia making South Korea a major soft power as an exporter of popular culture and entertainment, rivaling Western nations such as the United States and the United Kingdom.
Until the 1990s, trot and traditional Korean folk based ballads dominated South Korean popular music. The emergence of the South Korean pop group Seo Taiji and Boys in 1992 marked a turning point for South Korean popular music, also known as K - pop, as the genre modernized itself from incorporating elements of popular musical genres from across the world such as Western popular music, experimental, jazz, gospel, Latin, classical, hip hop, rhythm and blues, electronic dance, reggae, country, folk, and rock on top of its uniquely traditional Korean music roots. Western - style pop, hip hop, rhythm and blues, rock, folk, electronic dance oriented acts have become dominant in the modern South Korean popular music scene, though trot is still enjoyed among older South Koreans. K - pop stars and groups are well known across Asia and have found international fame making millions of dollars in export revenue. Many K - pop acts have also been able secure a strong overseas following following using online social media platforms such as the video sharing website YouTube. South Korean singer PSY became an international sensation when his song "Gangnam Style '' topped global music charts in 2012.
Since the success of the film Shiri in 1999, the Korean film industry has begun to gain recognition internationally. Domestic film has a dominant share of the market, partly because of the existence of screen quotas requiring cinemas to show Korean films at least 73 days a year.
South Korean television shows have become popular outside of Korea. South Korean television dramas, known as K - dramas have begun to find fame internationally. Many dramas tend to have a romantic focus, such as Princess Hours, You 're Beautiful, Playful Kiss, My Name is Kim Sam Soon, Boys Over Flowers, Winter Sonata, Autumn in My Heart, Full House, City Hunter, All About Eve, Secret Garden, I Can Hear Your Voice, Master 's Sun, My Love from the Star, Healer, Descendants of the Sun and Guardian: The Lonely and Great God. Historical dramas have included Faith, Dae Jang Geum, The Legend, Dong Yi, Moon Embracing the Sun, and Sungkyunkwan Scandal.
There are many official public holidays in South Korea. Korean New Year 's Day, or "Seollal '', is celebrated on the first day of the Korean lunar calendar. Korean Independence Day falls on March 1, and commemorates the March 1 Movement of 1919. Memorial Day is celebrated on June 6, and its purpose is to honor the men and women who died in South Korea 's independence movement. Constitution Day is on July 17, and it celebrates the promulgation of Constitution of the Republic of Korea. Liberation Day, on August 15, celebrates Korea 's liberation from the Empire of Japan in 1945. Every 15th day of the 8th lunar month, Koreans celebrate the Midautumn Festival, in which Koreans visit their ancestral hometowns and eat a variety of traditional Korean foods. On October 1, Armed Forces day is celebrated, honoring the military forces of South Korea. October 3 is National Foundation Day. Hangul Day, on October 9 commemorates the invention of hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language.
The martial art taekwondo originated in Korea. In the 1950s and 1960s, modern rules were standardized, with taekwondo becoming an official Olympic sport in 2000. Other Korean martial arts include taekkyeon, hapkido, Tang Soo Do, Kuk Sool Won, kumdo and subak.
Football and baseball have traditionally been regarded as the most popular sports in Korea. Recent polling indicates that a majority, 41 % of South Korean sports fans continue to self - identify as football fans, with baseball ranked 2nd at 25 % of respondents. However, the polling did not indicate the extent to which respondents follow both sports. The national football team became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the FIFA World Cup semi-finals in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan. The Korea Republic national team (as it is known) has qualified for every World Cup since Mexico 1986, and has broken out of the group stage twice: first in 2002, and again in 2010, when it was defeated by eventual semi-finalist Uruguay in the Round of 16. At the 2012 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the Bronze Medal for football.
Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905 and has since become increasingly popular, with some sources claiming it has surpassed football as the most popular sport in the country. Recent years have been characterized by increasing attendance and ticket prices for professional baseball games. The Korea Professional Baseball league, a 10 - team circuit, was established in 1982. The South Korea national team finished third in the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second in the 2009 tournament. The team 's 2009 final game against Japan was widely watched in Korea, with a large screen at Gwanghwamun crossing in Seoul broadcasting the game live. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball. Also in 1982, at the Baseball Worldcup, Korea won the gold medal. At the 2010 Asian Games, the Korean National Baseball team won the gold medal. Several Korean players have gone on to play in Major League Baseball.
Basketball is a popular sport in the country as well. South Korea has traditionally had one of the top basketball teams in Asia and one of the continent 's strongest basketball divisions. Seoul hosted the 1967 and 1995 Asian Basketball Championship. The Korea national basketball team has won a record number of 23 medals at the event to date.
South Korea hosted the Asian Games in 1986 (Seoul), 2002 (Busan) and 2014 (Incheon). It also hosted the Winter Universiade in 1997, the Asian Winter Games in 1999 and the Summer Universiade in 2003, 2015. In 1988, South Korea hosted the Summer Olympics in Seoul, coming fourth with 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals and 11 bronze medals. South Korea regularly performs well in archery, shooting, table tennis, badminton, short track speed skating, handball, hockey, freestyle wrestling, Greco - Roman wrestling, baseball, judo, taekwondo, speed skating, figure Skating, and weightlifting. The Seoul Olympic Museum is a museum in Seoul, South Korea, dedicated to the 1988 Summer Olympics. On July 6, 2011 Pyeongchang was chosen by the IOC to host the 2018 Winter Olympics.
South Korea has won more medals in the Winter Olympics than any other Asian country with a total of 45 medals (23 gold, 14 silver, and 8 bronze). At the 2010 Winter Olympics, South Korea ranked fifth in the overall medal rankings. South Korea is especially strong in short track speed skating. However, speed skating and figure skating are very popular, too, and ice hockey is an emerging sport with Anyang Halla winning their first ever Asia League Ice Hockey title in March 2010.
Seoul hosted a professional triathlon race, which is part of the International Triathlon Union (ITU) World Championship Series in May 2010. In 2011, the South Korean city of Daegu hosted the 2011 IAAF World Championships in Athletics.
In October 2010, South Korea hosted its first Formula One race at the Korea International Circuit in Yeongam, about 400 kilometres (250 mi) south of Seoul. The Korean Grand Prix was held from 2010 to 2013, but was not placed on the 2014 F1 calendar.
Domestic horse racing events are also followed by South Koreans and Seoul Race Park in Gwacheon, Gyeonggi - do is located closest to Seoul out of the country 's three tracks.
Competitive video gaming, also called eSports (sometimes written e-Sports), has become more popular South Korea in recent years, particularly among young people. The two most popular games are League of Legends and StarCraft. The gaming scene of South Korea is managed by the Korean e-Sports Association (KeSPA for short) and has become something of a career for many players. They can make a living out of their activity and top players can even make a significant amount of money with some high end Starcraft II players ending up making six figure salaries.
Korean e-Sports Association
Korea Professional Sports League
International Championship Host
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where did the world wide web come from | History of the World Wide Web - Wikipedia
The World Wide Web ("WWW '' or simply the "Web '') is a global information medium which users can read and write via computers connected to the Internet. The term is often mistakenly used as a synonym for the Internet itself, but the Web is a service that operates over the Internet, just as e-mail also does. The history of the Internet dates back significantly further than that of the World Wide Web.
The hypertext portion of the Web in particular has an intricate intellectual history; notable influences and precursors include Vannevar Bush 's Memex, IBM 's Generalized Markup Language, and Ted Nelson 's Project Xanadu.
Paul Otlet 's Mundaneum project has also been named as an early 20th century precursor of the Web.
The concept of a global information system connecting homes is prefigured in "A Logic Named Joe '', a 1946 short story by Murray Leinster, in which computer terminals, called "logics, '' are present in every home. Although the computer system in the story is centralized, the story anticipates a ubiquitous information environment similar to the Web.
In 1980, Tim Berners - Lee, an English independent contractor at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Switzerland, built ENQUIRE, as a personal database of people and software models, but also as a way to play with hypertext; each new page of information in ENQUIRE had to be linked to an existing page.
Berners - Lee 's contract in 1980 was from June to December, but in 1984 he returned to CERN in a permanent role, and considered its problems of information management: physicists from around the world needed to share data, yet they lacked common machines and any shared presentation software.
Shortly after Berners - Lee 's return to CERN, TCP / IP protocols were installed on some key non-Unix machines at the institution, turning it into the largest Internet site in Europe within a few years. As a result, CERN 's infrastructure was ready for Berners - Lee to create the Web.
Berners - Lee wrote a proposal in March 1989 for "a large hypertext database with typed links ''. Although the proposal attracted little interest, Berners - Lee was encouraged by his boss, Mike Sendall, to begin implementing his system on a newly acquired NeXT workstation. He considered several names, including Information Mesh, The Information Mine or Mine of Information, but settled on World Wide Web.
Berners - Lee found an enthusiastic supporter in Robert Cailliau. Berners - Lee and Cailliau pitched Berners - Lee 's ideas to the European Conference on Hypertext Technology in September 1990, but found no vendors who could appreciate his vision of marrying hypertext with the Internet.
By Christmas 1990, Berners - Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) 0.9, the HyperText Markup Language (HTML), the first Web browser (named WorldWideWeb, which was also a Web editor), the first HTTP server software (later known as CERN httpd), the first web server (http://info.cern.ch), and the first Web pages that described the project itself. The browser could access Usenet newsgroups and FTP files as well. However, it could run only on the NeXT; Nicola Pellow therefore created a simple text browser, called the Line Mode Browser, that could run on almost any computer. To encourage use within CERN, Bernd Pollermann put the CERN telephone directory on the web -- previously users had to log onto the mainframe in order to look up phone numbers.
While inventing and working on setting up the Web, Berners - Lee spent most of his working hours in Building 31 at CERN (46 ° 13 ′ 57 '' N 6 ° 02 ′ 42 '' E / 46.2325 ° N 6.0450 ° E / 46.2325; 6.0450 (CERN Building 31, Birthplace of the World Wide Web)), but also at his two homes, one in France, one in Switzerland. In January 1991 the first Web servers outside CERN itself were switched on.
The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC - Chapel Hill in North Carolina revealed in May 2013 that he has a copy of a page sent to him in 1991 by Berners - Lee which is the oldest known web page. Jones stored the plain - text page, with hyperlinks, on a floppy disk and on his NeXT computer. CERN put the oldest known web page back online in 2014, complete with hyperlinks that helped users get started and helped them navigate what was then a very small web.
On August 6, 1991, Berners - Lee posted a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the alt. hypertext newsgroup, inviting collaborators. This date is sometimes confused with the public availability of the first web servers, which had occurred months earlier.
Paul Kunz from the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center visited CERN in September 1991, and was captivated by the Web. He brought the NeXT software back to SLAC, where librarian Louise Addis adapted it for the VM / CMS operating system on the IBM mainframe as a way to display SLAC 's catalog of online documents; this was the first web server outside of Europe and the first in North America. The www - talk mailing list was started in the same month.
An early CERN - related contribution to the Web was the parody band Les Horribles Cernettes, whose promotional image is believed to be among the Web 's first five pictures.
In keeping with its birth at CERN and the first page opened, early adopters of the World Wide Web were primarily university - based scientific departments or physics laboratories such as Fermilab and SLAC. By January 1993 there were fifty Web servers across the world; by October 1993 there were over five hundred. Two of the earliest webcomics started on the World Wide Web in 1993: Doctor Fun and NetBoy.
Early websites intermingled links for both the HTTP web protocol and the then - popular Gopher protocol, which provided access to content through hypertext menus presented as a file system rather than through HTML files. Early Web users would navigate either by bookmarking popular directory pages, such as Berners - Lee 's first site at http://info.cern.ch/, or by consulting updated lists such as the NCSA "What 's New '' page. Some sites were also indexed by WAIS, enabling users to submit full - text searches similar to the capability later provided by search engines.
By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still minute compared to present figures, but quite a number of notable websites were already active, many of which are the precursors or inspiring examples of today 's most popular services.
Initially, a web browser was available only for the NeXT operating system. This shortcoming was discussed in January 1992, and alleviated in April 1992 by the release of Erwise, an application developed at the Helsinki University of Technology, and in May by ViolaWWW, created by Pei - Yuan Wei, which included advanced features such as embedded graphics, scripting, and animation. ViolaWWW was originally an application for HyperCard. Both programs ran on the X Window System for Unix.
Students at the University of Kansas adapted an existing text - only hypertext browser, Lynx, to access the web. Lynx was available on Unix and DOS, and some web designers, unimpressed with glossy graphical websites, held that a website not accessible through Lynx was n't worth visiting.
The first Microsoft Windows browser was Cello, written by Thomas R. Bruce for the Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School to provide legal information, since access to Windows was more widespread amongst lawyers than access to Unix. Cello was released in June 1993.
The Web was first popularized by Mosaic, a graphical browser launched in 1993 by Marc Andreessen 's team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) at the University of Illinois at Urbana - Champaign (UIUC). The origins of Mosaic date to 1992. In November 1992, the NCSA at the University of Illinois (UIUC) established a website. In December 1992, Andreessen and Eric Bina, students attending UIUC and working at the NCSA, began work on Mosaic with funding from the High - Performance Computing and Communications Initiative, a US - federal research and development program. Andreessen and Bina released a Unix version of the browser in February 1993; Mac and Windows versions followed in August 1993. The browser gained popularity due to its strong support of integrated multimedia, and the authors ' rapid response to user bug reports and recommendations for new features.
After graduation from UIUC, Andreessen and James H. Clark, former CEO of Silicon Graphics, met and formed Mosaic Communications Corporation in April 1994, to develop the Mosaic Netscape browser commercially. The company later changed its name to Netscape, and the browser was developed further as Netscape Navigator.
In May 1994, the first International WWW Conference, organized by Robert Cailliau, was held at CERN; the conference has been held every year since. In April 1993, CERN had agreed that anyone could use the Web protocol and code royalty - free; this was in part a reaction to the perturbation caused by the University of Minnesota 's announcement that it would begin charging license fees for its implementation of the Gopher protocol.
In September 1994, Berners - Lee founded the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and the European Commission. It comprised various companies that were willing to create standards and recommendations to improve the quality of the Web. Berners - Lee made the Web available freely, with no patent and no royalties due. The W3C decided that its standards must be based on royalty - free technology, so they can be easily adopted by anyone.
By 1996 it became obvious to most publicly traded companies that a public Web presence was no longer optional. Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two - way communication over the "Web '' led to the possibility of direct Web - based commerce (e-commerce) and instantaneous group communications worldwide. More dotcoms, displaying products on hypertext webpages, were added into the Web.
Low interest rates in 1998 -- 99 facilitated an increase in start - up companies. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors because of the novelty of the dot - com concept.
Historically, the dot - com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology - inspired booms of the past including railroads in the 1840s, automobiles in the early 20th century, radio in the 1920s, television in the 1940s, transistor electronics in the 1950s, computer time - sharing in the 1960s, and home computers and biotechnology in the 1980s.
In 2001 the bubble burst, and many dot - com startups went out of business after burning through their venture capital and failing to become profitable. Many others, however, did survive and thrive in the early 21st century. Many companies which began as online retailers blossomed and became highly profitable. More conventional retailers found online merchandising to be a profitable additional source of revenue. While some online entertainment and news outlets failed when their seed capital ran out, others persisted and eventually became economically self - sufficient. Traditional media outlets (newspaper publishers, broadcasters and cablecasters in particular) also found the Web to be a useful and profitable additional channel for content distribution, and an additional means to generate advertising revenue. The sites that survived and eventually prospered after the bubble burst had two things in common; a sound business plan, and a niche in the marketplace that was, if not unique, particularly well - defined and well - served.
In the aftermath of the dot - com bubble, telecommunications companies had a great deal of overcapacity as many Internet business clients went bust. That, plus ongoing investment in local cell infrastructure kept connectivity charges low, helped to make high - speed Internet connectivity more affordable. During this time, a handful of companies found success developing business models that helped make the World Wide Web a more compelling experience. These include airline booking sites, Google 's search engine and its profitable approach to keyword - based advertising, as well as eBay 's auction site and Amazon.com 's online department store.
This new era also begot social networking websites, such as MySpace and Facebook, which gained acceptance rapidly and became a central part of youth culture.
Beginning in 2002, new ideas for sharing and exchanging content ad hoc, such as Weblogs and RSS, rapidly gained acceptance on the Web. This new model for information exchange, primarily featuring user - generated and user - edited websites, was dubbed Web 2.0. The Web 2.0 boom saw many new service - oriented startups catering to a newly democratized Web.
As the Web became easier to query, it attained a greater ease of use overall and gained a sense of organization which ushered in a period of rapid popularization. Many new sites such as Wikipedia and its Wikimedia Foundation sister projects were based on the concept of user edited content. In 2005, three former PayPal employees created a video viewing website called YouTube, which became popular quickly and introduced a new concept of user - submitted content in major events.
The popularity of YouTube, Facebook, etc., combined with the increasing availability and affordability of high - speed connections has made video content far more common on all kinds of websites. Many video - content hosting and creation sites provide an easy means for their videos to be embedded on third party websites without payment or permission.
This combination of more user - created or edited content, and easy means of sharing content, such as via RSS widgets and video embedding, has led to many sites with a typical "Web 2.0 '' feel. They have articles with embedded video, user - submitted comments below the article, and RSS boxes to the side, listing some of the latest articles from other sites.
Continued extension of the Web has focused on connecting devices to the Internet, coined Intelligent Device Management. As Internet connectivity becomes ubiquitous, manufacturers have started to leverage the expanded computing power of their devices to enhance their usability and capability. Through Internet connectivity, manufacturers are now able to interact with the devices they have sold and shipped to their customers, and customers are able to interact with the manufacturer (and other providers) to access new content.
"Web 2.0 '' has found a place in the English lexicon.
Popularized by Berners - Lee 's book Weaving the Web and a Scientific American article by Berners - Lee, James Hendler, and Ora Lassila, the term Semantic Web describes an evolution of the existing Web in which the network of hyperlinked human - readable web pages is extended by machine - readable metadata about documents and how they are related to each other, enabling automated agents to access the Web more intelligently and perform tasks on behalf of users. This has yet to happen. In 2006, Berners - Lee and colleagues stated that the idea "remains largely unrealized ''.
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when did ibm introduced the 80286 based pc/at | IBM personal computer - wikipedia
The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC, is the original version and progenitor of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM model number 5150, and was introduced on August 12, 1981. It was created by a team of engineers and designers under the direction of Don Estridge of the IBM Entry Systems Division in Boca Raton, Florida.
The generic term personal computer was in use before 1981, applied as early as 1972 to the Xerox PARC 's Alto, but because of the success of the IBM Personal Computer, the term "PC '' came to mean more specifically a desktop microcomputer compatible with IBM 's Personal Computer branded products. Being an open architecture within a short time of the introduction, third - party suppliers of peripheral devices, expansion cards, and software proliferated; the influence of the IBM PC on the personal computer market was substantial in standardizing a platform for personal computers. "IBM compatible '' became an important criterion for sales growth; after the 1980s, only the Apple Macintosh family kept a significant share of the microcomputer market without compatibility with the IBM personal computer.
International Business Machines (IBM), one of the world 's largest companies, had a 62 % share of the mainframe computer market in 1981. In the late 1970s the new personal computer industry was dominated by the Commodore PET, Atari 8 - bit family, Apple II, Tandy Corporation 's TRS - 80, and various CP / M machines. With $150 million in sales by 1979 and projected annual growth of more than 40 % in the early 1980s, the microcomputer market was large enough for IBM 's attention. Other large technology companies such as Hewlett - Packard (HP), Texas Instruments (TI), and Data General had entered it, and some large IBM customers were buying Apples, so the company saw introducing its own personal computer as both an experiment in a new market and a defense against rivals, large and small.
In 1980 and 1981 rumors spread of an IBM personal computer, perhaps a miniaturized version of the IBM System / 370, while Matsushita acknowledged that it had discussed with IBM the possibility of manufacturing a personal computer for the American company. The Japanese project, codenamed "Go '', ended before the 1981 release of the American - designed IBM PC codenamed "Chess '', but two simultaneous projects further confused rumors about the forthcoming product.
Data General and TI 's small computers were not very successful, but observers expected AT&T to soon enter the computer industry, and other large companies such as Exxon, Montgomery Ward, Pentel, and Sony were designing their own microcomputers. Whether IBM had waited too long to enter an industry in which Apple and others were already successful was unclear.
An observer stated that "IBM bringing out a personal computer would be like teaching an elephant to tap dance. '' Successful microcomputer company Vector Graphic 's fiscal 1980 revenue was $12 million. A single IBM computer in the early 1960s cost as much as $9 million, occupied one quarter acre of air - conditioned space, and had a staff of 60 people; in 1980 its least - expensive computer, the 5120, still cost about $13,500. The "Colossus of Armonk '' only sold through its internal sales force, had no experience with resellers or retail stores, and did not introduce the first product designed to work with non-IBM equipment until 1980.
Another observer claimed that IBM made decisions so slowly that, when tested, "what they found is that it would take at least nine months to ship an empty box ''. As with other large computer companies, its new products typically required about four to five years for development. IBM had to learn how to quickly develop, mass - produce, and market new computers. While the company traditionally let others pioneer a new market -- IBM released its first commercial computer a year after Remington Rand 's UNIVAC in 1951, but within five years had 85 % of the market -- the personal - computer development and pricing cycles were much faster than for mainframes, with products designed in a few months and obsolete quickly.
Many in the microcomputer industry resented IBM 's power and wealth, and disliked the perception that an industry founded by startups needed a latecomer so staid that it had a strict dress code and employee songbook. The potential importance to microcomputers of a company so prestigious, that a popular saying in American companies stated "No one ever got fired for buying IBM '', was nonetheless clear. InfoWorld, which described itself as "The Newsweekly for Microcomputer Users '', stated that "for my grandmother, and for millions of people like her, IBM and computer are synonymous ''. Byte ("The Small Systems Journal '') stated in an editorial just before the announcement of the IBM PC:
Rumors abound about personal computers to come from giants such as Digital Equipment Corporation and the General Electric Company. But there is no contest. IBM 's new personal computer... is far and away the media star, not because of its features, but because it exists at all. When the number eight company in the Fortune 500 enters the field, that is news... The influence of a personal computer made by a company whose name has literally come to mean "computer '' to most of the world is hard to contemplate.
The editorial acknowledged that "some factions in our industry have looked upon IBM as the ' enemy ' '', but concluded with optimism: "I want to see personal computing take a giant step. ''
Desktop sized programmable calculators by HP had evolved into the HP 9830 BASIC language computer by 1972. In 1972 -- 1973 a team led by Dr. Paul Friedl at the IBM Los Gatos Scientific Center developed a portable computer prototype called SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) based on the IBM PALM processor with a Philips compact cassette drive, small CRT, and full - function keyboard. SCAMP emulated an IBM 1130 minicomputer to run APL \ 1130. In 1973 APL was generally available only on mainframe computers, and most desktop sized microcomputers such as the Wang 2200 or HP 9800 offered only BASIC. Because it was the first to emulate APL \ 1130 performance on a portable, single - user computer, PC Magazine in 1983 designated SCAMP a "revolutionary concept '' and "the world 's first personal computer ''. The prototype is in the Smithsonian Institution. A non-working industrial design model was also created in 1973 by industrial designer Tom Hardy illustrating how the SCAMP engineering prototype could be transformed into a usable product design for the marketplace. This design model was requested by IBM executive Bill Lowe to complement the engineering prototype in his early efforts to demonstrate the viability of creating a single - user computer.
Successful demonstrations of the 1973 SCAMP prototype led to the IBM 5100 portable microcomputer in 1975. In the late 1960s such a machine would have been nearly as large as two desks and would have weighed about half a ton. The 5100 was a complete computer system programmable in BASIC or APL, with a small built - in CRT monitor, keyboard, and tape drive for data storage. It was also very expensive, up to US $20,000; the computer was designed for professional and scientific customers, not business users or hobbyists. BYTE in 1975 announced the 5100 with the headline "Welcome, IBM, to personal computing '', but PC Magazine in 1984 described 5100s as "little mainframes '' and stated that "as personal computers, these machines were dismal failures... the antithesis of user - friendly '', with no IBM support for third - party software. Despite news reports that it was the first IBM product without a model number, when the PC was introduced in 1981 it was designated as the IBM 5150, putting it in the "5100 '' series though its architecture was not directly descended from the IBM 5100. Later models followed in the trend: For example, the IBM Portable Personal Computer, PC / XT, and PC AT are IBM machine types 5155, 5160, and 5170, respectively.
Following SCAMP, the IBM Boca Raton, Florida Laboratory created several single - user computer design concepts to support Lowe 's ongoing effort to convince IBM there was a strategic opportunity in the personal computer business. A selection of these early IBM design concepts created by industrial designer Tom Hardy in the infancy of personal computing is highlighted in the book DELETE: A Design History of Computer Vapourware. One such concept in 1977, code - named Aquarius, was a working prototype utilizing advanced bubble memory cartridges. While this design was more powerful and smaller than Apple II launched the same year, the advanced bubble technology was deemed unstable and not ready for mass production.
Some employees opposed IBM entering the market. One said, "Why on earth would you care about the personal computer? It has nothing at all to do with office automation. '' "Besides '', he added, "all it can do is cause embarrassment for IBM ''. The company studied personal computer designs -- Walden C. Rhines of TI, for example, in 1978 met with a Boca Raton group considering the TMS9900 for a secret 16 - bit microprocessor - based project -- but had determined from studying the market for years, and building the prototypes during the 1970s, that IBM was unable to internally build a personal computer profitably.
IBM President John Opel was not among those skeptical of personal computers. He and CEO Frank Cary had created more than one dozen semi-autonomous "Independent Business Units '' (IBU) to encourage innovation; Fortune called them "How to start your own company without leaving IBM ''. After Lowe became the first head of the Entry Level Systems IBU in Boca Raton his team researched the market. Computer dealers were very interested in selling an IBM product, but told Lowe that the company could not design, sell, or service it as IBM had previously done. An IBM microcomputer, they said, must be composed of standard parts that store employees could repair. While dealers disliked Apple 's business practices, including a shortage of the Apple II while the company focused on the more sophisticated Apple III, they saw no alternative because they doubted that IBM 's traditional sales methods and bureaucracy would change.
Atari in 1980 proposed that it act as original equipment manufacturer for an IBM microcomputer. Aware that the company needed to enter the market quickly -- even the schools in Broward County, near Boca Raton, purchased Apples -- in July 1980 Lowe met with Opel, Cary, and others on the important Corporate Management Committee. Lowe demonstrated the proposal with an industrial design model by Tom Hardy based on the Atari 800 platform, and suggested acquiring Atari "because we ca n't do this within the culture of IBM ''.
Cary agreed about the culture, observing that IBM would need "four years and three hundred people '' to develop its own personal computer; Lowe, however, promised one in a year if done without traditional IBM methods. Instead of acquiring Atari, the committee allowed him to form an independent group of employees -- "the Dirty Dozen '', led by engineer Bill Sydnes -- which, Lowe promised, could design a prototype in 30 days. The crude prototype barely worked when he demonstrated it in August, but Lowe presented a detailed business plan that proposed that the new computer have an open architecture, use non-proprietary components and software, and be sold through retail stores, all contrary to IBM practice.
The committee agreed that Lowe 's approach was the most likely to succeed. With Opel 's strong support, in October it approved turning the group into another IBU codenamed "Project Chess '' to develop "Acorn '', with unusually large funding to help achieve the goal of introducing the product within one year of the August demonstration. After Lowe 's promotion Don Estridge became the head of Chess, and by January 1981 the team made its first demonstration of the computer within IBM. Other key members included Sydnes, Lewis Eggebrecht, David Bradley, Mark Dean, and David O'Connor. Many were already hobbyists who owned their own computers including Estridge, who had an Apple II. After the team received permission to expand to 150 by the end of 1980, it received more than 500 calls in one day from IBM employees interested in joining the IBU.
IBM normally was vertically integrated, only purchasing components like transformers and semiconductors. It internally developed all important hardware and software and discouraged customers from purchasing third - party products compatible with IBM products. For the PC the company avoided doing so as much as possible; choosing, for example, to license Microsoft BASIC despite having a BASIC of its own for mainframes. (Estridge said that unlike IBM 's own version "Microsoft BASIC had hundreds of thousands of users around the world. How are you going to argue with that? '') Although the company denied doing so, many observers concluded that IBM intentionally emulated Apple when designing the PC. The many Apple II owners on the team influenced its decision to design the computer with an open architecture and publish technical information so others could create software and expansion slot peripherals.
Although the company knew that it could not avoid competition from third - party software on proprietary hardware -- Digital Research released CP / M - 86 for the IBM Displaywriter, for example -- it considered using the IBM 801 RISC processor and its operating system, developed at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York. The 801 processor was more than an order of magnitude more powerful than the Intel 8088, and the operating system more advanced than the PC DOS 1.0 operating system from Microsoft. Ruling out an in - house solution made the team 's job much easier and may have avoided a delay in the schedule, but the ultimate consequences of this decision for IBM were far - reaching.
IBM had recently developed the Datamaster business microcomputer, which used a processor and other chips from Intel; familiarity with them and the immediate availability of the 8088 was a reason for choosing it for the PC. The 62 - pin expansion bus slots were designed to be similar to the Datamaster slots. Differences from the Datamaster included avoiding an all - in - one design while limiting the computer 's size so that it would still fit on a standard desktop with the keyboard (also similar to the Datamaster 's), and 5.25 '' disk drives instead of 8 ". Delays due to in - house development of the Datamaster software was a reason why IBM chose Microsoft BASIC -- already available for the 8088 -- and published available technical information to encourage third - party developers. IBM chose the 8088 over the similar but superior 8086 because Intel offered a better price on the former and could provide more units, and the 8088 's 8 - bit bus reduced the cost of the rest of the computer.
The design for the computer was essentially complete by April 1981, when the manufacturing team took over the project. IBM could not only use its own hardware and make a profit with "Acorn ''. To save time and money, the IBU built the machine with commercial off - the - shelf parts from original equipment manufacturers whenever possible, with assembly occurring in Boca Raton. The IBU would decide whether it would be more economical to "Make or Buy '' each manufacturing step. Various IBM divisions for the first time competed with outsiders to build parts of the new computer; a North Carolina IBM factory built the keyboard, the Endicott, New York factory had to lower its bid for printed circuit boards, and a Taiwanese company built the monitor. The IBU chose an existing monitor from IBM Japan and an Epson printer. Because of the off - the - shelf parts only the system unit and keyboard has unique IBM industrial design elements. The IBM copyright appears in only the ROM BIOS and on the company logo, and the company reportedly received no patents on the PC, with outsiders manufacturing 90 % of it. Because the product would carry the IBM logo, the only corporate division the IBU could not bypass was the Quality Assurance Unit. A component manufacturer described the process of being selected as a supplier as rigorous and "absolutely amazing '', with IBM inspectors even testing solder flux. They stayed after selection, monitoring and helping to improve the manufacturing process. IBM 's size overwhelmed other companies; "a hundred IBM engineers '' reportedly visited Mitel to meet with two of the latter 's employees about a problem, according to The New York Times.
Another aspect of IBM that did not change was its emphasis on secrecy; employees at Yorktown knew nothing of Boca Raton 's activities. Those working on the project, within and outside of IBM, were under strict confidentiality agreements. When an individual mentioned in public on a Saturday that his company was working on software for a new IBM computer, IBM security appeared at the company on Monday to investigate the leak. After an IBM official discovered printouts in a supplier 's garbage, the former company persuaded the latter to purchase a paper shredder. Management Science America did not know until after agreeing to buy Peachtree Software in 1981 that the latter was working on software for the PC. Developers such as Software Arts received breadboard prototype computers in boxes lined with lead to block X-rays and sealed with solder, and had to keep them in locked, windowless rooms; to develop software, Microsoft emulated the PC on a DEC minicomputer and used the prototype for debugging. After the PC 's debut, IBM Boca Raton employees continued to decline to discuss their jobs in public. One writer compared the "silence '' after asking one about his role at the company to "hit (ting) the wall at the Boston Marathon: the conversation is over ''.
IBM is proud to announce a product you may have a personal interest in. It 's a tool that could soon be on your desk, in your home or in your child 's schoolroom. It can make a surprising difference in the way you work, learn or otherwise approach the complexities (and some of the simple pleasures) of living.
After developing it in 12 months -- faster than any other hardware product in company history -- IBM announced the Personal Computer on 12 August 1981. Pricing started at US $1,565 (equivalent to $4,213 in 2017) for a configuration with 16K RAM, Color Graphics Adapter, and no disk drives. The company intentionally set prices for it and other configurations that were comparable to those of Apple and other rivals, What Dan Bricklin described as "pretty competitive '' pricing surprised him and other Software Arts employees; one analyst stated that IBM "has taken the gloves off '', while the company said "we suggest (the PC 's price) invites comparison ''. Microsoft, Personal Software, and Peachtree Software were among the developers of nine launch titles, including EasyWriter and VisiCalc. In addition to the existing corporate sales force IBM opened its own Product Center retail stores. After studying Apple 's successful distribution network, the company for the first time sold through others, ComputerLand and Sears Roebuck. Because retail stores receive revenue from repairing computers and providing warranty service, IBM broke a 70 - year tradition by permitting and training non-IBM service personnel to fix the PC.
BYTE described IBM as having "the strongest marketing organization in the world '', but the PC 's marketing also differed from that of previous products. The company was aware of its strong corporate reputation among potential customers; an early advertisement began "Presenting the IBM of Personal Computers ''. The advertisements emphasized the novelty of an individual owning an IBM computer, describing "a product you may have a personal interest in '' and asking readers to think of "' My own IBM computer. Imagine that '... it 's yours. For your business, your project, your department, your class, your family and, indeed, for yourself. ''
After considering Alan Alda, Beverly Sills, Kermit the Frog, and Billy Martin as celebrity endorsers IBM chose Charlie Chaplin 's The Little Tramp character -- played by Billy Scudder -- for a series of advertisements based on Chaplin 's films. The very popular and award - winning $36 - million marketing campaign made the star of Modern Times -- a film that expresses Chaplin 's opposition to big business, mechanization, and technological efficiency -- the (as Creative Computing described him) "warm cuddly '' mascot of one of the world 's largest companies.
Chaplin and his character became so widely associated with IBM -- Time stated that "The Tramp... has given (it) a human face '' -- that others used his bowler hat and cane to represent or satirize the company. Although the Chaplin estate sued those like Otrona who used the trademark without permission, PC Magazine 's April 1983 issue had 12 advertisements that referred to the Little Tramp.
"We encourage third - part suppliers (for the PC)... we are delighted to have them '', IBM stated. It did not sell internally developed PC software until April 1984, instead relying on already established software companies. The company contacted Microsoft even before the official approval of Chess, and it and others received cooperation that was, one writer said, "unheard of '' for IBM. Such openness surprised observers; BYTE called it "striking '' and "startling '', and one developer reported that "it 's a very different IBM ''. Another said "They were very open and helpful about giving us all the technical information we needed. The feeling was so radically different -- it 's like stepping out into a warm breeze. '' He concluded, "After years of hassling -- fighting the Not - Invented - Here attitude -- we 're the gods. ''
Most other personal - computer companies did not disclose technical details; TI, for example, intentionally made developing third - party TI 99 / 4A software difficult, even requiring a lockout chip in cartridges. IBM itself kept its mainframe technology so secret that rivals were indicted for industrial espionage. For the PC, however, IBM immediately released detailed information. The US $36 IBM PC Technical Reference Manual included complete circuit schematics, commented ROM BIOS source code, and other engineering and programming information for all of IBM 's PC - related hardware, plus instructions on designing third - party peripherals. It was so comprehensive that one reviewer suggested that the manual could serve as a university textbook, and so clear that a developer claimed that he could design an expansion card without seeing the physical computer.
IBM marketed the technical manual in full - page color print advertisements, stating that "our software story is still being written. Maybe by you ''. Sydnes stated that "The definition of a personal computer is third - party hardware and software. '' Estridge said that IBM did not keep software development proprietary because it would have to "out - VisiCalc VisiCorp and out - Peachtree Peachtree -- and you just ca n't do that ''.
Another advertisement told developers that the company would consider publishing software for "Education. Entertainment. Personal finance. Data management. Self - improvement. Games. Communications. And yes, business. '' Estridge explicitly invited small, "cottage '' amateur and professional developers to create products "with '', he said, "our logo and our support ''. IBM sold the PC at a large discount to employees, encouraged them to write software, and distributed a catalog of inexpensive software written by individuals that might not otherwise appear in public.
BYTE was correct in predicting that an IBM personal computer would receive much public attention. Its rapid development amazed observers, as did the willingness of the Colossus of Armonk to sell as a launch title Microsoft Adventure (a video game that, its press release stated, brought "players into a fantasy world of caves and treasures ''); the company even offered an optional joystick port. Future Computing estimated that "IBM 's Billion Dollar Baby '' would have $2.3 billion in hardware sales by 1986. David Bunnell, an editor at Osborne / McGraw - Hill, recalled that
None of my associates wanted to talk about the Apple II or the Osborne I computer anymore, nor did they want to fantasize about writing the next super-selling program... All they wanted to talk about was the IBM Personal Computer -- what it was, its potential and limitations, and most of all, the impact IBM would have on the business of personal computing.
Within seven weeks Bunnell helped found PC Magazine, the first periodical for the new computer.
Competitors were more skeptical. Adam Osborne said "when you buy a computer from IBM, you buy a la carte. By the time you have a computer that does anything, it will cost more than an Apple. I do n't think Apple has anything to worry about. '' Apple 's Mike Markkula agreed that IBM 's product was more expensive than the Apple II, and claimed that the Apple III "offers better performance ''. He denied that the IBM PC offered more memory, stating that his company could offer more than 128K "but frankly we do n't know what anyone would do with that memory ''. At Tandy, John Roach said "I do n't think it 's that significant ''; Jon Shirley admitted that IBM had a "legendary service reputation '' but claimed that its thousands of Radio Shack stores "can provide better service '', while predicting that the IBM PC 's "major market will be IBM addicts ''; another executive claimed that Tandy could undersell a $3,000 IBM computer by $1,000. Many criticized the PC 's design as not innovative and outdated, and believed that its alleged weaknesses, such as the use of single - sided, single - density disks with less storage than the computer 's RAM, existed because the company was uncertain about the market and was experimenting before releasing a better computer. (Estridge later boasted, "Many... said that there was nothing technologically new in this machine. That was the best news we could have had; we actually had done what we had set out to do. '')
Rivals such as Apple, Tandy, and Commodore -- together with more than 50 % of the personal - computer market -- had many advantages. While IBM began with one microcomputer, little available hardware or software, and a couple of hundred dealers, Radio Shack had 14 million customers and 8,000 stores -- more than McDonald 's -- that only sold its broad range of computers and accessories. Apple had five times as many dealers in the US as IBM, an established international distribution network, and an installed base of more than 250,000 customers. Hundreds of independent developers produced software and peripherals for both companies ' computers; at least ten Apple databases and ten word processors were available, while the PC had no databases and one word processor. The computer had very limited graphics capability, and customers who wanted both color and high - quality text had to purchase two graphics cards and two monitors.
Steve Jobs at Apple ordered a team to examine an IBM PC. After finding it unimpressive -- Chris Espinosa called the computer "a half - assed, hackneyed attempt '' -- the company confidently purchased a full - page advertisement in The Wall Street Journal with the headline "Welcome, IBM. Seriously ''. Microsoft head Bill Gates was at Apple headquarters the day of IBM 's announcement and later said "They did n't seem to care. It took them a full year to realize what had happened ''.
The IBM PC was immediately successful. The PC was small, light weight, and easy to use. Because it was advertised as a personal computer for anyone and not just large corporations, and because it was small and could fit easily into people 's home, it became a device of popular choice for many people. It could n't be helped that IBM also advertised it with the lovable Charlie Chaplin 's tramp character, who after seeing the computer, falls in love with it and purchases the PC. Chaplin 's character becomes the face of the company 's PC
BYTE reported a rumor that more than 40,000 were ordered on the day of the announcement; John Dvorak recalled that one dealer that day praised the computer as an "incredible winner, and IBM knows how to treat us -- none of the Apple arrogance ''. One dealer received 22 $1,000 deposits from customers although he could not promise a delivery date. The company could have sold its entire projected first - year production to employees, and IBM customers that were reluctant to purchase Apples were glad to buy microcomputers from its traditional supplier. The computer began shipping in October, ahead of schedule; by then some referred to it simply as the "PC ''.
BYTE estimated that 90 % of the 40,000 first - day orders were from software developers. By COMDEX in November Tecmar developed 20 products including memory expansion and expansion chassis, surprising even IBM. Jerry Pournelle reported after attending the West Coast Computer Faire in early 1982 that because IBM "encourages amateurs '' with "documents that tell all '', "an explosion of (third - party) hardware and software '' was visible at the convention. Many manufacturers of professional business application software, who had been planning / developing versions for the Apple II, promptly switched their efforts over to the IBM PC when it was announced. Often, these products needed the capacity and speed of a hard - disk. Although IBM did not offer a hard - disk option for almost two years following introduction of its PC, business sales were nonetheless catalyzed by the simultaneous availability of hard - disk subsystems, like those of Tallgrass Technologies which sold in Computerland stores alongside the IBM 5150 at the introduction in 1981.
One year after the PC 's release, although IBM had sold fewer than 100,000 computers, PC World counted 753 software packages for the PC -- more than four times the number available for the Apple Macintosh one year after its 1984 release -- including 422 applications and almost 200 utilities and languages. InfoWorld reported that "most of the major software houses have been frantically adapting their programs to run on the PC '', with new PC - specific developers composing "an entire subindustry that has formed around the PC 's open system '', which Dvorak described as a "de facto standard microcomputer ''. The magazine estimated that "hundreds of tiny garage - shop operations '' were in "bloodthirsty '' competition to sell peripherals, with 30 to 40 companies in a price war for memory - expansion cards, for example. PC Magazine renamed its planned "1001 Products to Use with Your IBM PC '' special issue after the number of product listings it received exceeded the figure. Tecmar and other companies that benefited from IBM 's openness rapidly grew in size and importance, as did PC Magazine; within two years it expanded from 96 bimonthly to 800 monthly pages, including almost 500 pages of advertisements.
Gates estimated that IBM would sell "not far from 200,000 '' PCs in 1982. By the end of that year the company was selling one every minute of the business day. It estimated that 50 to 70 % of PCs sold in retail stores went to the home, and the publicity from selling a popular product to consumers caused IBM to, a spokesman said, "enter the world '' by familiarizing them with the Colossus of Armonk. Although the PC only provided two to three percent of sales the company found that it had underestimated demand by as much as 800 %. Because its prices were based on forecasts of much lower volume -- 250,000 over five years, which would have made the PC a very successful IBM product -- the PC became very profitable; at times the company sold almost that many computers per month. Estridge claimed in 1983 that from October 1982 to March 1983 customer demand quadrupled. He stated that the company had increased production three times in one year, and warned of a component shortage if demand continued to increase. Many small suppliers ' sales to IBM grew rapidly, both pleasing their executives and causing them to worry about being overdependent on it. Miniscribe, for example, in 1983 received 61 % of its hard drive orders from IBM; the company 's stock price fell by more than one third in one day after IBM reduced orders in January 1984. Suppliers often found, however, that the prestige of having IBM as a customer led to additional sales elsewhere.
By mid-1983, Yankee Group estimated that ten new IBM PC - related products appeared every day. In August 1983, the Chess IBU, with 4,000 employees, became the Entry Systems Division, which observers believed indicated that the PC was significantly important to IBM overall, and no longer an experiment. The PC surpassed the Apple II as the best - selling personal computer with more than 750,000 sold by the end of the year, while DEC only sold 69,000 microcomputers in the first nine months of the year despite offering three models for different markets. Retailers also benefited, with 65 % of BusinessLand 's revenue coming from the PC. Demand still so exceeded supply two years after its debut that, despite IBM shipping 40,000 PCs a month, dealers reportedly received 60 % or less of their desired quantity. Pournelle received the PC he paid for in early July 1983 on 1 November, and IBM Boca Raton employees and neighbors had to wait five weeks to buy the computers assembled there.
Yankee Group also stated that the PC had by 1983 "destroyed the market for some older machines '' from companies like Vector Graphic, North Star, and Cromemco. inCider wrote "This may be an Apple magazine, but let 's not kid ourselves, IBM has devoured competitors like a cloud of locusts ''. By February 1984 BYTE reported on "the phenomenal market acceptance of the IBM PC '', and by fall concluded that the company "has given the field its third major standard, after the Apple II and CP / M ''. Some rivals speculated that the government might again prosecute IBM for antitrust, and Ben Rosen claimed that the company 's dominance "is having a chilling effect on new ventures, a fear factor ''.
By that time, Apple was less welcoming of the rival that inCider stated had a "godlike '' reputation. Its focus on the III had delayed improvements to the II, and the sophisticated Lisa was unsuccessful in part because, unlike the II and the PC, Apple discouraged third - party developers. The head of a retail chain said "It appears that IBM had a better understanding of why the Apple II was successful than had Apple. '' Jobs, after trying to recruit Estridge to become Apple 's president, admitted that in two years IBM had joined Apple as "the industry 's two strongest competitors ''. He warned in a speech before previewing the forthcoming "1984 '' Super Bowl commercial: "It appears IBM wants it all... Will Big Blue dominate the entire computer industry? The entire information age? Was George Orwell right about 1984? ''
IBM had $4 billion in annual PC revenue by 1984, more than twice that of Apple and as much as the sales of Apple, Commodore, HP, and Sperry combined, and 6 % of total revenue. A Fortune survey found that 56 % of American companies with personal computers used IBM PCs, compared to Apple 's 16 %. A 1983 study of corporate customers similarly found that two thirds of large customers standardizing on one computer chose the PC, compared to 9 % for Apple. IBM 's own documentation described the PC as inferior to competitors ' less - expensive products, but the company generally did not compete on price; rather, the study found that they preferred "IBM 's hegemony '' because of its support. Most companies with mainframes used their PCs with the larger computers, which likely benefited IBM 's mainframe sales and discouraged their purchasing non-IBM hardware.
In 1984, IBM introduced the PC / AT, unlike its predecessor the most sophisticated personal computer from any major company. By 1985, the PC family had more than doubled Future Computing 's 1986 revenue estimate, with more than 12,000 applications and 4,500 dealers and distributors worldwide. In his obituary that year, The New York Times wrote that Estridge had led the "extraordinarily successful entry of the International Business Machines Corporation into the personal computer field ''. The Entry Systems Division had 10,000 employees and by itself would have been the world 's third - largest computer company behind IBM and DEC, with more revenue than IBM 's minicomputer business despite its much later start. IBM was the only major company with significant minicomputer and microcomputer businesses, in part because rivals like DEC and Wang did not adjust to the retail market.
Rumors of "lookalike '', compatible computers, created without IBM 's approval, began almost immediately after the IBM PC 's release. Other manufacturers soon reverse engineered the BIOS to produce their own non-infringing functional copies. Columbia Data Products introduced the first IBM - PC compatible computer in June 1982. In November 1982, Compaq Computer Corporation announced the Compaq Portable, the first portable IBM PC compatible. The first models were shipped in January 1983.
The success of the IBM computer led other companies to develop IBM Compatibles, which in turn led to branding like diskettes being advertised as "IBM format ''. An IBM PC clone could be built with off - the - shelf parts, but the BIOS required some reverse engineering. Companies like Compaq, Phoenix Software Associates, American Megatrends, Award, and others achieved fully functional versions of the BIOS, allowing companies like Dell, Gateway and HP to manufacture PCs that worked like IBM 's product. The IBM PC became the industry standard.
Because IBM had no retail experience, the retail chains ComputerLand and Sears Roebuck provided important knowledge of the marketplace. They became the main outlets for the new product. More than 190 Computerland stores already existed, while Sears was in the process of creating a handful of in - store computer centers for sale of the new product. This guaranteed IBM widespread distribution across the U.S.
Targeting the new PC at the home market, Sears Roebuck sales failed to live up to expectations. This unfavorable outcome revealed that the strategy of targeting the office market was the key to higher sales.
All IBM personal computers are software backwards - compatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs will not take advantage of newer higher - resolution and higher - color display standards, while some newer programs require newer display adapters. (Note that as the display adapter was an adapter card in all of these IBM models, newer display hardware could easily be, and often was, retrofitted to older models.) A few programs, typically very early ones, are written for and require a specific version of the IBM PC BIOS ROM. Most notably, BASICA which was dependent on the BIOS ROM had a sister program called GW - BASIC which supported more functions, was 100 % backwards compatible and could run independently from the BIOS ROM.
The CGA video card, with a suitable modulator, could use an NTSC television set or an RGBi monitor for display; IBM 's RGBi monitor was their display model 5153. The other option that was offered by IBM was an MDA and their monochrome display model 5151. It was possible to install both an MDA and a CGA card and use both monitors concurrently if supported by the application program. For example, AutoCAD, Lotus 1 - 2 - 3 and others allowed use of a CGA Monitor for graphics and a separate monochrome monitor for text menus. Some model 5150 PCs with CGA monitors and a printer port also included the MDA adapter by default, because IBM provided the MDA port and printer port on the same adapter card; it was in fact an MDA / printer port combo card.
Although cassette tape was originally envisioned by IBM as a low - budget storage alternative, the most commonly used medium was the floppy disk. The 5150 was available with one or two 5 ⁄ '' floppy drives -- with two drives the program disc (s) would be in drive A, while drive B would hold the disc (s) for working files; with one drive the user had to swap program and file discs into the single drive. For models without any drives or storage medium, IBM intended users to connect their own cassette recorder via the 5150 's cassette socket. The cassette tape socket was physically the same DIN plug as the keyboard socket and next to it, but electrically completely different.
A hard disk could not be installed into the 5150 's system unit without changing to a higher - rated power supply (although later drives with lower power consumption have been known to work with the standard 63.5 Watt unit). The "IBM 5161 Expansion Chassis '' came with its own power supply and one 10 MB hard disk and allowed the installation of a second hard disk. The system unit had five expansion slots, and the expansion unit had eight; however, one of the system unit 's slots and one of the expansion unit 's slots had to be occupied by the Extender Card and Receiver Card, respectively, which were needed to connect the expansion unit to the system unit and make the expansion unit 's other slots available, for a total of 11 slots. A working configuration required that some of the slots be occupied by display, disk, and I / O adapters, as none of these were built into the 5150 's motherboard; the only motherboard external connectors were the keyboard and cassette ports.
The simple PC speaker sound hardware was also on board.
The original PC 's maximum memory using IBM parts was 256 kB, achievable through the installation of 64 kB on the motherboard and three 64 kB expansion cards. The processor was an Intel 8088 running at 4.77 MHz, 4 / 3 the standard NTSC color burst frequency of 315 / 88 = 3.579 54 MHz. (In early units, the Intel 8088 used was a 1978 version, later were 1978 / 81 / 2 versions of the Intel chip; second - sourced AMDs were used after 1983). Some owners replaced the 8088 with an NEC V20 for a slight increase in processing speed and support for real mode 80186 instructions. The V20 gained its speed increase through the use of a hardware multiplier which the 8088 lacked. An Intel 8087 coprocessor could also be added for hardware floating - point arithmetic.
IBM sold the first IBM PCs in configurations with 16 or 64 kB of RAM preinstalled using either nine or thirty - six 16 - kilobit DRAM chips. (The ninth bit was used for parity checking of memory.) In November 1982, the ROM for the IBM PC was changed to allow the use of 64 Kbit chips (as opposed to the original 16 Kbit chips) -- the same RAM configuration as the soon - to - be-released IBM XT. (64 kB in one bank, expandable to 256kB by populating the other 3 banks.)
Although the TV - compatible video board, cassette port and Federal Communications Commission Class B certification were all aimed at making it a home computer, the original PC proved too expensive for the home market. At introduction, a PC with 64 kB of RAM and a single 5.25 - inch floppy drive and monitor sold for US $ 3,005 (equivalent to $8,089 in 2017), while the cheapest configuration (US $1,565) that had no floppy drives, only 16 kB RAM, and no monitor (again, under the expectation that users would connect their existing TV sets and cassette recorders) proved too unattractive and low - spec, even for its time (cf. footnotes to the above IBM PC range table). While the 5150 did not become a top selling home computer, its floppy - based configuration became an unexpectedly large success with businesses.
The "IBM Personal Computer XT '', IBM model 5160, was introduced two years after the PC and featured a 10 megabyte hard drive. It had eight expansion slots but the same processor and clock speed as the PC. The XT had no cassette jack, but still had the Cassette Basic interpreter in ROMs.
The XT could take 256 kB of memory on the main board (using 64 kbit DRAM); later models were expandable to 640 kB. The remaining 384 kilobytes of the 8088 address space (between 640 KB and 1 MB) were used for the BIOS ROM, adapter ROM and RAM space, including video RAM space. It was usually sold with a Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) video card or a CGA video card.
The eight expansion slots were the same as the model 5150 but were spaced closer together. Although rare, a card designed for the 5150 could be wide enough to obstruct the adjacent slot in an XT. Because of the spacing, an XT motherboard would not fit into a case designed for the PC motherboard, but the slots and peripheral cards were compatible. The XT expansion bus (later called "8 - bit Industry Standard Architecture '' (ISA) by competitors) was retained in the IBM AT, which added connectors for some slots to allow 16 - bit transfers; 8 - bit cards could be used in an AT.
The "IBM Personal Computer XT / 370 '' was an XT with three custom 8 - bit cards: the processor card (370PC - P) contained a modified Motorola 68000 chip, microcoded to execute System / 370 instructions, a second 68000 to handle bus arbitration and memory transfers, and a modified 8087 to emulate the S / 370 floating point instructions. The second card (370PC - M) connected to the first and contained 512 kB of memory. The third card (PC3277 - EM), was a 3270 terminal emulator necessary to install the system software for the VM / PC software to run the processors.
The computer booted into DOS, then ran the VM / PC Control Program.
The "IBM PCjr '' was IBM 's first attempt to enter the market for relatively inexpensive educational and home - use personal computers. The PCjr, IBM model number 4860, retained the IBM PC 's 8088 CPU and BIOS interface for compatibility, but its cost and differences in the PCjr 's architecture, as well as other design and implementation decisions (chief among these was the use of a "chiclet '' keyboard, which was difficult to type with), eventually led to the PCjr, and the related IBM JX, being commercial failures.
The "IBM Portable Personal Computer '' 5155 model 68 was an early portable computer developed by IBM after the success of Compaq 's suitcase - size portable machine (the Compaq Portable). It was released in February 1984, and was eventually replaced by the IBM Convertible.
The Portable was an XT motherboard, transplanted into a Compaq - style luggable case. The system featured 256 kilobytes of memory (expandable to 512 KB), an added CGA card connected to an internal monochrome (amber) composite monitor, and one or two half - height 5.25 '' 360 KB floppy disk drives. Unlike the Compaq Portable, which used a dual - mode monitor and special display card, IBM used a stock CGA board and a composite monitor, which had lower resolution. It could however, display color if connected to an external monitor or television.
The "IBM Personal Computer / AT '' (model 5170), announced August 15, 1984, used an Intel 80286 processor, originally running at 6 MHz. It had a 16 - bit ISA bus and 20 MB hard drive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz and sporting a 30 - megabyte hard disk was introduced in 1986.
The AT was designed to support multitasking; the new SysRq (system request) key, little noted and often overlooked, is part of this design, as is the 80286 itself, the first Intel 16 - bit processor with multitasking features (i.e. the 80286 protected mode). IBM made some attempt at marketing the AT as a multi-user machine, but it sold mainly as a faster PC for power users. For the most part, IBM PC / ATs were used as more powerful DOS (single - tasking) personal computers, in the literal sense of the PC name.
Early PC / ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard disk, and High Density Floppy Disk Drive.
While some people blamed IBM 's hard disk controller card and others blamed the hard disk manufacturer Computer Memories Inc. (CMI), the IBM controller card worked fine with other drives, including CMI 's 33 - MB model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives, the PC / AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry standard.
IBM AT 's Drive parameter table listed the CMI - 33 as having 615 cylinders instead of the 640 the drive was designed with, as to make the size an even 30 MB. Those who re-used the drives mostly found that the 616th cylinder was bad due to it being used as a landing area.
The "IBM Personal Computer AT / 370 '' was an AT with two custom 16 - bit cards, running almost exactly the same setup as the XT / 370.
The IBM PC Convertible, released April 3, 1986, was IBM 's first laptop computer and was also the first IBM computer to utilize the 3.5 '' floppy disk which went on to become the standard. Like modern laptops, it featured power management and the ability to run from batteries. It was the follow - up to the IBM Portable and was model number 5140. The concept and the design of the body was made by the German industrial designer Richard Sapper.
It utilized an Intel 80c88 CPU (a CMOS version of the Intel 8088) running at 4.77 MHz, 256 kB of RAM (expandable to 640 kB), dual 720 kB 3.5 '' floppy drives, and a monochrome CGA - compatible LCD screen at a price of $2,000. It weighed 13 pounds (5.9 kg) and featured a built - in carrying handle.
The PC Convertible had expansion capabilities through a proprietary ISA bus - based port on the rear of the machine. Extension modules, including a small printer and a video output module, could be snapped into place. The machine could also take an internal modem, but there was no room for an internal hard disk.
The IBM PS / 2 line was introduced in 1987. The Model 30 at the bottom end of the lineup was very similar to earlier models; it used an 8086 processor and an ISA bus. The Model 30 was not "IBM compatible '' in that it did not have standard 5.25 - inch drive bays; it came with a 3.5 - inch floppy drive and optionally a 3.5 - inch - sized hard disk. Most models in the PS / 2 line further departed from "IBM compatible '' by replacing the ISA bus completely with Micro Channel Architecture. The MCA bus was not received well by the customer base for PC 's, since it was proprietary to IBM. It was rarely implemented by any of the other PC - compatible makers. Eventually IBM would abandon this architecture entirely and return to the standard ISA bus.
The main circuit board in an PC is called the motherboard (IBM terminology calls it a planar). This mainly carries the CPU and RAM, and it has a bus with slots for expansion cards. On the motherboard are also the ROM subsystem, DMA and IRQ controllers, coprocessor socket, sound (PC speaker, tone generation) circuitry, and keyboard interface. The original PC also has a cassette interface.
The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and it was subsequently named ISA. While it was popular, it was more commonly known as the PC - bus or XT - bus; the term ISA arose later when industry leaders chose to continue manufacturing machines based on the IBM PC AT architecture rather than license the PS / 2 architecture and its Micro Channel bus from IBM. The XT - bus was then retroactively named 8 - bit ISA or XT ISA, while the unqualified term ISA usually refers to the 16 - bit AT - bus (as better defined in the ISA specifications). The AT - bus is an extension of the PC - / XT - bus and is in use to this day in computers for industrial use, where its relatively low speed, 5 volt signals, and relatively simple, straightforward design (all by year 2011 standards) give it technical advantages (e.g. noise immunity for reliability).
A monitor and any floppy or hard disk drives are connected to the motherboard through cables connected to graphics adapter and disk controller cards, respectively, installed in expansion slots. Each expansion slot on the motherboard has a corresponding opening in the back of the computer case through which the card can expose connectors; a blank metal cover plate covers this case opening (to prevent dust and debris intrusion and control airflow) when no expansion card is installed. Memory expansion beyond the amount installable on the motherboard was also done with boards installed in expansion slots, and I / O devices such as parallel, serial, or network ports were likewise installed as individual expansion boards. For this reason, it was easy to fill the five expansion slots of the PC, or even the eight slots of the XT, even without installing any special hardware. Companies like Quadram and AST addressed this with their popular multi-I / O cards which combine several peripherals on one adapter card that uses only one slot; Quadram offered the QuadBoard and AST the SixPak.
Intel 8086 and 8088 - based PCs require expanded memory (EMS) boards to work with more than 640 kB of memory. (Though the 8088 can address one megabyte of memory, the last 384 kB of that is used or reserved for the BIOS ROM, BASIC ROM, extension ROMs installed on adapter cards, and memory address space used by devices including display adapter RAM and even the 64 kB EMS page frame itself.) The original IBM PC AT used an Intel 80286 processor which can access up to 16 MB of memory (though standard DOS applications can not use more than one megabyte without using additional APIs). Intel 80286 - based computers running under OS / 2 can work with the maximum memory.
The set of peripheral chips selected for the original IBM PC defined the functionality of an IBM compatible. These became the de facto base for later application - specific integrated circuits (ASICs) used in compatible products.
The original system chips were one Intel 8259 programmable interrupt controller (PIC) (at I / O address 0x20), one Intel 8237 direct memory access (DMA) controller (at I / O address 0x00), and an Intel 8253 programmable interval timer (PIT) (at I / O address 0x40). The PIT provides the 18.2 Hz clock ticks, dynamic memory refresh timing, and can be used for speaker output; one DMA channel is used to perform the memory refresh.
The mathematics coprocessor was the Intel 8087 using I / O address 0xF0. This was an option for users who needed extensive floating - point arithmetic, such as users of computer - aided drafting.
The IBM PC AT added a second, slave 8259 PIC (at I / O address 0xA0), a second 8237 DMA controller for 16 - bit DMA (at I / O address 0xC0), a DMA address register (implemented with a 74LS612 IC) (at I / O address 0x80), and a Motorola MC146818 real - time clock (RTC) with nonvolatile memory (NVRAM) used for system configuration (replacing the DIP switches and jumpers used for this purpose in PC and PC / XT models (at I / O address 0x70). On expansion cards, the Intel 8255 programmable peripheral interface (PPI) (at I / O addresses 0x378 is used for parallel I / O controls the printer, and the 8250 universal asynchronous receiver / transmitter (UART) (at I / O address 0x3F8 or 0x3E8) controls the serial communication at the (pseudo -) RS - 232 port.
IBM offered a Game Control Adapter for the PC, which supported analog joysticks similar to those on the Apple II. Although analog controls proved inferior for arcade - style games, they were an asset in certain other genres such as flight simulators. The joystick port on the IBM PC supported two controllers, but required a Y - splitter cable to connect both at once. It remained the standard joystick interface on IBM compatibles until being replaced by USB during the 2000s.
The keyboard that came with the IBM 5150 was an extremely reliable and high - quality electronic keyboard originally developed in North Carolina for the Datamaster. Each key was rated to be reliable to over 100 million keystrokes. For the IBM PC, a separate keyboard housing was designed with a novel usability feature that allowed users to adjust the keyboard angle for personal comfort. Compared with the keyboards of other small computers at the time, the IBM PC keyboard was far superior and played a significant role in establishing a high - quality impression. For example, the industrial design of the adjustable keyboard, together with the system unit, was recognized with a major design award. Byte magazine in the fall of 1981 went so far as to state that the keyboard was 50 % of the reason to buy an IBM PC. The importance of the keyboard was definitely established when the 1983 IBM PCjr flopped, in very large part for having a much different and mediocre Chiclet keyboard that made a poor impression on customers. Oddly enough, the same thing almost happened to the original IBM PC when in early 1981 management seriously considered substituting a cheaper and lower quality keyboard. This mistake was narrowly avoided on the advice of one of the original development engineers.
However, the original 1981 IBM PC 83 - key keyboard was criticized by typists for its non-standard placement of the Return and left ⇧ Shift keys, and because it did not have separate cursor and numeric pads that were popular on the pre-PC DEC VT100 series video terminals. In 1982, Key Tronic introduced a 101 - key PC keyboard, albeit not with the now - familiar layout. In 1984, IBM corrected the Return and left ⇧ Shift keys on its AT keyboard, but shortened the Backspace key, making it harder to reach. In 1986, IBM introduced the 101 key Enhanced Keyboard, which added the separate cursor and numeric key pads, relocated all the function keys and the Ctrl keys, and the Esc key was also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard. The Enhanced Keyboard was an option for the PC XT / AT in 1986, both of which were also available with their original keyboards, and introduced the key layout that 's still the industry standard.
Another feature of the original keyboard is the relatively loud "click '' sound each key made when pressed. Since typewriter users were accustomed to keeping their eyes on the hardcopy they were typing from and had come to rely on the mechanical sound that was made as each character was typed onto the paper to ensure that they had pressed the key hard enough (and only once), the PC keyboard used a keyswitch that produced a click and tactile bump intended to provide that same reassurance.
The IBM PC keyboard is very robust and flexible. The low - level interface for each key is the same: each key sends a signal when it is pressed and another signal when it is released. An integrated microcontroller in the keyboard scans the keyboard and encodes a "scan code '' and "release code '' for each key as it is pressed and released separately. Any key can be used as a shift key, and a large number of keys can be held down simultaneously and separately sensed. The controller in the keyboard handles typematic operation, issuing periodic repeat scan codes for a depressed key and then a single release code when the key is finally released.
An "IBM PC compatible '' may have a keyboard that does not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, such as shifted cursor keys. In addition, the "compatible '' vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, preventing the keyboard from being replaced.
Although the PC / XT and AT used the same style of keyboard connector, the low - level protocol for reading the keyboard was different between these two series. The AT keyboard uses a bidirectional interface which allows the computer to send commands to the keyboard. An AT keyboard could not be used in an XT, nor the reverse. Third - party keyboard manufacturers provided a switch on some of their keyboards to select either the AT - style or XT - style protocol for the keyboard.
The original IBM PC used the 7 - bit ASCII alphabet as its basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard character codes. This character set was not suitable for some international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition, these variants were called code pages. These codings are now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic and standardized forms of character coding, such as ISO 8859 - 1, Windows - 1251 and Unicode. The original character set is known as code page 437.
IBM equipped the model 5150 with a cassette port for connecting a cassette drive and assumed that home users would purchase the low - end model and save files to cassette tapes as was typical of home computers of the time. However, adoption of the floppy - and monitor-less configuration was low; few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a floppy disk drive installed. Also, DOS was not available on cassette tape, only on floppy disks (hence "Disk Operating System ''). 5150s with just external cassette recorders for storage could only use the built - in ROM BASIC as their operating system. As DOS saw increasing adoption, the incompatibility of DOS programs with PCs that used only cassettes for storage made this configuration even less attractive. The ROM BIOS supported cassette operations.
The IBM PC cassette interface encodes data using frequency modulation with a variable data rate. Either a one or a zero is represented by a single cycle of a square wave, but the square wave frequencies differ by a factor of two, with ones having the lower frequency. Therefore, the bit periods for zeros and ones also differ by a factor of two, with the unusual effect that a data stream with more zeros than ones will use less tape (and time) than an equal - length (in bits) data stream containing more ones than zeros, or equal numbers of each.
IBM also had an exclusive license agreement with Microsoft to include BASIC in the ROM of the PC; clone manufacturers could not have ROM BASIC on their machines, but it also became a problem as the XT, AT, and PS / 2 eliminated the cassette port and IBM was still required to install the (now useless) BASIC with them. The agreement finally expired in 1991 when Microsoft replaced BASICA / GW - BASIC with QBASIC. The main core BASIC resided in ROM and "linked '' up with the RAM - resident BASIC.COM/BASICA.COM included with PC - DOS (they provided disk support and other extended features not present in ROM BASIC). Because BASIC was over 50 kB in size, this served a useful function during the first three years of the PC when machines only had 64 -- 128 kB of memory, but became less important by 1985. For comparison, clone makers such as Compaq were forced to include a version of BASIC that resided entirely in RAM.
Most or all 5150 PCs had one or two 5.25 - inch floppy disk drives. These were either single - sided double - density (SSDD) or double - sided double - density (DSDD) drives. The IBM PC never used single density floppy drives. The drives and disks were commonly referred to by capacity, such as "160KB floppy disk '' or "360KB floppy drive ''. DSDD drives were backwards compatible; they could read and write SSDD floppies. The same type of physical diskette media could be used for both drives, but a disk formatted for double - sided use could not be read on a single - sided drive.
The disks were Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM) coded in 512 - byte sectors, and were soft - sectored. They contained 40 tracks per side at the 48 track per inch (TPI) density, and initially were formatted to contain eight sectors per track. This meant that SSDD disks initially had a formatted capacity of 160 kB, while DSDD disks had a capacity of 320 kB. However, the DOS operating system was later updated to allow formatting the disks with nine sectors per track. This yielded a formatted capacity of 180 kB with SSDD disks / drives, and 360 kB with DSDD disks / drives. The unformatted capacity of the floppy disks was advertised as "250KB '' for SSDD and "500KB '' for DSDD ("KB '' ambiguously referring to either 1000 or 1024 bytes; essentially the same for rounded - off values), however these "raw '' 250 / 500 kB were not the same thing as the usable formatted capacity; under DOS, the maximum capacity for SSDD and DSDD disks was 180 kB and 360 kB, respectively. Regardless of type, the file system of all floppy disks (under DOS) was FAT12.
The earliest IBM PCs had only single - sided floppy drives until double - sided drives became available in the spring of 1982. After the upgraded 64k - 256k motherboard PCs arrived in early 1983, single - sided drives and the cassette model were discontinued.
IBM 's original floppy disk controller card also included an external 37 - pin D - shell connector. This allowed users to connect additional external floppy drives by third party vendors, but IBM did not offer their own external floppies until 1986.
The industry - standard way of setting floppy drive numbers was via setting jumper switches on the drive unit, however IBM chose to instead use a method known as the "cable twist '' which had a floppy data cable with a bend in the middle of it that served as a switch for the drive motor control. This eliminated the need for users to adjust jumpers while installing a floppy drive.
The 5150 could not itself power hard drives without retrofitting a stronger power supply, but IBM later offered the 5161 Expansion Unit, which not only provided more expansion slots, but also included a 10 MB (later 20 MB) hard drive powered by the 5161 's own separate 130 - watt power supply. The IBM 5161 Expansion Unit was released in early 1983.
During the first year of the IBM PC, it was commonplace for users to install third - party Winchester hard disks which generally connected to the floppy controller and required a patched version of PC - DOS which treated them as a giant floppy disk (there was no subdirectory support).
IBM began offering hard disks with the XT, however the original PC was never sold with them. Nonetheless, many users installed hard disks and upgraded power supplies in them.
After floppy disks became obsolete in the early 2000s, the letters A and B became unused. But for 25 years, virtually all DOS - based PC software assumed the program installation drive was C, so the primary HDD continues to be "the C drive '' even today. Other operating system families (e.g. Unix) are not bound to these designations.
Which operating system IBM customers would choose was at first unclear. Although the company expected that most would use PC DOS IBM supported using CP / M - 86 -- which became available six months after DOS -- or UCSD p - System as operating systems. IBM promised that it would not favor one operating system over the others; the CP / M - 86 support surprised Gates, who claimed that IBM was "blackmailed into it ''. IBM was correct, nonetheless, in its expectation; one survey found that 96.3 % of PCs were ordered with the $40 DOS compared to 3.4 % for the $240 CP / M - 86.
The IBM PC 's ROM BASIC and BIOS supported cassette tape storage. PC DOS itself did not support cassette tape storage. PC DOS version 1.00 supported only 160 kB SSDD floppies, but version 1.1, which was released nine months after the PC 's introduction, supported 160 kB SSDD and 320 kB DSDD floppies. Support for the slightly larger nine sector per track 180 kB and 360 kB formats arrived 10 months later in March 1983.
The BIOS (Basic Input / Output System) provided the core ROM code for the PC. It contained a library of functions that software could call for basic tasks such as video output, keyboard input, and disk access in addition to interrupt handling, loading the operating system on boot - up, and testing memory and other system components.
The original IBM PC BIOS was 8k in size and occupied four 2k ROM chips on the motherboard, with a fifth and sixth empty slot left for any extra ROMs the user wished to install. IBM offered three different BIOS revisions during the PC 's lifespan. The initial BIOS was dated April 1981 and came on the earliest models with single - sided floppy drives and PC DOS 1.00. The second version was dated October 1981 and arrived on the "Revision B '' models sold with double - sided drives and PC DOS 1.10. It corrected some bugs, but was otherwise unchanged. Finally, the third BIOS version was dated October 1982 and found on all IBM PCs with the newer 64k - 256k motherboard. This revision was more - or-less identical to the XT 's BIOS. It added support for detecting ROMs on expansion cards as well as the ability to use 640k of memory (the earlier BIOS revisions had a limit of 544k). Unlike the XT, the original PC remained functionally unchanged from 1983 until its discontinuation in early 1987 and did not get support for 101 - key keyboards or 3.5 '' floppy drives, nor was it ever offered with half - height floppies.
IBM initially offered two video adapters for the PC, the Color / Graphics Adapter and the Monochrome Display and Printer Adapter. CGA was intended to be a typical home computer display; it had NTSC output and could be connected to a composite monitor or a TV set with an RF modulator in addition to RGB for digital RGBI - type monitors, although IBM did not offer their own RGB monitor until 1983. Supported graphics modes were 40 or 80 × 25 color text with 8 × 8 character resolution, 320 × 200 bitmap graphics with two fixed 4 - color palettes, or 640 × 200 monochrome graphics.
The MDA card and its companion 5151 monitor supported only 80 × 25 text with a 9 × 14 character resolution (total pixel resolution was 720 × 350). It was mainly intended for the business market and so also included a printer port.
During 1982, the first third - party video card for the PC appeared when Hercules Computer Technologies released a clone of the MDA that could use bitmap graphics. Although not supported by the BIOS, the Hercules Graphics Adapter became extremely popular for business use due to allowing sharp, high resolution graphics plus text and itself was widely cloned by other manufacturers.
In 1985, after the launch of the IBM AT, the new Enhanced Graphics Adapter became available which could support 320 × 200 or 640 × 200 in 16 colors in addition to high - resolution 640 × 350 16 color graphics.
IBM also offered a video board for the PC, XT, and AT known as the Professional Graphics Adapter during 1984 -- 86, mainly intended for CAD design. It was extremely expensive, required a special monitor, and was rarely ordered by customers.
VGA graphics cards could also be installed in IBM PCs and XTs, although they were introduced after the computer 's discontinuation.
The serial port is an 8250 or a derivative (such as the 16450 or 16550), mapped to eight consecutive IO addresses and one interrupt request line.
Only COM1: and COM2: addresses were defined by the original PC. Attempts to share IRQ3 and IRQ4 to use additional ports require special measures in hardware and software, since shared IRQs were not defined in the original PC design. The most typical devices plugged into the serial port were modems and mice. Plotters and serial printers were also among the more commonly used serial peripherals, and there were numerous other more unusual uses such as operating cash registers, factory equipment, and connecting terminals.
IBM made a deal with Japan - based Epson to produce printers for the PC and all IBM - branded printers were manufactured by that company (Epson of course also sold printers with their own name). There was a considerable amount of controversy when IBM included a printer port on the PC that did not follow the industry - standard Centronics design, and it was rumored that this had been done to prevent customers from using non-Epson / IBM printers with their machines (plugging a Centronics printer into an IBM PC could damage the printer, the parallel port, or both). Although third - party cards were available with Centronics ports on them, PC clones quickly copied the IBM printer port and by the late 80s, it had largely displaced the Centronics standard.
BYTE wrote in October 1981 that the IBM PC 's "hardware is impressive, but even more striking are two decisions made by IBM: to use outside suppliers already established in the microcomputer industry, and to provide information and assistance to independent, small - scale software writers and manufacturers of peripheral devices ''. It praised the "smart '' hardware design and stated that its price was not much higher than the 8 - bit machines from Apple and others. The reviewer admitted that the computer "came as a shock. I expected that the giant would stumble by overestimating or underestimating the capabilities the public wants and stubbornly insisting on incompatibility with the rest of the microcomputer world. But IBM did n't stumble at all; instead, the giant jumped leagues in front of the competition... the only disappointment about the IBM Personal Computer is its dull name ''.
In a more detailed review in January 1982, BYTE called the IBM PC "a synthesis of the best the microcomputer industry has offered to date... as well designed on the inside as it is on the outside ''. The magazine praised the keyboard as "bar none, the best... on any microcomputer '', describing the unusual Shift key locations as "minor (problems) compared to some of the gigantic mistakes made on almost every other microcomputer keyboard ''. The review also complimented IBM 's manuals, which it predicted "will set the standard for all microcomputer documentation in the future. Not only are they well packaged, well organized, and easy to understand, but they are also complete ''. Observing that detailed technical information was available "much earlier... than it has been for other machines '', the magazine predicted that "given a reasonable period of time, plenty of hardware and software will probably be developed for '' the computer. The review stated that although the IBM PC cost more than comparably configured Apple II and TRS - 80 computers, and the insufficient number of slots for all desirable expansion cards was its most serious weakness, "you get a lot more for your money '' and concluded, "In two years or so, I think (it) will be one of the most popular and best - supported... IBM should be proud of the people who designed it ''.
In a special 1984 issue dedicated to the IBM PC, BYTE concluded that the PC had succeeded both because of its features like an 80 - column screen, open architecture, and high - quality keyboard, and "the failure of other major companies to provide these same fundamental features earlier. In retrospect, it seems IBM stepped into a void that remained, paradoxically, at the center of a crowded market ''.
Many IBM PCs have remained in service long after their technology became largely obsolete. In June 2006, IBM PC and XT models were still in use at the majority of U.S. National Weather Service upper - air observing sites, used to process data as it is returned from the ascending radiosonde, attached to a weather balloon, although they have been slowly phased out. Factors that have contributed to the 5150 PC 's longevity are its flexible modular design, its open technical standard (making information needed to adapt, modify, and repair it readily available), use of few special nonstandard parts, and rugged high - standard IBM manufacturing, which provided for exceptional long - term reliability and durability.
Some of the mechanical aspects of the slot specifications are still used in current PCs. A few systems still come with PS / 2 style keyboard and mouse connectors.
The IBM model 5150 Personal Computer has become a collectable among vintage computer collectors, due to the system being the first true "PC '' as we know them today. As of 2007, the system had a market value of $50 -- $500. The IBM model 5150 has proven to be reliable; despite their age of 30 years or more, some still function as they did when new.
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and that was the end of solomon grundy | Solomon Grundy - wikipedia
"Solomon Grundy '' is an English nursery rhyme. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19299.
The rhyme has varied very little since it was first collected by James Orchard Halliwell and published in 1842 with the lyrics:
Solomon Grundy, Born on a Monday, Christened on Tuesday, Married on Wednesday, Took ill on Thursday, Grew worse on Friday, Died on Saturday, Buried on Sunday, That was the end, Of Solomon Grundy.
Solomon Grundy, born on a Monday, Christened on a stark and stormy Tuesday, Married on a grey and grisly Wednesday, Took ill on a mild and mellow Thursday, Grew worse on a bright and breezy Friday, Died on a grey and glorious Saturday, Buried on a baking, blistering Sunday. That was the end of Solomon Grundy.
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describe how information from the internet can be included in a piece of coursework | Coursework - wikipedia
Coursework is work performed by students or trainees for the purpose of learning. Coursework may be specified and assigned by teachers, or by learning guides in self - taught courses. Coursework can encompass a wide range of activities, including practice, experimentation, research, and writing (e.g., dissertations, book reports, and essays). In the case of students at universities, high schools and middle schools, coursework is often graded and the scores are combined with those of separately assessed exams to determine overall course scores. In contrast to exams, students may be allotted several days or weeks to complete coursework, and are often allowed to use text books, notes, and the Internet for research.
In universities, students are usually required to perform coursework to broaden knowledge, enhance research skills, and demonstrate that they can discuss, reason and construct practical outcomes from learned theoretical knowledge. Sometimes coursework is performed by a group so that students can learn both how to work in groups and from each other.
Plagiarism and copying can be problematic in graded coursework. Easily accessible websites have given students opportunities to copy ideas and even complete essays, and remain undetected despite measures to detect this. While coursework may give learners the chance to improve their grades, it also provides an opportunity to "cheat the system ''. Also, there is often controversy regarding the type and amount of help students can receive while performing coursework. In most learning institutions, plagiarism or unreasonable coursework help may lead to coursework disqualification, student expulsion, or both.
Coursework was removed from UK GCSE courses and replaced by "Controlled Assessment '', much of which must be completed under exam conditions, without teacher assistance and with access to resources tightly controlled in order to reduce the possibility of cheating. However, this too will shortly be largely removed and replaced by mainly exam - based assessment as part of a general GCSE reform.
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when calls the heart movie list in order | List of when Calls the Heart episodes - wikipedia
This is a list of episodes for When Calls the Heart, an American - Canadian television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West Series. Developed by Michael Landon Jr., the series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
As of April 23, 2017, 39 episodes of When Calls the Heart have aired, concluding the fourth season. On April 24, 2017, star Erin Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season in 2018.
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who has won the most gold cups in soccer | CONCACAF Gold Cup - wikipedia
The CONCACAF Gold Cup (Spanish: Copa de Oro de la CONCACAF) (French: Coupe d'Or de la CONCACAF) is the main association football (soccer) competition of the men 's national football teams governed by CONCACAF, determining the continental champion of North America, Central America, and the Caribbean.
The Gold Cup is held every two years. Before 2015, when the Gold Cup did not fall in the same year as the FIFA Confederations Cup, the winner, or highest - placed team that is a member of both CONCACAF and FIFA, qualified for the next staging of that tournament. Beginning in 2015, the winners of two successive Gold Cups (the 2013 and 2015 editions in the first instance) face each other in CONCACAF Cup -- a playoff to determine the CONCACAF entrant to the next Confederations Cup. If the same team has won the Gold Cup on both relevant occasions, there will be no playoff and that team will automatically qualify for the Confederations Cup.
Before the Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF) was formed in 1961, association football in the region was divided into smaller, regional divisions. The two main bodies consisted of the Confederación Centroamericana y del Caribe de Fútbol (CCCF) founded in 1938 (consisting of Central America and most of the Caribbean) and the North American Football Confederation (NAFC) founded in 1946 (consisting of the North American nations of United States, Mexico, Canada, and Cuba). Each confederation held its own competition, the CCCF Championship and the NAFC Championship. The CCCF held 10 championships from 1941 -- 1961, Costa Rica winning seven (1941, ' 46, ' 48, ' 53, ' 55, ' 60, ' 61), and one each by El Salvador (1943), Panama (1951) and Haiti (1957). The NAFC held four championships in 1947 and 1949 and later, after 41 years of absence, in 1990 and 1991 for the North American zone as the North American Nations Cup with Mexico winning two (47 & ' 49) and Canada winning one (1990) before the introduction of the CONCACAF Gold Cup.
CONCACAF was founded in 1961 through the merging of NAFC and CCCF which resulted in a single championship being held for the continent. The first CONCACAF tournament was held in 1963 in El Salvador with Costa Rica becoming the first champion. The CONCACAF Campeonato de Naciones, as it was called, was held every two years from 1963 -- 1973. The second tournament was held in Guatemala in 1965 when Mexico defeated the host country in the final of a six - team tournament. The 1967 competition was held in Honduras and saw a third champion crowned, Guatemala. Costa Rica won their second title as hosts in 1969, knocking off Guatemala, while two years later, Mexico won their second championship as the tournament moved to Trinidad & Tobago, the first time in the Caribbean. In 1973, the tournament kept the same format of six teams playing a single round - robin, but there were bigger stakes attached: CONCACAF 's berth in the FIFA World Cup tournament in 1974. In Port - au - Prince, Haiti, the host country pulled off a shocking upset by winning the tournament and claiming a spot in the World Cup in West Germany.
With the Campeonato de Naciones doubling as the final World Cup qualifying tournament, the next two editions were held in Mexico City and Tegucigalpa, Honduras in 1977 and 1981, respectively. In each case the host country was crowned champion and earned a spot in the World Cup. In 1985 and 1989, the winner of the World Cup qualifying tournament was again crowned Confederation champion. Canada and Costa Rica were named champions in 1985 and 1989, receiving a trophy.
In 1990, CONCACAF brought the CONCACAF Championship to an end and created the CONCACAF Gold Cup, with the USA hosting the first competition in 1991. The host country was the inaugural champion of the eight - team tournament. Mexico dominated the remainder of the decade, winning three consecutive CONCACAF Gold Cup titles in 1993, 1996 and 1998.
In 1996, the Gold Cup field included its first guest team, the defending FIFA World Cup Champions Brazil. Guests were invited to participate in the six Gold Cup tournaments from 1996 to 2005. Starting with the 2000 Gold Cup, the tournament field was increased to twelve teams and for the 2007 tournament, the Gold Cup again was contested exclusively by nations within CONCACAF.
The 2007 Gold Cup was contested in the United States where the hosts successfully defended their title beating Mexico in the final 2 -- 1 in Chicago; Canada and Guadeloupe shared third place. Mexico won the 2009 Gold Cup by beating the United States 5 -- 0. In the 2011 Gold Cup, Mexico defeated the USA 4 -- 2 in the final while the USA won the 2013 Gold Cup by beating Panama 1 -- 0.
Since the formation of the Gold Cup in 1991, the CONCACAF Championship has been won seven times by Mexico, six times by the United States, and once by Canada. Runners - up include Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama, and Jamaica.
In January 2017, Victor Montagliani announced the expansion of the Gold Cup from 12 to 16 teams, starting with the 2019 tournament.
Costa Rica and Jamaica shared third place.
Teams in italics are guest nations.
The following table shows cumulative top four results for all editions of the CONCACAF Gold Cup. The Third Place column lists third - place match winners, and teams eliminated in semi-finals in years without a third - place match.
In the United States, the CONCACAF Gold Cup airs on Fox Sports (since 2007) and Univision Deportes (since 2000). In Mexico it airs on Televisa and TV Azteca. In Canada it switched to TSN in 2017, after years on Sportsnet.
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who was the mayor of detroit in 1967 | Jerome Cavanagh - wikipedia
Jerome Patrick Cavanagh (June 16, 1928 -- November 27, 1979) was the mayor of Detroit, Michigan from 1962 to 1970. Initially seen as another John F. Kennedy, his reputation was doomed by the 1967 riots. He was the first mayor to reside at Manoogian Mansion, donated to the city by the industrial baron Alex Manoogian.
Jerome P. Cavanagh was born on June 16, 1928, the son of a boilermaker at Ford Motor Company. He attended the University of Detroit, earning an undergraduate degree in 1950 and a law degree in 1954, and practiced law in Detroit after graduation. He was active in Democratic Party politics while attending school, and afterward served in low - level appointed positions as an administrative assistant at the Michigan State Fair Authority and as a member of the Metropolitan Airport Board of Zoning Appeals. He is the brother of Mike Cavanagh, a judge on the Michigan Second District Court of Appeals, and Philip Cavanagh a member of the Michigan House of Representatives.
In his first campaign ever, the 33 - year - old Cavanagh entered the 1961 Detroit mayoral race, one of eleven candidates in the nonpartisan primary opposing incumbent Louis Miriani. None of these candidates was seen as serious opposition to Miriani, who had an enormous amount of institutional support and had easily won the mayoral race four years earlier. Cavanagh ran second to Miriani in the primary, earning a slot in the general election, but received less than half the primary votes Miriani did. However, Cavanagh campaigned relentlessly, criticizing Miriani 's handling of Detroit 's financial affairs and race relations with the city 's African - American community. And indeed, many in the black community believed Miriani condoned police brutality. On election day, black voters turned out in force, and Cavanagh stunned political observers by defeating incumbent Miriani.
Cavanagh got off to a popular start as mayor, appointing a reformer to be chief of police and implementing an affirmative action program for most city agencies. Unlike Richard J. Daley, who resisted forced implementation of the American civil rights movement, Jerry Cavanagh welcomed Martin Luther King, Jr. to Detroit, and marched with him in June 1963 down Woodward Avenue in the 100,000 strong March for Freedom.
Cavanagh was successful in receiving money from the U.S. federal government through the Model Cities Program. New skyscrapers were built downtown. The Model Cities Program was a key component of President Lyndon B. Johnson 's Great Society and War on Poverty. Begun in 1966, it operated five - year - long experiments in 150 cities to develop new antipoverty programs and alternative forms of municipal government. The ambitious federal urban aid program succeeded in fostering a new generation of mostly black urban leaders. Detroit was one of the largest Model Cities projects. Mayor Cavanagh was the only elected official to serve on Johnson 's task force. Detroit received widespread acclaim for its leadership in the program, which used $490 million to try to turn a nine - square - mile section of the city (with 134,000 inhabitants) into a model city. The city 's political and business elite, and city planners, along with the black middle class, wanted the federal funding to assist the economic growth of the entire city. They sought to protect the central business district property values from nearby slums and to construct new revenue - generating structures. However local community organizers and civil rights activists rallied poor residents in opposition to these plans. They said federal renewal funding should be used to replace deteriorating housing stock, whether with new public housing or low - cost housing built by private developers. The Model City program was terminated in Detroit and nationwide in 1974 after major race riots in most of its target cities.
Well - informed observers believed that Detroit had extinguished the embers of resentment left over from the 1943 Detroit Race Riot.
For example, Fortune magazine commented:
Nor was Detroit doing so badly economically. The National Observer commented:
In the face of this optimism, Cavanagh was reelected overwhelmingly in 1965. In 1966, Cavanagh was elected president of both the United States Conference of Mayors and the National League of Cities, the only mayor to hold both posts at the same time.
However, deeper problems existed under the surface.
After World War II, the automobile industry, requiring more lateral space than was available in a city, and desiring to avoid city taxes, decentralized its operations. As with other cities, Detroiters were leaving Detroit for its suburbs by the thousands by 1967. Some 22,000 residents, mostly white, moved to the suburbs in 1966 alone, following new auto plants and new housing, or using the newly constructed Interstate system to commute into Detroit.
Detroit faced serious financial trouble. Cavanagh had inherited a $28 million budget gap in 1962. To close the gap, and to pay for the new programs he wanted to implement, Cavanagh had pushed through the legislature income and commuter taxes for Detroit, but these proved unpopular with residents and businesses.
On July 23, 1967, a police attempt to break up an illegal party escalated into what would be known as the 12th Street Riot. Feeling a large police presence would make things worse, Cavanagh acted slowly to stop the riots. They lasted for five days, killed 43 people, made over 5,000 people homeless, and required two divisions of federal paratroopers to be put down; they were the worst of the four hundred or so riots that American cities experienced in the 1960s. Cavanagh himself had to admit in July 1967, "Today we stand amidst the ashes of our hopes. We hoped against hope that what we had been doing was enough to prevent a riot. It was not enough. ''
Cavanagh was severely criticized for his handling of the riots, and his last two years in office were difficult. He declined to run for reelection in 1969.
The latter part of Cavanagh 's second term was also difficult for him personally, in addition to the pressure from the aftermath of the riots. Cavanagh ran for the United States Senate in 1966 but lost in the Democratic primary to former governor G. Mennen Williams. In July 1967, Cavanagh 's wife Mary Helen filed for separation, and the couple split the custody of their eight children. In October, Cavanagh counter-sued, and in 1968 the couple went through an embarrassing public divorce trial.
After Cavanagh left office, he returned to his private law practice in Detroit and taught law at the University of Michigan. In 1974, Cavanagh again ran for office, this time for Governor, but lost in the primary election to Democrat Sander Levin, who later lost in the general election to Republican William Milliken. It was Cavanagh 's last attempt at political office.
Cavanagh died of an apparent heart attack on November 27, 1979 at St. Joseph Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky. He is buried in Mt. Elliott Cemetery in Detroit.
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where can the resource for this energy type be found | World energy resources - wikipedia
World energy resources are the estimated maximum capacity for energy production given all available resources on Earth. They can be divided by type into fossil fuel, nuclear fuel and renewable resources.
Remaining reserves of fossil fuel are estimated as:
These are the proven energy reserves; real reserves may be up to a factor 4 larger. Significant uncertainty exists for these numbers. Estimating the remaining fossil fuels on the planet depends on a detailed understanding of the Earth 's crust. While modern drilling technology makes it possible to drill wells in up to 3 km of water to verify the exact composition of the geology, one half of the ocean is deeper than 3 km, leaving about a third of the planet beyond the reach of detailed analysis.
In addition to uncertainty in real reserves, there is significant uncertainty in technological and economical factors that impact what percentage of reserves can be recovered gainfully. In general the easiest to reach deposits are the first extracted. Factors affecting the cost of exploiting the remaining reserves include the accessibility of fossil deposits, the level of sulfur and other pollutants in the oil and the coal, transportation costs, and societal instability in producing regions.
Coal is the most abundant and burned fossil fuel. This was the fuel that launched the industrial revolution and has continued to grow in use; China, which already has many of the world 's most polluted cities, was in 2007 building about two coal - fired power plants every week. Coal is the fastest growing fossil fuel and its large reserves would make it a popular candidate to meet the energy demand of the global community, short of global warming concerns and other pollutants. According to the International Energy Agency the proven reserves of coal are around 909 billion tonnes, which could sustain the current production rate for 155 years, although at a 5 % growth per annum this would be reduced to 45 years, or until 2051. With the Fischer - Tropsch process it is possible to make liquid fuels such as diesel and jet fuel from coal. In the United States, 49 % of electricity generation comes from burning coal.
Natural gas is a widely available fossil fuel with estimated 850 000 km3 in recoverable reserves and at least that much more using enhanced methods to release shale gas. Improvements in technology and wide exploration led to a major increase in recoverable natural gas reserves as shale fracking methods were developed. At present usage rates, natural gas could supply most of the world 's energy needs for between 100 and 250 years, depending on increase in consumption over time.
It is estimated that there may be 57 ZJ of oil reserves on Earth (although estimates vary from a low of 8 ZJ, consisting of currently proven and recoverable reserves, to a maximum of 110 ZJ) consisting of available, but not necessarily recoverable reserves, and including optimistic estimates for unconventional sources such as tar sands and oil shale. Current consensus among the 18 recognized estimates of supply profiles is that the peak of extraction will occur in 2020 at the rate of 93 - million barrels per day (mbd). Current oil consumption is at the rate of 0.18 ZJ per year (31.1 billion barrels) or 85 - mbd.
There is growing concern that peak oil production may be reached in the near future, resulting in severe oil price increases. A 2005 French Economics, Industry and Finance Ministry report suggested a worst - case scenario that could occur as early as 2013. There are also theories that peak of the global oil production may occur in as little as 2 -- 3 years. The ASPO predicts peak year to be in 2010. Some other theories present the view that it has already taken place in 2005. World crude oil production (including lease condensates) according to US EIA data decreased from a peak of 73.720 mbd in 2005 to 73.437 in 2006, 72.981 in 2007, and 73.697 in 2008. According to peak oil theory, increasing production will lead to a more rapid collapse of production in the future, while decreasing production will lead to a slower decrease, as the bell - shaped curve will be spread out over more years.
In a stated goal of increasing oil prices to $75 / barrel, which had fallen from a high of $147 to a low of $40, OPEC announced decreasing production by 2.2 mbd beginning 1 January 2009.
Political considerations over the security of supplies, environmental concerns related to global warming and sustainability are expected to move the world 's energy consumption away from fossil fuels. The concept of peak oil shows that about half of the available petroleum resources have been produced, and predicts a decrease of production.
A government move away from fossil fuels would most likely create economic pressure through carbon emissions and green taxation. Some countries are taking action as a result of the Kyoto Protocol, and further steps in this direction are proposed. For example, the European Commission has proposed that the energy policy of the European Union should set a binding target of increasing the level of renewable energy in the EU 's overall mix from less than 7 % in 2007 to 20 % by 2020.
The antithesis of sustainability is a disregard for limits, commonly referred to as the Easter Island Effect, which is the concept of being unable to develop sustainability, resulting in the depletion of natural resources. Some estimate, assuming current consumption rates, current oil reserves could be completely depleted by the year 2050.
The International Atomic Energy Agency estimates the remaining uranium resources to be equal to 2500 ZJ. This assumes the use of breeder reactors, which are able to create more fissile material than they consume. IPCC estimated currently proved economically recoverable uranium deposits for once - through fuel cycles reactors to be only 2 ZJ. The ultimately recoverable uranium is estimated to be 17 ZJ for once - through reactors and 1000 ZJ with reprocessing and fast breeder reactors.
Resources and technology do not constrain the capacity of nuclear power to contribute to meeting the energy demand for the 21st century. However, political and environmental concerns about nuclear safety and radioactive waste started to limit the growth of this energy supply at the end of last century, particularly due to a number of nuclear accidents. Concerns about nuclear proliferation (especially with plutonium produced by breeder reactors) mean that the development of nuclear power by countries such as Iran and Syria is being actively discouraged by the international community.
Although at the beginning of the 21st century uranium is the primary nuclear fuel worldwide, others such as thorium and hydrogen had been under investigation since the middle of the 20th century.
Thorium reserves significantly exceed those of uranium, and of course hydrogen is abundant. It is also considered by many to be easier to obtain than uranium. While uranium mines are enclosed underground and thus very dangerous for the miners, thorium is taken from open pits, and is estimated to be roughly three times as abundant as uranium in the Earth 's crust.
Since the 1960s, numerous facilities throughout the world have burned Thorium.
Alternatives for energy production through fusion of hydrogen has been under investigation since the 1950s. No materials can withstand the temperatures required to ignite the fuel, so it must be confined by methods which use no materials. Magnetic and inertial confinement are the main alternatives (Cadarache, Inertial confinement fusion) both of which are hot research topics in the early years of the 21st century.
Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution. Although both the United States and the European Union, along with other countries, are supporting fusion research (such as investing in the ITER facility), according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.
Renewable resources are available each year, unlike non-renewable resources, which are eventually depleted. A simple comparison is a coal mine and a forest. While the forest could be depleted, if it is managed it represents a continuous supply of energy, vs. the coal mine, which once has been exhausted is gone. Most of earth 's available energy resources are renewable resources. Renewable resources account for more than 93 percent of total U.S. energy reserves. Annual renewable resources were multiplied times thirty years for comparison with non-renewable resources. In other words, if all non-renewable resources were uniformly exhausted in 30 years, they would only account for 7 percent of available resources each year, if all available renewable resources were developed.
Renewable energy sources are even larger than the traditional fossil fuels and in theory can easily supply the world 's energy needs. 89 PW of solar power falls on the planet 's surface. While it is not possible to capture all, or even most, of this energy, capturing less than 0.02 % would be enough to meet the current energy needs. Barriers to further solar generation include the high price of making solar cells and reliance on weather patterns to generate electricity. Also, current solar generation does not produce electricity at night, which is a particular problem in high northern and southern latitude countries; energy demand is highest in winter, while availability of solar energy is lowest. This could be overcome by buying power from countries closer to the equator during winter months, and may also be addressed with technological developments such as the development of inexpensive energy storage. Globally, solar generation is the fastest growing source of energy, seeing an annual average growth of 35 % over the past few years. Japan, Europe, China, U.S. and India are the major growing investors in solar energy. Solar power 's share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 1 %.
The available wind energy estimates range from 300 TW to 870 TW. Using the lower estimate, just 5 % of the available wind energy would supply the current worldwide energy needs. Most of this wind energy is available over the open ocean. The oceans cover 71 % of the planet and wind tends to blow more strongly over open water because there are fewer obstructions.
At the end of 2005, 0.3 GW of electricity was produced by tidal power. Due to the tidal forces created by the Moon (68 %) and the Sun (32 %), and the Earth 's relative rotation with respect to Moon and Sun, there are fluctuating tides. These tidal fluctuations result in dissipation at an average rate of about 3.7 TW.
Another physical limitation is the energy available in the tidal fluctuations of the oceans, which is about 0.6 EJ (exa joule). Note this is only a tiny fraction of the total rotational energy of the Earth. Without forcing, this energy would be dissipated (at a dissipation rate of 3.7 TW) in about four semi-diurnal tide periods. So, dissipation plays a significant role in the tidal dynamics of the oceans. Therefore, this limits the available tidal energy to around 0.8 TW (20 % of the dissipation rate) in order not to disturb the tidal dynamics too much.
Waves are derived from wind, which is in turn derived from solar energy, and at each conversion there is a drop of about two orders of magnitude in available energy. The total power of waves that wash against our shores add up to 3 TW.
Estimates of exploitable worldwide geothermal energy resources vary considerably, depending on assumed investments in technology and exploration and guesses about geological formations. According to a 1999 study, it was thought that this might amount to between 65 and 138 GW of electrical generation capacity ' using enhanced technology '. Other estimates range from 35 to 2000 GW of electrical generation capacity, with a further potential for 140 EJ / year of direct use.
A 2006 report by MIT that took into account the use of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) concluded that it would be affordable to generate 100 GWe (gigawatts of electricity) or more by 2050, just in the United States, for a maximum investment of 1 billion US dollars in research and development over 15 years. The MIT report calculated the world 's total EGS resources to be over 13 YJ, of which over 200 ZJ would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2 YJ with technology improvements - sufficient to provide all the world 's energy needs for several millennia. The total heat content of the Earth is 13,000,000 YJ.
Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a food vs fuel trade - off, and burning methane gas reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on greenhouse gas emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon - neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.
In 2005, hydroelectric power supplied 16.4 % of world electricity, down from 21.0 % in 1973, but only 2.2 % of the world 's energy.
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who sings moving to the country going to eat a lot of peaches | Peaches (the Presidents of the United States of America song) - wikipedia
"Peaches '' is a song by American alternative rock band The Presidents of the United States of America for their self - titled debut studio album. The track was produced by American producer Conrad Uno.
The song was released worldwide as the third single from The Presidents of the United States of America. It peaked at # 29 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and # 8 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Modern Rock Tracks chart.
The band members have acknowledged that "Peaches '' borrows riffs from Bad Company 's 1975 song "Feel Like Makin ' Love ''. In 1996, "Peaches '' was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal.
Lead singer Chris Ballew has stated that he wrote "Peaches '' about a girl he once had a crush on. He allegedly wrote this song after sitting under a peach tree she had in her yard while waiting for her to arrive, to finally let her know that he liked her.
The music video features the band performing the song in an orchard filled with trees growing peach cans. During the song 's instrumental break, the band is attacked by a group of ninjas attempting to capture them, whom they fight for the remainder of the video and eventually defeat.
A. "Peaches '' -- 2: 34 B. "Candy Cigarette ''
A. "Peaches '' -- 2: 34 B. "Video Killed the Radio Star ''
A. "Peaches '' -- 2: 34 B. "Confusion ''
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hp deskjet 1510 all in one series driver free download | List of Hewlett - Packard products - wikipedia
The following is a partial list of products manufactured under the Hewlett - Packard brand.
HP Categories of Printers as of November 2014 are:
(Current Line: November 2014)
High - volume black and white laser printers
Office black and white laser printers
(As of November 2014)
Office color laser printers
Personal color laser printers
(As of November 2014)
Office laser multifunction printers
Personal laser multifunction printers
Discontinued models
(As of November 2014)
Photo and document all - in - one printers
(As of November 2014)
Compact photo printers
(Current Line: November 2014)
Business ink multifunction printers
Page wide array printers
6 + 3262
36 + 41
(Current Line: November 2014)
Office Color Inkjet Printers
Discontinued models
(Current Line: November 2014)
Graphics Printers
Scanners
Production Printers
Discontinued models
(Current Line: November 2014)
Industrial Digital Press
(Current Line: November 2014)
Inkjet Digital Web Press
Current Line: (June 2015)
Mid to High - volume Latex Printers
Current Line: (June 2015)
Industrial Printers
Current Line: (November 2014)
Internal Print Servers
Wireless Print Servers
Printer Notes: In HP printers introduced since ca 2006, alpha codes indicate product groupings and optional features, thus for example:
' ' * Lead alpha codes:
* Trailing alpha description codes:
(2)
Source: HP Handheld / Pocket / Palmtop PCs
HP 9800 series desktop computers as follows:
See HP X-Terminals
See HP Business Desktops
See also HP Mobile Thin Clients
HP Blackbird 002
Compaq Evo line of business desktops and laptops was rebranded HP Compaq (see below for recent products).
See the HP EliteBook article for more details.
The xx30 generation comprised the following notebooks:
The xx40 series comprised the following models:
The xx60 series, announced on February 23, 2011, comprised the following models:
The fourth generation, announced on May 9, 2012, comprised the following models:
In chronological order of release,
This series of notebooks was discontinued after HP 's acquisition of Compaq.
Exclusive Compaq brand of notebooks
A series of multimedia notebooks. Some models had the HP developed QuickPlay software which enabled booting to a linux based DVD / Music player held on a separate partition.
Despite the ProLiant name on some of HP 's entry level servers, they are based on former HP tc series (NetServer) servers, and as such do not come with Compaq 's SmartStart or Insight Management Agents.
These are in a tower form factor.
These are in a rack mount form factor.
The ProLiant servers below are based on Compaq 's ProLiants and do come with SmartStart and Compaq 's Insight Management Agents:
These are in a tower form factor.
Note that ' e ' indicates ' essential ' and ' p ' indicates ' performance ' variants.
These are in a rack mount form factor.
These are in a blade form factor.
HP Integrity
Integrity BL blades
Compaq ProLiant
ProCurve Networking by HP is the networking division of HP.
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when does jenny come back in gossip girl | Jenny Humphrey - wikipedia
Jennifer Tallulah "Jenny '' Humphrey is one of the characters in both the Gossip Girl and The It Girl series of novels by Cecily von Ziegesar. She is portrayed by Taylor Momsen in the Gossip Girl television adaptation on The CW.
Jennifer Humphrey is the daughter of Rufus Humphrey, an editor for beat poets who has never been published himself, and Jeanette Humphrey, who ran off with a European aristocrat. She has an older brother, Dan Humphrey, who is an aspiring writer. Jenny is a student at the Constance Billard School for Girls, a small, elite, all - girls school located on the Upper East Side, which Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf also attend. In the book series, Jenny Humphrey is described as a short, well endowed brunette while the television show depicts her as tall, skinny and blonde.
In the Gossip Girl prequel It Had To Be You, Jenny is noted for having a rather flat chest until she begins taking breast enlargement supplements, which turns out are the cause of her double D cup size.
Jenny is the protagonist in the book series, The It Girl, which shows her new life, after she gets expelled from Constance Billard, and starts at Waverly Academy in upstate New York. In The It Girl, Jenny tries to reinvent herself as a "popular and sophisticated city girl '' and leave behind the person she was at Constance. When Jenny arrives at Waverly, she finds the students even more attractive, athletic, and intimidating than she imagined. Jenny then meets her two new exceptionally beautiful and popular Junior year roommates: lithe and blonde Southern girl Callie Vernon, and red - headed, green eyed, and sophisticated New Jerseyan Brett Messerschmidt. She quickly learns that she has replaced their old best friend: extremely attractive and notorious Tinsley Carmichael. Jenny ca n't help but feel that sleeping in such a lucky bed must rub off.
Jenny Humphrey is introduced in Season one. She is a pretty, blonde freshman at Constance Billard. Desperately trying to fit in with Blair 's clique, Blair makes fitting in difficult for her as she subjects Jenny to the rules of high school hierarchy. A possible friendship ends when Blair discovers Nate 's lingering feelings for Serena and Jenny 's interest in Nate that entails further cruelty on Jenny. However, when Blair 's affair with Chuck Bass is exposed, Nate approaches Jenny and rumors of Blair 's affair is made public. Blair 's friends shun her for her hypocrisy and establish Jenny as the new Queen Bee of Constance Billard. Despite being one of the school it - girls, she is driven to prove herself, but her low self - confidence that stems from not having the same privileged financial status as the other girls, provokes her to sell her sewing machine and barter an expensive dress she stole from one of her friends. When Blair throws her a surprise birthday party, the other girls discover that Jenny stole the dress, bringing Blair 's scheme full circle. Jenny retaliates by bringing Nate with her to Blair 's victory party and persuades the girls to her side. Jenny and Blair then struggle for the position of Queen Bee. When Jenny thinks she 's found true love with Asher Hornsby, their romance is short - lived when she discovers that he is gay. He convinces her to say that she lost her virginity to him in order to put the rumors of him being gay to rest, and as long as she pretends it 's true, he 'll give her privileges that Upper East Side can offer. However, Blair and Eric out Asher at his own party, and Jenny confesses that she lied about having sex with him. Blair 's clique abandons her once again, and she later finds Blair to tell her that she 's won as it 's "not worth it ''. In the season finale, Jenny receives an internship at Blair 's mother Eleanor 's company.
At the beginning of season two, Jenny spends her summer working hard as a new intern for Eleanor Waldorf designs. She apologizes to Eric for her behavior the previous season. He forgives her and invites her to the White Party in the Hamptons where he introduces her to Tinsley Mortimer and where she proves her worth to one of Eleanor 's supervisors.
Eleanor fires Jenny after a critical remark on one of her dresses, but during a citywide blackout, Eleanor realizes her talent and hires Jenny. After constant harassment by Blair 's minions, Jenny decides to skip school to pursue a future in fashion.
When Blair and Serena have another fight concerning Serena 's growing popularity, Jenny is dragged into their fight during Eleanor 's fashion show and is subject to Blair 's torture when she changes the seating arrangement that Blair had initially planned. Blair informs Rufus that Jenny has been skipping school and he confronts her. Blair attempts to sabotage Jenny 's work in the show but Jenny improvises, proposing that Serena and the socialites walk the runway. In an effort to ruin Serena, Blair switches the final dress with one that Jenny made, drawing Eleanor 's ire. Despite this, the dress is a huge hit with the audience and the fashion show is a big success. Jenny realizes Blair 's frustrations regarding her friendship with Serena, commenting that they have worked hard for what they 've wanted and Serena just glides through. Eleanor later praises Jenny Humphrey for her work.
Rufus eventually agrees to Jenny being home schooled after seeing how committed and good at her job she is. At work, Jenny befriends a model named Agnes Andrews (Willa Holland), who convinces her to start her own fashion line. Realizing that working for Eleanor wo n't help her develop as a designer and that Eleanor herself has begun to take advantage of Jenny 's talents in fashion, Jenny leaves. Jenny also begins a short relationship with Nate when they share a passionate kiss after he rescues her from being taken advantage of by an older photographer. Jenny and Rufus argue over her quitting Eleanor 's and Jenny moves out of the Humphrey 's apartment and moves in with Agnes, who suggests that they plan a guerrilla fashion show at the charity gala honoring Lily and Bart. The show is a big success but Vanessa witnesses her kissing Nate thereby straining their friendship and Rufus tries to get her arrested but was stopped by Lily. Due to Agnes ' fiery temper and their growing disagreements over the clothing line, the pair have trouble closing a business deal. Jenny steals Agnes ' contact list, attempting to make a deal by herself. Upon learning of Jenny 's betrayal, Agnes burns all of her dresses and kicks her out of her apartment, leaving her with nothing.
Upon learning that she is too young to start her own business, she attempts to file for emancipation but Rufus refuses. On Thanksgiving, Lily finds the papers after discovering that Jenny has been hiding in their apartment with Eric, and warns Rufus. Rufus and Jenny reconcile their relationship, after a little persuasion from Eleanor and she returns home. During the Snowflake Ball, Jenny learns that Vanessa and Nate are back together even though Vanessa was aware of Nate 's feelings for her. Nate breaks up with her after she helps to humiliate Vanessa at the ball. Jenny returns to Constance and is forced to contend with Blair 's minions.
During the season finale and Serena 's hunt for Gossip Girl, Jenny decides to compete to be the next Queen Bee after Blair leaves. She almost drops out, but Blair gives her a touching speech about keeping her eye on the prize. In the end Blair chooses Jenny and crowns her queen of Constance.
After Jenny fails to bring about egalitarianism at Constance, she resolves to rule as Queen Bee with her own group of minions. With her new position and wealth, Jenny 's social climbing persona resurfaces and she begins to erase her former Brooklyn self, throwing away her homemade clothes and sewing machine. Worried that Jenny is turning into another regular Queen Bee, Eric and Jonathon attempt an intervention but as a result are humiliated by Jenny and her clique. Eric teams up with Blair to take down Jenny at the Cotillion Ball by sabotaging her escort. The plan backfires however and Jenny instead secures none other than Nate to escort her, winning her the respect of the other Queens at every other prep school on the Upper East Side. As a consequence of Eric 's scheming, Jonathan breaks up with him and a rift emerges in Jenny and Eric 's relationship.
Chuck introduces her to Damien Dalgaard, son of the Belgian ambassador who works as a drug dealer to make his own money. Jenny liking his wild lifestyle, eventually strikes up a relationship with him and aids him in supplying drugs to his customers while sharing in some of the profit, even stealing some of Lily 's "headache pills ''. Eventually Lily and Rufus find out about the drugs, which Damien covers up with a story about his father. Against Rufus 's will, Jenny continues her relationship with Damien who seems interested in taking it further. Jenny, who is a virgin, backs out at the last minute causing Damien to break up with her, leaving her to face her family.
On Rufus ' suggestion, Eleanor reemploys Jenny to help out with her upcoming fashion show. Jenny is happy to be back, but is shocked to learn that one of the models she 'll be working with is her old friend Agnes, who, after the show finishes, takes revenge on Jenny by drugging her and leaving her in a bar to be taken advantage of. Jenny is rescued by Nate, however before anything happens to her. Because of this though, Jenny 's feeling towards Nate reawakens and she aspires to win him over. She tries to kiss him but he resists her advances because he sees her only as a friend and because he is dating Serena. Jenny attempts to sabotage Serena and Nate 's relationship by lying to Serena and implying to Nate that she is having an affair with Carter Baizen. Jenny 's attempts fail, and her relationship with both is left tenuous after Nate kicks her out of his apartment.
At a gala event where Serena 's recently returned father William Van Der Woodsen is making a speech, a former client of Damien 's approaches Jenny, angrily telling her the drugs she sold her (Lily 's cancer medication, as was recently revealed) gave her a yeast infection. Rufus overhears this and grounds Jenny to the Humphrey apartment in Brooklyn. During her punishment, Jenny researches Lily 's medicine and informs Chuck via telephone that there is something very wrong about the medication that Serena 's father is prescribing her. It is discovered that, William has lied to Lily about her condition and has been giving her drugs that in fact make her sick in a plot to win her back off Rufus. Seeing an opportunity to break up Rufus and Lily and return her family to the way it was before, Jenny attempts to sabotage Blair, Chuck, and Nate 's plan to unveil William 's deception. When William is about to be held accountable, she quickly runs to William and warns him, telling him that the police will be coming to get him, and urges him to escape. Back at the van der Woodsen penthouse she reveals that it was she who warned Dr. van der Woodsen and that she wishes her family can go back to normal stating "When I lived in Brooklyn, I may have had to ride the subway to school, and make my own clothes, but at least our family was happy ''. Rufus says that the only thing that needs to return to normal is Jenny. Eric is hurt by Jenny 's attempt to leave the family, and says that if she wants out, no one is forcing her to stay.
Jenny hits rock bottom after sending a picture of Dan and Serena in bed together to Gossip Girl, jeopardizing Dan and Nate 's friendship, Dan and Vanessa 's relationship, and breaking up Nate and Serena 's relationship. Blair confronts Jenny telling her that "Nate loves Serena, Dan loves Vanessa - god knows why -, and Chuck loves me. But you Jenny? No one loves you, except your daddy. And after what you pulled yesterday, who knows if that 's even true anymore? '' Emotionally distressed, Jenny goes to Nate 's apartment but instead finds Chuck devastated over his break - up with Blair and in her state of vulnerability, Jenny loses her virginity to Chuck. However, afterwards, Blair arrives willing to take Chuck back and Jenny sneaks out. She breaks down in tears to Eric, telling him that everyone hates her and that she slept with Chuck. Eric tells Dan, who confronts Chuck just as he is about to propose to Blair. Jenny, in tears, leaves with Rufus and Lily. A week later, she says her goodbyes to her family and leaves to finish out high school with her mother in Hudson.
Jenny has been living in Hudson with her mother since May due to the troubles that occurred in "Last Tango, Then Paris '', where she caused an uproar with Serena and Dan when she sent a picture of the two of them in bed together, which led to the breakup of both Dan and Vanessa & Serena and Nate. As she was upset, she later went to Chuck 's apartment and slept with Chuck, which led to Blair breaking up with Chuck and banishing Jenny from New York City.
Jenny returns in episode "Easy J ''. Blair finds Jenny preparing for an interview with Tim Gunn, and grants her with a special day pass. However, when Chuck steals Jenny 's portfolio, she is forced to visit The Empire Hotel where Blair had forbidden her to go. This results in Blair and Jenny scheming against each other, and Jenny eventually telling Gossip Girl that she lost her Virginity to Chuck, not Damien Dalgaard. While Jenny is left feeling victorious, a defeated Blair blames Chuck. Jenny ultimately realises the damage of her return and decides to leave for good, telling Blair and Chuck that their vindictive games against each other will soon destroy them both.
In "Juliet does n't live here anymore '' Juliet and Vanessa skype Jenny asking for help to take down Serena. Jenny knows that she does n't want to go back to her old tricks but also feels like Serena is the one to blame for everything that happened last year and how she can never take blame for anything, so, she agrees to help with the scheme.
Jenny later becomes involved in a scheme with Juliet Sharp and Vanessa in order to bring down Serena and turn everyone against her. But when Serena ends up in the hospital after being drugged by Juliet, Jenny tells Juliet that she is going to come clean with everyone about their scheme, but Juliet warns her that she will be going down alone. When Jenny appears at the hospital, Vanessa has already pinned the entire scheme on her and unable to defend herself, she leaves, showing up at Blair 's later that night, telling her that Juliet was behind everything and that she and Vanessa were merely accomplices. To prove her story, she hands Blair Juliet 's masquerade mask and has temporarily earned Blair 's forgiveness. After confessing to Blair, she says that she would love to help her take down Juliet, but she should instead return to Hudson, rather than become involved in another scheme.
In the premiere episode of season five, "Yes, Then Zero, '' it is revealed by Rufus that Jenny moved to London to attend Central Saint Martins.
In the final episode of the series, it is revealed that Jenny knew that her brother, Dan Humphrey, was the mysterious blogger behind Gossip Girl. She returns to the Upper East Side, appearing in the five - year time jump for her brother 's wedding to Serena van der Woodsen. Jenny works as a designer for Blair 's fashion empire, implying that they have gotten over their past animosity. Together they create their own clothing line called "J for Waldorf ''.
Rumors have been made throughout Gossip Girl 's first few seasons that Jenny would be given her own spin - off, in line with the character leaving for boarding school just like the novels. News later confirmed that producers did not pick up the spin - off.
Jenny 's character further gained prominence during the show 's third season. Enid Portugez of the LA Times praised Jenny 's fashionable skills, stating that "Jenny capped off the drama by showing us she 's becoming extremely adept at becoming a drug dealer. Her brilliant idea to sew pills into jacket paillettes could have easily won her a "Project Runway '' challenge! Despite the illegality of it all, it was nice to see Jenny put her wit and wiles to use... '' Following the dramatic events during the third season finale, Michael Ausiello praised both Leighton Meester and Taylor Momsen 's performance. L.J. Gibbs, from TV Fanatic, gave the episode a 3.5 rating star out of 5, and said that he felt that Chuck being shot at the end of the episode was a very "cheap move by the writers '', and that the storyline involving Chuck and Jenny having sex was very "unlikely ''. Mark O. Estes, from TV Overmind, had also praised Taylor Momsen 's performance in the episode and said that he "wish that Jenny had of gotten her own spin - off '', and questions that if her send - off in this episode means that the show 's writers have a "Katherine Heigl '' situation on their hands ". However, Jenny was included in TV Guide 's list of The Most Loathed TV Characters.
When asked during a Vanity Fair interview if "real '' girls could afford the looks from the show, costume designers Eric Daman and Meredith Markworth - Pollack commented on Jenny 's style and stated "Of course! Have fun with it like Jenny Humphrey does, and listen to your fashion sense. Go to a vintage or thrift store and have it tailored so it looks like Marc Jacobs (...) but it 's all about individuality. ''
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when does the hunger games mockingjay part 2 come out | The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 - Wikipedia
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 is a 2015 American dystopian science fiction adventure film directed by Francis Lawrence, with a screenplay by Peter Craig and Danny Strong. It is the fourth and final installment in The Hunger Games film series, and the second of two films based on the novel Mockingjay, the final book in The Hunger Games trilogy by Suzanne Collins. Produced by Nina Jacobson and Jon Kilik, and distributed by Lionsgate, the film features an ensemble cast that includes Jennifer Lawrence, Josh Hutcherson, Liam Hemsworth, Woody Harrelson, Elizabeth Banks, Julianne Moore, Philip Seymour Hoffman, and Donald Sutherland. Hoffman died in February 2014, making Mockingjay -- Part 2 his final film role. Principal photography on both parts of the film began on September 23, 2013 in Atlanta, before moving to Paris for two weeks of back - to - back filming and officially concluding on June 20, 2014, in Berlin and at Babelsberg Studios, Germany.
The story continues from The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 with Katniss Everdeen (Jennifer Lawrence) preparing to win the war against President Snow (Donald Sutherland) and the tyrannical Capitol. Together with Peeta, Gale, Finnick, and others she travels to the Capitol to kill Snow. However, President Coin (Julianne Moore), the leader of District 13 and the rebellion, hides a bigger agenda that could not only jeopardize Katniss ' life, but the future of Panem.
Mockingjay -- Part 2 was released on November 20, 2015 in the United States, in 2D and IMAX, and internationally in 2D, 3D, RealD Cinema, and IMAX 3D in select territories; it is the only film in the series widely released in 3D. Falling below expectations internationally and domestically with a $102.7 million gross during its opening weekend in North America, the film had the sixth - biggest opening in 2015, but held at number one at the international box office for four consecutive weekends. The film grossed over $653 million worldwide, making it the ninth highest - grossing film of 2015 and the lowest - grossing of the four films in the franchise, but still a commercial success.
Part 2 was positively received by critics for its performances, screenplay, and action sequences, though it was criticized for splitting the final adaptation into two separate parts. The film had garnered a nomination for Best Fantasy Film at the 42nd Saturn Awards. For her part, Jennifer Lawrence was awarded as the Favorite Movie Actress at the 2016 Kids ' Choice Awards and Best Hero at the 2016 MTV Movie Awards.
Katniss Everdeen is recovering after being attacked by Peeta Mellark, who has been brainwashed by the Capitol.
Despite her intention to kill President Snow, Katniss ' request is declined by Alma Coin, as she is too valuable to risk losing. However, Katniss volunteers to be sent to District 2, the final district still controlled by the Capitol. 13 's air force launches a full - scale bombing on a mountain nicknamed The Nut, which houses the Capitol 's main weaponry and air force, with few survivors. Although Katniss manages to convince the district to join the rebellion, she is shot by the one of the survivors who is then gunned down; Katniss survives the gunshot wound due to her bulletproof Mockingjay costume.
At the wedding of Finnick Odair and Annie Cresta, Katniss is convinced by Johanna Mason to sneak aboard a supply ship leaving for the Capitol. Unable to bring her back, Coin has her assigned to the "Star Squad '', which is led by Boggs and includes Gale, Finnick, Cressida, Messalla, Castor, Pollux, Leegs 1 and 2, Mitchell, and Homes. They will follow in relative safety behind the actual invasion of the Capitol, providing video of their incursion for propaganda purposes. Boggs carries a holographic map (the "Holo '') to help them evade known booby - trapped "pods '' which line the streets of the Capitol. Coin also sends Peeta to join the squad, even though he has not fully recovered from the Capitol 's conditioning.
As they venture deeper into the Capitol, Boggs accidentally triggers a land mine and is fatally wounded, giving the Holo to Katniss before dying. The squad triggers another pod which releases a flood of lethal black tar. Peeta momentarily succumbs to his conditioning and attacks Katniss, killing Mitchell in the process. The group takes shelter in an abandoned building, where Jackson, the second - in - command, attempts to commandeer the Holo, until Katniss says that she is under secret orders from Coin to kill Snow. Katniss and most of the group escape just before a squad of Peacekeepers arrive and destroy the building, killing the Leegs twins after they had earlier stayed behind. The Capitol then broadcasts a message with Caesar Flickerman announcing Katniss 's death before Snow starts to make a speech against the rebellion, which is interrupted by Coin, who delivers an impassioned eulogy for her to rally the rebels.
Castor decides to have them go through the sewers to avoid getting detected by the Capitol 's forces, having Pollux show the way down. The team manages to avoid further pods, but they are attacked by a horde of genetically engineered creatures called "mutts '' when Snow finds out that they are still alive. Jackson, Castor, and Homes are killed as the squad flees through the sewers. Finnick fights off the mutts with his trident and pocket - knife to allow the rest of the team to escape, but they overwhelm him and Katniss is forced to set the Holo 's self - destruct, killing Finnick and the remaining mutts. While running from pursuing Peacekeepers, Messalla is melted by a pod. The surviving team members reach the surface and take refuge in a shop, where Tigris, a former Hunger Games stylist and rebel sympathizer, hides them in her basement.
As rebel forces gain ground, Snow invites fleeing Capitol citizens into his mansion for protection. Katniss and Gale join the crowd, posing as refugees. As rebels arrive and attack, Peacekeepers capture Gale and herd Capitol children toward the palace gates. A hovercraft with Capitol markings flies overhead and drops small parcels into the crowd. The parcels explode, killing and injuring many people. A team of rebel medics attempt to help the injured, including Katniss 's sister Prim. As Katniss rushes forward, a second wave of bombs detonate, killing Prim and knocking Katniss unconscious.
Upon recovering, Katniss learns the Capitol has been conquered and that Snow is captured. When Katniss confronts Snow in his greenhouse, he explains that Coin orchestrated the bombing using a Capitol hovercraft to make it look like he would kill their children and to turn his soldiers against him. Katniss disbelieves Snow until he reminds her that they promised not to lie to each other. She realizes that the incident resembles a trap that Gale had developed earlier. When Gale does n't deny that it may have been based on his idea, Katniss becomes heartbroken and cuts all ties with him. Coin declares herself as the interim President of Panem and invites the remaining Hunger Games victors to vote on a proposal to have another Hunger Games using the children of the Capitol as a symbolic gesture to satisfy the districts. Peeta, Beetee and Annie disagree with the idea, while Johanna and Enobaria agree. Katniss votes yes in exchange for the right to publicly execute Snow and to avenge her sister 's death, having realized that Snow was telling the truth about Coin in the process. Haymitch considers the situation and then swings the vote in favor.
At the execution, Katniss kills Coin instead of Snow, thus avenging Prim. A riot ensues and, after Peeta stops her from committing suicide via pills, Katniss is taken into custody while witnessing Snow get beaten to death by charging rebels. Once it is all over, Katniss receives a letter from Plutarch Heavensbee on her actions and is assured that she will eventually be pardoned by the newly appointed President of Panem for her crime and will be able to return to District 12 once the dissension quiets. At District 12 she is joined by Peeta, who has recovered from his condition. Commander Paylor is elected the new President of Panem, and Katniss, Peeta, and Haymitch bond over their shared trauma.
In the epilogue years later, Katniss and Peeta play with their two children, and Katniss realizes she made the right choice when she tells her infant that "there are much worse games to play. ''
On July 10, 2012, Lionsgate announced that the film adaptation of Mockingjay would be split into two parts; The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1, released on November 21, 2014, and The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2, released November 20, 2015. On November 1, 2012, Francis Lawrence, director of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, announced that he would return to direct both final films in the series. Talking about direction for last two parts Francis explains, "I felt a different kind of pressure, '' he explains. "(On ' The Hunger Games: Catching Fire '), I had to prove myself a little bit as the new guy in the game. It was a relief that it was received well by the fans. Even though I was relieved, it was only momentary; it sort of set the bar higher for the next one!. ''
On December 6, 2012, Danny Strong announced that he would write the third and fourth films. On February 15, 2013, Lionsgate approved the script for Part 1 and gave Strong permission to write that of Part 2. In August, Hemsworth confirmed that shooting of the film would begin the following month.
The film 's production began on September 16, 2013, in Boston, Atlanta, and Los Angeles. Studio Babelsberg co-produced and oversaw production services for the film. On November 13, 2013, producer Nina Jacobson revealed that Peter Craig was also hired to write the adaptations. The film carried a production budget of $160 million with a further $55 million spent on promotion and advertisements, and $13.9 million in television advertisements.
All the principal cast such as Jennifer Lawrence as Katniss, Josh Hutcherson as Peeta, Liam Hemsworth as Gale, Woody Harrelson as Haymitch, Donald Sutherland as President Snow, Elizabeth Banks as Effie, Willow Shields as Prim, Paula Malcomson as Mrs Everdeen and Stanley Tucci as Caesar, return to reprise their roles. Julianne Moore also returned to reprise her role as President Alma Coin, along with Philip Seymour Hoffman, who died during the filming in February 2014, as Plutarch. He had nearly completed his scenes, and his two remaining scenes were rewritten to compensate for his absence. Regarding Hoffman 's scenes, Lawrence commented that, "He had two substantial scenes left and the rest were appearances in other scenes. We had no intention of trying to fake a performance, so we rewrote those scenes to give to other actors... The rest, we just did n't have him appear in those scenes. There 's no digital manipulation or CG fabrication of any kind. '' One of the changed scenes saw the character of Plutarch sending Katniss a letter in prison, read by Haymitch, rather than coming himself to talk to her after her arrest for assassinating President Coin, explained as him being unable to see her for political reasons after her actions, which he nonetheless supports.
On August 26, 2013, it was announced that actress Stef Dawson had joined the cast to portray Annie Cresta. Lionsgate announced on September 13, 2013, that Julianne Moore joined the cast to play President Alma Coin. The same month, Lily Rabe, Patina Miller, Mahershala Ali, Wes Chatham, and Elden Henson were announced to have joined the cast. to reprise their roles of Commander Lyme, Commander Paylor, Boggs, Castor, and Pollux, respectively. During this time, there was also a casting call for extras. Rabe subsequently had to leave the film due to a scheduling conflict with the 2014 Shakespeare in the Park production of Much Ado About Nothing. On April 4, 2014, it was announced that she would be replaced by Gwendoline Christie to portray Lyme.
Principal photography began on September 23, 2013, in Atlanta, and concluded on June 20, 2014, in Berlin, Germany; the two parts were filmed back - to - back. In October 2013, filming took place in Rockmart, Georgia. After the cast and crew took a break to promote The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, filming resumed on December 2, 2013. On December 14, 2013, shooting was held at the Marriott Marquis in Atlanta. On December 18, shooting began at Caldwell Tanks in Newnan, Georgia.
Philip Seymour Hoffman, who plays Plutarch Heavensbee, died on February 2, 2014. He had completed filming his scenes for Part 1 and had a week left of shooting for Part 2; Lionsgate thereafter released a statement affirming that since the majority of Hoffman 's scenes had been completed, the release date for Part 2 would not be affected. It was initially announced that Hoffman would be digitally recreated for a major scene involving his character that had not been shot, but Francis Lawrence later stated that he had rewritten Hoffman 's two remaining scenes to compensate for the actor 's absence, and there would be "no digital manipulation or CG fabrication of any kind ''. In a scene near the end of the film which was to have shown Plutarch speaking with Katniss in detention, Woody Harrelson 's character instead reads her a letter from him.
Filming in Atlanta completed in mid-April 2014, and production moved to Europe. On May 9, filming took place in Noisy le Grand, Paris. It is the same location where Brazil (1985) was filmed 30 years earlier. Toward the end of May, the cast and crew shot scenes at several locations in Berlin and Brandenburg, Germany. In Rüdersdorf, Brandenburg, the crew shot scenes for the portrayal of District 8 in an old cement factory. Hemsworth was injured on the set and was brought to a doctor in the Berlin borough Mitte. Scenes for District 2 were shot at Berlin Tempelhof Airport. Scenes for the underground approach on the Capitol were filmed in the Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel in Japan. A German casting agency sought 1,000 ethnically diverse extras (African, Asian, Southern - European, and Turkish) and "lived faces '' to shoot scenes at the Babelsberg Film Studio.
The film score was released on December 4, 2015. James Newton Howard returned to compose the film score; unlike the previous films in the series, there is no additional pop companion album with songs inspired by the film. Jennifer Lawrence performed "Deep in the Meadow '', a lullaby that she sang in the first film.
Along with the film 's first teaser poster, Lionsgate released a teaser trailer on March 18, 2015, titled The Hunger Games Franchise Logo -- Remember, featuring the transformation of the Mockingjay, along with notable quotes from the previous three movies, as well as a quote from the new film. The teaser was also played at screenings of Lionsgate 's The Divergent Series: Insurgent. Scott Mendelson of Forbes noted the similarity of the teaser with that of The Dark Knight 's (2008) teaser, which also features just an animated logo of the film and select dialogue. On June 1, a new teaser poster for the film, featuring a vandalised statue of President Snow, was revealed on the viral site TheCapitol.PN. On June 9, the teaser trailer for the film was released. A series of different posters, featuring the main cast with red Mockingjays painted on their faces, was released in July by Lionsgate.
Later in July 2015, Lionsgate released a motion and teaser poster and propaganda video, followed by the film 's official trailer. In August, a poster was released stating "100 days until The Hunger Games: Mockingjay - Part 2 ''. However, it was taken down shortly thereafter, as the text on the poster appeared to resemble a swear word due to layout. However, another "bold and beautiful '' poster was released depicting Katniss standing on the shoulder of a fallen President Snow statue.
In October 2015, the first official clip and the final trailer were released, followed by the film 's theatrical posters. In October, fan sites revealed the first two TV spots.
"The Mockingjay App '' was revealed on October 20.
In certain parts of Israel, the poster which depicted the image of Katniss (Lawrence) aiming her bow and arrow was removed over concerns her image would offend ultra-conservative Jewish audiences. Instead, a fiery mockingjay in the poster 's background replaced Lawrence in marketing materials in multiple locations in Israel including Bnei Brak and West Jerusalem. Lionsgate did not comment on the Israeli marketing campaign. In Jerusalem, public posters with the image of a female are often torn down, while Bnei Brak does not allow posters with female images.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 premiered in Los Angeles, at the L.A. Live, complex on November 16, and in New York City on November 18. It premiered internationally in Berlin on November 4, in London November 5, in Paris November 9, in Madrid November 10, and in Beijing November 12. Due to the terrorist attacks in Paris on November 13, Lionsgate scaled down its L.A. premiere, cancelling press interviews on the red carpet (which was scheduled to last two hours). The stars mostly greeted fans and took a few photos before heading into the screening in Downtown Los Angeles. Mockingjay -- Part 2 was released on November 20, 2015 in the United States and Canada. The film was originally scheduled to be released in 2D, Digital 3D, RealD 3D, and IMAX 3D, which would have made it the only film of the series to be globally released in 3D formats; the previous film was released in 3D in China. It is the third film in the franchise to be released in IMAX, following the first and the second film with the exception of the third film. However, the decision to release the film in 3D and IMAX 3D in North America was revoked. Director Francis Lawrence discussed the decision, stating, "I love the 3D format and I know that Mockingjay Part 2 will play perfectly in 3D and 2D internationally -- but I 'm pleased that we 're maintaining the 2D only (and IMAX) formats domestically. It is the best of all worlds! ''. It was nevertheless released in 3D formats in overseas markets, including China. The film was also released in the Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinemas, which is the first ever for Lionsgate.
Internationally, it was released day - and - date across 87 countries, starting from November 18, in certain markets like Belgium, Brazil, France and the Netherlands and on November 19 in Australia, Germany, Russia, Italy, and the United Kingdom, followed by China, Mexico, Japan, the United States, Canada, and 19 other markets, on November 20, as part of the biggest movie rollout ever by Lionsgate. The only big territories where the film did not open on the same weekend are Spain, Greece and India, which released the movie on November 27.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 was released on Digital HD on March 8, 2016, and was followed by a Blu - ray and DVD release on March 22, 2016. It topped the home video sales chart for the week ending on March 27, 2016.
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 fell short of expectations at the box office. It grossed a total of $281.7 million in the USA & Canada and $371.7 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $653.4 million. Its worldwide opening of $247.2 million is the twenty - seventh - biggest of all time. It is the lowest - grossing film in The Hunger Games film series, and the ninth highest - grossing film of 2015, Lionsgate 's co-chairman Rob Friedman blamed the impact of the November 2015 Paris attacks as well as Star Wars: Episode VII -- The Force Awakens for the film 's underwhelming performance in certain European countries and in the U.S. and Canada, further blaming the latter for cutting the film 's North American gross by as much as $50 -- 100 million. However, according to Deadline.com, this is untrue given how Mockingjay -- Part 2 had the lowest opening among the series and was already grossing behind Mockingjay -- Part 1 by $32.7 million or 12 % before The Force Awakens even opened. Thus, the November attacks in Paris did not noticeably affect the European release of Mockingjay -- Part 2. And notably in China (where the film grossed a dismal $21.5 million), the studio blamed The Martian and Spectre for the film 's underperformance there after facing competition with the two films along with Taiwanese film Our Times. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $134.3 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
In North America, according to pre-release trackings, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 was initially projected to earn around $120 -- 125 million in its opening weekend. However, estimates decreased to a mid - $110 million range once the film approached its opening day. It made $16 million from its Thursday night preview which is the lowest among the franchise but the third - biggest of 2015, and $45.5 million on its opening day. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $102.7 million, finishing first at the box office but fell below expectations and becoming the lowest opening among the franchise. Sources attributed to the franchise - low opening to heavy winter weather hitting areas such as South Dakota, Michigan, and Chicago as well as Lionsgate 's decision to split the last novel into two separate pictures. Still, it is the fourth film in the Hunger Games film series to open with more than $100 million, and is 2015 's sixth - biggest opening, behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens, Jurassic World, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Furious 7, and Minions. IMAX comprised $8.5 million of the opening gross from 384 IMAX locations. The low opening of the film led to the decline of Lionsgate stock the day after its opening weekend. The film retained the top spot at the box office in the second weekend, declining 49.3 % and grossing $52 million. It topped the box office for the third consecutive weekend despite facing competition with the animated movie The Good Dinosaur and the horror comedy Krampus in its second and third weekend, respectively. In total, it held the No. 1 spot in the North American box office for four consecutive weekends (even after facing competition with In the Heart of the Sea in its fourth weekend), becoming the first film since Furious 7 to top the box office for four straight weekends and the second film in The Hunger Games film series after 2012 's The Hunger Games to achieve this feat. Mockingjay -- Part 2 grossed a total of $281 million, 17 % less than Mockingjay -- Part 1 and when compared with its two other prequels is the lowest.
Outside North America, the film was released in a total of 92 countries. It was projected by many box office analysts to surpass the openings of all the previous Hunger Games film, considering it was the last installment, and that its release date was the same in 87 markets, including China (the latter being a rare phenomenon). It was projected to gross around $165 -- 185 million. However, it ended up earning $144.5 million across 32,500 screens from 87 markets opening at No. 1 in 81 of them. The underperformance was attributed to the 2015 Paris terror attacks which affected many parts of Europe and the rising value of the U.S. dollar. Earning $62 million (down 57 %) and $30.05 million (down 49 %) in its second and third weekend, respectively, it topped the international box office for four consecutive weekends.
The United Kingdom posted the highest opening with $17.1 million followed by China with $15.8 million, Germany ($15 million), Mexico ($8.9 million) France ($7.1 million), Australia ($6.8 million), Brazil ($6.8 million), Russia ($6.7 million), Venezuela ($5.6 million), and Italy ($4.3 million). In China, it opened at No. 1 despite facing competition with Taiwanese film Our Times, and the continued run of Spectre and having an underperforming opening. It fell precipitously by 88.6 % in its second weekend, which is the worst second - weekend drop for any major Hollywood release in China of 2015. Notably in France, the opening was above expectations considering cinemagoers being affected by the Paris terror attacks and the heightened state of alert in Belgium at that time. It topped the United Kingdom and Ireland box office for four consecutive weekends which is a rare achievement and thereby becoming the first film since Les Misérables in 2013 to have four straight weeks of win at the UK box office. It is the highest - grossing film of 2015 in Colombia with $36 million. In terms of total earnings its largest markets are Germany ($43.7 million) and the United Kingdom ($43.1 million), and Colombia ($36 million).
The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 2 received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for action sequences and performances but criticism for splitting the book into two separate adaptations. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 70 %, based on 235 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With the unflinchingly grim Mockingjay Part 2, The Hunger Games comes to an exciting, poignant, and overall satisfying conclusion. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100, based on 44 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale.
Manohla Dargis from The New York Times praised Lawrence 's character saying, "Katniss is the right heroine for these neo-feminist times. '' Stephen Whitty from New York Daily News said, "' Remember that line from the first ' Hunger Games ' film: "May the odds be ever in your favor ''? Yeah, well, that luck has run out '. '' Lawrence, Hutcherson, and Sutherland received praise for their performances. The supporting cast 's performances, particularly Harrelson, Claflin, and Malone 's, were also highly praised, but critics felt their appearances were too brief. Several critics also commented on the film 's dark tone, even by comparison to its predecessors.
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly remarked, "With its political power struggles and prodigious body count, all rendered in a thousand shades of wintry greige, the movie feels less like teen entertainment than a sort of Hunger Games of Thrones. '' Robbie Collin awarded the film four out of five stars and called the film "scorchingly tense ''. In his review for The Telegraph, he praised the film for "being intense '' and lauded the performances of Lawrence and Hoffman. ''
Benjamin Lee, writing for The Guardian, felt that "the decision to split the final chapter of the dystopian saga into two chapters looms large over a frustratingly - paced mixture of thrilling action and surprisingly dark drama. '' He praised Jennifer Lawrence 's acting and Francis Lawrence 's direction and commented, "The decision to turn a 390 - page book into over four hours ' worth of screen time (and a bonus payday) has resulted in a patchy end to a franchise that started so promisingly. '' Tom Huddleston of Time Out gave the film four out of five stars. He praised the ending of the film as "genuinely powerful '', and commented that "this might be the most downbeat blockbuster in memory, a film that starts out pitiless and goes downhill from there, save for a fleeting glimmer of hope in the final moments. It 's a bold statement about the unforgiving nature of war, unashamedly political in its motives and quietly devastating in its emotional effect. ''
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who wrote in the ghetto by elvis presley | In the Ghetto - wikipedia
"In the Ghetto '' (originally titled "The Vicious Circle '') is a song written by Mac Davis and made famous by Elvis Presley, who had a major comeback hit with it in 1969. It was released in 1969 as a 45 rpm single with "Any Day Now '' as the flip side.
It is a narrative of generational poverty: a boy is born to a mother who already has more children than she can feed in the ghetto of Chicago. The boy grows up hungry, steals and fights, purchases a gun and steals a car, attempts to run, but is shot and killed just as his own child is born. The song implies that the newborn will meet the same fate, continuing the cycle of poverty and violence. The feeling of an inescapable circle is created by the structure of the song, with its simple, stark phrasing; by the repetition of the phrase "in the ghetto '' as the close of every fourth line; and finally by the repetition of the first verse 's "and his mama cries '' just before the beginning and as the close of the last verse. It is played in the key of B flat.
"In the Ghetto '' was recorded during Presley 's session in the American Sound Studio in Memphis, Tennessee. It was Presley 's first creative recording session since the ' 68 Comeback. Other hits recorded at this session were "Suspicious Minds '', "Kentucky Rain '', and "Do n't Cry Daddy ''.
The song was Presley 's first Top 10 hit in the US in four years, peaking at number 3, and number 2 in Canada. It was his first UK Top 10 hit in three years, also peaking at No. 2. It hit No. 1 on Cashbox and No. 8 Easy Listening. It was a number - one hit in West Germany, Ireland, Norway, Australia and New Zealand.
As a major international hit, Presley included it in his setlist during his return to live performances at the International Hotel in Las Vegas in 1969. It was a staple of his shows in the first two seasons, however in his third (August / September 1970), he included it only once, at the dinner show on August 13, for the benefit of the MGM cameras who were filming Elvis: That 's the Way It Is (1970). This version started without pause at the end of another hit from 1969 -- "Do n't Cry Daddy ''.
The song was recorded in 2007 by Lisa Marie Presley as a duet with her father to raise money for the Presley Foundation. The song was released on iTunes.
After Elvis Presley, the song has been performed by many other artists. Among them were, most notably, Sammy Davis Jr., Marilyn Manson, Natalie Merchant, Susan Cadogan, Candi Staton, Dolly Parton, Bobby Blue Bland, Bobbie Gentry, Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds, Ian Stuart Donaldson, The Cranberries, Merle Haggard, Leatherface, Three Six Mafia, DNX vs. The Voice, Bad Lieutenant, Fair Warning, Beats International, Eleanor Shanley, Chris Clark and Hecchi & Kethmer. The Spanish singer and actor Enrique Castellon Vargas, also known as "El Principe Gitano '' (The Gypsy Prince), recorded a version of the song, a version sung with such a thick Spanish accent that the English lyrics were almost uninintelligible. The KLF used a sample of the Elvis recording in their ambient DJ album Chill Out (1990). Mac Davis recorded a version of the song for a greatest hits album released in 1979. In 2011, Chris de Burgh covered the song on his album Footsteps 2.
Dancehall singer Sister Nancy used some of the song 's lyrics in the song "Coward of the Country '', which appeared on her 1982 album One, Two.
In 2014, cricketer Andrew Flintoff was asked to sing Elvis, as commentator David Lloyd had recommended Flintoff 's Elvis impersonation. He proceeded to sing In The Ghetto while the game was going on (he was mic - ed up, as part of the entertainment).
"In the Ghetto '' was covered by Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and was their debut single. It was recorded at the Trident Studios in London and released as a 7 '' on June 18, 1984 with the B - side "The Moon Is in the Gutter ''. It reached 84 on the UK Singles Chart. While originally not present on any album, it was later included on the CD reissue of the band 's first album, From Her to Eternity.
In the Comedy Central show South Park, Eric Cartman sings "In the Ghetto '' on two separate occasions, once in "Chickenpox '', then again when Kenny 's soul is trapped in Cartman 's body in "A Ladder to Heaven ''.
Paul Shanklin recorded a parody called "In a Yugo '' for Rush Limbaugh, in which an environmentally conscious family buys a Yugo to save gas, only to get killed by a truck after swerving to miss a duck. Later, Shanklin updated his parody for a new generation too young to remember the Yugo, replacing it with its perceived equivalent, "In a Hybrid ''.
El Vez recorded a version titled "En el Barrio '' that mixed humor with details about Chicano struggles.
Danish Radio group "Selvsving '' also recorded a parody called "Ned i NATO '', which makes fun of former Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen 's path to a leading post at NATO.
The BBC radio comedy program Radio Active broadcast a version titled Tim the gecko.
Dutch TV celebrity and comedian Paul de Leeuw released in 1992 a Dutch language translated version as his alter ego Bob de Rooy. The first Dutch - language version of the song was recorded by Flemish crooner Will Tura, whose version uses the wrong definite article ' de ' preceding the word ghetto.
In the Fox sitcom New Girl, Jessica Day sings "In the Ghetto '' as an Elvis impersonator at her roommate Nick 's father 's funeral.
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pam and jim's wedding the office episode | Niagara (the Office) - wikipedia
"Niagara '' is an hour - long episode of the sixth season of the U.S. comedy series The Office. It is the 4th and 5th episodes in the season 's episode count and the 104th and 105th episode of the series overall. The episode was written by executive producer Greg Daniels and Mindy Kaling, and was directed by Paul Feig. It originally aired on October 8, 2009 on NBC in the United States.
The series -- presented as if it were a real documentary -- depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. The episode revolves around the wedding of Jim and Pam at Niagara Falls. Not all goes smoothly when Jim accidentally reveals Pam 's pregnancy to all the guests, including Pam 's very old - fashioned grandmother, and Andy injures his scrotum while dancing. Meanwhile, Michael and Dwight both try to hook up with women, with mixed results.
The episode was met with positive reviews from critics and fans. Although not all television critics reacted positively to Andy 's dancing injury sub-plot, "Niagara '' has nonetheless come to be considered a classic episode of the series. In a poll conducted by OfficeTally, the episode was named the second best episode of the series after the second - season finale, "Casino Night. '' The episode was viewed by 9.42 million households with a 4.8 rating / 12 % share in the 18 -- 49 demographic making it the second highest viewed episode of the season after "The Delivery. ''
Jim (John Krasinski) and Pam (Jenna Fischer) head up to Niagara Falls for their wedding and the rest of the office follows them. Michael (Steve Carell) and Dwight (Rainn Wilson) seek women to hook up with while Andy (Ed Helms) pursues Erin (Ellie Kemper). Kevin (Brian Baumgartner) and Oscar (Oscar Nunez) meet Pam 's sister Penny (Anna Camp), who accidentally offends Oscar by thinking Kevin was his boyfriend Gil. Pam 's mother Helene (Linda Purl) is visibly disturbed at the fact that Pam 's father, and Helene 's ex-husband, William (Rick Overton) has come to the wedding with his new girlfriend who is half his own age.
Pam 's grandmother, "Meemaw '' (played by Peggy Stewart), is a woman of conservative morals, so everyone is told not to mention Pam 's pregnancy. At the rehearsal dinner, Jim gives a moving toast to his soon - to - be wife. However, he finishes by saying that everyone but Pam will drink to the toast "for obvious reasons ''. Meemaw questions this remark, and after fumbling through several weak excuses Jim finally admits that Pam is pregnant. Meemaw then decides not to attend the wedding out of moral outrage. Michael later visits Meemaw in her hotel room. Despite his indelicate approach to the subject of sex, he establishes an instant rapport with Meemaw and convinces her to attend the wedding.
Andy hosts a dance party in his room later that night, with the office staff attending. Andy punctures his scrotum trying to do a split. The guests rouse Pam, the only sober person, to take him to the hospital. Pam reluctantly agrees, but Andy still whines throughout the drive to the hospital.
Michael and Dwight try their luck with women at the bar. Dwight, despite embarrassing both of them, is successful in getting Pam 's friend Isabel (Kelen Coleman) to spend the night with him. Michael spends the night alone in the ice machine room as he had failed to make a reservation in advance.
Prior to the ceremony, Pam accidentally tears her veil and tearfully phones Jim. They meet in private, where Pam expresses shame at her appearance due to being pregnant. Pam is visibly uplifted when Jim cuts his tie in half in an effort to console her, and says she regrets inviting their families and the office staff. They run away from the church together.
While everyone in the church wonders where they went, Michael and Helene begin to bond over their failed relationships. Dwight callously rebuffs Isabel 's attempts at further contact. The rest of the office staff grow impatient, bickering about their right to take their gifts back.
Jim and Pam finally return to the church after an hour with no explanation of their absence, and the ceremony begins. The guests interrupt the ceremony by recreating the dance routines featured in the JK Wedding Entrance Dance. Jim and Pam react with uncharacteristic good humor, having already been married on board the Maid of the Mist IV ferry boat by the ship 's captain, below the falls. Jim explains to the camera that he had prepared the ferry marriage in advance after seeing the video, predicting the guests might imitate it.
When Kevin leaves his only pair of shoes in the care of hotel staff, the management decides to incinerate them as a health hazard, and he replaces them with Kleenex tissue boxes. The end of the episode shows Kevin soothing his feet in the ice machine. While he speaks to the camera crew, Helene is seen pulling Michael into her hotel room.
The episode was written by developer and executive producer of The Office Greg Daniels and Mindy Kaling, who plays Kelly Kapoor on the show. It was directed by Paul Feig, his 13th directing credit for the series. The episode was initially assigned to Mindy Kaling, but executive producer Greg Daniels said he was interested in contributing. The scene in which Jim cuts his tie off took seven takes and was written by Greg Daniels. In the original draft, the wedding was supposed to take place on the "Booze Cruise ''. The dance sequence during the wedding was choreographed by the same person who worked on "Cafe Disco '' with all of the dancing pairs having 45 - minute practice sessions to get their moves down. John Krasinski and Jenna Fischer made a surprise trip to the Niagara Falls area with a small crew in order to film the scene with their actual wedding vows, and Krasinski was feeling ill during the filming but insisted they do multiple takes even as he was getting soaked with water. Brian Baumgartner 's parents were on the Maid of the Mist boat where the marriage scene was filmed. They were visiting friends from Rochester, NY, and came into town to be extras.
The dance down the church aisle to Chris Brown 's "Forever '' is based on the popular 2009 YouTube viral video, "JK Wedding Entrance Dance '', in which a young couple (JK, standing for "Jill and Kevin '') dance down the aisle to the song along with their wedding party. Pam mentions that the song was specifically put on a "Do Not Play List '', but was choreographed by the wedding guests and office workers regardless. The song played during Andy 's party is Kardinal Offishall 's "Numba 1 (Tide is High) '' featuring Rihanna. Dwight is shown wearing the Three Wolf Moon T - shirt, made famous by humorous reviews on Amazon, before going out to the hotel bar with Michael to pick up women, commenting that "it 's suggestive to women, because of howling during sex. ''
In its original American broadcast, "Niagara '' was viewed by an estimated 9.42 million households, with a 4.8 rating and a 12 share in the 18 -- 49 demographic coming second in its timeslot after Grey 's Anatomy. Greg Daniels and Mindy Kaling received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for their work on "Niagara '' at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Modern Family 's Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for their work on the pilot episode.
The episode received positive reviews from critics. The episode ranked 24th on BuddyTV 's list of best 50 episodes of 2009 with them saying "It was n't easy, but they did it all, creating a goofy, joyful, and special day for Jim and Pam that brought tears to our eyes. '' Dan Phillip of IGN gave the episode an 8.3 saying calling it "Impressive '' and "The episode certainly could have delivered more in terms of creativity and high comedy, but it still contained a great deal of entertainment. '' Despite that, he said the episode failed in comparison to "Phyllis ' Wedding ''. "Niagara '' was voted the second highest rated out of 115 from the series, according to a poll at the fansite, OfficeTally.
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who was the first presenter of desert island discs | Desert Island Discs - wikipedia
Desert Island Discs is a radio programme broadcast on BBC Radio 4. It was first broadcast on the BBC Forces Programme on 29 January 1942.
Each week a guest, called a ' castaway ' during the programme, is asked to choose eight recordings (usually, but not always, music), a book and a luxury item that they would take if they were to be cast away on a desert island, whilst discussing their lives and the reasons for their choices. It was devised and originally presented by Roy Plomley. Since 2006, the programme has been presented by Kirsty Young.
More than 3,000 episodes have been recorded, with some guests having appeared more than once and some episodes featuring more than one guest. An example of a guest who falls into both categories is Bob Monkhouse, who appeared with his co-writer Denis Goodwin on 12 December 1955 and in his own right on 20 December 1998.
Guests are invited to imagine themselves cast away on a desert island, and choose eight recordings, originally gramophone records, to take with them; discussion of their choices permits a review of their life. Excerpts from their choices are played or, in the case of short pieces, the whole work. At the end of the programme they choose the one piece they regard most highly. Guests are also automatically given the Complete Works of Shakespeare and either the Bible or another appropriate religious or philosophical work. They are then prompted to select a third book to accompany them. Popular choices include Charles Dickens and Jane Austen. Actress Judi Dench, who suffers from macular degeneration, was permitted to take an audiobook in place of a printed manuscript.
Guests also choose one luxury, which must be inanimate and of no use in escaping the island or allowing communication from outside. Roy Plomley enforced these rules strictly. He did, however, grant a special dispensation to Princess Michael of Kent, who chose her pet cat. The rules are, however, less strictly enforced today; for instance, Lawley allowed John Cleese to take Michael Palin with him, on the condition that he was dead and stuffed. Examples of luxuries have included champagne and a piano, the latter of which is one of the most requested luxuries.
After Plomley 's death in 1985, the programme was presented by Michael Parkinson and from 1988 by Sue Lawley. Lawley stepped down in August 2006 after 18 years, her final castaway being actress Joan Plowright. She was replaced by Kirsty Young, who interviewed illustrator Quentin Blake for her first show, broadcast on 1 October 2006.
The first castaway was Vic Oliver, and several castaways, including Celia Johnson, Arthur Askey, Trevor Nunn, John Schlesinger, Kenneth Williams, Terry Wogan, Brian Rix, David Attenborough and Adele Leigh have been cast away more than once. The most requested piece of music over the first 60 years was "Ode to Joy '', the last movement of Beethoven 's Ninth Symphony. One of the most remarked broadcasts was Elisabeth Schwarzkopf 's 1958 selection of seven of her own recordings. This record was subsequently beaten by British pianist Dame Moura Lympany on her second appearance on the programme on 28 July 1979 when all eight of her selections were of her own recordings. In the early 1970s, Roy Plomley attempted to interview Alistair MacLean, but ended up speaking to somebody else with the same name -- and the programme was never broadcast. In January of 1981, Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon, appeared as a castaway on the show.
Plomley originally wanted the sounds of "surf breaking on a shore and the cries of sea birds '' to open and close each programme. But Leslie Prowne, the head of popular record programmes at the BBC, was concerned that it lacked definition and insisted that music should also be used. Plomley and the series ' producer Frederic Piffard selected "By the Sleepy Lagoon '', composed by Eric Coates (who appeared on the show in 1951). The tune has been used since the first transmission in 1942. The sound of herring gulls has accompanied the music except for a period of time in 1964 when tropical bird sounds were used.
Until late September 2009, Desert Island Discs could not be heard on the BBC 's iPlayer service, which allows most programmes to be heard up to a week after transmission. The programme 's website stated that this was due to rights issues, as explained in The Sunday Times in 2006.
It was announced on 27 September 2009 that an agreement had been reached as a result of which the programme would be available to stream via the iPlayer. The first episode available through the iPlayer was with Barry Manilow. Subsequently, the programme was also made available as a podcast, beginning with the edition broadcast on 29 November 2009, which featured Morrissey. However, due to music clearance issues, the music selections on the podcast versions are reduced to only playing for around 30 seconds or so (and in rare instances are unavailable, as mentioned in an announcement made by Kirsty Young at the appropriate point of the programme).
On 30 March 2011, the BBC placed more than 500 episodes from the show 's archive online to listen to via iPlayer. Other episodes have since been added, both new and old.
In the early years of the BBC, programmes were broadcast live and were generally not recorded. This, in addition to the BBC 's policy of wiping that was applied during the 1950s and 1960s, means very few episodes from the first 20 years of the show are known to exist; the earliest episode still in existence is from 1951 and features actress Margaret Lockwood. Several extracts were preserved for posterity at the request of the guests, such as an extract featuring Alfred Hitchcock where he speaks about his films The Pleasure Garden (1925) and Rebecca (1940), gives his view on the changing landscape of the film industry and briefly discusses his then upcoming film Psycho (1960).
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when did filming for game of thrones start | Game of Thrones - Wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. It is an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin 's series of fantasy novels, the first of which is A Game of Thrones. It is filmed in Belfast and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, Canada, Croatia, Iceland, Malta, Morocco, Spain, and the United States. The series premiered on HBO in the United States on April 17, 2011, and its seventh season ended on August 27, 2017. The series will conclude with its eighth season premiering in 2019.
Set on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos, Game of Thrones has several plot lines and a large ensemble cast but centers on three primary story arcs. The first story arc centers on the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms and follows a web of alliances and conflicts among the dynastic noble families either vying to claim the throne or fighting for independence from the throne. The second story arc focuses on the last descendant of the realm 's deposed ruling dynasty, exiled and plotting a return to the throne. The third story arc centers on the longstanding brotherhood charged with defending the realm against the ancient threats of the fierce peoples and legendary creatures that lie far north, and an impending winter that threatens the realm.
Game of Thrones has attracted record viewership on HBO and has a broad, active, international fan base. It has been acclaimed by critics, particularly for its acting, complex characters, story, scope, and production values, although its frequent use of nudity and violence (including sexual violence) has been criticized. The series has received 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series in 2015 and 2016, more than any other primetime scripted television series. Its other awards and nominations include three Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation (2012 -- 2014), a 2011 Peabody Award, and four nominations for the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series -- Drama (2012 and 2015 -- 2017).
Of the ensemble cast, Peter Dinklage has won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (2011 and 2015) and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film (2012) for his performance as Tyrion Lannister. Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, Kit Harington, Maisie Williams, Diana Rigg, and Max von Sydow have also received Primetime Emmy Award nominations for their performances in the series.
Game of Thrones is roughly based on the storylines of A Song of Ice and Fire, set in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros and the continent of Essos. The series chronicles the violent dynastic struggles among the realm 's noble families for the Iron Throne, while other families fight for independence from it. It opens with additional threats in the icy North and Essos in the east.
Showrunner David Benioff jokingly suggested "The Sopranos in Middle - earth '' as Game of Thrones ' tagline, referring to its intrigue - filled plot and dark tone in a fantasy setting of magic and dragons. In a 2012 study of deaths per episode, it ranked second out of 40 recent U.S. TV drama series (with an average of 14).
The series is generally praised for what is perceived as a sort of medieval realism. George R.R. Martin set out to make the story feel more like historical fiction than contemporary fantasy, with less emphasis on magic and sorcery and more on battles, political intrigue, and the characters, believing that magic should be used moderately in the epic fantasy genre. Martin has stated that "the true horrors of human history derive not from orcs and Dark Lords, but from ourselves. ''
A common theme in the fantasy genre is the battle between good and evil, which Martin says does not mirror the real world. Just like people 's capacity for good and for evil in real life, Martin explores the questions of redemption and character change. The show allows the audience to view different characters from their perspective, unlike in many other fantasies, and thus the supposed villains can provide their side of the story. Benioff said, "George brought a measure of harsh realism to high fantasy. He introduced gray tones into a black - and - white universe. ''
In early seasons, under the influence of the A Song of Ice and Fire books, main characters were regularly killed off, and this was credited with developing tension among viewers. Later seasons, however, critics pointed out that certain characters had developed "plot armor '', attributing this to the show 's deviating from the books and becoming more of a traditional television series. The series also reflects the substantial death rates in war.
Although the first season closely follows the events of the first novel, later seasons have made significant changes. According to David Benioff, the show is "about adapting the series as a whole and following the map George laid out for us and hitting the major milestones, but not necessarily each of the stops along the way ''.
Tom Holland of The Guardian believes that the novels and their adaptations base aspects of their settings, characters, and plot on events in European history. Most of Westeros is reminiscent of high medieval Europe, from lands and cultures, to the palace intrigue, feudal system, castles, and knightly tournaments. A principal inspiration for the novels is the English Wars of the Roses (1455 -- 85) between the houses of Lancaster and York, reflected in Martin 's houses of Lannister and Stark. The scheming Cersei Lannister evokes Isabella, the "she - wolf of France '' (1295 -- 1358); Isabella and her family (particularly as portrayed in Maurice Druon 's historical - novel series, The Accursed Kings) were also a main inspiration for Martin.
Holland further proposes that other historical antecedents of series elements include Hadrian 's Wall (which becomes Martin 's Wall), the legend of Atlantis (ancient Valyria), Byzantine Greek fire ("wildfire ''), Icelandic sagas of the Viking Age (the Ironborn), the Mongol hordes (the Dothraki), the Hundred Years ' War (1337 -- 1453) and the Italian Renaissance (c. 1400 -- 1500). The series ' popularity has been attributed, in part, to Martin 's skill at fusing these elements into a seamless, credible version of alternate history. Martin acknowledges, "I take (history) and I file off the serial numbers and I turn it up to 11. ''
Game of Thrones has an ensemble cast estimated to be the largest on television; during its third season, 257 cast names were recorded. In 2014, several actor contracts were renegotiated to include a seventh - season option, with raises which reportedly made them among the highest - paid performers on cable TV. In 2016, several actor contracts were again renegotiated, reportedly increasing the salary of five of the main cast members to £ 2 million per episode for the last two seasons, which would make them the highest paid actors on television. The main cast is listed below.
Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is the head of House Stark, whose members are involved in plot lines throughout most of the series. He and his wife, Catelyn Tully (Michelle Fairley), have five children: Robb (Richard Madden), the eldest, followed by Sansa (Sophie Turner), Arya (Maisie Williams), Bran (Isaac Hempstead - Wright) and Rickon (Art Parkinson), the youngest. Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow (Kit Harington) and his friend, Samwell Tarly (John Bradley), serve in the Night 's Watch under Lord Commander Jeor Mormont (James Cosmo). The Wildlings living north of the Wall include young Gilly (Hannah Murray), and warriors Tormund Giantsbane (Kristofer Hivju) and Ygritte (Rose Leslie).
Others associated with House Stark include Ned 's ward Theon Greyjoy (Alfie Allen), his vassal Roose Bolton (Michael McElhatton), and Bolton 's bastard son, Ramsay Snow (Iwan Rheon). Robb falls in love with the healer Talisa Maegyr (Oona Chaplin), and Arya befriends the blacksmith 's apprentice Gendry (Joe Dempsie) and the assassin Jaqen H'ghar (Tom Wlaschiha). The tall warrior Brienne of Tarth (Gwendoline Christie) serves Catelyn and, later, Sansa.
In King 's Landing, the capital, Ned 's friend King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) shares a loveless marriage with Cersei Lannister (Lena Headey), who has taken her twin brother, the "Kingslayer '' Ser Jaime Lannister (Nikolaj Coster - Waldau), as her lover. She loathes her younger brother, the dwarf Tyrion Lannister (Peter Dinklage), who is attended by his mistress Shae (Sibel Kekilli) and the sellsword Bronn (Jerome Flynn). Cersei 's father is Lord Tywin Lannister (Charles Dance). Cersei also has two young sons: Joffrey (Jack Gleeson) and Tommen (Dean - Charles Chapman). Joffrey is guarded by the scar - faced warrior, Sandor "the Hound '' Clegane (Rory McCann).
The king 's Small Council of advisors includes the crafty Master of Coin Lord Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish (Aidan Gillen) and the eunuch spymaster Lord Varys (Conleth Hill). Robert 's brother, Stannis Baratheon (Stephen Dillane), is advised by foreign priestess Melisandre (Carice van Houten) and former smuggler Ser Davos Seaworth (Liam Cunningham). The wealthy Tyrell family is represented at court by Margaery Tyrell (Natalie Dormer). The High Sparrow (Jonathan Pryce) is the capital 's religious leader. In the southern principality of Dorne, Ellaria Sand (Indira Varma) seeks vengeance against the Lannisters.
Across the Narrow Sea, siblings Viserys (Harry Lloyd) and Daenerys Targaryen (Emilia Clarke) -- the exiled children of the last king of the original ruling dynasty, who was overthrown by Robert Baratheon -- are running for their lives and trying to win back the throne. Daenerys has been married to Khal Drogo (Jason Momoa), the leader of the nomadic Dothraki. Her retinue includes the exiled knight Ser Jorah Mormont (Iain Glen), her aide Missandei (Nathalie Emmanuel) and the sellsword Daario Naharis (Michiel Huisman).
In January 2006, David Benioff had a phone conversation with George R.R. Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented, and became interested in A Song of Ice and Fire as he had been a fan of fantasy fiction when young but had not read the books before. The literary agent then sent the first four books of A Song of Ice and Fire to Benioff. Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first novel, A Game of Thrones, shared his enthusiasm with D.B. Weiss and suggested that they adapt Martin 's novels into a television series; Weiss finished the first novel in "maybe 36 hours ''. They pitched the series to HBO after a five - hour meeting with Martin (a veteran screenwriter) in a restaurant on Santa Monica Boulevard. According to Benioff, they won Martin over with their answer to his question, "Who is Jon Snow 's mother? ''
-- George R.R. Martin, author
Before being approached by Benioff and Weiss, Martin had had other meetings with other scriptwriters, most of them wanting to turn it into a feature film. Martin, however, deemed it "unfilmable '' and impossible to be done as a feature film, stating that the size of one of his novels is as long as The Lord of the Rings, which had been adapted as three feature films. Similarly, Benioff also said that it would be impossible to turn the novels into a feature film as the scale of the novels is too big for a feature film and dozens of characters would have to be discarded. Benioff added, "a fantasy movie of this scope, financed by a major studio, would almost certainly need a PG - 13 rating. That means no sex, no blood, no profanity. Fuck that. '' Martin himself was pleased with the suggestion that they adapt it as an HBO series, saying that he "never imagined it anywhere else ''. "I knew it could n't be done as a network television series. It 's too adult. The level of sex and violence would never have gone through. ''
The series began development in January 2007. HBO acquired the TV rights to the novels, with Benioff and Weiss as its executive producers, and Martin as a co-executive producer. The intention was for each novel to yield a season 's worth of episodes. Initially, Martin would write one episode per season while Benioff and Weiss would write the rest of the episodes. Jane Espenson and Bryan Cogman were later added to write one episode apiece the first season.
The first and second drafts of the pilot script by Benioff and Weiss were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008, respectively. Although HBO liked both drafts, a pilot was not ordered until November 2008; the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike may have delayed the process. The pilot episode, "Winter Is Coming '', was first shot in 2009; after a poor reception in a private viewing, HBO demanded an extensive re-shoot (about 90 percent of the episode, with cast and directorial changes).
The pilot reportedly cost HBO $5 -- 10 million to produce, while the first season 's budget was estimated at $50 -- 60 million. In the second season, the show received a 15 - percent budget increase for the climactic battle in "Blackwater '' (which had an $8 million budget). Between 2012 and 2015, the average budget per episode increased from $6 million to "at least '' $8 million. The sixth - season budget was over $10 million per episode, for a season total of over $100 million and a series record.
Nina Gold and Robert Sterne are the series ' primary casting directors. Through a process of auditions and readings, the main cast was assembled. The only exceptions were Peter Dinklage and Sean Bean, whom the writers wanted from the start; they were announced as joining the pilot in 2009. Other actors signed for the pilot were Kit Harington as Jon Snow, Jack Gleeson as Joffrey Baratheon, Harry Lloyd as Viserys Targaryen and Mark Addy as Robert Baratheon. Addy was, according to showrunners Benioff and Weiss, the easiest actor to cast for the show, being that his audition was on point. Some of the characters in the pilot were recast for the first season: Catelyn Stark was initially played by Jennifer Ehle, but the role was recast with Michelle Fairley. Daenerys Targaryen was also recast, with Emilia Clarke replacing Tamzin Merchant. The rest of the first season 's cast was filled in the second half of 2009.
Although many of the cast returned after the first season, the producers had many new characters to cast for each of the following seasons. Due to the large number of new characters, Benioff and Weiss postponed the introduction of several key characters in the second season and merged several characters into one or assigned plot functions to different characters. Some recurring characters were recast over the years; for example, Gregor Clegane was played by three different actors, while Dean - Charles Chapman who played Tommen Baratheon also played a minor Lannister character.
Game of Thrones used seven writers in six seasons. Series creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the showrunners, write most of the episodes each season.
A Song of Ice and Fire author George R.R. Martin wrote one episode in each of the first four seasons. Martin did not write an episode for the later seasons, since he wanted to focus on completing the sixth novel (The Winds of Winter). Jane Espenson co-wrote one first - season episode as a freelance writer.
Bryan Cogman, initially a script coordinator for the series, was promoted to producer for the fifth season. Cogman, who wrote at least one episode for the first five seasons, is the only other writer in the writers ' room with Benioff and Weiss. Before his promotion, Vanessa Taylor (a writer during the second and third seasons) worked closely with Benioff and Weiss. Dave Hill joined the writing staff for the fifth season after working as an assistant to Benioff and Weiss. Although Martin is not in the writers ' room, he reads the script outlines and makes comments.
Benioff and Weiss sometimes assign characters to particular writers; for example, Cogman was assigned to Arya Stark for the fourth season. The writers spend several weeks writing a character outline, including what material from the novels to use and the overarching themes. After these individual outlines are complete, they spend another two to three weeks discussing each main character 's individual arc and arranging them episode by episode. A detailed outline is created, with each of the writers working on a portion to create a script for each episode. Cogman, who wrote two episodes for the fifth season, took a month and a half to complete both scripts. They are then read by Benioff and Weiss, who make notes, and parts of the script are rewritten. All ten episodes are written before filming begins, since they are filmed out of order with two units in different countries.
Benioff and Weiss write each of their episodes together, with one of them writing the first half of the script and the other the second half. After that they begin with passing the drafts back and forth to make notes and rewrite parts of it.
Benioff and Weiss originally intended to adapt the entire, still - incomplete A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels for television. After Game of Thrones began outpacing the published novels in the sixth season, the series was based on a plot outline of the future novels provided by Martin and original content. In April 2016, the showrunners ' plan was to shoot 13 more episodes after the sixth season: seven episodes in the seventh season and six episodes in the eighth. Later that month, the series was renewed for a seventh season with a seven - episode order. As of 2017, seven seasons have been ordered and filmed, adapting the novels at a rate of about 48 seconds per page for the first three seasons.
The first two seasons adapted one novel each. For the later seasons, its creators see Game of Thrones as an adaptation of A Song of Ice and Fire as a whole rather than the individual novels; this enables them to move events across novels, according to screen - adaptation requirements.
Principal photography for the first season was scheduled to begin on July 26, 2010, and the primary location was the Paint Hall Studios in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Exterior scenes in Northern Ireland were filmed at Sandy Brae in the Mourne Mountains (standing in for Vaes Dothrak), Castle Ward (Winterfell), Saintfield Estates (the Winterfell godswood), Tollymore Forest (outdoor scenes), Cairncastle (the execution site), the Magheramorne quarry (Castle Black) and Shane 's Castle (the tourney grounds). Doune Castle in Stirling, Scotland, was also used in the original pilot episode for scenes at Winterfell. The producers initially considered filming the whole series in Scotland, but decided on Northern Ireland because of the availability of studio space.
The first season 's southern scenes were filmed in Malta, a change in location from the pilot episode 's Moroccan sets. The city of Mdina was used for King 's Landing. Filming was also done at Fort Manoel (representing the Sept of Baelor), at the Azure Window on the island of Gozo (the Dothraki wedding site) and at San Anton Palace, Fort Ricasoli, Fort St. Angelo and St. Dominic monastery (all used for scenes in the Red Keep).
Filming of the second season 's southern scenes shifted from Malta to Croatia, where the city of Dubrovnik and nearby locations allowed exterior shots of a walled, coastal medieval city. The Walls of Dubrovnik and Fort Lovrijenac were used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. The island of Lokrum, the St. Dominic monastery in the coastal town of Trogir, the Rector 's Palace in Dubrovnik, and the Dubac quarry (a few kilometers east) were used for scenes set in Qarth. Scenes set north of the Wall, in the Frostfangs and at the Fist of the First Men, were filmed in November 2011 in Iceland: on the Vatnajökull glacier near Smyrlabjörg, the Svínafellsjökull glacier near Skaftafell and the Mýrdalsjökull glacier near Vik on Höfðabrekkuheiði.
Third - season production returned to Dubrovnik, with the Walls of Dubrovnik, Fort Lovrijenac and nearby locations again used for scenes in King 's Landing and the Red Keep. Trsteno Arboretum, a new location, is the garden of the Tyrells in King 's Landing. The third season also returned to Morocco (including the city of Essaouira) to film Daenerys ' scenes in Essos. Dimmuborgir and the Grjótagjá cave in Iceland were used as well. One scene, with a live bear, was filmed in Los Angeles. The production used three units (Dragon, Wolf and Raven) filming in parallel, six directing teams, 257 cast members and 703 crew members.
The fourth season returned to Dubrovnik and included new locations, including Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, the Mosor mountain range, and Baška Voda further south. Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used for the fight between Brienne and the Hound. Filming took 136 days and ended on November 21, 2013. The fifth season added Seville, Spain, used for scenes of Dorne, as well as Córdoba.
The sixth season, which began filming in July 2015, returned to Spain and filmed in Navarra, Guadalajara, Seville, Almeria Girona and Peniscola. Filming also returned to Dubrovnik, Croatia.
Filming of the seven episodes of season 7 began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, with other filming in Iceland, Northern Ireland and many locations in Spain. Spain filming locations included Seville, Cáceres, Almodovar del Rio, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. The series also filmed in Dubrovnik, which is used for location of King 's Landing. Filming continued until the end of February 2017 as necessary to ensure winter weather in some of the European locations.
Each ten - episode season of Game of Thrones has four to six directors, who usually direct back - to - back episodes. Alan Taylor has directed seven episodes, the most episodes of the series. Alex Graves, David Nutter, Mark Mylod and Jeremy Podeswa have directed six each. Daniel Minahan directed five episodes, and Michelle MacLaren, Alik Sakharov, and Miguel Sapochnik directed four each. Brian Kirk directed three episodes during the first season, and Tim Van Patten directed the series ' first two episodes. Neil Marshall directed two episodes, both with large battle scenes: "Blackwater '' and "The Watchers on the Wall ''. Other directors have been Jack Bender, David Petrarca, Daniel Sackheim, Michael Slovis and Matt Shakman. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss have directed two episodes together but only credited one each episode, which was determined after a coin toss.
Alik Sakharov was the pilot 's cinematographer. The series has had a number of cinematographers, and has received seven Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a Single - Camera Series nominations.
Oral Norrey Ottey, Frances Parker, Martin Nicholson, Crispin Green, Tim Porter and Katie Weiland have edited the series for a varying number of episodes. Weiland received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single - Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series in 2015.
Michele Clapton was costume designer for Game of Thrones ' first five seasons before she was replaced by April Ferry. Clapton will return to the show as costume designer for the seventh season.
The costumes used in the show drew inspiration from a number of sources, such as Japanese and Persian armour. Dothraki dress resembles that of the Bedouin (one was made out of fish skins to resemble dragon scales), and the Wildlings wear animal skins like the Inuit. Wildling bone armor is made from molds of actual bones, and is assembled with string and latex resembling catgut. Although the extras who play Wildlings and the Night 's Watch often wear hats (normal in a cold climate), members of the principal cast usually do not so viewers can distinguish the main characters. Björk 's Alexander McQueen high - neckline dresses inspired Margaery Tyrell 's funnel - neck outfit, and prostitutes ' dresses are designed for easy removal. All clothing used is aged for two weeks so it appears realistic on high - definition television.
About two dozen wigs are used for the actresses. Made of human hair and up to 2 feet (61 cm) in length, they cost up to $7,000 each and are washed and styled like real hair. Applying the wigs is time - consuming; Emilia Clarke, for example, requires about two hours to style her brunette hair with a platinum - blonde wig and braids. Other actors, such as Jack Gleeson and Sophie Turner, receive frequent hair coloring. For characters such as Daenerys (Clarke) and her Dothraki, their hair, wigs and costumes are processed to appear as if they have not been washed for weeks.
For the first three seasons, Paul Engelen was Game of Thrones ' main makeup designer and prosthetic makeup artist with Melissa Lackersteen, Conor O'Sullivan and Rob Trenton. At the beginning of the fourth season Engelen 's team was replaced by Jane Walker and her crew, composed of Ann McEwan and Barrie and Sarah Gower.
For the series ' large number of visual effects, HBO hired British - based BlueBolt and Irish - based Screen Scene for season one. Most of the environment builds were done as 2.5 D projections, giving viewers perspective while keeping the programming from being overwhelming. In 2011, the season - one finale, "Fire and Blood '', was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Special Visual Effects.
Because the effects became more complex in subsequent seasons (including CGI creatures, fire, and water), German - based Pixomondo became the lead visual - effects producer; nine of its twelve facilities contributed to the project for season two, with Stuttgart the lead. Scenes were also produced by British - based Peanut FX, Canadian - based Spin VFX, and U.S. - based Gradient Effects. "Valar Morghulis '' and "Valar Dohaeris '' earned Pixomondo Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Special Visual Effects in 2012 and 2013, respectively.
For season four, HBO added German - based Mackevision to the project. The season - four finale, "The Children '', won the 2014 Emmy Award for Visual Effects. Additional producers for season four included Canadian - based Rodeo FX, German - based Scanline VFX and U.S. - based BAKED FX. The muscle and wing movements of the adolescent dragons in seasons four and five were based largely on those of a chicken. Pixomondo retained a team of 22 to 30 people which focused solely on visualizing Daenerys Targaryen 's dragons, with the average production time per season of 20 to 22 weeks. For the fifth season, HBO added Canadian - based Image Engine and U.S. - based Crazy Horse Effects to its list of main visual - effects producers.
Unusual for a television series, the sound team receives a rough cut of a full season and approaches it as a ten - hour feature film. Although seasons one and two had different sound teams, one team has been in charge of sound since then. For the show 's blood - and - gore sounds, the team often uses a chamois. For dragon screams, mating tortoises and dolphin, seal, lion and bird sounds have been used.
The series ' title sequence was created by production studio Elastic for HBO. Creative director Angus Wall and his collaborators received the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Main Title Design for the sequence, which depicts a three - dimensional map of the series ' fictional world. The map is projected on the inside of a sphere which is centrally lit by a small sun in an armillary sphere. As the camera moves across the map, focusing on the locations of the episode 's events, clockwork mechanisms intertwine and allow buildings and other structures to emerge from the map. Accompanied by the title music, the names of the principal cast and creative staff appear. The sequence concludes after about 90 seconds with the title card and brief opening credits indicating the episode 's writer (s) and director. Its composition changes as the story progresses, with new locations replacing those featuring less prominently or not at all.
The music for the series was composed by Ramin Djawadi. The first season 's soundtrack, written in about ten weeks before the show 's premiere, was published by Varèse Sarabande in June 2011. Soundtrack albums for subsequent seasons have been released, with tracks by the National, the Hold Steady and Sigur Rós. Djawadi has composed themes for each of the major houses and also for some of the main characters. The themes may evolve over time, as Daenerys Targaryen 's theme started small and then became more powerful after each season. Her theme started first with a single instrument, a cello, and Djawadi later incorporated more instruments for it.
The Westerosi characters of Game of Thrones speak British - accented English, often (but not consistently) with the accent of the English region corresponding to the character 's Westerosi region; Eddard Stark (Warden of the North) speaks in actor Sean Bean 's native northern accent, and the southern lord Tywin Lannister speaks with a southern accent, while characters from Dorne speak English with a Spanish accent. Characters foreign to Westeros often have a non-British accent.
Although English is the common language of Westeros, the producers charged linguist David J. Peterson with constructing Dothraki and Valyrian languages based on the few words in the novels; Dothraki and Valyrian dialogue is often subtitled in English. It has been reported that during the series these fictional languages have been heard by more people than the Welsh, Irish, and Scots Gaelic languages combined.
Game of Thrones is funded by Northern Ireland Screen, a UK government agency financed by Invest NI and the European Regional Development Fund. As of April 2013, Northern Ireland Screen gave the show £ 9.25 million ($14.37 million); according to government estimates, this has benefited the Northern Ireland economy by £ 65 million ($100.95 million).
Tourism Ireland has a Game of Thrones - themed marketing campaign similar to New Zealand 's Tolkien - related advertising. Invest NI and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board also expect the series to generate tourism revenue. According to Arlene Foster, the series has given Northern Ireland the most non-political publicity in its history. The production of Game of Thrones and other TV series also boosted Northern Ireland 's creative industries, contributing to an estimated 12.4 - percent growth in arts, entertainment and recreation jobs between 2008 and 2013 (compared with 4.3 percent in the rest of the UK during the same period).
Tourism organizations elsewhere reported increases in bookings after their locations appeared in Game of Thrones. In 2012, bookings through LateRooms.com increased by 28 percent in Dubrovnik and 13 percent in Iceland. The following year, bookings doubled in Ouarzazate, Morocco (the location of Daenerys ' season - three scenes). Game of Thrones has been attributed as a significant factor in the boom of tourism in Iceland that had a strong impact on its economy. Tourist numbers increased by 30 % in 2015, followed by another 40 % in 2016, with a final figure of 2.4 million visitors expected for 2016, which is around seven times the population of the country.
Game of Thrones is broadcast by HBO in the United States and by its local subsidiaries or other pay television services in other countries, at the same time as in the U.S. or weeks (or months) later. The series ' broadcast in China on CCTV, begun in 2014, was heavily edited to remove scenes of sex and violence in accordance with a Chinese practice of censoring Western TV series to prevent what the People 's Daily calls "negative effects and hidden security dangers ''. This resulted in viewer complaints about the incoherence of what remained. Broadcasters carrying Game of Thrones include Showcase in Australia; HBO Canada, Super Écran and Showcase in Canada; HBO Latin America in Latin America; SoHo and Prime in New Zealand, and Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom and Ireland.
The ten episodes of the first season of Game of Thrones were released as a DVD and Blu - ray box set on March 6, 2012. The box set includes extra background and behind - the - scenes material but no deleted scenes, since nearly all the footage shot for the first season was used in the show. The box set sold over 350,000 copies in the first week after release, the largest first - week DVD sales ever for an HBO series, and the series set an HBO - series record for digital - download sales. A collector 's - edition box set was released in November 2012, combining the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the first season with the first episode of season two. A paperweight in the shape of a dragon egg is included in the set.
DVD - Blu - ray box sets and digital downloads of the second season became available on February 19, 2013. First - day sales broke HBO records, with 241,000 box sets sold and 355,000 episodes downloaded. The third season was made available for purchase as a digital download on the Australian iTunes Store, parallel to the U.S. premiere, and was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 18, 2014. The fourth season was released on DVD and Blu - ray on February 17, 2015, and the fifth season on March 15, 2016. The sixth season was released on Blu - ray and DVD on November 15, 2016. Beginning in 2016, HBO began issuing Steelbook Blu - ray sets which include both Dolby TrueHD 7.1 and Dolby Atmos audio options.
Game of Thrones has been widely pirated, primarily outside the U.S. According to the file - sharing news website TorrentFreak, Game of Thrones has been the most - pirated TV series since 2012, which means it has held the record for six years in a row. Illegal downloads increased to about seven million in the first quarter of 2015, up 45 percent from 2014. An unnamed episode was downloaded about 4,280,000 times through public BitTorrent trackers in 2012, roughly equal to its number of broadcast viewers. Piracy rates were particularly high in Australia, and U.S. Ambassador to Australia Jeff Bleich issued a statement condemning Australian piracy of the series in 2013.
Delays in availability apart from HBO and its affiliates before 2015 and the cost of subscriptions to these services have been cited as causes of the series ' illegal distribution. According to TorrentFreak, a subscription to a service for Game of Thrones would cost up to $25 per month in the United States, up to £ 26 per episode in the UK and up to $52 per episode in Australia.
For "combating piracy '', HBO said in 2013 that it intended to make its content more widely available within a week of the U.S. premiere (including HBO Go). In 2015, the fifth season was simulcast to 170 countries and to HBO Now users. On April 11, the day before the season premiere, screener copies of the first four episodes of the fifth season leaked to a number of file - sharing websites. Within a day of the leak, the files were downloaded over 800,000 times; in one week the illegal downloads reached 32 million, with the season - five premiere alone ("The Wars to Come '') pirated 13 million times. The season - five finale ("Mother 's Mercy '') was the most simultaneously shared file in the history of the BitTorrent filesharing protocol, with over 250,000 simultaneous sharers and over 1.5 million downloads in eight hours. For the sixth season, HBO did not send screeners to the press, so as to prevent the spread of unlicensed copies and possible spoilers.
Observers, including series director David Petrarca and Time Warner CEO Jeff Bewkes, said that illegal downloads did not hurt the series ' prospects; it benefited from "buzz '' and social commentary, and the high piracy rate did not significantly translate to lost subscriptions. According to Polygon, HBO 's relaxed attitude towards piracy and the sharing of login credentials amounted to a premium - television "free - to - play '' model. At a 2015 Oxford Union debate, series co-creator David Benioff said that he was just glad that people watched the show; illegally downloaded copies of the show sometimes interested viewers enough to buy a copy of the show, especially in countries where the show was not televised. Co-creator D.B. Weiss had mixed feelings, saying that the show was expensive to produce and "if it does n't make the money back, then it ceases to exist ''. However, he was pleased that so many people "enjoy the show so much they ca n't wait to get their hands on it. '' In 2015, Guinness World Records called Game of Thrones the most - pirated television program.
Beginning on January 23, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters across the United States; Game of Thrones is the first TV series shown in this format. The show earned $686,000 at the box office on its opening day and $1.5 million during its opening weekend; the week - long release grossed $1,896,092.
Game of Thrones was highly anticipated by fans before its premiere, and has become a critical and commercial success. According to The Guardian, by 2014 it was "the biggest drama '' and "the most talked about show '' on television.
Although Game of Thrones was dismissed by some critics before it began, its success has been credited with an increase in the popularity of fantasy themes. On the eve of the second season 's premiere, a CNN.com blog post by Joel Williams read, "After this weekend, you may be hard pressed to find someone who is n't a fan of some form of epic fantasy '' and cited Ian Bogost as saying that the series continues a trend of successful screen adaptations beginning with Peter Jackson 's 2001 The Lord of the Rings film trilogy and the Harry Potter films establishing fantasy as a mass - market genre; they are "gateway drugs to fantasy fan culture ''. Its success in the face of its genre was attributed by writers to a longing for escapism in popular culture, frequent female nudity and a skill in balancing lighthearted and serious topics (dragons and politics, for example) which provided it with a prestige enjoyed by conventional, top - tier drama series.
The series ' popularity increased sales of the A Song of Ice and Fire novels (republished in tie - in editions), which remained at the top of bestseller lists for months. According to The Daily Beast, Game of Thrones was a favorite of sitcom writers and the series has been referred to in other TV series. With other fantasy series, it has been cited for an increase in the purchase (and abandonment) of huskies and other wolf - like dogs.
Game of Thrones has added to the popular vocabulary. The first season 's scene in which Petyr Baelish explains his motives (or background) while prostitutes had sex in the background gave rise to the word "sexposition '' for providing exposition with sex and nudity. "Dothraki '', the series ' nomadic horsemen, was ranked fourth in a September 2012 Global Language Monitor list of words from television most used on the Internet. In 2012, the media used "Game of Thrones '' as a figure of speech or comparison for situations of intense conflict and deceit, such as the 2012 United States Supreme Court decision regarding healthcare reform legislation, the Syrian Civil War and the ousting of Bo Xilai from the Chinese government.
"Khaleesi '' has increased in popularity as a name for baby girls in the United States. In the novels and the TV series, the word is a title meaning the wife of a Khal (warlord) in the Dothraki language held by Daenerys Targaryen, and not actually a name.
Game of Thrones has received critical acclaim, although the series ' frequent use of nudity and violence has been criticized. Its seasons have appeared on annual "best of '' lists published by The Washington Post (2011), TIME (2011 and 2012) and The Hollywood Reporter (2012).
The performances of the cast have received immense praise. Peter Dinklage 's "charming, morally ambiguous, and self - aware '' Tyrion, who earned him Emmy and Golden Globe awards, was noted. "In many ways, Game of Thrones belongs to Dinklage '', wrote Mary McNamara of the L.A. Times before Tyrion became the series ' central figure in season two. Several critics highlighted performances by actresses and children. Fourteen - year - old Maisie Williams, noted in the first season for her debut as Arya Stark, was singled out for her season - two work with veteran actor Charles Dance (Tywin Lannister). Stephen Dillane has received positive reviews for his performance as Stannis Baratheon, especially in the fifth season, with one critic noting "Whether you like Stannis or not, you have to admit that Stephen Dillane delivered a monumental performance this season. ''
The series has a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 44 reviews. All episodes had positive reviews of 91 percent or higher on Rotten Tomatoes, and a 97 - percent rating (based on 50 reviews) for the season as a whole. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 95 percent and an average score of 8.6 out of 10 (based on 52 reviews). The season has a rating of 96 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.4 out of 10 based on 29 reviews. After the first episode aired, the seventh season held a rating of 97 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 29 reviews.
First - season reviewers said the series had high production values, a fully realized world and compelling characters. According to Variety, "There may be no show more profitable to its network than ' Game of Thrones ' is to HBO. Fully produced by the pay cabler and already a global phenomenon after only one season, the fantasy skein was a gamble that has paid off handsomely ''. The second season was also well received. Entertainment Weekly praised its "vivid, vital, and just plain fun '' storytelling and, according to the Hollywood Reporter, the show made a "strong case for being one of TV 's best series ''; its seriousness made it the only drama comparable to Mad Men or Breaking Bad. The New York Times gave the series a mixed review, criticizing its number of characters, their lack of complexity and a meandering plot.
The third season was extremely well received by critics, with Metacritic giving it a score of 91 out of 100 (indicating "universal acclaim ''). The fourth season was similarly praised; Metacritic gave it a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, again indicating "universal acclaim ''. The fifth season was also well received by critics and has a score of 91 out of 100 (based on 29 reviews) on Metacritic. The sixth season has been praised by critics, though not as highly as its predecessors. It has a score of 73 on Metacritic (based on nine reviews), indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. The seventh season scored 77 out of 100 (based on twelve reviews) and was praised for its action sequences and focused central characters, but received criticism for its breakneck pace and plot developments that "defied logic. ''
Despite its otherwise enthusiastic reception by critics, Game of Thrones has been criticized for the amount of female nudity, violence, and sexual violence (especially against women) it depicts, and for the manner in which it depicts these themes. The Atlantic called the series ' "tendency to ramp up the sex, violence, and -- especially -- sexual violence '' of the source material "the defining weakness '' of the adaptation. George R.R. Martin responded that he feels obliged to be truthful about history and human nature, and that rape and sexual violence are common in war; and that omitting them from the narrative would have rung false and undermined one of his novels ' themes, its historical realism. HBO said that they "fully support the vision and artistry of Dan and David 's exceptional work and we feel this work speaks for itself. ''
The amount of sex and nudity in the series, especially in scenes that are incidental to the plot, was the focus of much of the criticism aimed at the series in its first and second seasons. Stephen Dillane, who portrays Stannis Baratheon, likened the series ' frequent explicit scenes to "German porn from the 1970s ''. Charlie Anders wrote in io9 that while the first season was replete with light - hearted "sexposition '', the second season appeared to focus on distasteful, exploitative, and dehumanizing sex with little informational content. According to The Washington Post 's Anna Holmes, the nude scenes appeared to be aimed mainly at titillating heterosexual men, right down to the Brazilian waxes sported by the women in the series ' faux - medieval setting, which made these scenes alienating to other viewers. The Huffington Post 's Maureen Ryan likewise noted that Game of Thrones mostly presented women naked, rather than men, and that the excess of "random boobage '' undercut any aspirations the series might have to address the oppression of women in a feudal society. Saturday Night Live parodied this aspect of the adaptation in a sketch that portrayed the series as retaining a thirteen - year - old boy as a consultant whose main concern was showing as many breasts as possible.
In the third season, which saw Theon Greyjoy lengthily tortured and eventually emasculated, the series was also criticized for its use of torture. New York magazine called the scene "torture porn. '' Madeleine Davies of Jezebel agreed, saying, "it 's not uncommon that Game of Thrones gets accused of being torture porn -- senseless, objectifying violence combined with senseless, objectifying sexual imagery. '' According to Davies, although the series ' violence tended to serve a narrative purpose, Theon 's torture in "The Bear and the Maiden Fair '' was excessive.
A scene in the fourth season 's episode "Breaker of Chains '', in which Jaime Lannister rapes his sister and lover Cersei, triggered a broad public discussion about the series ' depiction of sexual violence against women. According to Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times, the scene caused outrage, in part because of comments by director Alex Graves that the scene became "consensual by the end ''. Itzkoff also wrote that critics fear that "rape has become so pervasive in the drama that it is almost background noise: a routine and unshocking occurrence ''. Sonia Saraiya of The A.V. Club wrote that the series ' choice to portray this sexual act, and a similar one between Daenerys Targaryen and Khal Drogo in the first season -- both described as consensual in the source novels -- as a rape appeared to be an act of "exploitation for shock value ''.
In the fifth season 's episode "Unbowed, Unbent, Unbroken '', Sansa Stark is raped by Ramsay Bolton. Most reviewers, including those from Vanity Fair, Salon, The Atlantic, and The Daily Beast, found the scene gratuitous and artistically unnecessary. For example, Joanna Robinson, writing for Vanity Fair, said that the scene "undercuts all the agency that 's been growing in Sansa since the end of last season. '' In contrast, Sara Stewart of The New York Post wondered why viewers were not similarly upset about the many background and minor characters who 'd undergone similar or worse treatment. In response to the scene, pop culture website The Mary Sue announced that it would cease coverage of the series because of the repeated use of rape as a plot device, and U.S. Senator Claire McCaskill said that she would no longer watch it.
As the sixth and seventh seasons saw Daenerys, Sansa and Cersei assume ruling positions, Alyssa Rosenberg of the Washington Post noted that the series could be seen as a "long - arc revenge fantasy about what happens when women who have been brutalized and raped gain power '' -- namely, that their past leaves them too broken to do anything but commit brutal acts in their own turn, and that their personal liberation does not effect the social change needed to protect others from suffering.
A Song of Ice and Fire and Game of Thrones have a broad, active international fan base. In 2012 Vulture.com ranked the series ' fans as the most devoted in popular culture, more so than Lady Gaga 's, Justin Bieber 's, Harry Potter 's or Star Wars '. Fans include political leaders such as former U.S. president Barack Obama, former British prime minister David Cameron, former Australian prime minister Julia Gillard and Dutch foreign minister Frans Timmermans, who framed European politics in quotes from Martin 's novels in a 2013 speech.
BBC News said in 2013 that "the passion and the extreme devotion of fans '' had created a phenomenon unlike anything related to other popular TV series, manifesting itself in fan fiction, Game of Thrones - themed burlesque routines and parents naming their children after series characters; writers quoted attributed this success to the rich detail, moral ambiguity, sexual explicitness and epic scale of the series and novels. The previous year, "Arya '' was the fastest - rising girl 's name in the U.S. after it jumped in popularity from 711th to 413th place.
In 2013 about 58 percent of series viewers were male and 42 percent female, and the average male viewer was 41 years old. According to SBS Broadcasting Group marketing director Helen Kellie, Game of Thrones has a high fan - engagement rate; 5.5 percent of the series ' 2.9 million Facebook fans talked online about the series in 2012, compared to 1.8 percent of the more than ten million fans of True Blood (HBO 's other fantasy series). Vulture.com cited Westeros.org and WinterIsComing.net (news and discussion forums), ToweroftheHand.com (which organizes communal readings of the novels) and Podcastoficeandfire.com as fan sites dedicated to the TV and novel series; and podcasts cover Game of Thrones.
Game of Thrones has won dozens of awards since it debuted as a series, including 38 Primetime Emmy Awards, 5 Screen Actors Guild Award, and a Peabody Award. It holds the Emmy - award record for a scripted television series, ahead of Frasier (which received 37). In 2013 the Writers Guild of America listed Game of Thrones as the 40th "best written '' series in television history. In 2015 The Hollywood Reporter placed it at number four on their "best TV shows ever '' list, while in 2016 the show was placed seventh on Empire 's "The 50 best TV shows ever ''. The same year Rolling Stone named it the twelfth "greatest TV Show of all time ''.
The 2011 first season received 13 nominations (including Outstanding Drama Series), and won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (given to Peter Dinklage for his portrayal of Tyrion Lannister) and Outstanding Main Title Design. Other nominations included Outstanding Directing ("Winter Is Coming '') and Outstanding Writing ("Baelor ''). Dinklage was also named Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globe, Satellite and Scream Awards.
In 2012, the second season received six Creative Arts Emmy Awards from 11 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage).
The 2013 third season received 16 Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Emilia Clarke), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Diana Rigg) and Outstanding Writing ("The Rains of Castamere ''), winning two Creative Arts Emmys.
In 2014 the fourth season received four Creative Arts Emmys from 19 nominations, which included Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Lena Headey), Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series (Rigg), Outstanding Directing ("The Watchers on the Wall '') and Outstanding Writing ("The Children '').
The 2015 fifth season won the most Primetime Emmy Awards for a series in a year (12 awards from 24 nominations), including Outstanding Drama Series; other wins included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage), Outstanding Directing ("Mother 's Mercy '') and Outstanding Writing ("Mother 's Mercy ''), and eight were Creative Arts Emmy Awards.
In 2016, the sixth season received the most nominations for the 68th Primetime Emmy Awards (23). It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Directing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), Outstanding Writing ("Battle of the Bastards ''), and nine Creative Arts Emmys. Nominations included Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Dinklage and Kit Harington), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Clarke, Headey and Maisie Williams), Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series (Max von Sydow) and Outstanding Directing ("The Door '').
The first season averaged 2.5 million viewers for its first Sunday - night screenings and a gross audience (including repeats and on - demand viewings) of 9.3 million viewers per episode. For its second season, the series had an average gross audience of 11.6 million viewers. The third season was seen by 14.2 million viewers, making Game of Thrones the second-most - viewed HBO series (after The Sopranos). For the fourth season, HBO said that its average gross audience of 18.4 million viewers (later adjusted to 18.6 million) had passed The Sopranos for the record. By the sixth season the average per - episode gross viewing figure had increased to over 25 million, with nearly 40 percent of viewers watching on HBO digital platforms. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Game of Thrones was "much more popular in cities than in the countryside, probably the only show involving zombies that is ''. In season seven, the viewers numbers averaged at over 30 millions per episode across all platforms.
The series set records on pay - television channels in the United Kingdom (with a 2016 average audience of more than five million on all platforms) and Australia (with a cumulative average audience of 1.2 million).
The following graph indicates first - airing viewer numbers in the US:
The series has inspired four video games based on the TV series and novels. The strategy game Game of Thrones Ascent ties into the HBO series, making characters and settings available to players as they appear on television. Behaviour Interactive is developing a free - to - play strategy game based on the series for mobile devices.
HBO has licensed a variety of merchandise based on Game of Thrones, including games, replica weapons and armor, jewelry, bobblehead dolls by Funko, beer by Ommegang and apparel. High - end merchandise includes a $10,500 Ulysse Nardin wristwatch and a $30,000 resin replica of the Iron Throne. In 2013 and 2014, a traveling exhibition of costumes, props, armor and weapons from the series visited major cities in Europe and the Americas.
Thronecast: The Official Guide to Game of Thrones, a series of podcasts presented by Geoff Lloyd and produced by Koink, has been released on the Sky Atlantic website and the UK iTunes store during the series ' run; a new podcast, with analysis and cast interviews, is released after each episode. In 2014 and 2015 HBO commissioned Catch the Throne, two rap albums about the series.
A companion book, Inside HBO 's Game of Thrones (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4521 - 1010 - 3) by series writer Bryan Cogman, was published on September 27, 2012. The 192 - page book, illustrated with concept art and behind - the - scenes photographs, covers the creation of the series ' first two seasons and its principal characters and families.
After the Thrones is a live aftershow in which hosts Andy Greenwald and Chris Ryan discuss episodes of the series. It airs on HBO Now the Monday after each sixth - season episode. The Game of Thrones Live Concert Experience, a 28 - city orchestral tour which will perform the series ' soundtrack with composer Ramin Djawadi, is scheduled to begin February 15, 2017 in Kansas City, Missouri.
Each season 's Blu - ray and DVD set contains several short animated sequences narrated by the cast as their characters as they detail events in the history of Westeros. For the seventh season, this is to include the animated prequel series Game of Thrones: Conquest & Rebellion, illustrated in a different animation style than previous videos. The series focuses on Aegon Targaryen 's conquest of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros.
After years of speculation about possible successor shows, in May 2017 HBO commissioned five screenwriters -- Max Borenstein, Jane Goldman, Brian Helgeland, Carly Wray and a fifth writer yet to be announced -- to develop individual Game of Thrones successor series. All of the writers are to be working individually with George R.R. Martin. Martin said that all the concepts under discussion are prequels, and some may be set outside Westeros. He also ruled out Robert 's Rebellion (the overthrow of Daenerys 's father by Robert Baratheon) as a possible idea. D.B. Weiss and David Benioff said that they would not be involved with any of the projects, and want to enjoy the successor series as fans. Martin is co-writing two of the four announced scripts. HBO announced in September 2017 that Game of Thrones writer Bryan Cogman would be developing a fifth prequel series.
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when does karen page find out about daredevil | Karen Page - wikipedia
Karen Page is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character has been a regular cast member of Marvel 's Daredevil series, and is the longest - running love interest for the title character.
Karen Page is played by Deborah Ann Woll in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, first as a main character in Daredevil, and later as a main cast member in The Punisher and a recurring character in The Defenders.
Created by writer Stan Lee and artist Bill Everett, she first appeared in Daredevil # 1 (April 1964).
In her first appearances, Karen is the secretary for the law firm of Daredevil 's alter ego Matt Murdock, and the mutual love interest of both Murdock and his partner Foggy Nelson. Her relationship with Murdock hits a downward spiral when he reveals his secret identity to her in Daredevil # 57 (October 1969), setting off a long break - up which concluded with her departure from the series in issue # 86 (April 1972). Within these final stories, she trades her profession of secretary to become a film actress.
After three years absence from published stories, Karen returned for a considerable stint as a supporting character in Ghost Rider, starting with vol. 2 # 13 (August 1975) and continuing through to # 26 (October 1977). During this time, a crossover with Daredevil # 138 afforded her a brief return appearance in the series where she got her start. A 1978 appearance in Marvel Two - in - One would prove the character 's last showing for over seven years.
Karen returned in Born Again, the award - winning storyline beginning in Daredevil # 227 (February 1986) that would ultimately restore her earlier role as Daredevil 's love interest. Writer Ann Nocenti gave considerably more development to their relationship, and even had Karen acting as a sidekick to Daredevil for the first time in issue # 259, in which she goes undercover to help take down a child pornography ring. She was again dropped from the series in issue # 263 (February 1989) for another long - term breakup from Murdock, but this time was brought back just two years later, for Daredevil # 294 (July 1991).
Karen is killed by Daredevil 's adversary Bullseye in Daredevil vol. 2 # 5, (March 10, 1999).
Foggy Nelson hires Karen Page to be the secretary for the new law firm Nelson and Murdock. She is infatuated with Matt Murdock from the moment they meet. When he introduces her to the adventuring, wisecracking aspect of his personality, in the guise of his "twin brother '' Mike, she finds herself equally charmed by this side of him.
Karen 's father, Dr. Paxton Page, fakes his own kidnapping and death so that he can assume the guise of the villain Death 's - Head. Karen returns to her parents ' home in Fagan Corners, Vermont to investigate her father 's disappearance. Daredevil follows her. In the ensuing battle between Daredevil and Death 's Head, Death 's Head spills a vat of molten cobalt over Daredevil, but realizes that Karen is endangered. This brings him back to his senses, and he pushes Daredevil and Karen to safety. He appears to die in this act of self - sacrifice, when he is coated in the molten cobalt. After the battle with Death 's Head, Daredevil reveals his true identity to Karen. She constantly fears for Matt 's safety, but he can not give up fighting crime. Karen eventually leaves him and moves to California to pursue an acting career. She finds work as an actress in a daytime soap opera.
Karen appears alongside Johnny Blaze in a film. After a scene is interrupted by The Uncanny Orb, Karen 's stuntwoman, Katy Milner, confides in Johnny about Karen 's history of "unhappy romances '' including the ones with Matt Murdock and Phil Hickock. Later on, Karen herself falls under the Orb 's control.
Karen Page is offered a role on The Incredible Hulk TV show which was on its first season at the time. She is kidnapped by three ex-stuntmen on the show, but is saved by the Thing, who is looking for his own TV show, and the Hulk, who is annoyed at having a show about him.
Karen becomes addicted to heroin and starts making pornographic movies. In need of a fix, she sells Daredevil 's secret identity to a drug dealer, who in turn sells it to the Kingpin. Karen is forced to return to New York, where she meets up again with Matt. He helps Karen beat her addiction, and they resume their relationship and begin sharing an apartment.
Realizing that Matt is incomplete without his work as a lawyer, Karen founds a free drug and legal clinic, where she counsels drug addicts and Matt provides legal advice and "ghost lawyering ''. The clinic is destroyed during a demonic invasion of Manhattan, and hours later Karen discovers that Matt has been having an affair with Typhoid Mary. These combined blows leave her psychologically lost, and she runs away.
She becomes an anti-pornography activist, assists Daredevil and the Black Widow in fighting crime on separate occasions, and reluctantly begins dating Matt. At this point she becomes a radio show host under the name "Paige Angel. '' She eventually realizes that she is too dependent on Matt and that her past is a constant barrier between them. Karen leaves Matt to accept a talk show host position in Los Angeles.
While in California, Karen has a routine blood test as part of an insurance policy application. The supervillain Mysterio - as part of his plan to psychologically destroy Daredevil for his last scheme disguises himself as a doctor, performs the blood test, and tells her that she is HIV positive as part of his plan to destroy Daredevil before he himself dies of a brain tumor. Devastated, Karen returns to New York and tells Matt that she is HIV positive. Later, during a fight between Daredevil and Bullseye, Karen is murdered by Bullseye when she moves to intercept a billy - club thrown at Daredevil 's head and is impaled in the heart.
Matt is so devastated by Karen 's death that he briefly contemplates suicide, but is given new strength to keep going when he remembers some of their times together, such as when she convinced him to take a night off on his birthday and when she told him that she did n't want him to quit as Daredevil as she always felt safer knowing he was out there. After Mysterio 's role in the scheme is revealed and he commits suicide, Matt attempts and fails to give Karen 's eulogy, finding himself overwhelmed at the memory of her loss. Initially bitter at Karen dying simply so that Mysterio could feel better about himself, a later conversation with Spider - Man helps Daredevil realize that the infant he 's saved represents something positive that has come of the whole affair. He gives the baby up for adoption to a couple in New Jersey. Before he leaves, Matt names the baby after Karen and hopes that her new parents will allow the occasional visit from her "Uncle Matt. ''
In the What If comic ' What If Karen Page Had Lived? ", Karen is narrowly saved from death when Bullseye hits her in the shoulder rather than the head. However, driven by his rage at the fear of losing her rather than his focused grief when he actually lost her, Matt beats the Kingpin to death for his part in Mysterio 's scheme, and is subsequently arrested. When Matt is sentenced to 44 years in the Raft for the crime, Karen leaves town and disappears. Matt assumes that she had become severely depressed and may have killed herself. He never sees her again.
In a one - off book of the Secret Wars storyline called Secret Wars: Secret Lovers, a universe that became the Battleworld domain of Limbo is shown where Matt and Karen have grown close to the point of living with each other. Daredevil finds himself in a battle with Typhoid Mary after having nightmares about her prior that Karen is aware of. Karen follows the two only to discover that Mary is actually Mephisto, who wants to spend the final evening before Inferno psychologically and physically torturing Matt. Karen saves Matt by cutting off Mephisto 's head with Mary 's sword and the two embrace one last time as the world burns around them.
In the Marvel Cinematic Universe Netflix series, Karen Page is portrayed by Deborah Ann Woll. This version of the character is the female lead and co-protagonist of Daredevil. Prior to season 3, little is known about Karen 's past. In season 1, Ben Urich implies that Karen 's past activities make her an unreliable source, while Karen implies before shooting James Wesley to death that she has shot someone else in her past. In season 2, Matt is genuinely surprised to learn that Karen has a brother, who is revealed in an article in Ellison 's files on Karen to have been killed in a car accident. She also implies in several conversations to have had an unhappy, and possibly abusive childhood. Like her comics counterpart, this version of Karen hails from Fagan Corners, Vermont.
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how many parts does chronicles of narnia have | The Chronicles of Narnia (film series) - wikipedia
The Chronicles of Narnia is a series of films based on The Chronicles of Narnia, a series of novels by C.S. Lewis. From the seven novels, there have been three film adaptations so far -- The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (2005), Prince Caspian (2008) and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (2010) -- which have grossed over $1.5 billion worldwide among them.
The series revolves around the adventures of children in the world of Narnia, guided by Aslan, a wise and powerful lion that can speak and is the true king of Narnia. The children heavily featured in the films are the Pevensie siblings, and a prominent antagonist is the White Witch (also known as Jadis).
The first two films were directed by Andrew Adamson and the third film was directed by Michael Apted. The fourth film will be directed by Joe Johnston.
C.S. Lewis never sold the film rights to the Narnia series during his lifetime, as he was skeptical that any cinematic adaptation could render the more fantastical elements and characters of the story realistically. Only after seeing a demo reel of CGI animals did Douglas Gresham (Lewis 's stepson and literary executor, and film co-producer) give approval for a film adaptation.
Although the plan was originally to produce the films in the same order as the book series ' original publication, it was reported that The Magician 's Nephew, which recounts the creation of Narnia, would be the fourth feature film in the series, instead of The Silver Chair. It was rumoured that The Magician 's Nephew was chosen as an attempt to reboot the series, after the release of The Voyage of the Dawn Treader grossed less when compared to the two previous films. In March 2011, Walden Media confirmed that they intended The Magician 's Nephew to be next in the series, but stressed that it was not yet in development.
In October 2011, Douglas Gresham stated that Walden Media 's contract with the C.S. Lewis estate had expired, hinting that Walden Media 's lapse in renegotiating their contract with the C.S. Lewis estate was due to internal conflicts between both companies about the direction of future films.
On 1 October 2013, The C.S. Lewis Company announced a partnership with The Mark Gordon Company, and that The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair was officially in pre-production.
The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, based on the novel of the same title, is the first film in the series. Directed by Andrew Adamson, it was shot mainly in New Zealand, though locations were used in Poland, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.
The story follows the four British Pevensie siblings, who are evacuated during the Blitz to the countryside, where they find a wardrobe that leads to the fantasy world of Narnia. There, they must ally with the lion Aslan against the forces of the White Witch, who has placed Narnia in an eternal winter.
The film was released theatrically on 9 December 2005 and on DVD on 4 April 2006 and grossed over $745 million worldwide.
Prince Caspian, based on the novel of the same title, is the second film in the series and the last distributed by Walt Disney Pictures.
The story follows the same Pevensie children who were transported to Narnia in the previous film as they return to Narnia, where 1,300 years have passed and the land has been invaded by the Telmarines. The four Pevensie children aid Prince Caspian in his struggle for the throne against his corrupt uncle, King Miraz.
The film was released on 16 May 2008. It grossed $419 million worldwide.
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, based on the novel of the same title, is the first film in the series not to be co-produced by Disney, who dropped out over a budget dispute with Walden Media. In February 2009 it was announced that 20th Century Fox would replace Disney for future installments. Directed by Michael Apted, the movie was filmed almost entirely in Australia.
The story follows the two younger Pevensie children as they return to Narnia with their cousin, Eustace Scrubb. They join the old king of Narnia, Caspian, in his quest to rescue seven lost lords and save Narnia from a corrupting evil that resides on a lit island.
The film was released on 10 December 2010 (in RealD 3D in select theatres) and grossed over $415 million worldwide.
After Walden Media 's contract of the series ' film rights expired in 2011 it was originally assumed that 2014 would be the earliest that production on another Narnia film could begin according to the moratorium placed on the C.S. Lewis estate 's right to sell the books ' film option.
On 1 October 2013, The C.S. Lewis Company announced that it had entered into an agreement with the Mark Gordon Company to produce The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair, based on The Silver Chair. Mark Gordon and Douglas Gresham along with Vincent Sieber, the Los Angeles based director of The C.S. Lewis Company, would serve as producers and work with The Mark Gordon Company on developing the script. On 5 December 2013, it was announced that David Magee would write the screenplay.
In July 2014, the official Narnia website allowed the opportunity for fans to suggest names for the Lady of the Green Kirtle, the main antagonist. The winning name is to be selected by Mark Gordon and David Magee for use in the final script of The Chronicles of Narnia: The Silver Chair.
While the film 's producers have been calling the film a "reboot '' to the series, in actuality this is referring to the fact that the film has a new creative team not associated with those who worked on the previous three films. The film itself is still considered to be a sequel to the film adaptation of The Voyage of the Dawn Treader. On 9 August 2016, it was announced that Sony 's TriStar Productions and Entertainment One Films will finance and distribute the fourth film with Mark Gordon Company (which eOne owns) and C.S. Lewis Company.
In April 2017, it was announced that Joe Johnston had been hired to direct The Silver Chair. In October, Johnston said filming is expected to begin in late 2018.
During an interview with Red Carpet News TV, producer Mark Gordon revealed scarce details about the new technologies and setting that would be used for the upcoming film.
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where does with a grain of salt come from | Grain of salt - wikipedia
"(With) a grain of salt '', (or "a pinch of salt '') is an idiom of the English language, which means to view something with skepticism or not to interpret something literally.
Hypotheses of the phrase 's origin include Pliny the Elder 's Naturalis Historia, regarding the discovery of a recipe for an antidote to a poison. In the antidote, one of the ingredients was a grain of salt. Threats involving the poison were thus to be taken "with a grain of salt '', and therefore less seriously.
The phrase cum grano salis ("with a grain of salt '') is not what Pliny wrote. It is constructed according to the grammar of modern European languages rather than Classical Latin. Pliny 's actual words were addito salis grano ("after having added a grain of salt '').
An alternative account says that the Roman general Pompey believed he could make himself immune to poison by ingesting small amounts of various poisons, and he took this treatment with a grain of salt to help him swallow the poison. In this version, the salt is not the antidote. It was taken merely to assist in swallowing the poison.
The Latin word salis means both "salt '' and "wit '', so that the Latin phrase "cum grano salis '' could be translated as both "with a grain of salt '' and "with a grain (small amount) of wit ''.
The phrase is said "with a pinch of salt '' in British English and said "with a grain of salt '' in American English.
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what was the turning point of world war 1 | Portal: World War I / selected event - wikipedia
The 1916 Battle of the Somme was one of the largest battles of the First World War, with more than one million casualties, and also one of the bloodiest battles in human history. The Allied forces attempted to break through the German lines along a 25 - mile (40 km) front north and south of the River Somme in northern France. One purpose of the battle was to draw German forces away from the Battle of Verdun; however, by its end the losses on the Somme had exceeded those at Verdun. While Verdun would bite deep in the national consciousness of France for generations, the Somme would have the same effect on generations of Britons. The battle is best remembered for its first day, 1 July 1916, on which the British suffered 57,470 casualties, including 19,240 dead -- the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army to this day. As terrible as the battle was for the British Empire troops who suffered there, it naturally affected the other nationalities as well. One German officer famously described it as "the muddy grave of the German field army. '' By the end of the battle, the British had learnt many lessons in modern warfare while the Germans had suffered irreplaceable losses. British official historian Sir James Edmonds stated, "It is not too much to claim that the foundations of the final victory on the Western Front were laid by the Somme offensive of 1916. '' For the first time the home front in Britain was exposed to the horrors of modern war with the release of the propaganda film The Battle of the Somme, which used actual footage from the first days of the battle.
The Battle of Verdun, fought from 21 February to 19 December 1916 around the city of Verdun - sur - Meuse in northeast France, was one of the most important battles in World War I on the Western Front. The battle was fought between the German and French armies.
It resulted in more than a quarter of a million deaths and about half a million wounded. It was the longest battle and one of the bloodiest in World War I. In both France and Germany it has come to represent the horrors of war, similar to the Somme in Britain.
The battle popularised the phrase "Ils ne passeront pas '' ("They shall not pass ''), uttered by Robert Nivelle, but often incorrectly attributed to Pétain.
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) was the peace treaty which officially ended World War I between the Allied and Central Powers and the German Empire. After six months of negotiations, which took place at the Paris Peace Conference, the treaty was signed as a follow - up to the armistice signed on November 11th, 1918 in the Compiègne Forest (which had put an end to the actual fighting). Although there were many provisions in the treaty, one of the more important and recognized provisions required Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war and, under the terms of articles 231 - 247, make reparations to certain countries that had formed the Allies.
The Brusilov Offensive (Russian: Брусиловский прорыв) was the greatest Russian feat of arms during World War I, and among the most lethal battles in world history. It was a major offensive against the armies of the Central Powers on the Eastern Front, launched on June 4, 1916 and lasting until early August. It took place in what today is Ukraine, in the general vicinity of the towns of Lemberg, Kovel, and Lutsk. The offensive was named after the Russian commander in charge of the Southwestern Front, Aleksei Brusilov.
The Battle of Tannenberg in 1914 was a decisive engagement between the Russian Empire and the German Empire in the first days of The Great War, fought by the Russian First and Second Armies and the German Eighth Army between August 17 and September 2, 1914. The battle resulted in the almost complete destruction of the Russian Second Army. A series of follow - up battles kept the Russians off - balance until the spring of 1915. The battle is notable particularly for a number of rapid movements of complete corps by train, allowing the single German Army to present a single front to both Russian Armies.
The Battle of Arras was an offensive during World War I by forces of the British Empire between 9 April and 16 May 1917. British, Canadian, and Australian troops attacked German trenches near the French city of Arras.
At this stage of the war, the Western Front was a continuous line of trenches stretching from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. With minor adjustments caused by the ebb and flow of asaults and counter-assaults, this corresponded roughly to the final line of confrontation in the last phase of the war of movement of 1914. From behind barbed wire and fortifications, about 100 German divisions faced about 150 French and British Empire divisions in seeming deadlock. In its simplest terms, the Allied objective from early 1915 onwards was to break through the German defences into the open ground beyond and engage the numerically inferior German army in open battle.
The Battle of Arras was planned in conjunction with the French High Command, who were planning a massive attack (the Nivelle Offensive) about eighty kilometres to the south. This had the stated aim of ending the war in forty - eight hours. At Arras, the British Empire 's immediate objectives were more modest: (i) to draw German troops away from the ground chosen for the French attack and (ii) to take the German - held high ground that dominated the plain of Douai.
When the battle officially ended on 16 May, British Empire troops had made significant advances, but had been unable to achieve a major breakthrough at any point. New tactics had been battle - tested, particularly in the first phase, and had demonstrated that set - piece assaults against heavily fortified positions could be successful. This sector then reverted to the stalemate that typified most of the war on the Western Front.
The Armenian Genocide (Armenian: Հայոց Ցեղասպանութիւն, Turkish: Ermeni Soykırımı) -- also known as the Armenian Holocaust, "Great Calamity '' (Մեծ Եղեռն) or the Armenian Massacre -- refers to the forced mass evacuation and related deaths of hundreds of thousands to over a million Armenians, during the government of the Young Turks from 1915 to 1917 in the Ottoman Empire.
Today, the Republic of Turkey rejects the notion that the event constituted a genocide and instead claims that the deaths among the Armenians were a result of inter-ethnic strife, disease and famine during the turmoil of World War I. However, most Armenian, Russian, Western, and an increasing number of Turkish scholars believe that it was indeed a genocide, or campaign of state - sponsored ethnic cleansing and mass extermination. For example, some Western sources point to the sheer scale of the death toll as evidence for a systematic, organized plan to eliminate the Armenians. The event is also said to be the second-most studied case of genocide, and often draws comparison with the Holocaust. To date 21 countries have here officially recognised it as genocide.
The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht (Battle of the Skagerrak); Danish: Søslaget ved Jylland / Søslaget om Skagerrak), was the largest naval battle of World War I, and the only full - scale clash of battleships in that war. It was fought on May 31 -- June 1, 1916, in the North Sea near Jutland, the mainland of Denmark. The combatants were the Kaiserliche Marine 's High Seas Fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer and the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet commanded by Admiral of the Fleet Sir John Jellicoe. The intention of the German fleet was to break the British naval blockade of the North Sea and allow German mercantile shipping to operate again.
On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty and Hipper encountered each other, and in a running battle to the south Hipper drew the British into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty turned and fled towards the Grand Fleet and from 18: 30 until nightfall at about 20: 30 the two huge fleets -- totaling 250 ships between them -- were heavily engaged. Fourteen British and eleven German ships were sunk with great loss of life. Jellicoe tried to cut the Germans off from their base in the hope of continuing the battle in the morning, but under cover of darkness Scheer crossed the wake of the British fleet and returned to port.
The First Battle of the Marne (also known as the Miracle of the Marne) was a World War I battle fought from September 5 to September 12, 1914. It was a Franco - British victory against the German army under German Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke the Younger.
The battle of the Marne was a major turning point of World War I. By the end of August 1914, the whole Allied army on the Western Front had been forced into a general retreat back towards Paris. Meanwhile the two main German armies continued through France. It seemed that Paris would be taken as both the French and the British fell back towards the Marne River.
The Battle of Gallipoli (sometimes referred to as the first D - Day) took place on the Turkish peninsula of Gallipoli from April 1915 to January 1916 during the First World War. A joint British and French operation was mounted in order to eventually capture the Ottoman capital of Istanbul. The attempt failed, with heavy casualties on both sides.
In Turkey the campaign is known as the Çanakkale Savaşları, after the province of Çanakkale. In the United Kingdom it is called the Dardanelles Campaign or Gallipoli, and in France, Australia, New Zealand and Newfoundland it is usually known as the "Gallipoli Campaign ''.
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who chooses the executive in a parliamentary government | Parliamentary system - wikipedia
A parliamentary system is a system of democratic governance of a state where the executive branch derives its democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the legislative branch, typically a parliament, and is also held accountable to that parliament. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a different person from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system, where the head of state often is also the head of government and, most importantly, the executive branch does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the legislature.
Countries with parliamentary systems may be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament (such as the United Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden and Japan), or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is regularly from the legislature (such as Ireland, Germany, India and Italy). In a few parliamentary republics, such as Botswana, South Africa, and Suriname, among some others, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected by and is answerable to parliament. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
Parliamentarism is the dominant form of government in Europe, with 32 of its 50 sovereign states being parliamentarian. It is also common in the Caribbean, being the form of government of 10 of its 13 island states, and in Oceania. Elsewhere in the world, parliamentary countries are less common, but they are distributed through all continents, most often in former British Empire colonies.
Since ancient times, when societies were tribal, there were councils or a headman whose decisions were assessed by village elders. Eventually these councils have slowly evolved into the modern Parliamentary system.
The first parliaments date back to Europe in the Middle Ages, for example in 1188 Alfonso IX, King of Leon convened the three states in the Cortes of León. An early example of parliamentary government developed in today 's Netherlands and Belgium during the Dutch revolt (1581), when the sovereign, legislative and executive powers were taken over by the States General of the Netherlands from the then - monarch, King Philip II of Spain. The modern concept of parliamentary government emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain between 1707 -- 1800 and its contemporary, the Parliamentary System in Sweden between 1721 -- 1772.
In England, Simon de Montfort is remembered as one of the fathers of representative government for holding two famous parliaments. The first, in 1258, stripped the King of unlimited authority and the second, in 1265, included ordinary citizens from the towns. Later, in the 17th century, the Parliament of England pioneered some of the ideas and systems of liberal democracy culminating in the Glorious Revolution and passage of the Bill of Rights 1689.
In the Kingdom of Great Britain, the monarch, in theory, chaired cabinet and chose ministers. In practice, King George I 's inability to speak English led the responsibility for chairing cabinet to go to the leading minister, literally the prime or first minister, Robert Walpole. The gradual democratisation of parliament with the broadening of the voting franchise increased parliament 's role in controlling government, and in deciding who the king could ask to form a government. By the nineteenth century, the Great Reform Act of 1832 led to parliamentary dominance, with its choice invariably deciding who was prime minister and the complexion of the government.
Other countries gradually adopted what came to be called the Westminster Model of government, with an executive answerable to parliament, but exercising powers nominally vested in the head of state, in the name of the head of state. Hence the use of phrases like Her Majesty 's government or His Excellency 's government. Such a system became particularly prevalent in older British dominions, many of whom had their constitutions enacted by the British parliament; examples include Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the Irish Free State and the Union of South Africa. Some of these parliaments evolved, were reformed from, or were initially developed as distinct from their original British model: the Australian Senate, for instance, has since its inception more closely reflected the US Senate than the British House of Lords; whereas since 1950 there is no upper house in New Zealand.
Democracy and parliamentarism became increasingly prevalent in Europe in the years after World War I, partially imposed by the democratic victors, Great Britain and France, on the defeated countries and their successors, notably Germany 's Weimar Republic and the new Austrian Republic. Nineteenth century urbanisation, industrial revolution and, modernism had already fueled the political left 's struggle for democracy and parliamentarism for a long time. In the radicalised times at the end of World War I, democratic reforms were often seen as a means to counter popular revolutionary currents.
A parliamentary system may be either bicameral, with two chambers of parliament (or houses) or unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber. In the case of a bicameral parliament, this is usually characterised by an elected lower house that has the power to determine the executive government and an upper house which may be appointed or elected through a different mechanism from the lower house.
Scholars of democracy such as Arend Lijphart distinguish two types of parliamentary democracies: the Westminster and Consensus systems.
Implementations of the parliamentary system can also differ on the manner of how the prime minister and government are appointed and as to whether the government needs the explicit approval of the parliament, rather than just the absence of its disapproval. Some countries such as India also require the prime minister to be a member of the legislature, though in other countries this only exists as a convention.
Furthermore, there are variations as to what conditions exist (if any) for the government to have the right to dissolve the parliament:
The parliamentary system can be contrasted with a presidential system which operates under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of, nor is appointed by, the parliamentary or legislative body. In such a system, parliaments or congresses do not select or dismiss heads of governments, and governments can not request an early dissolution as may be the case for parliaments. There also exists the semi-presidential system that draws on both presidential systems and parliamentary systems by combining a powerful president with an executive responsible to parliament, as for example the French Fifth Republic.
Parliamentarism may also apply to regional and local governments. An example is the city of Oslo, which has an executive council (Byråd) as a part of the parliamentary system.
A few parliamentary democratic nations such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, have enacted an anti-defection law, which prohibits a member of the legislature from switching to another party after being elected. With this law, elected representatives lose their seats in parliament if they vote contrary to the directions of their party.
One of the commonly attributed advantages to parliamentary systems is that it is faster and easier to pass legislation, as the executive branch is formed by the direct or indirect support of the legislative branch and often includes members of the legislature. Thus the executive (as the majority party or coalition of parties in the legislature) has a majority of the votes, and can pass legislation at will. In a presidential system, the executive is often chosen independently from the legislature. If the executive and the majority of the legislature are from different political parties, then stalemate can occur. Thus the executive might not be able to implement its legislative proposals. An executive in any system (be it parliamentary, presidential or semi-presidential) is chiefly voted into office on the basis of his or her party 's platform / manifesto, and the same is also true of the legislature.
In addition to quicker legislative action, parliamentary government has attractive features for nations that are ethnically, racially, or ideologically divided. In a presidential system, all executive power is vested in one person: the president. In a parliamentary system, with a collegial executive, power is more divided. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Lebanon moved from a semi-presidential system with a strong president to a system more structurally similar to classical parliamentary government. Iraq similarly disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be tantamount to Shiite domination; Afghanistan 's minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns desired.
It can also be argued that power is more evenly spread out in parliamentary government. The prime minister is seldom as important as a ruling president.
In his 1867 book The English Constitution, Walter Bagehot praised parliamentary government for producing serious debates, for allowing change in power without an election, and for allowing elections at any time. Bagehot considered the four - year election rule of the United States to be unnatural.
Some scholars like Juan Linz, Fred Riggs, Bruce Ackerman, and Robert Dahl claim that parliamentary government is less prone to authoritarian collapse. These scholars point out that since World War II, two - thirds of Third World countries establishing parliamentary governments successfully made the transition to democracy. By contrast, no Third World presidential system successfully made the transition to democracy without experiencing coups and other constitutional breakdowns.
A recent World Bank study found that parliamentary systems are associated with less corruption.
Some constituencies may have a popular local candidate under an unpopular leader (or the reverse), forcing a difficult choice on the electorate. Mixed - member proportional representation (where voters cast two ballots) can make this choice easier by allowing voters to cast one vote for the local candidate but also cast a second vote for another party.
Although Bagehot praised parliamentary government for allowing an election to take place at any time, the lack of a definite election calendar can be abused. Previously under some systems, such as the British, a ruling party could schedule elections when it felt that it was likely to retain power, and so avoid elections at times of unpopularity. (Election timing in the UK, however, is now partly fixed under the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011.) Thus, by wise timing of elections, in a parliamentary system a party can extend its rule for longer than is feasible in a functioning presidential system. This problem can be alleviated somewhat by setting fixed dates for parliamentary elections, as is the case in several of Australia 's state parliaments. In other systems, such as the Dutch and the Belgian, the ruling party or coalition has some flexibility in determining the election date. Conversely, flexibility in the timing of parliamentary elections can avoid periods of legislative gridlock that can occur in a fixed period presidential system.
Critics of the Westminster parliamentary system point out that people with significant popular support in the community are prevented from becoming prime minister if they can not get elected to parliament since there is no option to "run for prime minister '' as one can run for president under a presidential system. Additionally, prime ministers may lose their positions if they lose their seats in parliament, even though they may still be popular nationally. Supporters of parliamentary government respond by saying that as members of parliament, prime ministers are elected first to represent their electoral constituents and if they lose their support then consequently they are no longer entitled to be prime minister.
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when did it last rain in gran canaria | Gran Canaria - wikipedia
Gran Canaria (Spanish pronunciation: (ɡɾaŋ kaˈnaɾja); originally meaning "Great (Island) of Dogs '') is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, an African archipelago which is part of Spain, with a population of 847,830 (in 2015) that constitutes approximately 40 % of the population of the archipelago. Located in the Atlantic Ocean about 150 kilometres (93 mi) off the northwestern coast of Africa and about 1,350 km (840 mi) from Europe. With an area of 1,560 km (602 sq. mi) and an altitude of 1,956 m (6,417 ft) at the Pico de las Nieves, Gran Canaria is the third largest island of the archipelago in both area and altitude.
Gran Canaria was populated by the Canarii, who may have arrived as early as 500 BC. The Canarii called the island Tamarán or Land of the Brave. After over a century of European incursions and attempts at conquest, the island was conquered on April 29, 1483, after a campaign that lasted five years, by the Crown of Castile, with the support of Queen Isabella I, a conquest which turned out to be an important step towards the expansion of the unified Spain.
The capital city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was founded on June 24, 1478, under the name "Real de Las Palmas '', by Juan Rejón, head of the invading Castilian army. In 1492, Christopher Columbus anchored in the Port of Las Palmas (and spent some time on the island) on his first trip to the Americas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is, jointly with Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the capital of the autonomous community of the Canary Islands.
Gran Canaria is located southeast of Tenerife and west of Fuerteventura. The island is of volcanic origin, mostly made of fissure vents. Gran Canaria 's surface area is 1,560 km2 and its maximum elevation is 1,949 metres (Pico de Las Nieves). It has a round shape, with a diameter of approximately 50 km.
About 80 % of the volume of the island was formed during the Miocene period, between 14 and 9 million years ago. This is called the "Old Cycle '' and is estimated to have lasted some 200,000 years and have emitted about 1000 km, mostly of fissural alkali basalt. This cycle continued with the emission of trachytes, phonolites and peralkaline rocks. This period was followed by one of erosion, which lasted some 4 million years.
A second cycle of volcanic eruptions, known as the "Roque Nublo cycle '', took place between 4.5 and 3.4 million years ago. This shorter cycle emitted about 100 km. Most of the inland peaks were formed by erosion from these materials. This period also started with fissural basalts, but ended with violent eruptions of pyroclastic flows. Some phonolitic features, like the Risco Blanco, were also formed in its last stages.
The third or recent cycle is held to have started some 2.8 million years ago and is considered to be still active. The last eruptions are held to have occurred some 3500 years ago.
The changes in volume and, therefore, weight of the island have also caused the island to rise above the previous sea level during erosive periods and to sink during eruptive periods. Some of these "fossil beaches '' can be seen in the cliff faces of the more eroded northern coast.
Until the conquest, Gran Canaria had extensive forests, but then suffered extensive deforestation as a result of continuous logging, land divisions and other intensive uses. This caused the forest cover to be reduced to just 56,000 hectares, making the island the most deforested of the Canary Islands. However, in the twentieth century reforestation of the ridge of the island was begun, recovering some of the lost forest mass. Much of the summit of the island is forested mostly due to reforestation.
Gran Canaria is divided into twenty - one municipalities:
The island has a population of 845,676 with 378,628 (year 2005) of those in the capital city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Gran Canaria is the second most populous island of the Canary Islands, after Tenerife. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is the capital of the province of Las Palmas, and also one of the two capitals of the autonomous community of the Canary Islands, along with Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
Gran Canaria has roads encircling the whole island and extending into the mountain areas. In the late 20th century, its motorways, among the first in the Canary Islands, were opened and run around Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and were later extended to the north coast and the airport and subsequently to the south coast in response to increased tourist traffic. The high - speed motorways are GC1, GC2, and GC31, and dual carriageways GC4 and GC5. The western and the north - western parts, with the fewest inhabitants, are linked only with main roads.
Gran Canaria Airport (IATA: LPA) is the only commercial airport on the island. The large number of aircraft and passengers passing through it each year make it one of the busiest in Spain. Gran Canaria is also responsible for all air traffic control in the Canaries.
The most important ports in the island are the Port of Las Palmas (Puerto de la Luz), in the city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria; Arguineguín, which exports cement from a large factory; and Arinaga, located in the main industrial zone of Canaries and one of the major ones of Spain. The ports which transport the most passengers are the Port of La Luz and the Port of Las Nieves, located in the municipality of Agaete.
Plans for a railway network linking the capital with the south have been approved by both the Gran Canaria Cabildo and the autonomic Canary Islands ' Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government hinges now on budget.
Gran Canaria is noted for its rich variety of microclimates. Generally speaking though, the average daytime high ranges from 20 ° C (68 ° F) in winter, to 26 ° C (79 ° F) in summer. Some cool nights occur in winter, but lows below 10 ° C (50 ° F) are unknown near the coast. Inland the climate is still mild but mountainous areas see the occasional frost or snow. Annual rainfall averages 228 mm (9.0 in), most of this falling in the cooler months, with July, August and September normally rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the island with some areas being much drier than others. Cloud cover and sunshine is often quite variable during the cooler months, and there can be several rather cloudy days at times in winter. Summers are generally quite sunny however, with the south of the island being most favoured.
Gran Canaria agriculture is unique among the Canaries islands in that it was traditionally dominated by plantations, with much of these being grains as well as sugarcane, rather than by stock - breeding. The caves of Valerón (a property of cultural interest in the "archaeological site '' category) in the municipality of Santa María de Guía bears testimony of it by being the largest pre-Hispanic collective granary of the Canaries.
This island is called a "Miniature Continent '' due to the different climates and variety of landscapes found, with long beaches and dunes of white sand, contrasting with green ravines and picturesque villages. A third of the island is under protection as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO.
The number of annual visitors was 3.6 million in 2014 (of which 450.000 Spaniards). Most of the tourists visit the southern part of the island. The north tends to be cooler, while the south is warmer and sunny. The east coast of the island is flat, dotted with beaches, while the western coast is rockier and mountainous.
The island possesses 32 Natural Protected Spaces, notably the Rural Park of Nublo, The Doramas Jungle, the Azuaje Ravine, Tamadaba, Pino Santo, etc.
In the south there is a large bird park, Palmitos Park, as well as many beach resort communities. Resorts are concentrated in the central eastern part of the southern coast in the Maspalomas area, which includes the towns of San Agustín, Playa del Inglés and Meloneras. The Maspalomas Dunes are located between Playa del Inglés ("The Englishman 's Beach '') and the distinctive 19th century Maspalomas lighthouse.
In Tarajalillo, an Aeroclub exists from where tourist flights can be taken over the island.
Still further to the west along the southern shore, in the Municipality of Mogán, are the communities of Puerto Rico and Puerto de Mogán, a village referred to as "Little Venice '' on account of its many canals.
Other attractions include Cocodrilos Park, Roque Nublo (an 80 m monolith), Cenobio de Valerón with more than 350 storage cavities, Painted cave of Galdar the most important archaeological park in Canary Islands, or the botanical gardens Jardín Canario (in Tafira Alta) and Cactualdea (in La Aldea de San Nicolás).
El Dedo de Dios, or "God 's Finger '', was a rocky spire jutting from the sea in Puerto de las Nieves, and was previously the signature attraction of the Canary Islands until it was destroyed by tropical storm Delta that crossed the archipelago on November 2005.
Other well - known rock formations are El Cura (also known as El Fraile), The Frog (La Rana), Roque Bentayga, the Roque de Gando, and the Peñón Bermejo. The highest peak of the island is the Pico de las Nieves, at 1,950 metres (6,400 ft).
The capital city is Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Las Canteras beach, a protected area and diving zone, lies in the heart of the city. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria is also known for its annual carnaval. It was the first stop of Christopher Columbus ' expedition on his way back from the Americas, a commemoration of which is the Hermitage of San Antonio Abad, where the navigator prayed, and the Casa de Colón. Other attractions in the capital city include the Museo Canario (the most important archaeology museum in the archipelago), the cathedral and the Plaza del Espíritu Santo. In Teror the shrine of Virgen del Pino ("Virgin of the Pine ''), patron saint of Gran Canaria, can be found. Its feast is celebrated on September 8.
The town of Agüimes, on the eastern part of the island, has been carefully restored and its town centre, centered on its old church and a peaceful square, now evokes the quiet living of a traditional Canarian town. The district also has some of the best preserved cave dwellings, in the protected area of the Guayadeque ravine, where even the church has been built into the mountainside and visitors can find a number of popular cave restaurants. The district also includes the most renowned scuba diving area on the island: the marine reserve at the playa de El Cabrón just outside the town of Arinaga.
Other important towns are Telde, known among other things for their surf schools in Salinetas, Vecindario (within the municipality of Santa Lucía de Tirajana) and Gáldar, that contains an important diving zone. In Arucas there is a Neogothic temple, popularly known as "Arucas ' Cathedral '', as well as a large fertile plain where bananas are grown. In Gáldar and its surroundings there is also a banana - growing plain and some remarkable archaeological remains, such as the Painted cave of Galdar or the cenobio de Valerón 's communal silos, ancient tombs (among which the necropolis of Maipés), and the port of Sardina del Norte (one of the island 's ports where, as in Las Palmas ', Christopher Columbus used to get supplies for his ships).
Heading west along the southern coast is the fishing city of Arguineguín in the Municipality of Mogán.
The official natural symbols associated with Gran Canaria are Canis lupus familiaris (Canary Mastiff) and Euphorbia canariensis (Cardón)
Canis lupus familiaris
Euphorbia canariensis
Nearly half of the island territory -- 667 km2 (42.7 % of island) -- is under protection from the Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago, a total of 33 are located in Gran Canaria, the second most protected island in the group. There are seven different categories of protection:
The island is home to CB Gran Canaria - a basketball club playing in Liga ACB at the Gran Canaria Arena, with a capacity of 11,000. The island is also home to UD Las Palmas - a football club playing in Liga BBVA at the Estadio de Gran Canaria, with a capacity of 32,392.
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what year did the movie django come out | Django Unchained - wikipedia
Django Unchained is a 2012 American revisionist Western film written and directed by Quentin Tarantino, starring Jamie Foxx, Christoph Waltz, Leonardo DiCaprio, Kerry Washington, and Samuel L. Jackson, with Walton Goggins, Dennis Christopher, James Remar, and Don Johnson in supporting roles. Set in the Old West and Antebellum South, it is a highly stylized tribute to Spaghetti Westerns, in particular the 1966 Italian film Django by Sergio Corbucci, whose star Franco Nero has a cameo appearance.
Development of Django Unchained began in 2007 when Tarantino was writing a book on Corbucci. By April 2011, Tarantino sent his final draft of the script to The Weinstein Company. Casting began in the summer of 2011, with Michael K. Williams and Will Smith being considered for the role of the title character before Foxx was cast. Principal photography took place from November 2011 to March 2012 in California, Wyoming and Louisiana.
Django Unchained premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 11, 2012, and was released on December 25, 2012, in the United States. The film was nominated for several film industry awards, including five Academy Awards. Waltz won several awards for his performance, among them Best Supporting Actor at the Golden Globes, BAFTAs, and Academy Awards. Tarantino won an Academy Award, a Golden Globe, and a BAFTA award for writing the film 's original screenplay. The film grossed over $425 million worldwide in theaters against its $100 million budget, making it Tarantino 's highest - grossing theatrical release.
In 1858 Texas, brothers Ace and Dicky Speck drive a group of shackled black slaves on foot. Among them is Django Freeman, sold off and separated from his wife Broomhilda von Shaft, a house slave. The brothers are stopped by Dr. King Schultz, a German dentist - turned - bounty hunter who asks to buy one of the slaves. He questions Django about his knowledge of the Brittle brothers, a trio of outlaws for whom Schultz is carrying a warrant. When Ace threatens him to leave, Schultz kills him with a fast draw and then kills Dicky 's horse, which falls and crushes Dicky 's leg. Schultz insists on paying Dicky a fair price for Django before leaving him to the newly - freed slaves, who kill him and follow the North Star to freedom. As Django can identify the Brittle brothers, Schultz offers him his freedom in exchange for help tracking them down.
After tracking the Brittles to the Tennessee plantation of Spencer "Big Daddy '' Bennett and killing them, Bennett musters a large gang to raid their camp in the night; Schultz ambushes them with an explosive, killing most of them while Django kills Bennett. Feeling morally obliged to Django, Schultz agrees to help him find and rescue Broomhilda. Schultz trains Django as his apprentice, and the two become partners. Django soon collects his first bounty, keeping the handbill for good luck.
In 1859, Django and Schultz travel to Mississippi where they learn the identity of Broomhilda 's new owner: Calvin J. Candie, the charming but cruel owner of the Candyland plantation, where slaves are forced to fight to the death in brutal wrestling matches called "Mandingo fights ''. Schultz and Django meet Calvin at his gentleman 's club in Greenville, and offer $12,000 for one of his best fighters; however, their ulterior motive is to purchase Broomhilda. Intrigued, Calvin invites them to his ranch at Candyland.
The group encounters Calvin 's slave trackers en route: cornering one of Calvin 's disfigured Mandingo fighters, D'Artagnan, who tried to escape to avoid fighting again. Angered, Calvin has several attack dogs devour D'Artagnan alive. After finding Broomhilda and telling her of their plan, Schultz offers to buy her while negotiating the initial deal during dinner. Calvin 's staunchly loyal house slave, Stephen, becomes suspicious and accurately deduces their plan: he alerts Calvin, who alters the deal at gunpoint so that Broomhilda will be sold instead of the Mandingo fighter. Schultz agrees, and the papers for her freedom are drawn up and signed. Calvin smugly insists that the deal be sealed through a handshake; Schultz, sick of Calvin 's cruelty, shoots him through the heart with his concealed derringer, killing him. Schultz is then killed by Calvin 's bodyguard Butch, who is then killed by Django with his own revolver. A shootout ensues, and Django kills many of Calvin 's henchmen before surrendering.
The next morning, Stephen tells Django that Calvin 's sister Lara has taken charge, and that he will be sold to a mine and worked to death. En route, Django proves to his escorts that he is a bounty hunter by showing them his first handbill. The escorts release him and give him a revolver, which he immediately uses to kill them before stealing a horse and returning to Candyland with a bag of dynamite. Django kills Calvin 's slave trackers, takes Broomhilda 's freedom papers from Schultz 's corpse, and frees his wife from a nearby cabin.
When Calvin 's mourners return from his burial, Django kills Lara and the remaining henchmen, releases the two remaining house slaves, and kneecaps Stephen before igniting the dynamite that he has planted throughout the mansion. Django and Broomhilda watch from a distance as the mansion explodes, killing Stephen, before riding off together.
Other roles include Russ Tamblyn as Son of a Gunfighter, Amber Tamblyn as Daughter of a Son of a Gunfighter, Don Stroud as Sheriff Bill Sharp, Bruce Dern as Old Man Carrucan, M.C. Gainey as Big John Brittle, Cooper Huckabee as Lil Raj Brittle, Doc Duhame as Ellis Brittle, Jonah Hill as Bag Head # 2, a member of a Ku Klux Klan - like group; Lee Horsley as Sheriff Gus (Snowy Snow), Rex Linn as Tennessee Harry, Misty Upham as Minnie, Danièle Watts as Coco and Clay Donahue Fontenot as Luigi. Zoë Bell, Michael Bowen, Robert Carradine, Jake Garber, Ted Neeley, James Parks, and Tom Savini play Candyland trackers, while Michael Parks and John Jarratt, alongside Tarantino himself in a cameo appearance as Frankie, play the LeQuint Dickey Mining Company employees.
In 2007, Tarantino discussed an idea for a type of Spaghetti Western set in the United States ' pre-Civil War Deep South. He called this type of film "a southern '', stating that he wanted "to do movies that deal with America 's horrible past with slavery and stuff but do them like spaghetti westerns, not like big issue movies. I want to do them like they 're genre films, but they deal with everything that America has never dealt with because it 's ashamed of it, and other countries do n't really deal with because they do n't feel they have the right to. '' Tarantino later explained the genesis of the idea: "I was writing a book about Sergio Corbucci when I came up with a way to tell the story... I was writing about how his movies have this evil Wild West, a horrible Wild West. It was surreal, it dealt a lot with fascism. So I 'm writing this whole piece on this, and I 'm thinking: ' I do n't really know if Sergio was thinking (this) while he was doing this. But I know I 'm thinking it now. And I can do it! ' ''
Tarantino finished the script on April 26, 2011, and handed in the final draft to The Weinstein Company. In October 2012, frequent Tarantino collaborator RZA said that he and Tarantino had intended to cross over Django Unchained with RZA 's Tarantino - presented martial - arts film The Man with the Iron Fists. The crossover would have seen a younger version of the blacksmith character from RZA 's film appear as a slave in an auction. However, scheduling conflicts prevented RZA 's participation.
One inspiration for the film is Corbucci 's 1966 spaghetti western Django, whose star Franco Nero has a cameo appearance in Django Unchained. Another inspiration is the 1975 film Mandingo, about a slave trained to fight other slaves. Tarantino included scenes in the snow as a homage to The Great Silence. "Silenzio takes place in the snow. I liked the action in the snow so much, Django Unchained has a big snow section in the middle, '' Tarantino said in an interview.
The title Django Unchained alludes to the titles of the 1966 Corbucci film Django; Hercules Unchained, the American title for the 1959 Italian epic fantasy film Ercole e la regina di Lidia, about the mythical hero 's escape from enslavement to a wicked master; and to Angel Unchained, the 1970 American biker film about a biker exacting revenge on a large group of rednecks.
Among those considered for the title role of Django, Michael K. Williams and Will Smith were mentioned as possibilities, but in the end Jamie Foxx was cast in the role. Smith later said he turned down the role because it "was n't the lead ''. Tyrese Gibson sent in an audition tape as the character. Franco Nero, the original Django from the 1966 Italian film, was rumored for the role of Calvin Candie, but instead was given a cameo appearance as a minor character. Nero suggested that he play a mysterious horseman who haunts Django in visions and is revealed in an ending flashback to be Django 's father; Tarantino opted not to use the idea. Kevin Costner was in negotiations to join as Ace Woody, a Mandingo trainer and Candie 's right - hand man, but Costner dropped out due to scheduling conflicts. Kurt Russell was cast instead but also later left the role. When Kurt Russell dropped out, the role of Ace Woody was not recast; instead, the character was merged with Walton Goggins 's character, Billy Crash.
Jonah Hill was offered the role of Scotty Harmony, a gambler who loses Broomhilda to Candie in a poker game, but turned it down due to scheduling conflicts with The Watch. Sacha Baron Cohen was also offered the role, but declined in order to appear in Les Misérables. Neither Scotty nor the poker game appear in the final cut of the film. Hill later appeared in the film in a different role. Joseph Gordon - Levitt said that he "would have loved, loved to have '' been in the film but would be unable to appear because of a prior commitment to direct his first film, Don Jon.
In a January 2013 interview with Vanity Fair, costume designer Sharen Davis said much of the film 's wardrobe was inspired by spaghetti westerns and other works of art. For Django 's wardrobe, Davis and Tarantino watched the television series Bonanza and referred to it frequently. The pair even hired the hatmaker who designed the hat worn by the Bonanza character Little Joe, played by Michael Landon. Davis described Django 's look as a "rock - n - roll take on the character ''. Django 's sunglasses were inspired by Charles Bronson 's character in The White Buffalo (1977). Davis used Thomas Gainsborough 's 1770 oil painting The Blue Boy as a reference for Django 's valet outfit.
In the final scene, Broomhilda wears a dress similar to that of Ida Galli 's character in Blood for a Silver Dollar (1965). Davis said the idea of Calvin Candie 's costume came partly from Rhett Butler, and that Don Johnson 's signature Miami Vice look inspired Big Daddy 's cream - colored linen suit in the film. King Schultz 's faux chinchilla coat was inspired by Telly Savalas in Kojak. Davis also revealed that many of her costume ideas did not make the final cut of the film, leaving some unexplained characters such as Zoë Bell 's tracker, who was intended to drop her bandana to reveal an absent jaw.
Principal photography for Django Unchained started in California in November 2011 continuing in Wyoming in February 2012 and at the National Historic Landmark Evergreen Plantation in Wallace, Louisiana, outside of New Orleans, in March 2012. The film was shot in the anamorphic format on 35 mm film. Although originally scripted, a sub-plot centering on Zoë Bell 's masked tracker was cut, and remained unfilmed, due to time constraints. After 130 shooting days, the film wrapped up principal photography in July 2012.
Django Unchained was the first Tarantino film not edited by Sally Menke, who died in 2010. Editing duties were instead handled by Fred Raskin, who had worked as an assistant editor on Tarantino 's Kill Bill. Raskin was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Editing but lost to William Goldenberg for his work on Argo.
The film features both original and existing music tracks. Tracks composed specifically for the film include "100 Black Coffins '' by Rick Ross and produced by and featuring Jamie Foxx, "Who Did That To You? '' by John Legend, "Ancora Qui '' by Ennio Morricone and Elisa, and "Freedom '' by Anthony Hamilton and Elayna Boynton. The theme, "Django '', was also the theme song of the 1966 film. Musician Frank Ocean wrote an original song for the film 's soundtrack, but it was rejected by Tarantino, who explained that "Ocean wrote a fantastic ballad that was truly lovely and poetic in every way, there just was n't a scene for it. '' Frank Ocean later published the song, entitled "Wiseman '', on his Tumblr blog. The film also features a few famous pieces of western classical music, including Beethoven 's "Für Elise '' and "Dies Irae '' from Verdi 's Requiem. Tarantino has stated that he avoids using full scores of original music: "I just do n't like the idea of giving that much power to anybody on one of my movies. '' The film 's soundtrack album was released on December 18, 2012. Ennio Morricone made statements criticizing Tarantino 's use of his music in Django Unchained and stated that he would "never work '' with the director after this film, but later agreed to compose an original film score for Tarantino 's The Hateful Eight in 2015. In a scholarly essay on the film 's music, Hollis Robbins notes that the vast majority of film music borrowings come from films made between 1966 and 1974 and argues that the political and musical resonances of these allusions situate Django Unchained squarely in the Vietnam and Watergate era, during the rise and decline of Black Power cinema. Jim Croce 's hit "I Got a Name '' was featured in the soundtrack.
The first teaser poster was inspired by a fan - art poster by Italian artist Federico Mancosu. His artwork was published in May 2011, a few days after the synopsis and the official title were released to the public. In August 2011, at Tarantino 's request, the production companies bought the concept artwork from Mancosu to use for promotional purposes as well as on the crew passes and clothing for staff during filming.
Django Unchained was released on December 25, 2012, in the United States by The Weinstein Company and released on January 18, 2013, by Sony Pictures Releasing in the United Kingdom. The film was screened for the first time at the Directors Guild of America on December 1, 2012, with additional screening events having been held for critics leading up to the film 's wide release. The premiere of Django Unchained was delayed by one week following the shooting at an elementary school in Newtown, Connecticut, on December 14, 2012.
The film was released on March 22, 2013, by Sony Pictures in India. In March 2013, Django Unchained was announced to be the first Tarantino film approved for official distribution in China 's strictly controlled film market. Lily Kuo, writing for Quartz, wrote that "the film depicts one of America 's darker periods, when slavery was legal, which Chinese officials like to use to push back against criticism from the United States ''. The film was released in China on May 12, 2013.
After a total of 143 days, the film ended its American theatrical run on May 16, 2013 with a gross of $162,805,434 in North America. It grossed $262,562,804 in foreign countries including $51,597,323 of Germany, $37,297,979 of France, and $24,893,462 of the United Kingdom, making a worldwide total gross of $425,368,238. As of 2013, Django Unchained became Tarantino 's highest - grossing film, surpassing his 2009 film Inglourious Basterds, which grossed $321.4 million worldwide.
The film was released on DVD, Blu - ray, and Digital Download on April 16, 2013. In the United States, the film has grossed $31,939,733 from DVD sales and $30,286,838 from Blu - ray sales, making a total of $62,226,571.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 87 % based on 262 reviews and an average rating of 8 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Bold, bloody, and stylistically daring, Django Unchained is another incendiary masterpiece from Quentin Tarantino. '' Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 81 out of 100 based on 42 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim ''.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars out of four and said: "The film offers one sensational sequence after another, all set around these two intriguing characters who seem opposites but share pragmatic, financial and personal issues. '' Ebert also added, "had I not been prevented from seeing it sooner because of an injury, this would have been on my year 's best films list. '' Peter Bradshaw, film critic for The Guardian, awarded the film five stars, writing: "I can only say Django delivers, wholesale, that particular narcotic and delirious pleasure that Tarantino still knows how to confect in the cinema, something to do with the manipulation of surfaces. It 's as unwholesome, deplorable and delicious as a forbidden cigarette. '' Writing in The New York Times, critic A.O. Scott compared Django to Tarantino 's earlier Inglourious Basterds: "Like Inglourious Basterds, Django Unchained is crazily entertaining, brazenly irresponsible and also ethically serious in a way that is entirely consistent with its playfulness. '' Designating the film a Times "critics '' pick, Scott said Django is "a troubling and important movie about slavery and racism. '' Filmmaker Michael Moore praised Django, tweeting that the movie "is one of the best film satires ever. A rare American movie on slavery and the origins of our sick racist history. ''
To the contrary, Owen Gleiberman, film critic for the Entertainment Weekly, wrote: "Django is n't nearly the film that Inglourious was. It 's less clever, and it does n't have enough major characters -- or enough of Tarantino 's trademark structural ingenuity -- to earn its two - hour - and - 45 - minute running time. '' In his review for the Indy Week, David Fellerath wrote: "Django Unchained shows signs that Tarantino did little research beyond repeated viewings of Sergio Corbucci 's 1966 spaghetti Western Django and a blaxploitation from 1975 called Boss Nigger, written by and starring Fred Williamson. '' New Yorker 's Anthony Lane was "disturbed by their (Tarantino 's fans ') yelps of triumphant laughter, at the screening I attended, as a white woman was blown away by Django 's guns. ''
An entire issue of the academic journal Safundi was devoted to Django Unchained: "Django Unchained and the Global Western, '' featuring scholars who contextualize Tarantino 's film as a classic "western ''. Dana Phillips writes: "Tarantino 's film is immensely entertaining, not despite but because it is so very audacious -- even, at times, downright lurid, thanks to its treatment of slavery, race relations, and that staple of the Western, violence. No doubt these are matters that another director would have handled more delicately, and with less stylistic excess, than Tarantino, who has never been bashful. Another director also would have been less willing to proclaim his film the first in a new genre, the ' Southern '. ''
Django Unchained was listed on many critics ' top ten lists.
Some commentators have felt that the film 's heavy usage of the word "nigger '' is inappropriate, affecting them to an even greater extent than the depicted violence against the slaves. Other reviewers have defended the usage of the language in the historic context of race and slavery in the United States.
Filmmaker Spike Lee, in an interview with Vibe, said he would not see the film, explaining "All I 'm going to say is that it 's disrespectful to my ancestors. That 's just me... I 'm not speaking on behalf of anybody else. '' Lee later wrote, "American slavery was not a Sergio Leone Spaghetti Western. It was a Holocaust. My ancestors are slaves stolen from Africa. I will honor them. '' Louis Farrakhan, the leader of the Nation of Islam, interpreted the movie as "preparation for race war ''.
Actor and activist Jesse Williams has contrasted accuracy of the racist language used in the film with what he sees as the film 's lack of accuracy about the general lives of slaves, too often portrayed as "well - dressed Negresses in flowing gowns, frolicking on swings and enjoying leisurely strolls through the grounds, as if the setting is Versailles, mixed in with occasional acts of barbarism against slaves... That authenticity card that Tarantino uses to buy all those ' niggers ' has an awfully selective memory. '' He also criticizes the lack of solidarity between slave characters, and their general lack of a will to escape from slavery, with Django as the notable exception.
Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe compared Samuel L. Jackson 's Stephen character to black Republicans like Clarence Thomas or Herman Cain. Samuel L. Jackson said that he believed his character to have "the same moral compass as Clarence Thomas does ''. Jackson defended heavy use of the word "nigger '': "Saying Tarantino said ' nigger ' too many times is like complaining they said ' kyke ' (sic) too many times in a movie about Nazis. '' The review by Jesse Williams notes, however, that these antisemitic terms were not used nearly as frequently in Tarantino 's film about Nazis, Inglourious Basterds, suggesting the Jewish community would not have accepted it.
Marc Lamont Hill, a professor at Columbia University, compared the fugitive ex -- Los Angeles police officer Christopher Dorner to a real - life Django, saying "It 's almost like watching ' Django Unchained ' in real life. It 's kind of exciting. '' Writing in the Los Angeles Times, journalist Erin Aubry Kaplan noted the difference between Tarantino 's Jackie Brown and Django Unchained: "It is an institution whose horrors need no exaggerating, yet Django does exactly that, either to enlighten or entertain. A white director slinging around the n - word in a homage to ' 70s blaxploitation à la Jackie Brown is one thing, but the same director turning the savageness of slavery into pulp fiction is quite another. ''
While hosting NBC 's Saturday Night Live, Jamie Foxx joked about being excited "to kill all the white people in the movie ''. Conservative columnist Jeff Kuhner wrote a reaction to the SNL skit for The Washington Times, saying: "Anti-white bigotry has become embedded in our postmodern culture. Take Django Unchained. The movie boils down to one central theme: the white man as devil -- a moral scourge who must be eradicated like a lethal virus. ''
Samuel L Jackson told Vogue Man that "Django Unchained was a harder and more detailed exploration of what the slavery experience was than 12 Years a Slave, but director Steve McQueen is an artist and since he 's respected for making supposedly art films, it 's held in higher esteem than Django, because that was basically a blaxploitation movie. ''
Some reviews criticized the film for being too violent. The originally planned premiere of Django was postponed following the Sandy Hook school shooting on December 14, 2012. Thomas Frank criticized the film 's use of violence as follows:
Not surprisingly, Quentin Tarantino has lately become the focus for this sort of criticism (about the relationship between the movies and acts of violence). The fact that Django Unchained arrived in theaters right around the time of the Sandy Hook massacre did n't help. Yet he has refused to give an inch in discussing the link between movie violence and real life. Obviously I do n't think one has to do with the other. Movies are about make - believe. It 's about imagination. Part of the thing is trying to create a realistic experience, but we are faking it. Is it possible that anyone in our cynical world credits a self - serving sophistry like this? Of course an industry under fire will claim that its hands are clean, just as the NRA has done -- and of course a favorite son, be it Tarantino or LaPierre, can be counted on to make the claim louder than anyone else. But do they really believe that imaginative expression is without consequence?
The Independent said the movie was part of "the new sadism in cinema '' and added, "There is something disconcerting about sitting in a crowded cinema as an audience guffaws at the latest garroting or falls about in hysterics as someone is beheaded or has a limb lopped off ''.
Adam Serwer from Mother Jones said, "Django, like many Tarantino films, also has been criticized as cartoonishly violent, but it is only so when Django is killing slave owners and overseers. The violence against slaves is always appropriately terrifying. This, if nothing else, puts Django in the running for Tarantino 's best film, the first one in which he discovers violence as horror rather than just spectacle. When Schultz turns his head away from a slave being torn apart by dogs, Django explains to Calvin Candie -- the plantation owner played by Leo DiCaprio -- that Schultz just is n't used to Americans. ''
Although Tarantino has said about Mandingo fighting, "I was always aware those things existed '', there is no definitive historical evidence that slave owners ever staged gladiator - like fights to the death between male slaves like the fight depicted in the movie. Historian Edna Greene Medford notes that there are only undocumented rumors that such fights took place. David Blight, the director of Yale 's center for the study of slavery, said it was not a matter of moral or ethical reservations that prevented slave owners from pitting slaves against each other in combat, but rather economic self - interest: slave owners would not have wanted to put their substantial financial investments at risk in gladiatorial battles.
The non-historical term "Mandingo '' for a fine fighting or breeding slave comes not from Tarantino, but the earlier film Mandingo.
Writing in The New Yorker, William Jelani Cobb observed that Tarantino 's occasional historical elasticity sometimes worked to the film 's advantage. "There are moments, '' Cobb wrote, "where this convex history works brilliantly, like when Tarantino depicts the Ku Klux Klan a decade prior to its actual formation in order to thoroughly ridicule its members ' veiled racism. '' However, Tarantino upholds that the masked marauders depicted in the film were not the KKK, but a group known as "The Regulators ''. They were depicted as spiritual forebears of the later post-civil war KKK and not as the actual KKK.
On the matter of historical accuracy, Christopher Caldwell wrote in the Financial Times: "Of course, we must not mistake a feature film for a public television documentary '', pointing out that the film should be treated as entertainment, not as a historical account of the time period it is set in. "Django uses slavery the way a pornographic film might use a nurses ' convention: as a pretext for what is really meant to entertain us. What is really meant to entertain us in Django is violence. '' Richard Brody, however, wrote in The New Yorker that Tarantino 's "vision of slavery 's monstrosity is historically accurate... Tarantino rightly depicts slavery as no mere administrative ownership but a grievous and monstrous infliction of cruelty. ''
Django Unchained garnered several awards and nominations. The American Film Institute named it one of their Top Ten Movies of the Year in December 2012. The film received five Golden Globe Award nominations, including Best Picture, and Best Director and Best Screenplay for Tarantino. Tarantino won an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. Christoph Waltz received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor, and the BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor, his second time receiving all three awards, having previously won for his role in Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds. The NAACP Image Awards gave the film four nominations, while the National Board of Review named DiCaprio their Best Supporting Actor. Django Unchained earned a nomination for Best Theatrical Motion Picture from the Producers Guild of America.
Tarantino has said in an interview that he has 90 minutes of unused material and considered re-editing Django Unchained into a four - hour, four - night cable miniseries. Tarantino said that breaking the story into four parts would be more satisfying to audiences than a four - hour movie: "... it would n't be an endurance test. It would be a mini-series. And people love those. ''
The story which became the director 's follow - up film The Hateful Eight was first attempted as a paperback novel sequel to Django Unchained titled Django in White Hell. Tarantino decided, however, that the character 's established morals did not fit the tone of the developing story so he began re-writing it as an original screenplay with no connection to the earlier film. He has expressed a desire to write a series of Django sequel novels.
Sony is planning on a Django / Zorro crossover movie, which currently exists in the form of a comic book by Dynamite Entertainment.
In the 2014 film A Million Ways to Die in the West, Django is seen shooting the proprietor of a racially charged shooting game, saying "people die at the fair ''. Despite his appearance, the film has no serious connection with Tarantino film and is used mostly for parody and humor.
In December 2015, a $100 million lawsuit was filed against Tarantino by filmmakers Oscar Colvin Jr. and Torrance J. Colvin, who claimed that the script for Django Unchained bears extensive similarities to their film, titled Freedom. The lawsuit was filed in a federal court in Washington, DC. On January 24, 2017, the lawsuit was dismissed.
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character sketch of bertha mason in jane eyre | Bertha Mason - wikipedia
Bertha Mason (full name Bertha Antoinetta Mason) is a fictional character. In Charlotte Brontë 's 1847 novel Jane Eyre she is the violently insane first wife of Edward Rochester, moved to Thornfield Hall and locked in a room on the third floor.
The 1966 parallel novel Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys acts as a prequel to Brontë 's novel and is the story of Mason (there called Antoinette Cosway), from the time of her youth in the Caribbean to her unhappy marriage and relocation to England. Rhys 's novel re-imagines Brontë 's devilish madwoman in the attic.
Bertha Mason is the only daughter of a very wealthy family living in Spanish Town, Jamaica. The reader learns of her past not from her perspective but only through the description of her unhappy husband, Edward Rochester. She is described as being of Creole heritage. According to Rochester, Bertha was famous for her beauty: she was the pride of the town and sought after by many suitors. Upon leaving college, Rochester was persuaded by his father to visit the Mason family and court Bertha. As he tells it, he first met her at a ball she attended with her father and brother Richard, where he was entranced by her loveliness. Despite never being alone with her, and supposedly having had scarcely any interaction or conversation with her, he married her for her wealth and beauty, and with fierce encouragement from his own father and the Mason family. Rochester and Bertha began their lives as husband and wife in Jamaica. In recounting the history of their relationship, Rochester claims, "I thought I loved her... Her relatives encouraged me; competitors piqued me; she allured me: a marriage was achieved almost before I knew where I was. Oh, I have no respect for myself when I think of that act!... I never loved, I never esteemed, I did not even know her. ''
Rochester explains that he was not warned that violent insanity and intellectual disability ran in the Mason family and that the past three generations succumbed to it. He assumed Bertha 's mother to be dead and was never told otherwise, but she was in fact locked away in an asylum. Bertha also had an intellectually disabled younger brother. Rochester 's father knew of this but did not bother to tell his son, caring only about the vast fortune the marriage would bring him, and the Mason family clearly wanted Bertha off their hands as quickly as possible. Rochester asserts that Bertha 's mental health deteriorated quickly, though it is unclear which form of mental illness she suffers from. Her insane, violent behaviour becomes frightening to behold. She crawls on all fours, snarling, and behaving in a bestial manner.
Rochester returns with her to England and has her imprisoned in a third floor room off the gallery for ten years with Grace Poole, a hired nurse who keeps her under control while Rochester travels abroad to forget his horrible marriage. However, Grace drinks sometimes, and Bertha manages to escape, causing havoc in the house: starting a fire in Mr Rochester 's bed and biting and stabbing her own visiting brother.
Rochester 's marriage to Bertha eventually stands in the way of his marrying Jane Eyre, who is unaware of Bertha 's existence and whom he truly loves (though he later admits to Jane that he once thought he loved Bertha). As Bertha is insane he can not divorce her, due to her actions being uncontrollable and thus not legitimate grounds for divorce. Years of violence, insanity, and confinement in an attic destroy Bertha 's looks: when she sees Bertha in the middle of the night, Jane describes Bertha as looking "savage '', even going so far as to compare her with a "German vampire ''. Bertha destroys Jane 's wedding veil (an action that hints that Bertha is at least sane enough to be aware that her husband is planning to enter a bigamous marriage). Despite not loving her, Rochester attempts to save Bertha from an enormous fire she starts in the house when she again escapes. Bertha perishes after she throws herself off the roof, leaving her husband free to marry Jane.
In Wide Sargasso Sea, "Bertha Mason '' is portrayed as being a false name for Antoinette Cosway. The book purports to tell Antoinette 's side of the story as well as Rochester 's and detail how she ended up alone and raving in the attic of Thornfield Hall. According to the book, Antoinette 's insanity and drunkenness are the result of Rochester 's misguided belief that madness is in her blood and that she was part of the scheme to have him married blindly.
The characters of Jane Eyre and Antoinette are portrayed as being very similar; independent, vivacious, imaginative young women with troubled childhoods, educated in religious establishments and looked down on by the upper classes -- and, of course, they both marry Mr Rochester. However, Antoinette is more rebellious than Jane and less mentally stable. She displays a deep vein of morbidity verging on a death - wish and, in contrast with Jane 's overt Christianity, holds a cynical viewpoint of both God and religion in general.
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when will the new silk road be completed | Belt and Road initiative - Wikipedia
The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), also known as the One Belt One Road (OBOR) (Chinese: 一带 一路) or the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st - century Maritime Silk Road (Chinese: 丝绸 之 路 经济 带 和 21 世纪 海上 丝绸 之 路), is a development strategy adopted by the Chinese government involving infrastructure development and investments in countries in Europe, Asia and Africa. "Belt '' refers to the overland routes, or the Silk Road Economic Belt; whereas "road '' refers to the sea routes, or the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road. Until 2016, the initiative was officially known in English as the One Belt and One Road initiative but the official name was changed as the Chinese government considered the emphasis on the word "one '' prone to misinterpretation.
The Chinese government calls the initiative "a bid to enhance regional connectivity and embrace a brighter future ''. Independent observers, however, see it as a push for Chinese dominance in global affairs with a China - centered trading network.
The initiative was unveiled by Xi Jinping in September and October 2013 during visits to Kazakhstan and Indonesia, and was thereafter promoted by Premier Li Keqiang during state visits to Asia and Europe. The initiative quickly was covered by the official media intensively, and became the most frequently mentioned concept in the official newspaper People 's Daily by 2016. "Indeed, B&R is a connectivity of system and mechanism (Kuik 2016). To construct a unified large market and make full use of both international and domestic markets, through cultural exchange and integration, to enhance mutual understanding and trust of member nations, ending up in an innovative pattern with capital inflows, talent pool, and technology database. ''
The initial focus has been infrastructure investment, education, construction materials, railway and highway, automobile, real estate, power grid, and iron and steel. Already, some estimates list the Belt and Road Initiative as one of the largest infrastructure and investment projects in history, covering more than 68 countries, including 65 % of the world 's population and 40 % of the global GDP as of 2017.
The Belt and Road Initiative addresses an "infrastructure gap '' and thus has potential to accelerate economic growth across the Asia Pacific area and Central and Eastern Europe: a report from the World Pensions Council (WPC) estimates that Asia, excluding China, requires up to US $900 billion of infrastructure investments per year over the next decade, mostly in debt instruments, 50 % above current infrastructure spending rates. The gaping need for long term capital explains why many Asian and Eastern European heads of state "gladly expressed their interest to join this new international financial institution focusing solely on ' real assets ' and infrastructure - driven economic growth ''.
The Leading Group for Advancing the Development of One Belt One Road was formed sometime in late 2014, and its leadership line - up publicized on February 1, 2015. This steering committee reports directly into the State Council of the People 's Republic of China and is composed of several political heavyweights, evidence of the importance of the program to the government. Then Vice-Premier Zhang Gaoli, who was also a member of the 7 - man Politburo Standing Committee then, was named leader of the group, with Wang Huning, Wang Yang, Yang Jing, and Yang Jiechi being named deputy leaders.
In March 2014, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang called for accelerating the Belt and Road Initiative along with the Bangladesh - China - India - Myanmar Economic Corridor and the China - Pakistan Economic Corridor in his government work report presented to the annual meeting of the country 's legislature.
On March 28th, 2015, China 's State Council outlined the principles, framework, key areas of cooperation and cooperation mechanisms with regard to the initiative.
The Belt and Road Initiative is geographically structured along several land corridors, and the maritime silk road. Infrastructure corridors encompassing around 60 countries, primarily in Asia and Europe but also including Oceania and East Africa, will cost an estimated US $4 -- 8 trillion. The initiative has been contrasted with the two US - centric trading arrangements, the Trans - Pacific Partnership and the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership. These programmes aimed at encompassing countries, financially, receive the support of Silk Road Fund and Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank; technically, are guided by B&R Summit Forum.
The Silk Road Economic Belt (SRB) is the overland interconnecting infrastructure corridors. When Chinese leader Xi Jinping visited Astana, Kazakhstan, and Southeast Asia in September and October 2013, he raised the initiative of jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt (Chinese: "丝绸 之 路 经济 带 '') and the 21st - Century Maritime Silk Road. Essentially, the "belt '' includes countries situated on the original Silk Road through Central Asia, West Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. The initiative calls for the integration of the region into a cohesive economic area through building infrastructure, increasing cultural exchanges, and broadening trade. Apart from this zone, which is largely analogous to the historical Silk Road, another area that is said to be included in the extension of this "belt '' is South Asia and Southeast Asia. Many of the countries that are part of this belt are also members of the China - led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB). North, central and south belts are proposed. The North belt would go through Central Asia and Russia to Europe. The Central belt goes through Central Asia and West Asia to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean. The South belt starts from China to Southeast Asia, South Asia, to the Indian Ocean through Pakistan. The Chinese One Belt strategy will integrate with Central Asia through Kazakhstan 's Nurly Zhol infrastructure program.
The land corridors include:
The Maritime Silk Road, also known as the "21st Century Maritime Silk Road '' (21 世纪 海上 丝绸 之 路) is the sea route corridors. It is a complementary initiative aimed at investing and fostering collaboration in Southeast Asia, Oceania, and North Africa, through several contiguous bodies of water: the South China Sea, the South Pacific Ocean, and the wider Indian Ocean area.
The Maritime Silk Road initiative was first proposed by Xi Jinping during a speech to the Indonesian Parliament in October 2013. Like its sister initiative the Silk Road Economic Belt, most countries in this area have joined the China - led Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.
In addition to the Maritime Silk Road, Xi Jinping also urged the close cooperation between Russia and China to carry out the Northern Sea Route cooperation to realize an "Ice Silk Road '' to foster development in the Arctic region. China COSCO Shipping Corp. has completed several trial trips on Arctic shipping routes, the Transport departments from both countries are constantly improving policies and laws related to development in the Arctic, and Chinese and Russian companies are seeking cooperation on oil and gas exploration in the area and to advance comprehensive collaboration on infrastructure construction, tourism and scientific expeditions.
In May 2014, Premier Li Keqiang signed a cooperation agreement with the Kenyan government to build the Mombasa -- Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway connecting Mombasa to Nairobi. The railway cost US $3.2 bn and was Kenya 's biggest infrastructure project since independence. The railyway was claimed to cut the journey time from Mombasa to Nairobi from 9 hours by bus or 12 hours on the previous railway to 4.5 hours. In May 2017, Kenyan President Uhuru Kenyatta called the 470km railway a new chapter that "would begin to reshape the story of Kenya for the next 100 years ''. According to Kenya Railways Corporation, the railway carried 1.3 million Kenyans with a 96.7 % seat occupancy and 600,000 tons of cargo in its first year of operation. Chinese media claim that the railway line boosted the country 's GDP by 1.5 % and created 46,000 jobs for locals and trained 1,600 railway professionals.
Ethiopia 's Eastern Industrial Zone is a manufacturing hub outside Addis Ababa that was built by China and occupied by factories of Chinese manufacturers.. According to Chinese media and the vice director of the industrial zone, there were 83 companies resident within the zone, of which 56 had started production..
However, EIZ has yet to serve as a catalyst for Ethiopia 's overall economic development due to many factors including poor infrastructure outside the zone. Discrepancies between the two countries ' industries also mean that Ethiopia can not benefit from direct technological transfer and innovation.
From October 2011 to February 2012, Chinese companies were contracted to supersede the century - old Ethio - Djibouti Railways by constructing a new electric standard gauge Addis Ababa -- Djibouti Railway. The new railway line, stretching more than 750km and travelling at 120km / h, shortens the journey time between Addis Ababa and Dijbouti from three days to about 12 hours. The first freight service began in November 2015 and passenger service followed in October 2016.
Freight train services between China and Europe were initiated in March 2011. The service 's first freight route linked China to Tehran. The China - Britain route was launched in January 2017 As of 2018, the network had expanded to cover 48 Chinese cities and 42 European destinations, delivering goods between China and Europe. The 10,000 th trip was completed on 26 August 2018 with the arrival of freight train X8044 in Wuhan, China from Hamburg, Germany. The network was further extended southward to Vietnam in March 2018..
The China - Belarus Industrial Park is a 91.5 - square kilometre special economic zone established in Smolevichy, Minsk in 2013. According to the park 's chief administrator, 36 international companies have settled in the park as of August 2018. Chinese media claim the park will create 6000 jobs and become a real city with 10,000 residents by 2020.
In 2016, China Railway International won a bid to build Indonesia 's first high - speed rail project, the 140 - km Jakarta - Bandung HSR. It is claimed that the service will shorten the journey time between Jakarta and Bandung from more than three hours to forty minutes The project, initially scheduled for completion in 2019, was delayed by issues with clearing land. By June 2018, China Railway announced that it was undergoing licensing, financing and land acquisition, and had employed more than 2000 locals to work on the project.
The China -- Pakistan Economic Corridor is a major BRI project that was encompasses investments in transportation, energy and maritime infrastructure.
Under the Premiership of Najib Razak, Malaysia signed multiple investment deals with China, including a US $27 billion East Coast Rail Link project, pipeline projects worth more than $3.1 billion, as well as a US $100 billion Forest City in Johor. During the 2018 Malaysian general election, then - opposition leader Mahathir Mohamad expressed disapproval of Chinese investment in Malaysia, comparing it to selling off the country to foreigners. Upon election as Prime Minister of Malaysia, Mahathir labelled the China - funded projects as "unfair '' deals authorised by former prime minister Najib Razak and would leave Malaysia "indebted '' to China.
In August 2018, at the end of an official visit to China, Mahathir cancelled the East Coast Rail Link project and two other pipeline projects that were awarded to the China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau that have been linked to corruption at state fund 1MDB, citing a need to reduce debt incurred by the previous government.
"It will be deferred until such time we can afford, and maybe we can reduce the cost also if we do it differently. ''
In addition, Mahathir also threatened to deny foreign buyers a long - stay visa, prompting a clarification by Housing Minister Zuraida Kamaruddin and the Prime Minister 's Office.
Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng later announced that the East Coast Rail Link project was "still being reviewed '' and further negotiated to see if drastic cost cuts are possible. The government also said it would continue to be part of China 's BRI.
China 's main investment in Sri Lanka was the Magampura Mahinda Rajapaksa Port, mostly funded by the Chinese government and built by two Chinese companies. It claims to be the largest port in Sri Lanka after the Port of Colombo and the "biggest port constructed on land to date in the century ''. It was initially intended to be owned by the Government of Sri Lanka and operated by the Sri Lanka Ports Authority, however it incurred heavy losses and the Sri Lankan government was unable to service the debt to China. In a debt restructuring plan on 9 December 2017, seventy percent of the port was leased and port operations were handed over to China for 99 years, relieving Sri Lanka of about US $1 billion of debt. This led to accusations that China was practising debt - trap diplomacy.
The port 's strategic location and subsequent ownership by China spurred concern over China 's growing economic footprint in the Indian Ocean and speculation that it could be used as a naval base for the Chinese Navy. However, the Sri Lankan government promised that it would be "purely intended for civilian use ''.
Construction of the 414 - kilometre Vientiane -- Boten Railway began on 25 December 2016 and is scheduled to be completed in 2021. It will be China 's first overseas railway project that will be directly connected to China 's railway network. Once operational, the Laos - China Railway will be Laos ' longest and connect with Thailand to become part of the proposed Kunming -- Singapore railway, extending from the Chinese city of Kunming and running through Thailand and Laos to terminate at Singapore. It is estimated to cost US $5.95 billion with 70 % of the railway owned by China, while Laos 's remaining 30 % stake will be mostly financed by loans from China. However, it faces opposition within Laos due to the high cost of the project.
In 2005, Chinese pharmaceutical company Holley Group and Thai industrial estate developer Amata Group signed an agreement to develop the Thai - Chinese Rayong Industrial Zone. Since 2012, Chinese companies have also opened solar, rubber, and industrial manufacturing plants in the zone, and the zone expects the number is expected to increase to 500 by 2021. Chinese media have attributed this to Thailand 's zero tax incentives on land use and export products as well as favorable labor costs, and claimed that this it had created more than 3000 local jobs.
In December 2017, China and Thailand began the construction of a high - speed rail project linking the cities of Bangkok and Nakhon Ratchasima, which will be further extended to Nong Khai to connect with Laos, as part of the planned Kunming -- Singapore railway.
During his 2016 policy address, Hong Kong chief executive CY Leung 's announced his intention of setting up a Maritime Authority aimed at strengthening Hong Kong 's maritime logistics in line with Beijing 's economic policy. Leung mentioned "One Belt, One Road '' no fewer than 48 times during the policy address, but details were scant.
A university alliance centered at Xi'an Jiaotong University aims to support the Belt and Road initiative with research and engineering, and to foster understanding and academic exchange. The network extends beyond the economic zone, and includes a law school alliance to "serve the Belt and Road development with legal spirit and legal culture ''.
The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, first proposed by China in October 2013, is a development bank dedicated to lending for projects regarding infrastructure. As of 2015, China announced that over one trillion yuan ($160 billion US) of infrastructure projects were in planning or construction.
The primary goals of AIIB are to address the expanding infrastructure needs across Asia, enhance regional integration, promote economic development and improve the public access to social services. The Board of Governors is AIIB 's highest decision - making body under the Asian Infrastructure Development Bank Articles of Agreement.
On June 29, 2015, the Articles of Agreement of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the legal framework was signed in Beijing. The proposed multilateral bank has an authorized capital of $100 billion, 75 % of which will come from Asian and Oceania countries. China will be the single largest stakeholder, holding 26 % of voting rights. The bank plans to start operation by year end.
In November 2014, Xi Jinping announced plans to create a US $ 40 billion development fund, which will be distinguished from the banks created for the initiative. As a fund, its role will be to invest in businesses rather than lend money for projects. The Karot Hydropower Project in Pakistan is the first investment project of the Silk Road Fund, and is not part of the much larger CPEC investment.
In January 2016, the Sanxia Construction Corporation began work on the Karot Hydropower Station 50 kilometres (31 mi) from Islamabad. This is the Silk Road Fund 's first foreign investment project. The Chinese government has already promised to provide Pakistan with at least US $350 million by 2030 to finance the hydropower station.
In his March 29, 2015 speech at the Boao Forum for Asia (BFA) annual conference, President Xi Jinping said:
(T) he Chinese economy is deeply integrated with the global economy and forms an important driving force of the economy of Asia and even the world at large... China 's investment opportunities are expanding. Investment opportunities in infrastructure connectivity as well as in new technologies, new products, new business patterns, and new business models are constantly springing up... China 's foreign cooperation opportunities are expanding. We support the multilateral trading system, devote ourselves to the Doha Round negotiations, advocate the Asia - Pacific free trade zone, promote negotiations on regional comprehensive economic partnership, advocate the construction of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), boost economic and financial cooperation in an all - round manner, and work as an active promoter of economic globalization and regional integration
Xi also insisted that, from a geoeconomic standpoint, the Silk Road Fund and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank would foster "economic connectivity and a new - type of industrialization (in the Asia Pacific area), and (thus) promote the common development of all countries as well as the peoples ' joint enjoyment of development fruits ''. A research indicates that Belt and road initiative actually represent efficient allocation of resources. It also promotes the economic globalization, multilateral cooperation and win - win.
China is a world leader in infrastructure investment. In contrast with the general underinvestment in transportation infrastructure in the industrialized world after 1980 and the pursuit of export - oriented development policies in most Asian and Eastern European countries, China has pursued an infrastructure - based development strategy, which has resulted in engineering and construction expertise and a wide range of modern reference projects from which to draw, including roads, bridges, tunnels, and high - speed rail projects.
Members of the World Pensions Council (WPC), a non-profit policy research organization, have argued the Belt and Road initiative constitutes a natural extension of the infrastructure - driven economic development framework that has sustained the rapid economic growth of China since the adoption of the Chinese economic reform under chairman Deng Xiaoping, which could eventually reshape the Eurasian economic continuum, and, more generally, the international economic order.
Between 2014 and 2016, China 's total trade volume in the countries along the Belt and Road exceeded $3 trillion, created $1.1 billion revenues and 180,000 jobs for the countries involved. However, the worries in partnering countries are whether the large debt burden on China to promote the Initiative will make China 's pledges declaratory.
There has been concerns over the project being a form of neocolonialism. For example, in 2018 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad cancelled China - funded projects, and warns "there is a new version of Colonialism happening ''. Some Western governments and Africans have accused the Belt and Road Initiative of being neocolonial due to what they allege as China practice of debt trap diplomacy to fund the initiative 's infrastructure projects. On 14 September, 2018 at the 39th Session of the Human Rights Council in Geneva, Switzerland, India objected over China 's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). India emphasized that the "China -- Pakistan Economic Corridor '' (CPEC) project ignores New Delhi 's essential concerns on sovereignty and territorial integrity.
Practically, developing infrastructural ties with its neighboring countries will reduce physical and regulatory barriers to trade by aligning standards. China is also using the Belt and Road Initiative to address excess capacity in its industrial sectors, in the hopes that whole production facilities may eventually be migrated out of China into BRI countries.
A report from Fitch Ratings suggests that China 's plan to build ports, roads, railways, and other forms of infrastructure in under - developed Eurasia and Africa is out of political motivation rather than real demand for infrastructure. The Fitch report also doubts Chinese banks ' ability to control risks, as they do not have a good record of allocating resources efficiently at home, which may lead to new asset - quality problems for Chinese banks that most of funding is likely to come from.
The Belt and Road Initiative is believed by some analysts to be a way to extend Chinese influence at the expense of the US, in order to fight for regional leadership in Asia. China has already invested billions of dollars in several South Asian countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan to improve their basic infrastructure, with implications for China 's trade regime as well as its military influence. China has emerged as one of the fastest - growing sources of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) into India -- it was the 17th largest in 2016, up from the 28th rank in 2014 and 35th in 2011, according to India 's official ranking of FDI inflows.
Analysis by the Jamestown Foundation suggests that the BRI also serves Xi Jinping 's intention to bring about "top - level design '' of economic development, whereby several infrastructure - focused state - controlled firms are provided with profitable business opportunities in order to maintain high GDP growth. Through the requirement that provincial - level companies have to apply for loans provided by the Party - state to participate in regional BRI projects, Beijing has also been able to take more effective control over China 's regions and reduce "centrifugal forces ''.
Another aspect of Beijing 's motivations for BRI is the initiative 's internal state - building and stabilisation benefits for its vast inland western regions such as Xinjiang and Yunnan. Academic Hong Yu argues that Beijing 's motivations also lie in developing these less developed regions, with increased flows of international trade facilitating closer economic integration with the China 's inland core. Beijing may also be motivated by BRI 's potential benefits in pacifying China 's restive Uighur population. Harry Roberts suggests that the Communist Party is effectively attempting to assimilate and pacify China 's Uighur community by creating economic opportunities and so reduce separatism and ensure social harmony between Han settlers and the native population.
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actress who played alice on the brady bunch | Ann B. Davis - wikipedia
Ann Bradford Davis (May 3, 1926 -- June 1, 2014) was an American actress. She achieved prominence for her role in the NBC situation comedy The Bob Cummings Show (1955 -- 1959), for which she twice won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, but she was best known for playing the part of Alice Nelson, the housekeeper in ABC 's The Brady Bunch (1969 -- 1974).
Davis was born in Schenectady, New York, the daughter of Marguerite (née Stott) and Cassius Miles Davis. She had an identical twin, Harriet, and an older brother, Evans. When she was three, she and her family moved to Erie in northwestern Pennsylvania. She graduated from Strong Vincent High School and later from the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. She originally enrolled as a pre-medical major; however, she changed her mind and went into drama after seeing her older brother 's performance of Oklahoma! Davis graduated in 1948 with a degree in drama and speech.
In the 1953 -- 1954 season, Davis appeared as a musical judge on ABC 's Jukebox Jury.
Davis 's first television success was as Charmaine "Schultzy '' Schultz in The Bob Cummings Show, 1955 - 1959. She auditioned for the role, because her friend 's boyfriend was a casting director and recommended her for the part. She won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series twice out of four nominations for this role.
She appeared on January 23, 1958, as a guest star on The Ford Show, Starring Tennessee Ernie Ford. On February 9, 1960, Davis received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
In the 1965 -- 1966 television season, Davis appeared as Miss Wilson, a physical education teacher at a private girls ' academy in John Forsythe 's single - season NBC sitcom, The John Forsythe Show.
For a period in the 1960s and 1970s, Davis was known for her appearances in television commercials for the Ford Motor Company, particularly for the mid-sized Ford Fairlane models. Davis was also featured in commercials for Minute Rice in Canada until the mid-1980s.
From 1969 to 1974, Davis played housekeeper Alice Nelson in The Brady Bunch television series. She later returned to take part in various Brady Bunch television movies, including The Brady Girls Get Married (1981) and A Very Brady Christmas (1988). She also reprised her role as Alice Nelson in two short - lived Brady Bunch spin - off television series: The Brady Brides (1981) and The Bradys (1990), both of which lasted only six episodes. She also made a cameo appearance as a truck driver named "Schultzy '', a reference to her days on The Bob Cummings Show, in The Brady Bunch Movie in 1995. In 1994, Davis published a cookbook, Alice 's Brady Bunch Cookbook, with Brady Bunch inspired recipes. The book also includes recipes from cast members.
In the early 1990s, Davis focused on theater. She performed in a production of Arsenic and Old Lace, and a world tour production of Crazy for You.
Davis never completely retired from acting; in her later years she was the celebrity spokeswoman in several Shake ' n Bake commercials, and later appeared in several disposable mop commercials for Swiffer. She also appeared in a number of Brady Bunch reunion projects, most recently TV Land 's The Brady Bunch 35th Anniversary Reunion Special: Still Brady After All These Years. On April 22, 2007, The Brady Bunch was awarded the TV Land Pop Culture Award on the 5th annual TV Land Awards. Davis and other cast members accepted the award, and she received a standing ovation.
In 1976, Davis sold her home in Los Angeles to move to Denver, Colorado, where she joined an Episcopal community led by Bishop William C. Frey. The community later relocated to Ambridge in Beaver County in far western Pennsylvania after Frey became dean of the seminary Trinity School for Ministry. Davis had long been a volunteer for the Episcopal Church, working at the General Convention, attending services at churches around the country.
Davis never married nor was she publicly known to have been romantically linked to anyone.
Davis died at the age of 88 on June 1, 2014, at a hospital in San Antonio, Texas. Earlier in the day, she had sustained a subdural hematoma from a fall in her bathroom in the San Antonio residence, in which she lived with Bishop Frey and his wife, Barbara. Sources close to her say she was in excellent health for a woman her age, and her death was a complete shock. She is buried in the Saint Helena 's Columbarium and Memorial Gardens in Boerne, Kendall County, Texas.
Davis received four Primetime Emmy Award nominations, resulting in two awards, for her portrayal of Charmaine "Schultzy '' Schultz on The Bob Cummings Show.
On February 9, 1960, Davis also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7048 Hollywood Boulevard. She also received TV Land Awards in 2004, 2006, and 2007 for her portrayal of Alice Nelson, the housekeeper on The Brady Bunch.
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what kind of animal does princess jasmine have in aladdin and what is his name | List of Disney 's Aladdin characters - wikipedia
Disney 's Aladdin franchise features an extensive cast of fictional characters.
The lead character of the series is Aladdin, who was originally a street urchin. During the course of the franchise, he starts living in the palace of Agrabah and becomes engaged to Princess Jasmine.
Aladdin (Arabic: علاء الدين , ʻAlāʼ ad - Dīn), is the protagonist of the franchise, a street child who ends up becoming the prince of Agrabah after meeting Jasmine in the streets and being recruited by Jafar to retrieve the magical lamp from the Cave of Wonders. He is voiced by Scott Weinger when speaking and Brad Kane when singing.
Jasmine is the rebellious princess of Agrabah, who flees the palace in revolt to her obligation to be married to a prince. While on the run, she meets Aladdin in the streets, and later becomes his wife. She is voiced by Linda Larkin when speaking and Lea Salonga when singing.
Genie is a jinni and is never given a proper name. He was portrayed by Robin Williams in the first film. Following a contract dispute between Williams and the Walt Disney Company, Dan Castellaneta voiced the Genie throughout the direct - to - video feature The Return of Jafar, as well as the television series, before Williams reprised the role for the final installment, Aladdin and the King of Thieves, as well as for the character 's own mini-series, Great Minds Think for Themselves. Jim Meskimen took over the role in Disney Think Fast (2008) and Kinect: Disneyland Adventures (2011) and currently voices him, after Williams ' death in 2014.
After Williams ' death in 2014, a dedicated drawing of the Genie appeared at the end of the first film on television programs.
Jafar is the main antagonist. As Royal Vizier of Agrabah, he was presented as the Sultan 's most trusted and loyal councilman. Imperious, Jafar held passionate disdain for the Sultan, and dedicated the latter half of his life to gaining ownership of a magic lamp containing an all - powerful genie -- to that end, he would control cosmic power, to which he would use to overtake the kingdom and the world at large. He is voiced by Jonathan Freeman.
Iago, voiced by Gilbert Gottfried, is the sidekick to the main antagonist Jafar. The red - plumed talking bird is an apparent homage to an identically - named red parrot in the Tintin adventure The Castafiore Emerald.
Abu is Aladdin 's kleptomaniac monkey partner with a high - pitched voice and can talk a little, voiced by Frank Welker. The animators filmed monkeys at the San Francisco Zoo to study the movements Abu would have. The character is based on the similarly named Abu the thief, played by Sabu Dastagir in the 1940 version of The Thief of Bagdad.
In the first film, Abu is seen accompanying Aladdin during his daily adventures as they try to steal food to live. When Abu and Aladdin finally are about to eat, they see two children looking for food among garbage, and Abu is forced to share his stolen food with them when Aladdin voluntarily does so. After Aladdin gets arrested by Razoul on Jafar 's orders, Abu enters the dungeon but is unable to free his friend. It is a disguised Jafar who frees them in a plan to use Aladdin to get access to the Cave of Wonders and retrieve the Genie 's lamp. Inside the cave after finding a magic carpet who leads them to the lamp, Abu disobeys the command of the guardian of the cave and tries to steal a ruby, which causes a cave - in and almost costs his and Aladdin 's lives. When they are about to exit the cave, Aladdin gives Jafar the lamp and, in turn, Jafar is about to kill Aladdin, but Abu attacks him back and takes the lamp back. After meeting the Genie, Aladdin wishes to become a prince and Abu is transformed into an elephant as part of the disguise. Abu is transformed back to his original form by Jafar during the climax of the film, when he is about to attack the sorcerer. Abu and Aladdin are later sent by Jafar to a far - off place but return to Agrabah using the Magic Carpet. Once in Agrabah, Abu fights and subdues Iago, but is transformed into a toy monkey by Jafar when he tries to take the lamp back. Abu returns once again to his original form at the end of the film when Jafar is defeated.
In The Return of Jafar, Abu is first seen taking treasures from Abis Mal and his men, with Aladdin distributing them among the poor people of Agrabah, against Abu 's will. He is initially skeptical of Iago 's reform, but eventually warms up to him. Abu is one of the first to know about Jafar 's return, and is imprisoned along with the Genie. Abu and the others are freed by the Genie who was in turned freed by Iago. Abu participates in the final battle against Jafar. In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, Abu goes with Aladdin to find his father and later to the Vanishing Isle. Abu plays a supporting role in the TV series, often accompanying Aladdin in his adventures. In the episode "Much Abu About Something '', he is worshipped by a lost civilization as their great protector. During his time working with a group of circus performers, during the two - part episode "Seems Like Old Crimes '', he met his friend Aladdin. Throughout the series, he is occasionally shown at odds with Iago, but several episodes portray them as close friends with a friendly rivalry.
Abu also appears in both Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, playing a large role in the latter with his kleptomanic habits getting him into trouble during Sora 's first return visit to Agrabah.
He can also be seen in House of Mouse as one of the many Disney characters that come to watch cartoons. Abu is usually found in the audience, sometimes playing with Iago or dancing along to the musical performances on stage.
The Magic Carpet is an ancient carpet that was found by Aladdin in the Cave of Wonders ' treasure room. It is a character without a voice, and expresses itself entirely through pantomime and movements. It is genderless, but is often assumed to be male by Genie and other characters. It is playful, as it reacts with Abu, intelligent, as it beats the Genie at chess (and most other things), and helpful, as it helps Aladdin romance Princess Jasmine during the song "A Whole New World ''. It sometimes uses its tassels as hands and feet to accentuate its feelings.
The unique faux - Persian design of Carpet was solely maintained through CGI. Advances in CGI had progressed so much since animating the ballroom sequence in Beauty and the Beast that the texture and pattern of Carpet was much easier to accomplish no matter which way it moved. Animator Randy Cartwright refused to resort to the anthropomorphic style of simply putting a face on a carpet. Instead, Cartwright used body language to make Carpet more flexible, and almost human. Computer artist Tina Price took Cartwright 's outlined form and super-imposed the Persian design that could stretch, squash, and roll up without changing. According to movie critic Leonard Maltin, this made Carpet 's animation one of the best collaborations between traditional and technologically advanced animation to date.
It was first discovered by Abu in the film, who assumed he was seeing things, as it would be playful with him until it was within Aladdin 's line of sight, wherein it would appear as a normal inanimate object. It is an old friend of The Genie; he states that he had not seen it "in a few millennia. '' After Aladdin extends his hand in friendship, Carpet becomes instantly and absolutely loyal to him. It first helps him and Abu find the magic lamp that they were sent in to retrieve, becomes instrumental in helping them escape the cave during the meltdown sequence triggered after Abu touches a forbidden gem, and finally saves them from falling to their deaths by pulling itself out from under a large boulder after Jafar betrays them. In addition, a running gag has it beating Genie at nearly every game they play, much to his distress.
When Aladdin romances Jasmine during the song "A Whole New World '', it plays a key role as it takes them on a romantic flight. Another important part it plays is Aladdin 's first solitary encounter with Jasmine as ' Prince Ali '. Jasmine pretends to seduce Aladdin, before pulling his turban over his eyes and telling him to ' jump off the balcony '. At which point Aladdin apologizes for treating her like a ' prize to be won '. He gets onto the rail of the balcony and steps off, but Jasmine does n't know that the carpet is there, and thinks he is committing suicide. She calls out ' No! ' and then sees his head pop up going "What? What? '', at which point Jasmine discovers the carpet and is invited for a ride by ' Prince Ali '. Carpet is also responsible for their first kiss, as it shoots upwards about a foot, causing them to kiss each other by accident, (neither of them mind though). Many people consider Carpet as the character who actually sets their relationship in motion.
It 's magically unraveled by Sorcerer Jafar in the climactic scene, but becomes whole again when he 's foiled.
In the second film, it engages in combat with Jafar once more, and is turned into glass and shattered. It 's again restored when Jafar 's finally killed by a reformed Iago, who pushes his lamp into the magma.
In the third film, it transports Aladdin to places such as the 40 Thieves ' hideout, though Cassim insists that they return to Agrabah on horseback; "It 's a rug. You sweep dirt under it. You do n't fly on it. At least I do n't! '' Eventually in the end, Cassim warms up to it, ordering it to save both him and Aladdin as the Vanishing Isle starts to sink away.
It appears in episodes of the animated series, both as a means of travel and a reacting character to the events of the stories. In one episode, Abis Mal kidnaps the carpet and stitches it to the sail of his ship. The magic of the carpet is strong enough to levitate an entire ship.
It is also in the Kingdom Hearts video game in the Agrabah world. Sora frees it, at which point it acts as a transport between the city of Agrabah and the Cave of Wonders. In the second installment, it plays a more key role.
In Walt Disney World 's Magic Kingdom, there is a ride called The Magic Carpets of Aladdin in Adventureland, which simulates flight on a carpet. There are two others versions in the world: Flying Carpets Over Agrabah in Toon Studio at the park Walt Disney Studios Park in France and Jasmine 's Flying Carpets is located in Arabian Coast at the park Tokyo DisneySea.
The Sultan (real name: Hamed Bobolonius II) is Princess Jasmine 's father and the pompous but kind ruler of Agrabah. Some aspects of the character were inspired in the Wizard of Oz, to create a bumbling authority figure. He was voiced by Douglas Seale in the first film, by Val Bettin in the sequels and the TV series and by Jeff Bennett in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams.
In the first film, the Sultan desperately tries to find a suitor for his daughter Princess Jasmine. During the first part of the film, the Sultan is often manipulated by Jafar who uses his staff to hypnotize him. After losing the lamp to Aladdin at the Cave of Wonders, Jafar decides to trick the Sultan into arranging a marriage between himself and Princess Jasmine; however, the hypnosis is interrupted by the arrival of Aladdin transformed into "Prince Ali ''. The Sultan approves Prince Ali, but he is later tricked by Jafar and is about to force Jasmine to marry Jafar until Aladdin breaks the staff. The Sultan loses his post as ruler of Agrabah when the Genie grants Jafar his wish to become the new sultan. Jafar makes Jasmine his slave, and the Sultan as his entertainment. The Sultan becomes a marionetted jester, and is tortured by Iago as he force feeds him crackers. He and Jasmine are fortunately saved by Aladdin and free from their humiliation. At the end of the film, the Sultan changes the law so the princess can marry whomever she loves.
In The Return of Jafar, the Sultan announces that he wants to make Aladdin his new grand vizier. However, he grows suspicious of Aladdin after he defends Iago, who used to work for Jafar, and commands him to watch the bird. When Jafar returns, he takes advantage of Iago 's new position as an "ally '' to Aladdin, and makes him suggest the Sultan and Aladdin to have a discussion in a place where they are ambushed by Jafar and Abis Mal. The Sultan is imprisoned along with Aladdin 's friends, and Jafar uses his turban to frame Aladdin for his ' murder '. Luckily, Iago manages to free Genie, who then saves Aladdin from his wrongful punishment as well as the Sultan and the rest of their friends. After Iago manages to defeat Jafar by kicking his lamp into the magma, the Sultan pardons Iago and welcomes him toward his family. He is later seen at the end of the film, again requesting Aladdin to become his vizier.
In the TV series, it is revealed that he is quite adept with mechanics (Getting the Bugs Out), and his nickname is Little Bobo (as revealed in "As the Netherworld Turns ''). Twenty years before the episode "Garden of Evil '', the Sultan picked a flower for his new bride, angering the garden 's owner, Arbutus. He was allowed to go free on the condition that in twenty years, Arbutus could take the Sultan 's most valuable possession, which turns out to be his daughter.
In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, the Sultan meets Aladdin 's father, Cassim, not knowing he is the King of Thieves, and immediately accepts him. However, Razoul later reveals to the Sultan that Cassim is the King of Thieves and, with no other choice, the Sultan has Razoul incarcerate Cassim in the dungeon for life. After Aladdin helps Cassim escape the dungeon, and comes back to accept the consequences for his actions, the Sultan prepares to punish Aladdin in anger for freeing Cassim, but the Genie and Princess Jasmine come to his defense, stating that all he wanted was to give his father a second chance. The Sultan accepts his apology. At the end of the film, his wish of seeing Princess Jasmine marrying someone comes true when she marries Aladdin.
The Sultan plays a minor role in Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, giving Jasmine the job of "Royal Assistant Educator '' at the Royal Academy. Later, one of his most precious horses, Sahara, is missing from the stables, so Princess Jasmine, along with Iago, Abu and Carpet, go to find Sahara and return him to the palace.
Like many Disney characters, the Sultan can be found in the TV series House of Mouse. He can normally be found clapping with the audience at the end of a cartoon, right alongside Princess Jasmine.
The Royal Guards serve as the law enforcement for Agrabah where they patrol the palace and the streets of Agrabah:
Razoul (voiced by Jim Cummings) is the Captain of the Royal Guards of Agrabah in all three films. Although unnamed (on - screen) in the first film, his name was revealed in the sequel (he was named after layout supervisor Rasoul Azadani). During Aladdin 's life as a thief on the streets of Agrabah, Razoul chased Aladdin around with the other palace guards, although during the beginning of the first film, Aladdin gets away, causing Razoul and some of his men (Fazahl, Hakim, and Zagoolien) to fall into a stinky pile of manure. When Razoul finally succeeded in arresting Aladdin, he knocked Princess Jasmine to the ground, not recognizing her as the princess. When she revealed her true identity, he was shocked at seeing her outside the palace for the first time. When she ordered him to release Aladdin, he apologized and said that his orders came from Jafar, saying that Princess Jasmine will have to take it out with Jafar in order to secure Aladdin 's release. Even after Aladdin is accepted as Princess Jasmine 's boyfriend, Razoul still completely despises him, but nonetheless tolerates his presence in the palace. In the second film, Jafar, disguised as Jasmine, has Razoul arrest Aladdin for the murder of the Sultan and has him sentenced to death, but he was prevented by Genie and was presumably punished by the Sultan for falling into Jafar 's trick. During the TV series episode "Forget Me Lots '', when Princess Jasmine lost her memory from the Rose of Forgetfulness, Razoul was more than happy to throw Aladdin, Iago, and Abu out of the palace and into the streets, thinking that the princess had rejected Aladdin. Razoul also admitted his opinion that Aladdin was a power hungry street rat in "Destiny on Fire '' when he and Aladdin were forced to work together, though he also admitted that he would consider calling Aladdin "your highness '' if he got rid of Iago. In the episode "The Return of Malcho '', he questions Aladdin 's ability to run Agrabah as the temporary Sultan, but Aladdin proves otherwise, even with the challenges that lay before him and having to put up with both his and Iago 's pointless advice on how the real Sultan should act until Aladdin decided to do things his own way. In the end, Razoul helps Aladdin get rid of Malcho. In the third film, Razoul arrested Cassim and Iago for trying to steal The Oracle, but Aladdin helped his father escape. Razoul arrested Aladdin once more, but was knocked unconscious by Cassim. Though he tried to have Aladdin charged for this crime, Razoul 's request was denied as the Sultan decided to overlook the matter, since Aladdin only broke Cassim out of prison out of love and came back to face punishment for his actions. Later, he is shown at Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding, and is last seen catching Princess Jasmine 's wedding bouquet.
Razoul shows no sympathy towards any type of criminals and takes pleasure and pride from the authority he commands, notably seen when witnessing the Forty Thieves attack on the palace during Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding. Angrily, he declares "not in THIS palace '' before trying to repel the thieves. Despite his vicious tendencies, he does not have the same crazed lust for power as characters such as Jafar. When Aladdin was arrested for the alleged murder of the Sultan in The Return of Jafar, Razoul was obviously pleased that Aladdin was finally in a cell, and certainly not fazed by the order to execute him. He seems to enjoy acts of violence and particularly killing, although he only commits them under orders, knowing of the consequences if he behaves otherwise. This was seen when he readily tried to drown Aladdin (in disguise as Prince Ali) in the ocean under Jafar 's orders (although it can be assumed that Jafar hypnotized him with the snake staff and / or told him Prince Ali was a traitor or a spy). Despite their mutual dislike for each other, Razoul will not hesitate to save Aladdin 's life if necessary, demonstrated in "Mudder 's Day '' when Aladdin is buried under a rockslide and Razoul is the first (and only) one to rush to his rescue, and in "The Secret of Dagger Rock '', Razoul and the guards are sent by the Sultan to find and rescue Aladdin, though Razoul mutters "risking our lives for a lousy street rat ''. In "Destiny on Fire '', Razoul stops Aladdin and his friends from going in the palace when they find it in ruins (Razoul had escaped as everyone turned into slugs) and later prevents Aladdin from falling for a trap.
In each of the three films, Genie saves Aladdin from Razoul. In the first, he saves Aladdin 's life after Razoul throws him in the ocean, and in the second he saves Aladdin from being beheaded by Razoul after Razoul was duped into believing Aladdin had murder the Sultan and been sentenced to death by Princess Jasmine who was totally Jafar in disguise. In the third film, Razoul wants to punish Aladdin for freeing his father from the palace dungeons, but Genie sends him flying away with a rocket - propelled suitcase.
Rajah is Princess Jasmine 's pet tiger which displays dog and cat - like behavior. He is also voiced by Frank Welker. Unlike Abu, he is not anthropomorphized, but is still able to understand human language and emotions, as seen when he is surprised by the revelation of Princess Jasmine that she has never had a true friend (except for Rajah himself), or when he assists her in her escape from the palace. In the first film, Rajah is distrustful towards Aladdin at first, but later warms up to him. He also takes part in the battle against Jafar, but is turned into a cub and imprisoned in a bird cage. He is returned to his original form at the end of the film after Aladdin finally defeats Jafar.
At the beginning of the film, when the Sultan is exasperated by Jasmine 's rejection of yet another suitor (who, incidentally leaves because Rajah bit the seat of his trousers off), the Sultan says ' Allah forbid you should have any daughters! ' to Rajah, implying that one woman is enough.
It is revealed in a children 's book based on Aladdin that Princess Jasmine adopted Rajah as a cub when she felt lonely without a friend and the Sultan gave her Rajah as a gift.
During the Sultan 's meal in The Return of Jafar, Rajah fiercely chases Iago into the room, which makes everyone discover Iago is back. In the Aladdin TV series, Rajah mainly served as a minor recurring character, though the only major part he played was in the episode "SandSwitch '' when he teamed up with Abu and Iago in undoing Sadira 's spell when she magically switched places with Princess Jasmine, since only the memories of the animals were unaffected. In Aladdin and the King of Thieves, Rajah is seen carrying Jasmine 's bridal veil. In Disney Princess Enchanted Tales: Follow Your Dreams, Rajah is seen delivering Jasmine her agenda. She later calls him to try to scare the children of the Royal Academy, but the children end up chasing Rajah and Jasmine into the mud and up a tree.
The Peddler (voiced by Robin Williams, singing voice by Bruce Adler) is a mysterious merchant who appears at the beginning of the original film, and later reappeared in the ending of Aladdin and the King of Thieves. The entire Peddler scene was improvised by Williams as the actor was put in front of a table with props, and started pitching them as products from a salesman 's catalogue. He implores the viewer to ' come closer ', a reference to actor Sydney Greenstreet 's many film trailers. In the original ending of Aladdin, the Peddler was revealed to be the Genie masquerading as a human, but this was cut from the final film. The directors of the movie later revealed that the Peddler is still the Genie, despite the ending being deleted.
He appears in the Kingdom Hearts series, voiced by Corey Burton, and plays a major role in Kingdom Hearts II where his greed and shrewdness are presented.
The Tiger God (voiced by Frank Welker) is a giant head of a tiger made of sand and the neutral guardian of the Cave of Wonders. Its job is to protect the Genie 's lamp and give it to those who are worthy while eliminating those who are n't. The treasures hoarded inside the cave are used to test those who are worthy to enter as touching them will also cause the Tiger God to eliminate them as well. It was done by computer - generated imagery, following reference drawings by animator Eric Goldberg.
In the film, the Tiger God was awakened by Jafar and Gazeem using the two halves of the scarab medallion, which formed the cave 's eyes. Because Gazeem is n't a Diamond in the Rough, it refused to let Gazeem enter, but (at Jafar 's urging) goes in anyway and the cave immediately kills him before turning back into a pile of sand and returning to slumber. It was awakened again by Jafar and Aladdin, and since Aladdin is a Diamond in the Rough, it allows him and Abu to enter, but warns them not to touch any of the treasures in the cave except for the lamp. Although Aladdin obeyed the cave 's warning, Abu did not. This angered the Tiger God so much that it claims that they will both perish for ignoring its warning (despite the fact that only Abu disobeyed the cave 's warning) and causes the cave to collapse. The magic carpet saves the duo but failed to escape the cave thanks to Jafar and a falling rock and the Tiger God again returns to eternal slumber.
In the Kingdom Hearts series, the Cave of Wonders served in the games ' storyline, such as the first game when it was under an evil influence before Sora and company gained entry into it. Unlike the movie, it does n't talk.
On Disneyland, the Cave of Wonders head is present at the Aladdin 's Oasis open restaurant in Adventureland. The Storybook Land Canal Boats attraction at Disneyland Paris also features a tunnel shaped like the tiger head.
Gazeem (voiced by Charlie Adler) is Jafar 's sidekick seen just at the beginning of Aladdin, he informs Jafar that he has managed to steal the other half of the scarab amulet used to summon the Cave of Wonders, and as soon as the halves form together, it flies off to the cave 's location and they follow on horseback. When the cave forms, it demands to know who woke it up and Gazeem introduces himself. The cave warns him that only one man, the Diamond in the Rough, whom the cave does not identify, may enter. Gazeem seems unable to understand this and thus ignores the warning and prepares to enter. Just before his entry, Jafar tells him that he can have any treasure he likes, but the lamp is his. Gazeem enters the cave and breathes a sigh of relief, when suddenly, the cave roars furiously and collapses. Gazeem frantically tries to escape, but although he is still very close to the entrance, the entire cave roof comes crashing down with amazing speed, as if the cave was closing its mouth. The cave collapses and Gazeem remains trapped inside, presumably forever, much to Jafar 's shock and anger. Having lost his accomplice, Jafar realizes that Gazeem was not the Diamond in the Rough, and sets out to find this particular man who can enter the cave. When Aladdin and Abu enter the cave later on, Gazeem is nowhere to be seen, so he is presumed to have been crushed to death when the cave collapsed.
Prince Achmed (voiced by Corey Burton) is one of the potential suitors for Princess Jasmine. On his way to the palace, he nearly hits two peasant children with a bullwhip when they get in his way, but Aladdin intervenes and insults him. In retaliation, Achmed publicly humiliates Aladdin by kicking him into a mud puddle and telling Aladdin that he is nothing but a "worthless street rat '' and will always be one. He is next and last seen furiously stomping out of the palace with his pants ripped and underwear showing, yelling that he had never been so insulted. After that, Achmed is not seen again for the remainder of the franchise.
Farouk (voiced by Jim Cummings) is a merchant from a fruit stand. When he sees Jasmine gives an apple to a hungry boy without paying, he is about to cut off her right arm, but Aladdin stops him by claiming Princess Jasmine is his mentally handicapped sister (even going far by having Princess Jasmine to pretend that she believes that Abu is the Sultan).
Abis Mal is a childish and incompetent thief who dreams of enormous riches and does anything he can to get lots of money. His greed for money leads him from a greedy wealthy thief, to a murderous thief. His name is a pun of the word "abysmal '', which is a reference to the outcomes of all his plans. Mal is voiced by Jason Alexander. The Return of Jafar opens with Abis Mal and his minions in their hideout, stealing money from Agrabah, with Abis Mal deciding to keep all the gold and treasures for himself and only give his men 13 coins for all their work, much to the anger of his gang. Aladdin ultimately intervenes, making a fool out of Abis Mal and taking all the treasure, with the intent to return it to those who need the money. Later, Abis crosses paths with Aladdin on the Agrabah streets, and orders his minions to attack. Abis winds up in another embarrassing defeat when Iago gets in the fray. That evening, while Abis was drawing water from a well, his gang decided they hated and despised their idiotic, double - crossing boss so much that they wanted to kill him. Just before they can strike, though, Abis pulls up a black lamp and unintentionally releases Jafar, scaring Abis 's would - be murderers away in the process.
Knowing that, as a genie, he could not directly kill Aladdin, Jafar saw a chance for revenge through Abis 's partnership. Of course, he was still required to grant Abis 's three wishes. Abis 's first wish was to have "The Legendary Sunken Treasure Ship of Coeur Du Mer '' and Jafar granted it by teleporting himself and Abis to the ship itself, which was at the bottom of the ocean. Unable to breathe underwater, Abis then had to forfeit his second wish to return to the desert. Now down to one wish and threatened by Jafar to work with him if he wanted it, Abis became Jafar 's unfortunate patsy; however, when he discovered that Jafar desired revenge on Aladdin, Abis willingly decided to go along with him to get his own revenge on Aladdin. The two succeed in capturing all of Aladdin 's friends, with the ultimate finish being that Aladdin would be executed for the murder of the Sultan (although the real Sultan was still alive and captured). With his goals complete, Jafar then offers Abis Mal (now technically Jafar 's "master '') huge amounts of gold and treasure in return for using his last wish to free Jafar. Abis, however, is not convinced that Jafar 's claim is true and hesitates from wishing, suspecting that after making the wish all the treasure Jafar had conjured would merely vanish. Aladdin quickly moves in to capture Jafar 's lamp in Abis 's moment of hesitation and quickly incurs Jafar 's wrath. During the fight, Abis Mal winds up tangled in a tree, where he stays for the rest of the film. While he is stuck there, Aladdin and his friends battle Jafar and manage to destroy the lamp with Iago 's help, thus destroying Jafar permanently. In the very end after the credits Abis Mal is still tangled in the tree. He then sadly declares "Does this mean I do n't get my third wish? '' after the end credits.
Abis Mal serves as Aladdin 's most common enemy and one of the main antagonists in the television series with 13 appearances. In the TV series, Abis Mal appears to be quite well off. He continues to have minions in the form of a gang of various thieves who do his bidding and he often buys magic items which he uses in his schemes. Abis Mal 's usual plans involve looking for an ancient or powerful magic to conquer the Agrabah throne, looking for ancient and valuable treasures, or seeking revenge on Aladdin for always ruining his plans. He also seems fixated on getting himself a larger hat, and frequently had eyes for the Sultan 's. In the episode "Lost and Founded '', Abis Mal meets an ancestor of himself, Abnor Mal (pun on "abnormal ''), and tries to make him founder of Agrabah instead of the Sultan and Princess Jasmine 's ancestor, Hamed. Although he can be perceived as a primary villain in the Aladdin franchise, Abis Mal is largely a comic relief character, as his plans to become rich and powerful always end in one hilarious failure after another. In one typical example in "Forget Me Lots '', Abis Mal actually succeeded in turning Princess Jasmine into the most evil and ruthless ruler of Agrabah that ever was; however his plan to use her as a figurehead ruler backfired when she actually began to rule instead of him. Another time when his plan to use whirlwinds backfires on him as usual, his henchman Haroud Hazi Bin breaks the fourth wall and remarks how his boss is available for children 's parties. In the episode "When Chaos Comes Calling '', when Genie was having a show and tell of various guest villains, he shows three together; Abis Mal, Mozenrath and Mechanicles.
In The Return of Jafar, he postponed making his third wish in order to get revenge on Aladdin. He never got his third wish from Jafar, but in the episode "Some Enchanted Genie '', in which the Genie 's girlfriend Eden first appears, Abis Mal gets his hands on Eden 's bottle and uses all three of the wishes that holding the bottle entitles him to. All of his wishes backfire or come undone, and he is defeated once again. As in The Return of Jafar he once again wastes his wishes trying to cause pain and suffering for Aladdin and his friends. If it were n't for his obsession with getting revenge on Aladdin he probably would have managed to use at least one wish to gain the riches he desires. However, it also may be that he did n't wish for money from Eden because he already had all the money he desired, as he has been shown to be a very competent thief. This means he has wasted a total of five wishes. This makes Abis Mal the only character to have become the master of two genies instead of one
Amin Damoola is a clumsy, cowardly, and incompetent thief, who appears in four episodes. Amin always finds a way to cause trouble for Aladdin (and usually ends up in trouble himself). Some of these ways are stealing a magical glove, creating a large green dragon, and getting a bunch of magical tools from Mozenrath. In his last episode he was working for Mozenrath, and failed him; Mozenrath had given Amin a choice: succeed in stealing the Sultan and become the greatest thief of Agrabah, or face Mozenrath 's anger and regret the day he was born. Mozenrath did not take that too well, and it is likely that he possibly turned him into a mamluck (zombie) or killed him ruthlessly. However, since Amin makes a fourth appearance in the episode Sneeze the Day, Mozenrath may have forgiven him (or maybe Amin already paid his penalty or escaped Mozenrath 's wrath -- or it may be out of place in the chronology of the series).
His first name (Amin) is common in Arabic, but his last name (Damoola) is a play - on - words referring to his insatiable greed i.e. I 'm in da moola (the money). Amin 's voice is an impression of Peter Sellers as Inspector Clouseau with a slight Arabian tint.
Amin is so incompetent as a thief that he is nicknamed "Butterfingers ''. However, he dislikes this nickname so much that he is willing to start a fight.
Arbutus is a sorcerer who only appeared in the episode "Garden of Evil ''. He has the power to make vegetation and flora immediately grow and manipulate them to his will. His name comes from the genus of trees called Arbutus. The character is voiced by Ron Perlman. While not evil in nature, he has more in common with plants than with humans and sees most humans as enemies for killing his beautiful works of art for their crass purposes (wood for heat and smoke which blocks the sun, flowers to die slowly in vases, etc.). He sees himself as an artist and makes most plants grow with the intention of creating something beautiful, even during battle. He is especially appreciative of ' living beauty ' and while he prefers plants he is aware that other organisms such as birds and even humans can enhance his artwork.
Many years ago, a younger Sultan came to the garden of Arbutus because he had heard that the most beautiful flowers grew there, to pick a flower for his bride. Arbutus did not attempt to harm the Sultan upon his entry, as he admired the beauty of the garden. But the sorcerer was enraged when the Sultan plucked a flower, effectively killing it. In order to allow the Sultan to go free he demanded that in 20 years time he be given the Sultan 's most precious treasure. Desperate to escape and not fully grasping Arbutus ' meaning, the Sultan quickly agreed and hurried away. Twenty years later, Arbutus came to Agrabah for the Sultan 's most precious treasure -- Jasmine. At no point in the episode does he make any attempt to physically harm Jasmine despite holding her captive, and even befriends her briefly due to her gentle words, her appreciation of his artwork, and the fact that she is named after a flower.
Arbutus ' only weakness is the rose on his lapel. Once it is cut off, he withers and dies, as does the beautiful garden which he created. Princess Jasmine explains to Aladdin that Arbutus is not evil, only "different '', and she, Aladdin, the Sultan and the Genie replant the flower, which perks up, and a deep inhalation is heard, suggesting that he will return to life in time. Arbutus bears an uncanny resemblance to Jafar.
Aziz, voiced by Michael Bell, is one of Aladdin 's first adversaries in the series. He is a small and ugly man, later turned to a goblin - like creature who can use his breath for almost anything, including attack, create illusions of entire deserts, or even turning people into small slug - like beings. It is apparent in the episode "Destiny on Fire '' that these powers come with a price, as throughout the episode, Aziz seems to have a short breath and eventually goes on fire.
Aziz first appears in the two part episode "Seems Like Old Crimes '' as a part of a small traveling circus along with his friends Fatima (Charity James) and Minos (Keith David). They use the monkey Abu to pickpocket their audience, but eventually hire the young Aladdin to do this instead. When Aladdin objects to stripping innocent citizens of all their money, Minos brings him in on their plan to steal the fabled Destiny Stone. Aladdin, Minos, Fatima, Aziz, and Abu go to the ruins where the Destiny Stone is kept. When the trio attempt to steal the Destiny Stone, they are instead trapped inside, while Aladdin and Abu escape. Many years later, the three of them escape. Aziz has become a goblin, Minos has become a minotaur and Fatima has become a harpy. With their newfound powers, the three of them go on a crime spree in Agrabah, eventually setting their eyes on conquering the city and getting revenge on Aladdin for causing them to be trapped for many years, and in Fatima 's case, for turning her into a monster. They eventually return to the temple where the Destiny Stone was held, where after a brief conversation with Princess Jasmine, Minos and Fatima, who have mutual love for each other decide not to kill Aladdin, which causes Aziz to turn against them and attack them with his magic breath. The Destiny Stone thus turns Minos and Fatima back into humans, while Aziz prefers to keep his powers and escapes. Aziz is defeated in the episode "Destiny on Fire '', where he uses his breath to transform all of Agrabah 's people to slug - like creatures and take over the palace, as well as bind Aladdin and Razoul together with a magic handcuff after noticing their own personal dislike towards the other. Eventually, Aladdin and Razoul notice that overuse of Aziz 's magic breath causes him to go on fire. When they have him try to destroy each other, Aziz eventually explodes and turns into three stars in the sky.
Chaos, voiced by Matt Frewer, is a winged blue cat who desires that life be unpredictable, full of surprise and change. Chaos is an extremely powerful entity of whom both Mirage and the Genie are terrified. He is a fun - loving prankster and uses his power for antics and light - hearted harassment rather than intentional, malicious evil. He does get angry and sensitive when people start giving him orders, and often warns them in a threatening voice not to do so. He also has a strong dislike of Fate, since the notion of predestination rubs him up the wrong way. Like Genie, his magical tricks tend to reference other media. Chaos possesses several traits similar to the Cheshire Cat from Disney 's Alice in Wonderland, such as disappearing, leaving only his grin behind, and leaving footprints before actually appearing.
Eden is the Genie 's girlfriend, voiced by Valery Pappas. She is first introduced in the episode "Some Enchanted Genie '' and only appears in one other episode; "The Book of Khartoum ''. The Genie falls in love with her at first sight and tries to impress her by granting her master free wishes. Initially taken aback by his sudden appearance, she eventually agrees to a date and the two fall in love. Her master is an optimistic young orphan named Dhandi. Although her first wish is simply to have enough food to prevent her being hungry for the rest of her life, Dhandi sacrifices her second wish to prevent Aladdin and the Genie from being turned into cockroaches by Abis Mal when he had the bottle. In the end, Dhandi accidentally uses her last wish to make Eden stay with her forever, postponing the Genie 's romance until Dhandi 's life ends. However, Eden tells Genie that she is all that Dhandi has and that she can not just leave her at that point in life, to which Genie understands. The two tell each other that they will wait until the time comes that they will finally be together.
In the episode "The Book of Khartoum '', Eden visits Genie to go on a date. Genie misses the date because he has been captured by Mozenrath, who wants to use him to power a furnace that will create the philosopher 's stone, which he will use to become "the most powerful wizard ever. '' Mozenrath discovers that just one genie ca n't provide enough power to the furnace to create the philosopher 's stone, so he is happy when Eden shows up to rescue him. He tricks her into agreeing to exchange herself for Genie, but Mozenrath double crosses her. He traps her with the Genie and uses their combined power to heat the furnace and create the philosopher 's stone. It is likely that Eden agreed to the deal even knowing that Mozenrath might double cross her, because she knew she would get free somehow. Otherwise, Dhandi 's last wish would n't be fulfilled. She knew the laws of the cosmos would cause her to be freed somehow so she could stay with Dhandi for the rest of her life. After Mozenrath double crosses Eden and finishes making the stone, he is double crossed himself by Khartoum, a sorcerer trapped in the Book of Khartoum. Khartoum was the one who told Mozenrath to make the stone. Khartoum uses the stone to become free and is on the verge of taking out Mozenrath when Aladdin frees the Genie and Eden while the two sorcerers are distracted. The two genies have been weakened, but they restore their power with the Genie embrace and take the philosopher 's stone away from Khartoum, who then becomes trapped in the book again. The philosopher 's stone becomes so powerful that it 's about to self - destruct, so the genies take it into the sky where it wo n't hurt anyone, then return to Agrabah for their date.
Unlike Genie, Eden has five fingers instead of four. Her name was most likely intended as a nod to Barbara Eden, who played a genie in a bottle in the 60 's sitcom I Dream of Jeannie.
Mechanicles (pronounced "Meh - KANN - ih - kleez '', sometimes misspelled "Mechanikles '') is a mad scientist who seems to be of an ancient Greek culture (always styling himself as "greatest of the great Greek geniuses ''), he is known for being able to make complex technological robots resembling insects (particularly beetles), and other arthropods such as scorpions, in a range of sizes from minuscule to gigantic, almost always with what appears to be a consistent usage of copper alloys such as bronze (especially for their outer casings), which he uses for his various plots. He is the third main antagonist in the animated series. His right eye is aided by a form of "telescopic monocle '' which could assist him in building the intricate details of his machines. His voice is provided by Charlie Adler. When he first appeared in "Getting the Bugs Out '', he was attacking a distant village with large robotic beetles, even managing to capture the Genie and the Magic Carpet -- forcing Aladdin to face the fact that he had become too dependent on them and had begun to take them for granted -- before the group found him and destroyed his largest, greatest robot.
Other than his large ego, Mechanicles seems to have an obsessive - compulsive need for cleanliness and order; Aladdin and the other heroes usually find themselves able to distract him by doing something simple, for example spilling oil on his home 's tile floor. This obsessive - compulsive disorder seems to be the plot behind his schemes, for example; he tried to turn the entire desert into glass because glass is a smooth surface, while sand is shifty and "dirty '', or when he stole cargo off a ship to boil the ocean because using steam is a better cleaning technique to clean clothes rather than normal scrubbing. He even attempted to destroy the whole of Thundra 's rainforest with mechanical termites to ensure a perfectly clean world. On another occasion when he managed to assume control of Agrabah using a robotic valet to hypnotise everyone, his primary focus after he had established himself as the new ruler was to begin ordering the city to be cleaned, but this plan was fortunately thwarted when Genie and Carpet -- who were immune to the robot 's hypnotic skills -- managed to free Aladdin from its control and subsequently wrecked the robot from its insides.
In "The Flawed Couple '', he also made a short - lived alliance with Abis Mal, out of a common desire to exact revenge on Aladdin. Using Abis Mal 's magical "mood stones '' fixed to Mechanicles ' small robotic beetles, the pair aimed to weaken the heroes and destroy them with a mechanical praying mantis. However, Aladdin was able to resist the power of stones, and like all of Abis Mal 's magical schemes, it backfired upon both himself and Mechanicles.
Mechanicles makes a cameo in the Hercules: The Animated Series episode "Hercules and the Hero of Athens '', during Icarus ' superhero theme song.
Mirage, voiced by Bebe Neuwirth, is one of Aladdin 's recurring enemies and the second main antagonist in the TV series Aladdin. A cat - like enchantress (with similarities to both Egyptian goddesses Bast and Sekhmet) holding powers over illusions, dreams and shadows, her magic powers are enough to create a mirage of Agrabah, its people and Aladdin 's friends. This, combined with her stunning keenness and ruthlessness, makes her a dangerous enemy. Her home (called Morbia) appears to be a giant hollow sphinx floating in a dark night sky along with numerous asteroid - like floating rocks drifting aimlessly about. Mirage is inscrutable in her motives. She never provides any insight herself, and other evidence is circumstantial at best. It is possible that she intends to kill Aladdin and his friends and then take over Agrabah (or the world); she certainly attempts the former several times; however, she is called "Evil Incarnate '' during the course of the series, and it is possible that all of her actions are motivated simply by malice. The only reliable evidence is from the mysterious blind magician Phasir, who appears in few episodes of the series and who seems to have some history with Mirage, though it is not expanded on.
Her first appearance is in the episode "In the Heat of the Fright '', in which she sends several cats of fire to terrorize and destroy a small farming village, a village that Aladdin happens to be passing by on his map - drawing trip downriver. Sparking her ire by defeating her feline minions, she introduces herself to him with scornful interest and an echoing proclamation of "We are not finished! '' when she departs. Genie quickly becomes terrified of her and tries to prevent everyone from sleeping on their trip back to Agrabah, but fails and Aladdin, Genie, Carpet, Abu and Iago are drawn into her realm. Vowing to make Aladdin feel fear, she lets her fire cats chase and harass Genie, growing ever larger the more afraid he became. Aladdin saves the day by bolstering everyone 's courage, which causes the fire cats to shrink and eventually disperse. Furious at their defeat, she sends Aladdin and his friends back from her realm with the parting promise of "This defeat will only fuel my victory the next time, Aladdin ''.
In the episode "Eye of the Beholder '', she tests Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's love for each other by turning Princess Jasmine into a poisonous anthropomorphic snake. The attempts initially appeared successfully, rendering Princess Jasmine poisonous to the touch, but when Aladdin turned himself into a snake to be with her, Phasir appeared to Mirage, informing her that she had failed, and lifted the spell on the two of them. In "The Lost Ones '', her keenness turned Aladdin 's old friend Amal against him, and in "While the City Snoozes '', he had to race against time before his city 's inhabitants became slaves in their sleep. In yet another episode, "When Chaos Comes Calling '', she directed an even more powerful entity, the winged feline named Chaos towards Agrabah. However, even Mirage feared Chaos; she uses quick thinking to avoid a confrontation with him. However, it turns out that at the end of the episode, it is shown that Chaos was manipulating her the whole time, putting her in a situation where she saved the day and thus making life a little more interesting.
Despite her malevolent intentions and considerable powers (such as being able to slice through solid stone with ease and quickly teleporting vast distances, as well as creating convincing disguises), she refuses to ' get her hands dirty ', instead preferring to let others do her work for her, or deceiving her enemies by leading them into dangerous (and often deadly) situations. An example is in the episode "Eye of the Beholder '', where she swiftly attacks the Genie in retaliation to his charging rush and easily shreds him to pieces (with the Genie surviving in his typical comical fashion), yet she warns Aladdin against rushing at her by saying "I could tear you apart like I did your Genie, but you 're filled with blood. '', snidely remarking "Wise decision ''. when her warning is heeded. Indeed, if her ego were not so great, and her obsession with leading others through elaborate deceptions not so ruling, Aladdin would be a simple foe to dispatch with her abilities.
Mozenrath is a young evil sorcerer and necromancer. He was voiced by Jonathan Brandis in the Disney and a fourth main antagonist of the animated television series Aladdin. Almost all of Mozenrath 's power comes from a magical gauntlet he wears over his right arm. Due to the gauntlet 's power, Mozenrath 's right arm has become skeletal and it is implied that the gauntlet will eventually kill him. In the last of his eight appearances in the series, the gauntlet has physically exhausted Mozenrath to the extent that he tries to take over Aladdin 's mind and body ("Two to Tangle ''). He is the ruler of the Land of the Black Sand, a kingdom where the sand is black, the sun is usually blocked by clouds, and the only residents are himself, his flying eel sidekick Xerxes (voiced by Frank Welker), and an army of undead Mamluks who serve him. He is quite open and accepting about his own cruelty and he prides himself on his ruthlessness. He took control of the Land of the Black Sand from its former ruler, the sorcerer Destane. According to Iago, Destane was "a real hard case '', and even Jafar steered clear of him. Mozenrath explained that Destane was like a father to him until he "stole his power and his throne then he stole his humanity, '' turning him into one of his undead soldiers.
Mozenrath 's main goal is to conquer and rule the Seven Deserts, including Agrabah. While he and his undead Mamluk soldiers have secure control over the Land of the Black Sand, they are not powerful enough to conquer the other kingdoms that Mozenrath wants to rule. Because of this, his plots and schemes usually involve obtaining more magic and becoming more powerful. Through the course of the series he tried to kill Aladdin and his friends multiple times. He also attempted to capture the Genie several times so that he could tap his magical energies and use them for his own purposes. In Mozenrath 's debut episode ("The Citadel ''), Iago referred to the sorcerer as "Jafar Jr. '', comparing the two sorcerers ' ambition and cruelty. In the episode "Black Sand '', Mozenrath was seen in Jafar 's old room and Iago asked him if he knew Jafar, but despite their similarities there is no connection between Jafar and Mozenrath.
Although Mozenrath 's ultimate goal is to rule the Seven Deserts he seems to enjoy bantering with Aladdin and his friends and seems to be in no hurry to defeat them. At his first meeting with Aladdin he is polite and even friendly until Aladdin makes it clear he does not wish to work with Mozenrath. In subsequent appearances Mozenrath often loses interest in his plans as soon as they are defeated and does not attempt to kill Aladdin after their battles have ended. His overall demeanor is one of boredom and impatience.
After being defeated by Aladdin multiple times in the course of the series, Mozenrath 's final appearance ends with him losing his gauntlet and being sent away in a giant balloon by the Genie. The original plot idea and draft for the film Aladdin and the King of Thieves, involved Mozenrath as the main antagonist, and it was to be revealed that he and Aladdin are brothers. However, according to one of the writers, it was felt that the film should steer away from the TV show; this, combined with the fact that Mozenrath 's voice actor, Jonathan Brandis, could not be reached, prompted the writers to come up with a new plot and move onto another one of Aladdin 's family members, his father. Mozenrath was the main antagonist in nine episodes of the series, his tenth appearance being a cameo as one of three guest villains in a show and tell by the Genie.
The Mukhtar (voiced by John Kassir) is a reptilian humanoid, apparently the last surviving member of the race of Mukhtars, sworn enemies of Genies. Though Mukhtars would generally hunt Genies just for the honor, the last Muktar acknowledges that times have changed, and now he hunts Genies for gold. Like Genie, he does not have a specific name. He is often seen riding on a horned reptilian ostrich named "Saurus ''.
The Mukhtar appears in two episodes, "Genie Hunt '' and "The Hunted ''. In the former of these, he works for one of Genie 's former masters, Al Gebraic, to capture Genie and put him into his service again. In the latter, he is hired by Mozenrath to capture Genie so that Mozenrath could entrap him in the crystal of Ix and steal his powers, but ends up turning on Mozenrath and helping Aladdin rescue the Genie after he saves him from a giant monstrous killer plant inside Mozenrath 's palace. At the end of the episode, the Genie and Mukhtar part as friends.
Phasir (voiced by Ed Gilbert) appears frequently through the series. His first appearance is in the episode "Do the Rat Thing '', but he is not named or given any background until the episode "The Prophet Motive '', where he is identified as Phasir, an old seer and powerful wizard who turned his evil giant brother, Fashoom, into stone many centuries ago. The end of that episode also reveals that he actually has a single eye, but he wears bands over his one eye, which makes him appear to be just blind (it is never made clear whether he actually is blind or merely pretends to be in order to hide his eye). Later episodes, such as "Eye of the Beholder '' and "While the City Snoozes '' hint that Phasir has had dealings with Mirage in the past and they may have once been lovers (he states to himself that love will one day lead Mirage back to him).
Sadira is introduced in the TV series and later becomes friends with Aladdin and the others. She is voiced by the actress Kellie Martin. Originally a street rat - much like Aladdin himself had been - Sadira developed an obsession with Aladdin after he saved her from Razoul. Dejected over his rejection of her in favor of Jasmine, she subsequently fell into a cavern where she made contact with the Witches of the Sand, who taught her various magical spells that featured sand as part of the incantations. So armed, she unleashed a sand beast in an attempt to get Princess Jasmine out of the picture, but in her haste she failed to think more about what she wanted the creature to do, how to completely control the creature and it subsequently ran rampant before the group were able to stop it.
Her second attempt featured Sadira using an unidentified "memory sand '' that caused the entire city 's memories to be altered, resulting in Sadira being the princess and engaged to Aladdin while Princess Jasmine was on the streets, with she and Aladdin never having even met; however, the spell had no effect on Abu, Iago and Rajah, who swiftly escaped the palace to search for Jasmine. Despite her initial skepticism, Jasmine began to believe Iago 's story when she saw the wedding parade, feeling drawn to Aladdin despite having no memory of him. Sadira attempted to stop them by having the wedding moved to that very night, but the animals and Jasmine managed to interrupt the wedding before Sadira and Aladdin could kiss. Realizing that he felt more right with Jasmine than he ever had with Sadira, even when he could not remember her, Aladdin kissed Jasmine, resulting in history returning to normal with only Iago, Abu, Rajah and Sadira retaining any memory of the experience.
In Sadira 's third attempt, she cast a spell to transform Aladdin into a heroic dragon - slaying prince and Abu into a horse, simultaneously opening a portal to the land of her fantasies, where she and Aladdin could live without any interference from Jasmine. Although the Genie managed to close the portal, the subsequent mixture of the Genie 's magic with Sadira 's spells meant that Aladdin still believed himself to be the prince despite the lack of any armor or even a dragon to slay, as well as Abu becoming a mule, forcing them to recreate Sadira 's fantasy in order to break the spell. In the process, however, Sadira and Jasmine actually bonded to a certain degree, developing an appreciation for each other 's skills and putting their old rivalry to rest as they worked together to vanquish the out - of - control mechanical dragon Genie had created while Aladdin was under the spell 's influence. Despite her new friendship with the group, Sadira was forced to face the remnants of her past actions when, while attempting to make a soup, she accidentally released the Witches of the Sand who had taught her in the first place. Having framed Sadira for releasing a sand viper on the city, the Witches attempted to win her over to their side and thus raise the ancient City of Sand to destroy Agrabah, but in the end, Sadira chose her new friendship with the group and helped them to defeat the Witches.
She later appears in the end of Aladdin and the King of Thieves, when Aladdin and Jasmine finally get married.
Cassim is Aladdin 's father. He is voiced by John Rhys - Davies. Long before the events of the first film, he left his wife and newborn son in Agrabah in order to find a better life for the poverty - stricken family, not wanting to be looked down upon. Some time later, he fell in with the Forty Thieves, eventually becoming their leader (the "King of Thieves ''), and incorporated a new law: never hurt the innocent. His latest plan before the events of Aladdin and the King of Thieves was to try and steal the Oracle, as he had found evidence that it existed, and believed it might be among the gifts going to Agrabah. He intended to find the treasure of the Vanishing Isle.
Cassim is first seen in the film disguised as the King of Thieves, carrying out a plot to raid Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding. As soon as the ceremony starts, he gives the word for the other thirty - nine to distract the guards while he searches for the Oracle. The plan works, to an extent - Cassim is confronted by Aladdin, and the two fight, both unaware of the fact that they are father and son. He manages to escape, swearing to meet Aladdin again. Aladdin later catches up to his father after learning he is "trapped in the world of the Forty Thieves '', when Cassim utters the secret words to open the hideout of the Thieves ("Open Sesame ''). He is confronted by Sa'luk, a rival of his, about the failure of the raid in Agrabah, and Sa'luk is about to kill him when Aladdin intervenes. Aladdin reveals that he is his son, and this is proved when the dagger slips out of his cloak. Cassim tells them that this is true, but nevertheless, since he found the location of their hideout, he must die - or face the challenge in a battle for his life against Sa'luk, which Aladdin narrowly succeeds at. After the challenge, Cassim shows Aladdin a secret chamber, explaining why he was never there, and how one night he came home but believed his family lost to him forever after he could n't find them. Aladdin offers him an invitation to his wedding, which Cassim is at first hesitant about. Eventually, Iago offers to lead Cassim to where the Oracle is if he participates in Aladdin 's wedding, to which Cassim accepts.
Cassim easily bonds with the Genie, the Sultan and Princess Jasmine (after a change of clothes and dealing with some of the Genie 's antics) but is ultimately too obsessed with the pull of the treasure to enjoy the time with his son too much, as he has already learned of the Oracle 's current location from Iago. Nevertheless, as he attempts to take the Oracle, Cassim promises Iago he will go straight to attend the wedding after it, but they are caught by Razoul and the Palace Guards, who have been tipped off by Sa'luk, who has survived his battle against Aladdin is now enacting his revenge against Cassim. Aladdin realizes what the Oracle said that he was trapped in the world of the Forth Thieves, as in trapped by his own greed. He is sentenced to life in prison along with 31 thieves that have been captured during Razoul 's raid of the hideout, but later on that night, Aladdin, disguised as himself in his King of Thieves clothes, helps him escape out of forgiveness. Once out of Agrabah, Cassim and Iago go back to the Thieves. Upon arriving, they find that Sa'luk manipulated the remaining seven thieves into believing that Cassim sold them out and now follow Sa'luk as their new leader, despite the fact the imprisoned 31 thieves know that it was Sa'luk who sold them out, not Cassim. Being held hostage with Iago, he is forced to use the Oracle to lead them to the Vanishing Isle, while he secretly commands Iago to escape to warn Aladdin. As the Thieves reached the Isle by ship, Cassim is saved by Aladdin, who knocks Sa'luk unconscious, and they venture into the Vanishing Isle to obtain the hand of Midas. They succeed, but Sa'luk quickly follows, taking Aladdin hostage, threatening Cassim that he will kill Aladdin unless he hand over the Hand of Midas. Cassim, deciding Aladdin is far more valuable than the hand, tosses it to Sa'luk, who foolishly catches it by the hand instead of the bronze handle. Sa'luk is instantly turned into a golden statue and falls into the chamber filled with water. Cassim and Aladdin then escape out of the Isle. He throws the Hand of Midas into the sea realizing that he has not lost his ultimate treasure: his son, and apologizes for taking so long to realize it. Cassim attends Aladdin and Princess Jasmine 's wedding later, watching from the shadows, as he is still a wanted man for his past crimes. He accepts Iago, who feels he no longer has a place with Aladdin and the others as they prepare for a new life of responsibility, as a travelling companion, and goes off to venture the world. As the film ends, Cassim is last seen with Iago waving farewell to his son and daughter - in - law before riding off into the night to tour the world.
Sa'luk is the main antagonist of the third film. He is voiced by Jerry Orbach. He is a ruthless, aggressive, violent brute, and he seems to have pleasure in killing. His primary weapon is a knuckleduster with 3 bronze claws attached. He is very strong and an exceptionally capable fighter, able to defeat the entirety of the remaining Forty Thieves without breaking a sweat and kill a shark with his bare hands. He is tall, gray skinned, wearing a black vest, a red cummerbund and baggy blue pants.
Sa'luk is the right - hand man of Cassim, the King of Thieves, but dialogue implies that Sa'luk was once the leader of the thieves until Cassim proposed to seek out the Hand of Midas, which led the thieves to appoint Cassim as their new leader, something Sa'luk despises Cassim for. When Aladdin arrives at the thieves ' lair, Sa'luk, angry at Cassim for leading them to a failed attempt to steal the oracle from Aladdin 's wedding, attempts a mutiny against Cassim, but Aladdin steps in before they can fight and subdues Sa'luk. Sa'luk then says to the other thieves that they must kill Aladdin for knowing the location of the hideout. Cassim, having little authority over the thieves but wanting to save his son, gives Aladdin the chance to fight for his life. Sa'luk instantly volunteers to be "the one to test him ''. Aladdin takes a rather severe beating, but is eventually able to subdue and defeat Sa'luk by kicking him off a cliff to his apparent death.
Sa'luk survives, and knows that he has by now been replaced by Aladdin. In a spiteful rage, Saluk reveals the location of the thieves ' hideout to Razoul, in exchange for immunity from prosecution. When Razoul arrests 31 of the thieves, Sa'luk finds out that Cassim and Aladdin are not among them. When Sa'luk hears that Aladdin is in Agrabah, he assumes Cassim is too, and reveals that Cassim, Aladdin 's recently arrived father, is the King of Thieves. Then he returns to the thieves ' lair, and convinces the remaining thieves who were n't captured that it was actually Cassim who gave up the location of the hideout, despite the fact that the 31 thieves already know that Sa'luk is the one who sold them out. After Sa'luk reminds them of life before Cassim, he rallies the thieves to join him in his own quest for the Hand of Midas. When Cassim and Iago arrive at the thieves ' lair, Sa'luk, as the new leader of the remaining thieves, has them tied up. The thieves sail away, trying to find the Vanishing Island, where the Hand of Midas is, with the Oracle 's help; however, Iago escapes and tells Aladdin. Aladdin and company follow the thieves to the Vanishing Isle, where it comes to a great battle. Sa'luk corners both Aladdin and Cassim and demands that they give him the hand, or he will kill Aladdin. Cassim throws the golden hand, and Sa'luk greedily grabs it. Despite having obtained the Hand of Midas, Sa'luk decides to kill Aladdin anyway for his pleasure. However, Sa'luk realizes too late that he has grabbed the golden hand itself instead of the bronze handle, and consequently, he is permanently turned into a golden statue and falls to the bottom of the hand chamber, shortly before the Vanishing Isle disappears beneath the water.
The Oracle is an omniscient entity bound to a staff, who answers one question per person. It is being given as a gift at Aladdin and Jasmine 's wedding. It is how Aladdin learns of his father, and it eventually leads Cassim to the location of the hand of Midas. Iago wished to use his question to find The Ultimate Treasure, but accidentally used it to find out why the 40 Thieves wanted the staff. Genie later mimicked its appearance when trying to dissuade Aladdin from breaking Cassim out of prison. Since the staff flew off to where the Vanishing Isle would appear, and did n't reappear after the Oracle vanished, it 's highly plausible that showing the location of the isle was its final task. It is voiced by CCH Pounder.
Nasira is Jafar 's fraternal twin sister who tried to resurrect him. She is the main antagonist of the game, voiced by Jodi Benson.
Nasira aims to resurrect her brother, but in order to do so she needs four magical artifacts to create a spell powerful enough to bring Jafar back. She also wants revenge on Aladdin. So she single - handedly took control of Agrabah, ' disposed ' of Princess Jasmine and the Sultan, and put a price on Aladdin 's head - all in one night. Aladdin confronted her in the throne room the next day and demanded to know the whereabouts of Princess Jasmine and the Sultan, but Nasira threw him into the dungeon. Unfortunately for her, Aladdin escaped and managed to reach the Oasis. Nasira disguised herself as a mystic and quickly befriended Aladdin by telling him where his friends were. Oblivious to the truth, Aladdin rescued his friends one by one. When he rescued the Sultan, Nasira revealed their friendship was a lie and ran off with the artifacts Aladdin collected. Two levels later, Aladdin found Nasira with Jafar 's ghost and defeated both of them. Jafar died again and Nasira ran off. Aladdin returned to the palace to celebrate.
Unlike Jafar, Nasira was most likely born with her magical powers. She can hurl mystical bolts, perform resurrections through magical artifacts, summon zombies and skeletons, bend others to her will, change her appearance, bring objects to life, create portals, and paralyze enemies.
In Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, a character named Amara (Zuleikha Robinson), who later would become Jafar 's serpent staff, bears a resemblance to Nasira, including her clothing style, when a young Jafar appears to her wanting to learn magic.
The Arachnid, also known as the Spider, is a giant arachnid with a monsterious appetite and a boss in the game. She appears as a huge black and yellow spider monster with a yellow skull on her hindquarters. She is bigger than a camel and fiercely guards the way out of the Oasis that is outside Agrabah. Aladdin confronts this beast, but he does n't face her head on as he exposes her weakness with his agile skills in her web. He eventually defeats her, leaving victorious with a mysterious Serpent Idol before meeting a mystic with secret and sinister agendas of her own.
Anubis is a minor villain in the game. His sorcery is also the source of the restorative magic of four golden Serpent Idols, the very artifacts sought after by Nasira in her plan of resurrect her twin brother Jafar from the dead. This jackal - headed monster through his statue of his natural form, is master of the tombs, the Pyramids found within the deserts of Egypt. Legends within the walls of the Pyramids spoke of sacrifices offered to Anubis by his worshipers, humans willingly of by force, lost their souls to him, then years later, his temples became tombs as they were abandoned, and Anubis himself never return. Centuries later, Princess Jasmine, who was kidnapped by Nasira, was trapped by her henchman there in an enchanted cage, only to be a sacrifice and a bait to trap Aladdin. Aladdin braved the traps, and faced the undead monsters within the Pyramids. Aladdin soon face the possessed statue of the evil Egyptian deity, Anubis. Anubis was defeated, and disappeared. Aladdin won the fight, and freed Jasmine before they both later went on a mission to rescue her father.
The Evil Sultan as he is called, is an evil monarch threatening to become the new ruler of Agrabah and a minor villain in the game. He is a deadly adversary astride the Golden Phoenix, his flying mechanical bird. After he appears in Ancient City and kidnapped the real Sultan, Aladdin rides the Magic Carpet into battle, dodging his launched missiles and looks out when he slams on the brakes. Aladdin eventually wins this aerial battle and rescues Jasmine 's father, while he also collected the 4th and last Serpent Idol from the fallen Evil Sultan.
Sahara is Jasmine 's late mother 's horse who was the only one who could ride her. When Sahara was missing, Jasmine went looking for him and rode him back to Agrabah before her father noticed his disappearance. His name translates to "desert '' in Arabic.
Hakeem is a servant boy in the palace stables. He looks like Aladdin, but his personality is different. He is a little worried that he has lost a horse named Sahara, which will lead to him losing his job, so Princess Jasmine promised him that she will return Sahara to him.
Aneesa is Princess Jasmine 's loyal servant who works in the palace. She first convinces the discouraged Princess Jasmine never to give up and tries her best. When Sahara went missing, she tries to distract the Sultan from going to the royal stables.
Sharma is Jasmine 's cousin. She bears a resemblance to Jasmine, who is supposed to look like her mother. She works as a teacher at the Royal Academy.
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who plays the little girl in the movie enough | Enough (film) - wikipedia
Enough is a 2002 American thriller film directed by Michael Apted. The movie is based on the 1998 novel Black and Blue, by Anna Quindlen, which was a New York Times bestseller. It stars Jennifer Lopez as Slim, an abused wife who learns to fight back. Enough garnered generally negative reviews from film critics, although several aspects of the film including the actors ' performances were praised.
The film begins in a Los Angeles diner where a waitress named Slim (Jennifer Lopez) works with her best friend, Ginny (Juliette Lewis). She receives unwelcome romantic advances from Robbie, a customer who teases her about her name. Another man in the diner, Mitch Hiller (Billy Campbell), reveals that the customer had made a bet that he would be able to convince Slim to sleep with him. Soon after, Slim falls in love with and marries Mitch, and they have a child named Gracie (Tessa Allen). Years later, Slim finds out Mitch has been cheating on her with a French woman named Darcelle. She confronts him and he admits it, but also insisting Darcelle means nothing to him. Slim becomes angry and threatens to leave, which enrages Mitch, who becomes violent, slapping and punching her in the face. He gives her a warning, saying that he makes the money and gets to do whatever he likes, implying he wants an open marriage. Mitch refuses to stop his affair unless she wants to fight him. He further intimidates her by saying "I 'm a man. It 's no contest. '' The next day, Slim confides in Mitch 's mother (Janet Carroll); she asks Slim what she did to make Mitch angry, implying he has a history of physical abuse. Ginny advises Slim to leave and imprison Mitch, but Slim does not want to hurt Gracie. She then goes to pick up Gracie from school, only to discover Mitch had already picked her up. Panicked that Mitch might have left town with her, she calls Mitch, who tells her that he took Gracie to the zoo.
During dinner that night, Mitch further insults Slim for confiding in his mother, while staying civil in front of Gracie. Having had enough, Slim plans her escape with her friend 's help. However, while escaping late at night, Mitch foils her plan by breaking out of a closet he is hiding in and grabbing her by the hair. He throws her to the ground and begins kicking her in the chest, while Gracie is asleep on the sofa. Slim 's friends, waiting outside the house, hear the struggle and break in. Then Mitch threatens them with a gun, before Phil (Christopher Maher) picks up Gracie to use as a witness while exhorting her to look at her father. Unable to shoot the man with Gracie watching him, Mitch lets Slim escape. Slim retreats to a cheap motel, having had her credit cards frozen by Mitch. However, they are only there for a short time before Mitch tracks them down. Slim then goes on the run to Seattle where she briefly stays with her old boyfriend Joe (Dan Futterman). Some of Mitch 's friends, disguised as FBI agents, show up at Joe 's house claiming to investigate a "kidnapping. '' She leaves Joe behind and, in need of money, goes to her father (Fred Ward), named Jupiter, who is a wealthy philanderer and does not know about Slim 's existence. When Slim informs him she is his daughter, he does n't believe them and gives them only $12, thinking they are homeless and just want money. Slim leaves, disheartened with Jupiter, and moves with Gracie to Michigan. However, after Jupiter is threatened by Mitch 's men, he is piqued by the situation and decides to help. He sends them enough money for a house.
Slim buys a house and changes her name to Erin Ann Shleeter. Although their future looks bright after a visit from Joe, Mitch 's friend tracks them down, passing the information on to Mitch. Mitch comes to the area, and hides in Slim 's house. As she is going about her morning routine, to her horror, Mitch suddenly appears from the shadows in her hallway, saying he wants Slim back, promising "it will be different. '' When she refuses, he attacks, waking Gracie, who runs to help her mother, and jerks on his hair. Mitch flings Gracie to the floor, which creates a diversion, and allows an opportunity for Slim to retaliate with pepper spray. Snatching up Gracie, as Mitch rolls on the floor in pain, she is prepared for a fast get - away, having an escape plan. A car chase ensues between Slim and Robbie (Noah Wyle, revealed earlier as Mitch 's "wing man '' during the encounter at the diner years before) while Gracie screams in the background. After escaping, Slim seeks legal advice from a local law firm. While the lawyer is sympathetic, he informs her that she can not be legally protected.
Realizing she can not live her life in fear, Slim goes into hiding in San Francisco, hires a woman who looks like her to keep her cover, and sends Gracie away to Hawaii with her best friend Ginny to get her out of harm 's way. She prepares herself with a self - defense trainer (Bruce A. Young) who teaches her Krav Maga, since self - defense is not murder. During her training, he gives Slim the final lesson - if Mitch knocks her down, she is to hold on to his voice and awaken when he is about to attack or kick her. She returns to Los Angeles, breaks into Mitch 's new home and waits for him there to return home from work, after hiding his guns and blocking the phone connections, so he can not call the police. When he arrives, Slim makes her presence known once he realizes someone 's there. She approaches him to begin fighting, but when he says he can not hit her, she asks him why he could do it before when she was defenseless. She provokes him, and in the ensuing fight, Slim uses her new skills, beating Mitch until he becomes unconscious. After an opportunity to kill him with an object, she can not bear to do it and throws the object away. She calls Ginny saying she can not kill him, and while on the phone Mitch hits her from behind with a lamp. Slim puts into practice what she learned in her training and trips, beats and kicks him in the chest and sends him off a balcony to his death. She calls the police, who rule her actions as self - defense.
With Mitch no longer a threat, Slim and Gracie go on to live a happy life in Seattle with Joe.
Enough, produced by Columbia Pictures, is directed by Michael Apted and written by Nicholas Kazan. On November 9, 2000, New York Daily News reported that Lopez was in talks to star in Enough, "which follows a newly married young woman 's descent into domestic violence after her dream man physically abuses her, causing her to go on the run ''. Sandra Bullock was originally cast to play Slim, a waitress. However, Variety magazine reported in November 2000 that Bullock had to back out of Enough because of scheduling conflict with another film.
MTV News 's David Basham reported on May 19, 2001, that Lopez was cast as Slim, and Once and Again actor Billy Campbell was cast as Mitch, a "wealthy contractor '' and Slim 's abusive husband. Juliette Lewis, Noah Wyle, Dan Futterman and Fred Ward were also announced to be co-starring in the film. According to Basham, filming began on May 21, 2001, and took place on location in Los Angeles, San Francisco and Seattle. During a documentary featured on a special edition DVD of the film, Kazan said Lopez was "very good '' at creating the character on film "through unscripted details, physical gestures and fiddling with props. '' He described her emotional acting as "perfect pitch ''. Apted, who heard urban legends that Lopez was a diva confessed that "She was fantastic '' and good to work with. He also noted Lopez "very much on the case, and that was very impressive. '' However, years later Lopez confessed that during the filming of Enough, she overworked and had a nervous breakdown. In 2008, she stated: "I was suffering from a lack of sleep. And I did have a kind of nervous breakdown. I froze up on set. Well, not on a set, but in my trailer. I was like, I do n't want to move, I do n't want to talk, I do n't want to do anything. It was on that movie, Enough. Yeah, I did. I had a nervous breakdown. ''
Enough is a thriller film which also details an abusive relationship. Kazan said it 's "About the worst aspect of the male psyche is that males have been taught, traditionally, to expect to get what they want. Much of the problems that men have, or the problems that men impose on women, have to do with feeling like they 're entitled, and that women should do what men want. '' Ryan J. Downey of MTV News said "Is America ready to see its favorite iced - up, well - manicured diva, Jennifer Lopez, all glammed - down and kicking ass as a battered wife? ''.
Explaining the concept of the film, Lopez stated: "There 's twists and turns and it 's exciting (...) but it also has a message, which is what attracted me to it in the first place, which is an empowering thing. '' Describing its message, she said "(If) you 're in these negative situations, negative relationships, whatever, you can get out (...) The power to get out of those things is always within yourself. That 's the message of the movie. '' When Lopez read the script, she knew she was "going to have to do (the) whole sequence at the end '' which featured an act that required her to "become a believable lean, mean fighting machine. '' Lopez then thought she should learn T'ai Chi or Tae Kwon Do, but was worried about learning it at an expert level in a short period of time. Her personal trainer then suggested that she study Krav Maga, the "official self - defense system of the Israeli Defense Forces which has recently become trendy in the States. The fighting style focuses on combating realistic scenarios with moves that are based on common, instinctual reactions '', according to MTV News. Talking about the system, Lopez said: "(Krav Maga) levels out the playing field between men and women (...) Where it does n't matter how big or tall or strong you are. You can actually maneuver around that. It 's about getting out of the way, counter attacking and using whatever you can to get the upper hand. ''
During an interview with Lopez, journalist Diane Sawyer of ABC News noted that people "in the abuse counseling industry, have said you ca n't tell women that, they ca n't do that. That something that 's dangerous, even to see it in their minds. '' Lopez responded by stating: "Well, you know, this is a movie that has the touches upon those themes, but really, it 's a thriller (...) it 's about empowering yourself in any situation, you know, that you have. When I read the script, I saw it as, you have the power within yourself, no matter how severe the situation can be, to change whatever that is, to find that power within yourself to change any negative situation. ''
Enough was planned to be released in September 2001, but was pushed back to "early ''. Ultimately, it was released on May 24, 2002. With a production budget of $38 million, the film did make a profit. After its opening week, Enough ranked at No. 5 on the American Box Office chart, grossing over $14 million having been screened across 2,623 theaters. The next week, it grossed $6.8 million, dropping to No. 7 at the Box Office, and grossed $3.7 million after its third week, falling to No. 9. Ultimately, Enough grossed $40 million domestically and a total of $51.8 million worldwide.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the DVD of Enough on October 8, 2002, in Dolby Digital English and French languages, as well as subtitles. A VHS edition was released on March 4, 2003. A special widescreen edition containing an aspect ratio of 2.40: 1 was released on September 16, 2003; it also included Spanish language options. It has a range of extras which includes three deleted scenes: "Strip Joint Break In '', "Enough Is Enough '' and "Krav Maga: Contact Combat ''. Lopez 's music video for the song 's soundtrack "Alive '' is also included. During a "making - of '' documentary for the film entitled "Max on the Set: Enough '' Lopez stated she was attracted to Enough because it was "like a female Rocky ''. Cynthia Fuchs from PopMatters wrote an in - depth review of the special addition DVD release, and said: "Just why this film needs a second DVD release is unclear, except for the apparent diktat that there is no such thing as enough or even too much J - Lo ''.
On the review aggregator Metacritic, the film had an average score of 25 out of 100, based on 32 reviews from professional critics. At Rotten Tomatoes, 22 % of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 122 reviews. The film earned generally negative reviews from movie critics, although some praised Lopez 's performance. Stephen Holden of The New York Times said Lopez "holds the screen in a star performance that has less to do with acting than with embodying a forceful, streetwise woman who stands up for herself '', while commenting that its preview had "audience gasping '' and "Enough does a better job than most movies of sustaining a mood of palpable physical menace, then confirming your worst fears ''. On the other hand, Alice King of Entertainment Weekly described the film 's plot as "arduously nonsensical '' and felt that Lopez lacked connection with her on - screen daughter Tessa Allen, commenting that: "All this to protect a helium - voiced little girl with whom Lopez has so little chemistry, it 's as if she 's handling garbage rather than a small child. '' A writer from Contactmusic.com was underwhelmed with the development of the film, noting that the film does n't "utilize Slim 's old friend and romantic interest enough, nor does it develop Slim 's real and adopted fathers '' while it "uses the tiresome old "kid '' cliché. Gracie is, as always, just old enough to understand the situation, but not quite old enough to make an actual impact in the story. '' However, the writer did praise Lopez in the end sequence, "By the final scenes, despite their obviousness, I was as engrossed in the movie as I could have been, actually rooting for J. Lo to kick some bad guy butt ''. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote: "Lopez has an image of being sexy and tough, but her appeal as an actress is that she 's down to earth and that her emotions are accessible. There 's nothing cold about her. '' Additionally, LaSalle felt that "It 's the most tension - producing movie out there right now '', stating that "it has the biggest visceral kick, capable of inspiring blood lust in otherwise peaceful viewers.
ReelViews ' James Berardinelli said Enough is director "(Michael) Apted at his most commercial, and, unfortunately, his least compelling. '' Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice called Campbell the film 's "primary power source '', "His steely gaze and overbearing quietude are forever tainted; "Once and Again '' does n't stand a chance in Lifetime reruns ". Robert Koehler of Variety was negative, "Enough, a thriller detailing how a good wife gets back at an evil, possessive husband, is never provocative enough to generate strong emotional response. '' Chicago Sun - Times 's Roger Ebert called the film "tacky material '' and was surprised to "see a director like Michael Apted and an actress like Jennifer Lopez '' involved in it. Paula Nechack of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer called Enough "implausible and ugly '' and felt that it had already been done by actresses including Julia Roberts and Ashley Judd, and its script was "more than enough of a mess to tarnish her box - office luster. '' Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide reviewed the film negatively, but praised the ending sequence, "If ever a movie was undermined by its packaging, it 's this formulaic thriller about a resourceful battered wife and the brutal husband who wo n't let her go (...) the entire promotional campaign is driven by the last 20 minutes, in which Slim becomes a lean, mean fighting machine and kicks the bastard 's ass ''. Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said "the film 's idiocy works for Lopez: Every diva needs at least one camp classic on her résumé '', while Desson Thomson from the Washington Post emphasized his disappointment with the film, stating: "In terms of actual social conscience, the movie gets a demagogic, rabble - rousing F. It also gets a failed grade for honest writing. ''
Jennifer Lopez was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress for her performance in the film (as well as for Maid in Manhattan) but lost in a tie to both Madonna for Swept Away and Britney Spears for Crossroads.
The official score for Enough was composed by David Arnold, and released by Audio CD on June 4, 2002. In addition to its score, Lopez recorded the song entitled "Alive '', which she co-wrote with her then - husband Cris Judd. Although it served as the song 's soundtrack and was used during the film, it does not appear on the film 's score.
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riders to the sea by john millington synge summary | Riders to the Sea - wikipedia
Riders to the Sea is a play written by Irish Literary Renaissance playwright John Millington Synge. It was first performed on 25 February 1904 at the Molesworth Hall, Dublin, by the Irish National Theater Society. A one - act tragedy, the play is set in the Aran Islands, Inishmaan, and like all of Synge 's plays it is noted for capturing the poetic dialogue of rural Ireland. The plot is based not on the traditional conflict of human wills but on the hopeless struggle of a people against the impersonal but relentless cruelty of the sea.
In 1897, J.M. Synge was encouraged by his friend and colleague William Butler Yeats to visit the Aran Islands. He went on to spend the summers from 1898 to 1903 there. While on the Aran island of Inishmaan, Synge heard the story of a man from Inishmaan whose body washed up on the shore of an island of County Donegal, which inspired Riders to the Sea.
Riders to the Sea is written in the Hiberno - English dialect of the Aran Islands. Synge 's use of the native Irish language is part of the Irish Literary Revival, a period when Irish literature looked to encourage pride and nationalism in Ireland.
Maurya has lost her husband, and five of her sons to the sea. As the play begins Nora and Cathleen receive word from the priest that a body, which may be their brother Michael, has washed up on shore in Donegal, on the Irish mainland north of their home island of Inishmaan. Bartley is planning to sail to Connemara to sell a horse, and ignores Maurya 's pleas to stay. He leaves gracefully. Maurya predicts that by nightfall she will have no living sons, and her daughters chide her for sending Bartley off with an ill word. Maurya goes after Bartley to bless his voyage, and Nora and Cathleen receive clothing from the drowned corpse that confirms it was Michael. Maurya returns home claiming to have seen the ghost of Michael riding behind Bartley and begins lamenting the loss of the men in her family to the sea, after which some villagers bring in the corpse of Bartley. He has fallen off his horse into the sea and drowned.
This speech of Maurya 's is famous in Irish drama:
(raising her head and speaking as if she did not see the people around her) They 're all gone now, and there is n't anything more the sea can do to me... I 'll have no call now to be up crying and praying when the wind breaks from the south, and you can hear the surf is in the east, and the surf is in the west, making a great stir with the two noises, and they hitting one on the other. I 'll have no call now to be going down and getting Holy Water in the dark nights after Samhain, and I wo n't care what way the sea is when the other women will be keening. (To Nora) Give me the Holy Water, Nora; there 's a small sup still on the dresser.
The pervading theme of this work is the subtle paganism Synge observed in the people of rural Ireland. Following his dismissal of Christianity, Synge found that the predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland still retained many of the folktales and superstitions born out of the old Celtic paganism. This play is an examination of that idea as he has a set of deeply religious characters find themselves at odds with an unbeatable force of nature (this being the sea). While the family is clearly Catholic, they still find themselves wary of the supernatural characteristics of natural elements, an idea very present in Celtic paganism.
At least two motion picture versions of the play have been made:
The composer Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872 -- 1958) made an almost verbatim setting of the play as an opera, using the same title (1927).
Bruce Montgomery (1927 -- 2008) wrote a light opera, Spindrift (1963), that was based on Riders to the Sea.
German composer Eduard Pütz (1911 -- 2000) also set the play as an opera, using the same title (1972).
American composer Marga Richter (born 1926) also set the play as a one - act opera, using the same title (1996).
French composer Henri Rabaud (1873 - 1949) L'appel de la mer, a one - act opera, (1924), libretto by Rabaud based on Riders to the Sea, debut in Paris, Salle Favart, April 10, 1924
Mary Anthony 's piece is titled Threnody.
Señora Carrar 's Rifles is a one - act play adaptation.
The play has been translated in French by Georgette Sable and it has been published by Anthropomare
Other translations include: À cheval vers la mer (Riders to the Sea, 1903; 1904) translated by Maurice Bourgeois, Cavaliers à la mer, translated by Fouad El - Etr, and Cavaliers vers la mer (combined with L'Ombre de la vallée), translated by Françoise Morvan.
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when did the 2018 honda civic come out | Honda Civic (tenth generation) - wikipedia
1.6 L R16B I4 1.8 L R18Z1 I4 2.0 L K20C2 I4 1.0 L P10A2 turbocharged I3 1.5 L L15B7 turbocharged I4
The tenth generation Honda Civic was released in November 2015 worldwide, replacing the ninth generation Honda Civic.
The Civic is based on an all - new Honda compact global platform.
It utilizes higher grade steel, the unit body is 68 lb (31 kg) lighter than the prior model and the center of gravity has been reduced 0.6 in (15 mm). The sedan 's wheelbase is 1.2 in (30 mm) longer with rear disc brakes made standard. To minimize NVH the Civic adds fluid - filled suspension bushings. A dual pinion steering system is introduced along with a thicker and more rigid 1.2 in (30 mm) diameter steering column for improved steering feel, additionally the steering gear ratio is variable, with 2.2 turns lock - to - lock compared to 3.1 turns lock - to - lock from the previous model and a quicker 10.93: 1 steering ratio.
The exterior features standard LED DRLs and C - shaped LED taillights. For the 1.5 L turbo variant, it is distinguished by a rear wing spoiler as standard in certain markets in Asia while for the U.S market, it can be distinguished by a rear decklid spoiler.
The Civic 's restyled design available as a 2019 model features Honda Sensing as standard and Sport Trim on Sedan and Coupe. Changes at the front features a restyled lower air splitter, piano black front grille and chrome accented foglamp trim. A new sport trim was added above the LX trim, adding rectangular centre exhaust, rear decklid spoiler and 18 ' ' alloy wheels. The facelift was unveiled and available in the U.S market on 10 October 2018.
Sedan
Hatch
Coupe
The production sedan for North American market was unveiled at the YouTube Space LA on 16 September 2015. Models include a choice of two engines: a naturally aspirated 2.0 - liter I4 engine paired to either a six - speed manual or CVT transmission, or 1.5 - liter turbocharged direct injected I4 engine with only a CVT transmission. The sedan 's 2.0 - liter engine paired with the CVT has an EPA - estimated fuel economy of 31 / 40 / 34 mpg (city / highway / combined).
The Civic Concept was unveiled in April at the 2015 New York Auto Show.
The production coupe was unveiled at the 2015 Los Angeles Auto Show in November, sales began during March 2016.
The Civic Hatchback Prototype vehicle was unveiled at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show, the production version was unveiled at the 2016 Paris Motor Show. The hatchback is developed jointly by Honda R&D teams in Europe and Japan, and manufactured in its Swindon, England plant. US models went on sale in September 2016 (2017 MY).
Early US models only come with a 1.5 - liter turbo engine of either 174 or 180 hp (130 or 134 kW; 176 or 182 PS) with a CVT. European models are set to go on sale in Spring 2017. Early models included choice of 3 engines (1.0 - liter and 1.5 - liter turbo, 1.6 - liter diesel all with CVT).
The Civic Si Prototype was unveiled in November of 2016 at the Los Angeles International Auto Show. It is powered by a turbocharged 1.5 - liter engine available exclusively with a 6 speed manual. Performance options include active shock absorbers, active steering and a limited - slip differential.
The Type R Prototype was unveiled along with the production hatchback at the 2016 Paris Motor Show. The prototype shared the same overall body as the regular hatchback but with a more performance - focused appearance. The Type R Prototype included unique brushed aluminium - effect paintwork, 20 - inch piano black alloy wheels, a carbon fibre front splitter and a large rear spoiler. In production form, the new Honda Civic Type R will use the same 2.0 litre turbocharged four - cylinder petrol engine as the previous version exclusively with 6 speed manual. It is also the first time a Civic Type R will be sold in the North American market.
Production of the sedan began at Honda of Canada Manufacturing on October 20, 2015 and shortly later at Honda Manufacturing of Indiana began on October 27. Civic Hatchbacks are produced at Honda of the UK Manufacturing (HUM).
The 2.0 - liter and 1.5 - liter turbo engines used in North American Civic are manufactured in Anna, Ohio. The vehicles ' automatic transmissions (CVTs) are sourced from Honda plants in Russells Point, Ohio and Celaya, Mexico.
Imported from Thailand, the launch of the current generation Civic sedan in Australia, sales of the Honda model shot up almost 50 percent. It has about 23 percent of private market share, matching performance of the best sellers in the segment. Honda does not compete in fleet or rental market. The biggest seller is the RS contributing to over 25 per cent of sales, while 60 percent of sales is made up of the turbocharged models in the line - up. The hatchback was launched in May 2017.
The Civic was revived for the Japanese Domestic Market in 2017, after a seven - year hiatus that entirely skipped the ninth generation. The tenth generation Civic line was unveiled in Japan on July 27, 2017 and sales began there on September 29, 2017. It is available in both sedan and hatchback forms.
Honda Automobile Thailand debuted the Civic on 12 March 2016. Choices include E, El, Turbo and Turbo RS, redeveloped 1.8 - litre naturally aspirated with i - VTEC technology that produces 141 hp (105 kW) and 174 N ⋅ m (128 lb ⋅ ft) of torque and the new 1.5 - litre VTEC TURBO produces 173 hp (129 kW) and 220 N ⋅ m (160 lb ⋅ ft) of torque, achieved with the employment of turbocharger, and unlike North American models, it is equipped with VTEC. Both engines are mated to a continuously variable transmission (CVT).
Happy Motoring (Honda 's sole distributor) unveiled the tenth generation Civic on 26 August 2016. It is offered with a reworked 1.6 L i - VTEC engine that produces 125 PS (123 hp; 92 kW) or a 1.5 L VTEC turbocharged engine that produces 173 PS (171 hp; 127 kW) coupled to a 7 simulated gears CVT with paddle shift are offered. As before, the Civic is offered with premium pricing of US $26,000 to US $35,000, and they continue to be imported from Thailand for to allow competitive pricing structures.
The tenth generation Civic sedan was launched on 7 April 2016 at the 24th Indonesia International Motor Show in Jakarta by Honda Prospect Motor. It uses the newer 1.5 L L15B7 I4 i - VTEC engine with a turbocharger. The hatchback was also launched on 9 June 2017, and uses the same engine as the sedan, and is available in S and E types with a CVT transmission only.
Honda Atlas revealed the model for Pakistan on 22 July 2016. At the time of launch, three variants were offered, the: i - VTEC, i - VTEC Oriel and VTEC Turbo. i - VTEC and i - VTEC Oriel trims come with 1.8 - liter engine with a 6 speed CVT while the VTEC Turbo has a 1.5 - liter turbocharged engine with a 7 speed CVT.
On 9 June 2016, the Civic was launched in Malaysia with only the sedan bodystyle which was offered with three variants: 1.8 L, 1.5 L Turbo and 1.5 L Turbo Premium.
The Civic sedan was offered by the local dealership in sedan form with a choice of a 1.6 L or 1.5 L turbo in July 2016. For a limited period of time, the hatchback form was offered as well however in limited units from 2017 till 2018.
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when was the acts of the apostles written and by whom | Acts of the Apostles - wikipedia
Acts of the Apostles (Ancient Greek: Πράξεις τῶν Ἀποστόλων, Práxeis tôn Apostólōn; Latin: Actūs Apostolōrum), often referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire.
Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two - part work, Luke -- Acts, by the same anonymous author, usually dated to around 80 -- 90 AD. The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world 's salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the promised Messiah. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with Jesus 's Ascension to Heaven. The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. Initially, the Jews are receptive to the Christian message, but soon they turn against the followers of Jesus. Rejected by the Jews, under the guidance of the Apostle Peter the message is taken to the Gentiles. The later chapters tell of Paul 's conversion, his mission in Asia Minor and the Aegean, and finally his imprisonment in Rome, where, as the book ends, he awaits trial.
Luke -- Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. Luke -- Acts can be also seen as a defense of (or "apology '' for) the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the Romans serving as external arbiters on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law. On the one hand Luke portrays the Christians as a sect of the Jews, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, Luke seems unclear as to the future God intends for Jews and Christians, celebrating the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers while also stressing how the Jews had rejected God 's promised Messiah.
The title "Acts of the Apostles '' (Greek Πράξεις ἀποστόλων Praxeis Apostolon) was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing title or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear, however, that it was not given by the author.
The Gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two - volume work which scholars call Luke -- Acts. Together they account for 27.5 % of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church 's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church.
The author is not named in either volume. According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, he was the "Luke '' named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but "a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. '') (An example can be seen by comparing Acts 's accounts of Paul 's conversion (Acts 9: 1 -- 31, 22: 6 -- 21, and 26: 9 -- 23) with Paul 's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1: 17 -- 24).) The author "is an admirer of Paul, but does not share Paul 's own view of himself as an apostle; his own theology is considerably different from Paul 's on key points and does not represent Paul 's own views accurately. '' He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high - brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke 's audience.
The earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Paul 's imprisonment in Rome c. 63 AD, but an early date is now rarely put forward. The last possible date would be set by its first definite citation by another author, but there is no unanimity on this; some scholars find echoes of Acts in a work from c. 95 AD called I Clement, while others see no indisputable citation until the middle of the 2nd century. The majority of scholars date Luke -- Acts to 80 -- 90 AD, on the grounds that it uses Mark as a source and looks back on the destruction of Jerusalem, and does not show any awareness of the letters of Paul (which began circulating late in the century); if, however, it does show awareness of Paul and also of Josephus, then a date early in the 2nd century is more likely. In either case, there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.
Luke (or more accurately the anonymous author of Luke -- Acts) aligned his work, Luke -- Acts, to the "narratives '' (διήγησις, diēgēsis) which many others had written, and described his own work as an "orderly account '' (ἀκριβῶς καθεξῆς). Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature. The title "Acts of the Apostles '' (Praxeis Apostolon) would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (praxeis), but it was not the title given by the author.
Luke seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well - known history of Rome, and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews. Like them, he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven. By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at, but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the Gospel of Mark and the collection of "sayings of Jesus '' called the Q source. He transposed a few incidents from Mark 's gospel to the time of the Apostles -- for example, the material about "clean '' and "unclean '' foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark 's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14: 58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6: 14).) There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement. Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence -- the traditional explanation of the three "we '' passages, for example, is that they represent eye - witness accounts. The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. By the 17th century, however, biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious -- its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul 's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th - century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites. (Marcion was a 2nd - century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews). Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Luke 's historical accuracy (although this has never died out) than in understanding his theological program.
Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus - followers gathered in a house to share the Lord 's supper. The author assumes an educated Greek - speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco - Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, informing him of his intention to provide an "ordered account '' of events which will lead his reader to "certainty ''. He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification -- "did it happen? '' -- but to encourage faith -- "what happened, and what does it all mean? ''
Acts (or Luke -- Acts) is intended as a work of "edification. '' Edification means "the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice, '' but is not all of Luke 's purpose. He also engages with the question of a Christian 's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous. The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God.
There are two major textual variants of Acts, the Western text - type and the Alexandrian. The oldest complete Alexandrian manuscripts date from the 4th century and the oldest Western ones from the 6th, with fragments and citations going back to the 3rd. Western texts of Acts are 6.2 -- 8.4 % longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts. These conflicts suggest that Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century. The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text - type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the Gospel of Luke, as in that case the, Western version is the shorter. The debate therefore continues.
Acts has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God 's Covenantal people, the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author 's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul 's utterance in Acts 19: 21, which echoes Jesus 's words 9: 51 (Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem). The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.
The Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to "my earlier book '', almost certainly the gospel.
The apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God 's power on them, and Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs Christ - like healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. The first believers share all property in common, ate in each other 's homes, and worshipped together. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the Christians begin to be increasingly persecuted by the Jews. Stephen is arrested for blasphemy, and after a trial, is found guilty and stoned by the Jews. Stephen 's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.
The message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the Christians, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God - fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Peter and Cornelius, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north - western Syria, the third - largest city of the empire), and here Christ 's followers are first called Christians.
The mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean, preaching, converting Gentiles, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes '', and imprisoned. Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ ''. Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul 's legal troubles.
Prior to the 1950s, Luke -- Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then, however, the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological. Luke 's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview. His "salvation history '' stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of "the Law and the Prophets '' (Luke 16: 16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1: 5 -- 3: 1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3: 2 -- 24: 51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.
Luke -- Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah promised to the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. This theme is introduced at the opening of the Gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls that the prophets were rejected by Israel and accepted by Gentiles; at the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, "beginning from Jerusalem. '' He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach "in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth. '' They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea, then Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.
For Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is "poured out '' at Pentecost, on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers, and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God 's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God 's power (At his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, "You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you ''): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).
One issue debated by scholars is Luke 's political vision regarding the relationship between the early church and the Roman Empire. On the one hand, Luke generally does not portray this interaction as one of direct conflict. Rather, there are ways in which each may have considered having a relationship with the other rather advantageous to its own cause. For example, early Christians may have appreciated hearing about the protection Paul received from Roman officials against Gentile rioters in Philippi (Acts 16: 16 - 40) and Ephesus (Acts 19: 23 - 41), and against Jewish rioters on two occasions (Acts 17: 1 - 17; Acts 18: 12 - 17). Meanwhile, Roman readers may have approved of Paul 's censure of the illegal practice of magic (Acts 19: 17 - 19) as well as the amicability of his rapport with Roman officials such as Sergius Paulus (Acts 13: 6 - 12) and Festus (Acts 26: 30 - 32). Furthermore, Acts does not include any account of a struggle between Christians and the Roman government as a result of the latter 's imperial cult. Thus Paul is depicted as a moderating presence between the church and the Roman Empire.
On the other hand, events such as the imprisonment of Paul at the hands of the empire (Acts 22 - 28) as well as several encounters that reflect negatively on Roman officials (for instance, Felix 's desire for a bribe from Paul in Acts 24: 26) function as concrete points of conflict between Rome and the early church. Perhaps the most significant point of tension between Roman imperial ideology and Luke 's political vision is reflected in Peter 's speech to the Roman centurion, Cornelius (Acts 10: 36). Peter states that "this one '' (οὗτος), i.e. Jesus, "is lord (κύριος) of all. '' The title, κύριος, was often ascribed to the Roman emperor in antiquity, rendering its use by Luke as an appellation for Jesus an unsubtle challenge to the emperor 's authority. Thus, while the overt relationship between Christianity and empire in the book of Acts can generally be characterized as irenic, Luke insinuates the inevitability of conflict between the two over the issue of ultimate allegiance.
As the second part of the two - part work Luke -- Acts, Acts has significant links to the Gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts, for example, find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus 's forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books. There are also differences between Luke and Acts, amounting at times to outright contradiction. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, immediately after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later. There are similar conflicts over the theology. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke -- Acts, these differences do suggest the need for caution in seeking too much consistency in books written in essence as popular literature.
Acts agrees with Paul 's letters on the major outline of Paul 's career: as Saul he is converted and becomes Paul the Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and struggling to free Gentile Christians from the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul 's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently seen as contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Luke it was the Jews (2 Corinthians 11: 33 and Acts 9: 24). Acts speaks of "Christians '' and "disciples '', but Paul never uses either term, and it is striking that Acts never brings Paul into conflict with the Jerusalem church and places Paul under the authority of the Jerusalem church and its leaders, especially James and Peter (Acts 15 vs. Galatians 2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul 's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also alleged major differences between Acts and Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ 's nature), eschatology (understanding of the "last things ''), and apostleship.
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do no evil is the tag line of | Do n't be evil - wikipedia
"Do n't be evil '' is the motto of Google 's corporate code of conduct, first introduced around 2000. Following Google 's corporate restructuring under the conglomerate Alphabet Inc. in October 2015, Alphabet took "Do the right thing '' as its motto, also forming the opening of its corporate code of conduct. The original motto was retained, however, in the code of conduct of Google, now a subsidiary of Alphabet.
The motto was first suggested either by Google employee Paul Buchheit at a meeting about corporate values that took place in early 2000 or in 2001 or, according to another account, by Google Engineer Amit Patel in 1999. Buchheit, the creator of Gmail, said he "wanted something that, once you put it in there, would be hard to take out '', adding that the slogan was "also a bit of a jab at a lot of the other companies, especially our competitors, who at the time, in our opinion, were kind of exploiting the users to some extent ''.
While the official corporate philosophy of Google does not contain the words "Do n't be evil '', they were included in the prospectus (on Form S - 1) of Google 's 2004 IPO (a letter from Google 's founders, later called the "' Do n't Be Evil ' manifesto ''): "Do n't be evil. We believe strongly that in the long term, we will be better served -- as shareholders and in all other ways -- by a company that does good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains. '' The motto is sometimes incorrectly stated as Do no evil.
In their 2004 founders ' letter prior to their initial public offering, Larry Page and Sergey Brin argued that their "Do n't be evil '' culture prohibited conflicts of interest, and required objectivity and an absence of bias:
Google users trust our systems to help them with important decisions: medical, financial and many others. Our search results are the best we know how to produce. They are unbiased and objective, and we do not accept payment for them or for inclusion or more frequent updating. We also display advertising, which we work hard to make relevant, and we label it clearly. This is similar to a well - run newspaper, where the advertisements are clear and the articles are not influenced by the advertisers ' payments. We believe it is important for everyone to have access to the best information and research, not only to the information people pay for you to see.
Chris Hoofnagle, director of University of California, Berkeley Law 's information privacy programs, has stated that Google 's original intention expressed by the "do n't be evil '' motto is linked to the company 's separation of search results from advertising. However, he argues that clearly separating search results from sponsored links is required by law, thus, Google 's practice is now mainstream and no longer remarkable or good. Hoofnagle argued in 2009 that Google should abandon the motto because:
The evil talk is not only an albatross for Google, it obscures the substantial consumer benefits from Google 's advertising model. Because we have forgotten the original context of Google 's evil representations, the company should remind the public of the company 's contribution to a revolution in search advertising, and highlight some overlooked benefits of their model.
In a 2013 NPR interview, Eric Schmidt revealed that when Larry Page and Sergey Brin recommended the motto as a guiding principle for Google, he "thought this was the stupidest rule ever '', but then changed his opinion after a meeting where an engineer successfully referred to the motto when expressing concerns about a planned advertising product, which was eventually cancelled. Journalists have raised questions about the actual definition of what Google considered "evil ''. On the user - facing ' What We Believe ' page, Google appeared to replace the original motto altogether (a carefully reworded version stood as of 10 April 2015, "You can make money without doing evil '', which varied significantly from the absolute imperative of DON 'T be evil).
As of 2017, the motto is still cited in the preface to Google 's Code of Conduct:
"Do n't be evil. '' Googlers generally apply those words to how we serve our users. But "Do n't be evil '' is much more than that...
The Google Code of Conduct is one of the ways we put "Do n't be evil '' into practice...
Critics of Google frequently spin the motto in a negative way, such as InfoWorld 's 2014 article "Google? Evil? You have no idea ''. Google 's 2012 announcement to "begin tracking users universally across all its services '' (via "Google Plus '' accounts) resulted in public backlash on the motto, like "Google 's Broken Promise: The End of "Do n't Be Evil '' on Gizmodo. In the same year, major social networks even co-developed a "Do n't be evil '' browser bookmarklet (specifically to expose alleged SERP manipulation promoting Google - owned content over that of others).
On 16 May 2013 Margaret Hodge MP, the chair of the United Kingdom Public Accounts Committee accused Google of being "calculated and unethical '' over its use of highly contrived and artificial distinctions to avoid paying billions of pounds in Corporation tax owed by its UK operations. The company was accused by the committee, which represents the interests of all UK taxpayers, of being "evil '' for not paying its "fair amount of tax ''. She told Matt Brittin, head of Google UK, "I think that you do evil ''. In 2015, the UK Government introduced a new law intended to penalise Google and other large multinational corporations ' artificial tax avoidance.
In 2015, The Commercial Appeal reported that "critics say Google 's recent moves belie search giant 's motto ''.
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how do they determine the heisman trophy winner | Heisman Trophy - wikipedia
The Heisman Memorial Trophy (usually known colloquially as the Heisman Trophy or The Heisman), is awarded annually to the most outstanding player in college football in the United States whose performance best exhibits the pursuit of excellence with integrity. Winners epitomize great ability combined with diligence, perseverance, and hard work. It is presented by the Heisman Trophy Trust in early December before the postseason bowl games.
The award was created by the Downtown Athletic Club in 1935 to recognize "the most valuable college football player east of the Mississippi. '' After the death in October 1936 of the Club 's athletic director, John Heisman, the award was named in his honor and broadened to include players west of the Mississippi. Heisman had been active in college athletics as a football player; a head football, basketball, and baseball coach; and an athletic director. It is the oldest of several overall awards in college football, including the Maxwell Award, Walter Camp Award, and the AP Player of the Year. The Heisman and the AP Player of the Year honor the most outstanding player, while the Maxwell and the Walter Camp award recognizes the best player, and the Archie Griffin Award recognizes the most valuable player. The most recent winner of the Heisman Trophy is University of Louisville quarterback Lamar Jackson.
The trophy itself, designed by sculptor Frank Eliscu, is modeled after Ed Smith, a leading player in 1934 for the now - defunct New York University football team. The trophy is made out of cast bronze, is 13.5 inches (34.3 cm) tall and weighs 25 pounds (11.3 kg).
Eliscu had asked Smith, his former George Washington High School classmate, to pose for a commissioned sculpture of a football player. Smith did not realize until 1982 that the sculpture had become the Heisman Trophy. The Downtown Athletic Club presented Smith with a Heisman Trophy of his own in 1985.
From its inception in 1935, the statue was cast by Dieges & Clust in New York (and later Providence, Rhode Island) until 1980, when Dieges and Clust was sold to Herff Jones. For a time until at least 2008, the statues were cast by Roman Bronze Works in New York.
Originally only players east of the Mississippi were eligible, but since 1936 all football players in all divisions of college football are eligible for the award, though winners usually represent Division I Football Bowl Subdivision schools.
There are three categories of persons eligible to vote for the award winner:
Each voter identifies three selections, ranking them in order. Each first - place selection is awarded three points. Each second - place selection is awarded two points. Each third - place selection is awarded one point. Voters must make three selections and can not duplicate a selection, else the ballot is invalid and none of the selections count. This is a positional voting system.
The accounting firm Deloitte is responsible for the tabulation of votes, which has moved almost exclusively to online voting since 2007.
In 2007 Tim Tebow became the first sophomore to win the Heisman. He also became the first major college quarterback to rush for 20 touchdowns and pass for 20 touchdowns in a season.
Ohio State and Notre Dame have the most number of Heisman trophies won, each with seven; Ohio State has had six different players win the award.
The player who received the most votes (by percentage) was Reggie Bush of USC in 2005, though his award has since been vacated. The player who won by the widest margin was Troy Smith of Ohio State in 2006. The closest margin of votes was in 2009 between winner Mark Ingram of Alabama and Toby Gerhart of Stanford.
Eleven of the Heisman Trophy winners are in the Pro Football Hall of Fame, and four winners have also been named Most Valuable Player in a Super Bowl. Some winners have gone on to play in other professional sports, including Bo Jackson in baseball and Charlie Ward in basketball. Pete Dawkins and Dick Kazmaier are the only winners not to pursue a professional sports career: Dawkins had a career with the United States Army where he achieved the rank of Brigadier General; Kazmaier attended Harvard Business School, founded a consulting company specializing in sports marketing, and chaired the President 's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition during 1988 -- 89.
In addition to personal statistics, team achievements play a heavy role in the voting -- a typical Heisman winner represents a team that had an outstanding season and was most likely in contention for the national championship or a major conference championship at some point in that season. Although the University of Chicago abandoned Division I football in 1939, and is now a Division III school, and Yale and Princeton are now Division I FCS, all three schools were considered major football programs at the time their players won the award.
The closest that a player outside the modern Division I FBS came to winning the Heisman is third place; in both cases, the players involved played for schools in what was at the time Division I - AA, now Division I FCS. The first was Gordie Lockbaum from Holy Cross in 1987, followed by Steve McNair, from Alcorn State in 1993. Armanti Edwards, from Appalachian State University, was also briefly mentioned as a candidate for the award following Appalachian 's upset of No. 5 - ranked Michigan in 2007.
Besides Griffin winning consecutive Heismans at Ohio State, three other programs had two different players win the Heisman Trophy in consecutive years: Yale (1936 -- 37), Army (1945 -- 46), and Southern California (USC) (2004 -- 05, though Reggie Bush voluntarily forfeited his 2005 award in September 2010 and sent the trophy back to the Heisman Trust). With an earlier win in 2002, the USC program actually had three different winners within four years.
Only three high schools have produced multiple Heisman trophy winners. The first was Woodrow Wilson High School in Dallas, Texas (Davey O'Brien in 1938 and Tim Brown in 1987) (Woodrow remains the only public high school to be so recognized). Thereafter, two private high schools also achieved this distinction: Fork Union Military Academy in Fork Union, Virginia (Vinny Testaverde as a Postgraduate in 1982, and Eddie George in 1996) and Mater Dei High School in Santa Ana, California (John Huarte in 1964 and Matt Leinart in 2004).
Of the colleges where trophy namesake John Heisman coached, only Auburn University has produced Heisman winners, with Pat Sullivan in 1972, Bo Jackson in 1985, and Cam Newton in 2010.
Until recently, most winners of the Heisman have been seniors.
Texas A&M quarterback Johnny Manziel became the first freshman to win the Heisman in 2012. The following year, at 7003728200000000000 ♠ 19 years, 342 days old, Florida State quarterback Jameis Winston became the youngest Heisman Trophy winner at that time as a freshman. Both, however, were in their second year of college, having been redshirted during their first year of attendance, meaning that no true freshman has yet won the award. No sophomore won the Heisman in its first 72 years, at which point there were three consecutive sophomore winners -- Tim Tebow in 2007, followed by Sam Bradford and Mark Ingram Jr. -- with Lamar Jackson, who also surpassed Winston 's record as the youngest Heisman winner, becoming the fourth in 2016. Of the four sophomores to have won the award, only Bradford had been redshirted; the others all won during their second year of college attendance. Only a few juniors have won the award, starting with the eleventh winner in 1945, Doc Blanchard.
Five players have finished in the top three of the Heisman voting as freshmen or sophomores before later winning the award: Angelo Bertelli, Glenn Davis, Doc Blanchard, Doak Walker, and Herschel Walker. Eight players have finished in the top three as freshmen or sophomores but never won a Heisman: Clint Castleberry, Marshall Faulk, Michael Vick, Rex Grossman, Larry Fitzgerald, Adrian Peterson, Deshaun Watson, and Christian McCaffrey. Four players have specifically finished second in consecutive years: Glenn Davis (second in 1944 and 1945, winner in 1946), Charlie Justice (second 1948 and 1949), Darren McFadden (second 2006 and 2007), and Andrew Luck (second 2010 and 2011).
The oldest and youngest Heisman winners ever both played for Atlantic Coast Conference schools. The oldest, Chris Weinke, was 28 years old when he won in 2000; he spent six years in minor league baseball before enrolling at Florida State. The youngest winner is 2016 recipient Jackson of Louisville at the age of 7003727700000000000 ♠ 19 years, 338 days, four days younger than Winston was when he won in 2013.
The Heisman is usually awarded to a running back or a quarterback; very few players have won the trophy playing at a different position. Two tight ends have won the trophy, Larry Kelley and Leon Hart. Also, Desmond Howard and Tim Brown won as wide receivers. Charles Woodson is the only primarily defensive player to win the award, doing so as a defensive back, kick returner, and occasional wide receiver for Michigan in 1997. Legendary linebacker Dick Butkus only placed sixth in 1963 and third in 1964 and could qualify as an interior lineman, as he played center on offense during these two - way player days. The highest finish ever for any individual who played exclusively on defense is second, by defensive end Hugh Green of Pittsburgh in 1980 and linebacker Manti Te'o of Notre Dame in 2012. Although the Heisman is named in honor of an interior lineman, no interior lineman on either side of the ball has ever won the award. Offensive guard Tom Brown of Minnesota and the offensive tackle John Hicks of Ohio State placed second in 1960 and 1973, respectively. Rich Glover, a defensive lineman from Nebraska, finished 3rd in the 1972 vote -- which was won by his Cornhusker teammate Johnny Rodgers. Washington 's DT Steve Emtman finished 4th in voting in 1991. Ndamukong Suh of Nebraska finished fourth in 2009 as a defensive tackle. Also, Kurt Burris, a center for the Oklahoma Sooners football team, was a runner - up for the award in 1954 and Orlando Pace finished fourth in 1996 as an offensive tackle for Ohio State.
Because of damage to the Downtown Athletic Club 's facilities following 9 / 11, the 2001 award ceremony was moved to the New York Marriott Marquis in Times Square. After the DAC declared bankruptcy in 2002, the Yale Club hosted the presentation at its facility in 2002 and 2003. The ceremony moved to the Hilton New York for 2004 and has been presented annually at the PlayStation Theater, formerly known as the Best Buy Theater and the Nokia Theatre Times Square, since 2005.
The 2008 Heisman press conference was held at the Sports Museum of America in New York. There was an entire gallery with the museum - attraction dedicated to the Trophy, including the making of the Trophy, the history of the DAC, and information on John Heisman and all the Trophy 's winners. There was also a dedicated area celebrating the most recent winner, and the opportunity for visitors to cast their vote for next winner (with the top vote - winner receiving 1 official vote on their behalf). The Sports Museum of America closed permanently in February 2009.
The award was first presented in 1935 by the Downtown Athletic Club (DAC) in New York City, a privately owned recreation facility located on the lower west side near the later site of the former World Trade Center. It was first known simply as the DAC Trophy. The first winner, Jay Berwanger, was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles but declined to sign for them. He never played professional football for any team. In 1936, John Heisman died and the trophy was renamed in his honor. Larry Kelley, the second winner of the award, was the first man to win it as the "Heisman Trophy ''.
The first African American player to win the Heisman was Syracuse 's Ernie Davis, who never played a snap in the NFL. He was diagnosed with leukemia shortly after winning the award and died in 1963. In 1966, former Florida Gators quarterback Steve Spurrier gave his Heisman trophy to the university president, Dr. J. Wayne Reitz, so that the award could be shared by Florida students and faculty. The gesture caused Florida 's student government to raise funds to purchase a replacement trophy for Spurrier. Since then, the Downtown Athletic Club has issued two trophies to winners, one to the individual and a replica to his college.
Several Heisman trophies have been sold over the years. O.J. Simpson 's 1968 trophy was sold in February 1999 for $ 230,000 as part of the settlement of the civil trial in the O.J. Simpson murder case. Yale end Larry Kelley sold his 1936 Heisman in December 1999 for $328,110 to settle his estate and to provide a bequest for his family. Charles White 's 1979 trophy first sold for $184,000 and then for nearly $300,000 in December 2006 to help pay back federal income taxes. The current record price for a Heisman belongs to the trophy won by Minnesota halfback Bruce Smith in 1941 at $395,240. Paul Hornung sold his Heisman for $250,000 to endow student scholarships for University of Notre Dame students from his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky. Eliscu 's original plaster cast sold at Sotheby 's for $228,000 in December 2005.
The presentation of the Heisman trophy was not broadcast on television until 1977. Before 1977, the presentation of the award was not televised as a stand - alone special, but rather as a quick in - game feature. The ceremony usually aired on ABC as a feature at halftime of the last major national telecast (generally a rivalry game) of the college football season. ABC essentially showed highlights since the award was handed out as part of an annual weeknight dinner at the Heisman Club. At the time, the event had usually been scheduled for the week following the Army -- Navy Game. The most watched Heisman ceremony ever was in 2009 when Mark Ingram won over Colt McCoy.
On December 8, 1977, CBS (who paid $200,000 for the rights) aired a one - hour (at 10: 00 p.m. Eastern Time) special to celebrate the presentation of the Heisman trophy to Earl Campbell of the University of Texas. Elliott Gould and O.J. Simpson were the co-hosts, with Connie Stevens and Leslie Uggams providing musical entertainment and Robert Klein providing some comic relief.
Since then, a number of companies have provided television coverage of the event:
A number of critics have expressed concern about the unwritten rules regarding player position and age, as noted above.
Over the years, there has been substantial criticism of a regional bias, suggesting that the Heisman balloting process has ignored West Coast players. At present, the Pac - 12 Conference (formerly Pac - 10 and Pac - 8) represents 12 of the 65 teams (roughly 18.5 %) in the Power Five conferences. The Heisman can be, and has been, presented to players from other conferences, but a random sample over a long period of time might suggest that Pac - 10 / 12 players might win somewhere close to 18 % of the Heisman awards. In the 20 seasons between 1981 (Marcus Allen) and 2002 (Carson Palmer), not a single Pacific - 10 Conference or other West Coast player won the Heisman Trophy. Three Southern California (USC) players have won the trophy in the early years of the 21st century and two won it subsequent to Palmer. Although Terry Baker, quarterback from Oregon State, won the trophy in 1962, and Gary Beban from UCLA won in 1967, no non-USC player from the West Coast had won between Stanford 's Jim Plunkett in 1970 and Oregon 's Marcus Mariota in 2014. Other than Mariota 's win, the closest since Plunkett 's wins have been Toby Gerhart, Andrew Luck, and Christian McCaffrey, Stanford players who were second in the Heisman balloting each year from 2009 to 2011 and 2015.
The West Coast bias discussion usually centers on the idea that East Coast voters see few West Coast games, because of television coverage contracts, time zone differences, or cultural interest. At Heisman - projection Web site StiffArmTrophy.com, commentator Kari Chisholm claims that the Heisman balloting process itself is inherently biased:
"For Heisman voting purposes, the nation is divided into six regions -- each of which get 145 votes. Put another way, each region gets exactly 16.67 percent of the votes. However, each region does not constitute an even one - sixth of the population. Three regions (Far West, Midwest, and Mid-Atlantic) have larger populations than 16.67 % of the national population; and three have less (Northeast, South, and Southwest). In fact, the Far West has the greatest population at 21.2 % of the country and the Northeast has the least at 11.9 %. ''
In 2010 University of Southern California athletic director Pat Haden announced the university would return its replica of the 2005 Heisman Trophy due to NCAA sanctions requiring the university to dissociate itself from Reggie Bush. The NCAA found that Bush had received gifts from an agent while at USC. On September 14, 2010, Bush voluntarily forfeited his title as a Heisman winner. The next day, the Heisman Trust announced the 2005 award would remain vacated and removed all mention of the 2005 award from its official website. Bush eventually returned the trophy itself to the Heisman Trust in 2012.
Critical responses from the national media were strident and varied. CBSSports.com producer J. Darin Darst opined that Bush "should never have been pressured to return the award. '' Kalani Simpson of Fox Sports wrote, "Nice try Heisman Trust... It 's a slick move to try to wipe the slate clean. '' Former Football Writers Association of America president Dennis Dodd, on the other hand, decided to fictitiously award Bush 's vacated 2005 award to Vince Young, the original runner - up that year. He wrote, "Since the Heisman folks wo n't re-vote, we did. Vince Young is the new winner of the 2005 Heisman. '' A Los Angeles Times piece argued that Bush 's Heisman was "tainted '' but lamented that the decision came five years after Bush was awarded the trophy and, therefore, four years after the expiration of Bush 's term as current holder of the Heisman title.
Media related to Heisman Trophy at Wikimedia Commons
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wizards of waverly place felix gets his wand | Wizards of Waverly Place (season 4) - Wikipedia
The fourth and final season of Wizards of Waverly Place aired on Disney Channel from November 12, 2010 to January 6, 2012. The Russo children, Alex (Selena Gomez), Justin (David Henrie), and Max Russo (Jake T. Austin) continue to compete to become the leading wizard in their magical family and begin to make difficult decisions about their futures. Maria Canals Barrera and David DeLuise co-star as their parents and Jennifer Stone co-stars as Alex 's best friend, Harper Finkle. This is the second season of the series to be broadcast in high - definition.
Season 4 of the series features a revamped opening sequence with clips from past seasons. The opening sequence takes place in the wizard lair at the Russo home. Footage of Alex (Selena Gomez) and Justin Russo (David Henrie) is shown in the Crystal replay ball from the season premiere "Alex Tells the World ''. Then, a spell book opens and footage of Max Russo (Jake T. Austin) and Harper Finkle (Jennifer Stone) appear. After that, footage of Theresa (Maria Canals Barrera) and Jerry Russo (David DeLuise) are shown in a cauldron. After the footage is played, Alex transports them to Times Square, with Alex waving her wand to reveal the title logo and the name of the creator. The theme song Everything Is Not What It Seems has also been remixed and sung by Selena Gomez for the fourth season of the show.
Alex and Justin are sent back to level one in the wizard competition after "exposing '' wizardry in "Alex Tells the World '', leaving Max as the most expected to become the family wizard. In "Alex Gives Up '', Alex quits the competition, but eventually decides to stay in the competition in "Journey to the Center of Mason '' to be with Mason. Before then, Harper tries to get Alex to enjoy life without wizardry. Meanwhile, Justin tries to tutor a class of delinquent wizards.
In the episode, "Three Maxes and a Little Lady '', Alex and Justin accidentally turn Max into a little girl, Maxine, portrayed by Bailee Madison. She ends up making Alex jealous when their father prefers Maxine over Alex. Maxine remains until "Back to Max ''. In the episode "Everything 's Rosie for Justin '', Justin falls in love with Rosie, a guardian angel, but at the end of "Dancing with Angels '' she becomes an Angel of Darkness. In "Zeke Finds Out '', the Russos finally reveal to Zeke that they are wizards. In "Wizard of the Year '', Alex is crowned Wizard of the Year for saving the world from the angels of darkness, and is reinstated in the Wizards Competition. In "Justin 's Back In '', Justin is reinstated in the Wizard Competition, after his class of delinquent wizards passes.
Meanwhile, Alex 's relationship with Mason is jeopardized again when a beast tamer, Chase Riprock, falls in love with Alex and Mason gets jealous. This results in Alex breaking up with Mason. Alex, Justin and Max then save the world from being destroyed by an asteroid. Later, Alex and Harper move into an apartment building with a secret 13th floor for wizards and other creatures in the wizard world. However, it turns out to be a trap made by Gorog to capture the wizards who live in the same floor to make them join the dark side and rule the wizard world. He is defeated and destroyed by Alex, Justin and Max who were using the Power of Three. During this, Alex and Mason get back together and, after a long time, Justin finally gets back together with Juliet.
Finally, in the hour - long series finale, Alex, Justin, and Max compete in the family wizard competition. Alex wins and gains full wizardry; Justin becomes a full wizard as well when Professor Crumbs reveals he is retiring as headmaster of WizTech and passes the position to Justin. Jerry also decides to pass down the Waverly Sub Station to Max one day since he is the only child who is not a wizard anymore. The series ends with hugging and Alex saying that they are all happy.
Guest stars and recurring cast include: Gregg Sulkin as Mason Greybeck, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, David Barrera as Carlos Cucuy, Samantha Boscarino as Lisa Cucuy, Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen, Daniel Samonas as Dean Moriarty, Bailee Madison as Maxine Russo, Shane Harper as Fidel, Dan Benson as Zeke Beakerman, John Rubinstein as Gorog, Andy Kindler as Chancellor Tootietootie, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Leven Rambin as Rosie, China Anne McClain as Tina, Kari Wahlgren as Helen, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Jackie Evancho as Herself, McKaley Miller as Talia, Valente Rodriguez as Muy Macho, and Nick Roux as Chase Riprock.
The Russos and Mason finally make it back home, but their wizard powers are still gone. While the family wants to stay quiet, Alex believes that they should take action, so she reveals that they are wizards to reporters and tells them that a group of wizards are being held captive by the government. As she urges them to spread the word, Professor Crumbs appears and tells her that everything that had happened was a test that she failed miserably and orders her to Wizard Court for exposing wizardry to the world. Justin is also ordered to attend because he exposed magic to Agent Lamwood, who was a creation from Professor Crumbs ' mind. The judges rule Alex and Justin guilty, and Professor Crumbs sentences them both to be demoted to level one in the Family Wizard Competition, making them behind Max by two levels. Meanwhile, Max sets up traps in the Sub Station for the "government '', but ends up falling for one of them.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Alex decides to give up the wizard competition to spend more time with Mason and thinks that it does not matter since Max is all the way in the lead, but Chancellor Tootietootie tells Alex that non-wizards and werewolves can not date, because the werewolf always eats the human. Max 's picture on the front of Future Wizards magazine attracts the daughter of a family of Cucuys (mythical Latino monster) and they invite him to a dinner party on their yacht. Alex comes up with a scheme to invite Chancellor Tootietootie to the Cucuy party in hopes of getting him to appeal the law against werewolves and mortals dating. Lisa Cucuy finds out that Mason is a werewolf and decides that she wants him instead of Max. Alex gets jealous when Lisa flirts with Mason, so Alex says embarrassing things about Mason to everyone on the yacht so that he will be mad enough to turn into a werewolf. Carlos and Julie Cucuy jump off the boat as Cucuys are scared of werewolves. Jerry jumps off after them. Alex tells Lisa that she can get off the boat the easy way or her way. Once Lisa jumps off the boat, Chancellor Tootietootie says that their case will not be appealed as by Mason turning into a werewolf proved his point that they are dangerous. In the end, Alex and Mason have to break up to be friends and Harper finishes writing her first novel based on the werewolf - wizard relationship. Jerry tries to get Harper to help him out of the water but accidentally grabs her just finished novel, which causes him to fall back into the water. Meanwhile, Justin tutors a class of delinquent wizards in an attempt to gain a level to re-enter the Wizard Competition.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Harper tries teaching Alex how to live without magic, but the strain of taking responsibility for her actions instead of using magic causes a disagreement between the two best friends when Alex gets in big trouble for crashing Mr. Laritate 's car. As punishment, Alex has to clean the school 's garbage cans. Mr. Laritate forgives Alex after seeing how the crash influenced her, and Alex realizes that she will be okay without magic. Wanting to thank Harper, Alex uses Mr. Laritate 's lucky life - saving hula girl figurine, Leilani, for luck, as Mr. Laritate does. During Harper 's driving test, Alex turns into the hula girl and guides Harper through the test, knowing that she might fail. In the end, Harper passes her test. Meanwhile, Jerry wants to pass on the wizard family robe to Max, but Justin has a hard time letting go of it.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Julio Oscar Mechoso as DMV Instructor
After she finds out that she will lose her powers, Alex can no longer date Mason, so they decide to try being best friends instead. After watching a film at the theaters, Harper, Alex, and Mason go home, Dean, who was Alex 's Ex-Boyfriend comes and asks Alex to get back together with him. Mason gets jealous. When Dean brings a gift for Alex, Mason then asks what Alex 's relationship is with Dean, and Max tells him that Dean and Alex used to date, making Mason more jealous. Mason then turns into a werewolf and eats Dean. Alex, Justin, and Max come up with a solution to turn Justin 's toy Captain Jim Bob submarine big and go in it. They then shrink it and go into Mason 's mouth. While there, Alex, Max, and Justin see Mason 's thoughts, which are all of Alex. They get Dean out, and Alex, when Harper, Max, and Justin leave, Alex tells Dean that he was knocked out and the doctor 's solution was for them all to dress up as cows. Dean then gives her his offer once again: he wants to get back with her. Alex tells him ' no ', and then gets back together with Mason, with deciding to get back to the Wizard Competition.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Alex joins Justin 's wizard class to try to move up in the competition. Max joins a sophisticated wizard society. They suggest he move the wizard competition up and he moves it to a few days away. Max quits the society because he finds out that they are taking advantage of him. Alex and Justin transform into Max in an attempt to change the date of the family wizard competition back to its original date and succeed. In the end of the episode they accidentally turn Max indefinitely into a little girl.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Kari Wahlgren as Helen, Shane Harper as Fidel
With Max still a little girl, their parents pay more attention to Max (Maxine), and Alex becomes jealous. Justin takes Maxine to her (Max 's) karate class and Maxine kicks Justin 's butt. After the class, Alex decides to make Jerry 's favorite sandwich in order to win his love back, but Maxine comes along with Justin, announcing that she beat Justin in karate, and Jerry immediately falls for her cuteness again. More jealous than ever, Alex comes back with Justin to Maxine 's karate class with their parents, having a slight idea of knowing how to change Maxine back to Max. They cast spells on Maxine, Justin using the spell he used on Max that turned him into Maxine, and Alex using the reverse spell. Unfortunately, it only makes Maxine cuter, which makes her furious. Instead of going against the person she was supposed to, she demands that she kicks either Alex or Justin 's butt. Justin goes against her, but seeing that he would lose, Alex casts a spell on Justin to make him a karate master. Too fast for Maxine, Justin beats her, and Maxine is hurt (physically). Jerry and Theresa rush to her side, caring for Maxine more than they care that Justin beat Maxine in karate. Justin leaves, and Alex leaves after him, heartbroken. Back at home, Jerry tells Alex that he fell for Maxine because she reminded him of Alex when she was little and they bond again. Meanwhile, Zeke thinks the Russos hate him, but really it was just Harper 's alibi in order to keep him away from the Sub Station so as not to make him suspicious about Max 's disappearance and Maxine 's appearance.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Dan Benson as Zeke, Lanny Joon as Sensei
Justin and his delinquent class have a wizard wand dance assessment to do which will get them back in Wiztech. A new student named Rosie joins, whom Justin falls madly in love with to later find out that she is an Angel. Meanwhile, Jerry, Teresa, and Harper try to think of ideas of how to get more people to come to their restaurant. Harper makes cards which customers get hole punched each time they buy a sandwich; when you get 9 hole punches, they get a free sandwich. Contrary to the original purpose, one man punches his own card, demands a free sandwich, and then brings dozens of people into the restaurant, who also have pre-punched cards. Maxine uses her charming cuteness to convince the customers to not exploit her parents. Meanwhile, Justin kicks Rosie out of his class so that it does not fail the wizard dance assessment. Sympathizing, Alex gets Rosie to rejoin the class and puts a copycat spell on her so that Rosie can mimic Alex 's move and pass the class. The assessment ends in disaster when a squirrel - frog attaches itself to Alex 's foot, and Rosie reveals herself to be an angel. The class fails, but Justin starts dating Rosie.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Leven Rambin as Rosie, Diane Delano as Penny, Chris Coppola as Customer, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis
Justin and Rosie start dating but when their date gets ruined, they want a second date. Alex suggests an Angel Club in Los Angeles, but Rosie says that only Angels are allowed. Maxine will not tell their parents as long as Alex brings her back an Ozzy Osbourne stone. After Justin, Harper and Alex sneak in along with Rosie, Zeedrik asks them if they are angels and they say they are. Back at the sub shop, Theresa and Jerry question Maxine to find out where Justin, Alex and Harper are, and Maxine does not say, so they force her to join a Pageant in order for her to tell them where they are. Things get bad at the angel club when Alex and Harper can not fly, until Justin secretly pulls out his wand and gives Harper flying powers. Zeedrik still questions them by giving them a test to sing while playing the harp. Though Alex, Justin, and Harper fail to do so, they are accepted as "angels '' until the key - chain of Ozzy Osbourne 's star reverts to normal. Zeedrik believes they are really angels of darkness, causing everyone in the club to run off, even Rosie. Rosie comes back at the end of the episode to comfort Justin, but when they both look over the city, Rosie 's wings are shown to be black, the color of an angel of darkness ' wings, but Justin does not see because he is looking forward. Meanwhile, Maxine ends up winning the beauty pageant, making Jerry and Theresa celebrate.
Guest stars: Bailee Madison as Maxine, Leven Rambin as Rosie, Ransford Doherty as Zeedrik
Rosie is an Angel of Darkness, and has been tricking Justin all along to make him evil. Alex finds out, with the help of Tina (a guardian angel in training trying to earn her wings) that Rosie is an Angel of Darkness. Justin crosses over to the dark side with Rosie, steals the "moral compass '', and gives it to Gorog, so Gorog can turn the compass from good to bad, so that the world will be covered in darkness and every human being will be corrupted. Rosie tries to get Justin to run away and save him, because Gorog wants to destroy him, but Justin refuses to leave, stating that he is no longer a wizard but an Angel of Darkness and breaks his wand in half. Alex tries to convince Justin that he is a wizard, a good wizard and not an Angel of Darkness.
Meanwhile, Maxine is enrolled in Tribeca Prep, since she is participating in a "cousin exchange program. '' After her first day of school, Maxine laments that she has no friends, which leads Harper to insist Maxine have a slumber party (which is really what Harper wants because she has never had a slumber party), that eventually becomes a disaster. Tina reveals that Rosie was a good angel, and her teacher however, Gorog reached her before her transport arrived and corrupted her. Alex and Tina go to the Dark Realm to save Justin. Alex borrows a pair of wings from the guardian angels. Alex takes the Moral Compass and tries to turn it to good but Justin stops her and then Rosie used her good angel side and they fly up and when they land, Justin turns the compass to good. Tina and Alex take it and run. When Rosie and Justin kiss, Rosie turns into a good angel (with white wings), and Justin loses the dark wings.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Bailee Madison as Maxine, Leven Rambin as Rosie, John Rubinstein as Gorog, China McClain as Tina, Amy Tolsky as Florence
Note: This is a one - hour special.
Justin invites Professor Crumbs to check on his delinquent wizards class, to see how their wizard training is progressing. During the conversation, Maxine interrupts, causing Alex and Justin to panic since they do not know how to explain "Maxine '', and they try to find a way to turn Maxine back to Max. Meanwhile, Harper takes a role in the school 's "Spirit of America '' play, only to be replaced by Maxine.
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Bailee Madison as Maxine, Cameron Sanders as Nelvis, LJ Benet as Little Crumbs, Jackie Evancho as Choir Girl
When Alex gets bored of Zeke 's failing magic tricks, she decides to use magic to make Zeke 's tricks come true. Everything goes downhill when Zeke tells Harper he believes he is a wizard and is now booking a magic act at the sub station for a kid 's birthday party. Since Justin and Harper are tired of Alex ruining things all the time, they decide to leave everything up to her. Harper, not wanting to let Zeke make a fool of himself, tells Alex to tell Zeke the truth about wizards, but she is reluctant to, as exposing wizardry to another mortal could get her kicked out of the wizard competition forever if anyone finds out. Zeke goes on with his belief that he is a "wizard '', but he finds out Harper is keeping a secret from him so he breaks up with her. Alex realizes what a mess she created and on the day of Zeke 's magic act, she makes Harper disappear before she can expose wizardry to Zeke, which freaks him out. The Russos really are in deep waters when Zeke is going to saw Max in half with a real saw for his next act, so Justin takes matters into his own hands and freezes everyone except for himself and Zeke. Justin tells Zeke that he is a wizard, not Zeke, and that he did everything. Still not believing him, he flashes Zeke into their lair and unveils the secret to him. They go back outside and tell Harper and Alex who are fighting, that Zeke now knows about the existence of wizards, but he promises he will never tell anyone. Zeke and Harper reconcile their relationship and Alex and Harper apologize and make up with each other.
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Maurice G. Smith as Big Mitch
When a former legendary Luchador "Muy Macho '' visits the Sub Station, Alex finds out that she was the reason why he quit lucha libre (wrestling), so she tries to make it up to him by arranging a lucha libre match with him and Jerry to restore his honor. Meanwhile, Zeke asks too many questions about wizardry, so Justin offers to grant him one magical wish if he promised he would stop questioning him about magic. Unfortunately, Zeke 's wish is to defeat Muy Macho in the match. Max pretends to like Talia 's hobbies, but does not enjoy them.
When Alex asks Mason if she can meet his parents, Mason shows his fake parents and she finds out soon after. She gets upset at Mason and demands him to take her to his real parents. Mason takes her to the Autumn Moon Feast (werewolf holiday) to meet his parents. Soon after that Alex finds out he told his parents that she is a werewolf and is frustrated. She uses a spell to change herself and Harper into werewolves. She tries to be the worst werewolf possible in front of Mason 's parents during the feast. In the end Mason 's parents like her as a werewolf and she says to him that they do not know the real her. She begins to leave and he says that he truly loves Alex to his parents and that she is a wizard. She changes back to a wizard and Mason turns back to human form. After the parents find out they try to eat her and Mason and Alex make a near escape. Meanwhile Max makes his parents ' food taste like kid food in order to make it taste good. Afterwards Jerry and Theresa eat it, and as a result they act like little kids. Justin thinks he will have to fix it but Max comments on how he does not need help, as he will be the future family wizard. Max uses another spell on cookies to make them older, but they turn into teenagers. Finally, Justin uses a spell on a pizza to turn them back into their regular selves.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
When Alex, Justin and Max win four tickets to the "Beast Bowl '', the tickets are delivered by Beast Tamer Chase Riprock, who begins flirting with Alex and invites the group for a pre-bowl tour. Alex invites Mason to go with them but he says he can not. During the tour, despite Chase 's warnings, Justin attempts to tame the beast so that Max can have his photo taken with the beast, but both are caught and banned from the event. Chase tries to kiss Alex but she rejects him and returns to the mortal world where she finds Mason coming out a hardware store. Mason is evasive about his plans, which involve making an anniversary present for Alex, so Alex returns to the Beast Bowl. Harper tells Mason that Chase likes Alex and urges him to surprise her with the gift at the Beast Bowl. Meanwhile, Justin and Max return to the Beast Bowl disguised as beast taming clowns where they allow the beast to escape and snatch Alex who throws the whip to Chase. Chase tames the beast who drops Alex and Mason is able to reveal his gift, which is a sculpture of himself and Alex. Alex and Mason leave together, with the sculpture.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest star: Nick Roux as Chase
Alex has been crowned Wizard of the Year after saving the world from dark angels, as well as being reinstated in the Wizard Competition, and a banquet honoring her achievement is hosted. With paparazzi in tow, Chase Riprock visits the lair to congratulate Alex. As he leaves, Keith Keith hounds them about being in a romantic relationship, to which Alex states she already has a boyfriend. Later, Mason and Alex watch his gossip segment, and to their horror, Keith Keith confirms that Chase and Alex are dating. For Alex winning Wizard of the Year, the Russo family must record a holographic video congratulating Alex. However, much to Justin 's displeasure, Justin 's video instead only contains him complaining about Alex. The night of the awards banquet, Mason stands Alex up, leaving her devastated. At the banquet, Chancellor TootieTootie tells Justin that his display of affection and pride for Alex may reinstate him into the competition, causing Justin to be frantic and do everything within his power to destroy the tape. Chase purposely invites himself to sit at the Russo 's table. However, Mason shows up late and sees Alex and Chase flirting together. A short battle ensues between Mason and Chase. Alex soon breaks up the fight, and is forced to choose either Mason or Chase. Appalled by both of their behaviors that evening, Alex chooses neither and breaks up with Mason.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
The Russos head to the beach on an extremely hot day, and Harper hopes to enjoy reading her book while at the beach. The Russos come across Zelzar, a fortune - telling machine. Jerry warns the kids about Zelzar -- he is from the wizard world, and a wizard 's fortune really comes true. After Max and Justin receive good fortunes, Alex decides to get a fortune despite her father 's warning. However, her fortune says, "Say good - bye to your life. '' Alex thinks nothing of it and proceeds to enjoy the day at the beach, but comes close to life - threatening situations multiple times. Alex, Justin, Max, and Harper make a compromise with Zelzar -- if they can extract him from the machine and let him enjoy a day at the beach, he will take back Alex 's fortune. Max replaces Zelzar, and Justin is forced to drive the beach - goers away from the machine (as Max gives out silly fortunes about his new facial hair); meanwhile, the girls help Zelzar fancy his day at the beach. In the end, Zelzar reveals that while he can not take away Alex 's fortune, he can give it to the next person. The next person happens to be a little girl, who gets Alex 's fortune. However, it is revealed that a man from Random Prize Giveaway shows up, saying: "Say good - bye to your life because we 're randomly giving you one million dollars! ''
When it is announced that a huge asteroid is hurtling towards the earth, the Russos decide to hide in the wizard world, but Alex, Justin, and Max change their minds and go into space to destroy the asteroid. Meanwhile, Alex finds out that she is not graduating high school, but when a small part of the asteroid hits the school, she gets a chance to graduate.
Justin 's class of delinquent wizards has completed their studies, which means they are eligible to rejoin WizTech if they all pass their final evaluation. When they all fail, Alex suspects something is not right. The truth soon uncovered -- the class had actually passed, but the historian who checked the exams was revealed to be evil, and had lied about the exam scores. He tries to attack Justin 's class, so Justin must stop the historian, and save Alex. but one of the students in the class is able to stop him by pulling the most powerful wand in the wizard world out of a crystal ball and using it. This means that he is actually the descendant of a famous wizard who had previously been thought to have no living descendants. Justin 's class is revealed to have passed the final exam, so they are readmitted into WizTech and Justin is officially back in the family wizard competition. Meanwhile, Jerry and Theresa realize that they never saved any of Max 's childhood accomplishments, so they try to recreate them with the help of Harper. During the credits, it is revealed that Max had kept his favorite memories all along.
Special guest star: Tim Conway as Cragmont
Alex and Harper decide to do a puppet show to raise money for a new apartment and Zeke and Justin help them. But Alex forgets to write the lines for the show. Harper gets mad and decides to do a show of her own and makes her puppets act like the way Alex treats her. Alex makes Justin and Zeke puppets for her show and steals Harper 's crowd which makes Harper upset. Then Alex apologizes to Harper using the puppets. Meanwhile, Talia 's parents meet Theresa and Jerry for the first time, but it does not go well. Justin puts a spell on Talia 's parents to forget they ever meet Theresa and Jerry. They meet again, but this time they end up watching a 16 - hour play together.
Special guest star: Joely Fisher as Meg Robinson
Harper and Zeke spend so much time together that Alex decides to make a Harper - clone. Justin comes with lots of different ideas to save money in the sub-shop and Max starts a fast - food restaurant in the wizard world.
Guest star: Dan Benson as Zeke
Alex and Harper receive a flyer for a hotel. They meet the hotel 's owner, Dexter, who sells them Apartment 13B, which belongs to a floor for non-humans. They rent it, but Harper is forced to use a training wand that can only open things. Later at their apartment, they realize Mason lives on the floor. Mason will stop at nothing to win Alex back; Alex tells him she does not want a boyfriend, but Mason is relentless. That night, Alex and Harper throw a party, where the whole floor comes, including Felix. Mason goes to the party and uses Harper 's wand to open Alex 's heart. However, she flirts with an ugly giant. Mason tries again, but makes Alex opens her heart to Felix. Meanwhile, Theresa and Jerry trick Justin into going to Alex 's apartment to drive him out of the house. When Justin arrives, he fixes Mason 's mistakes by resetting Harper 's wand and it is revealed that despite his actions, he misses Alex. Alex, freed from Mason 's spell, is angry at Mason, and Mason, deflated, leaves. Outside their door, Dexter turns into Gorog when no one is looking. He wants revenge. Max appears in the apartment, and when Harper and Alex kick him out, he encounters Gorog, who gives him a flyer for a free camp. Max accepts.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: John Rubinstein as Gorog, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Christopher Douglas Reed as Ogre
Alex and Harper have trouble paying the apartment bills, so Dexter recommends getting a roommate. Alex and Harper find a wealthy ghost named Lucy, who they let move in. Meanwhile, Justin orders a robot to help Zeke at the sub station, as Justin is busy studying for the wizard competition. The robot is lost in transit, but Dexter (Gorog in disguise) makes an evil robot to spy on Justin to pass information to Gorog. While Zeke and the robot are working, the robot asks him about Justin and the wizard competition, which confuses Zeke because no one had talked about it in front of the robot. Later that night, Lucy starts crying and explains that her boyfriend Donny had disappeared sixty years prior in a plane accident. Alex tries to set Lucy up with Justin, but he makes matters worse. Later, Lucy meets Mason and they go out on a long date, which makes Alex jealous. Meanwhile, the robot again asks Zeke about the wizard world and Zeke realizes that the robot might have a secret agenda. He tells Justin, who simply does not believe him and is ignorant of the situation because of his intensive studying. Because of her jealousy, Alex helps Lucy locate Donny, who had been stranded on an island in the Bermuda Triangle. They soon reconnect, but not after Alex realizes that she can not get back home, due to heavy magnetic currents interfering with her magic. Mason goes to save Alex after he finds out that she had left for the Bermuda Triangle. The robot attacks Justin and Zeke after they find him scanning the spell book. Mason and Alex manage to get off of the island using the Bermuda shorts given to them by Justin. The robot is shown giving Gorog the spell he needed that he got from the Russos.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Linsey Godfrey as Lucy, Travis Caldwell as Donny, Michael Carbonaro as Robot
Note: This is part 2 of a 4 - part arc.
Alex and Harper are going to their apartment when they run into Mr. Laritate, who also lives in the hotel. Felix tells Justin he broke his wand and Justin informs him that it 's fake, because he saw batteries in it. He concludes that someone stole Felix 's wand. Dexter is showing a zombie to the hall for magical creatures while he introduces them to Alex and Harper. Mason, who will stubbornly not stop asking Alex on a date, meets them in the elevator. When Alex ignores him, Mason messes with the buttons so he can spend more time with her and they land on the second floor. Justin tells Jerry that Felix lost his wand and Jerry tells them to use the abracadoobler wand app and Felix realizes that his wand is around the area. Meanwhile, because Mason messed with the buttons, all the humans have discovered the mysterious thirteenth floor. Alex lies and tells the humans that they accidentally got into a secret open house floor for the people in the hotel. Mr. Laritate, after all the other humans left, discovers the thirteenth floor too and sees Alex, Harper, and Mason. Mr. Laritate sees the zombie, Alex explains this is a haunted house, but Mr. Laritate does not believe them. The zombie bites Mr. Laritate and turns him into a zombie. They take him to their apartment while Alex looks for a spell to turn Mr. Laritate human again. Mr. Laritate runs away and Alex, Harper, and Mason suspect he went to the substation. Professor Crumbs questions Felix, who reveals the 13th floor to them, and Crumbs denies the existence of a "13th floor '', so they go to investigate. At Waverly Place they 're throwing a festival while Alex tells Jerry what happened. Alex and Mason, trying to sneak the zombie into the substation, are forced into dance. They then, after Harper causes a distraction, take Laritate to the substation and give him a medicine from the wizard world that turns Laritate human. He remembers nothing and goes outside to dance. Alex kisses him on the cheek, and Mason suggests they just be friends. Alex gets back together with Mason. Crumbs tells Felix the floor should not exist. Harper, Mason, and Alex return to the thirteenth floor. Justin tells them that the floor does not exist. Crumbs thinks that there is evil going on. Dexter then comes with dark angel wings and it is revealed he stole Felix 's his wand. Dexter tricks Felix into turning to the dark side in return for the wand. Felix casts a spell that traps them all on the floor. Back at Waverly Place, Mr. Laritate is dancing while Jerry is selling chili, when Mr. Laritate gets one and gets water to get "the burn '' out of his mouth.
Special guest star: Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest stars: Bill Chott as Mr. Laritate, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Regan Burns as Everett, Jane Carr as Martha St. Claire
Note: This is part 3 of a 4 - part arc.
The wizards of 13th floor come out and Alex explains Dexter 's evil. Dexter reveals himself as Gorog, and that he is trying to rebuild his army of darkness. Felix uses a spell that makes all the wizards from the 13th floor go with them, so they can make them all evil, all except Alex, Justin, and Harper, who are left behind. A trashcan tells them to go through it, however Alex ends up in the room again. Justin realizes only mortals can go through it. Alex convinces Harper into going through it, Harper then arrives in the wizard lair. Gorog takes the kidnapped wizards to his evil lair, where he plans to make them evil. He tricks Hugh Normous into becoming one of the evil wizards in his army. Professor Crumbs fakes becoming evil when Gorog plans on making him evil. Harper contacts Max and tells him about Gorog. Max arrives and suggests they look for spells in the wizard books. Gorog makes the wizard army to dig a hole to the atmosphere to the wizard world, so they can take over it. Gorog also tries to trick Mason into being one of the members in his army, but Mason refuses. Gorog tricks him into joining, however. Gorog then makes Felix send a black whole to suck Alex and Justin in it. Gorog gives the kidnapped wizards their wands so they can take over the wizard world, but Crumbs refuses to let them. Felix then gets rid of Crumbs on Gorog 's order. The black hole nearly sucks Alex and Justin when Crumbs arrives at the wizard lair. Max suggests they put a black hole in the wizard lair. Max goes in and rescues Alex and Justin. Crumbs tells them to use their magic to stop Gorog. They arrive at Gorog 's lair and attempt to destroy him, but Mason tries to convince Alex to join them. Gorog also reveals Juliet (young again), Justin 's ex-girlfriend, and she convinces Justin to join. Alex also surrenders, and Max is forced to as well, the three then use their combined magic to get rid of Gorog, and all the supernatural beings are freed from his influence. Juliet and Justin get back together. Alex tricks Harper into moving in the Russos ' basement by making her think all the wizards and supernatural creatures, with no home, are going to stay.
Special guest stars: Gregg Sulkin as Mason, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen
Guest stars: Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, John Rubinstein as Gorog, Frank Pacheco as Felix, Fred Stoller as Dexter, Josh Sussman as Hugh Normous, Christopher Douglas Reed as Ogre
Note: This is part 4 of a 4 - part arc.
The current landlord of the Russo 's building decides to sell the sub shop, evicting the Russos of the shop, as well as their apartment and lair, which contains their portal. Without the portal, the Russos will lose all contact with the Wizard world. So, the entire family (along with Harper) travel back to 1957 to stop Jerry 's father (the previous owner of the shop) from selling the shop to the landlord, so that they do not get evicted. Jerry 's father agrees not to sell the shop, and the Russos return to present day. However, they accidentally leave Harper behind when Harper is distracted by a woman with a poodle, and Harper suggests that the woman should put a picture of a poodle on her skirt, creating a poodle skirt, which were popular in the 1950s.
Back in present day, the Russos (who have not yet realized Harper 's absence) find the sub shop obsolete, boarded up, and empty, with the subway car and the lair missing, too. The Russos realized that they have messed with the fabric of time, and something they did while time - traveling in 1957 must have created a ripple effect, and affected present day.
While Alex suggests that they go back to 1957 to find out what they did wrong, Justin denies this, saying they should not solve the problem by doing exactly what caused the problem, however Theresa states that they will have to go back, when she realizes that they left Harper in 1957. The Russos return to 1957, where Jerry 's father reveals that he did not sell the restaurant to the landlord, however the restaurant failed to make enough business, and that he has been forced to close it. Justin realizes that when Jerry 's father lost the restaurant, he moved out of the building and since their family no longer lived in the building, the lair disappeared in present day. The Russos decide just to find Harper and go back to present day, and discover that Harper enrolled at Tribeca Prep as soon as they forgot her in 1957, as Harper did not want to ruin her perfect attendance record. Justin, Alex, and Max go to Tribeca Prep to retrieve Harper, while Jerry and Theresa wait at the sub shop, however Harper decides to stay in the past, as she finds new popularity in 1957 that she does not experience in present day. While at Tribeca, Max introduces the high - five to several students. Alex realizes that if they make the sub shop the 1957 high school hangout, the sub shop will get better business and will not have to close. However, no one has any fun at the sub shop that night as the jukebox is broken. Just as everyone is about to leave, Max plugs his MP3 player into the jukebox and Harper uses her popularity to get the students dancing and having fun at the shop, and the business at the sub shop peaks. The Russos return to the present day, where the lair and the sub shop are back, and Jerry owns the entire building, while the landlord is now the owner of a Janitor service, instead of the building, and the high - five is now called a "Max ''. Alex then remembers that they forgot Harper back in 1957 and they go back and get her. (the Russos accidentally end up in 1977 twice in the episode, thanks to Justin)
The episode begins on Waverly Place where Harper is reading a storybook to a group of children when Alex pushes her away. Alex explains that it 's a Wizard Storybook, a magical storybook that has the power of turning what the person reads real. Then Harper is teleported into the loft where Theresa, her evil (or "wicked '' as she referred) stepmother calls her Harperella (a combination of Harper and Cinderella) and forces her to do the chores.
Then her evil stepbrothers, Justin and Max come down and give her laundry to her wash. Later Harper is washing the Waverly Substation when Alex appears, as she is Harper 's fairy godmother. Alex explains to Harper that the fairy tale has to run as it 's supposed to before things can go back to the way they were and then vanishes. Then Max comes in and says that the prince charming has decided to use the Substation to be the ballroom for the royal party. Harper says that she can go to the party but her stepfamily laughs at her. Back in the loft Harper summons Alex, she uses a spell to transform Harper 's bookdress into a princess gown and glass bowls into glass slippers. They go down (through the door) into the street and Alex turns the hot dog stand into a carriage to take Harper to the party. There she dances with prince charming, Zeke. At the stroke of midnight she goes outside leaving her glass slipper behind.
Then, to both girls ' shock, Justin, Max and Zeke (with pig noses) rush inside the substation being chased by the big, bad wolf, Mason. Alex realizes that some pages are missing and Cinderella and three little pigs stories were blended together. The pig - turned boys and Harper rush into the loft being chased by Mason. While Alex finds the pages Harper has to keep Mason from eating Zeke (who built the straw house), Alex eventually finds the book pages in a drawer along with other book pages. Alex tries a page from Max 's favourite magic trick book then David Copperfield comes into the room and does some magic tricks which impresses Harper. But another page that Alex tried was from Justin 's science book and a caveman appeared, but the caveman has a thing for Harper. So when Harper is impressed by the magic trick he is jealous and tries to attack David Copperfield. Alex finds the right pages and the story goes back to Cinderella. Zeke Charming comes in and Theresa tries to wear the slipper but fails. Then Harper tries it and fits. She and Zeke go back to the royal party where they dance and then the story ends and the world is returned to its normality. Last but not least, Harper was back in the real world and she lived happily ever after. Finally, Alex planned that Harper and Zeke dance because they were great when they danced in romance, so they practiced but they were really bad. The ball dance is turned into a clogging dance.
Special guest stars: David Copperfield as himself, Gregg Sulkin as Mason
Guest star: Dan Benson as Zeke
During a dinner that Alex made for the family, Professor Crumbs visits to reveal that with this selfless act, the Russo children can finally have their family wizard competition. Round one of the competition is a trivia round, in which questions related to magic are asked. During this round, Harper and Zeke appear. Zeke has accidentally smelled a purple substance in the lair that caused him to turn purple. This causes a griffin to kidnap him and Harper. Alex, Justin and Max use their three time - outs to go and rescue their friends. They make it back, only to discover that they have been gone too long and have been disqualified from the competition. They all return home, where the lair disappears and they all lose their magic, thus becoming mortals. Justin and Max begin to hate Alex because of her insistence on saving Zeke and Harper resulting in them losing. Convinced that the loss of their powers has ruined the family, Jerry decides to sell the sub shop. The kids go for a day without magic, during which, slowly gaining back trust in each other as they reopen and run the shop. Suddenly, they are returned to the area of the Wizard Competition, where the host reveals that the griffin attack (which was actually meant for Professor Crumbs) and the weeks they went without magic were tests to test their family bond. They enter the final round of the competition, a massive labyrinth. The first out of the maze will win. Justin makes it out first and is declared the Family Wizard. However, he decides he can not accept this because Alex was about to get out first: Justin had been trapped by magical vines and Alex, near the exit, came back to help. Alex is thus declared the true family wizard. Professor Crumbs, proud of Justin 's integrity in telling the truth, declares that he is going to retire as Headmaster of Wiz - Tech and declares Justin the new headmaster, granting him full wizard powers. Considering Max is the only Russo child that does not get powers or becomes a full wizard, Jerry thus decides to one day pass down the sub shop to Max, which he happily accepts. It ends with the Russo family hugging and gathering together with Alex stating that they are all finally happy at the same time.
Special guest stars: Gregg Sulkin as Mason, Bridgit Mendler as Juliet van Heusen
Guest stars: Dan Benson as Zeke, Ian Abercrombie as Professor Crumbs, Andy Kindler as Chancellor Tootietootie
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alpha bravo charlie delta echo foxtrot golf hotel | NATO phonetic alphabet - wikipedia
The NATO phonetic alphabet, officially denoted as the International Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet, and also commonly known as the ICAO phonetic alphabet, and in a variation also known officially as the ITU phonetic alphabet and figure code, is the most widely used radiotelephone spelling alphabet. Although often called "phonetic alphabets '', spelling alphabets are unrelated to phonetic transcription systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet. Instead, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) alphabet assigned codewords acrophonically to the letters of the English alphabet, so that critical combinations of letters and numbers are most likely to be pronounced and understood by those who exchange voice messages by radio or telephone, regardless of language differences or the quality of the communication channel.
The 26 code words in the NATO phonetic alphabet are assigned to the 26 letters of the English alphabet in alphabetical order as follows: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.
After the phonetic alphabet was developed by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) (see history below) it was adopted by many other international and national organizations, including the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United States Federal Government (as Federal Standard 1037C: Glossary of Telecommunications Terms, and its successor ANSI T1. 523 - 2001, ATIS Telecom Glossary, both of which cite Joint Publication 1 - 02: Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, but incorrectly "correct '' the spelling of alfa and juliett) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the International Amateur Radio Union (IARU), the American Radio Relay League (ARRL), the Association of Public - Safety Communications Officials - International (APCO); and by many military organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the now - defunct Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO).
The same alphabetic code words are used by all agencies, but each agency chooses one of two different sets of numeric code words. NATO uses the regular English numeric words (Zero, One, with some alternative pronunciations), whereas the ITU (beginning on April 1, 1969) and the IMO define compound numeric words (Nadazero, Unaone, Bissotwo...). In practice these are used very rarely, as they frequently result in confusion between speakers of different languages.
A spelling alphabet is used to spell parts of a message containing letters and numbers to avoid confusion, because many letters sound similar, for instance "n '' and "m '' or "f '' and "s ''; the potential for confusion increases if static or other interference is present. For instance the message "proceed to map grid DH98 '' could be transmitted as "proceed to map grid Delta - Hotel - Niner - Ait ''. Using "Delta '' instead of "D '' avoids confusion between "DH98 '' and "BH98 '' or "TH98 ''. The unusual pronunciation of certain numbers was designed to reduce confusion.
In addition to the traditional military usage, civilian industry uses the alphabet to avoid similar problems in the transmission of messages by telephone systems. For example, it is often used in the retail industry where customer or site details are spoken by telephone (to authorize a credit agreement or confirm stock codes), although ad hoc coding is often used in that instance. It has been used often by information technology workers to communicate serial / reference codes (which are often very long) or other specialised information by voice. Most major airlines use the alphabet to communicate Passenger Name Records (PNRs) internally, and in some cases, with customers. It is often used in a medical context as well, to avoid confusion when transmitting information.
Several letter codes and abbreviations using the spelling alphabet have become well - known, such as Bravo Zulu (letter code BZ) for "well done '', Checkpoint Charlie (Checkpoint C) in Berlin, and Zulu Time for Greenwich Mean Time or Coordinated Universal Time. During the Vietnam War, the U.S. government referred to the Viet Cong guerrillas and the group itself as VC, or Victor Charlie; the name "Charlie '' became synonymous with this force.
The final choice of code words for the letters of the alphabet and for the digits was made after hundreds of thousands of comprehension tests involving 31 nationalities. The qualifying feature was the likelihood of a code word being understood in the context of others. For example, football has a higher chance of being understood than foxtrot in isolation, but foxtrot is superior in extended communication.
The pronunciation of the code words varies according to the language habits of the speaker. To eliminate wide variations in pronunciation, recordings and posters illustrating the pronunciation desired by the ICAO are available. However, there are still differences in pronunciation between the ICAO and other agencies, and the ICAO has conflicting Latin - alphabet and IPA transcriptions. Also, although all codes for the letters of the alphabet are English words, they are not in general given English pronunciations.
Pronunciations are somewhat uncertain because the agencies, while ostensibly using the same pronunciations, give different transcriptions, which are often inconsistent from letter to letter. The ICAO gives a different pronunciation for IPA transcription and for respelling, and the FAA also gives different pronunciations depending on the publication consulted, the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (§ 4 - 2 - 7), the FAA Flight Services manual (§ 14.1. 5), or the ATC manual (§ 2 - 4 - 16). ATIS gives English spellings, but does not give pronunciations or numbers. The ICAO, NATO, and FAA use modifications of English numerals, with stress on one syllable, while the ITU and IMO compound pseudo-Latinate numerals with a slightly different set of modified English numerals, and with stress on each syllable. Numbers 10 -- 99 are spelled out (that is, 17 is "1 -- 7 '' and 60 is "6 -- 0 ''), while for hundreds and thousands the English words hundred and thousand are used.
The pronunciation of the digits 3, 4, 5, and 9 differs from standard English -- being pronounced tree, fower, fife, and niner. The digit 3 is specified as tree so that it is not pronounced sri; the long pronunciation of 4 (still found in some English dialects) keeps it somewhat distinct from for; 5 is pronounced with a second "f '' because the normal pronunciation with a "v '' is easily confused with "fire '' (a command to shoot); and 9 has an extra syllable to keep it distinct from German nein ' no '.
Only the ICAO prescribes pronunciation with the IPA, and then only for letters. Several of the pronunciations indicated are slightly modified from their normal English pronunciations: (ˈælfa, ˈbraːˈvo, ˈdeltɑ, ɡʌlf, ˈliːmɑ, ˈɔskɑ, siˈerɑ, ˈtænɡo, ˈuːnifɔrm, ˈviktɑ, ˈjænki), partially due to the substitution of final schwas with the (ɑ) vowel. Both the IPA and respelled pronunciations were developed by the ICAO before 1956 with advice from the governments of both the United States and United Kingdom, so the pronunciations of both General American English and British Received Pronunciation are evident, especially in the rhotic and non-rhotic accents. The respelled version is usually at least consistent with a rhotic accent (' r ' pronounced), as in CHAR LEE, SHAR LEE, NO VEM BER, YOU NEE FORM, and OO NEE FORM, whereas the IPA version usually specifies a non-rhotic accent (' r ' pronounced only before a vowel), as in (ˈtʃɑːli), (ˈʃɑːli), (noˈvembə), and (ˈjuːnifɔːm). Exceptions are OSS CAH, VIK TAH and ˈuːnifɔrm. The IPA form of Golf implies it is pronounced gulf, which is neither General American English nor British Received Pronunciation. Different agencies assign different stress patterns to Bravo, Hotel, Juliett, November, Papa, X-ray; the ICAO has different stresses for Bravo, Juliett, X-ray in its respelled and IPA transcriptions. Furthermore, the pronunciation prescribed for whiskey begins the voiced (w), although some speakers use the voiceless (ʍ) here, particularly in Scotland and Ireland (wine -- whine distinction).
Also, the ITU and IMO specify a different pronunciation of numerals than does the ICAO, using compound words combining the English word with either a Spanish or Latin prefix. However, as of 2002, the IMO 's GMDSS procedures permit the use of the ICAO numeral pronunciation.
KWUH - BECK
Prior to World War I and the development and widespread adoption of two - way radio that supported voice, telephone spelling alphabets were developed to improve communication on low - quality and long - distance telephone circuits.
The first non-military internationally recognized spelling alphabet was adopted by the CCIR (predecessor of the ITU) during 1927. The experience gained with that alphabet resulted in several changes being made during 1932 by the ITU. The resulting alphabet was adopted by the International Commission for Air Navigation, the predecessor of the ICAO, and was used for civil aviation until World War II. It continued to be used by the IMO until 1965.
Throughout World War II, many nations used their own versions of a spelling alphabet. The U.S. adopted the Joint Army / Navy radiotelephony alphabet during 1941 to standardize systems among all branches of its armed forces. The U.S. alphabet became known as Able Baker after the words for A and B. The Royal Air Force adopted one similar to the United States one during World War II as well. Other British forces adopted the RAF radio alphabet, which is similar to the phonetic alphabet used by the Royal Navy during World War I. At least two of the terms are sometimes still used by UK civilians to spell words over the phone, namely F for Freddie and S for Sugar.
To enable the U.S., UK, and Australian armed forces to communicate during joint operations, in 1943 the CCB (Combined Communications Board; the combination of US and UK upper military commands) modified the U.S. military 's Joint Army / Navy alphabet for use by all three nations, with the result being called the US - UK spelling alphabet. It was defined in one or more of CCBP - 1: Combined Amphibious Communications Instructions, CCBP3: Combined Radiotelephone (R / T) Procedure, and CCBP - 7: Combined Communication Instructions. The CCB alphabet itself was based on the U.S. Joint Army / Navy spelling alphabet. The CCBP (Combined Communications Board Publications) documents contain material formerly published in U.S. Army Field Manuals in the 24 - series. Several of these documents had revisions, and were renamed. For instance, CCBP3 - 2 was the second edition of CCBP3.
During World War II, the U.S. military conducted significant research into spelling alphabets. Major F.D. Handy, directorate of Communications in the Army Air Force (and a member of the working committee of the Combined Communications Board), enlisted the help of Harvard University 's Psycho - Acoustic Laboratory, asking them to determine the most successful word for each letter when using "military interphones in the intense noise encountered in modern warfare. ''. He included lists from the USA, Royal Air Force, Royal Navy, British Army, AT&T, Western Union, RCA Communications, and that of the International Telecommunications Convention. According to a report on the subject,
"The results showed that many of the words in the military lists had a low level of intelligibility, but that most of the deficiencies could be remedied by the judicious selection of words from the commercial codes and those tested by the laboratory. In a few instances where none of the 250 words could be regarded as especially satisfactory, it was believed possible to discover suitable replacements. Other words were tested and the most intelligible ones were compared with the more desirable lists. A final NDRC list was assembled and recommended to the CCB. ''
After World War II, with many aircraft and ground personnel from the allied armed forces, "Able Baker '' was officially adopted for use in international aviation. During the 1946 Second Session of the ICAO Communications Division, the organization adopted the so - called "Able Baker '' alphabet that was the 1943 US - UK spelling alphabet. But many sounds were unique to English, so an alternative "Ana Brazil '' alphabet was used in Latin America. But the International Air Transport Association (IATA), recognizing the need for a single universal alphabet, presented a draft alphabet to the ICAO during 1947 that had sounds common to English, French, Spanish and Portuguese.
From 1948 -- 1949, Jean - Paul Vinay, a professor of linguistics at the Université de Montréal worked closely with the ICAO to research and develop a new spelling alphabet. ICAO 's directions to him were that "To be considered, a word must:
After further study and modification by each approving body, the revised alphabet was adopted on 1 November 1951, to become effective on 1 April 1952 for civil aviation (but it may not have been adopted by any military).
Problems were soon found with this list. Some users believed that they were so severe that they reverted to the old "Able Baker '' alphabet. Confusion among words like Delta, and Extra, and between Nectar and Victor, or the unintelligibility of other words during poor receiving conditions were the main problems. By later in 1952, ICAO decided to revisit the alphabet and their research. To identify the deficiencies of the new alphabet, testing was conducted among speakers from 31 nations, principally by the governments of the United Kingdom and the United States. In the United States, the research was conducted by the USAF - directed Operational Applications Laboratory (AFCRC, ARDC), to monitor a project with the Research Foundation of The Ohio State University. Among the more interesting of the research findings was that "higher noise levels do not create confusion, but do intensify those confusions already inherent between the words in question ''.
By early 1956 the ICAO was nearly complete with this research, and published the new official phonetic alphabet in order to account for discrepancies that might arise in communications as a result of multiple alphabet naming systems coexisting in different places and organizations. NATO was in the process of adopting the ICAO spelling alphabet, and apparently felt enough urgency that it adopted the proposed new alphabet with changes based on NATO 's own research, to become effective on January 1, 1956, but quickly issued a new directive on March 1, 1956 adopting the now official ICAO spelling alphabet, which had changed by one word (November) from NATO 's earlier request to ICAO to modify a few words based on U.S. Air Force research.
After all of the above study, only the five words representing the letters C, M, N, U, and X were replaced. The ICAO sent a recording of the new Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet to all member states in November 1955. The final version given in the table above was implemented by the ICAO on 1 March 1956, and the ITU adopted it no later than 1959 when they mandated its usage via their official publication, Radio Regulations. Because the ITU governs all international radio communications, it was also adopted by most radio operators, whether military, civilian, or Amateur. It was finally adopted by the IMO in 1965. During 1947 the ITU adopted the compound number words (Nadazero, Unaone, etc.), later adopted by the IMO during 1965.
In the official version of the alphabet, the non-English spellings Alfa and Juliett are used. Alfa is spelled with an f as it is in most European languages because the English and French spelling alpha would not be pronounced properly by native speakers of some other languages -- who may not know that ph should be pronounced as f. Juliett is spelled with a tt for French speakers, because they may otherwise treat a single final t as silent. In some English versions of the alphabet, one or both of these may have their standard English spelling.
Defined by various international conventions on radio, including:
For the 1938 and 1947 phonetics, each transmission of figures is preceded and followed by the words "as a number '' spoken twice.
The ITU adopted the International Maritime Organization 's phonetic spelling alphabet in 1959, and in 1969 specified that it be "for application in the maritime mobile service only ''.
Pronunciation was not defined prior to 1959. For the 1959 -- Present phonetics, the underlined syllable of each letter word should be emphasized, and each syllable of the code words for the figures (1969 -- Present) should be equally emphasized.
The Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization for international aircraft communications.
The ITU - R Radiotelephony Alphabet is used by the International Maritime Organization for international marine communications.
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where does the expression cold feet come from | Cold feet - wikipedia
The origin of the term itself has been largely attributed to American author Stephen Crane, who added the phrase, in 1896, to the second edition of his short novel, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. Crane writes, "I knew this was the way it would be. They got cold feet. '' The term is present in "Seed Time and Harvest '' by Fritz Reuter published in 1862. Kenneth McKenzie, a former professor of Italian at Princeton University attributed the first use of the phrase to the play Volpone produced by Ben Jonson in 1605. The true origin and first usage of the phrase remains debated and unconfirmed as exemplified above.
A common use of the phrase is when people fear the commitment of marriage and get "cold feet '' before a wedding ceremony. This pre-marital doubt or fear may manifest for a variety of reasons and sometimes cause the bride or groom to back out of a planned marriage. Original research on the "cold feet '' phenomenon is very limited and warrants further studies. However, a four - year study conducted by UCLA researchers found feelings of pre-marital doubt or uncertainty about an impending marriage were associated with future marital problems and a viable predictor of divorce.
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which tool is used where there is not enough room to move a regular wrench | Metal lathe - wikipedia
A metal lathe or metalworking lathe is a large class of lathes designed for precisely machining relatively hard materials. They were originally designed to machine metals; however, with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their inherent versatility, they are used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range of materials. In machining jargon, where the larger context is already understood, they are usually simply called lathes, or else referred to by more - specific subtype names (toolroom lathe, turret lathe, etc.). These rigid machine tools remove material from a rotating workpiece via the (typically linear) movements of various cutting tools, such as tool bits and drill bits.
The design of lathes can vary greatly depending on the intended application; however, basic features are common to most types. These machines consist of (at the least) a headstock, bed, carriage, and tailstock. Better machines are solidly constructed with broad bearing surfaces (slide - ways) for stability, and manufactured with great precision. This helps ensure the components manufactured on the machines can meet the required tolerances and repeatability.
The headstock (H1) houses the main spindle (H4), speed change mechanism (H2, H3), and change gears (H10). The headstock is required to be made as robust as possible due to the cutting forces involved, which can distort a lightly built housing, and induce harmonic vibrations that will transfer through to the workpiece, reducing the quality of the finished workpiece.
The main spindle is generally hollow to allow long bars to extend through to the work area. This reduces preparation and waste of material. The spindle runs in precision bearings and is fitted with some means of attaching workholding devices such as chucks or faceplates. This end of the spindle usually also has an included taper, frequently a Morse taper, to allow the insertion of hollow tubular (Morse standard) tapers to reduce the size of the tapered hole, and permit use of centers. On older machines (' 50s) the spindle was directly driven by a flat belt pulley with lower speeds available by manipulating the bull gear. Later machines use a gear box driven by a dedicated electric motor. A fully ' geared head ' allows the operator to select suitable speeds entirely through the gearbox.
The bed is a robust base that connects to the headstock and permits the carriage and tailstock to be moved parallel with the axis of the spindle. This is facilitated by hardened and ground bedways which restrain the carriage and tailstock in a set track. The carriage travels by means of a rack and pinion system. The leadscrew of accurate pitch, drives the carriage holding the cutting tool via a gearbox driven from the headstock.
Types of beds include inverted "V '' beds, flat beds, and combination "V '' and flat beds. "V '' and combination beds are used for precision and light duty work, while flat beds are used for heavy duty work.
When a lathe is installed, the first step is to level it, which refers to making sure the bed is not twisted or bowed. There is no need to make the machine exactly horizontal, but it must be entirely untwisted to achieve accurate cutting geometry. A precision level is a useful tool for identifying and removing any twist. It is advisable also to use such a level along the bed to detect bending, in the case of a lathe with more than four mounting points. In both instances the level is used as a comparator rather than an absolute reference.
The feedscrew (H8) is a long driveshaft that allows a series of gears to drive the carriage mechanisms. These gears are located in the apron of the carriage. Both the feedscrew and leadscrew (H7) are driven by either the change gears (on the quadrant) or an intermediate gearbox known as a quick change gearbox (H6) or Norton gearbox. These intermediate gears allow the correct ratio and direction to be set for cutting threads or worm gears. Tumbler gears (operated by H5) are provided between the spindle and gear train along with a quadrant plate that enables a gear train of the correct ratio and direction to be introduced. This provides a constant relationship between the number of turns the spindle makes, to the number of turns the leadscrew makes. This ratio allows screwthreads to be cut on the workpiece without the aid of a die.
Some lathes have only one leadscrew that serves all carriage - moving purposes. For screw cutting, a half nut is engaged to be driven by the leadscrew 's thread; and for general power feed, a key engages with a keyway cut into the leadscrew to drive a pinion along a rack that is mounted along the lathe bed.
The leadscrew will be manufactured to either imperial or metric standards and will require a conversion ratio to be introduced to create thread forms from a different family. To accurately convert from one thread form to the other requires a 127 - tooth gear, or on lathes not large enough to mount one, an approximation may be used. Multiples of 3 and 7 giving a ratio of 63: 1 can be used to cut fairly loose threads. This conversion ratio is often built into the quick change gearboxes.
The precise ratio required to convert a lathe with an Imperial (inch) leadscrew to metric (millimeter) threading is 100 / 127 = 0.7874... The best approximation with the fewest total teeth is very often 37 / 47 = 0.7872... This transposition gives a constant - 0.020 percent error over all customary and model - maker 's metric pitches (0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.60, 0.70, 0.75, 0.80, 1.00, 1.25, 1.50, 1.75, 2.00, 2.50, 3.00, 3.50, 4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.50 and 6.00 mm).
In its simplest form the carriage holds the tool bit and moves it longitudinally (turning) or perpendicularly (facing) under the control of the operator. The operator moves the carriage manually via the handwheel (5a) or automatically by engaging the feed shaft with the carriage feed mechanism (5c). This provides some relief for the operator as the movement of the carriage becomes power assisted. The handwheels (2a, 3b, 5a) on the carriage and its related slides are usually calibrated, both for ease of use and to assist in making reproducible cuts. Calibration marks will measure either the distance from center (radius), or the work piece 's diameter, so for example, on a diameter machine where calibration marks are in thousandths of an inch, the radial handwheel dial will read. 0005 inches of radius per division, or. 001 inches of diameter. The carriage typically comprises a top casting, known as the saddle (4), and a side casting, known as the apron (5).
The cross-slide (3) rides on the carriage and has a feedscrew that travels at right angles to the main spindle axis. This permits facing operations to be performed, and the depth of cut to be adjusted. This feedscrew can be engaged, through a gear train, to the feed shaft (mentioned previously) to provide automated ' power feed ' movement to the cross-slide. On most lathes, only one direction can be engaged at a time as an interlock mechanism will shut out the second gear train.
The compound rest (or top slide) (2) is usually where the tool post is mounted. It provides a smaller amount of movement (less than the cross-slide) along its axis via another feedscrew. The compound rest axis can be adjusted independently of the carriage or cross-slide. It is used for turning tapers, to control depth of cut when screwcutting or precision facing, or to obtain finer feeds (under manual control) than the feed shaft permits. Usually, the compound rest has a protractor marked in its base (2b), enabling the operator to adjust its axis to precise angles.
The slide rest (as the earliest forms of carriage were known) can be traced to the fifteenth century. In 1718 the tool - supporting slide rest with a set of gears was introduced by a Russian inventor Andrey Nartov and had limited usage in the Russian industry. In the eighteenth century the slide rest was also used on French ornamental turning lathes. The suite of gun boring mills at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, in the 1780s by the Verbruggan family also had slide rests. The story has long circulated that Henry Maudslay invented it, but he did not (and never claimed so). The legend that Maudslay invented the slide rest originated with James Nasmyth, who wrote ambiguously about it in his Remarks on the Introduction of the Slide Principle, 1841; later writers misunderstood, and propagated the error. However, Maudslay did help to disseminate the idea widely. It is highly probable that he saw it when he was working at the Arsenal as a boy. In 1794, whilst he was working for Joseph Bramah, he made one, and when he had his own workshop used it extensively in the lathes he made and sold there. Coupled with the network of engineers he trained, this ensured the slide rest became widely known and copied by other lathe makers, and so diffused throughout British engineering workshops. A practical and versatile screw - cutting lathe incorporating the trio of leadscrew, change gears, and slide rest was Maudslay 's most important achievement.
The first fully documented, all - metal slide rest lathe was invented by Jacques de Vaucanson around 1751. It was described in the Encyclopédie a long time before Maudslay invented and perfected his version. It is likely that Maudslay was not aware of Vaucanson 's work, since his first versions of the slide rest had many errors that were not present in the Vaucanson lathe.
The tool bit is mounted in the toolpost (1) which may be of the American lantern style, traditional four - sided square style, or a quick - change style such as the multifix arrangement pictured. The advantage of a quick change set - up is to allow an unlimited number of tools to be used (up to the number of holders available) rather than being limited to one tool with the lantern style, or to four tools with the four - sided type. Interchangeable tool holders allow all tools to be preset to a center height that does not change, even if the holder is removed from the machine.
The tailstock is a tool (drill), and centre mount, opposite the headstock. The spindle (T5) does not rotate but does travel longitudinally under the action of a leadscrew and handwheel (T1). The spindle includes a taper to hold drill bits, centers and other tooling. The tailstock can be positioned along the bed and clamped (T6) in position as dictated by the work piece. There is also provision to offset the tailstock (T4) from the spindles axis, this is useful for turning small tapers, and when re-aligning the tailstock to the axis of the bed.
The image shows a reduction gear box (T2) between the handwheel and spindle, where large drills may necessitate the extra leverage. The tool bit is normally made of HSS, cobalt steel or carbide.
Long workpieces often need to be supported in the middle, as cutting tools can push (bend) the work piece away from where the centers can support them, because cutting metal produces tremendous forces that tend to vibrate or even bend the workpiece. This extra support can be provided by a steady rest (also called a steady, a fixed steady, a center rest, or sometimes, confusingly, a center). It stands stationary from a rigid mounting on the bed, and it supports the workpiece at the rest 's center, typically with three contact points 120 ° apart. A follower rest (also called a follower or a travelling steady) is similar, but it is mounted to the carriage rather than the bed, which means that as the tool bit moves, the follower rest "follows along '' (because they are both rigidly connected to the same moving carriage).
Follower rests can provide support that directly counteracts the springing force of the tool bit, right at the region of the workpiece being cut at any moment. In this respect they are analogous to a box tool. Any rest transfers some workpiece geometry errors from base (bearing surface) to processing surface. It depends on the rest design. For minimum transfer rate correcting rests are used. Rest rollers typically cause some additional geometry errors on the processing surface.
A steady rest
A follower rest
Correcting rest for precision grinding or turning
Correcting rest work video
There are many variants of lathes within the metalworking field. Some variations are not all that obvious, and others are more a niche area. For example, a centering lathe is a dual head machine where the work remains fixed and the heads move towards the workpiece and machine a center drill hole into each end. The resulting workpiece may then be used "between centers '' in another operation. The usage of the term metal lathe may also be considered somewhat outdated these days, plastics and other composite materials are in wide use and with appropriate modifications, the same principles and techniques may be applied to their machining as that used for metal.
The terms center lathe, engine lathe, and bench lathe all refer to a basic type of lathe that may be considered the archetypical class of metalworking lathe most often used by the general machinist or machining hobbyist. The name bench lathe implies a version of this class small enough to be mounted on a workbench (but still full - featured, and larger than mini-lathes or micro-lathes). The construction of a center lathe is detailed above, but depending on the year of manufacture, size, price range or desired features, even these lathes can vary widely between models.
Engine lathe is the name applied to a traditional late - 19th - century or 20th - century lathe with automatic feed to the cutting tool, as opposed to early lathes which were used with hand - held tools, or lathes with manual feed only. The usage of "engine '' here is in the mechanical - device sense, not the prime - mover sense, as in the steam engines which were the standard industrial power source for many years. The works would have one large steam engine which would provide power to all the machines via a line shaft system of belts. Therefore, early engine lathes were generally ' cone heads ', in that the spindle usually had attached to it a multi-step pulley called a cone pulley designed to accept a flat belt. Different spindle speeds could be obtained by moving the flat belt to different steps on the cone pulley. Cone - head lathes usually had a countershaft (layshaft) on the back side of the cone which could be engaged to provide a lower set of speeds than was obtainable by direct belt drive. These gears were called back gears. Larger lathes sometimes had two - speed back gears which could be shifted to provide a still lower set of speeds.
When electric motors started to become common in the early 20th century, many cone - head lathes were converted to electric power. At the same time the state of the art in gear and bearing practice was advancing to the point that manufacturers began to make fully geared headstocks, using gearboxes analogous to automobile transmissions to obtain various spindle speeds and feed rates while transmitting the higher amounts of power needed to take full advantage of high speed steel tools. Cutting tools evolved once again, with the introduction of man made carbides, and became widely introduced to general industry in the 1970s. Early carbides were attached toolholders by brazing them into a machined ' nest ' in the tool holders, later designs allowed tips to be replaceable, and multi faceted, allowing them to be reused. Carbides tolerate much higher machining speeds without wearing. This has led to machining times shortening, and therefore production growing. The demand for faster and more powerful lathes controlled the direction of lathe development.
The availability of inexpensive electronics has again changed the way speed control may be applied by allowing continuously variable motor speed from the maximum down to almost zero RPM. This had been tried in the late 19th century but was not found satisfactory at the time. Subsequent improvements in electric circuitry have made it viable again.
A toolroom lathe is a lathe optimized for toolroom work. It is essentially just a top - of - the - line center lathe, with all of the best optional features that may be omitted from less expensive models, such as a collet closer, taper attachment, and others. The bed of a toolroom lathe is generally wider than that of a standard centre lathe. There has also been an implication over the years of selective assembly and extra fitting, with every care taken in the building of a toolroom model to make it the smoothest - running, most - accurate version of the machine that can be built. However, within one brand, the quality difference between a regular model and its corresponding toolroom model depends on the builder and in some cases has been partly marketing psychology. For name - brand machine tool builders who made only high - quality tools, there was n't necessarily any lack of quality in the base - model product for the "luxury model '' to improve upon. In other cases, especially when comparing different brands, the quality differential between (1) an entry - level center lathe built to compete on price, and (2) a toolroom lathe meant to compete only on quality and not on price, can be objectively demonstrated by measuring TIR, vibration, etc. In any case, because of their fully ticked - off option list and (real or implied) higher quality, toolroom lathes are more expensive than entry - level center lathes.
Turret lathes and capstan lathes are members of a class of lathes that are used for repetitive production of duplicate parts (which by the nature of their cutting process are usually interchangeable). It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret, which is an indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the operator to perform setup tasks in between (such as installing or uninstalling tools) nor to control the toolpath. (The latter is due to the toolpath 's being controlled by the machine, either in jig - like fashion (via the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret 's slide and stops) or via IT - directed servomechanisms (on computer numerical controlled (CNC) lathes).)
There is a tremendous variety of turret lathe and capstan lathe designs, reflecting the variety of work that they do.
A gang - tool lathe is one that has a row of tools set up on its cross-slide, which is long and flat and is similar to a milling machine table. The idea is essentially the same as with turret lathes: to set up multiple tools and then easily index between them for each part - cutting cycle. Instead of being rotary like a turret, the indexable tool group is linear.
Multispindle lathes have more than one spindle and automated control (whether via cams or CNC). They are production machines specializing in high - volume production. The smaller types are usually called screw machines, while the larger variants are usually called automatic chucking machines, automatic chuckers, or simply chuckers. Screw machines usually work from bar stock, while chuckers automatically chuck up individual blanks from a magazine. Typical minimum profitable production lot size on a screw machine is in the thousands of parts due to the large setup time. Once set up, a screw machine can rapidly and efficiently produce thousands of parts on a continuous basis with high accuracy, low cycle time, and very little human intervention. (The latter two points drive down the unit cost per interchangeable part much lower than could be achieved without these machines.)
Computer numerical controlled (CNC) lathes are rapidly replacing the older production lathes (multispindle, etc.) due to their ease of setting, operation, repeatability and accuracy. They are designed to use modern carbide tooling and fully use modern processes. The part may be designed and the tool paths programmed by the CAD / CAM process or manually by the programmer, and the resulting file uploaded to the machine, and once set and trialled the machine will continue to turn out parts under the occasional supervision of an operator.
The machine is controlled electronically via a computer menu style interface, the program may be modified and displayed at the machine, along with a simulated view of the process. The setter / operator needs a high level of skill to perform the process, however the knowledge base is broader compared to the older production machines where intimate knowledge of each machine was considered essential. These machines are often set and operated by the same person, where the operator will supervise a small number of machines (cell).
The design of a CNC lathe varies with different manufacturers, but they all have some common elements. The turret holds the tool holders and indexes them as needed, the spindle holds the workpiece and there are slides that let the turret move in multiple axis simultaneously. The machines are often totally enclosed, due in large part to occupational health and safety (OH&S) issues.
With rapid growth in this industry, different CNC lathe manufacturers use different user interfaces which sometimes makes it difficult for operators as they have to be acquainted with them. With the advent of cheap computers, free operating systems such as Linux, and open source CNC software, the entry price of CNC machines has plummeted.
CNC horizontal machining is performed using horizontally - configured lathes, machining centers, boring machines, or boring mills. The equipment used typically consists of rotating cylindrical cutters moving up and down along five axes. These machines are capable of producing a variety of shapes, slots, holes, and details on a three - dimensional part.
Vertically - oriented CNC machines utilize cylindrical cutters on a vertical spindle axis to create plunge cuts and drilled holes, as well as custom shapes, slots, and details on three - dimensional parts. Equipment used in this type of milling includes vertical lathes, vertical machining centers, and 5 - axis machines.
A Swiss - style lathe is a specific design of lathe providing extreme accuracy (sometimes holding tolerances as small as a few tenths of a thousandth of an inch -- a few micrometers). A Swiss - style lathe holds the workpiece with both a collet and a guide bushing. The collet sits behind the guide bushing, and the tools sit in front of the guide bushing, holding stationary on the Z axis. To cut lengthwise along the part, the tools will move in and the material itself will move back and forth along the Z axis. This allows all the work to be done on the material near the guide bushing where it is more rigid, making them ideal for working on slender workpieces as the part is held firmly with little chance of deflection or vibration occurring. This style of lathe is commonly used under CNC control.
Most CNC Swiss - style lathes today use one or two main spindles plus one or two back spindles (secondary spindles). The main spindle is used with the guide bushing for the main machining operations. The secondary spindle is located behind the part, aligned on the Z axis. In simple operation it picks up the part as it is cut off, and accepts it for second operations, then ejects it into a bin, eliminating the need to have an operator manually change each part, as is often the case with standard CNC turning centers. This makes them very efficient, as these machines are capable of fast cycle times, producing simple parts in one cycle (i.e., no need for a second machine to finish the part with second operations), in as little as 10 -- 15 seconds. This makes them ideal for large production runs of small - diameter parts.
Additionally, as many Swiss lathes incorporate a secondary spindle, or ' sub-spindle ', they also incorporate ' live tooling '. Live tools are rotary cutting tools that are powered by a small motor independently of the spindle motor (s). Live tools increase the intricacy of components that can be manufactured by the Swiss lathe. For instance, automatically producing a part with a hole drilled perpendicular to the main axis (the axis of rotation of the spindles) is very economical with live tooling, and similarly uneconomical if done as a secondary operation after machining by the Swiss lathe is complete. A ' secondary operation ' is a machining operation requiring a partially completed part to be secured in a second machine to complete the manufacturing process. Generally, advanced CAD / CAM software uses live tools in addition to the main spindles so that most parts that can be drawn by a CAD system can actually be manufactured by the machines that the CAD / CAM software support.
A combination lathe, often known as a 3 - in - 1 machine, introduces drilling or milling operations into the design of the lathe. These machines have a milling column rising up above the lathe bed, and they utilize the carriage and topslide as the X and Y axes for the milling column. The 3 - in - 1 name comes from the idea of having a lathe, milling machine, and drill press all in one affordable machine tool. These are exclusive to the hobbyist and MRO markets, as they inevitably involve compromises in size, features, rigidity, and precision in order to remain affordable. Nevertheless, they meet the demand of their niche quite well, and are capable of high accuracy given enough time and skill. They may be found in smaller, non-machine - oriented businesses where the occasional small part must be machined, especially where the exacting tolerances of expensive toolroom machines, besides being unaffordable, would be overkill for the application from an engineering perspective.
Mini-lathes and micro-lathes are miniature versions of a general - purpose center lathe (engine lathe). They typically have swings in the range of 3 to 7 in (76 to 178 mm) diameter (in other words, 1.5 to 3.5 in (38 to 89 mm) radius). They are small and affordable lathes for the home workshop or MRO shop. The same advantages and disadvantages apply to these machines as explained earlier regarding 3 - in - 1 machines.
As found elsewhere in English - language orthography, there is variation in the styling of the prefixes in these machines ' names. They are alternately styled as mini lathe, minilathe, and mini-lathe and as micro lathe, microlathe, and micro-lathe.
Wheel lathes are machines used to manufacture and resurface the wheels of railway cars. When wheels become worn or compromised from excessive use, this tool can be used to re-cut and recondition the wheel of the train car. There are a number of different wheel lathes available including underfloor variations for resurfacing wheels that are still attached to the rail car, portable types that are easily transported for emergency wheel repairs, and CNC versions which utilize computer - based operating systems to complete the wheel repair.
A lathe for large diameter, though short work, built over a recess in the floor to admit the lower part of the workpiece thus allowing the toolrest to stand at the turner 's waist height. An example is on display at the London Science Museum, Kensington.
A lathe specialized for the task of resurfacing brake drums and discs in automotive or truck garages.
Specialised lathes for machining long workpieces such as segments of drill strings. Oil country lathes are equipped with large - bore hollow spindles, a second chuck on the opposite side of the headstock, and frequently outboard steadies for supporting long workpieces.
Various feed mechanisms exist to feed material into a lathe at a defined rate.
A bar feeder feeds a single piece of bar stock into the cutting machine. As each part is machined, the cutting tool creates a final cut to separate the part from the bar stock, and the feeder continues to feed the bar for the next part, allowing for continual operation of the machine. There are two types of bar feeds used in lathe machining: Hydrodynamic bar feeds, which rest the bar stock in a series of channels whilst clamping down on the top and bottom of the bar, and hydrostatic bar feeds, which hold the bar stock in a feed tube using pressurized oil.
A bar loader is a variation on the bar feeder concept in that multiple pieces of bar stock may be fed into a hopper, and the loader feeds each piece as necessary.
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who spoke about the doctrine of justification by faith | Justification (theology) - wikipedia
In Christian theology, justification is God 's act of removing the guilt and penalty of sin while at the same time making a sinner righteous through Christ 's atoning sacrifice.
The means of justification is an area of significant difference between Catholicism, Orthodoxy and Protestantism, even within the latter. In Lutheranism and Calvinism, righteousness from God is viewed as being credited to the sinner 's account through faith alone, without works.
Broadly speaking, Catholic, Methodist and Orthodox Christians distinguish between initial justification, which in their view ordinarily occurs at baptism, and final salvation, accomplished after a lifetime of striving to do God 's will (sanctification).
In Catholic doctrine, real forgiveness of sin exists, while the Protestant doctrine sin is merely "covered '' and not imputed. Catholics believe faith as is active in charity and good works (fides caritate formata) can justify man, Protestants believe faith without works and devoid of charity can justify man. For Lutherans justification can be lost with the loss of faith, for Catholics justification can be lost by mortal sin.
Justification is often seen as being the theological fault line that divided Catholic from the Lutheran and Reformed traditions of Protestantism during the Reformation.
Jesus used the idea of ransom, or redemption when referring to his work on earth (Matthew 20: 28; Mark 10: 45). Christ 's death and resurrection (triumph over Satan and death) provide justification for believers before God. His righteousness becomes theirs, and his death becomes an offering to God in their place, to pay for all of their sins. According to Protestants this justification is by faith alone -- not through good deeds -- and is a gift from God through Christ. According to Catholics and Eastern Orthodox we are justified by God 's grace which is a free gift but is received through baptism initially, through the faith that works for love in the continuous life of a Christian and through the sacrament of reconciliation if the grace of justification is lost through grave sin.
The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (JDDJ), signed by both the Lutheran World Federation and the Roman Catholic Church on 31 October 1999, clearly stated that "consensus in basic truths of the doctrine of justification exists between Lutherans and Catholics. '' In Roman Catholic and Lutheran doctrines, as expressed under section 4.7 no. 37, "we confess together that good works -- a Christian life lived in faith, hope and love -- follow justification and are its fruits. When the justified live in Christ and act in the grace they receive, they bring forth, in biblical terms, good fruit. Since Christians struggle against sin their entire lives, this consequence of justification is also for them an obligation they must fulfill. Thus both Jesus and the apostolic Scriptures admonish Christians to bring forth the works of love. ''
The declaration states that several theological views on justification held by Lutherans and Catholics, though not apparently similar to each other, are in fact explaining the same "basic truths of the doctrine of justification '' at different angles.
An example can be cited from section 4.7 no. 38 - 39, "when Catholics affirm the ' meritorious ' character of good works, they wish to say that, according to the biblical witness, a reward in heaven is promised to these works. Their intention is to emphasize the responsibility of persons for their actions, not to contest the character of those works as gifts, or far less to deny that justification always remains the unmerited gift of grace '', in comparison with "the concept of a preservation of grace and a growth in grace and faith is also held by Lutherans. They do emphasize that righteousness as acceptance by God and sharing in the righteousness of Christ is always complete. At the same time, they state that there can be growth in its effects in Christian living. When they view the good works of Christians as the fruits and signs of justification and not as one 's own ' merits ', they nevertheless also understand eternal life in accord with the New Testament as unmerited ' reward ' in the sense of the fulfillment of God 's promise to the believer. ''
Suppose a brother or sister is without clothes and daily food. If one of you says to him, "Go, I wish you well; keep warm and well fed '', but does nothing about his physical needs, what good is it? In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not accompanied by action, is dead. But someone will say, "You have faith; I have deeds. '' Show me your faith without deeds, and I will show you my faith by what I do.
D. James Kennedy explains this verse:
James is dealing with people who profess to be Christians, and yet they do n't evidence the reality of their faith by their works (deeds). Over, and over again... people will say they have faith and they do n't have works, and James is saying that real faith always produces works as a result... The question is, ' A man may say that he has faith, but will that faith justify him? ' If it is just a ' said ' faith -- no, it wo n't!
It was Paul who developed the term justification in the theology of the church. Justification is a major theme of the epistles to the Romans and to the Galatians in the New Testament, and is also given treatment in many other epistles. In Romans, Paul develops justification by first speaking of God 's just wrath at sin (Romans 1: 18 - 3: 20). Justification is then presented as the solution for God 's wrath (Romans 3: 21 - 26, Romans 5: 1). One is said to be ' justified by faith apart from works of the Law ' (Romans 3: 28). Further, Paul writes of sin and justification in terms of two men, Adam and Christ (Romans 5). Through Adam, sin came into the world bringing death; through Jesus, righteousness came into the world, bringing justification unto life (Romans 5: 15 - 17). In this connection, Paul speaks of Adam 's sin being ' imputed ' or ' accounted ' (Greek ελλογειται) and speaks of justification as acting in analogy to sin (Romans 5: 13; Romans 5: 18). In chapter 8, Paul connects justification with predestination and glorification (Romans 8: 30). He further states that those who are justified can not be separated from the love of Christ (Romans 8: 33 - 39). Several of these passages are central in the debate between Roman Catholics, and the various streams of Protestantism (while there is broad agreement on justification by faith, there is no complete doctrinal uniformity on justification among all Protestant denominations), who can understand them in quite different ways. In Galatians, Paul emphatically rejects justification by works of the Law, a rejection sparked apparently by a controversy concerning the necessity of circumcision for salvation (Galatians 2: 16, Galatians 5: 4; see also Romans 5: 1 - 12 and Council of Jerusalem). He also adds that the only thing that counts is the faith which worketh by love (Galatians 5: 6).
The Epistle to the Hebrews also takes up the theme of justification, declaring that Jesus ' death is superior to the Old Testament sacrifices in that it takes away sin once for all (Hebrews 10). In Hebrews, faith in Jesus ' sacrifice includes steadfast perseverance (Hebrews 10: 19 - 23, Hebrews 12: 1). James discusses justification briefly but significantly, declaring that a faith that is apart from works can not be a justifying faith, because faith is made perfect or completed by works (James 2, especially James 2: 22). Indeed, works are required for justification because "man is justified by works, and not by faith alone '' (James 2: 24), though the sense of the word justified in this passage is disputed. The writer of James emphasizes the Jewish belief that faith and deeds go together. However, in James, it is possible that justification is referring to how believers are to behave as believers, not how an unbeliever becomes a believer (i.e., salvation). Faith without works is counterfeit. The faith must produce good fruit as a sign lest it become the occasion for self - justification.
After the Apostolic era, the concept of justification was secondary to issues such as martyrdom. Justification as a concept is mentioned in the works of early church fathers, and in the sermons of John Chrysostom, but it is not developed until Augustine 's conflict with Pelagius.
Pelagius taught that one became righteous through the exertion of one 's will to follow the example of Jesus ' life. Over against this, Augustine taught that we are justified by God, as a work of his grace. Augustine took great pains in his anti-Pelagian works to refute the notion that our works could serve as the proper basis for our justification. Following an appeal from Augustine, Pope Innocent I condemned Pelagius. The accused heretic wrote an appeal of his own, declaring his innocence, which was duly accepted by Innocent 's successor, Pope Zosimus. However, the Council of Carthage (418) again renounced Pelagius with papal approval.
Christian traditions answer questions about the nature, function and meaning of justification quite differently. These issues include: Is justification an event occurring instantaneously or is it as an ongoing process? Is justification effected by divine action alone (monergism), by divine and human action together (synergism) or by human action? Is justification permanent or can it be lost? What is the relationship of justification to sanctification, the process whereby sinners become righteous and are enabled by the Holy Spirit to live lives pleasing to God?
Catholics and Protestants believe that we are justified by grace alone through faith, a faith that is active in charity and good works (fides formata) in case of Catholics, whilst Protestants believe through faith by grace they are justified.
Most of Protestants believe they are justified by God 's grace which is a free gift but it is received through faith alone.
Catholics believe they are justified by God 's grace which is a free gift but it is received through baptism initially, through the faith which worketh by love in the continuous life of the Christian and through the sacrament of reconciliation if the grace of justification is lost through mortal sin.
To Catholics, justification is "a translation, from that state wherein man is born a child of the first Adam, to the state of grace, and of the adoption of the sons of God, through the second Adam, Jesus Christ, our Savior '', including the transforming of a sinner from the state of unrighteousness to the state of holiness. This transformation is made possible by accessing the merit of Christ, made available in the atonement, through faith and the sacraments. The Catholic Church teaches that "faith without works is dead '' and that works perfect faith.
In Catholic theology, all are born in a state of original sin, meaning that the sinful nature of Adam is inherited by all. Following Augustine, the Catholic Church asserts that people are unable to make themselves righteous; instead, they require justification. Catholic theology holds that the sacrament of baptism, which is closely connected to faith, "purifies, justifies and sanctifies '' the sinner; in this sacrament, the sinner is "freed from sin ''. This is termed initial justification or "being cleansed of sin '', the entrance into the Christian life. Catholics use Mark 16: 16, John 3: 5, and Acts 2: 38 to support this view in justification by baptism.
As the individual then progresses in his Christian life, he continues to receive God 's grace both directly through the Holy Spirit as well as through the sacraments. This has the effect of combating sin in the individual 's life, causing him to become more righteous both in heart and in action. If one falls into mortal sin they lose justification and it can be gained back through the sacrament of confession.
At the Final Judgment, the individual 's works will then be evaluated. At that time, those who are righteous will be shown to be so. This is the permanent justification.
In the Council of Trent, which Catholics believe to be infallible, the Catholic Church declared in the VII session in canon IV that, "If any one saith, that the sacraments of the New Law are not necessary unto salvation, but superfluous; and that, without them, or without the desire thereof, men obtain of God, through faith alone, the grace of justification; - though all (the sacraments) are not indeed necessary for every individual; let him be anathema (excommunicated). ''
Eastern Christianity, including both Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, tends to not have a strong emphasis on justification as compared to Catholicism or Protestantism, seeing it as part of the concept of "theosis ''; justification is often viewed by Eastern theologians has too highly forensic and reject it. The Greek term for justification (δικαίωσις, dikaiōsis) is not understood by most Eastern theologians to mean simply being pardoned of one 's sins. In large part, this de-emphasis on justification is historical. The Eastern church sees humanity as inheriting the disease of sin from Adam, but not his guilt; hence, there is no need in Eastern theology for any forensic justification.
The Orthodox see salvation as a process of theosis, in which the individual is united to Christ and the life of Christ is reproduced within him. Thus, in one sense, justification is an aspect of theosis. However, it is also the case that those who are baptized into the church and experience Chrismation are considered to be cleansed of sin. Hence, the Orthodox concept of justification can not be reconciled to Protestant concepts, while it is in partial agreement with some Roman Catholic concepts. In the words of one Orthodox Bishop:
Justification is a word used in the Scriptures to mean that in Christ we are forgiven and actually made righteous in our living. Justification is not a once - for - all, instantaneous pronouncement guaranteeing eternal salvation, regardless of how wickedly a person might live from that point on. Neither is it merely a legal declaration that an unrighteous person is righteous. Rather, justification is a living, dynamic, day - to - day reality for the one who follows Christ. The Christian actively pursues a righteous life in the grace and power of God granted to all who continue to believe in Him.
"The Holy Spirit effects the vocation, the illumination, the conversion, the justification, the rebirth in Baptism and the sanctification in the Church... ''
Anglicans, particularly high - church Anglo - Catholics, often follow Catholicism and Orthodoxy in believing both man and God are involved in justification. "Justification has an objective and a subjective aspect. The objective is the act of God in Christ restoring the covenant and opening it to all people. The subjective aspect is faith, trust in the divine factor, acceptance of divine mercy. Apart from the presence of the subjective aspect there is no justification. People are not justified apart from their knowledge or against their will... God forgives and accepts sinners as they are into the divine fellowship, and that these sinners are in fact changed by their trust in the divine mercy. '' Justification, the establishment of a relationship with God through Christ, and sanctification go hand in hand. In historic Anglicanism, the eleventh article of the Thirty - Nine Articles made it clear that justification can not be earned, "We are accounted righteous before God... not for our own works or deservings ''.
However, certain Anglican theologians (especially Anglo - Catholics) argue for a faith characterized by faithfulness, where good works and the Sacraments play an important role in the life of the Christian believer. (see New Perspective on Paul)
From 1510 to 1520, Luther lectured on the Psalms, the books of Hebrews, Romans, and Galatians. As he studied these portions of the Bible, he came to view the use of terms such as penance and righteousness by the Catholic Church in new ways. He became convinced that the church was corrupt in their ways and had lost sight of what he saw as several of the central truths of Christianity, the most important of which, for Luther, was the doctrine of justification -- God 's act of declaring a sinner righteous -- by faith alone through God 's grace. He began to teach that salvation or redemption is a gift of God 's grace, attainable only through faith in Jesus.
"This one and firm rock, which we call the doctrine of justification '', insisted Martin Luther, "is the chief article of the whole Christian doctrine, which comprehends the understanding of all godliness. '' He also called this doctrine the articulus stantis et cadentis ecclesiae ("article of the standing and falling of the church ''): "... if this article stands, the Church stands; if it falls, the Church falls. '' Lutherans follow Luther in this when they call this doctrine "the material principle '' of theology in relation to the Bible, which is "the formal principle. '' They believe justification by grace alone through faith alone in Christ 's righteousness alone is the gospel, the core of the Christian faith around which all other Christian doctrines are centered and based.
Luther came to understand justification as entirely the work of God. When God 's righteousness is mentioned in the gospel, it is God 's action of declaring righteous the unrighteous sinner who has faith in Jesus Christ. The righteousness by which the person is justified (declared righteous) is not his own (theologically, proper righteousness) but that of another, Christ, (alien righteousness). "That is why faith alone makes someone just and fulfills the law '', said Luther. "Faith is that which brings the Holy Spirit through the merits of Christ ''. Thus faith, for Luther, is a gift from God, and "... a living, bold trust in God 's grace, so certain of God 's favor that it would risk death a thousand times trusting in it. '' This faith grasps Christ 's righteousness and appropriates it for the believer. He explained his concept of "justification '' in the Smalcald Articles:
The first and chief article is this: Jesus Christ, our God and Lord, died for our sins and was raised again for our justification (Romans 3: 24 - 25). He alone is the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world (John 1: 29), and God has laid on Him the iniquity of us all (Isaiah 53: 6). All have sinned and are justified freely, without their own works and merits, by His grace, through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus, in His blood (Romans 3: 23 - 25). This is necessary to believe. This can not be otherwise acquired or grasped by any work, law or merit. Therefore, it is clear and certain that this faith alone justifies us... Nothing of this article can be yielded or surrendered, even though heaven and earth and everything else falls (Mark 13: 31).
Traditionally, Lutherans have taught forensic (or legal) justification, a divine verdict of acquittal pronounced on the believing sinner. God declares the sinner to be "not guilty '' because Christ has taken his place, living a perfect life according to God 's law and suffering for his sins. For Lutherans justification is in no way dependent upon the thoughts, words, and deeds of those justified through faith alone in Christ. The new obedience that the justified sinner renders to God through sanctification follows justification as a consequence, but is not part of justification.
Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation through faith alone. Saving faith is the knowledge of, acceptance of, and trust in the promise of the Gospel. Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians by the work of the Holy Spirit through the Word and Baptism. Faith is seen as an instrument that receives the gift of salvation, not something that causes salvation. Thus, Lutherans reject the "decision theology '' which is common among modern evangelicals.
For Lutherans, justification provides the power by which Christians can grow in holiness. Such improvement comes about in the believer only after he has become a new creation in Christ. This improvement is not completed in this life: Christians are always "saint and sinner at the same time '' (simul iustus et peccator) -- saints because they are holy in God 's eyes, for Christ 's sake, and do works that please him; sinners because they continue to sin until death.
John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, was heavily influenced by the thought of Dutch Reformed theologian Jacob Arminius and Hugo Grotius ' governmental theory of the atonement. Hence, he held that God 's work in us consisted of prevenient grace, which undoes the effects of sin sufficiently that we may then freely choose to believe. An individual 's act of faith then results in becoming part of the body of Christ, which allows one to appropriate Christ 's atonement for oneself, erasing the guilt of sin. According to the Articles of Religion in the Book of Discipline of the Methodist Church:
We are accounted righteous before God only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, by faith, and not for our own works or deservings. Wherefore, that we are justified by faith only is a most wholesome doctrine, and very full of comfort.
However, once the individual has been so justified, one must then continue in the new life given; if one fails to persevere in the faith and in fact falls away from God in total unbelief, the attachment to Christ -- and with it, justification -- may be lost.
John Calvin 's understanding of justification was in substantial agreement with Martin Luther 's. Calvin expanded this understanding by emphasizing that justification is a part of one 's union with Christ. The center of Calvin 's soteriology was Union with Christ. For Calvin, one is united to Christ by faith, and all of the benefits of Christ come from being united to him. Therefore, anyone who is justified will also receive all of the benefits of salvation, including sanctification. Thus, while Calvin agreed in substance with the "simultaneously saint and sinner '' formulation, he was more definite in asserting that the result of being justified is a consequent sanctification. Calvin also used more definite language than Luther, spelling out the exchange notion of imputed righteousness: that the good works that Jesus did in his life (collectively referred to as the active obedience of Christ) are imputed to his people, while their sins were imputed to him on the cross.
For Calvin, Adam and Jesus functioned as federal heads, or legal representatives, meaning that each one represented his people through his actions. When Adam sinned, all of Adam 's people were accounted to have sinned at that moment. When Jesus achieved righteousness, all of his people were accounted to be righteous at that moment. In this way Calvin attempted to simultaneously solve the problems of original sin, justification, and atonement.
Some of the technical details of this union with Christ are tied into Calvin 's understanding of the atonement and of predestination.
One outcome of Calvin 's change in center over against Luther was that he saw justification as a permanent feature of being connected to Christ: since, for Calvin, people are attached to Christ monergistically, it is therefore impossible for them to lose justification if indeed they were once justified. This idea was expressed by the Synod of Dort as the "perseverance of the saint. ''
In recent times, two controversies have arisen in the Reformed churches over justification. The first concerns the teaching of "final justification '' by Norman Shepherd; the second is the exact relationship of justification, sanctification, and church membership, which is part of a larger controversy concerning the Federal Vision.
According to the doctrine of The New Church, as explained by Emanuel Swedenborg, the doctrine of justification by faith alone is a false belief which forms the foundation of much of Protestant theology. Man must of his own volition justify himself, and yet believe that justification comes from God only. Not only must man believe in God, but must love God with all his strength, and his neighbor as himself. Inasmuch as man obeys God 's commandment to love others, so God conjoins himself to man, and man to God. It is from this that man 's belief becomes a living and saving belief. It is by means of faith from charity, that a man is reformed and justified, and this is done as if from himself, and this proceeds from the Divine Truth which flows in from the Holy Spirit. Man is of the will and understanding, and he is saved when both are brought into accordance with God 's will. "Believing in the Lord is not merely acknowledging Him but also doing His commandments; for simply acknowledging Him is solely a matter of thought, arising from somewhat of the understanding; but doing His commandments is also a matter of acknowledgment from the will. Man 's mind consists of understanding and will; and as the understanding deals with thinking and the will with doing, so when man 's acknowledgment is merely from the thought of the understanding he comes to the Lord with only half of his mind; but when there is doing he comes with all of it; and this is to believe. ''
Universalism became a significant minority view in the 18th century, popularized by thinkers such as John Murray (the American, not the Scot). Universalism holds that Christ 's death on the cross has entirely atoned for the sin of humanity; hence, God 's wrath is or will be satisfied for all people. Conservative and liberal varieties of universalism then point in different directions. Pluralistic Unitarian Universalism asserts that many different religions all lead to God. Others teach that God 's love is sufficient to cover for sins, thus embracing some form of the moral influence theory of Peter Abelard. For some universalists, justification either was accomplished once and for all in the crucifixion, or is altogether unnecessary.
A range of so - called New Perspectives on Paul, represented by Protestant scholars such as E.P. Sanders, N.T. Wright, and James Dunn, have given rise to a re-thinking of the historical Protestant understanding of justification. Proponents of this view argue that Paul 's letters have too often been read through the lens of the Protestant reformation rather than in the context of first - century Second Temple Judaism, and therefore impose a religion of legalism on their understanding of Pharisaism. This view has been strongly criticized by a number of Reformed ministers and theologians including John Piper, D.A. Carson, and Sinclair Ferguson.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (also known as the LDS or, informally the ' Mormon ' church), believes that while justification is a gift from God, the recipient must choose it through striving to do good works to the extent possible. The ancient American Prophet Nephi wrote "... it is by grace that we are saved, after all we can do. '' (2 Nephi 25: 23). In LDS theology, justification is not earned through good works, but rather chosen by striving to rid one 's life of sin. This allows God to rescue his children from sin while not infringing on their agency.
Luther 's reformulation of justification introduced the phrase sola fide, or "by faith alone ''. That phrase has been one of the uniting factors among various Protestant denominations; despite the wide variety of doctrines and practices among Protestants, they all agree that one is saved (often meaning "justified '') by faith alone.
Roman Catholics and most Lutherans as represented by most of the Lutheran councils worldwide that agreed with the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (JDDJ), believe that they have found much agreement on the subject of justification. Examples:
Other Lutherans, especially Confessional Lutherans, maintain that this agreement fails to properly define the meaning of faith, sin, and other essential terms and thus do not support the Lutheran World Federation 's agreement. Likewise, Catholics affirming the real and serious differences between the decrees of the Council of Trent and the normative Lutheran documents collected in the 1580 Book of Concord equally reject the 1999 "JDDJ '' as fatally flawed. In July 2006 the World Methodist Council, representing 70 million Wesleyan Christians, including The United Methodist Church, "signed on '' to the Joint Declaration on Justification between Roman Catholics and the Lutheran World Federation.
Anglican bishop N.T. Wright has written extensively on the topic of justification (see also New Perspective on Paul). His views are troubling to many evangelicals, and have sparked some debate. Those concerned with his view of justification worry that he marginalizes the importance of the penal substitutionary transaction that takes place at salvation. Defenders of Wright respond by saying that, while the bishop acknowledges advocacy of penal substitution in many biblical texts, he does not see its application in scriptures other evangelicals might. Proponents of Wright 's view of justification warn detractors to "read him well '' before criticizing his theology forthright.
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main characters in game of thrones season 4 | Game of Thrones (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered in the United States on HBO on April 6, 2014, and concluded on June 15, 2014. It was broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm in the United States, consisting of 10 episodes, each running approximately 50 -- 60 minutes. The season is adapted primarily from the second half of A Storm of Swords, along with elements of A Feast for Crows and A Dance with Dragons, all novels from the A Song of Ice and Fire series by George R.R. Martin. The series is adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. HBO ordered the fourth season on April 2, 2013, which began filming in July 2013. The season was filmed primarily in Ireland, Northern Ireland and Croatia.
The story takes place in a fictional world, primarily upon a continent called Westeros, with one storyline occurring on another continent to the east known as Essos. Like the novel, the season like the previous seasons mainly centres around the war of the five kings; after the death of Robb Stark at The Red Wedding, all three remaining kings in Westeros believes to have a claim to the Iron Throne. Meanwhile, at the wall, Jon Snow and the Night 's Watch get ready for the battle against the free folk.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke and Kit Harington. The season introduced a number of new cast members, including Pedro Pascal, Indira Varma, Michiel Huisman and Dean - Charles Chapman.
Critics praised the show 's production values and cast, with specific accolades for Dinklage 's portrayal of Tyrion Lannister. Viewership yet again rose compared to the previous season. It won 4 of the 19 Emmy Awards for which it was nominated.
In King 's Landing, guests arrive for Joffrey Baratheon and Margaery Tyrell 's wedding. Among those in attendance is Oberyn Martell, Prince of Dorne. After Joffrey is poisoned at his wedding by Margaery 's grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, Cersei Lannister blames Tyrion for his death. Outraged at the kangaroo court presiding over his trial, Tyrion demands a trial by combat. Cersei chooses the Mountain as her champion and Oberyn offers to represent Tyrion. The trial ends in a victory for the Mountain and Tyrion is sentenced to death. Before he can be executed, Tyrion is freed by Jaime, who tells him Varys will smuggle him to the Free Cities. Tyrion, discovering that Shae had been sleeping with Tywin, strangles her to death before killing Tywin and fleeing Westeros.
Sansa Stark successfully escapes King 's Landing with the help of Petyr Baelish. Baelish smuggles her to the Vale, where she comes into conflict with her jealous aunt, Lysa Arryn. After Lysa witnesses Littlefinger kiss Sansa, she attempts to throw Sansa through the Moon Door, only for Littlefinger to push Lysa to her death. When Littlefinger is interrogated, Sansa defends him.
Meanwhile, Arya Stark and Sandor Clegane make way for the Eyrie. The duo arrive at the Eyrie days after Lysa Arryn 's death and are denied entry; they then encounter Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne, who have been tasked by Jaime to bring the Stark sisters to safety. Brienne and the Hound fight, ending with the Hound grievously wounded. Arya leaves him to die. She encounters a Braavosi ship captain, who gives her passage after she shows him the coin Jaqen H'ghar gave her, and saying "valar morghulis ''.
Bran Stark, accompanied by the Reeds and Hodor, continues trying to find the three - eyed raven. Despite being held up by the mutineers at Craster 's Keep and a wight attack that kills Jojen, Bran finally meets the three - eyed raven.
At the Wall, Jon Snow tries to warn his leaders about Mance Rayder 's impending attack. Jon must also contend with the mutineers at Craster 's Keep, led by the deranged Karl Tanner. The Wildlings launch an attack on Castle Black, leading to the deaths of many. Jon goes beyond the Wall to assassinate Rayder, only to be spared by the sudden arrival of Stannis Baratheon and his forces, who overwhelm the Wildlings and rescue the Night 's Watch. Davos Seaworth and Stannis had successfully negotiated with the Iron Bank of Braavos to shift their support from the Lannisters to the Baratheons.
In the North, Roose Bolton aims to cement his hold. He orders his hunter, Locke, to kill Jon Snow and track down Bran and Rickon Stark, and sends Ramsay Snow to take Moat Cailin. Ramsay uses Theon Greyjoy to secure Moat Cailin. Roose rewards Ramsay by legitimizing him as a Bolton, and moves his seat to the former Stark stronghold of Winterfell.
Across the Narrow Sea, Daenerys Targaryen continues her conquest of Slaver 's Bay by taking control of Meereen. Daenerys decides to remain in Meereen to learn to rule. Daenerys discovers that her trusted advisor, Jorah Mormont, had spied on her for Robert Baratheon, and exiles him. Daenerys learns that her dragon Drogon has begun killing humans; while she is unable to capture Drogon, she chains her other two dragons.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 4. They are listed by the region in which they first appear:
On April 2, 2013, HBO announced it had renewed the series for a fourth season, to consist of 10 episodes.
David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as main writers and showrunners for the fourth season. They co-wrote seven out of ten episodes. The remaining three episodes were written by Bryan Cogman (two episodes), and the author of A Song of Ice and Fire, George R.R. Martin (one episode).
Benioff and Weiss co-directed the season premiere after making their directorial debut in season 3, although only Weiss is credited as Benioff received credit for their previous directed episode; Alex Graves, who directed two episodes in season 3, returned and directed episodes 2, 3, 8 and 10; Michelle MacLaren, who also directed two episodes in season 3, returned to direct episodes 4 and 5; former series cinematographer Alik Sakharov, who directed in seasons 2 and 3, returned to direct episodes 6 and 7; and Neil Marshall directed episode 9 after previously directing "Blackwater '', the ninth episode of season 2.
The fourth season adds previously recurring actors Gwendoline Christie (Brienne of Tarth), Iwan Rheon (Ramsay Snow), Kristofer Hivju (Tormund Giantsbane) and Hannah Murray (Gilly) to the series ' main cast. Iain Glen 's credit is moved last in the rotation and given the "With '' moniker.
Prince Oberyn Martell, nicknamed "The Red Viper '', is played by Chilean - American actor Pedro Pascal. "This was a tough one '', said showrunners David Benioff and Dan Weiss about the casting. "The Red Viper is sexy and charming, yet believably dangerous; intensely likable, yet driven by hate. The boys love him, the girls love him, and he loves them all back. Unless your last name is Lannister. We found a fellow who can handle the job description and make it seem effortless. He was n't easy to find and he wo n't be easy to stop ''. Martin commented on the casting by saying: "I was n't present for Pedro Pascal 's audition, but I understand that he really killed it with his reading. And since his casting was announced, the producer of another TV show on which he appeared recently has written me to say how terrific Pascal is, and to congratulate us on the casting. So I suspect that he will turn out to be a wonderful Red Viper ''. Actress Indira Varma was cast as Ellaria Sand, Prince Oberyn 's paramour.
Roger Ashton - Griffiths joins the cast in the role of Mace Tyrell. "The lord oaf of Highgarden '', as his mother describes him, is otherwise known as father to Margaery and Loras. His casting was confirmed by George R.R. Martin, who introduced the actor as the solution to a riddle he 'd set fans with the following message, "Yes, it 's the fine British character actor Roger Ashton - Griffiths, who has been cast in the role of Mace Tyrell, son to the Queen of Thorns, and father of Loras and Margaery ''.
Mark Gatiss plays Tycho Nestoris, a representative of the Iron Bank of Braavos, to whom the Iron Throne owes millions in borrowed gold. The role of Hizdahr zo Loraq is played by young British actor Joel Fry. Hizdahr is the young scion of an ancient Meereenese family who crosses paths with Daenerys Targaryen in Meereen. Elizabeth Webster was cast as Fat Walda Frey. Walda Frey is a granddaughter of Lord Walder Frey. She is the new wife of Roose Bolton, the Lord of the Dreadfort. During the wedding feast of Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey, Lord Bolton recounts to Catelyn Stark and Ser Brynden "Blackfish '' Tully how Lord Walder Frey proposed him to marry one of his granddaughters and offered her weight in silver as dowry. Lord Bolton then adds he chose the fattest bride available and she has made him very rich.
Paola Dionisotti and Rupert Vansittart were cast as Lady Anya Waynwood and Bronze Yohn Royce. They are the heads of House Waynwood and House Royce of Runestone: two powerful vassal houses of House Arryn. Yuri Kolokolnikov plays Styr: One of Mance Rayder 's lieutenants and the Magnar -- the name of the first ever Lord of Thenn which is now a title -- of the Thenn people, a wildling clan. Two mysterious characters from Bran 's storyline have also been cast: the Three - Eyed Crow, who is played by Struan Rodger, and a Child of the Forest, played by Octavia Alexandru.
Roles that were recast for season 4 include Michiel Huisman as Daario Naharis. Huisman replaces Ed Skrein, who portrayed the character in season 3. Dean - Charles Chapman plays the role of Tommen Baratheon, King Joffrey 's younger brother. Tommen was played by Callum Wharry in seasons 1 and 2. Chapman appeared as Martyn Lannister in two episodes of season 3 ("Walk of Punishment '' and "Kissed by Fire ''). Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson was cast as Ser Gregor Clegane, called "The Mountain ''. Hafþór replaces Ian Whyte, who portrayed the character in season 2.
After an absence of at least a season, Owen Teale returns as Alliser Thorne, Kate Dickie as Lysa Arryn, Dominic Carter as Janos Slynt, Tony Way as Dontos Hollard, Andy Beckwith as Rorge, Gerard Jordan as Biter, Andy Kellegher as Polliver, Lino Facioli as Robin Arryn and Brian Fortune as Othell Yarwyck.
Filming for the season began on July 8, 2013, in Northern Ireland. The series also returned to Iceland and Dubrovnik for filming. New locations in Croatia include Diocletian 's Palace in Split, Klis Fortress north of Split, Perun quarry east of Split, Mosor mountain, and Baška Voda further down to the south. In the commentary for episode 2, "The Lion and the Rose, '' the showrunners revealed that parts of Joffrey 's death scene had been filmed in California. The Thingvellir National Park in Iceland was used as the location for the fight between Brienne and The Hound.
Filming for the season lasted 136 days and was completed on November 21, 2013.
The Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós appears in the second episode, as a group of musicians serenading the royal couple at their wedding reception with "The Rains of Castamere. '' This continues the series 's tradition of employing noted indie bands, begun in season 2 with The National and continued in season 3 with The Hold Steady.
The soundtrack for the season was released digitally on June 10, 2014, and on CD on July 1, 2014.
The fourth season was acclaimed by critics. However, the third episode attracted criticism for the inclusion of a scene in which Jaime Lannister appears to be raping his sister and lover Cersei in the Great Sept of Baelor. In the source novel, Cersei verbally consents to the sexual encounter, but does not in the television portrayal. The final episode was also criticised for the omission of the events of the epilogue of A Storm of Swords which was expected by fans to be the final scene.
The review aggregator website Metacritic gave season 4 a score of 94 out of 100 based on 29 reviews, signifying "universal acclaim ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the fourth season has a 97 % approval rating from 42 critics with an average rating of 9 out of 10; the season also received a 97 % average episode score.
Season 4 obtained the strongest viewer numbers of all seasons aired up until that point, with a series high of 7.20 million viewers of the first airing of the seventh episode. With its fourth season, Game of Thrones has become the most - watched HBO series in history (surpassing the fourth season of The Sopranos which had a gross audience of 18.2 million viewers), averaging 18.4 million viewers across multiple platforms, including live viewing, encores, DVR views, HBO GO and On Demand views.
For the 30th TCA Awards, the series was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Drama and Program of the Year. For the 4th Critics ' Choice Television Awards, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series and Diana Rigg received a nomination for Best Guest Performer in a Drama Series. For the 66th Primetime Emmy Awards, the series received 19 nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, Peter Dinklage for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Lena Headey for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, Diana Rigg for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, David Benioff and D.B. Weiss for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "The Children '', and Neil Marshall for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for "The Watchers on the Wall ''. For the 67th Writers Guild of America Awards, the series was nominated for Best Drama Series and George R.R. Martin was nominated for Best Episodic Drama for "The Lion and the Rose ''. For the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards, the cast was nominated for Best Drama Ensemble, Peter Dinklage was nominated for Best Drama Actor, and the series won for Best Stunt Team. For the 72nd Golden Globe Awards, the series was nominated for Best Television Series -- Drama. For the 67th Directors Guild of America Awards, Alex Graves was nominated for Outstanding Directing -- Drama Series for the episode "The Children ''.
The fourth season of Game of Thrones was released on DVD and Blu - ray in region 1 on February 17, 2015 (2015 - 02 - 17).
Blu - ray exclusive:
Between January 30 and February 5, 2015, the last two episodes of season four were shown in 205 IMAX theaters in the U.S. Game of Thrones is the first TV series released in this format. The show earned $686,000 in its opening day at the box office and $1.5 million during its opening weekend. The one - week release grossed $1,896,092.
The fourth season of Game of Thrones was the most - pirated TV series in 2014.
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most goals in a season soccer premier league | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the end of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2018 -- 19 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2018 -- 19:
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where was long way to the top filmed | It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) - wikipedia
"It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' is a song by Australian hard rock band AC / DC. It is the first track of the group 's album T.N.T., released in December 1975, and was written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young and Bon Scott. The song is notable for combining bagpipes with hard rock instrumentation; in the middle section of the song there is a call and response between the bagpipes and guitar. The original recording is in B - flat major, but it was played live in A major.
A slightly shortened version of the song is also the first track on the international version of High Voltage, released in May 1976. This version appears only on the vinyl release and the 2003 CD reissue.
The full version of the song is also on the Volts CD of the Bonfire box set, released in 1997.
This was a signature song for Bon Scott. Brian Johnson, who replaced Scott as AC / DC 's lead vocalist from 1980 until his departure in 2016, did not perform it out of respect for his predecessor.
The song chronicles the hardships endured by a rock band on tour, such as being robbed, assaulted, stoned and cheated by a greedy agent. However, the band accepts these hardships as natural on the path to stardom, saying that "It 's a long way to the top / If you wan na rock ' n ' roll ''.
George Young (the older brother of Angus and Malcolm), having heard that Bon Scott was in a pipe band, encouraged the use of bagpipes in the song. Scott obliged despite having never played them before; he had actually been a drummer in the band. Scott used a set of bagpipes to play the song live until 1976, following an incident where he set them down at the corner of a stage and they were destroyed by fans. Subsequent live performances used a recording of the song 's bagpipe part or an extended guitar solo by Angus.
The music video for "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '', was filmed on 23 February 1976 for the Australian music television program Countdown. It featured the band 's members on the back of a flatbed truck travelling on Swanston Street in Melbourne, Australia, being followed by members of the Rats of Tobruk Pipe band. Known members of the Rats of Tobruk Pipe Band at the time of the video 's filming include: Alan Butterworth, Les Kenfield and Kevin Conlon. The video was dubbed with the studio track from the album T.N.T. and is available on the Family Jewels DVD.
The video was directed by Paul Drane. David Olney was the cameraman.
Two other videos for the song exist. One version, filmed the same day as the truck version, features the group miming the song on a stage in Melbourne 's City Square in front of an audience. The pipe players appear here as well. This version is available in the Backtracks box set. A third version features the group simply miming the song on a soundstage, making it appear as if it were being played live (This version is considered rare and as of 2014 has n't been officially released on any DVD compilations; it can be found on YouTube). Also, a version of the group performing the song on Australian Bandstand with Scott singing live over the studio track appears on the DVD set Plug Me In.
In May 2001, Australasian Performing Rights Association (APRA) celebrated its 75th anniversary by naming the Best Australian Songs of all time, as decided by a 100 - member industry panel. "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' was ranked as the ninth song on the list. The song is regularly played during stoppages at AFL matches at the ANZ stadium in Sydney.
The song was also used in the comedy movie School of Rock (2003) during the ending credits sequence when Jack Black 's character, Dewey Finn, is giving his kids an "after - school lesson '' on rock.
In 2010, this song was ranked no. 3 in Triple M 's Ultimate 500 Rock Countdown in Melbourne. The top five were all AC / DC songs.
In 2012, this song was inducted into the National Film and Sound Archive 's Sounds of Australia.
In the third episode of Empire of Cricket, a 2009 British BBC - TV documentary about the history of cricket, "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' is played over the opening credits. The episode details the history of Australian cricket and its rise to dominance.
ITV used the song for the closing montage to their coverage of the 2010 Tour de France. It was the first to be won by an Australian, when BMC 's Cadel Evans won the race.
A clip of the song 's intro is often used by the Golf Channel before commercial breaks.
The song is being used to accompany the promotional video for the 2013 Australian Open Tennis Tournament.
Keith Urban guitarist Brian Nutter often uses the song during his solo section during live performances.
The song is being used by the Chicago Cubs in 2017 as an accompaniment to a video played just prior to the team taking the field.
On October 1, 2004, Melbourne, Australia 's Corporation Lane was officially renamed "ACDC Lane '' in honour of the band (street names in the City of Melbourne can not contain the "/ '' character). This change was made in part because the music video for "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' was filmed on Melbourne 's Swanston Street, near ACDC Lane. The Melbourne City Council 's vote to rename the street was unanimous. Bagpipers played "It 's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll) '' at the official renaming ceremony.
Performed by:
The song was covered during the credit sequence of the comedy movie School of Rock, performed by Jack Black and the class of children he taught while masquerading as a teacher. However, the children ad - libbed their own lyrics towards the end of the song.
Billy Corgan covered the song live as an encore on almost every show during his 2005 tour supporting his debut solo effort TheFutureEmbrace.
A dramatic re-interpretation was released by Norwegian duo Susanna and the Magical Orchestra (aka Susanna Wallumrød and Morten Qvenild) in late summer 2006 on their second album Melody Mountain, which consists entirely of cover versions. Their style is slow and melancholic with only cembalo accompaniment to Wallumrød 's pure vocal, and brings out the essential sadness of the song.
The band Hanson performed this song during some of the shows on the "Walk around the World '' tour, often inviting the opening acts back on stage to sing together.
Melbourne Ukulele Kollective frequently play the song live, the most notable performances being during ABC - TV 's Spicks and Specks in 2004; and during the Australia Day flag - raising ceremony and people 's march in 2009.
German Medieval Metal Band In Extremo played the song on their Tranquilo - Acoustic Tour in 2009 on German Bagpipes.
On the 34th anniversary of the filming of the music video, it was recreated as part of the SLAM (Save Live Australian Music) rally, to protest liquor licensing laws which threaten live music. About ten thousand protesters marched down Swanston Street and up Bourke Street to the Victorian Parliament House, accompanied by the RocKwiz band on a flatbed truck playing the song.
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what was the war between spain and morocco | Rif war - wikipedia
The Rif War was an armed conflict fought from 1920 to 1927 between the colonial power Spain (later joined by France) and the Berber tribes of the Rif mountainous region. Led by Abd el - Krim, the Riffians at first inflicted several defeats on the Spanish forces by using guerrilla tactics and captured European weapons. After France 's military intervention against Abd el - Krim 's forces and the major landing of Spanish troops at Al Hoceima, considered the first amphibious landing in history to involve the use of tanks and aircraft, Abd el - Krim surrendered to the French and was taken into exile.
In 1909, Rifian tribes aggressively confronted Spanish workers of the iron mines of the Rif, near Melilla, which led to the intervention of the Spanish Army. The military operations in Jebala, in the Moroccan West, began in 1911 with the Larache Landing. Spain worked to pacify a large part of the most violent areas until 1914, a slow process of consolidation of frontiers that lasted until 1919 due to World War I.
The following year, after the signing of the Treaty of Fez, the northern Moroccan area was adjudicated to Spain as a protectorate. The Riffian populations strongly resisted the Spanish, unleashing a conflict that would last for several years. In 1921, the Spanish troops suffered the catastrophic Disaster of Annual, the biggest defeat in the history of Spain, in addition to a rebellion led by Rifian leader Abd el - Krim. As a result, the Spanish retreated to a few fortified positions while Abd el - Krim ultimately created an entire independent state: the Republic of the Rif. The development of the conflict and its end coincided with the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, who took on command of the campaign from 1924 to 1927. In addition, and after the Battle of Uarga in 1925, the French intervened in the conflict and established a joint collaboration with Spain that culminated in the notorious renowned Alhucemas landing. By 1926 the area had been pacified; Abd - el - Krim surrendered in July 1927; and the Spanish regained the previously lost territory.
The Rif War is still considered controversial among historians. Some see in it a harbinger of the decolonization process in North Africa. Others consider it one of the last colonial wars, as it was the decision of the Spanish to conquer the Rif -- nominally part of their Moroccan protectorate but de facto independent -- that catalyzed the entry of France in 1924.
The Rif War left a deep memory both in Spain and in Morocco. The Riffian insurgency of the 1920s can be interpreted as a precursor to the Algerian war of independence, which took place three decades later.
During the early 20th century, Morocco was divided into protectorates ruled by France and Spain. The Rif region had been assigned to Spain, but given that the Sultans of Morocco had been unable to exert control over the region, Spanish sovereignty over the Rif was strictly theoretical. For centuries, the Berber tribes of the Rif had fought off any attempt of outsiders to impose control on them. Though nominally Muslim, the tribes of the Rif had continued many pagan animist practices, such as worshipping water spirits and forest spirits. Attempts by the Moroccan sultans to impose orthodox Islam on the Rif had been successfully resisted by the tribesmen.
For centuries, Europeans had seen the Rif mountains and people on the mountains from ships in the Mediterranean Sea, but almost no European had ever ventured into the area. Walter Burton Harris, the Morocco correspondent for The Times, who covered the war, wrote that as late as 1912 only "one or two Europeans had been able to visit the cedar forests that lie south of Fez. A few had traveled in the southern Atlas and pushed on into the Sus... and that was almost all ''. As Harris wrote, the Berbers "were often as inhospitable to the Arab as they were to the foreigner '', and generally killed any outsiders who ventured into their territory.
Vincent Sheean, who covered the war for The New York Times, wrote that the Rif was a truly beautiful countryside of "Crimson mountains flung against a sky of hieratic blue, gorges magnificent and terrifying, peaceful green valleys between protecting precipices '', a place that reminded him of his native Colorado. The Rif was also rich in high - grade iron, which could be easily extracted via open pit mining. The promise of the Spanish state collecting revenues in the form of taxes and royalties from iron mining here was incentive for it to bring the Rif under its control.
The Crown granted the concession to mine iron in the Rif to the millionaire Don Horacio Echevarrieta. By 1920 he had brought out 800,000 tons of valuable high grade iron through relatively inexpensive open pit mining. Though profitable, the iron mining caused much environmental damage and required the displacement of the native people. As they received no share of the profits, the Rifians soon began to oppose the mining in their territory.
When King Alfonso XIII of Spain ascended to the throne in 1886, Spain was considered a world power, with colonies in the Americas, Africa, Asia and the Pacific. But in the Spanish -- American War, Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, and in 1899 it sold the Mariana and Caroline Islands to Germany, retaining only some footholds on the Moroccan coast and Spanish Guinea. To compensate for the lost empire in the Americas and Asia, there emerged a powerful africanist faction in Spain led by Alfonso, who wanted a new empire in Africa. Finally, the Roman Catholic Church was politically powerful in Spain, and much of the Spanish clergy preached the need for new crusade to continue the Reconquista by conquering Morocco, thus adding their voices to the africanist choir. For all these reasons, Spain began pushing into the Rif in 1909.
The Berber tribesmen had a long tradition of fierce fighting skills, combined with high standards of fieldcraft and marksmanship. They were capably led by Abd el - Krim, who showed both military and political expertise. However, the Rifian regular army was never a very large force. The elite of the Rifian forces formed regular units which according to Abd el - Krim, quoted by the Spanish General Manuel Goded, numbered 6,000 to 7,000. Other sources put it much lower, at around 2,000 to 3,000.
The remaining Rifians were tribal militia selected by their Caids; they were not liable to serve away from their homes and farms for more than 15 consecutive days. General Goded estimated that at their peak, in June 1924, the Rifian forces numbered about 80,000 men, although Abd el - Krim was never able to arm more than 20,000 men at a time. However, this force was largely adequate in the early stages of the war. In the final days of the war, Rifian forces numbered about 12,000 men. In addition Rifian forces were not well armed, with weapons badly maintained and in poor condition.
Initially, the Spanish forces in Morocco were largely composed of conscripts and reservists from Spain itself. These "Peninsular '' troops were poorly supplied and prepared, few had marksmanship skills and proper battle training, and widespread corruption was reported amongst the officer corps, reducing supplies and morale. Of the Spanish troops in Morocco in 1921, well over half were completely illiterate conscripts from the poorest elements of Spanish society who had been sent to Morocco with minimal training. Despite Silvestre 's assurances that his equipment was sufficient to defeat the Rifians, in fact about three - quarters of the rifles at the Melilla arsenal were in shoddy condition due to poor maintenance, and a report from late 1920, which Silvestre had never bothered to read, warned that many of the rifles held there were either unusable or more of a danger to the soldier firing them than to the enemy.
The average Spanish soldier in Morocco in 1921 was paid the equivalent of thirty - four US cents per day, and lived on a simple diet of coffee, bread, beans, rice and the odd piece of meat. Many soldiers bartered their rifles and ammunition at the local markets in exchange for fresh vegetables. The barracks that the soldiers lived in were unsanitary and medical care at the few hospitals very poor. Up in the mountains, Spanish soldiers lived in small outposts known as blocaos, which the American historian Stanley Payne observed: "Many of these lacked any sort of toilet, and the soldier who ventured out of the filthy bunker risked exposure to the fire of lurking tribesmen ''.
Continuing a practice first began in Cuba, corruption flourished amongst the venal Spanish officer corps with goods meant for the troops being sold on the black market and the funds intended to build road and railroads in Morocco ended up in the pockets of senior officers. A high number of Spanish officers could not read maps, which explains why Spanish units so frequently got lost in the Rift mountains. In general, studying war was not considered to be a good use of an officer 's time, and most officers devoted their time in Melilla in words of the American journalist James Perry to "gambling and whoring, sometimes molesting the native Moorish women ''. Morale in the Army was extremely poor and most Spanish soldiers just wanted to go home and leave Morocco forever. Because of the prostitutes from Spain, who attached themselves in great number to the Spanish bases in Morocco, venereal diseases were rampant in the Spanish Army. Silvestre was well aware of the poor morale of his soldiers, but he did not regard this as a problem, believing that his enemy was so inferior that the problems afflicting his troops were not an issue.
Even with their numerical superiority, the "Peninsular '' troops proved no match for the highly skilled and motivated Rifian forces. Accordingly, much reliance came to be placed on the mainly professional units comprising Spain 's Army of Africa. Since 1911, these had included regiments of Moroccan Regulares, who proved to be excellent soldiers.
The initiative was unpopular in parts of Spain as well. In 1909, during early conflicts with the Rif tribesmen, an attempt by the Spanish government to call up reservists led to a working class uprising in Barcelona known as Tragic Week. The Catalan trade unions, many led by anarchists, argued that the working class of Barcelona had no quarrel with the people of the Rif.
After the Tragic Week of 1909, the Spanish government starting in 1911 tried to raise as many Regulare units as possible to avoid further working class resistance to colonial wars as much of the Spanish working class had no desire to see their sons sent to Morocco, beginning a policy of what the Spanish historian Jose Alvarez called "Moroccanizing '' the conquest of the Rif. Following the difficulties and setbacks that it had experienced in 1909 - 11, the Spanish army began to adopt much in organization and tactics from the French North African forces garrisoning most of Morocco and neighboring Algeria. Particular attention was paid to the French Foreign Legion and a Spanish equivalent, the Tercio de Extranjeros ("Foreigners brigade ''), known in English as the "Spanish Legion '', was formed in 1920. The regiment 's second commander was then - Col. Francisco Franco, having risen rapidly through the ranks. In the Rif war, it was the Regulares and the Spanish Foreign Legion founded in 1919 that provided the elite forces that won Spain the war. Less than 25 % of this "Foreign Legion '' were, in fact, non-Spanish. Harshly disciplined and driven, they quickly acquired a reputation for ruthlessness. As their number grew, the Spanish Legion and the Regulares increasingly led offensive operations after the disasters that had been suffered by the conscript forces.
As an outcome of the Treaty of Fez (1912) Spain gained possession of the lands around Melilla and Ceuta. In 1920, the Spanish commissioner, General Dámaso Berenguer, decided to conquer the eastern territory from the Jibala tribes, but had little success. The second - in - command was General Manuel Fernández Silvestre who commanded the eastern sector. Silvestre had spread out his troops out in 144 forts and blocaos from Sidi Dris on the Mediterranean across the Rift mountains to Annual and Tizi Azza and on to Melilla. A typical blocao held about dozen men while the larger forts had about 800 men. Silvestre, known for his boldness and impetuosity had pushed his men too deep into the Rif mountains hoping to reach Alhucemas Bay without undertaking the necessary work to build a logistical support network capable of supplying his men out in the blocaos up in the Rif mountains. Krim had sent Silvestre a letter warning him not to cross the Amekran river or else he would die. Silvestre commented to the Spanish press about the letter that: "This man Abd el - Krim is crazy. I 'm not going to take seriously the threats of a little Berber caid (judge) whom I had at my mercy a short time ago. His insolence merits a new punishment ''. Krim allowed Silvestre to advance deep into the Rif, knowing the Spanish logistics were in the words of the Spanish historian Jose Alvarez "tenuous '' at best.
On 1 July 1921, the Spanish army in north - eastern Morocco under the command of General Manuel Fernández Silvestre collapsed when defeated by the forces of Abd el - Krim, in what became known in Spain as the disaster of Annual, some 8,000 soldiers and officers reported killed or disappeared out of some 20,000. The final Spanish death toll, both at Annual and during the subsequent rout that took Rifian forces to the outskirts of Melilla, was reported to the Cortes Generales as totaling 13,192. The Spanish were pushed back and during the following five years, occasional battles were fought between the two. The Rifian forces advanced to the east and captured over 130 Spanish military posts.
By late August 1921, Spain lost all the territories it had gained since 1909. Spanish troops were pushed back to Melilla, which was their biggest base in the eastern Rif. Spain still had 14,000 soldiers in Melilla. However, Abd el - Krim ordered his forces not to attack the town. He subsequently told the writer J. Roger - Matthieu that since citizens of other European nations were residing in Melilla, it was feared they would intervene in the war should their citizens come to harm. Other reasons included the dispersal of Rifian fighters from several loosely allied tribes following the victory at Annual; and the arrival in Melilla of substantial reinforcements from the Legion and other Spanish units recalled from operations in western Morocco. By the end of August Spanish forces at Melilla numbered 36,000 under General Jose Sanjurjo and the slow process of recovering the lost territory could begin.
Thus the Spanish could keep their biggest base in the eastern Rif. Later Abd el - Krim would admit: "I bitterly regret this order. It was my biggest mistake. All the following tenor of events happened because of this mistake. ''
By January 1922 the Spanish had retaken their major fort at Monte Arruit (where they found the bodies of 2,600 of the garrison) and had reoccupied the coastal plain as far as Tistutin and Batel. The Rifian forces had consolidated their hold of the inland mountains and stalemate was reached.
The Spanish military suffered losses even at sea; in March the transport ship Juan de Joanes was sunk in Alhucemas Bay by Riffian coastal batteries, and in August 1923, while shelling Riffian positions, the battleship España ran aground off Cape Tres Forcas and was eventually scrapped in situ.
In a bid to break the stalemate, the Spanish military turned to the use of chemical weapons against the Riffians.
The Rif War had starkly polarized Spanish society between the africanistas who wanted to conquer an empire in Africa vs. the abandonistas who wanted to abandon Morocco as not worth the blood and treasure. After the "Disaster of the Annual '', Spain 's war in the Rif went from bad to worse, and as the Spanish were barely hanging on to Morocco, support for the abandonistas grew as many people could see no point to the war. In August 1923, Spanish soldiers embarking for Morocco mutinied at the railway stations, other soldiers in Malaga simply refused to board the ships that were to take them to Morocco, while in Barcelona huge crowds of left - wingers had staged anti-war protests at which Spanish flags were burned while the flag of the Rif Republic was waved about.
With the africanists comprising only a minority, it was clear that it was only a matter of time before the abandonistas forced the Spanish to give up on the Rif, which was part of the reason for the military coup d'état later in 1923. On September 13, 1923, General Miguel Primo de Rivera, 2nd Marqués de Estella, seized power in a military coup d'état. General Primo de Rivera was in the words of the American journalist James Perry a "moderate dictator '' who was convinced that the divisions between the africanists vs. the abandonistas had pushed Spain to the brink of civil war, and who had seized power to find a way out of the crisis. General Primo de Rivera soon concluded that the war was unwinnable, and considered pulling back his troops to the coast with the aim of at least temporarily abandoning the Rif. In late July 1924, Primo de Rivera visited a Spanish Foreign Legion post at Ben Tieb in the Rif, and was served a banquet of eggs in different forms. In Spanish culture, eggs are a symbol of the testicles, and the dishes were intended to send a clear message. Primo de Rivera responded calmly that the army would be required to abandon only the minimum of territory and that junior officers should not dictate the measures necessary to resolve the Moroccan problem. However he subsequently modified the plans for withdrawal, pulling the Spanish forces back from Chaouen and the Wad Lau region to a prepared fortified boundary named the "Primo Line ''.
In May 1924, the French Army had established a line of out - posts north of the Oureghla River in disputed tribal territory. On 12 April 1925, an estimated 8,000 Rifians attacked this line and in two weeks over 40 of 66 French posts had been stormed or abandoned. French casualties exceeded 1,000 killed, 3,700 wounded and 1,000 missing -- representing losses of over 20 percent of their forces deployed in the Rif. The French accordingly intervened on the side of Spain, employing up to 160,000 well trained and equipped troops from Metropolitan, Algerian, Senegalese and Foreign Legion units, as well as Moroccan regulars (tirailleurs) and auxiliaries (goumiers). With total Spanish forces now numbering about 90,000 the Rifian forces were now seriously outnumbered by their Franco - Spanish opponents. Final French deaths from battle and disease, in what had now become a major war, were to total 8,628.
For the final attack commencing on 8 May 1925, the French and Spanish had ranged 123,000 men, supported by 150 aircraft, against 12,000 Rifians. Superior manpower and technology soon resolved the course of the war in favour of France and Spain. The French troops pushed through from the south while the Spanish fleet and army secured Alhucemas Bay by an amphibious landing, and began attacking from the north. After one year of bitter resistance, Abd el - Krim, the leader of both the tribes, surrendered to French authorities, and in 1926 Spanish Morocco was finally retaken.
However, the unpopularity of the war in Spain and the earlier humiliations of the Spanish military contributed to the instability of the Spanish government and the military coup of 1923.
Series Viking Fund publications in anthropology; no. 55, Notes. Bibliography: pages 533 -- 546. Tucson, Arizona, (1976)
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how far is the tennessee border from my location | Tennessee - wikipedia
Tennessee (/ tɛnɪˈsiː / (listen); Cherokee: ᏔᎾᏏ, translit. Tanasi) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 16th most populous of the 50 United States. Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, and the Mississippi River forms the state 's western border. Nashville is the state 's capital and largest city, with a population of 660,388. Tennessee 's second largest city is Memphis, which has a population of 652,717.
The state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, and later part of the Southwest Territory. Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1, 1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861. Occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war.
Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia, and more soldiers for the Union Army than the rest of the Confederacy combined. Beginning during Reconstruction, it had competitive party politics, but a Democratic takeover in the late 1880s resulted in passage of disenfranchisement laws that excluded most blacks and many poor whites from voting. This sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. In the 20th century, Tennessee transitioned from an agrarian economy to a more diversified economy, aided by massive federal investment in the Tennessee Valley Authority and, in the early 1940s, the city of Oak Ridge. This city was established to house the Manhattan Project 's uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the world 's first atomic bomb, which was used during World War II.
Tennessee 's major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the state 's primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment, and electrical equipment. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the nation 's most visited national park, is headquartered in the eastern part of the state, and a section of the Appalachian Trail roughly follows the Tennessee - North Carolina border. Other major tourist attractions include the Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga; Dollywood in Pigeon Forge; Ripley 's Aquarium of the Smokies and Ober Gatlinburg in Gatlinburg; the Parthenon, the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum, and Ryman Auditorium in Nashville; the Jack Daniel 's Distillery in Lynchburg; Elvis Presley 's Graceland residence and tomb, the Memphis Zoo, and the National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis; and Bristol Motor Speedway in Bristol.
The earliest variant of the name that became Tennessee was recorded by Captain Juan Pardo, the Spanish explorer, when he and his men passed through an American Indian village named "Tanasqui '' in 1567 while traveling inland from South Carolina. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi (or "Tanase '') in present - day Monroe County, Tennessee. The town was located on a river of the same name (now known as the Little Tennessee River), and appears on maps as early as 1725. It is not known whether this was the same town as the one encountered by Juan Pardo, although recent research suggests that Pardo 's "Tanasqui '' was located at the confluence of the Pigeon River and the French Broad River, near modern Newport.
The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain. Some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean "meeting place '', "winding river '', or "river of the great bend ''. According to ethnographer James Mooney, the name "can not be analyzed '' and its meaning is lost.
The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, who used this spelling in his official correspondence during the 1750s. The spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlake 's "Draught of the Cherokee Country '' in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created "Tennessee County '', the third county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. (Tennessee County was the predecessor to current - day Montgomery County and Robertson County.) When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new state out of the Southwest Territory, it adopted "Tennessee '' as the name of the state.
Tennessee is known as The Volunteer State, a nickname some claimed was earned during the War of 1812 because of the prominent role played by volunteer soldiers from Tennessee, especially during the Battle of New Orleans. Other sources differ on the origin of the state nickname; according to the Columbia Encyclopedia, the name refers to volunteers for the Mexican -- American War. This explanation is more likely, because President Polk 's call for 2,600 nationwide volunteers at the beginning of the Mexican - American War resulted in 30,000 volunteers from Tennessee alone, largely in response to the death of Davy Crockett and appeals by former Tennessee Governor and then Texas politician, Sam Houston.
Tennessee borders eight other states: Kentucky and Virginia to the north; North Carolina to the east; Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south; Arkansas and Missouri on the Mississippi River to the west. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states. The state is trisected by the Tennessee River.
The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet (2,025 m). Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessee 's eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River. The state line between Tennessee and North Carolina crosses the summit. The state 's lowest point is the Mississippi River at the Mississippi state line: 178 feet (54 m). The geographical center of the state is located in Murfreesboro.
The state of Tennessee is geographically, culturally, economically, and legally divided into three Grand Divisions: East Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee. The state constitution allows no more than two justices of the five - member Tennessee Supreme Court to be from one Grand Division and a similar rule applies to certain commissions and boards.
Tennessee features six principal physiographic regions: the Blue Ridge, the Appalachian Ridge and Valley Region, the Cumberland Plateau, the Highland Rim, the Nashville Basin, and the Gulf Coastal Plain. Tennessee is home to the most caves in the United States, with over 10,000 documented caves to date.
The Blue Ridge area lies on the eastern edge of Tennessee, bordering North Carolina. This region of Tennessee is characterized by the high mountains and rugged terrain of the western Blue Ridge Mountains, which are subdivided into several subranges, namely the Great Smoky Mountains, the Bald Mountains, the Unicoi Mountains, the Unaka Mountains and Roan Highlands, and the Iron Mountains.
The average elevation of the Blue Ridge area is 5,000 feet (1,500 m) above sea level. Clingmans Dome, the state 's highest point, is located in this region. The Blue Ridge area was never more than sparsely populated, and today much of it is protected by the Cherokee National Forest, the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, and several federal wilderness areas and state parks.
Stretching west from the Blue Ridge for approximately 55 miles (89 km) is the Ridge and Valley region, in which numerous tributaries join to form the Tennessee River in the Tennessee Valley. This area of Tennessee is covered by fertile valleys separated by wooded ridges, such as Bays Mountain and Clinch Mountain. The western section of the Tennessee Valley, where the depressions become broader and the ridges become lower, is called the Great Valley. In this valley are numerous towns and two of the region 's three urban areas, Knoxville, the third largest city in the state, and Chattanooga, the fourth largest city in the state. The third urban area, the Tri-Cities, comprising Bristol, Johnson City, and Kingsport and their environs, is located to the northeast of Knoxville.
The Cumberland Plateau rises to the west of the Tennessee Valley; this area is covered with flat - topped mountains separated by sharp valleys. The elevation of the Cumberland Plateau ranges from 1,500 to about 2,000 feet (460 to about 610 m) above sea level.
East Tennessee has several important transportation links with Middle and West Tennessee, as well as the rest of the nation and the world, including several major airports and interstates. Knoxville 's McGhee Tyson Airport (TYS) and Chattanooga 's Chattanooga Metropolitan Airport (CHA), as well as the Tri-Cities ' Tri-Cities Regional Airport (TRI), provide air service to numerous destinations. I - 24, I - 81, I - 40, I - 75, and I - 26 along with numerous state highways and other important roads, traverse the Grand Division and connect Chattanooga, Knoxville, and the Tri-Cities, along with other cities and towns such as Cleveland, Athens, and Sevierville.
West of the Cumberland Plateau is the Highland Rim, an elevated plain that surrounds the Nashville Basin. The northern section of the Highland Rim, known for its high tobacco production, is sometimes called the Pennyroyal Plateau; it is located primarily in Southwestern Kentucky. The Nashville Basin is characterized by rich, fertile farm country and great diversity of natural wildlife.
Middle Tennessee was a common destination of settlers crossing the Appalachians from Virginia in the late 18th century and early 19th century. An important trading route called the Natchez Trace, created and used for many generations by American Indians, connected Middle Tennessee to the lower Mississippi River town of Natchez. The route of the Natchez Trace was used as the basis for a scenic highway called the Natchez Trace Parkway.
Some of the last remaining large American chestnut trees grow in this region. They are being used to help breed blight - resistant trees.
Middle Tennessee is one of the primary state population and transportation centers along with the heart of state government. Nashville (the capital), Clarksville, and Murfreesboro are its largest cities. Fifty percent of the US population is within 600 miles (970 km) of Nashville. Interstates I - 24, I - 40, and I - 65 service the Division, meeting in Nashville.
West of the Highland Rim and Nashville Basin is the Gulf Coastal Plain, which includes the Mississippi embayment. The Gulf Coastal Plain is, in terms of area, the predominant land region in Tennessee. It is part of the large geographic land area that begins at the Gulf of Mexico and extends north into southern Illinois. In Tennessee, the Gulf Coastal Plain is divided into three sections that extend from the Tennessee River in the east to the Mississippi River in the west.
The easternmost section, about 10 miles (16 km) in width, consists of hilly land that runs along the western bank of the Tennessee River. To the west of this narrow strip of land is a wide area of rolling hills and streams that stretches all the way to the Mississippi River; this area is called the Tennessee Bottoms or bottom land. In Memphis, the Tennessee Bottoms end in steep bluffs overlooking the river. To the west of the Tennessee Bottoms is the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, less than 300 feet (91 m) above sea level. This area of lowlands, flood plains, and swamp land is sometimes referred to as the Delta region. Memphis is the economic center of West Tennessee.
Most of West Tennessee remained Indian land until the Chickasaw Cession of 1818, when the Chickasaw ceded their land between the Tennessee River and the Mississippi River. The portion of the Chickasaw Cession that lies in Kentucky is known today as the Jackson Purchase.
Areas under the control and management of the National Park Service include the following:
Fifty - four state parks, covering some 132,000 acres (530 km) as well as parts of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park and Cherokee National Forest, and Cumberland Gap National Historical Park are in Tennessee. Sportsmen and visitors are attracted to Reelfoot Lake, originally formed by the 1811 -- 12 New Madrid earthquakes; stumps and other remains of a once dense forest, together with the lotus bed covering the shallow waters, give the lake an eerie beauty.
Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate, with the exception of some of the higher elevations in the Appalachians, which are classified as having a mountain temperate climate, subtropical highland, or a humid continental climate due to cooler temperatures. The Gulf of Mexico is the dominant factor in the climate of Tennessee, with winds from the south being responsible for most of the state 's annual precipitation. Generally, the state has hot summers and mild to cool winters with generous precipitation throughout the year, with highest average monthly precipitation generally in the winter and spring months, between December and April. The driest months, on average, are August to October. On average the state receives 50 inches (130 cm) of precipitation annually. Snowfall ranges from 5 inches (13 cm) in West Tennessee to over 16 inches (41 cm) in the higher mountains in East Tennessee.
Summers in the state are generally hot and humid, with most of the state averaging a high of around 90 ° F (32 ° C) during the summer months. Winters tend to be mild to cool, increasing in coolness at higher elevations. Generally, for areas outside the highest mountains, the average overnight lows are near freezing for most of the state. The highest recorded temperature is 113 ° F (45 ° C) at Perryville on August 9, 1930, while the lowest recorded temperature is − 32 ° F (− 36 ° C) at Mountain City on December 30, 1917.
While the state is far enough from the coast to avoid any direct impact from a hurricane, the location of the state makes it likely to be impacted from the remnants of tropical cyclones which weaken over land and can cause significant rainfall, such as Tropical Storm Chris in 1982 and Hurricane Opal in 1995. The state averages around 50 days of thunderstorms per year, some of which can be severe with large hail and damaging winds. Tornadoes are possible throughout the state, with West and Middle Tennessee the most vulnerable. Occasionally, strong or violent tornadoes occur, such as the devastating April 2011 tornadoes that killed 20 people in North Georgia and Southeast Tennessee. On average, the state has 15 tornadoes per year. Tornadoes in Tennessee can be severe, and Tennessee leads the nation in the percentage of total tornadoes which have fatalities. Winter storms are an occasional problem, such as the infamous Blizzard of 1993, although ice storms are a more likely occurrence. Fog is a persistent problem in parts of the state, especially in East Tennessee.
The capital and largest city is Nashville, though Knoxville, Kingston, and Murfreesboro have all served as state capitals in the past. Nashville 's 13 - county metropolitan area has been the state 's largest since c. 1990. Chattanooga and Knoxville, both in the eastern part of the state near the Great Smoky Mountains, each has approximately one - third of the population of Memphis or Nashville. The city of Clarksville is a fifth significant population center, 45 miles (72 km) northwest of Nashville. Murfreesboro is the sixth - largest city in Tennessee, consisting of 108,755 residents.
The area now known as Tennessee was first inhabited by Paleo - Indians nearly 12,000 years ago. The names of the cultural groups that inhabited the area between first settlement and the time of European contact are unknown, but several distinct cultural phases have been named by archaeologists, including Archaic (8000 -- 1000 BC), Woodland (1000 BC -- 1000 AD), and Mississippian (1000 -- 1600 AD), whose chiefdoms were the cultural predecessors of the Muscogee people who inhabited the Tennessee River Valley before Cherokee migration into the river 's headwaters.
The first recorded European excursions into what is now called Tennessee were three expeditions led by Spanish explorers, namely Hernando de Soto in 1540, Tristan de Luna in 1559, and Juan Pardo in 1567. Pardo recorded the name "Tanasqui '' from a local Indian village, which evolved to the state 's current name. At that time, Tennessee was inhabited by tribes of Muscogee and Yuchi people. Possibly because of European diseases devastating the Indian tribes, which would have left a population vacuum, and also from expanding European settlement in the north, the Cherokee moved south from the area now called Virginia. As European colonists spread into the area, the Indian populations were forcibly displaced to the south and west, including all Muscogee and Yuchi peoples, the Chickasaw and Choctaw, and ultimately, the Cherokee in 1838.
The first British settlement in what is now Tennessee was built in 1756 by settlers from the colony of South Carolina at Fort Loudoun, near present - day Vonore. Fort Loudoun became the westernmost British outpost to that date. The fort was designed by John William Gerard de Brahm and constructed by forces under British Captain Raymond Demeré. After its completion, Captain Raymond Demeré relinquished command on August 14, 1757, to his brother, Captain Paul Demeré. Hostilities erupted between the British and the neighboring Overhill Cherokees, and a siege of Fort Loudoun ended with its surrender on August 7, 1760. The following morning, Captain Paul Demeré and a number of his men were killed in an ambush nearby, and most of the rest of the garrison was taken prisoner.
In the 1760s, long hunters from Virginia explored much of East and Middle Tennessee, and the first permanent European settlers began arriving late in the decade. The vast majority of 18th century settlers were English or of primarily English descent but nearly 20 % of them were also Scotch - Irish. These settlers formed the Watauga Association, a community built on lands leased from the Cherokee peoples.
During the American Revolutionary War, Fort Watauga at Sycamore Shoals (in present - day Elizabethton) was attacked (1776) by Dragging Canoe and his warring faction of Cherokee who were aligned with the British Loyalists. These renegade Cherokee were referred to by settlers as the Chickamauga. They opposed North Carolina 's annexation of the Washington District and the concurrent settling of the Transylvania Colony further north and west. The lives of many settlers were spared from the initial warrior attacks through the warnings of Dragging Canoe 's cousin, Nancy Ward. The frontier fort on the banks of the Watauga River later served as a 1780 staging area for the Overmountain Men in preparation to trek over the Appalachian Mountains, to engage, and to later defeat the British Army at the Battle of Kings Mountain in South Carolina.
Three counties of the Washington District (now part of Tennessee) broke off from North Carolina in 1784 and formed the State of Franklin. Efforts to obtain admission to the Union failed, and the counties (now numbering eight) had re-joined North Carolina by 1789. North Carolina ceded the area to the federal government in 1790, after which it was organized into the Southwest Territory. In an effort to encourage settlers to move west into the new territory, in 1787 the mother state of North Carolina ordered a road to be cut to take settlers into the Cumberland Settlements -- from the south end of Clinch Mountain (in East Tennessee) to French Lick (Nashville). The Trace was called the "North Carolina Road '' or "Avery 's Trace '', and sometimes "The Wilderness Road '' (although it should not be confused with Daniel Boone 's "Wilderness Road '' through the Cumberland Gap).
Tennessee was admitted to the Union on June 1, 1796 as the 16th state. It was the first state created from territory under the jurisdiction of the United States federal government. Apart from the former Thirteen Colonies only Vermont and Kentucky predate Tennessee 's statehood, and neither was ever a federal territory. The Constitution of the State of Tennessee, Article I, Section 31, states that the beginning point for identifying the boundary is the extreme height of the Stone Mountain, at the place where the line of Virginia intersects it, and basically runs the extreme heights of mountain chains through the Appalachian Mountains separating North Carolina from Tennessee past the Indian towns of Cowee and Old Chota, thence along the main ridge of the said mountain (Unicoi Mountain) to the southern boundary of the state; all the territory, lands and waters lying west of said line are included in the boundaries and limits of the newly formed state of Tennessee. Part of the provision also stated that the limits and jurisdiction of the state would include future land acquisition, referencing possible land trade with other states, or the acquisition of territory from west of the Mississippi River.
During the administration of U.S. President Martin Van Buren, nearly 17,000 Cherokees -- along with approximately 2,000 black slaves owned by Cherokees -- were uprooted from their homes between 1838 and 1839 and were forced by the U.S. military to march from "emigration depots '' in Eastern Tennessee (such as Fort Cass) toward the more distant Indian Territory west of Arkansas (now the state of Oklahoma). During this relocation an estimated 4,000 Cherokees died along the way west. In the Cherokee language, the event is called Nunna daul Isunyi -- "the Trail Where We Cried. '' The Cherokees were not the only American Indians forced to emigrate as a result of the Indian removal efforts of the United States, and so the phrase "Trail of Tears '' is sometimes used to refer to similar events endured by other American Indian peoples, especially among the "Five Civilized Tribes ''. The phrase originated as a description of the earlier emigration of the Choctaw nation.
In February 1861, secessionists in Tennessee 's state government -- led by Governor Isham Harris -- sought voter approval for a convention to sever ties with the United States, but Tennessee voters rejected the referendum by a 54 -- 46 % margin. The strongest opposition to secession came from East Tennessee (which later tried to form a separate Union - aligned state). Following the Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter in April and Lincoln 's call for troops from Tennessee and other states in response, Governor Isham Harris began military mobilization, submitted an ordinance of secession to the General Assembly, and made direct overtures to the Confederate government. The Tennessee legislature ratified an agreement to enter a military league with the Confederate States on May 7, 1861. On June 8, 1861, with people in Middle Tennessee having significantly changed their position, voters approved a second referendum calling for secession, becoming the last state to do so.
Many major battles of the American Civil War were fought in Tennessee -- most of them Union victories. Ulysses S. Grant and the U.S. Navy captured control of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers in February 1862. They held off the Confederate counterattack at Shiloh in April. Memphis fell to the Union in June, following a naval battle on the Mississippi River in front of the city. The Capture of Memphis and Nashville gave the Union control of the western and middle sections; this control was confirmed at the Battle of Murfreesboro in early January 1863 and by the subsequent Tullahoma Campaign.
Confederates held East Tennessee despite the strength of Unionist sentiment there, with the exception of extremely pro-Confederate Sullivan County. The Confederates, led by General James Longstreet, did attack General Burnside 's Fort Sanders at Knoxville and lost. It was a big blow to East Tennessee Confederate momentum, but Longstreet won the Battle of Bean 's Station a few weeks later. The Confederates besieged Chattanooga during the Chattanooga Campaign in early fall 1863, but were driven off by Grant in November. Many of the Confederate defeats can be attributed to the poor strategic vision of General Braxton Bragg, who led the Army of Tennessee from Perryville, Kentucky to another Confederate defeat at Chattanooga.
The last major battles came when the Confederates invaded Middle Tennessee in November 1864 and were checked at Franklin, then completely dispersed by George Thomas at Nashville in December. Meanwhile, the civilian Andrew Johnson was appointed military governor of the state by President Abraham Lincoln.
When the Emancipation Proclamation was announced, Tennessee was mostly held by Union forces. Thus, Tennessee was not among the states enumerated in the Proclamation, and the Proclamation did not free any slaves there. Nonetheless, enslaved African Americans escaped to Union lines to gain freedom without waiting for official action. Old and young, men, women and children camped near Union troops. Thousands of former slaves ended up fighting on the Union side, nearly 200,000 in total across the South.
Tennessee 's legislature approved an amendment to the state constitution prohibiting slavery on February 22, 1865. Voters in the state approved the amendment in March. It also ratified the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (abolishing slavery in every state) on April 7, 1865.
In 1864, Andrew Johnson (a War Democrat from Tennessee) was elected Vice President under Abraham Lincoln. He became President after Lincoln 's assassination in 1865. Under Johnson 's lenient re-admission policy, Tennessee was the first of the seceding states to have its elected members readmitted to the U.S. Congress, on July 24, 1866. Because Tennessee had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, it was the only one of the formerly secessionist states that did not have a military governor during the Reconstruction period.
After the formal end of Reconstruction, the struggle over power in Southern society continued. Through violence and intimidation against freedmen and their allies, White Democrats regained political power in Tennessee and other states across the South in the late 1870s and 1880s. Over the next decade, the state legislature passed increasingly restrictive laws to control African Americans. In 1889 the General Assembly passed four laws described as electoral reform, with the cumulative effect of essentially disfranchising most African Americans in rural areas and small towns, as well as many poor Whites. Legislation included implementation of a poll tax, timing of registration, and recording requirements. Tens of thousands of taxpaying citizens were without representation for decades into the 20th century. Disfranchising legislation accompanied Jim Crow laws passed in the late 19th century, which imposed segregation in the state. In 1900, African Americans made up nearly 24 % of the state 's population, and numbered 480,430 citizens who lived mostly in the central and western parts of the state.
In 1897, Tennessee celebrated its centennial of statehood (though one year late of the 1896 anniversary) with a great exposition in Nashville. A full - scale replica of the Parthenon was constructed for the celebration, located in what is now Nashville 's Centennial Park.
On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the thirty - sixth and final state necessary to ratify the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which provided women the right to vote. Disfranchising voter registration requirements continued to keep most African Americans and many poor whites, both men and women, off the voter rolls.
The need to create work for the unemployed during the Great Depression, a desire for rural electrification, the need to control annual spring flooding and improve shipping capacity on the Tennessee River were all factors that drove the federal creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in 1933. Through the power of the TVA projects, Tennessee quickly became the nation 's largest public utility supplier.
During World War II, the availability of abundant TVA electrical power led the Manhattan Project to locate one of the principal sites for production and isolation of weapons - grade fissile material in East Tennessee. The planned community of Oak Ridge was built from scratch to provide accommodations for the facilities and workers. These sites are now Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the Y - 12 National Security Complex, and the East Tennessee Technology Park.
Despite recognized effects of limiting voting by poor whites, successive legislatures expanded the reach of the disfranchising laws until they covered the state. Political scientist V.O. Key, Jr. argued in 1949 that:
... the size of the poll tax did not inhibit voting as much as the inconvenience of paying it. County officers regulated the vote by providing opportunities to pay the tax (as they did in Knoxville), or conversely by making payment as difficult as possible. Such manipulation of the tax, and therefore the vote, created an opportunity for the rise of urban bosses and political machines. Urban politicians bought large blocks of poll tax receipts and distributed them to blacks and whites, who then voted as instructed.
In 1953 state legislators amended the state constitution, removing the poll tax. In many areas both blacks and poor whites still faced subjectively applied barriers to voter registration that did not end until after passage of national civil rights legislation, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Tennessee celebrated its bicentennial in 1996. With a yearlong statewide celebration entitled "Tennessee 200 '', it opened a new state park (Bicentennial Mall) at the foot of Capitol Hill in Nashville.
The state has had major disasters, such as the Great Train Wreck of 1918, one of the worst train accidents in U.S. history, and the Sultana explosion on the Mississippi River near Memphis, the deadliest maritime disaster in U.S. history.
In 2002, businessman Phil Bredesen was elected to become the 48th governor in January 2003. Also in 2002, Tennessee amended the state constitution to allow for the establishment of a lottery. Tennessee 's Bob Corker was the only freshman Republican elected to the United States Senate in the 2006 midterm elections. The state constitution was amended to reject same - sex marriage. In January 2007, Ron Ramsey became the first Republican elected as Speaker of the State Senate since Reconstruction, as a result of the realignment of the Democratic and Republican parties in the South since the late 20th century, with Republicans now elected by conservative voters, who previously had supported Democrats.
In 2010, during the 2010 midterm elections, Bill Haslam was elected to succeeded Bredesen, who was term - limited, to become the 49th Governor of Tennessee in January 2011. In April and May 2010, flooding in Middle Tennessee devastated Nashville and other parts of Middle Tennessee. In 2011, parts of East Tennessee, including Hamilton County and Apison in Bradley County, were devastated by the April 2011 tornado outbreak.
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Tennessee was 6,651,194 on July 1, 2016, an increase of 304,896 people since the 2010 United States Census, or 4.8 %. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 110,000 people (that is 502,451 births minus 392,451 deaths), and an increase from net migration of 191,384 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 55,613 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 135,771 people.
Twenty percent of Tennesseans were born outside the South in 2008, compared to a figure of 13.5 % in 1990. In recent years, Tennessee has received an influx of people relocating from California, Florida, and several northern states for the low cost of living, and the booming healthcare and automobile industries. Metropolitan Nashville is one of the fastest - growing areas in the country due in part to these factors.
The center of population of Tennessee is located in Rutherford County, in the city of Murfreesboro.
As of the 2010 census, the racial composition of Tennessee 's population was as follows:
In the same year 4.6 % of the total population was of Hispanic or Latino origin (they may be of any race).
In 2000, the five most common self - reported ethnic groups in the state were: American (17.3 %), African American (13.0 %), Irish (9.3 %), English (9.1 %), and German (8.3 %). Most Tennesseans who self - identify as having American ancestry are of English and Scotch - Irish ancestry. An estimated 21 -- 24 % of Tennesseans are of predominantly English ancestry. In the 1980 census 1,435,147 Tennesseans claimed "English '' or "mostly English '' ancestry out of a state population of 3,221,354 making them 45 % of the state at the time.
According to the 2010 census, 6.4 % of Tennessee 's population were reported as under 5 years of age, 23.6 % under 18, and 13.4 % were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51.3 % of the population.
On June 19, 2010, the Tennessee Commission of Indian Affairs granted state recognition to six Indian tribes which was later repealed by the state 's Attorney General because the action by the commission was illegal. The tribes were as follows:
As of 2011, 36.3 % of Tennessee 's population younger than age 1 were minorities.
Note: Births in table do not add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
The religious affiliations of the people of Tennessee as of 2014:
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 1,483,356; the United Methodist Church with 375,693; the Roman Catholic Church with 222,343; and the Churches of Christ with 214,118.
As of January 1, 2009, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS Church) reported 43,179 members, 10 stakes, 92 Congregations (68 wards and 24 branches), two missions, and two temples in Tennessee.
Tennessee is home to several Protestant denominations, such as the National Baptist Convention (headquartered in Nashville); the Church of God in Christ and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (both headquartered in Memphis); the Church of God and The Church of God of Prophecy (both headquartered in Cleveland). The Free Will Baptist denomination is headquartered in Antioch; its main Bible college is in Nashville. The Southern Baptist Convention maintains its general headquarters in Nashville. Publishing houses of several denominations are located in Nashville.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, in 2011 Tennessee 's real gross state product was $233.997 billion. In 2003, the per capita personal income was $28,641, 36th in the nation, and 91 % of the national per capita personal income of $31,472. In 2004, the median household income was $38,550, 41st in the nation, and 87 % of the national median of $44,472.
For 2012, the state held an asset surplus of $533 million, one of only eight states in the nation to report a surplus.
Major outputs for the state include textiles, cotton, cattle, and electrical power. Tennessee has over 82,000 farms, roughly 59 percent of which accommodate beef cattle. Although cotton was an early crop in Tennessee, large - scale cultivation of the fiber did not begin until the 1820s with the opening of the land between the Tennessee and Mississippi Rivers. The upper wedge of the Mississippi Delta extends into southwestern Tennessee, and it was in this fertile section that cotton took hold. Soybeans are also heavily planted in West Tennessee, focusing on the northwest corner of the state.
Major corporations with headquarters in Tennessee include FedEx, AutoZone and International Paper, all based in Memphis; Pilot Corporation and Regal Entertainment Group, based in Knoxville; Eastman Chemical Company, based in Kingsport; the North American headquarters of Nissan Motor Company, based in Franklin; Hospital Corporation of America and Caterpillar Financial, based in Nashville; and Unum, based in Chattanooga. Tennessee is also the location of the Volkswagen factory in Chattanooga, a $2 billion polysilicon production facility by Wacker Chemie in Bradley County, and a $1.2 billion polysilicon production facility by Hemlock Semiconductor in Clarksville.
Tennessee is a right to work state, as are most of its Southern neighbors. Unionization has historically been low and continues to decline as in most of the U.S. generally. As of May 2016, the state had an unemployment rate of 4.3 %.
The Tennessee income tax does not apply to salaries and wages, but most income from stock, bonds and notes receivable is taxable. All taxable dividends and interest which exceed the $1,250 single exemption or the $2,500 joint exemption are taxable at the rate of 6 %. The state 's sales and use tax rate for most items is 7 %. Food is taxed at a lower rate of 5.25 %, but candy, dietary supplements and prepared food are taxed at the full 7 % rate. Local sales taxes are collected in most jurisdictions, at rates varying from 1.5 % to 2.75 %, bringing the total sales tax to between 8.5 % and 9.75 %, one of the highest levels in the nation. Intangible property is assessed on the shares of stock of stockholders of any loan company, investment company, insurance company or for - profit cemetery companies. The assessment ratio is 40 % of the value multiplied by the tax rate for the jurisdiction. Tennessee imposes an inheritance tax on decedents ' estates that exceed maximum single exemption limits ($1,000,000 for deaths in 2006 and thereafter).
Tourism contributes billions of dollars each year to the state 's economy and Tennessee is ranked among the Top 10 destinations in the US. In 2014 a record 100 million people visited the state resulting in $17.7 billion in tourism related spending within the state, an increase of 6.3 % over 2013; tax revenue from tourism equaled $1.5 billion. Each county in Tennessee saw at least $1 million from tourism while 19 counties received at least $100 million (Davidson, Shelby, and Sevier counties were the top three). Tourism - generated jobs for the state reached 152,900, a 2.8 % increase. International travelers to Tennessee accounted for $533 million in spending.
In 2013 tourism within the state from local citizens accounted for 39.9 % of tourists, the second highest originating location for tourists to Tennessee is the state of Georgia, accounting for 8.4 % of tourists. Forty - four percent of stays in the state were "day trips '', 25 % stayed one night, 15 % stayed two nights, and 11 % stayed 4 or more nights. The average stay was 2.16 nights, compared to 2.03 nights for the US as a whole. The average person spent $118 per day: 29 % on transportation, 24 % on food, 17 % on accommodation, and 28 % on shopping and entertainment.
Some of the top tourist attractions in the state are: the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Graceland, Beale Street, Lower Broadway, the Ryman Auditorium, the Gaylord Opryland Resort, Lookout Mountain, and the Tennessee Aquarium.
Tennessee has played a critical role in the development of many forms of American popular music, including rock and roll, blues, country, and rockabilly. Beale Street in Memphis is considered by many to be the birthplace of the blues, with musicians such as W.C. Handy performing in its clubs as early as 1909. Memphis is also home to Sun Records, where musicians such as Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Carl Perkins, Jerry Lee Lewis, Roy Orbison, and Charlie Rich began their recording careers, and where rock and roll took shape in the 1950s. The 1927 Victor recording sessions in Bristol generally mark the beginning of the country music genre and the rise of the Grand Ole Opry in the 1930s helped make Nashville the center of the country music recording industry. Three brick - and - mortar museums recognize Tennessee 's role in nurturing various forms of popular music: the Memphis Rock N ' Soul Museum, the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum in Nashville, and the International Rock - A-Billy Museum in Jackson. Moreover, the Rockabilly Hall of Fame, an online site recognizing the development of rockabilly in which Tennessee played a crucial role, is based in Nashville.
Interstate 40 crosses the state in a west - east orientation. Its branch interstate highways include I - 240 in Memphis; I - 440 in Nashville; I - 840 in Nashville; I - 140 from Knoxville to Alcoa; and I - 640 in Knoxville. I - 26, although technically an east - west interstate, runs from the North Carolina border below Johnson City to its terminus at Kingsport. I - 24 is an east - west interstate that runs cross-state from Chattanooga to Clarksville. In a north - south orientation are highways I - 55, I - 65, I - 75, and I - 81. Interstate 65 crosses the state through Nashville, while Interstate 75 serves Chattanooga and Knoxville and Interstate 55 serves Memphis. Interstate 81 enters the state at Bristol and terminates at its junction with I - 40 near Dandridge. I - 155 is a branch highway from I - 55. The only spur highway of I - 75 in Tennessee is I - 275, which is in Knoxville. When completed, I - 69 will travel through the western part of the state, from South Fulton to Memphis. A branch interstate, I - 269 also exists from Millington to Collierville.
Major airports within the state include Memphis International Airport (MEM), Nashville International Airport (BNA), McGhee Tyson Airport (TYS) in Alcoa, Chattanooga Metropolitan Airport (CHA), Tri-Cities Regional Airport (TRI), and McKellar - Sipes Regional Airport (MKL), in Jackson. Because Memphis International Airport is the major hub for FedEx Corporation, it is the world 's largest air cargo operation.
For passenger rail service, Memphis and Newbern, are served by the Amtrak City of New Orleans line on its run between Chicago, Illinois, and New Orleans, Louisiana. Nashville is served by the Music City Star commuter rail service.
Cargo services in Tennessee are primarily served by CSX Transportation, which has a hump yard in Nashville called Radnor Yard. Norfolk Southern Railway operates lines in East Tennessee, through cities including Knoxville and Chattanooga, and operates a classification yard near Knoxville, the John Sevier Yard. BNSF operates a major intermodal facility in Memphis.
Similar to the United States Federal Government, Tennessee 's government has three parts. The Executive Branch is led by Tennessee 's governor, who holds office for a four - year term and may serve a maximum of two consecutive terms. The governor is the only official who is elected statewide. Unlike most states, the state does not elect the lieutenant governor directly; the Tennessee Senate elects its Speaker, who serves as lieutenant governor. The governor is supported by 22 cabinet - level departments, most headed by a commissioner who serves at the pleasure of the governor:
The Executive Branch also includes several agencies, boards and commissions, some of which are under the auspices of one of the cabinet - level departments.
The bicameral Legislative Branch, known as the Tennessee General Assembly, consists of the 33 - member Senate and the 99 - member House of Representatives. Senators serve four - year terms, and House members serve two - year terms. Each chamber chooses its own speaker. The speaker of the state Senate also holds the title of lieutenant - governor. Constitutional officials in the legislative branch are elected by a joint session of the legislature.
The highest court in Tennessee is the state Supreme Court. It has a chief justice and four associate justices. No more than two justices can be from the same Grand Division. The Supreme Court of Tennessee also appoints the Attorney General, a practice that is not found in any of the other 49 states. Both the Court of Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals have 12 judges. A number of local, circuit, and federal courts provide judicial services.
Tennessee 's current state constitution was adopted in 1870. The state had two earlier constitutions. The first was adopted in 1796, the year Tennessee joined the union, and the second was adopted in 1834. The 1870 Constitution outlaws martial law within its jurisdiction. This may be a result of the experience of Tennessee residents and other Southerners during the period of military control by Union (Northern) forces of the U.S. government after the American Civil War.
Tennessee politics, like that of most U.S. states, are dominated by the Republican and the Democratic parties. Historian Dewey W. Grantham traces divisions in the state to the period of the American Civil War: for decades afterward, the eastern third of the state was Republican and the western two thirds voted Democrat. This division was related to the state 's pattern of farming, plantations and slaveholding. The eastern section was made up of yeoman farmers, but Middle and West Tennessee farmers cultivated crops such as tobacco and cotton which were dependent on the use of slave labor. These areas became defined as Democratic after the war.
During Reconstruction, freedmen and former free people of color were granted the right to vote; most joined the Republican Party. Numerous African Americans were elected to local offices, and some to state office. Following Reconstruction, Tennessee continued to have competitive party politics; but in the 1880s, the white - dominated state government passed four laws, the last of which imposed a poll tax requirement for voter registration. These served to disenfranchise most African Americans, and their power in the Republican Party, the state, and cities where they had significant population was markedly reduced. In 1900 African Americans comprised 23.8 percent of the state 's population, concentrated in Middle and West Tennessee. In the early 1900s, the state legislature approved a form of commission government for cities based on at - large voting for a few positions on a Board of Commission; several adopted this as another means to limit African - American political participation. In 1913 the state legislature enacted a bill enabling cities to adopt this structure without legislative approval.
After disenfranchisement of blacks, the GOP (U.S. Republican Party) in Tennessee was historically a sectional party supported by whites only in the eastern part of the state. In the 20th century, except for two nationwide Republican landslides of the 1920s (in 1920, when Tennessee narrowly supported Warren G. Harding over Ohio Governor James Cox, and in 1928, when it more decisively voted for Herbert Hoover over New York Governor Al Smith, a Catholic), the state was part of the Democratic Solid South until the 1950s. In that postwar decade, it twice voted for Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, former Allied Commander of the Armed Forces during World War II. Since then, more of the state 's voters have shifted to supporting Republicans, and Democratic presidential candidates have carried Tennessee only four times.
By 1960 African Americans comprised 16.45 % of the state 's population. It was not until after the mid-1960s and passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that they were able to vote in full again, but new devices, such as at - large commission city governments, had been adopted in several jurisdictions to limit their political participation. Former Gov. Winfield Dunn and former U.S. Sen. Bill Brock wins in 1970 helped make the Republican Party competitive among whites for the statewide victory. Tennessee has selected governors from different parties since 1970. Increasingly the Republican Party has become the party of white conservatives.
In the early 21st century, Republican voters control most of the state, especially in the more rural and suburban areas outside of the cities; Democratic strength is mostly confined to the urban cores of the four major cities, and is particularly strong in the cities of Nashville and Memphis. The latter area includes a large African - American population. Historically, Republicans had their greatest strength in East Tennessee before the 1960s. Tennessee 's 1st and 2nd congressional districts, based in the Tri-Cities and Knoxville, respectively, are among the few historically Republican districts in the South. Those districts ' residents supported the Union over the Confederacy during the Civil War; they identified with the GOP after the war and have stayed with that party ever since. The first has been in Republican hands continuously since 1881, and Republicans (or their antecedents) have held it for all but four years since 1859. The second has been held continuously by Republicans or their antecedents since 1859.
In the 2000 presidential election, Vice President Al Gore, a Democratic U.S. Senator from Tennessee, failed to carry his home state, an unusual occurrence but indicative of strengthening Republican support. Republican George W. Bush received increased support in 2004, with his margin of victory in the state increasing from 4 % in 2000 to 14 % in 2004. Democratic presidential nominees from Southern states (such as Lyndon B. Johnson, Jimmy Carter, Bill Clinton) usually fare better than their Northern counterparts do in Tennessee, especially among split - ticket voters outside the metropolitan areas.
Tennessee sends nine members to the US House of Representatives, of whom there are seven Republicans and two Democrats. Lieutenant Governor Ron Ramsey is the first Republican speaker of the state Senate in 140 years. In the 2008 elections, the Republican party gained control of both houses of the Tennessee state legislature for the first time since Reconstruction. In 2008, some 30 % of the state 's electorate identified as independents.
The Baker v. Carr (1962) decision of the US Supreme Court established the principle of "one man, one vote '', requiring state legislatures to redistrict to bring Congressional apportionment in line with decennial censuses. It also required both houses of state legislatures to be based on population for representation and not geographic districts such as counties. This case arose out of a lawsuit challenging the longstanding rural bias of apportionment of seats in the Tennessee legislature. After decades in which urban populations had been underrepresented in many state legislatures, this significant ruling led to an increased (and proportional) prominence in state politics by urban and, eventually, suburban, legislators and statewide officeholders in relation to their population within the state. The ruling also applied to numerous other states long controlled by rural minorities, such as Alabama, Vermont, and Montana.
The state of Tennessee maintains four dedicated law enforcement entities: the Tennessee Highway Patrol, the Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency (TWRA), the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation (TBI), and the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation (TDEC).
The Highway Patrol is the primary law enforcement entity that concentrates on highway safety regulations and general non-wildlife state law enforcement and is under the jurisdiction of the Tennessee Department of Safety. The TWRA is an independent agency tasked with enforcing all wildlife, boating, and fisheries regulations outside of state parks. The TBI maintains state - of - the - art investigative facilities and is the primary state - level criminal investigative department. Tennessee State Park Rangers are responsible for all activities and law enforcement inside the Tennessee State Parks system.
Local law enforcement is divided between County Sheriff 's Offices and Municipal Police Departments. Tennessee 's Constitution requires that each County have an elected Sheriff. In 94 of the 95 counties the Sheriff is the chief law enforcement officer in the county and has jurisdiction over the county as a whole. Each Sheriff 's Office is responsible for warrant service, court security, jail operations and primary law enforcement in the unincorporated areas of a county as well as providing support to the municipal police departments. Incorporated municipalities are required to maintain a police department to provide police services within their corporate limits.
The three counties in Tennessee to adopt metropolitan governments have taken different approaches to resolving the conflict that a Metro government presents to the requirement to have an elected Sheriff.
Gun laws in Tennessee regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition. Concealed carry and open - carry of a handgun is permitted with a Tennessee handgun carry permit or an equivalent permit from a reciprocating state. As of July 1, 2014, a permit is no longer required to possess a loaded handgun in a motor vehicle.
Capital punishment has existed in Tennessee at various times since statehood. Before 1913 the method of execution was hanging. From 1913 to 1915 there was a hiatus on executions but they were reinstated in 1916 when electrocution became the new method. From 1972 to 1978, after the Supreme Court ruled (Furman v. Georgia) capital punishment unconstitutional, there were no further executions. Capital punishment was restarted in 1978, although those prisoners awaiting execution between 1960 and 1978 had their sentences mostly commuted to life in prison. From 1916 to 1960 the state executed 125 inmates. For a variety of reasons there were no further executions until 2000. Since 2000, Tennessee has executed six prisoners. Tennessee has 73 prisoners on death row (as of April 2015).
Lethal injection was approved by the legislature in 1998, though those who were sentenced to death before January 1, 1999, may request electrocution. In May 2014, the Tennessee General Assembly passed a law allowing the use of the electric chair for death row executions when lethal injection drugs are not available.
The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians is the only federally recognized Native American Indian tribe in the state. It owns 79 acres (32 ha) in Henning, which was placed into federal trust by the tribe in 2012. This is governed directly by the tribe.
Tennessee has a rich variety of public, private, charter, and specialized education facilities ranging from pre-school through university education.
Public higher education is under the oversight of the Tennessee Higher Education Commission which provides guidance to two public university systems -- the University of Tennessee system and the Tennessee Board of Regents. In addition a number of private colleges and universities are located throughout the state.
Public primary and secondary education systems are operated by county, city, or special school districts to provide education at the local level. These school districts operate under the direction of the Tennessee Department of Education. Private schools are found in many counties.
Tennessee is home to three major professional sports franchises: the Tennessee Titans of the National Football League, the Memphis Grizzlies of the National Basketball Association, and the Nashville Predators of the National Hockey League.
In Knoxville, the Tennessee Volunteers college team has played in the Southeastern Conference (SEC) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association since the conference was formed in 1932. The football team has won 13 SEC championships and 25 bowls, including four Sugar Bowls, three Cotton Bowls, an Orange Bowl and a Fiesta Bowl. Meanwhile, the men 's basketball team has won four SEC championships and reached the NCAA Elite Eight in 2010. In addition, the women 's basketball team has won a host of SEC regular - season and tournament titles along with 8 national titles.
In Nashville, the Vanderbilt Commodores are also charter members of the SEC. The Tennessee -- Vanderbilt football rivalry began in 1892, having played 111 times. In June 2014, Vanderbilt won its first men 's national championship by winning the 2014 College World Series.
The state is home to 10 other NCAA Division I programs. Two of these participate in the top level of college football, the Football Bowl Subdivision. The Memphis Tigers are members of the American Athletic Conference, and the Middle Tennessee Blue Raiders from Murfreesboro play in Conference USA. In addition to the Commodores, Nashville is also home to the Belmont Bruins and Tennessee State Tigers, both members of the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC), and the Lipscomb Bisons, members of the Atlantic Sun Conference. Tennessee State plays football in Division I 's second level, the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS), while Belmont and Lipscomb do not have football teams. Belmont and Lipscomb have an intense rivalry in men 's and women 's basketball known as the Battle of the Boulevard, with both schools ' men 's and women 's teams playing two games each season against each other (a rare feature among non-conference rivalries). The OVC also includes the Austin Peay Governors from Clarksville, the Tennessee -- Martin Skyhawks from Martin, and the Tennessee Tech Golden Eagles from Cookeville. These three schools, along with fellow OVC member Tennessee State, play each season in football for the Sgt. York Trophy. The Chattanooga Mocs and Johnson City 's East Tennessee State Buccaneers are full members, including football, of the Southern Conference.
Tennessee is also home to Bristol Motor Speedway which features Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series racing two weekends a year, routinely selling out more than 160,000 seats on each date; it also was the home of the Nashville Superspeedway, which held Nationwide and IndyCar races until it was shut down in 2012. Tennessee 's only graded stakes horse race, the Iroquois Steeplechase, is also held in Nashville each May.
The FedEx St. Jude Classic is a PGA Tour golf tournament held at Memphis since 1958. The U.S. National Indoor Tennis Championships has been held at Memphis since 1976 (men 's) and 2002 (women 's).
State symbols, found in Tennessee Code Annotated; Title 4, Chapter 1, Part 3, include:
Coordinates: 36 ° N 86 ° W / 36 ° N 86 ° W / 36; - 86
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where is the world cup being played 2026 | 2026 FIFA World Cup - Wikipedia
The 2026 FIFA World Cup (Spanish: Copa mundial de la FIFA de 2026; French: Coupe du monde de la FIFA de 2026) will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. The tournament will be jointly hosted by 16 cities in three North American countries; 60 matches, including the quarterfinals, semi-finals, and the final, will be hosted by the United States while neighboring Canada and Mexico will each host 10 matches. The tournament will be the first hosted by three nations.
The United 2026 bid beat a rival bid by Morocco during a final vote at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow. It will be the first World Cup since South Korea / Japan in 2002 that will be hosted by more than one nation. With its past hosting of the 1970 and 1986 tournaments, Mexico will also become the first country to host all or part of three men 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup will also see the tournament expanded from 32 to 48 teams.
Michel Platini, who was then the UEFA president, had suggested in October 2013 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams, an idea that FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016. A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on 4 October 2016. Four expansion options were considered:
On 10 January 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48 - team tournament.
The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams. The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, but one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, the same as previous 32 - team tournaments.
The European Club Association and its member clubs opposed the proposal for expansion, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable '' level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify. They contended that it was a decision taken for political reasons because Infantino would thus satisfy his electorate, rather than for sporting reasons. Liga de Fútbol Profesional president Javier Tebas agreed, affirming the unacceptability of the new format. He told Marca that the football industry is maintained thanks to clubs and leagues, not FIFA, and that Infantino did politics because to be elected he promised more countries in the World Cup; he wanted to keep the electoral promises. German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit. Another criticism of the new format is that with three - team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round of the group stage will increase compared with four - team groups (where simultaneous kick - offs have been employed). One suggestion by president Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts.
On 30 March 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA president and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council.
On 9 May 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental playoff tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths.
The issue of how to allocate automatic host country qualification given that there are multiple host countries has not yet been resolved and will be decided by the FIFA council. The United bid anticipated all three host countries being awarded automatic places.
The ratification of slot allocation gives OFC a guaranteed berth in the final tournament for the first time in FIFA World Cup history. The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the first tournament in which all six confederations have guaranteed berths.
A playoff tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths, consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country (i.e. CONCACAF).
Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams.
The tournament is to be played in the host country (ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing playoff window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition.
The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament, before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However, the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second - to - last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements. In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. '' Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (last hosted in 1994), CAF (last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (last hosted in 2014), or OFC (never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements.
Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup -- which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup -- was approved for the 2026 World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case - by - case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition.
Canada, Mexico and the United States had all publicly considered bidding for the tournament separately, but the United joint bid was announced on 10 April 2017. The United bid contacted 48 venues in 43 cities (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 37 venues in 34 cities in the United States). This bid was ultimately cut down to 23 venues in 23 cities (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico and 17 in the United States; the American venues will be cut down to 10 for a total of 16 venues for the tournament). Morocco announced its bid in August 2017, and had 14 proposed venues in 12 cities.
The voting took place on 13 June 2018, during FIFA 's annual congress in Moscow, and it was reopened to all eligible members. The United bid won receiving 134 valid ballots, while the Morocco bid received 65 valid ballots. Upon the selection, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup -- the latter was in 2015, Mexico becomes the first country to host three men 's World Cups -- previously in 1970 and 1986, and the United States becomes the first country to host both men 's and women 's World Cup twice each -- having hosted the 1994 men 's and the 1999 and 2003 women 's World Cups.
The 2026 World Cup 's qualification process has yet to be decided. The FIFA Council is expected to decide which hosts, if any, will receive automatic qualifications to the tournament. The United Bid personnel anticipated that all three host countries would be awarded automatic places.
During the bidding process, there were 49 venues in 43 cities contacted to be part of the bid. 41 cities with 45 venues responded and submitted to be part of the bid (3 venues in 3 cities in Mexico, 8 venues in 6 cities in Canada and 38 venues in 34 cities in the United States). A first round elimination cut 9 venues and 9 cities, then a second round elimination cut 9 venues in 6 cities, reducing the total number to 23 venues, each in their own city or metropolitan area. The 23 candidate cities and venues will be narrowed down to 16 in 2020 or 2021 (3 in Canada, 3 in Mexico, and 10 in the United States):
FIFA president Gianni Infantino criticized the U.S. travel ban on several Muslim - majority nations. Infantino said, "When it comes to FIFA competitions, any team, including the supporters and officials of that team, who qualify for a World Cup need to have access to the country, otherwise there is no World Cup. That is obvious. ''
However, assurances were later given by the government that there would be no such discrimination.
U.S. President Donald Trump threatened the countries that intended to support the Morocco bid to host the 2026 World Cup, tweeting: "The US has put together a STRONG bid w / Canada & Mexico for the 2026 World Cup. It would be a shame if countries that we always support were to lobby against the U.S. bid. Why should we be supporting these countries when they do n't support us (including at the United Nations)? ''
On 12 February 2015, Fox and Telemundo 's rights to the tournament were renewed by FIFA to cover 2026, without accepting any other bids. The New York Times believed that this decision was designed as compensation for the rescheduling of the 2022 World Cup to later in the year, which falls during the heart of the U.S. National Football League regular season.
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last time chicago white sox won the world series | 2005 World Series - wikipedia
The 2005 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball 's (MLB) 2005 season. The 101st edition of the World Series, it was a best - of - seven playoff between the American League (AL) champion Chicago White Sox and the National League (NL) champion Houston Astros; the White Sox swept the Astros in four games, winning their third World Series championship and their first in 88 seasons. Although the series was a sweep, all four games were quite close, being decided by two runs or fewer. The series was played between October 22 -- 26, 2005.
Home - field advantage was awarded to Chicago by virtue of the AL 's 7 -- 5 victory over the NL in the 2005 MLB All - Star Game. The Astros were attempting to become the fourth consecutive wild card team to win the Series, following the Anaheim Angels (2002), Florida Marlins (2003) and Boston Red Sox (2004). Both teams were attempting to overcome decades of disappointment, with a combined 132 years between the two teams without a title. The Astros were making their first Series appearance in 44 years of play, while the White Sox had waited exactly twice as long for a title, having last won the Series in 1917, and had not been in the Series since 1959, three years before the Astros ' inaugural season.
Like the 1982 World Series between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Milwaukee Brewers, the 2005 World Series is one of only two World Series in the modern era (1903 -- present) with no possibility for a rematch between the two opponents, because the Astros moved to the AL in 2013. However, the Brewers did meet the Cardinals in the 2011 NL Championship Series. The Astros would return to the World Series in 2017 as an AL franchise, where they would win in seven games against the Los Angeles Dodgers.
The Chicago White Sox finished the regular season with the best record in the American League at 99 -- 63. After starting the season on a tear, the White Sox began to fade in August, when a 15 ⁄ game lead fell all the way to 1 ⁄. However, the Sox were able to hold off the Cleveland Indians to win the American League Central Division by six games, sweeping Cleveland in three games on the season 's final weekend. In the Division Series, the White Sox swept the defending champion Boston Red Sox. The League Championship Series began with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim winning Game 1, but a controversial uncaught third strike in Game 2 helped the Sox start a run and win Games 2 -- 5, all on complete games pitched by starters Mark Buehrle, Jon Garland, Freddy García, and José Contreras, clinching their first American League pennant in 46 years.
Manager Ozzie Guillén then led the White Sox to a World Series victory, their first in 88 years. Slugger Frank Thomas was not on the post-season roster because he was injured, but the team honored his perennial contributions to the franchise during Game 1 of the Division Series against the Boston Red Sox when he was chosen to throw out the ceremonial first pitch. "What a feeling, '' Thomas said. "Standing O all around the place. People really cheering me. I had tears in my eyes. To really know the fans cared that much about me -- it was a great feeling. One of my proudest moments in the game. ''
The Houston Astros won the Wild Card for the second straight year, once again clinching it on the final day of the season. The Astros embarked on a memorable Division Series rematch against the Atlanta Braves. With the Astros in the lead two games to one, the teams played an eighteen - inning marathon in Game 4, which was the longest (in both time and innings played) postseason game in history. In this game, Roger Clemens made only the second relief appearance of his career, and the first in postseason play. Chris Burke 's walk - off home run ended the game in the bottom of the eighteenth. For the second straight year, the Astros played the St. Louis Cardinals in the League Championship Series. Like the White Sox, the Astros dropped Game 1, but were able to regroup and win Games 2 -- 4. With the Astros on the verge of clinching their first ever National League pennant in Game 5, Albert Pujols hit a mammoth three - run home run off Brad Lidge in the top of the ninth inning to take the lead, and subsequently stave off elimination. However, behind NLCS MVP Roy Oswalt, the Astros were able to defeat the Cards 5 -- 1 in Game 6 and earned a trip to the World Series. This was the Astros ' first World Series appearance in franchise history.
Playing in their first World Series home game since 1959, the White Sox took an early lead with a home run from Jermaine Dye in the first inning. After Mike Lamb 's home run tied the game in the second, the Sox scored two more in the second when Juan Uribe doubled in A.J. Pierzynski after Carl Everett had already scored on a ground - out earlier in the inning. The Astros responded in the next inning when Lance Berkman hit a double, driving in Adam Everett and Craig Biggio. In the White Sox half of the fourth, Joe Crede hit what turned out to be the game - winning home run. In the bottom of the eighth, Scott Podsednik hit a triple with Pierzynski on second off of Russ Springer for an insurance run. Roger Clemens recorded his shortest World Series start, leaving after the second inning with 53 pitches, including 35 for strikes, due to a sore hamstring that he had previously injured (which had caused him to also miss his last regular season start) as the loss went to Wandy Rodríguez. José Contreras pitched seven innings, allowing three runs on six hits for the win. Before exiting, Contreras allowed a leadoff double by Willie Taveras with no outs. Neal Cotts entered the game in the top of the eighth inning. It marked the first time in five games that the White Sox had gone to their bullpen. Cotts pitched ⁄ innings before Bobby Jenks was called upon by manager Ozzie Guillén to relieve him. Guillen signaled for the large pitcher by holding his arms out wide and then up high. In the postgame conference, the Sox manager joked that he wanted to be clear he was asking for "The Big Boy. '' Jenks returned in the ninth to earn the save, giving the White Sox a 1 -- 0 lead in the series.
On a miserably cold (51 ° F (11 ° C)) and rainy evening, Morgan Ensberg 's first - pitch home run off starter Mark Buehrle put the Astros on top in the second inning. The White Sox answered in the bottom of the second with two runs off Andy Pettitte on Joe Crede 's RBI single with two on and Juan Uribe 's sacrifice fly. Houston 's Lance Berkman tied the game on a sacrifice fly in the third after a one - out triple, then hit a two - run double in the fifth to give the Astros a 4 -- 2 lead. In the seventh, Dan Wheeler loaded the bases with a double by Juan Uribe, a walk to Tadahito Iguchi, and plate umpire Jeff Nelson 's ruling that Jermaine Dye was hit by a pitched ball. The Astros brought in Chad Qualls, who promptly served up a grand slam to Paul Konerko on his first pitch, the 18th grand slam in the annals of the Fall Classic. In the top of the ninth, Sox closer Bobby Jenks blew the save on a game - tying pinch - hit single by José Vizcaíno. In the bottom of the ninth, Astros closer Brad Lidge gave up a one - out, walk - off home run -- the 14th in Series history -- to Scott Podsednik, giving Lidge his second loss in as many post-season appearances (his previous appearance was in Game 5 of 2005 National League Championship Series). Podsednik had not hit a single homer in the regular season, but this was his second of the post-season. This was the second time in World Series history where a grand slam and a walk - off home run were hit in the same game. The Oakland A 's Jose Canseco (grand slam) and the Los Angeles Dodgers ' Kirk Gibson (walk - off) in Game 1 of the 1988 World Series were the first to do it. Never before had a World Series grand slam and a World Series walk - off home run been hit by the same team in the same game.
Game 3 was the first World Series game played in the state of Texas. Before the game, it was ruled by Commissioner Bud Selig that the retractable roof would be open at Minute Maid Park, weather permitting. The Astros objected, citing that their record in games with the roof closed was better than with the retractable roof open. Selig 's office claimed that the ruling was based on the rules established by Houston and were consistent with how the Astros organization treated the situation all year long, as well as the weather forecasts for that period of time.
The game would become the longest World Series game in length of time (5 hours and 41 minutes) and tied for the longest in number of innings (14, tied with Game 2 of the 1916 World Series and Game 1 of the 2015 World Series) until it was surpassed by Game 3 of the 2018 World Series. Houston struck early on a Lance Berkman single after a Craig Biggio lead - off double in the bottom of the first off Chicago starter Jon Garland. A White Sox rally was snuffed in the second inning; after Paul Konerko hit a leadoff double and A.J. Pierzynski walked, Aaron Rowand lined out into a double play. Houston scored in the third; Adam Everett walked, was caught in a rundown and got hit by the ball on a Juan Uribe throwing error, then scored on a Roy Oswalt sacrifice bunt and a Biggio single. Two batters later, Morgan Ensberg singled Biggio home. Jason Lane led off the Astros ' fourth with a home run to left - center field. It was later shown in replays that the ball should not have been ruled a home run, hitting to the left of the yellow line on the unusual wall in left - center field.
The White Sox rallied in the top of the fifth, true to their "Win Or Die Trying '' mantra of 2005, starting with a Joe Crede lead - off homer. Uribe, on first after hitting a single, scored on a Tadahito Iguchi base hit with one out, followed by Scott Podsednik coming home on a single by Jermaine Dye. Pierzynski hit a two - out double to Tal 's Hill, driving in two runs, scoring Iguchi and Dye giving the Sox the lead. The Astros rallied in the last of the eighth with two outs when Lane 's double scored Ensberg with the tying run after back - to - back walks by Ensberg and Mike Lamb, giving Dustin Hermanson a blown save. Houston tried to rally to win in the ninth, but stranded Chris Burke at third, after he had walked, reached second on an error and stolen third.
The Astros tried again in the 10th as well as in the 11th, but failed each time. In the top of the 14th, after the Sox hit into a spectacular double play started by Ensberg, Geoff Blum (a former Astro and the Astros ' television color analyst as of 2015), who had entered the game in the 13th, homered to right with two outs off Ezequiel Astacio. Infield singles by Rowand and Crede were followed by walks to Uribe and Chris Widger. Trailing 7 - 5, Houston tried to rally with the tying runs on first and third and two outs after a Uribe error. Game 2 starter Mark Buehrle earned the save for winning pitcher Dámaso Marte when Everett popped out, bringing Chicago one game closer to its first championship in 88 years. Buehrle became the first pitcher to start a game in the Series and save the next one since Bob Turley of the Yankees in the 1958 World Series.
Many records were set or tied besides time and innings: The teams combined to use 17 pitchers (nine for the White Sox, eight for the Astros), throwing a total of 482 pitches, and walking 21 batters (a dozen by Chicago, nine by Houston); 43 players were used (the White Sox used 22 and the Astros used 21), and 30 men were left on base (15 for each team), all new high - water marks in Fall Classic history. Scott Podsednik set a new all - time record with eight official at - bats in this game. One tied record was total double plays, with six (four by the Astros, two by the White Sox).
Before the game, Major League Baseball unveiled its Latino Legends Team.
The fourth game was the pitchers ' duel that had been promised throughout the series. Both Houston starter Brandon Backe and Chicago starter Freddy García put zeros on the scoreboard through seven innings, the longest Series scoreless stretch since Game 7 of the 1991 World Series. Scott Podsednik had a two - out triple in the top of the third, but a Tadahito Iguchi groundout ended that threat. The Astros wasted a chance in the sixth, Jason Lane striking out with the bases loaded. The White Sox in the top of the seventh put runners at second and third, but shortstop Juan Uribe struck out to end the inning. Chicago broke through in the next inning against embattled Houston closer Brad Lidge. Willie Harris hit a pinch - hit single. Podsednik advanced him with a sacrifice bunt. Carl Everett pinch - hit for Iguchi and grounded out to the right side to allow Harris to move to third. Jermaine Dye, the Most Valuable Player of the series, had the game - winning single, driving in Harris.
Things got a little sticky for the Sox in the Astros half of the eighth when reliever Cliff Politte hit Willy Taveras, threw a wild pitch, sending Taveras to second, and walked Lance Berkman. After Morgan Ensberg flew out to center, the White Sox manager Ozzie Guillén brought in Neal Cotts to finish the inning. Cotts induced pinch - hitter José Vizcaíno into a ground out to Uribe. Bobby Jenks, the 24 - year - old fireballer, started the ninth inning. He allowed a single to Jason Lane and a sacrifice bunt to Brad Ausmus. Chris Burke came in to pinch - hit; he fouled one off to the left side, but Uribe made an amazing catch in the stands to retire Burke.
The game ended when Orlando Palmeiro grounded to Uribe. It was a bang - bang play as Paul Konerko caught the ball from Uribe at 11: 01 pm CDT to begin the biggest celebration in Chicago since the sixth NBA championship by the Bulls, co-owned with the White Sox, in 1998. As a result, Jerry Reinsdorf, owner of both teams, had won seven championships overall.
This game would be the last playoff game for the Astros as a member of the NL, as they would move to the AL in 2013, and not appear in a playoff game until the 2015 American League Wild Card Game.
The last two Series games technically ended on the same day, Game 3 having concluded after midnight, Houston time.
The 1 -- 0 shutout was the first game with a total of one run scored to end a World Series since the 1995 World Series, in which Game 6 was won by the Atlanta Braves over the Cleveland Indians, and the first 1 -- 0 game in any Series game since Game 5 of the 1996 World Series when the New York Yankees shut - out the Braves in the last game ever played at Atlanta -- Fulton County Stadium.
The 2005 White Sox joined the 1995 Atlanta Braves and 1999 New York Yankees as the only teams to win a World Series after losing no more than one game combined in the Division Series and Championship Series.
This was the second consecutive World Series to be won by a team that has the word "Sox '' in its nickname, after the Boston Red Sox won the 2004 World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals. This also happened in 1917 and 1918. Furthermore, it was the second year in a row in which the Series champions broke a long - lived "curse. '' In one of those ways that patterns appear to emerge in sporting events, the White Sox World Series win in 2005, along with the Boston Red Sox win in 2004, symmetrically bookended the two teams ' previous World Series winners and the long gaps between, with the Red Sox and White Sox last Series wins having come in 1918 and 1917, respectively.
AL Chicago White Sox (4) vs. NL Houston Astros (0)
2005 World Series (4 -- 0): Chicago White Sox (A.L.) over Houston Astros (N.L.)
As per their contract, Fox Sports carried the World Series on United States television. Joe Buck provided play - by - play for his eighth World Series while analyst Tim McCarver worked his sixteenth.
ESPN Radio was the nationwide radio broadcaster, as it had been since 1998. Jon Miller and Joe Morgan provided the play - by - play and analysis.
Locally, KTRH - AM and WMVP were the primary carriers for the World Series in the Houston and Chicago markets. For KTRH long time Astros voice Milo Hamilton provided play - by - play while John Rooney called the games for the White Sox. Game 4 was Rooney 's last call after seventeen years as the radio voice of the White Sox, as he left to take the same position with the St. Louis Cardinals. The Cardinals proceeded to win the 2006 World Series, making Rooney the first home announcer to call back - to - back World Series wins for two teams. That the teams were in two leagues makes the feat even more unusual.
The ratings for the 2005 World Series were considered weak.
With an overall average of 11.1, 2005 set a record for the lowest rated World Series of all - time. The prior lowest was 11.9, set by the 2002 World Series between the San Francisco Giants and the Anaheim Angels (importantly, this series went 7 games, and the 2005 Series went 4).
Following the 2005 World Series, however, every subsequent Series through 2013 except for 2009 produced lower ratings. The record - low 2012 World Series, another four - game sweep, averaged 7.6 (3.5 points lower than 2005 's rating) and 12.7 million viewers (4.4 million fewer viewers than 2005).
Neither team advanced to the post-season in 2006, but the 2006 World Series again featured teams from the American League Central and National League Central divisions, this time represented by the Detroit Tigers and the St. Louis Cardinals, respectively. The Cardinals won the World Series in five games, in which manager Tony La Russa became the second manager to win the World Series in both American and National leagues, previously managing the Oakland Athletics to the 1989 World Series championship. Both the White Sox and the Astros were in the Wild Card race until the final weeks of the season, with the White Sox finishing with 90 wins, the Astros with 82 wins. The White Sox made their first post-2005 playoff appearance in 2008, while the Astros would not return to the postseason until 2015, their third season as an American League team and would not return to the World Series until 2017, their fifth season as an American League team.
This was the city of Chicago 's first professional sports championship since the Chicago Fire won MLS Cup ' 98 (which came four months after the Chicago Bulls ' sixth NBA championship that year). The next major Chicago sports championship came in 2010, when the NHL 's Chicago Blackhawks ended a 49 - year Stanley Cup title drought. With the Chicago Bears ' win in Super Bowl XX and the Chicago Cubs ' own World Series championship in 2016, all Chicago sports teams have won at least one major championship since 1985. Meanwhile, the Astros themselves made it back to the World Series in 2017, but this time as an AL team, where they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in seven games, resulting in Houston 's first professional sports championship since the 2006 -- 07 Houston Dynamo won their back - to - back MLS Championships.
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top gear did communism ever make a good car | Top Gear (Series 12) - wikipedia
The twelfth series of Top Gear aired during 2008 and consisted of 7 episodes, beginning on 2 November and concluding on 14 December. It was subsequently followed by the "Top Gear: Vietnam Special '' two weeks later, on 28 December as part of the BBC 's 2008 Christmas line - up, and was later followed in 2009 with four "Best Of Top Gear '' specials throughout January and the beginning of February.
Like the previous series, the News segment of Series 12 featured two running jokes. The first was a return of the previous running joke regarding the Dacia Sandero, with Clarkson making the announcements about it with feigned enthusiasm, much to utter indifference from May. The second was that one of hosts would often turn up on the segment wearing something unusual, with one of the other hosts asking if they were doing it for a bet.
Clarkson, Hammond and May see how easy it is to be an HGV driver, by each buying a second - hand lorry cab within a budget of £ 5,000 - May buys a Scania 94D, Clarkson buys a Renault Magnum and Hammond gets an ERF EC11. Heading for the "Top Gear 's Secret Alpine Test Location '' (in Bedfordshire), the trio undertake a series of challenges, including power - sliding their lorries, tackling the Alpine course while transporting a trailer with a valuable piece of (unsecured) cargo, seeing how fast their lorry is and attempting a hill start without breaking something precious to them. For their final challenge, they return to the test track, where they find how quickly they can brake after ploughing into an "obstacle '' at high speed. Elsewhere, Clarkson is testing out the Porsche 997 GT2 and Lamborghini Gallardo LP560 - 4 on the track, and chat show legend Michael Parkinson is in "t'reasonably priced car ''.
Clarkson and May ca n't decide if imported Chinese - made cars will be any good, which got them thinking about whether the Communists ever historically built a good car, and are soon taking a look at a range of them, including the Lada Riva, Moskvitch 408, the East German Wartburg. Elsewhere, Clarkson decides to a proper road test like in the old days in response to a complaint, and does a "serious '' review of the Ford Fiesta, while Hammond is seeing if the new, German built Veritas RS III is a better track - day car than the Caterham 7 Superlight R500, and Mayor of London (at the time of broadcast), Boris Johnson, tries to drive fast in the reasonably priced car on a wet track.
Clarkson puts the first electric supercar, the battery powered Tesla Roadster (2008), through its paces on the track, while May heads to California to test drive what could be the future of motoring - the hydrogen powered Honda FCX Clarity. Elsewhere, Hammond takes a look back at 50 years of Touring Cars racing history, Top Gear Stunt Man returns to beat the record set by Fifth Gear for the furthest distance by a car off a ramp while towing a caravan, Clarkson sees if the elderly could enjoy a motorised rocking chair powered by a V8 engine, and singer, Tom Jones, is in control of the Lacetti for a lap around the track.
The trio attempt to see if they can do what the Americans could n't in the Vietnam conflict - get from Hồ Chí Minh City (Saigon) in the south of Vietnam, to Hạ Long city, near Hanoi (Hà Nội) in the north, within eight days. The presenters are impressed to find they have been given 15 million Vietnamese đồng to buy a second - hand vehicle, but quickly discover that it amounts to US $1000 and that cars are expensive in the country. As a last resort, much to Clarkson 's chagrin, all three find themselves buying a motorcycle for the journey - Hammond buys a Belarusian - built 125 cc four - stroke Minsk, May gets a two - stroke Honda Super Cub and an unenthusiastic Clarkson purchases a two - stroke green 1967 Piaggio Vespa, with the trio learning that, should their bikes break down and be unable to start again, the producers have provided a 1973 Honda Chaly mini-bike as a back - up, complete with a Stars and Stripes livery and an audio system continuously playing "Born in the U.S.A. ''. On their journey through the country, the trio deal with monsoon weather, sample local cuisine, get silk suits, uncover gorgeous scenery, partake in a motorcycle licence test exam, before finally converting their bikes for a journey across the sea to the finish line - a floating bar within the maze of limestone islets in Hạ Long Bay.
During the first episode of the series, Jeremy Clarkson made a joke regarding lorry drivers killing prostitutes. Following the episode 's broadcast, the joke drew criticism, with many believing that it alluded to the Ipswich 2006 serial murders in which a forklift truck driver was arrested and charged with the murder of five women who had been working as prostitutes, though some believe it was more likely that Clarkson was referring to the Yorkshire Ripper. Ofcom received over 500 complaints in regards to the joke, but revealed that the remark had not been in breach of the broadcasting code. Meanwhile, Labour MP Chris Mole wrote a strongly worded letter to the BBC, stating that Clarkson should be sacked regarding the remarks he made.
During the seventh episode, Top Gear reviewed and tested the battery powered Tesla Roadster (2008), in which Clarkson pointed out, upon rigorous testing, that the batteries on the Roadster drained quickly and that the car suffered mechanical problems. Tesla contested these findings following the episode, and provided data logs of the cars ' performances during the show to Top Gear and the BBC, which led both to revealing in statements to the media, that the cars did not in fact break down and never went below 20 percent state of charge. Despite this, Clarkson wrote an article for The Sunday Times, following dozens of blogs and newspapers challenging Top Gear 's portrayal of the Roadster 's performance, in which he stood by the contents of the episode.
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when did the suns last make the playoffs | List of Phoenix Suns seasons - wikipedia
The Phoenix Suns are a professional basketball team based in Phoenix, Arizona, United States. They are members of the Pacific Division of the Western Conference in the National Basketball Association (NBA). The Suns began playing in the NBA as an expansion team in the 1968 -- 69 NBA season. In their inaugural season, the Suns posted a win -- loss record of 16 -- 66. They participated in the playoffs only once in their first seven seasons.
In the 1975 -- 76 season, a rookie Alvan Adams helped the team reach its first NBA Finals, which they lost to the Boston Celtics 4 -- 2. Charles Barkley and Steve Nash won the Most Valuable Player (MVP) award while playing for the Suns. Barkley led the Suns to the 1993 NBA Finals, where they lost to the Chicago Bulls. After signing with the Suns in 2004, Nash led the team to three straight division titles, but after reaching the Conference Finals in 2009 -- 10 the Suns have subsequently experienced their worst period of on - court failure, missing the playoffs for 7 straight seasons (the franchise 's previous record playoff drought was 5 seasons, which happened after the team made the postseason in only their second year of existence during the 1969 - 70 campaign).
Despite their 2010s failures, the Suns franchise has the NBA 's fourth - best all - time winning percentage, winning 54 percent of its games, as of the end of the 2015 -- 16 season. In their first forty - three seasons, the Suns made the playoffs 29 times, posted nineteen seasons with fifty or more wins, appeared nine times in the Western Conference Finals, and advanced to the NBA Finals in 1976 and 1993. As a result, based on their all - time winning percentage, the Suns are the most successful franchise to never win an NBA championship.
Note: Statistics are correct as of the 2016 -- 17 season.
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what is the most poisonous snake in world | List of dangerous snakes - wikipedia
Of the 3400 snake species, there are around 600 venomous snake species in the world. This is an overview of the snakes that pose a significant health risk to humans, through snakebites or other physical trauma. The varieties of snake that most often cause serious snakebites depend on the region of the world. In Africa, the most dangerous species include mambas, Egyptian cobras, puff adders, and carpet vipers; in the Middle East the species of greatest concern are carpet vipers and elapids; in Central and South America, Bothrops (including the terciopelo or fer - de-lance) and Crotalus (rattlesnakes) are of greatest concern. In South Asia, it has historically been believed that Indian cobras, common kraits, Russell 's viper and carpet vipers were the most dangerous species; however other snakes may also cause significant problems in this area of the world. While several species of snakes may cause more bodily destruction than others, any of these venomous snakes are still very capable of causing human fatalities should a bite go untreated, regardless of their venom capabilities or behavioral tendencies.
The median lethal dose (LD) of a venom is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration. A lower LD is indicative of increased toxicity.
There are four methods in which the LD test is measured:
Subcutaneous: Venom is injected into the fatty layer beneath the skin. Intravenous: Venom is injected directly into a vein. Intramuscular: Venom is injected into a muscle. Intraperitoneal: Venom is injected into the abdominal cavity. The most commonly tested methods are subcutaneous and intravenous injections of mice. Subcutaneous is the most applicable to actual bites. Only large Bitis or extremely large Bothrops or Crotalus specimens would be able to deliver a bite that is truly intramuscular. Intravenous injections are extremely rare in actual bites. Testing using dry venom mixed with 0.1 % bovine serum albumin in saline, gives more consistent results than just saline alone.
Mortality (often determined by measured toxicity on mice) is a commonly used indicator to determine the danger of any given venomous snake, but important too are its efficiency of venom delivery, its venom yield and its behavior when it encounters humans. Many snake experts have cited the black mamba and the coastal taipan as the world 's most dangerous, albeit not the most venomous snakes. Both species are elapids, and in several aspects of morphology, ecology and behaviour, the coastal taipan is strongly convergent with the black mamba. Black mamba and coastal taipan bites require very rapid and vigorous antivenom therapy as without such intervention they are almost always fatal. The venoms of both species are exceptionally quick acting.
The African Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is a large and highly venomous snake species native to much of Sub-Saharan Africa. It is the second longest venomous snake species in the world and is the fastest moving land snake, capable of moving at 4.32 to 5.4 metres per second (16 -- 20 km / h, 10 -- 12 mph). It is the most feared and most dangerous snake species in Africa and it has a reputation as a fierce and territorial snake. When cornered or threatened, the black mamba can put up a fearsome display of defense and aggression. A black mamba will often mimic a cobra by spreading a neck - flap, exposing its black mouth, raising its body off the ground, and hissing. It can rear up around one - third of its body from the ground, which can put it at about four feet high. When warding off a threat, the black mamba delivers multiple strikes, injecting large amounts of virulently toxic venom with each strike, often landing bites on the body or head, unlike other snakes. Their strikes are very quick and extremely accurate and effective. If the attempt to scare away the threat fails, it will strike repeatedly. This species of snake often shows an incredible amount of tenacity, fearlessness, and aggression when cornered or threatened, during breeding season, or when defending its territory. They are also known to have a 100 % rate of envenomation. The probability of dry bites (no venom injected) in black mamba strikes is almost non-existent. The venom of the black mamba is a protein of low molecular weight and as a result is able to spread rapidly within the bitten tissue. The venom of this species is the most rapid - acting venom of any snake species and consists mainly of highly potent neurotoxins; it also contains cardiotoxins, fasciculins, and calciseptine.
Based on the Median lethal dose (LD) values in mice, the black mamba LD from all published sources is as follows:
It is estimated that only 10 to 15 mg will kill a human adult; however, its bites deliver about 120 mg of venom on average, although they may deliver up to 400 mg of venom in a single bite. If bitten, severe neurotoxicity invariably ensues rapidly. This is because of several factors that include the high potency of their venom, the unusual composition of synergistic toxins contained within the venom which bring on severe symptoms of envenomation and death much faster than any other venomous snake in the world. In addition, the species itself possesses the most advanced, evolved, and efficient venom delivery apparatus among all venomous snakes, and the most advanced and evolved dentition of all elapids. Black mambas possess the longest fangs of any elapid, averaging around 13.1 millimeters (0.52 in), but may grow as long as 22 millimeters (0.87 in). Another feature that distinguishes the dentition and the venom delivery apparatus of this species from all other elapids and other species of venomous snake, including those of the family Viperidae is the fact that the fangs are positioned well forward at the most - anterior position possible in its mouth - right up in the front of its upper jaw. The proteins in black mamba venom are of low molecular weight, low viscosity, and the venom 's high activity in terms of hyaluronidases, which is also essential in facilitating dispersion of venom toxins throughout tissue (spreading the venom through the body) by catalyzing the hydrolysis of hyaluronan, a constituent of the extracellular matrix (ECM), hyaluronidase lowers the viscosity of hyaluronan, and Dendroaspin natriuretic peptide (DNP), a newly discovered component of mamba venom, is the most - potent natriuretic peptide and it 's unique to the genus Dendroaspis, or mambas. It is a polypeptide analogous to the human atrial natriuretic peptide; it is responsible for causing diuresis through natriuresis and dilating the vessel bloodstream, which results in, among other things, acceleration of venom distribution in the body of the victim, thereby increasing tissue permeability. These advanced and highly evolved physical and biological features combined with this species ' large size, explosive aggression, and quickness make the black mamba a terrifying adversary. Neurological, respiratory, and cardiovascular symptoms rapidly begin to manifest, usually within less than ten minutes. Common symptoms are rapid onset of dizziness, drowsiness, headache, coughing or difficulty breathing, convulsions, and an erratic heartbeat. Other common symptoms which come on rapidly include neuromuscular symptoms, shock, loss of consciousness, hypotension, pallor, ataxia, excessive salivation (oral secretions may become profuse and thick), limb paralysis, nausea and vomiting, ptosis, fever, and severe abdominal pain. Local tissue damage appears to be relatively infrequent and of minor severity in most cases of black mamba envenomation. Edema is typically minimal. Acute renal failure has been reported in a few cases of black mamba bites in humans as well as in animal models. The venom of this species has been known to cause permanent paralysis in some cases. Death is due to suffocation resulting from paralysis of the respiratory muscles. Untreated black mamba bites have a mortality rate of 100 %. Antivenom therapy is the mainstay of treatment for black mamba envenomation. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research (SAIMR) is used to treat all black mamba bites from different localities. Because of the availability of antivenom, a bite from a black mamba no longer results in certain death, but in order for the antivenom therapy to be successful, vigorous treatment and large doses of antivenom must be administered rapidly post-envenomation. In case studies of black mamba envenomation, respiratory paralysis has occurred in less than 15 minutes. Envenomation by this species invariably causes severe neurotoxicity because black mambas often strike repeatedly in a single lunge, biting the victim up to 12 times in extremely rapid succession. Such an attack is fast, lasting less than one second, and so it may appear to be a single strike and single bite. With each bite, the snake delivers anywhere from 100 to 400 mg of a rapid - acting and virulently toxic venom. As a result, the doses of antivenom required are often massive (10 -- 30 + vials) for bites from this species. Although antivenom saves many lives, mortality due to black mamba envenomation is still at 14 %, even with antivenom treatment. In addition to antivenom treatment, endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation are required for supportive therapy.
The Coastal taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus scutellatus) is a large, highly venomous Australian elapid that ranges in an arc along the east coast of Australia from northeastern New South Wales through Queensland and across the northern parts of the Northern Territory to northern Western Australia. It has one subspecies, the Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni). The Papuan taipan is found throughout the southern parts of the island of New Guinea. This snake can be highly aggressive when cornered and will actively defend itself. They are extremely nervous and alert snakes, and any movement near them is likely to trigger an attack. When threatened, this species adopts a loose striking stance with its head and forebody raised. It inflates and compresses its body laterally (not dorso - ventrally like many other species) and may also spread the back of its jaws to give the head a broader, lance - shaped appearance. In this position the snake will strike without much provocation, inflicting multiple bites with extreme accuracy and efficiency. The muscular lightweight body of the Taipan allows it to hurl itself forwards or sideways and reach high off the ground, and such is the speed of the attack that a person may be bitten several times before realizing the snake is there. This snake is considered to be one of the most venomous in the world. Ernst and Zug et al. 1996 and the Australian venom and toxin database both list a LD value of 0.106 mg / kg for subcutaneous injection. Engelmann and Obst (1981) list a value of 0.12 mg / kg SC, with an average venom yield of 120 mg per bite and a maximum record of 400 mg. To demonstrate just how deadly this species is, an estimate was made on the number of mice and adult human fatalities it is capable of causing in a single bite that yields the maximum dose of 400 mg. Based on the study by Ernst and Zug et al. 1996, which listed the LD of the coastal taipan at 0.106 mg SC and a venom yield of 400 mg, this would be sufficient enough to kill 208,019 mice and 59 adult humans in a single bite that delivers 400 mg of venom. The venom apparatus of this species is well developed. The fangs are the longest of any Australian elapid snake, being up to 1.2 cm (0.5 in) long, and are able to be brought forward slightly when a strike is contemplated. Coastal taipans can inject large amounts of highly toxic venom deep into tissue. Its venom contains primarily taicatoxin, a highly potent neurotoxin known to cause hemolytic and coagulopathic reactions. The venom affects the nervous system and the blood 's ability to clot, and bite victims may experience headache, nausea and vomiting, collapse, convulsions (especially in children), paralysis, internal bleeding, myolysis (destruction of muscle tissue) and kidney damage. In a single study done in Papua New Guinea, 166 patients with enzyme immunoassay - proven bites by Papuan taipans (Oxyuranus scutellatus canni) were studied in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Of the 166 bite victims, 139 (84 %) showed clinical evidence of envenoming: local signs were trivial, but the majority developed hemostatic disorders and neurotoxicity. The blood of 77 % of the patients was incoagulable and 35 % bled spontaneously, usually from the gums. Microhematuria was observed in 51 % of the patients. Neurotoxic symptoms (ptosis, ophthalmoplegia, bulbar paralysis, and peripheral muscular weakness) developed in 85 %. Endotracheal intubation was required in 42 % and mechanical ventilation in 37 %. Electrocardiographic (ECG or EKG) abnormalities were found in 52 % of a group of 69 unselected patients. Specific antivenom raised against Australian taipan venom was effective in stopping spontaneous systemic bleeding and restoring blood coagulability but, in most cases, it neither reversed nor prevented the evolution of paralysis even when given within a few hours of the bite. However, early antivenom treatment was associated statistically with decreased incidence and severity of neurotoxic signs. The low case fatality rate of 4.3 % is attributable mainly to the use of mechanical ventilation, a technique rarely available in Papua New Guinea. Earlier use of increased doses of antivenoms of improved specificity might prove more effective. The onset of symptoms is often rapid, and a bite from this species is a life - threatening medical emergency. Prior to the introduction of specific antivenom by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in 1956, a coastal taipan bite was nearly always fatal. In case of severe envenomation, death can occur as early as 30 minutes after being bitten, but average death time after a bite is around 3 -- 6 hours and it is variable, depending on various factors such as the nature of the bite and the health state of the victim. Envenomation rate is very high, over 80 % of bites inject venom. The mortality rate among untreated bite victims is nearly 100 %.
The Big Four are the four venomous snake species responsible for causing the most snake bite cases in South Asia (mostly in India). The Big Four snakes cause far more snakebites because they are much more abundant in highly populated areas. They are the Indian cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell 's viper (Daboia russelii) and the Saw - scaled viper (Echis carinatus).
The Indian cobra (naga raja) is a moderately venomous species, but has a rapid - acting venom. In mice, the SC LD for this species is 0.80 mg / kg and the average venom yield per bite is between 169 and 250 mg. Though it is responsible for many bites, only a small percentage are fatal if proper medical treatment and antivenom are given. The mortality rate for untreated bite victims can vary from case to case, depending upon the quantity of venom delivered by the individual involved. According to one study, it is approximately 15 -- 20 % but in another study, with 1,224 bite cases, the mortality rate was only 6.5 %. Estimated fatalities as a result of this species is approximately 15,000 per year, but they are responsible for an estimated 100,000 - 150,000 non-fatal bites per year.
The common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) is often considered to be the most dangerous snake species in India. Its venom consists mostly of powerful neurotoxins which induce muscle paralysis. Clinically, its venom contains pre synaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins, which generally affect the nerve endings near the synaptic cleft of the brain. Due to the fact that krait venom contains many presynaptic neurotoxins, patients bitten will often not respond to antivenom because once paralysis has developed it is not reversible. This species causes an estimated 10,000 fatalities per year in India alone. There is a 70 - 80 % mortality rate in cases where there is no possible or poor and ineffective treatment (e.g., no use of mechanical ventilation, low quantities of antivenom, poor management of possible infection). Average venom yield per bite is 10 mg (Brown, 1973), 8 to 20 mg (dry weight) (U.S. Dept. Navy, 1968), and 8 to 12 mg (dry weight) (Minton, 1974). The lethal adult human dose is 2.5 mg. In mice, the LD values of its venom are 0.365 mg / kg SC, 0.169 mg / kg IV and 0.089 mg / kg IP.
Russell 's viper (Daboia russelii) produces one of the most excruciatingly painful bites of all venomous snakes. Internal bleeding is common. Bruising, blistering and necrosis may appear relatively quickly as well. The Russell 's viper is irritable, short - tempered and a very aggressive snake by nature and when irritated, coils tightly, hisses, and strikes with lightning speed. This species is responsible for more human fatalities in India than any other snake species, causing an estimated 25,000 fatalities annually. The LD in mice, which is used as a possible indicator of snake venom toxicity, is as follows: 0.133 mg / kg intravenous, 0.40 mg / kg intraperitoneal, and about 0.75 mg / kg subcutaneous. For most humans, a lethal dose is approximately 40 -- 70 mg. However, the quantity of venom produced by individual specimens is considerable. Reported venom yields for adult specimens range from 130 -- 250 mg to 150 -- 250 mg to 21 -- 268 mg. For 13 juveniles with an average length of 79 cm, the average venom yield was 8 -- 79 mg (mean 45 mg).
The Saw - scaled viper (Echis carinatus) is small, but its unpredictability, aggressive temper, and lethal venom potency make it very dangerous. This species is one of the fastest striking snakes in the world, and mortality rates for those bitten are very high. In India alone, the saw - scaled viper is responsible for an estimated 5,000 human fatalities annually. However, because it ranges from Pakistan, India (in rocky regions of Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab), Sri Lanka, parts of the Middle East and Africa north of the equator, is believed to cause more human fatalities every year than any other snake species. In drier regions of the African continent, such as sahels and savannas, the saw - scaled vipers inflict up to 90 % of all bites. The rate of envenomation is over 80 %. The saw - scaled viper also produces a particularly painful bite. This species produces on the average of about 18 mg of dry venom by weight, with a recorded maximum of 72 mg. It may inject as much as 12 mg, whereas the lethal dose for an adult human is estimated to be only 5 mg. Envenomation results in local symptoms as well as severe systemic symptoms that may prove fatal. Local symptoms include swelling and intense pain, which appear within minutes of a bite. In very bad cases the swelling may extend up the entire affected limb within 12 -- 24 hours and blisters form on the skin. Of the more dangerous systemic symptoms, hemorrhage and coagulation defects are the most striking. Hematemesis, melena, hemoptysis, hematuria and epistaxis also occur and may lead to hypovolemic shock. Almost all patients develop oliguria or anuria within a few hours to as late as 6 days post bite. In some cases, kidney dialysis is necessary due to acute renal failure (ARF), but this is not often caused by hypotension. It is more often the result of intravascular hemolysis, which occurs in about half of all cases. In other cases, ARF is often caused by disseminated intravascular coagulation.
The Fer - de-lance or Terciopelo (Bothrops asper) has been described as excitable and unpredictable when disturbed. They can, and often will, move very quickly, usually opting to flee from danger, but can suddenly reverse direction to vigorously defend themselves. Adult specimens, when cornered and fully alert, should be considered dangerous. In a review of bites from this species suffered by field biologists, Hardy (1994) referred to it as the "ultimate pit viper ''. Venom yield (dry weight) averages 458 mg, with a maximum of 1530 mg (Bolaños, 1984) and an LD in mice of 2.844 mg / kg IP. This species is an important cause of snakebite within its range. It is considered the most dangerous snake in Costa Rica, responsible for 46 % of all bites and 30 % of all hospitalized cases; before 1947, the fatality rate was 7 %, but this has since declined to almost 0 % (Bolaños, 1984), mostly due to the Clodomiro Picado Research Institute, responsible for the production of antivenom. In the Colombian states of Antioquia and Chocó, it causes 50 - 70 % of all snakebites, with a sequelae rate of 6 % and a fatality rate of 5 % (Otero et al., 1992). In the state of Lara, Venezuela, it is responsible for 78 % of all envenomations and all snakebite fatalities (Dao - L., 1971). One of the reasons so many people are bitten is because of its association with human habitation and many bites occur indoors (Sasa & Vázquez, 2003).
The King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is the longest venomous snake in the world, and it can inject very high volumes of venom in a single bite. The venom LD is 1.80 mg / kg SC according to Broad et al. (1979). The mean value of subcutaneous LD of five wild - caught king cobras in Southeast Asia was determined as 1.93 mg / kg. Between 350 and 500 mg (dry weight) of venom can be injected at once (Minton, 1974). In another study by (Broad et al., 1979), the average venom quantity was 421 mg (dry weight of milked venom). The maximum venom yield is approximately 1000 mg (dry weight). The king cobra has a fearsome reputation. When annoyed, it spreads a narrow hood and growls loudly, but some scientists claim that their aggressiveness is grossly exaggerated. In most of the local encounters with live, wild king cobras, the snakes appear to be of rather placid disposition, and they usually end up being killed or subdued with hardly any hysterics. These support the view that wild king cobras generally have a mild temperament, and despite their frequent occurrence in disturbed and built - up areas, are adept at avoiding humans. Naturalist Michael Wilmer Forbes Tweedie felt that "this notion is based on the general tendency to dramatise all attributes of snakes with little regard for the truth about them. A moment 's reflection shows that this must be so, for the species is not uncommon, even in populated areas, and consciously or unconsciously, people must encounter king cobras quite frequently. If the snake were really habitually aggressive records of its bite would be frequent; as it is they are extremely rare. '' Mortality rates vary sharply depending on many factors. In cases where envenomation is severe, death can be rapid.
The Many - banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus) is the most venomous krait species known based on toxinological studies conducted on mice. The venom of the many - banded krait consists of both pre - and postsynaptic neurotoxins (known as α - bungarotoxins and β - bungarotoxins, among others). Due to poor response to antivenom therapy, mortality rates are very high in cases of envenomation - up to 50 % of cases that receive antivenom are fatal. Case fatality rates of the many - banded krait envenoming reach up to 77 % -- 100 % without treatment. The average venom yield from specimens kept on snake farms was between 4.6 -- 18.4 mg per bite. In another study, the average venom yield was 11 mg (Sawai, 1976). The venom is possibly the most toxic of any Bungarus (krait) species and possibly the most toxic of any snake species in Asia, with LD values of 0.09 mg / kg -- 0.108 mg / kg SC, 0.113 mg / kg IV and 0.08 mg / kg IP on mice. Based on several LD studies, the many - banded krait is among the most venomous land snake in the world. The Taiwan National Poison Control Center reports that the chief cause of deaths from snakebites during the decade (2002 - 2012) was respiratory failure, 80 % of which was caused by bites from the many - banded krait.
The Malayan krait (Bungarus candidus) is another dangerously venomous species of krait. In mice, the IV LD for this species is 0.1 mg / kg. Envenomation rate among this species is very high and the untreated mortality is 70 %, although even with antivenom and mechanical ventilation the mortality rate is at 50 %.
The Inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) is considered the most venomous snake in the world with a murine LD value of 0.025 mg / kg SC. Ernst and Zug et al. 1996 list a value of 0.01 mg / kg SC, which makes it the most venomous snake in the world in their study too. They have an average venom yield of 44 mg. Bites from this species have a mortality rate of 80 % if left untreated, although it is very rare for this species to bite. This species is known to be a very shy, reclusive and a laid - back snake that will nearly always slither away from disturbance. It is not an aggressive species and rarely strikes.
The Eastern brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis) has a venom LD value of 0.053 mg SC according to (Brown, 1973) and a value of 0.0365 mg SC according to (Ernst and Zug et al. 1996). According to both studies, it is the second most venomous snake in the world. Average venom yield is 2 -- 6 mg according to (Meier and White, 1995). According to (Minton, 1974) average venom yield (dry weight) is between 5 -- 10 mg. Maximum venom yield for this species is 155 mg. This species is legendary for its bad temper, aggression, and for its speed. This species is responsible for more deaths every year in Australia than any other group of snakes.
The Common death adder (Acanthophis antarcticus) is a highly venomous snake species with a 50 - 60 % untreated mortality rate. It is also the fastest striking venomous snake in the world. A death adder can go from a strike position, to strike and envenoming their prey, and back to strike position again, in less than 0.15 seconds. The SC LD value is 0.4 mg / kg and the venom yield per bite can range anywhere from 70 -- 236 mg. Unlike other snakes that flee from approaching humans crashing through the undergrowth, common death adders are more likely to sit tight and risk being stepped on, making them more dangerous to the unwary bushwalker. They are said to be reluctant to bite unless actually touched.
Tiger snakes (Notechis spp) are highly venomous. Their venoms possess potent neurotoxins, coagulants, haemolysins and myotoxins and the venom is quick - acting with rapid onset of breathing difficulties and paralysis. The untreated mortality rate from tiger snake bites is reported to be between 40 and 60 %. They are a major cause of snakebites and occasional snakebite deaths in Australia.
The African Tiger snake (Telescopus semiannulatus), 60 -- 70 cm long, on the other hand, is rear - fanged and only mildly venomous and not dangerous to humans.
Green mambas (Western, Eastern, and Jameson 's) are all highly venomous snakes that can be highly aggressive and unpredictable in disposition. They can suddenly go from a state of relative calm to an extremely agitated and dangerous state. All three species have a tendency to strike repeatedly with little provocation, although they are generally much less aggressive than their larger cousin, the Black mamba. All three species of green mamba are highly arboreal, alert, extremely quick, and agile. Although the potency of their venom is similar to the more venomous cobra species, mamba venom is much more rapid - acting and the dendrotoxins contained in mamba venom is generally more devastating in nature to the central nervous system, causing more severe neurotoxicity in more rapid fashion.
The Western green mamba (Dendroaspis viridis) is highly venomous and aggressive with a LD of 0.7 mg / kg SC and the average venom yield per bite is approximately 100 mg. The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be very high (> 80 %).
The Eastern green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps) has an average venom yield per bite of 80 mg according to Engelmann and Obst (1981). The subcutaneous LD for this species ranges from 0.40 mg / kg to 3.05 mg / kg depending on different toxicology studies, authority figures and estimates. The mortality rate of untreated bites is unknown but is thought to be very high (70 - 75 %). Generally the calmest and most shy of the green mamba species, the Eastern green will still strike repeatedly if cornered or agitated.
The Jameson 's mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni) is known to be quite aggressive and defensive. The average venom yield per bite for this species is 80 mg, but some specimens may yield as much as 120 mg in a single bite. The SC LD for this species according to Brown (1973) is 1.0 mg / kg, while the IV LD is 0.8 mg / kg. Envenomation by a Jameson 's mamba can be deadly in as little as 30 to 120 minutes after being bitten, if proper medical treatment is not attained. The mortality rate of untreated bites is not exactly known, but it 's said to be very high (> 80 %).
The cobras (Naja spp) are a medically important group of snakes due to the number of bites and fatalities they cause across their geographical range. The genus Naja consists of 20 to 22 species, but has undergone several taxonomic revisions in recent years, so sources vary greatly. They range throughout Africa (including some parts of the Sahara where Naja haje can be found), Southwest Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. The most recent revision, listed 28 species after the synonymisation of Boulengerina and Paranaja with Naja. But unlike some other members of the Elapidae family (the species of the genus Bungarus, genus Oxyuranus, genus Pseudohaje, and especially genus Dendroaspis), half of the bites by many species of both African and Asian origin of the genus Naja are "dry bites '' (a dry bite is a bite by a venomous snake in which no venom is released). Roughly 45 - 50 % of bites by most cobra species are dry bites and thus do n't cause envenomation. Some of the species which are known and documented to deliver dry bites in a majority of cases (50 % +) include: Naja naja, Naja kaouthia, Naja sputatrix, Naja siamensis, Naja haje, Naja annulifera, Naja anchietae and Naja nigricollis. Some species will inject venom in the majority of their bites, but still deliver high number of dry bites (40 - 45 %) include: Naja sumatrana, Naja melanoleuca, Naja atra, Naja mossambica and Naja katiensis. Within this genus, there are a few species in which dry bites are very rare. Envenoming occurs in at least 75 - 80 % of bite cases involving these species. The species which typically cause envenomation in the majority of their bites include some of the more dangerous and venomous species of this genus: Naja oxiana, Naja philippinensis, Naja nivea, and Naja samarensis. There are many more species within the genus which have not yet been subject to much research and studies, and as a result, very little is known about their behaviour, venom, diet, habitat and general temperaments. Some of these species include Naja sagittifera, Naja annulata, Naja christyi and many others.
The most medically important species of snake bites in Central Asia is the Caspian cobra (Naja oxiana). It is the most venomous species of cobra in the world, slightly ahead of the Philippines cobra based on a toxinological study from 1992 found in the Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, in which this species produced the highest potency venom among cobras. The venom of this species has the most potent composition of toxins found among any cobra species known. It is made up of primarily highly potent neurotoxins but it also has cytotoxic activity (tissue - death, necrosis) and cardiotoxins. Two forms of "cytotoxin II '' (cardiotoxin) were found in the venom of this species. The crude venom of this species produced the lowest known lethal dose (LCLo) of 0.005 mg / kg, the lowest among all cobra species, derived from an individual case of poisoning by intracerebroventricular injection. A 1992 extensive toxinology study gave a value of 0.18 mg / kg (range of 0.1 mg / kg - 0.26 mg / kg) by subcutaneous injection. According to Brown (1973), the subcutaneous LD value is 0.4 mg / kg, while Ernst and Zug et al. list a value of 0.21 mg / kg SC and 0.037 mg / kg IV. Latifi (1984) listed a subcutaneous value of 0.2 mg / kg. In another study, where venom was collected from a number of specimens in Iran, the IV LD in lab mice was 0.078 mg / kg. Average venom yield per bite for this species is between 75 and 125 mg (dry weight), but it may yield up to 590 mg (dry weight) in a single bite. The bite of this species may cause severe pain and swelling, along with severe neurotoxicity. Weakness, drowsiness, ataxia, hypotension, and paralysis of throat and limbs may appear in less than one hour after the bite. Without medical treatment, symptoms rapidly worsen and death can occur rapidly after a bite due to respiratory failure. An adult woman bitten by this species in northwestern Pakistan suffered severe neurotoxicity and died while en route to the closest hospital nearly 50 minutes after envenomation. Between 1979 and 1987, 136 confirmed bites were attributed to this species in the former Soviet Union. Of the 136, 121 received antivenom, and only four died. Of the 15 who did not receive antivenom, 11 died. This species is an abundant snake in northeastern Iran and is responsible for a very large number of snakebite mortalities. Antivenom is not as effective for envenomation by this species as it is for other Asiatic cobras within the same region, like the Indian cobra (Naja naja) and due to the dangerous toxicity of this species ' venom, massive amounts of antivenom are often required for patients. As a result, a monovalent antivenom serum is being developed by the Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute in Iran. The untreated mortality rate for this species is 70 - 75 %, which is the highest among all cobra species of the genus Naja.
The Forest cobra (Naja melanoleuca) is the largest true cobra of the genus Naja and is a very bad - tempered, aggressive, and irritable snake when cornered or molested as handled in captivity. According to Brown (1973) this species has a murine IP LD value of 0.324 mg / kg, while the IV LD value is 0.6 mg / kg. Ernst and Zug et al. 1996 list a value of 0.225 mg / kg SC. The average venom yield per bite is 571 mg and the maximum venom yield is 1102 mg. The forest cobra is one of the least frequent causes of snake bite among the African cobras, this is largely due to its forest - dwelling habits. It is the largest of the Naja cobras and the venom is considered highly toxic. If the snake becomes cornered or is agitated, it can quickly attack the aggressor, and if a large amount of venom is injected, a rapidly fatal outcome is possible. Clinical experience with forest cobras has been very sparse, and few recorded bites have been documented. However, in 2008, around the area of Friguiagbé in Guinea, there were 375 bites attributed to the forest cobra and of those 79 were fatal. Most of the fatal bites were patients who received no medical treatment. Deaths from respiratory failure have been reported, but most victims will survive if prompt administration of antivenom is undertaken as soon as clinical signs of envenomation have been noted.
The Philippine cobra (Naga philippinensis) is one of the most venomous cobra species in the world based on murine LD studies. The average subcutaneous LD for this species is 0.20 mg / kg. The lowest LD reported value for this snake is 0.14 mg / kg SC, while the highest is 0.48 mg / kg SC. and the average venom yield per bite is 90 -- 100 mg. The venom of the Philippine cobra is a potent postsynaptic neurotoxin which affects respiratory function and can cause neurotoxicity and respiratory paralysis, as the neurotoxins interrupt the transmission of nerve signals by binding to the neuromuscular junctions near the muscles. Research has shown its venom is purely a neurotoxin, with no apparent necrotizing components and no cardiotoxins. These snakes are capable of accurately spitting their venom at a target up to 3 metres (9.8 ft) away. Bites from this species produce prominent neurotoxicity and are considered especially dangerous. A study of 39 patients envenomed by the Philippine cobra was conducted in 1988. Neurotoxicity occurred in 38 cases and was the predominant clinical feature. Complete Respiratory failure developed in 19 patients, and was often rapid in onset; in three cases, apnea occurred within just 30 minutes of the bite. There were two deaths, both in patients who were moribund upon arrival at the hospital. Three patients developed necrosis, and 14 individuals with systemic symptoms had no local swelling at all. Both cardiotoxicity and reliable nonspecific signs of envenoming were absent. Bites by the Philippine cobra produce a distinctive clinical picture characterized by severe neurotoxicity of rapid onset and minimal local tissue damage.
The Cape cobra (Naja nivea) is regarded as one of the most dangerous species of cobra in Africa, by virtue of its potent venom and frequent occurrence around houses. The venom of this snake tends to be thick and syrupy in consistency and dries into shiny pale flakes, not unlike yellow sugar. The Cape cobras venom is made up of potent postsynaptic neurotoxins and might also contain cardiotoxins, that affect the respiratory system, nervous system, and the heart. The mouse SC LD for this species ' venom is 0.72, while the IV and IP LD values are 0.4 mg / kg and 0.6 mg / kg, respectively. The average venom yield per bite is 100 to 150 mg according to Minton. The mortality rate for untreated bites is not exactly known, but is thought to be high. This can be because of various factors including the amount of venom injected, psychological state of the bitten subject and the penetration of one or both fangs. Mechanical ventilation and symptom management is often enough to save a victim 's life, but cases of serious Cape cobra envenomation will require antivenom. When death does occur, it normally takes anywhere from an hour (in severe cases) to ten hours (or more) and it is often as a result of respiratory failure, because of the onset of paralysis. The antivenom used in case of a bite is a polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute of Medical Research (SAIMR).
The Jararaca (Bothrops jararaca) is a species that is often abundant within its range, where it is an important cause of snakebite. It is the best - known venomous snake in the wealthy and heavily populated areas of southeastern Brazil, where it was responsible for 52 % (3,446 cases) of snakebites between 1902 and 1945, with a 0.7 % mortality rate (25 deaths). The average venom yield is 25 -- 26 milligrams (0.39 -- 0.40 gr) with a maximum of 300 milligrams (4.6 gr) of dried venom. The venom is slightly more toxic than that of the terciopelo or fer - de-lance (B. asper). In mice, the median lethal dose (LD) is 1.2 - 1.3 mg / kg IV, 1.4 mg / kg IP and 3.0 mg / kg SC. For humans, the LD is estimated to be 210 milligrams (3.2 gr) subcutaneous.
The South American bushmaster (Lachesis muta muta) is the longest species of venomous snake in the Western Hemisphere and the longest pit viper in the world. It is native to parts of South America, especially the equatorial forests east of the Andes. They are active at dusk or after dark and so they are very secretive and elusive. This species is large, fast and has a reputation for being particularly aggressive when cornered. Some reports suggest that this species produces a large amount of venom that is weak compared to some other vipers. Others, however, suggest that such conclusions may not be accurate. These animals are badly affected by stress and rarely live long in captivity. This makes it difficult to obtain venom in useful quantities and good condition for study purposes. For example, Bolaños (1972) observed that venom yield from his specimens fell from 233 mg to 64 mg while they remained in his care. As the stress of being milked regularly has this effect on venom yield, it is reasoned that it may also affect venom toxicity. This may explain the disparity described by Hardy and Haad (1998) between the low laboratory toxicity of the venom and the high mortality rate of bite victims. However, wild specimens have an average venom yield per bite of 280 -- 450 mg (dry weight) (U.S. Dept. Navy, 1968). According to (Sanchez et al., 1992), who used wild specimens from Pará, Brazil, the average venom yield per bite was 324 mg, with a range of 168 -- 552 mg (dry weight). Brown (1973) gives the following LD values for mice: 1.5 mg / kg IV, 1.6 -- 6.2 mg / kg IP, 6.0 mg / kg SC. He also notes a venom yield of 200 -- 411 mg. Human envenoming by this species, although infrequent, can be rather severe due to the large volumes of venom injected. Envenomation is characterized by pronounced local tissue damage and systemic dysfunctions, including massive internal bleeding.
The Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica), although generally docile and sluggish, has the longest fangs of any venomous snake and their venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any venomous snake. Yield is probably related to body weight, as opposed to milking interval. Brown (1973) gives a venom yield range of 200 -- 1000 mg (of dried venom), A range of 200 -- 600 mg for specimens 125 -- 155 cm in length has also been reported. Spawls and Branch (1995) state from 5 to 7 ml (450 -- 600 mg) of venom may be injected in a single bite. Based on how sensitive monkeys were to the venom, Whaler (1971) estimated 14 mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being: equivalent to 0.06 ml of venom, or 1 / 50 to 1 / 1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking. Marsh and Whaler (1984) wrote that 35 mg (1 / 30 of the average venom yield) would be enough to kill a man of 70 kilograms (150 lb). A study by Marsh and Whaler (1984) reported a maximum yield of 9.7 ml of wet venom, which translated to 2400 mg of dried venom. They attached "alligator '' clip electrodes to the angle of the open jaw of anesthetized specimens (length 133 -- 136 cm, girth 23 -- 25 cm, weight 1.3 -- 3.4 kg), yielding 1.3 -- 7.6 ml (mean 4.4 ml) of venom. Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands. The snakes used for the study were milked seven to 11 times over a 12 - month period, during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same. In addition, Gaboon vipers produce the most painful bite of any venomous snake in the world. A bite causes very rapid and conspicuous swelling, intense pain, severe shock and local blistering. Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements, defecation, urination, swelling of the tongue and eyelids, convulsions and unconsciousness. Blistering, bruising and necrosis is often very extensive. There may be sudden hypotension, heart damage and dyspnoea. The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to haematuria and haematemesis. Local tissue damage may require surgical excision and possibly amputation. Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon.
The Chinese cobra (Naja atra) is a highly venomous member of the true cobras (genus Naja). Its venom consists mainly of postsynaptic neurotoxins and cardiotoxins. Four cardiotoxin - analogues I, II, III, and IV, account for about 54 % of the dry weight of the crude venom and have cytotoxic properties. The LD values of its venom in mice are 0.29 mg / kg IV, and 0.29 -- 0.53 mg / kg SC. The average venom yield from a snake of this species kept at a snake farm was about 250.8 mg (80 mg dry weight). According to Minton (1974), this cobra has a venom yield range of 150 to 200 mg (dry weight). Brown listed a venom yield of 184 mg (dry weight). It is one of the most prevalent venomous snakes in mainland China and Taiwan, which has caused many snakebite incidents to humans.
The Asian Monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) is a medically important species as it is responsible for a considerable amount of bites throughout its range. The major toxic components in the Monocled cobras venom are postsynaptic neurotoxins, which block the nerve transmission by binding specifically to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, leading to flaccid paralysis and even death by respiratory failure. The major α - neurotoxin in Naja kaouthia venom is a long neurotoxin, α - cobratoxin; the minor α - neurotoxin is different from cobrotoxin in one residue. The neurotoxins of this particular species are weak. The venom of this species also contains myotoxins and cardiotoxins. The median lethal dose (LD) is 0.28 - 0.33 mg per gram of mouse body weight. In case of IV the LD is 0.373 mg / kg, and 0.225 mg / kg in case of IP. The average venom yield per bite is approximately 263 mg (dry weight). The monocled cobra causes the highest fatality due to snake venom poisoning in Thailand. Envenomation usually presents predominantly with extensive local necrosis and systemic manifestations to a lesser degree. Drowsiness, neurological and neuromuscular symptoms will usually manifest earliest; hypotension, flushing of the face, warm skin, and pain around bite site typically manifest within one to four hours following the bite; paralysis, ventilatory failure or death could ensue rapidly, possibly as early as 60 minutes in very severe cases of envenomation. However, the presence of fang marks does not always imply that envenomation actually occurred.
The Egyptian cobra (Naja haje) is another species of cobra which causes a significant amount of bites and human fatalities throughout its range. The venom of the Egyptian cobra consists mainly of neurotoxins and cytotoxins. The average venom yield is 175 to 300 mg in a single bite, and the murine subcutaneous LD value is 1.15 mg / kg. This species has large fangs and can produce large quantities of venom. Envenomation by this snake is a very serious medical emergency.
The water cobras found in central and western Africa are an extremely venomous cobra species (Naja). These species were formerly under the genus Boulengerina. The banded water cobra (Naja annulata) and the Congo water cobra (Naja christyi) are dangerously venomous. The banded water cobra has one subspecies which is known as Storms water cobra (Naja annulata stormsi). Their venoms are extremely potent neurotoxins. A toxicological study listed the intraperitoneal (IP) LD of N. annulata at 0.143 mg / kg. Brown (1973) listed the intravenous LD for N. a. annulata at 0.2 mg / kg. The same study listed the intraperitoneal (IP) LD of N. christyi at 0.12 mg / kg. The venoms of these little - known elapids have the lowest intraperitoneal LD of any Naja species studied thus far and have high concentrations of potent postsynaptic neurotoxins. Serious and dangerous envenomation can result from a bite from either of these snakes. There is at least one case of human envenomation caused by the Congo water cobra (N. christyi). Symptoms of the envenomation were mild. There is no specific antivenom currently produced for either of these two species.
The Black desert cobra (Walterinnesia aegyptia) is a highly venomous snake found in the Middle East. The subcutaneous LD for the venom of this species is 0.4 mg / kg. For comparison, the Indian cobra 's (naja naja) subcutaneous LD is 0.80 mg / kg, while the Cape cobra 's (naja nivea) subcutaneous LD is 0.72 mg / kg. This makes the black desert cobra a more venomous species than both. The venom is strongly neurotoxic and also has mild hemotoxic factors. Envenomation usually causes some combination of local pain, swelling, fever, general weakness, headache, & vomiting. This is not a typically aggressive snake, but it will strike and hiss loudly when provoked. It can strike at a distance of 2⁄3 of its body length. It does not usually spread a hood nor hold up its body up off the ground like true cobras do. Envenomation by this species should be considered a serious medical emergency. Reports of human fatalities due to envenomation by this species has been reported.
Spitting cobras are another group of cobras that belong to the Naja genus. Spitting cobras can be found in both Africa and Asia. These cobras have the ability to eject venom from their fangs when defending themselves against predators. The sprayed venom is harmless to intact skin. However, it can cause permanent blindness if introduced to the eye and left untreated (causing chemosis and corneal swelling). The venom sprays out in distinctive geometric patterns, using muscular contractions upon the venom glands. These muscles squeeze the glands and force the venom out through forward - facing holes at the tips of the fangs. The explanation that a large gust of air is expelled from the lung to propel the venom forward has been proven wrong. When cornered, some species can "spit '' their venom a distance as great as 2 m (6.6 ft). While spitting is typically their primary form of defense, all spitting cobras are capable of delivering venom through a bite as well. Most species ' venom exhibit significant hemotoxic effects, along with more typical neurotoxic effects of other cobra species.
The Samar cobra (Naja samarensis) is a highly venomous species of spitting cobra that is found in the southern islands of the Philippines. Although it is a spitting cobra, this species only rarely spits its venom. It is considered to be an extremely aggressive snake that strikes with little provocation. The venom of this species is not well studied, but is known to be an extremely potent postsynaptic neurotoxin that also contains cytotoxic agents. According to Ernst & Zug et al. the murine SC LD value is 0.21 mg / kg, making it one of the most venomous true cobra species (genus Naja) in the world. Severe envenomation is likely in case of a bite and envenomation rate is high. The untreated mortality rate is not known, but is thought to be high (~ 60 %). Envenomation results in marked local effects such as pain, severe swelling, bruising, blistering, and necrosis. Other effects include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, collapse or convulsions. There may also be moderate to severe flaccid paralysis and renal damage. Cardiotoxicity is possible, but rare.
The Indochinese spitting cobra (Naja siamensis) is a venomous spitting cobra whose venom consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins, metalloproteinases, powerful cardiotoxins, with cytolytic activity, and Phospholipase A with a diversity of activities. The LD of its venom is 1.07 - 1.42 mg / gram of mouse body weight. Cranial palsy and respiratory depression are reported to be more common after bites by Naja siamensis than by Naja kaouthia. Indochinese spitting cobras will use their venom for self - defense with little provocation, and as the name implies, are capable of spitting venom when alarmed, often at the face and eyes of the animal or human threatening them. A case report in the literature describes pain and irritation of the eyes, bilateral redness, excessive tear production and whitish discharge, with superficial corneal opacity but normal acuity.
The Black - necked spitting cobra (Naja nigricollis) is a species of spitting cobra found mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa. They possess medically significant venom, although the mortality rate for untreated bites on humans is relatively low (~ 5 - 10 %). Like other spitting cobras, this species is known for its ability to project venom at a potential threat. The venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes. If it enters the eyes, symptoms include extreme burning pain, loss of coordination, partial loss of vision and permanent blindness. N. nigricollis is known for its tendency to liberally spit venom with only the slightest provocation. However, this aggressiveness is counterbalanced by it being less prone to bite than other related species. The venom of the black - necked spitting cobra is somewhat unique among elapids in that it consists primarily of cytotoxins, but with other components also. It retains the typical elapid neurotoxic properties while combining these with highly potent cytotoxins (necrotic agents) and cardiotoxins. Bite symptoms include severe external hemorrhaging and tissue necrosis around the bite area and difficulty breathing. Although mortality rate in untreated cases is low (~ 5 - 10 %), when death occurs it is usually due to asphyxiation by paralysis of the diaphragm. The LD of this species is 2 mg / kg SC and 1.15 mg / kg IV. The average venom yield per bite of this species is 200 to 350 mg (dry weight) according to Minton (1974).
Another medically important African spitting cobra is the Mozambique spitting cobra (Naja mossambica). This species is considered irritable and highly aggressive. The Mozambique spitting cobra is responsible for a significant amount of bites throughout its range, but most are not fatal. The venom is both neurotoxic and cytotoxic.
The Mali cobra (Naja katiensis) is a venomous species of spitting cobra native to western Africa. The venom of this species consists of postsynaptic neurotoxins and cardiotoxins with cytotoxic (necrotizing) activity. An average wet venom yield of 100 mg has been reported for this species. The average murine LD value of this species is 1.15 mg / kg IV, but there is an IV LD range of 0.97 mg / kg - 1.45 mg / kg. The West African spitting cobra is one of the most common causes of snakebite in Senegal. Over 24 years, from 1976 to 1999, a prospective study was conducted of overall and cause - specific mortality among the population of 42 villages of southeastern Senegal. Of 4228 deaths registered during this period, 26 were caused by snakebite, four by invertebrate stings and eight by other wild or domestic animals. The average annual mortality rate from snakebite was 14 deaths per 100,000 population. Among persons aged one year or over, 0.9 % (26 / 2880) of deaths were caused by snakebite and this cause represented 28 % (26 / 94) of total deaths by accidents. Of 1280 snakes belonging to 34 species collected, one - third were dangerous, and the proportions of Viperidae, Elapidae and Atractaspidae were 23 %, 11 % and 0.6 %, respectively. This species was third, responsible for 5.5 % of the snakebites.
The Rinkhals (Hemachatus haemachatus) is a not a true cobra in that it does not belong to the genus Naja. However, it is closely related to the true cobras and is considered to be one of the true spitting cobras. The venom of this species is less viscous than that of other African elapids, naturally, as thinner fluid is naturally easier to spit. However, the venom of the rinkhals is produced in copious amounts. Average venom yield is 80 -- 120 mg and the murine LD is 1.1 - 1.6 mg / kg SC with an estimated lethal dose for humans of 50 -- 60 mg. Actual bites from this species are fairly rare, and deaths in modern times are so far unheard of. Local symptoms of swelling and bruising is reported in about 25 % of cases. General symptoms of drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, violent abdominal pain and vertigo often occur, as does a mild pyrexial reaction. Neurotoxic symptoms are however rare and have only included diplopia and dyspnoea. Ophthalmia has been reported, but has not caused as severe complications as in some of the spitters in the genus Naja (especially N. nigricollis and N. mossambica).
The Puff adder (Bitis arietans) is responsible for more fatalities than any other African snake. This is due to a combination of factors, including its wide distribution, common occurrence, large size, potent venom that is produced in large amounts, long fangs, their habit of basking by footpaths and sitting quietly when approached. The venom has cytotoxic effects and is one of the most toxic of any vipers based on LD50 studies. The LD values in mice vary: 0.4 -- 2.0 mg / kg IV, 0.9 -- 3.7 mg / kg IP, 4.4 -- 7.7 mg / kg SC. Mallow et al. (2003) gives a LD range of 1.0 -- 7.75 mg / kg SC. Venom yield is typically between 100 -- 350 mg, with a maximum of 750 mg. Brown (1973) mentions a venom yield of 180 -- 750 mg. About 100 mg is thought to be enough to kill a healthy adult human male, with death occurring after 25 hours. In humans, bites from this species can produce severe local and systemic symptoms. Based on the degree and type of local effect, bites can be divided into two symptomatic categories: those with little or no surface extravasation, and those with hemorrhages evident as ecchymosis, bleeding and swelling. In both cases there is severe pain and tenderness, but in the latter there is widespread superficial or deep necrosis and compartment syndrome. Serious bites cause limbs to become immovably flexed as a result of significant hemorrhage or coagulation in the affected muscles. Residual induration, however, is rare and usually these areas completely resolve. The fatality rate depends on the severity of the bites and some other factors. Deaths are rare and occur in less than 10 % of all untreated cases (usually in 2 -- 4 days from complications following blood volume deficit and a disseminated intravascular coagulopathy), although some reports show that very severe envenomations have a 52 % mortality rate. Most fatalities are associated with bad clinical management and neglect.
The Rhinoceros viper (Bitis nasicornis) is a large species of viper that is similar to the Gaboon viper, but not as venomous, smaller and with a less dangerous bite. They are slow moving, but like other Bitis species, they 're capable of striking quickly, forwards or sideways, without coiling first or giving a warning. Holding them by the tail is not safe; as it is somewhat prehensile, they can use it to fling themselves upwards and strike. They have been described as generally placid creatures, not as bad - tempered as the Puff adder. When approached, they often reveal their presence by hissing, said to be the loudest hiss of any African snake -- almost a shriek. Relatively little is known about the toxicity and composition of the venom, but it has very minor neurotoxic, as well as hemotoxic venom, as do most other venomous snakes. The hemotoxic venom in rhinoceros vipers is much more dominant. This venom attacks the circulatory system of the snake 's victim, destroying tissue and blood vessels. Internal bleeding also occurs. In mice, the intravenous LD is 1.1 mg / kg. The venom is supposedly slightly less toxic than those of the Puff adder and the Gaboon viper. The maximum wet venom yield is 200 mg. In only a few detailed reports of human envenomation, massive swelling, which may lead to necrosis, had been described. In 2003, a man in Dayton, Ohio, who was keeping a specimen as a pet, was bitten and subsequently died. At least one antivenom protects specifically against bites from this species: India Antiserum Africa Polyvalent.
King brown snake or Mulga snake
The Australian King brown snake or Mulga snake (Pseudechis australis) is the second longest species of venomous snake in Australia. The venom of this snake is relatively weak compared to many other Australian species. The LD is 2.38 mg / kg subcutaneous. However, these snakes can deliver large amounts of venom when they bite, compensating for the lower venom potency. Average venom yield is 180 mg and they have a maximum yield of 600 mg. The venom of this species contains potent myotoxins and anticoagulants, that can inhibit blood clotting. The neurotoxic components are weak. This snake can cause severe envenomation of humans. They are a moderately common cause of snakebites and uncommonly to rarely cause snakebite deaths in Australia at present. Envenomation can cause anticoagulation coagulopathy, renal damage or renal failure (kidney failure). They do not cause significant neurotoxic paralysis (muscle weakness, respiratory failure), though rarely they may cause ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelids). Bites can also cause myolysis (rhabdomyolysis, muscle damage) which can be very severe and is the major effect of bites. Rate of envenomation is 40 - 60 %, while untreated mortality rate is 30 - 40 %.
The Red - bellied black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) is a venomous species native to Australia. The venom of the red - bellied black snake consists of myotoxins, coagulants and also has haemolytic and cytotoxic properties. It also contains weak pre-synaptic neurotoxins. The murine LD is 2.52 mg / kg SC. Average venom yield per bite is 37 mg and a maximum yield of 97 mg. Bites from red - bellied black snake are rarely life - threatening due to the snake usually choosing to inject little venom toxin, but are still in need of immediate medical attention. Rate of envenomation is 40 - 60 %, but the untreated mortality rate is less than 1 %.
The Dugite (Pseudonaja affinis) is a highly venomous Australian brown snake species. The venom of this species contains highly potent presynaptic and postsynaptic neurotoxins and procoagulants. The murine LD is 0.66 mg / kg SC. The average venom yield per bite is 18 mg (dry weight of milked venom) according to Meier and White (1995). Rate of envenomation is 20 - 40 % and the untreated mortality rate is 10 -- 20 % by cardiac arrest, renal failure, or cerebral hemorrhage.
The western brown snake (Pseudonaja nuchalis) is a highly venomous species of brown snake common throughout Western Australia. Its venom contains powerful neurotoxins, nephrotoxins and a procoagulant, although humans are not usually affected by the neurotoxins. The bite is usually painless and difficult to see due to their small fangs. Human symptoms of a Western Brown snake bite are headache, nausea / vomiting, abdominal pain, severe coagulopathy and sometimes, kidney damage. The LD in mice is 0.47 mg / kg and the average venom yield per bite is 18 mg (dry weight of milked venom) according to Meier and White (1995). The western brown snake can cause rapid death in humans by cardiac arrest, renal failure, or cerebral hemorrhage. The envenomation rate is 20 - 40 % and the untreated mortality rate is 10 - 20 %.
Some rattlesnake species can be quite dangerous to humans.
The Tiger rattlesnake (Crotalus tigris) has a comparatively low venom yield but is considered to have the most toxic of all rattlesnake venoms, and the highest venom toxicity of all snakes in the Western Hemisphere. Although they 're reluctant to bite, tiger rattlensakes are known to be cantankerous and aggressive. Because of their tendency to stand their ground and aggressively defend themselves, they pose a serious threat to humans. Tiger rattlesnake venom has a high neurotoxic fraction that is antigenically related to Mojave toxin (see Crotalus scutulatus, venom A), and includes another component immunologically identical to crotamine, a myotoxin also found in tropical rattlesnakes (see Crotalus durissus). The venom has low but significant protease activity, although there does not seem to be any hemolytic activity. Brown (1973) lists an average venom yield of 11 mg (dried venom) and LD values of 0.07 mg / kg IP, 0.056 mg / kg IV, and 0.21 mg / kg SC. Minton and Weinstein (1984) list an average venom yield of 6.4 mg (based on two specimens). Weinstein and Smith (1990) list a venom yield of 10 mg. Humans are rarely bitten by the tiger rattlesnake, and literature available on bites by this snake is scarce. The several recorded human envenomations by tiger rattlesnakes produced little local pain, swelling, or other reaction following the bite and, despite the toxicity of its venom, no significant systemic symptoms have been recorded. The comparatively low venom yield (6.4 -- 11 mg dried venom) and short 4.0 mm (0.40 cm) to 4.6 mm (0.46 cm) fangs of the tiger rattlesnake possibly prevent severe envenoming in adult humans. However, the clinical picture could be much more serious if the person bitten was a child or an individual with a slight build. The early therapeutic use of antivenom is important if significant envenomation is suspected. Despite the low venom yield, a bite by this rattlesnake should be considered a life - threatening medical emergency. Untreated mortality rate is unknown.
The Neotropical rattlesnake or Cascabel (Crotalus durissus) is a medically important species due to its venom toxicity and the human fatalities it is responsible for. The IP LD value is 0.17 mg / kg with an average venom yield between 20 -- 100 mg / kg per bite. Bite symptoms are very different from those of Nearctic species due to the presence of neurotoxins (crotoxin and crotamine) that cause progressive paralysis. Bites from C. d. terrificus in particular can result in impaired vision or complete blindness, auditory disorders, ptosis, paralysis of the peripheral muscles, especially of the neck, which becomes so limp as to appear broken, and eventually life - threatening respiratory paralysis. The ocular disturbances, which according to Alvaro (1939) occur in some 60 % of C. d. terrificus cases, are sometimes followed by permanent blindness. Phospholipase A neurotoxins also cause damage to skeletal muscles and possibly the heart, causing general aches, pain, and tenderness throughout the body. Myoglobin released into the blood results in dark urine. Other serious complications may result from systemic disorders (incoagulable blood and general spontaneous bleeding), hypotension, and shock. Hemorrhagins may be present in the venom, but any corresponding effects are completely overshadowed by the startling and serious neurotoxic symptoms. Subcutaneous venom LD for this species is 0.193 mg / kg. The neotropical rattlesnake in Brazil is of special importance because of the high incidence of envenoming and mortality rates. Clinically, venom of this snake does not usually cause local effects at the bite site and is usually painless. However, the etiology progresses to systemic neurotoxic and myalgic symptoms, with frequent renal failure accompanied by acute tubular necrosis. The huge area of distribution, potent venom in fairly large quantities and a definite willingness to defend themselves are important factors in their dangerousness. In Brazil and probably also in other countries in their area of distribution, this species is probably the most dangerous rattlesnake. After the fer - de-lance (Bothrops asper), it is the most common cause of snake envenoming. In the first half of the 20th century as well as in the 1950s and 1960s, 12 % of treated cases ended fatally. Untreated cases apparently had a mortality rate of 72 % in the same period, but this was due to the fact that there was no antivenom, poor medical care and neglect (Rosenfeld, 1971). In more recent times, an average of 20,000 snakebites are registered each year in Brazil, almost 10 % of them caused by the neotropical rattlesnake. The mortality rate is estimated at 3.3 % and is thus much lower than in the past (Ribeiro, 1990b). A study from southeastern Brazil documented only one fatality from 87 treated cases (Silveira and Nishioka, 1992).
The Mojave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) is another species which is considered to be dangerous. Although they have a reputation for being aggressive towards people, such behavior is not described in the scientific literature. Like other rattlesnakes, they will defend themselves vigorously when disturbed. The IP LD value is 0.18 mg / kg with an average venom yield between 50 -- 150 mg / kg per bite. The most common subspecies of Mojave rattlesnake (type A) has venom that is considered to be one of the most debilitating and potentially deadly of all North American snakes, although chances for survival are very good if medical attention is sought as soon as possible after a bite. Based on median LD values in lab mice, venom A from subspecies A Mojave rattlesnakes is more than ten times as toxic as venom B, from type B Mohave green rattlesnakes which lacks Mojave toxin. Medical treatment as soon as possible after a bite is critical to a positive outcome, dramatically increasing chances for survival. However, venom B causes pronounced proteolytic and hemorrhagic effects, similar to the bites of other rattlesnake species; these effects are significantly reduced or absent from bites by venom A snakes. Risk to life and limb is still significant, as with all rattlesnakes, if not treated as soon as possible after a bite. All rattlesnake venoms are complex cocktails of enzymes and other proteins that vary greatly in composition and effects, not only between species, but also between geographic populations within the same species. The Mojave rattlesnake is widely regarded as producing one of the most toxic snake venoms in the New World, based on LD studies in laboratory mice. Their potent venom is the result of a presynaptic neurotoxin composed of two distinct peptide subunits. The basic subunit (a phospholipase A) is mildly toxic and apparently rather common in North American rattlesnake venoms. The less common acidic subunit is not toxic by itself, but in combination with the basic subunit, produces the potent neurotoxin called "Mojave toxin ''. Nearly identical neurotoxins have been discovered in five North American rattlesnake species besides the Mojave rattlesnake. However, not all populations express both subunits. The venom of many Mojave rattlesnakes from south - central Arizona lacks the acidic subunit and has been designated "venom B, '' while Mojave rattlesnakes tested from all other areas express both subunits and have been designated "venom A '' populations.
The Malayan pit viper (Calloselasma rhodostoma) is an Asian species of pitviper that is reputed to be an ill - tempered snake that is quick to strike in defense. This species is one of the main causes of snakebite envenoming in Southeast Asia. However, mortality rate among untreated bite victims is very low (1 - 10 %). Although bites are common, death is very rare. When a victim dies of a bite it is chiefly caused by haemorrhages and secondary infections. Before specific antivenom became available, the mortality rate in hospitalised patients was around 1 % (Reid et al. 1967a). In the study of Reid et al. (1963a), of a total of 291 patients with verified C. rhodostoma bites, only 2 patients died, and their deaths could only be indirectly attributed to the snakebites. One patient died of tetanus and one from a combination of an anaphylactic reaction to the antivenom, an intracerebral haemorrhage and severe pre-existing anaemia. In 23 fatalities due to C. rhodostoma bites recorded in northern Malaysia between 1955 and 1960, the average time between the bite and death was 64.6 h (5 -- 240 h), the median time 32 h (Reid et al. 1963a). According to a study of fatal snakebites in rural areas of Thailand, 13 out of 46 were caused by C. rhodostoma (Looareesuwan et al. 1988). The local necrotising effect of the venom is a common cause of morbidity. Gangrene can lead to the loss of toes, fingers or whole extremities; chronic infections (osteomyelitis) can also occur. The intravenous LD for Malayan pit viper venom is 6.1 mg / kg mouse and the average venom yield per bite is 40 -- 60 mg (dry weight).
The Sharp - nosed pit viper or hundred pacer (Deinagkistrodon acutus) is another Asian species of pitviper that is medically important. This species is considered dangerous, and fatalities are not unusual. According to the U.S. Armed Forces Pest Management Board, the venom is a potent hemotoxin that is strongly hemorrhagic. Bite symptoms include severe local pain and bleeding that may begin almost immediately. This is followed by considerable swelling, blistering, necrosis, and ulceration. Brown (1973) mentions a venom yield of up to 214 mg (dried) and LD values of 0.04 mg / kg IV, 4.0 mg / kg IP and 9.2 - 10.0 mg / kg SC. The envenomation rate is up to 80 % and the untreated mortality rate is very low (1 - 10 %). Antivenom is produced in China and Taiwan.
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what round is it in the nfl draft | 2018 NFL draft - wikipedia
The 2018 NFL Draft was the 83rd annual meeting of National Football League (NFL) franchises to select newly eligible players for the 2018 NFL season. The draft was held on April 26 -- 28 at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, and was the first draft to take place in an NFL stadium and the first to be held in Texas, which won out in a fourteen city bid. In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
Five quarterbacks were selected in the first round for only the third time in the history of the draft; the first since the 1999 NFL Draft. Also, a pair of siblings -- safety Terrell Edmunds and linebacker Tremaine Edmunds -- were both drafted in the first round, marking the first time brothers have been selected in the opening round of the same draft.
In order to be eligible to enter the draft, players must be at least three years removed from high school. The deadline for underclassmen to declare for the draft was January 15, 2018.
The following is the breakdown of the 256 players selected by position:
In the explanations below, (PD) indicates trades completed prior to the start of the draft (i.e. Pre-Draft), while (D) denotes trades that took place during the 2018 draft.
Coverage of the draft was broadcast NFL Network and ESPN, with Fox also simulcasting NFL Network 's coverage of the first two rounds (serving as a prelude for Fox 's acquisition of Thursday Night Football for the 2018 season). ESPN aired coverage of the last four rounds on ABC, and aired secondary broadcasts of the first round on ESPN2 (featuring the panel of ESPN 's College GameDay, which also broadcast a special edition from outside AT&T Stadium as a pre-show for ESPN 's coverage) and in Spanish on ESPN Deportes.
Telecasts of the first round across all three broadcasters (which included the expansion of coverage to broadcast television) drew a combined Nielsen overnight household rating of 8.4, and total viewership of 11.214 million, making it the most - watched opening round since 2014. ESPN drew the largest single audience, with 5.336 million viewers, while Fox and NFL Network had a combined viewership of 5.74 million across both channels (3.776 and 2.005 million individually).
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